Utilization of Research Results on Forage
and Agricultural By-Product Materials
as Animal Feed Resources in Africa
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST JOINT WORKSHOP
HELD IN LILONGWE, MALAWI
5-9 DECEMBER 1988
by the
PASTURES NETWORK FOR EASTERN
AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (PANESA)
and
AFRICAN RESEARCH NETWORK FOR
AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS (ARNAB)
MARCH 1990
PANESA/ARNAB
International Livestock Centre for Africa
PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 
Correct citation: PANESA/ARNAB (Pastures Network for Eastern and Southern
Africa/African Research Network for Agricultural By-products).
1990. Utilization of research results on forage and agricultural
by-product materials as animal feed resources in Africa.
Proceedings of the first joint workshop held in Lilongwe,
Malawi, 5-9 December 1988. PANESA/ARNAB, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. 833 pp.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAPER TITLE/AUTHORS PAGE
Contents i
Acknowledgements viii
Opening Ceremony 1
Preamble B.H. Dzowela 2
ILCA's address J.C. Tothill 5
IDRC's address J. A. Kategile 10
OAU-IBAR's address K.O. Adeniji 14
Hon. Minister L.J. Chimango's opening address. 18
Keynote Address: Institutional and Research factors
that affect the optimisation of research results use
Prof. C.A. Onyango 22
SESSION I. RESEARCH REVIEWS ON UTILISATION
OF FEED RESOURCES 35
Utilisation of pasture research results in Tanzania
R.S. Kidunda, A.B. Lwoga and E.J. Mtengeti 36
Utilisation of agricultural by-products for village and
commercial production of sheep rations in Ghana A.K. Tuah 57
Dissemination and utilisation of research technology on
forages and agricultural by-products in Kenya
A.B. Orodho 70
(O
Experience in the utilisation of forages and agro
by-products as interventions in smallholder livestock
production systems
L.P. Nkhonjera 91
Forage and crop by-product utilisation: Preliminary
results on farmers' adoption with lactating dairy cows
K.N. Biwi 104
A review of forage production and utilisation in
Nigerian savanna
O.S. Onifade and E.C. Agishi 114
Preliminary evaluation of research on agricultural
by-products utilisation by modern small-scale farmers
in the Sudan
T.A. Mohammed and B.I. Babiker 126
Forage production and utilisation at the smallscale
holder level in Tanga district
P.E.K. Kapinga and E. Shayo (Mrs) 140
Utilisation of research results in range production and
management systems in Kenya
E.K. Maranga 157
The use of crop residues for livestock feed by small
farmers in the Gambia
Sandra L. Russo 165
Forage research and developments for livestock production
in Uganda
E.N. Sabiiti and J.S. Mugerwa 186
SESSION II: ON FARM- FEEDING SYSTEMS 207
The Kilimanjaro dairy feeding systems: an attempt at
evaluating the impact of on-farm livestock research
N.S.Y. Mdoe and G.l. Mlay 208
(ii)
Budgeting and allocation of feed resources
P.N. de Leeuw, B.H. Dzowela and R. Nyambaka 222
Towards an integrated cereal crop-forage production for
improved cattle productivity: The Malawi experience
J.T.K. Munthali, H.D.C. Msiska, A.W.C. Zimba
and B.H. Dzowela 234
Use of Research results to formulate a feeding strategy
for livestock during the dry seasons in Uganda
F.B. Bareeba and J.S. Mugerwa 249
Feeding systems for milk production in the high potential
areas of Kenya: On- farm trials
A. Abate, A.N. Abate and S. Gacugia 264
On-farm evaluation of maize bran and cottonseed cake and
introduction of improved forage technologies for milk
production in Mzuzu milkshed area of Malawi
M.S.L. Kumwenda and H.D.C. Msiska 280
Adoption of forage innovations by Malagasy smaU scale
dairy producers
J.H. Rasambainarivo, M. Razaf imananisoa
and R. Razaf indratsita 300
SESSION III: FEED RESOURCES EVALUATION 301
Legume supplementation of maize stover
T. Smith, B. Manyuchi and S. Mikayiri 302
Nutritive value of Crotalaria ochroleuca: I. Chemical
composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility at
different stages of growth
F.E.J. Mkiwa, S.V. Sarwatt, A.B. Lwoga and
B.H. Dzowela 321
(iii)
Nutritive value of Crotalaria ochroleuca: II The effect
of supplementation on feed utilisation and performance
of growing sheep
S.V. Sarwatt, F.E.J. Mkiwa, A.B. Lwoga and
B.H. Dzowela 330
Research on maize stover as livestock feed on Swazi
Nation land
B.H. Ogwang and M.S. Mkhabela 345
Responses of West African Dwarf sheep fed cassava peel
and poultry manure based diets
A. A. Adegbola, O.B. Smith and J. Okeudo 357
Effects of management on feed availability, body weight,
and body condition of the indigenous goats in Central
Region of Malawi
S.K. Karua 367
Feeding value of Sesbania and Leucaena browse
Lemma Biru, L.J. Lambourne and Fana Tesfahunei 381
Molasses Energy blocks for beef cattle
C.W. Mwendia and M. Khasatsili 389
Liveweight changes in sheep supplemented with seed pods
of two leguninous trees in South Kordoofam, Sudan
during the dry season
I.M. Hashim 404
The effect of supplements of oil seed by-products on the
utilisation of low-nitrogen fibrous diets by sheep
K. Yilala 416
(iv)
Use of sorghum bran and groundnut haulms in sorghum stover
based diets for crossbred cows
W. Hahabile, B. Masilo and B. Kiflewahid 436
Partial replacement of maize with graded levels of
corncobs in pig weaner/grower diets
R.B. Fombad and F. Maffeja 452
On-site research for the estimation of the nutritional
status of sheep and goats grazing at El-Omayed
pasture area
H.A. Naga and H.A. Abd El Salam 464
Can agro-industrial by-products and crop residues save
the Nigerian livestock industry
G.N. Egbunike and E.A. Ikpi 477
Potential of rubber seed as protein concentrate
supplement for Dwarf sheep in Cameroon
R.M. Njwe, M.K. Chifon and R. Ntep 488
The unexploited potential of improved forages in
mid-altitude and lowland areas of Ethiopia
Alemu Tadesse 503
The potential of sweet potato (I pomea batata)
as a dual purpose crop in semi -arid mixed- cropping
systems in Kenya
M.K. Karachi and B.H. Dzowela 518
SESSION IV: TECHNOLOGY TESTING, EVALUATION AND ADOPTION 533
A wheat/Trifol ium intercropping package for smallscale
farmers in the Ethiopian highlands
J. Kahurananga 534
Improvement of sorghum and millet for forages
S.C. Gupta and E. Monyo 547
(v)
Rhodes grass breeding in Zimbabwe: aims, achievements,
prospects and route to agricultural applications
P. A. York and E. Nyamadzawo 559
Practical applications of in vitro techniques to forage
germplasm
T.J. Ruredzo and J. Hanson 578
Productivity of oversown natural pastures in
Northern Tanzania
M.L. Kusekwa, S.N. Bitende and M.D. Mgowi 592
Techniques used in introducing forage legumes to
small-scale farmers of the semi-arid region of Kenya
D.M. Njarui 618
Laboratory evaluation of effects of processing method and
treatments on chemical composition and jn vitro
digestibility of coffee pulp
Getachew Gebru and Beyene Chichaibelu 634
An integrated approach to natural resources management:
experiences from Northern Kenya
C.L. Amuyunzu 651
A gunny bag technique for making silage by smallscale
farmers
K. Otieno, J.F.M. Onim and M.N. Mathuva 664
Techniques used for testing the developed livestock and
pasture technologies prior to the extension of research
results in semi-arid mid-altitude areas of Kenya
F.P. Wandera, D.G.M. Njarui, S.Tessema, J.M. Kavoi
and M. Nderito 686
vi
Effects of Management practices on Rhodes grass/lucerne
pastures with special reference to developmental
stages at cutting and associated changes in nutritional
quality
Daniel Keftasa 705
Pasture Research conducted in Niari Valley ranches
Jean Diamoungana and P. Kiyindou 736
Some constraints to adoption of agro-by-products
research results by the communal farmers in Zimbabwe
L.R. Ndlovu and S. Sibanda 751
Improvement of nitrogen level in ruminant's diets based
on cereal straws: the problem of dissemination of
research results on utilisation of urea and browse
plants as nitrogen sources
Safietou Fall 757
Adoption of the Rhizobium inoculation technology for
pasture improvement in sub-Saharan Africa
D.J. Khonje 780
Review of research on forage improvement on seasonally
watter- logged areas: the Zimbabwe experience
Petrus Nyathi 802
WORKSHOP SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 817
List of participants 821
VI 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The workshop on the "Utilization of research results on forage and
agricultural by-product materials as animal feed resources in
Africa" could not have taken place without the administrative
support of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and
financial support of the International Development Research Centre
of Canada (IDRC) who are the major funding agencies for the two
networks, PANESA and ARNAB. The Organisation of African Unity's
(OAU) Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR) also
contributed some funds towards meeting the cost of the workshop.
For all this support the workshop organisers are very grateful.
The authors wish to pay tribute to Ms. Josphine G. Njuki,
Secretary in the PANESA co-ordinating unit, Nairobi, Kenya, for the
many hours put in word processing and type-setting the manuscripts
for publication. We thank Ms. Jayne Mwaurah, for assistance in
retracing some figures. We are grateful to Dr. W. Migongo-Bake for
final proof-reading. We also wish to record our appreciation to
Shewangezew Lemma for formatting these proceedings and to Elizabeth
Mekonnen for her assistance in final proof reading. We thank
Information and Printing Departments for printing and binding.
Editors
OPENING CEREMONY
PREAMBLE TO THE MEETING
Ben H. Dzowela
Workshop Organising Secretary
ILCA, P. 0. Box 46847, NAIROBI, Kenya
We the organisers, A.N. Said and myself, take pleasure in
welcoming you to Lilongwe, the venue of this year's joint ARNAB
and PANESA workshop on the theme "Utilization of research
results on forage and agricultural by-product materials as
animal feed resources in Africa". We look forward to having
useful discussions with you individually where possible and
more especially with other participants in the course of the
coming week.
The theme of this year's workshop has special
significance to African crop- l i vestock agricultural production
systems. The introduction of new, high-yielding cultivars of
wheat and rice in the early 1960's led to dramatic increases
in food production in many developed countries. This
phenomenon, often referred to as the "Green Revolution", gave
rise to a widespread optimism that similar "revolutions" could
be achieved in most commodities. Since then, however, few
other such widespread and dramatic increases in productivity
have actually been achieved in the tropics and subtropics in
spite of the many efforts of national and international
agricultural research institutions. According to a recent IDRC
report (Crop and Animal Production Systems Programme Report,
June 1988), many of the research-generated technological
packages in the tropics and subtropics of Africa have not been
adopted by the majority of farmers because:
a) most of the farmers are small-scale who are economically
rational and generally only willing to adopt innovations
they consider to be advantageous;
b) most of these small-scale farmers live in highly
unpredictable environments, where input and marketing
infrastructures are often unreliable;
c) most of them cannot simply take risks;
d) all too often, research objectives are based on the
preconceptions of scientists who have little appreciation of
the real problems of small-scale farmers; and
e) in some cases the technological packages are in a language
not easily understood by the farmers.
Some useful research, nevertheless, has been conducted in
the African countries represented here. Because the small-scale
livestock producers in the tropics and subtropics have limited
resources, low input technologies particularly the use of
legumes, shrubs and trees that can fix nitrogen, alone or in
combination with grasses, have received a good deal of research
resources allocation in national and international centres. The
improvement of the present feed resource base, native pastures
and rangelands has also been given priority especially where land
is not a serious constraint in the semi-arid environments. Where
land is a main constraint in the high potential tropical and
subtropical plateaux and highlands, the research emphasis has
centred on the use of high-yielding grasses and legumes for cut-
and-carry management using less trees and shrubs as forages.
Attention to research has also been given to agricultural
by-products which are an important feed resource in many animal
production systems in developing tropical and subtropical African
countries. With the decline and degradation of grazing lands
through overgrazing and the expansion of arable cropping,
agricultural by-products have become increasingly important. The
use of farm-produced by-products (stovers, straws, bean and
ground nut haulms and house hold offals) and of agro- industrial
by-products as animal feed is an efficient and ecologically sound
use of feed resources.
Technologies have been developed in national and
international research centres in forages and agricultural by
products in Africa. It is for this reason that the theme of
this workshop has been especially chosen to take stock of how
the results of this research are being utilised by the majority
of African farmers, small-scale/smallholder farmers, in
improving the efficiency of their production systems.
Shortfalls in the utilisation of these research results
have been experienced by the majority of farmers in Africa. As
scientists we should, through the workshop, be able to modify
research strategy to enable us to better serve the farming
community. We have every hope that this will be done in the
course of the workshop week.
The workshop theme has been subdivided into four sessions,
namely:
Session I: Research Review on Utilisation of Feed Resources
Session II: On-farm Feeding Systems
Session III: Feed Resources Evaluation
Session IV: Technology Testing, Evaluation and Adoption
This subdivision has arisen primarily from the enormous
diversity of the types of research that has been done in Africa.
We are confident that together, in spite of this diversity, we
shall come up with useful discussions, sharing of experiences and
with recommendations that are likely to redirect us in our
efforts to improve the sustained yields and output of livestock
production systems.
Address to the opening session of the First Joint ARNAB/PANESA
workshop on "Utilization of research results on forage and
agricultural by-product materials as animal feed resources in
Africa". Lilongwe, Malawi
J.C. Tothill
ILCA, Addis Ababa
Honourable Minister of Finance, Your Worship the Mayor of the
city of Lilongwe, Mr. Chairman and Principal Secretary,
Distinguished guests, Ladies and Gentlemen Colleagues.
It gives me great pleasure to welcome you to this first joint
workshop of the African Research Network on Agricultural By
products (ARNAB) and the Pastures Network for Eastern and
Southern Africa (PANESA). I would like to convey to you our
thanks to the Government of Malawi for the courtesy they have
extended to us by hosting this meeting. This is actually the
second time Malawi has graciously hosted the annual workshop of
ARNAB, but the first time for that of PANESA.
At this meeting there are more than 80 delegates from 24
countries from West, East and Southern Africa.
This, the first occasion of these two networks holding a
joint meeting, recognises the common bond between them in
representing interests and activities in crucial areas of feed
resources basic to the nutrition of livestock. We see these
resources as the vital elements which link livestock and crop
production which is such a basic characteristic of the
predominantly smallholder farming systems of Africa.
For this meeting we come to Malawi because it provides
us with well-developed examples of these smallholder systems,
where not only exemplary progress has been made in improving
production but also where considerable potential for further
development is recognised, and with this, an environment of
receptivity to research and development.
We welcome the Malawi government's generosity and
foresight in allowing its scientists to participate and
contribute so freely in our activities and deliberations. With
this commitment to continuing such support we can, through
networking, effectively enlarge the critical mass of scientific
manpower and activity for both individual countries and for the
region, by bringing the totality of the scientists of many
regions together and, in collaboration, their skills and ideas
to bear jointly on the problems of these regions. Through
discussions and the planning of collaborative research between
themselves and other national and international scientists, its
subsequent execution with financial help from interested
donors, its interpretation both on a regional and a national
basis, research effectiveness can be substantially increased.
Thus in addressing the problems of the region, instead of
having a handful of scientists, we have a large body of
scientists.
Networking is a powerful tool in promoting this type of
collaboration in:
. information exchange (newsletters, meetings);
. training (courses, participation, interactivity);
. collaborative research (peer joint planning and review).
Development of collaborative research
Both PANESA and ARNAB are now at the critical phase of
developing their collaborative research programmes, PANESA at
the point of implementation and ARNAB at the proposal
formulation stage.
This has led to a considerable involvement of the active
membership in planning meetings for the development of research
protocols which address:
. The problems that the national scientists perceive as
important for researching
. Ways in which these problems can be addressed more
effectively by a collective approach to planning,
implementation and interpretation
. How the international research centres fit and can
collaborate in these developments
This has required the continued participation of most o
the active members in order to bring these plans to fruition.
Having accomplished this we anticipate the participation will
broaden out to reach the younger up-coming scientists. The
network must follow a path that at the same time leads to a
collegial spirit of collaboration, communication and peer
criticism without becoming an "old-boys club".
The activities of the network will largely be centred
around:
1. General meetings or workshops, such as this one, held
regularly, where presentation and discussion of mature
research is carried out. These annual meetings are also th
Annual General Meeting at which the office bearers of the
Steering Committee are elected to represent the membership
in matters of policy and activity developments and
directives to the Coordinator, thus an important channel of
information between the national scientists and the
international centres.
2. Research planning and review meetings where the coordinatec
research plans of the network are formulated, results
presented and discussed and a regional basis for
interpretation of the results developed.
3. Training courses which provide opportunities to develop
specific skills e.g. PANESA's seed production course in
Zimbabwe in 1988.
ILCA's Network activities
Since the last general workshop meeting of PANESA in Arusha,
Tanzania in May 1987 and of ARNAB in Bamenda, Cameroon in
October 1987 the main activities of the networks have been:
. Presentation of Phase II funding proposals to the Donor
(International Development Research Centre of Canada) just
approved for ARNAB and that of PANESA being considered.
. Collaborative Research Planning Meetings for PANESA:
- September 1987, Nairobi - proposal developed and submitted to
SPAAR (Special Programme for African Agricultural Research)
in October 1987 and donor identified
- September 1988, Addis Ababa - research protocols formulated
for implementation during 1988-89
. First Joint Steering Committee Meeting PANESA-ARNAB, May
1988.
. PANESA Seed Production course, Zimbabwe, June 1988
ILCA'S other developments are:
. The likelihood of ILCA opening a regional facilitation
office in Harare to coordinate the developing collaboration
within SACCAR for the SADCC countries as well as to
complement the activities of other international centres
such as ICRISAT and CIMMYT.
. The establishment of a Forage Seed Production Unit at ILCA
(Debre Zeit):
- to boost intermediate seed production;
- develop adaptive research in seed technology;
- carry out training and technical development;
- establish regional production and training sub-centres.
8
The likely emergence in 1989 of a Feed Resources Network in
West Africa based on initiatives of national scientists,
ILCA, CIAT and IEMVT.
Finally we commend to the Honourable Minister
. The outstanding work of the coordination of the networks -
Dr. Dzowela for PANESA and Prof. Said for ARNAB.
. The invaluable work of the Steering Committees who are the
voice of the membership and "ground truth" for our work.
. The Donors, particularly IDRC, but also OAU/IBAR and
potentially the Italian Government for research
implementation.
. The membership for their hard work and enthusiasm.
Honourable Minister, I thank you on behalf of us all for
your gracious presence and the honour of having you open this
meeting.
STATEMENT BY JACKSON A. KATEGILE
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE (IDRC)
REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
P. 0. BOX 62084, NAIROBI, KENYA
The Honourable Minister, L.J. Chimango, Minister of Finance of
the Malawi Government. I wish to introduce IDRC to those who
do not know it. The organisation was established by an act of
the Canadian Parliament in 1970 with a mission to assist in the
promotion of indigenously determined social and economic
advancement of the developing regions of the world, with
particular focus on the poorest peoples of those regions.
Within this mission, IDRC has two principal objectives.
- First to support research of direct relevance to third world
development and having direct demonstratable links to the
poor, and
- Second, to assist developing countries to build indigenous
research and research-supporting capacity mainly at the
national and regional levels.
IDRC focusess its activities in six main areas of
- Agriculture, food and nutrition sciences
- Communication
- Earth and Engineering sciences
- Health sciences
- Information sciences and
- Social sciences
The Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences (AFNS)
Division's mission within the centre is to contribute to
agricultural development through specific research and
research-supporting activities. A number of participants here
come from countries and institutions which receive IDRC support
and I need not elaborate on the types of support which you are
already familiar with. I would, however, like to elaborate on
10
I DRC support to networks. Projects supported by the Crop and
Animal Production Systems are often linked in networks based on
the discipline and commodities. In order to facilitate the
interactions, IDRC supports coordinating units based in
international centres or regional centres. Of specific
interest here are the two sister networks, PANESA and ARNAB.
A series of workshops supported by IDRC led to the creation of
PANESA with the main objectives of facilitating the exchange
of information, and germplasm, training, and technical back-up.
In 1981, AAASA and ILCA established the African Research
Network for Agricultural By-Products (ARNAB). A series of
workshops, partly funded by IDRC, in various African countries
stressed the need for extra financial support for ARNAB. In
1984, IDRC provided a grant to ILCA to coordinate the network
and additional funds have been made available in 1988. A major
aim of ARNAB is to develop standard evaluation methodologies,
standard terminology for accurately describing by-product feed
and on-farm study methods. Noteworthy also is that IDRC gives
high priority to dissemination of research results. On the
average, 2 to 5X of the project funds are now allocated to
publications and dissemination of research results.
The current joint workshop by the two networks is in
recognition of the fact that both networks are aiming at
finding alternative solutions to the common problem of
livestock feed shortages which the livestock keepers face in
Africa. I am certain that you will seise the opportunity to
exchange information and experiences.
Mr. Chairman and the Honourable Minister, let me briefly
address the theme of this workshop. In choosing the theme of
the workshop, I believe that the organisers had reason for this
selection. The present scenario is typified by having centres
of excellence and areas of non-development. The centres of
excellence include:
- Research Stations
- Universities/Colleges
- Large Farms
- Pockets of modern aariculture in rural areas
11
The other side are the areas of undeveloped agriculture
which is common in the bulk of rural Africa. The two
subsectors are very different as there is a large gap between
the technologies used in the research stations, universities
and the commercial sector and the rudimentary technologies
practised by rural farmers. Expectedly, the same agricultural
output/livestock production differ by the same magnitude if not
more. The reasons for these differences are many: However,
- the researcher has his own reasons
- the extension worker has his own story, and
- the farmer has his own view on the "ivory towers" and his
own environment. Among the causes for the low adoption
rates of the researcher-generated technologies, the
following are considered to be most important:
1. Poor dissemination of research results to the farmers. Here
we find that the majority of the farmers in Africa
do not know the existence of the research stations as
they have no direct access to these
African farmers have no access to the esteemed journals
through which researchers communicate their research
results.
The flow of information from researchers to extension
workers is slow due to weak/poor linkages between
research and extension systems. Each is an empire by
itself.
2. Inappropriateness of the developed technologies for the
farmers.
The majority of the researchers do not make a deliberate
effort to understand the environment in which the African
farmer lives. The environmental aspects include:
(a) Physical - rainfal l , soil conditions, temperatures, and
altitude. This is usually considered by the researcher to
fit the technologies
12
(b) Economic - labour, costs, availability of inputs,
availability of credit, marketing channels and disposal of
incomes.
(c) Social - social structures, family structures, settlement
patterns, education/literacy and farmers' aspirations and
motivations
(d) Cultural environment - preferences, religion, beliefs,
taboos and tastes
The economic, social and cultural factors influence the
decision of farmers to adopt new technologies. Experiences
demonstrate clearly that farmers accept technologies which
improve their occupation and raise the levels of living e.g.
coffee, cocoa, tobacco, milk production and horticulture.
It is certainly gratifying to see that an increasing
number of researchers are recognising the importance of the
socio-economic and cultural environment in designing research
programmes which are aimed at developing appropriate
technologies and testing the technologies on-farm. I trust that
this forum will deliberate the issue at length and come up with
specific recommendations on strategies for increasing the
extent of two-way communication with farmers to enhance the
utilisation of research results.
13
Address to a Workshop on Utilisation of Research Results in
Forages and By-Products Animal Feed Resources in Africa
K . 0 . Aden i j i
Chief, Animal Production Section
OAU/IBAR
Nairobi, Kenya
Mr. Chairman, Honourable Minister for Finance, Hon. L.J.
Chimango, Your Worship the Mayor of the City of Lilongwe, the
District Party Chairman, Distinguished Delegates, Ladies and
Gent lemen,
On behalf of the Secretary General of the Organisation
of African Unity (OAU), H.E. Ide Omarou, it gives me great
pleasure to welcome you to a Workshop on "Utilisation of
Research Results in Forages and Agricultural By-Products Animal
Feed Resources in Africa". The OAU is indeed honoured to have
been invited to co-sponsor this workshop which is of immense
importance to our programme of work in IBAR.
When our office was established in 1951, it dealt only
with all aspects of epizootic diseases in Africa. In 1960, the
functions were expanded to include other conditions of ill
health of physiological, nutritional and genetic origin. It
was not until 1970, when the functions were further expanded to
embrace animal production activities that my section started to
function. The main objectives of IBAR as from then on are:
1. To coordinate the activities of all the Member States of the
OAU in the field of Animal Health and Production;
2. To collect, collate and disseminate information in all
aspects of Animal Health and Production amongst Member
States;
3. To initiate and execute projects in the disciplines of
Animal Health and Production;
4. To liaise with the appropriate authorities of Member States,
regional groups, inter-governmental and international
organisations
14
Animal feed resources in Africa have received attention
in IBAR. We started by attempting to assess the feed
potential in Africa but before we could gather enough
information for compilation and publication an international
organisation (FAO) came up with a publication which contained
all the data we had collected. We were however consoled by the
fact that the idea originated from IBAR.
The range areas of Africa form a natural resource which
is of vital importance in the development of livestock
particularly beef animals. In one of the OAU meetings on
animal health and production, a trans-national joint action on
rangelands development in Africa involving IBAR and other
international organisations was recommended. IBAR working
alone impressed on Member States of the OAU to control grazing
and allow enough time for natural revegetat i on, develop water
through sinking bore holes and constructing dams for people
and livestock in the range areas; revegetate the rangelands
through various means including seeding etc., organise
livestock marketing to ensure reasonable offtake; and introduce
legislation to enable the enforcement of the above measures and
of course control animal diseases.
Agricultural production in many countries of Africa over
the past two decades is now better organised as more and more
development plans give priority to food production for domestic
use. As a result large track are being mechanised with
resultant increases in the number of agriculture - based
industries. However, large quantities of these agro- industrial
by-products and crop residues available in Africa which could
be used for animal feeding either go to waste or are under
utilised. In Sudan, a survey on agro- industrial by-products
and crop residues indicated the availability of 4.5 million
tonnes and that the energy present in these products could
satisfy about 9X of the maintenance requirements of the
national herd. In Cameroon, it was reported that cottonseed
meal, an agro- industrial by-product and the major protein
source, has promoted efficient growth when fed to non-ruminant
and ruminant livestock. In the Ethiopian highlands,
15
approximately 80X of feed resources are provided by crop
residues and stubble grazing (mostly of straws of teff, barley,
wheat and sorghum). In Kenya and Tanzanian highlands, the
thriving small-scale milk production depends substantially on
by-products such as bean haulms and maize stover as feed. In
Nigeria and Senegal, agricultural by-products and crop residues
are also widely used. Practically, in all countries of Africa
where inventories of agricultural by-products have been
conducted, large quantities are found. In some countries it
has been shown that without the availability of crop residues,
cattle will survive the long dry season only with poor
condition. These products should be considered as a very
valuable feed resource and could often constitute a basic
component of less expensive rations for livestock.
IBAR is aware that a lot of research and experimental
work has been done on the chemical and feeding properties of
agricultural by-products but there is lack of knowledge of the
effect of these feedstuffs on the performance of animals when
used in practical situations and applying different feeding
systems. In order to improve the efficiency of utilisation of
the ration, more detai led investigation is also needed on the
digestion, absorption and metabolism of some of the less well
known but locally available by-products. IBAR therefore,
proposed a project to be executed by the Agricultural Research
Institutes (A.R.I.) of Member States of which the main
objective is to improve the status of animal nutrition and
hence the performance of the animal by promoting the use of
locally available agro- industrial by-products and crop residues
and therefore provide feeding techniques to the farmer.
The project proposed was approved by the Council of
Ministers and Heads of States Meeting in Addis Ababa in 1985 -
CM/Res.997 (XLII). Consequently, IBAR informed Member States
to draw up project proposals on locally important by-products
for funding. The response was very encouraging and contracts
are in the process of being concluded with some countries. As
more funds become available, other countries will benefit from
the assistance provided by IBAR.
16
I BAR ' s decision to join the African Research Network for
Agricultural By-Products (ARNAB) stems from its main objectives
of strengthening and developing an African Network in support
of research on the utilisation of agricultural by-products and
crop residues through collaborative research. The title for
this workshop is of particular interest to the OAU and the
outcome will be of tremendous assistance in IBAR's programme of
work on the utilisation of agricultural by-products and crop
residues in livestock feeding.
I should add that the OAU's ministerial conference on
animal resources in Africa has approved our membership. ARNAB
workshops being annual events, IBAR will endeavour to continue
to cosponsor the workshops for as long as the network is in
existence.
The OAU is happy to be associated with the workshop and
wish the participants successful deliberations.
Thank you for your attention.
17
Speech by Honourable L.J. Chimango, MP, Minister of Finance,
Malawi
Mr. Chairman,
Your Excellencies, Members of the Diplomatic Corps, the
District Chairman of the Malawi Congress Party, Honourable
Members of Parliament, Your Worship the Mayor of the City of
Lilongwe, Distinguished Delegates, Ladies and Gentlemen.
I am grateful to His Excellency the Life President, Ngwazi
Dr. H. Kamuzu Banda, for directing that I may open this workshop.
It is an honour and a privilege for me to have the opportunity to
officiate at this inaugural function of the workshop on the
"Utilisation of Research Results on Forage and Agricultural By
Product materials as Animal Feed Resources in Africa". To you
all distinguished delegates, welcome to Malawi. I am privileged
and delighted to extend this welcome on behalf of His Excellency
the Life President, Ngwazi Dr. H. Kamuzu Banda, who is also the
Minister of Agriculture. We are delighted to have you here.
The subject of your workshop is a very challenging and
important one. The Government of the Republic of Malawi
attaches very high importance to workshops of this nature,
particularly at this time when our continent is faced with food
production problems, when Africa is struggling to attain
sustainable food and nutrition security at the farm level, at
the national level, at the regional and at the continental
level .
You who have gathered here, representing various
organisations and institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa. You have
come to discuss an important subject, a subject that affects
livestock productivity in our respective countries. It is
generally recognised that the biggest challenge to animal
production is under-nutri t ion of animals. This is a serious
problem during the dry period. It is more so in those countries
experiencing an unimodal rainfall pattern. A lot of animals fail
to produce to their maximum genetic potential of those livestock
products, such as meat, milk and traction. I might add that
18
these are products which countries strive to be self-reliant in.
The cause for the deficiencies is resources shortage. This is
therefore a challenge to us all.
The vast majority of our population on the continent live
in traditional settings. They keep livestock and graze them in
the dambos and open grazing spaces. Traditional feed
resources, the customary grazing lands, however, continue to be
threatened by the opening up of land for cultivation as human
populations increase. Overgrazing, leading to degeneration of
vegetal cover, and the drought conditions that the continent
has experienced of late, have made the situation worse. It is
imperative, therefore, that alternative feed must be explored
in the form of forages and agricultural by-products.
In Malawi, our scientists are making pasture intervention
efforts. The aim is to boost feed resources, of the
smallholder livestock farmer both quantitatively and
qualitatively, through the integration of improved forages in
maize crop production systems.
Maize and groundnuts are the major food crops in Malawi.
It is not surprising, therefore, that maize stover is the most
abundant crop residue. Groundnut tops are second in
importance. These are widely used for in si te grazing and
stall-feeding of cattle. The stall-fed cattle are also given
maize bran as the main supplement whilst cottonseed cake and
leucaena leaf meal are sometimes fed with the maize bran.
In our country the smallholder farmers who raise both
crops and cattle have the potential to utilise crop residues.
In addition, small-scale zero grazing commercial livestock
production, based on one to four dairy cows or steers, is
practised. One has to add, for our Kenyan colleagues, that
here "zero" grazing is used in its classical sense. Zero
grazing is, in fact, already popular in Malawi. This is so
because of immediate cash benefits from the sale of milk or
fattened cattle. It is also because of the large quantities of
organic manure produced in the feeding pens. The manure
19
produced is widely used in the production of crops such as
tobacco and maize. The production of milk and high quality
beef from grade dairy cons and fattened steers respectively
makes a tremendous saving on imports of animal products by the
country.
So much research information has been generated in some
Sub-Saharan countries, notably: Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Kenya,
Tanzania, Ghana, Cote d'lvoire, Uganda, Ethiopia and here at
home in Malawi. However, only a very small proportion of this
research information is actually being used by farmers,
especially those in the traditional sector that produce the
bulk of the animal products. Probably the technologies
embodied in this research information are not appropriate for
this group of producers. If the results are technically
adaptable, then the information must be in a language that our
farmers may not understand. Possibly also, the infrastructure
for adoption of these technologies is non-existent or not fully
developed. Whatever the problem, it is now time for a break
through.
The importance of livestock cannot be over emphasized.
Indeed it is a well known fact that livestock is an essential
aspect of human existence and a very essential fuel of
industrial development.
I, therefore, urge you to discuss the papers thoroughly so
as to come up with recommendations that will be directed at
meeting the needs of ordinary farmers, particularly the
smallholder. Furthermore, I hope that you will take full
cognizance of the socio-economic and environmental constraints
which face the African farmer. In so doing you will come up
with ideas which can easily be translated into action by the
target populations. This will not only enhance your
professional capabilities but will also help to improve the
quality of livestock and the nutritional and economic status
of farmers in your respective countries. Africa today depends
upon the scientist who has initiative. To prosper our people
must benefit from the innovative scientist who is capable of
generating relevant and practical technologies. We have hope
20
therefore, in you. I trust that you will deliver the goods in
your respective endeavours. We wish you well.
At this point, I would like to express our gratitude to
the workshop organisers. I mention in particular Professor
Said of the African Research Network for Agricultural By
products and Dr. Dzowela of the Pastures Network for Eastern
and Southern Africa. We also appreciate the financial
assistance made available by the International Development
Research Centre of Canada and the Organisation of African
Unity. Without these the International Livestock Centre for
Africa and the Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, would
not have been able to co-sponsor this workshop.
Distinguished delegates, you have a very busy schedule, I
do hope, however, that you will have an opportunity to visit
the surrounding countryside to see for yourselves results of
the efforts that Malawi is making in the field of agriculture,
in general, and animal production in particular. Our efforts
in the fields are commendable but we are also the first to
concede that more could be done to enable more farm families to
open up. This the Malawi Government is committed to doing.
It is the wish of His Excellency the Life President that
you should feel free to go anywhere you like. You are free to
talk to anyone you like. So feel free to do so because you are
among friends here. Should your commitments permit, you are
free to extend your period of stay. In any case, we hope to
see you again, you and your families, in Malawi on holiday.
Once again, I am very pleased to welcome you and we feel
greatly honoured to be your host.
Distinguished delegates, ladies and gentlemen, I declare
this workshop officially open. Thank you very much.
21
Keynote address: The Institutional and Research Factors that
Affect the Optimisation of Research Results Use
Professor C.A. Onyango
Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs,
Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya
INTRODUCTION
The theme of this workshop is "Utilisation of Research Results
in Forages and By-Products Animal Feed Resources in Africa". I
believe that the various papers which will be presented during
the workshop will focus on specific aspects of the theme. I
was requested to deal with what I consider to be a broad area
of concern to researchers in general, and while addressing my
comments to the topic I was assigned, I hope I will make
reference to what may be considered relevant to the theme of
the workshop.
I would like to start my remarks by reflecting on the
concept of research.
Creative thought is of great significance in today's
society; Many advances which we accept as commonplace without
thinking of their origin, arose from the abilities of
individuals to perceive a certain problem and think of an
original solution to it (Olive, 1962). This is what
constitutes research. Dominowski (1980) defines it as a
complex problem solving activity, "the perfect study" an ideal
to be sought after rather than attainable achievements.
Generally therefore, research is a systematic way of
seeking out answers to questions. Such answers may be abstract
and general as is often the case in basic research, or they may
be highly concrete and specific as is the case in demonstrative
or applied research.
The basic definition gives us an opportunity to note one
important point before going any further, and that is the fact
22
that positive research results are by no means an adequate
measure of the value of research. If for instance, a study has
been carried out systematically, thoroughly and using sound and
appropriate methodology, a contribution has been made towards
expanding knowledge even though the findings from the study may
be as yet inconclusive. We are aware that studies which may
apparently appear to be unsuccessful, like in the case of what
led to the discovery of penicillin, sometimes lead to an
unexpected but nevertheless very useful information, or by
their own nature form the basis for further investigation on a
larger scale, with even more defined research technique. We
are well aware that any amount of controversial research
results generally lead to a greater intensity to verify the
results which subsequently expand or clarify existing
knowledge. In recent years, controversial statements made by
certain researchers regarding the origin of the dreaded disease
AIDS made it possible for others to try and prove the
statements wrong, and thank God we know that there is no
scientific proof to associate the origin of the disease with
Africa or the green monkey found in its tropical forests.
Research as we can see has its own built-in mechanisms for self
checking and verification, even if in some cases this may be
time and resource consuming.
The topic of my discussion is "The Institutional and
research Factors which Affect the Optimisation of Research
results". The dictionary definition of optimisation (to
optimize) implies making the best use of taking; the best value
of something. The implication of the above statement for this
workshop is that we are/or may be sometimes not making the best
use of research results; and that this is due to institutional
and research factors. Whereas I will address myself to these
factors, let us not assume that there are no other factors
besides those which relate specifically to these two areas.
Institutional factors affecting optimisation of research
results
The term "institution" here refers to an organisation or an
organised system through which or in which research is carried
23
out. The organisation may be social, economic, political or
scientific. It may be public or private. It may also be local
or, national, international or multi-national. Specific
organisations I have in mind include such bodies as research or
experiment stations, teaching/research institutions such as
universities, colleges and university research farms,
international research bodies such as IDRC, ILCA, ICRAF, ILRAD,
ICIPE and so on. There are several problems of optimisation of
research results which relate to these organisations.
Organisational Objectives may impinge upon the optimisation of
research results. Take, for example, a university whose main
function is to teach and award diplomas and degrees to its
students. In a university, a lot of research is presumably
done towards awarding Masters or Doctorate degrees. The
professional academics who guide students and who also do their
own research publish most of the result in reputable scientific
journals. Apart from conducting and directing "brilliant
academic" research, they aim to gain academic promotion and
recognition among the peers. The rest of the research ends up
in university libraries and archives. Many research
organisations have no formal mandate to disseminate their
results for day to day or immediate use. They therefore
neither engage personnel for such activities, nor put any funds
into it, unless prompted to do so. Kenyan universities for
instance were recently challenged to be interested in solving
problems which the public face. One main contribution Nairobi
University has recorded is through the Rhi zobia research
project (providing a cheap organic fertilizer to the farmers)
and current efforts to develop cheap housing for urban people.
But the rate of dissemination is very low. Many research
stations without clearly defined objectives may experience
similar problems. This is why I think we are aware of a lot of
good research gathering cobwebs in shelves at research
stations.
Research programmes should be adequately coordinated and
lack of this may result in poor optimisation of research
results. In research stations for instance, research may be
carried out without the farmers in mind. This lack of focus on
24
a target group may lead to results which are not appropriate
for optimum utilisation. University post-graduate research
programmes experience this problem. Conservation on the part
of those who direct research make it difficult especially for
young researchers to tackle problems which may have immediate
utility and even when they obtain utilisable results, it may
not be spread for reasons stated above.
Institutional bias also plays an important role in the
realisation of the research results. In one way, bias towards
a certain direction or a certain discipline helps the
researcher to produce exhaustive and up to date research
results. However, it is disadvantageous towards the end
results in a number of ways. First, the narrowness in focus,
where the researcher is not exposed to other aspects of the
same discipline. For instance it is important for an economic
geographer to know something in medical geography. The two
areas may be inter-related and can supplement each other.
Reliance on economic geography without reference to certain
aspects of medical geography may affect the research results in
the sense that the arguments may be narrower and without sound
basis for justification.
Second, most of the records used by researchers are
products of self-reporting by different researchers and
institutions.
Reports, especially those in the public sectors are
written from a certain institutional standpoint as well as the
biases of the author who may be bound by circumstances to
please his institution. There are two overall effects of
institutional bias on the optimum utilisation of research
results. One, there is often lack of adequate recognition of
what should be done. Institutions are often reluctant to
promote a viable innovation due to lack of commitments. Two,
they will also commit very little inputs (efforts) in such
endeavour.
Perhaps the most important areas to consider is research
funding. Luck of adequate finance or financial resources not
25
only affects the institutions' ability to carry out research,
but also the diffusion of research results. I have already
given the example of research results being shelved in research
stations. But much worse can happen. Often situations arise
where raw data, meticulously collected, cannot be analysed due
to lack of funds. Even the material which is already analysed
may not be written up due to lack of such simple things as
paper and duplicating facilities. Consequently the results may
not be released for public consumption.
Universities in particular find it extremely difficult to
convince government treasury to fund them for research. If one
were to look at any university budget in Africa, one would
hardly find a line item for research, and where it is included,
the amount allocated is likely to constitute a very small
percentage of the total budget. There is often nothing for
disseminating any information.
Research stations or centres are not spared this problem.
Their budgets often fall far too short of what the expectations
are and limit their capacity to communicate any results through
extension.
Lack of qualified research personnel is another
institutional factor affecting the utilisation of research
results. The forerunner of this problem is low salaries, lack
of promotion and lack of recognition to qualified and well-
trained researchers who very readily resign their positions to
join better-paying organisations. The result is that in many
research stations you find people without adequate research
techniques and hence relatively poor research output. We can
cite the case of Kenya where manpower has been constantly
depleted from the National Agricultural Laboratories, NAL,
National Research Stations, NARS Kitale and Katumani, resulting
in the subsequent importation of (as it were) researchers from
outside. The recent efforts by government, in providing a
better scheme of service to researchers is intended to stem
this tide, and in my opinion, is a step in the right direction.
Shoddy research carried out by incompetent individuals is of no
use to anyone.
26
The role of supervisory personnel may be connected with
research utilisation in two ways. First, in institutions which
have no qualified researchers to supervise the research
undertakings, the quality of research and results are bound to
be poor. The converse is true where the quality of supervision
is good.
Research undertaken in research stations must have good
supervision for the quality and pace to be maintained. In the
universities, there is at least a greater collaboration among
peers and mediocre research can be improved through peer
criticism and the system of external assessment for student
research projects. In experiment stations which have no
affiliation to university systems this self or peer criticism
may be totally lacking and efforts should be made to avoid it.
Secondly research supervisors may have what I would like to
term supervisory overload. This may be more common in
universities than anywhere else. Researchers based in
universities are also expected to teach students. If they take
on teaching as well as research, their time must be carefully
divided between the two functions. The number of students an
individual supervises will invariably affect the quality of his
research. Often research suffers more than the teaching in the
case of overload, and we are certainly well aware of the
extended and frustrating periods post-graduate students take to
earn their degrees due to lack of adequate supervision
resulting from staff overload. These researchers often have
very little linkage with extension, and in the event of time
constraint they are bound to carry on with the research or
teaching without communicating their results for public
uti l isat ion.
Facilities play an important part in the optimisation of
research results. Reference has already been made to the
problem of financing which affects the acquisition of research
facilities and materials. Research institutions often have
limited transportation which they can use to implement on-farm
research. The problem may be even more acute at universities
where research competes with teaching and other adminstrative
27
requirements for transportation. Lack of library and reference
facilities in institutions greatly affects the research
process. This hampers the speed at which researchers can make
reference to other people's findings, which in turn they can
utilise. Research stations or universities hardly have
adequate facilities for diffusing their messages. The
traditional role of a researcher is "to do research" and this
is more so in Africa where basic facilities, transport, seed,
fertilizer, communication equipment is available on a very
limited scale. Where research results exist in libraries
without being applied or referred to, they are unaccessible and
incomprehensible to many ordinary people. Even the shelf ing
systems, the delivery methods, hours of access, and the fact
that there are few instruments to read the available material,
acts to the disadvantage of many prospective users of already
well documented results.
The wholesome attitude towards research and reward system
by institutions to researchers may have adverse effect on the
utilisation of research results. This could be partly due to
lack of incentives to good researchers. Universities for
instance, insist on comprehensive list of research and
publication and yet hardly provide adequate funding for
research. Research stations on the other hand hardly reward
any good and valuable research since they are restricted by
Government promotional red tape. Researchers without a good
system of reward may tend to do very little. They also tend to
leave vital projects unfinished, thus setting back research
which could otherwise solve pressing problems.
Conflict of priorities between institution and individual
researcher may impinge upon the quality and utilisation of
research. International organisations in particular release
funds on condition their priorities and methods are followed.
Often this restriction does not give adequate consideration to
local problems about which local researchers are concerned.
Thus the focus of research being carried out may be irrelevant
to the local scene. When researchers concentrate on and
achieve results which are not appropriate to the local scene,
the results may not be applied. Conflict also relates to what
28
is wanted and by whom! Farmers are not often consulted and
they do not participate in determining the research priorities.
They may as a consequence stay away from utilising research
results.
Social Constraints may also create a problem to research.
Good research requires adequate planning, vigorous use of
correct methodology and critical unbiased analysis and
interpretation of results. Good results may not be utilised
due to poor methods of dissemination which are at variance with
the socio-cultural practices of the intended clients. Methods
of disseminating and communicating research results is
important to consider in the utilisation of the research
results. Research institutions tend not be charged with the
responsibility of disseminating their findings to the public
for use. This activity is generally expected to be carried out
by extension services. The implication is that the extension
services must first of all interpret the research results
correctly and secondly find the correct medium to spread it
among the users. The various media used for such purposes
include demonstrations, on-farm trials, publications and
various other communication channels. Whenever any of these
media is not correctly used, the message contained in the
results is generally lost. It is therefore important to he/e
the correct personnel, the right facilities and to us the
appropriate methodology to disseminate research results. This
is the only way of attempting to guarantee the utilisation of
the results.
Research factors affecting the optimisation of research results
In addition to the institutional factors, there are also
various research factors which need to be considered in
discussing the optimisation of research results. These factors
cannot be overlooked, for they involve the actual process
leading to the research results.
Identification and choice of a research problem plays an
important role in the realisation of research results. Once a
research problem to be investigated has been identified, other
29
research procedures can easily follow. Failure to state the
problem adequately is the first step in failure to carry out a
project unless the problem is explicity stated.
We are aware, that stating a research problem adequately
is often a problem especially for young inexperienced
scientists. Many of them in their enthusiasm initially want to
tackle a very wide scope of work, and when advised to limit
their work (like often happens in the case of postgraduate
students), they feel very discouraged. The reality of the
situation only rears its head when the researcher realises that
there are many variables to contend with and he does not know
how, or have the capacity to handle them. The underlying
question is however, who states the problem? Why can't farmers
be involved in participation to identify the research problem.
Assumptions are often made about their lack of knowledge, but
yet they recognise their problem.
Objectives and Scope of the research relate directly to
the statement of the problem and are affected by or affect it.
A researcher may find himself in a situation where there
is limited resources, time and other facilities. The scope of
his work therefore becomes automatically affected. Failure to
state the objectives clearly and precisely may lead to wastage
of time. Once stated well, the objectives give the researcher
a sense of direction, knowing what to look for, where and when.
Failure may also lead the researcher into giving false
information in the results. In stating the objectives and
scope of the research, appropriate assumptions or hypotheses
must also be made. This enables the researcher to eliminate
any conflicts, and hence, carry out an investigation whose
results are valid and reliable. But for purposes of
utilisation, research should also relate to what may have
impact on society. It must also be economically beneficial,
and finally those who can disseminate the results should be
clearly stated.
Once the objectives are stated, it is important for the
researcher to identify appropriate method to investigate the
30
problem. The design of the research is important and the
researcher must understand it fully. Whether experimental or
non-experimental design is chosen, the researcher must be in a
position to understand and follow his chosen method fully. We
are cognizant that each research design has its own peculiar
strength and weakness for application in given situations. An
appropriate design leads to correct and uti lisable situations.
If these results are applicable in a particular case (i.e.
technologically speaking) they can be utilised. This applies
also if the results have a superior utility to what exists.
Researchers should therefore aim at bringing about
technological as well as social change.
Traditionally, research results are processed using simple
instruments, "paper and pencil" as it were. But scientific
research has grown with technology, and now researchers have to
use highly technical instruments to analyse their data. Very
often instruments for research are lacking, and therefore there
are delays in both the actual research as well as in the
analysis of research data. I am particularly having in mind
computers and computing facilities including software. In the
case of many of us in the developing world, there is the
problem of technological backwardness where even when the
technology is at hand, we can hardly use it readily. Many of
us can hardly type (a very simple skill) our raw data into a
computer. Worse still we cannot write simple programmes
suitable for our research work. When the publication of
research findings is delayed, the utilisation also becomes
limited. Technology is always becoming better. Research
should be completed in time and should be aimed at solving
existing (real life) problems which farmers recognise.
The manner of writing and reprinting, especially the choice of
words in giving the research findings, may have adverse
effects. Typing errors and ommission of certain important
facts can go along way to affect the findings.
Researchers have a tendency to write in detailed
scientific jargon. Whereas this is understood and useful to
their peers, the common users (e.g. farmers) may require
31
additional and simple interpretations or translations;
something scientists either do not have time to do, or interest
to carry out since it "dilutes" their level of ability and thus
reduces their level of recognition by peers.
The role played by other researchers especially
supervisors and collaborators in similar research is very
important. Supervisors are expected to ensure that the correct
procedures are followed and that the researchers keep to
ethical practice. Collaborators provide a mechanism through
which a researcher counterchecks his procedures and results.
It gives one an opportunity for comparison. Assuming there is
successful co-operation and collaboration among researchers,
results can be verified quickly and released for use. Unless a
system of verification is insured, research results may not be
released in time.
There are a few other factors of research which I would
like to mention.
Social , Political and Cultural Influence may also affect
the optimisation of the research results i.e. on certain
occasions people write what is likely to be favoured by their
upbringing and that of their audience.
Patience and careful attention to the experimental design
(Curtis, 1976) is desirable. Occasionally some researchers are
impatient and end up doing the experiments in a hurry. This
leads to tempering with instruments and thus interferes with
research results.
Ethical issues could also affect the optimisation of the
research results i.e. there are some researchers, especially
those who choose interviewing as a methodology towards
accomplishing the research results, who involve the respondents
without asking them whether or not they wish to participate.
Sometimes, some investigators have withheld from their subjects
certain information about the research in which they were
taking part. Furthermore some researchers force people to
participate, or deceive the participants. The researchers even
32
lead the research participants to commit acts that diminish
their self-respect. Consequently the participant may withhold
certain important and beneficial information that would be
important to the research results. The subsequent results from
such research, even when utilised, are not realistic.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, I would like to emphasize that whereas we
consider both institutional and research factors to affect the
optimisation of research, the cardinal point is that research,
if it is to be useful must be geared towards existing practice
or intended practice.
In the university we carry out a lot of theoretical
research which, even though adding to new scientific knowledge,
has no immediate application in people's daily lives.
Similarly at research station level some of the research
carried out has no immediate application.
It is, therefore, necessary for researchers to consider
seriously the development of applied research, as opposed to
basic research. They should utilise existing knowledge from
basic research to develop appropriate problem-solving projects.
As often remarked, "we should not spend too much time trying to
re- invent the wheel, but rather to make the wheel carry out
various functions for us".
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Barber, T.X. 1976. Pi tf a l ls in Human Research: Ten Pivotal
Points. New York: Pergamon Press Inc.
Curtis, D.J. (ed) 1976. Research Problems In Biology:
Investigation For Students. 2nd Edition. New
York: Oxford University Press.
33
Dominowski , R.L. 1980. Research Methods. London: Prentice -
Hall Inc.
East African Academy. 1976. Research Services in East Africa.
Nairobi, East African Publishing House.
Goode, W.J. 1952. Methods in Social Research. New York; Mc
Graw Hill Book Company.
Good, C.V. 1966. Essentials of Educational Research. New York,
Applaton Century Crafts Inc.
Hillway, T. 1984. Introduction to Research. Second Edition.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Journal of Research and Development in Education Vol. II No. 2
(1967). Proceedings of the National Conference on Needed
Research on Mathematics Education. University of
Georgia.
Kidder, Louise, H. 1981. Selltiz Wrightman and Cook's Research
Methods in Soc i a l Relations. 4th Edition. New York;
Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Prewitt, K. 1980. Introductory Research Methodology. IDS
University of Nairobi Discussion Paper No. 10.
Olive, It. A. 1962. A Research Handbook Education. South
Street Minneapolis, Burgress Publishing Company.
Sleber, S.D. 1973. The integration of Fieldwork and Survey
Methods. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 78
No. 6. pp. 1335-1359.
Trarers, R.M.W. 1978. An Introduction to Educational Research.
4th Edition New York pp. 375-393 Macmillian
Publishing Company Inc.
Turabia, K.L. 1973. A Manual for writers of Term Papers.
Thesis and Dissertations. 4th Edition. Chicago.
University of Chicago.
Witney, F.L. 1980. The Elements of Research. 3rd Edition
London. Prentice Hall, Inc.
34
SESSION 1: RESEARCH REVIEWS ON UTILISATION OF FEED RESOURCES
35
UTILISATION OF PASTURE RESEARCH RESULTS IN TANZANIA
R.S. Kidunda, A.B. Lwoga and E.J. Mtengeti
Sokoine University of Agriculture
Morogoro, Tanzania
ABSTRACT
Tanzania has behind it more than 40 years of pasture research
experience and yet this experience has had little impact on
pasture production and utilisation in the main livestock areas.
Indeed, it is now recognised that pasture inadequacy is a
bottleneck in livestock development programmes in the country.
Constraints within the pasture research and extension
establishment seem to have largely limited the effectiveness of
research. In particular, the lack of a clear national pasture
research and development strategy, the lack of overall co
ordination and appraisal of extension service have all combined
to militate against the formulation of viable improved pasture
innovations and their adoption by the livestock industry.
Contributory factors have included the existence of unsuitable
grazing systems, poor livestock management, unavailability of
pasture seeds and a poor farm input-output infrastructure.
INTRODUCTION
Grasslands are a major feed resource in Tanzania. They occupy
about 51X of the total land area (FAO, 1967) and have supported
millions of wild and domestic animals over the years. Ruminant
livestock populations have been estimated at 12.1 million head
of cattle, 5.5 million goats and 3.6 million sheep (Min. of
Agric., 1984). It seems likely that these grasslands will, for
quite a long time to come, continue to support these animals in
terms of feed requirements both for maintenance and production.
However, if they are to meet the demands imposed by a growing
livestock industry in the country, they must be managed and
utilised in a way that ensures the production of large
quantities of high quality forage. This, inevitably, involves
36
research which has to generate improved pasture systems to the
majority of the livestock keepers. It is estimated that 99X of
the ruminant population thrives mainly under the traditional
systems of management. The traditional sector is characterized
by communal grazing practices which do not encourage the use of
improved pasture technology.
The livestock industry in Tanzania has contributed much
less to the monetary economy of the country in comparison with
the cash crops (Anon, 1984). Early efforts at improving
production from the country's vast livestock resource
concentrated on livestock disease control and genetic
improvement. It has now been realised that further
improvements in production can be achieved by increasing the
quantity and quality of the feed available to the animals.
This paper examines the scope and main shortcomings of
past pasture research and development programmes and the
development of the traditional livestock sector.
PAST PASTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
In Tanzania pasture research dates back to the 1930's and was
pioneered by such scientists as French (1938) and Van Rensburg
(1952), Staples (1937) among others. Investigations that have
been carried out since then and their evaluations are well
documented (Mehta, 1973; Mehta, 1974; Rwebangira, 1978; Lwoga
et al . . 1984) and the following is only a summary of the past
work. On the whole, much information has been accumulated in
seven main areas including:
a. Pasture plant species occurence, adaptation, productivity,
establishment and suitability for pasture in various areas
of the country. Such work was undertaken in the humid to
sub-humid areas (Naveh, 1966; Naveh and Anderson, 1967;
Hopkinson, 1970); the sub-humid to semi -arid areas (Walker,
1969a; Van Voorthvize, 1971), and the semi arid areas (Owen
and Brzostowski, 1967; Wigg, 1973). The major parameters
studied included persistence, dry matter yield, resistance
to grazing, drought resistance and quality. Other
37
evaluation trials were carried out by Lane and Lwoga (1978),
Mukurasi (1978) and Myoya (1980). The results have been
summarized by Lwoga e_t a_l.. (1984) on the suitability of
grasses and legumes for pasture establishment in their
various ecological zones in the country. Pasture
establishment methods have not been dealt with in detail in
Tanzania. The few workers who have conducted trials on this
are, Northwood (1978) and Rukanda and Lwoga (1981). These
workers have proved the effectiveness of minimum cultivation
techniques with or without the use of herbicides, when
introducing legume species on natural pasture in the sub-
humid areas.
b. Grazing systems on rangelands: studies on stocking rates in
subhumid ecological zones were carried out by Staples
(1938), Walker and Scott (1968), Broatch (1970), Lugenja and
Kajuni (1979) while those on grazing systems (rotational,
continuous, deferred and their combinations) were done in
sub-humid to semi-arid areas by Staples, (1937), (1945),
Walker (1968), and Walker and Scott (1968). Walker and Scot
(1968) concluded that combinations of rotational and
deferred grazing gave better results than any of the other
systems used singly.
c. Response of grass pastures to fertilizer application. The
use of mineral fertilizers on natural pastures was tried by
Evans and Mitchell (1962), Anderson (1965, 1968), Walker
(1969b), Hendy (1975) and Lwoga (1981). The use of mineral
fertilizers on natural pasture has been shown to improve
both the yield and the quality of forage in various parts of
Tanzania, but moisture stress reduces drastically the yield
response in low rainfall areas (Lwoga, 1981).
d. Chemical composition and nutritive value of various grass,
legume and browse species: Earlier studies, which evaluated
chemical composition and in vitro digestibility, were
conducted by French (1939; 1941; 1945; 1950; 1957), Van
Rensburg (1956) and more recently by Kidunda (1988). Most
of their results showed that plant species differed in their
chemical composition and that the crude protein, minerals
38
and vitamins contents decreased with advanced stage of
growth while that of the crude fibre (lignin, hemicel lulose
and cellulose) increased with advanced stage of growth. The
legumes were superior to the grasses in terms of crude
protein content.
e. Vegetation communities and classification of vegetation
within the country: Investigations on range ecology and
vegetation survey include those by Phillips (1930), Greenway
(1933), Scott (1934), Pieler (1952), Walker (1974) and
Kahurananga (1979). The results of some of these workers
formed the basis for the production of various vegetation
maps of Tanzania and East Africa as a whole.
f. Bush control in natural pastures : Different methods of bush
control were also investigated. Biological methods, mainly
by the use of goats (Hornby and Van Rensburg, 1948), fire
(Staples et aj., 1942, Van Rensburg, 1952; 1958) and by
mechanical means Brzostowski, (1960) were conducted in
Central Tanzania. However most of the results in bush
control have not been published in widely circulated
journals.
g. Forage conservation : There have been few studies on forage
conservation and their utilisation in Tanzania. Some early
experiments (French, 1938; 1939; 1956; 1957) evaluated the
feeding value of various grass hays and silages. Recently,
Urio (1977), Kategile (1979) and Edeslsten and Lijongwa
(1981) did experiments on the utilisation of crop residue to
improve livestock nutrition during the dry season. These
workers proved that crop residues could be used to improve
livestock nutrition especially during the dry season.
CURRENT PASTURE RESEARCH
Currently pasture research is mainly undertaken by the Tanzania
Livestock Research Organisation (TALIRO) which was formed in
1981. The organisation has various research stations
representing the different ecological zones within the country.
Such stations include Mpwapwa Livestock Production Research
39
Institute, Kongwa Pasture Research Station, West Kilimanjaro
Research Centre, Malya Research Centre and Tanga Livestock
Research Centre. Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) and
Uyole Agricultural Centre (UAC) are two other institutions
which are also actively engaged in pasture/forage and other
feed resources research. Current research is on:-
i) Introduction and evaluation: a) Introduction and
evaluation of pasture species for oversowing in
natural pastures and undersowing with cereal crops in
the semi-arid areas of Central Tanzania. The initial
screening is done on station and later on-farm for the
most promising species.
b) Screening of temperate and sub tropical and
multipurpose browse species for adaptation to
southern highland conditions for on-farm integration
with cereals.
c) Legume forages incorporation with fodder grasses for
smallholder dairy farmers in the Kilimanjaro
highlands
d) Screening of tropical and sub-tropical forage
grasses and legumes for adaptation to the coastal
humid zone
ii) Pasture establishment a) Legume/grass mixtures for
improvement of both the quality and quantity of the
pastures
b) Effect of different N-fertilizer levels on the yield
and quality of established pastures
c) Oversowing of legumes into natural pastures in
Central Tanzania as a method of pasture improvement
iii) Nutrition: a) Dry season feeding in central Tanzania
as an integrated system approach
40
b) Dairy feeding systems using crop residues in the
Kilimanjaro highlands. Research is also done on th>
nutritive value, methods of treatment, utilisation
and costs of transportation of the crop residues
c) Use of Leucaena leucocephala and other multipurpose
trees as sources of feed during the dry season
iv) Range: Range monitoring, improvement by sod seeding,
grazing management and bush control methods at
Kongwa Pasture Research Station
IMPACT OF PASTURE RESEARCH
Although a great deal of effort has gone into pasture research
over the years, there has not been much corresponding progress
in pasture development in the major livestock areas in the
country. On the contrary, it appears that expanding arable
cropping and better veterinary services (with consequent
increased livestock survival) in these areas have tended to
lead to deterioration of forage resources over the years
(Lwoga, 1979).
On the local scene, improvement of livestock productivity
through better pastures has been recorded mainly under research
and government institutional conditions. Some of the private
farms in the northern and southern highlands of Tanzania have
also benefited from research and improved pasture technology.
This section however, comprises less than one percent of the
national herd (FAO, 1967).
Clearly, past pasture research has not had much impact on
pasture development in the country. The most important aspects
of this problem are as follows:-
Lack of national objectives, co-ordination and integration
Lack of co-ordination between various research stations was an
important organisational defect. Researchers were not much
informed on the type of projects other stations had apart from
41
information through annual reports, most of the reports were
circulated late or not circulated at all.
Lack of well defined objectives that encompassed national
priorities in pasture research and development was another
short-coming. In the absence of such guidelines, projects were
selected on an ad hoc basis with little consideration
because pasture researchers were expatriates. Thus, a
considerable proportion of past research work was of a short-
term nature which is of rather limited value unless extended
to actual grazing conditions.
Another consequence of the lack of well defined national
objectives in pasture research was poor integration. Thus, in
most cases each researcher planned and carried out his own
projects in isolation, and the plant was separated from both
the soil and the animal. Problems that confront the livestock
farmer are of a multi -faceted nature. Tackling any of these
problems requires a strategy in which all facets of the problem
are simultaneously brought under intensive scrutiny to generate
information that can be used to assemble an effective package
of innovations.
One more consequence of the lack of a national strategy on
pasture research and development is that in some areas,
projects have been completed without publication of the
results; and in other cases, projects which started more than
ten years ago have been going on without periodical reviews.
Manpower situation
Manpower engaged in various pasture and range activities has,
for a long time, been inadequate. In a survey of pasture and
range activities in Tanzania, Edye and Boudet (1975) reported a
total of 2 Tanzanians and 13 expatriates engaged in this field
while the estimated total stood at 85 specialists.
It is therefore apparent that the total manpower falls
short of the estimated requirements by a large margin
especially in pasture research. The situation does not seem to
42
have changed much today. More recently, Lugenja e_t al. (1984)
reported that out of twenty (20) pasture personnel, 7 were
engaged in pasture research, U in teaching and research while 9
were in extension and production services. With such a meager
personnel position, little can be accomplished in pasture
research and development.
Another aspect of the manpower situation in pasture/range
activities appears to be the low morale among staff. Pasture
research and pasture development in general have been so much
ignored that the technicians posted to work in the pasture
establishments count themselves as unlucky and lost.
Research funds
In the long past pasture research was, no doubt, strongly
supported financially. However, the situation seems to have
changed dramatically in the recent past. In the Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock Development funds allocated have been
too small to even maintain on-going projects. In a number of
African countries international research organisations have put
substantial resources into pasture research, but this has,
invariably, been conditional to the active participation of
local government and the presence of clear research objective.
It is not clear whether the Ministries involved have, in the
past explored possibilities of securing assistance for pasture
research from international research and funding agencies.
Extension service
Frequent communication between the farmer, extension and
research workers is essential if worthwhile pasture research
results are to be finally adopted by the livestock industry.
In Tanzania, there seems to have been too few workers in
Agricultural Extension Service sufficiently competent to advise
farmers on pasture/range development (Rwebangira, 1978). Even
where there has been such workers, their interaction with
pasture researcher (through seminars, workshops or
conferences) has been minimal.
43
Mention should be made of researchers who have established
direct contacts with farmers, and of farmers who have sought
and received advice from researchers directly. In general,
however, efforts by researchers to deal directly with farmers
have frequently been frustrated by lack of both funds and
transport. Even where such problems did not exist, only a
small proportion of farmers is likely to benefit from this
service. It is also worthy mentioning that even the initiated
Radio programmes on range management are likely to have little
impact unless supported by a vigorous extension service.
A diploma course in Range Management has been going on at
Livestock Training Institute (LITI), Morogoro since 1975 but,
it seems, very few of the graduates join the extension service
(most of them are employed on parastatal ranches and dairy
farms) .
Pasture utilisation systems
Three main pasture utilisation systems can be identified in
Tanzania namely ;-
a. total nomadism in semi-arid areas with cattle keepers
moving with their animals in search of suitable forage
(as is still the case in Maasailand, to a significant
extent);
b. semi -nomadism, with cattle keepers permanently settled,
but trekking their animals to distant grazing and
watering areas; and
c. ranching and dairying on land owned by associations,
village, corporations, or private individuals.
Under system (c) improved pasture innovations can be (or
have been) successfully introduced, under system (a) and (b),
however, successful introduction of improved pasture technology
requires considerable prior ground work, in particular, by way
of monitoring human and stock mobility within affected areas,
(ii) changing the traditional values and life-styles which
44
emphasize the maximum number of livestock possible, and (iii)
provision of adequate extension and veterinary services.
The changing of cattle keeper's values from regarding
wealth in terms of cattle numbers to assessing cattle in
monetary terms is the starting point towards an appreciation of
the desirability of improved pasture technology. It is only
after this change has taken place that the traditional
livestock keeper is likely to co-operate willingly in schemes
involving destocking; the replacement of the traditional
communal land tenure system with recognised holdings by
individuals, villages, cooperatives or co-operations;
controlled or restricted movement of livestock and planned use
of water and pasture resources. Evidence (Peterson, 1976;
Stokes, 1976) suggests that there has not been much change in
the values in the main livestock areas in Tanzania.
Availability of farm inputs and input-output delivery channels
The adoption of improved pasture innovations provided by
research almost always involved the purchase of various items
including machinery, fertilizer, pasture seed, fencing
requisites, pipes, troughs and veterinary chemicals. In
particular, plentiful supplies of good pasture seed and
fertilizers at reasonable prices are vital. Shortage of
pasture seed has, however, been a major limitation to pasture
improvement in Tanzania (Lwoga, 1976) even though large
quantities have been imported from Kenya and Australia
(Rwebangira, 1978).
Several research stations and parastatal livestock farms
have been producing (uncertified) pasture seed, but lack of
funds has, apparently, stifled the development and expansion of
this important activity (Rwebangira, 1978). A well organised,
national pasture seed production programme is urgently needed
to solve the problem of seed shortage.
Just as vital (to the adoption of improved pasture
innovations) is the availability of inputs, the channels for
the delivery of both these inputs to remote farms and farm
45
products to their final destinations. The importance of this
factor is, perhaps, better known in relation to crop production
in Tanzania (e.g. late deliveries or lack of fertilizers,
pesticides and seeds, lack of storage space for cereal
harvests, lack of lorries to ferry cotton to ginneries etc).
There is evidence that poor input-output delivery channels are
an important constraint in livestock development projects in
the country (Stokes, 1976; Mwakatundu and Mpatwa, 1977; Chikaka
and Foote, 1978).
For a pasture research and development programme to have a
positive effect on the livestock industry and thus, on the
country's economy, there must be a corresponding programme
aimed at developing the necessary infrastructure including
roads vehicles, stock routes, storage facilities, processing
plants, distribution and retail facilities for the livestock
market; and facilities for exporting surplus livestock products
and importing supplies.
POSSIBLE OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITIES
Our own view point is that planning a pasture research and
development programme for Tanzania has to take account of
variability in Land potential in the various parts of the
country so as to avoid unnecessary duplication of experiments.
In this respect, the ecological classification scheme (land
classified into ecozones) of Pratt and his co-workers (Pratt et
al 1986) would provide a useful basis (and is used in the
suggestions made below). Account has also to be taken of the
fact that the best lands in the country will continue to be
used for the production of food and cash crops. Thus, the main
thrust in pasture research and development has to be directed
to areas of marginal crop production potential.
Ecozones 1 1 and 1 1 1
These areas receive, on average, more than 750 mm annual
rainfall. They are of high agricultural potential, most of the
land being under permanent and arable crops, or under forest
where topography does not permit cultivation. Though livestock
46
keeping (especially dairying) is an important activity, forage
shortage is a problem of increasing magnitude due to the
expansion of cultivation into areas that were available for
grazing previously.
Prospects for pasture expansion are bleak, and increased
pasture production will depend largely on intensification on
existing pastures. Objectives and priorities for pasture
research and development should include the following:-
a) development of suitable fodder crop species
b) development of stable grass/legume pasture system
c) development of suitable conservation methods
d) development of suitable fertilizer recommendations
e) development of suitable grazing systems on natural and
sown pasture
f) pasture seed production
g) use of agricultural by-products and farm wastes as
livestock feed
h) improvement of soil fertility and soil erosion control
through the development of suitable crop-pasture rotation
systems and development of efficient N-fixing legumes
(both indigenous and exotic).
Ecozones IV and V
These areas receive, on average 750 mm or less annual rainfall.
They comprise the main beef cattle and wildlife areas and, in
the central and northern regions, have been subject to
considerable overgrazing. Though, on the whole, they are of
low crop production potential, arable cropping has been
expanding rapidly with the aid of tractor and oxen plough
cultivation
The following should be among the objectives and
priorities for pasture research and development : -
a) Production of adequate quantities of high quality forage for
livestock throughout the year.
47
i) development of suitable grazing systems (taking into
account pasture productivity and optimum stocking rate)
ii) development of suitable bush control method
iii) development of suitable forage conservation methods
iv) introduction of suitable legume and browse species into
natural pasture
v) evaluation of suitable indigenous legume and browse
species in natural pastures
vi) use of irrigation to produce high quality feed especially
for dairy animals
vii) commercial pasture seed production
b) Soil moisture and seed production
i) development of suitable grazing systems
ii) reseeding of denuded areas with suitable grass and legume
species
iii) development of suitable crop-pasture rotation systems
c) Improvement of soil fertility in areas of mixed farming
through:
i) development of suitable crop - pasture rotation systems
ii) development of efficient N-fixing legumes that can be
incorporated in crop farming systems.
In all types of econzones there is a strong case for
assembling and conserving gene pools of potentially valuable
indigenous grasses and legumes. These would provide material
for pasture breeding and seed production projects.
5.3. More funds should be made available for pasture research.
The government will remain the major source of such funds
but it is conceivable that international organisations and
agencies may be ready to give assistance if research
objectives are defined, programmes prepared and an
effective machinery for their execution is established.
48
5.4. Extension capability should be strengthened by:
a) increasing the number of staff with adequate training in
pasture/range management, especially at diploma level
b) improving communication between research, extension and
farmers through seminars, inter-institutional exchanges
and visits and
c) alleviating obstacles that generally hamper the
effectiveness of the extension service in the country
(e.g. poor transport)
d) a vigorous recruitment and training programme should be
undertaken to establish a mul t idiscipl inary team of
competent research staff in the country. An effective
team would need to include ecologists, botanists, plant
breeders, veterinarians, agronomists, soil scientists,
animal nutritionists and social economists. These can
work well when a pasture research institute is
established, in which salaries and other employment
conditions are sufficiently attractive to obtain and hold
well qualified scientists. As conclusive results from
pasture programmes require several years in experiments,
a stable staff situation allowing continuity of research
effort is necessary.
CONCLUSION
Although a great deal of effort has gone into pasture research
and development over the years, this has had little impact on
pasture production and utilisation among the livestock keepers
in Tanzania. The major shortcomings were: lack of clear
natural pasture research and development objectives, co
ordination and integration, inadequate manpower, lack of
research funds and poor extension service. The situation was
aggrevated by the existence of unsuitable grazing systems, poor
livestock management, unavailability of pasture seeds and a
poor farm input-output infrastructure.
49
Recent developments are, however very encouraging and
auger well for the future of pasture research and development.
a. A farming systems approach which focusses on the farmers in
given ecological zones has now been adopted in
pasture/livestock feed research. Examples of this approach
include a number of on-going projects at Mpwapwa Livestock
Research Institute, Sokoine University of Agriculture and
Uyole Agricultural Centre.
b. Researchers have better opportunities to meet and exchange
ideas within and outside the country through participation
in professional associations and networks such as Tanzania
Society of Animal Production (TSAP), Tanzania Veterinary
Association (TVA), Pasture Network for Eastern and Southern
Africa (PANESA), and African Research Network for
Agricultural by-products (ARNAB).
c. The funding is better now than in the past, in particular
with regard to collaborative research projects within
Eastern and Southern Africa through, International research
agencies (e.g. IDRC) and regional pasture/livestock feeds
networks (e.g. ARNAB and PANESA) encourage participation in
regional collaborative research projects for which they
provide "seed" funds and training opportunities.
d. There is now a core of indigenous researchers in
pasture/livestock feeds and the staffing situation is
likely to improve with time.
e. The decision by TALIRO to establish a national pasture
research institute is a welcome move. There is no doubt
that the institute will, when fully established, provide a
major thrust in the research and development of pastures
and livestock feeds as a whole.
50
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dairy production in Tanzania. In: N.G. Mpatwa (ed),
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54
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55
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56
UTILISATION OF AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS FOR VILLAGE
AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF SHEEP RATIONS IN GHANA
A.K. Tuah
Department of Animal Science,
University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana
ABSTRACT
Sheep constitute a significant proportion of the ruminant
livestock population in Ghana. There is a growing interest in
the raising of sheep in backyards among urban dwellers, but
their major problems is the availability of feed as their
animals are not allowed to roam and graze freely as is done in
the vi l lage.
The agricultural by-product feeds available in Ghana
include cereal and legume straws, corncob, cocoapod husk,
coffee pulp and peels of yams, cocoyams, plantains and cassava.
The nutritional problems encountered in the utilisation of
these by-products, the treatments needed to improve their
nutritional values and the economics of feeding to sheep have
been discussed. The other major problems associated with the
use of these by-products are bulking, transportation, storage
and processing.
In the villages, in the southern parts of the country, it
is suggested that grazing animals should be supplemented with
peels. In the villages in the northern parts of the country,
the feeding of cereal and legume straws should be encouraged.
In the cities it is suggested that commercial feed mills should
prepare diets from these by-products for sale. There is also
the need to improve the growth rate and feed conversion
efficiencies of the local breeds of sheep if they are to be
raised intensively in the towns and cities.
57
INTRODUCTION
Sheep constitute about 42.67X, on numerical basis, of the
ruminant livestock population in Ghana (Veterinary Services
Department, Min. of Agric., Ghana, unpublished data). The rate
of increase in the population of sheep is reported to be higher
than that of any other species of ruminant livestock in the
country (3.4X for sheep 1.2X for goats and 1X for cattle,
(Veterinary Services Department, Min. of Agric., Ghana,
unpublished data). Apart from being a source of meat, sheep
are also the choice animals for sacrifices to gods and stools
and for appeasing elders when they are offended by their
juniors.
There is at present a growing interest in raising sheep in
backyards by urban dwellers. The major problems of these
backyard farmers is availability of feed. Unlike the backyard
poultry farmers in the towns and cities, the backyard sheep
farmers have no access to commercially-prepared feeds since no
feedmill prepares sheep feeds for sale. They have to buy cut
grasses and household offals such as cassava peels to feed in
confinement these animals as the municipal authorities do not
permit free roaming of sheep as is done in the villages.
Since the costs of sheep feeds prepared from concentrates
such as cereal grains will be very prohibitive, attempts are
being made by some researchers in the country to formulate
sheep rations based mainly on agricultural and industrial by
products.
The aim of this paper is to discuss some of the prospects
for and problems encountered in attempting to use agricultural
by-products in rations for sheep in Ghana.
AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCT FEED RESOURCES AVAILABLE IN GHANA
Some of the agro- industrial by-product feed resources available
in Ghana and their nutritive values are shown in Table 1. The
industrial by-products are: wheatbran, dried brewers (spent
grains from the breweries), oilseed cakes, copra, cottonseed
58
cake and palmkernel ); pito mash (spent grains from the brewing
of local beer, pito) and maize bran. These by-products are
used greatly in the rations of non- ruminants. The oilseed
cakes are produced in the rations of ruminants, as there is not
enough for making rations for non- ruminants.
The agricultural by-products which could be used in the
rations of sheep are rice-bran, sun-dried poultry manure,
coffee pulp, cocoapod husk, peels of cassava, plantain, cocoyam
and yam, cereal and legume straws and corncobs.
With the cereal and legume straws and corncobs, the major
limitations are their low digestibilities due to l ignif ication
of their cell walls which form the bulk of the materials.
Apart from cowpea straws (for crude protein), they are also low
in crude protein, water and most likely some essential
minerals. The straws are also deficient in Vitamin A.
El-Naga (1987) reported of improvement in nutritional
value of straws with supplementation of minerals, vitamins and
nitrogen. El-Naga (1986) also obtained improvement in intake
of straws with hydration. It is also believed that cereal
straws are more efficiently utilised when supplemented with
green forages (Mbatya et al., 1983). The actual constituents in
green forages which help to improve the utilisation of cereal
straws are not known. These cereal straws also respond to
alkali treatment. Since sodium hydroxide is an expensive
product in Ghana, lee (an affluent from the manufacture of
soap) or woodash solution could be used to treat these straws
as has been shown in Table 1 for corn stover. Varietal
differences in digestibilities exist in cereal and legume
straws (Tuah et al., 1988) and good quality straws could be used
for feeding.
59
Table1:N6triti.e.al6esofso,gro-ind6str alby-prod6ctswhichco6lde6 ns pra nG a a
By-prod6ct
,%XCr6deProteinIV,.,1XHV,O0%w od (,basis)UntreatedNaOHLa hsol6tion
treated6at
61.1 61.6 11.6 1.3 3.1
6.66
61.6 6.6 1.3
1.61 11.1 1.6 11.6
1.66 6.6 6.1
1.6 6.6 11.6
1.16
1.6 1.1 6.1 1.1
1.66
1.1 6.1 1.1
6.16 6.66
6.6 1.1 ,.6 6.6
6.6 6.1 6.6 1.6
ig.1
61.3 6.1 61.6 6.6
61.61
6.1 6.6 6.1 6.1 1.6 1.6 6.1
16.61
Plantainpeels(mapent6)
Ya,peels(White)
RicestrawITma16
Cornsto6r(, 1di)
CowpeastrawTVX611
S6ndriedpo ltry
Cottonseedcak
,riedb6werssp nt Pal,kernelcak(s6n
Cassa.apeels
OI6.ariety
Cocopodh6sk
Coffeep6lp
,an66
Copracake .aizebran
Ricebran
Wheatbran
grain
Corncob
dried)
Cocoya,peels
1.6
1.1
IV,.,=n.itrodry,a teriges ib3ity
en o
Coffee pulp has low in vitro dry matter digestibility and
does not respond to alkali treatment (Tuah and 0rskov, 1987;
Table 1). It is high in lignin (about 27X) (Tuah and Urskov,
1987). It contains about 5X condensed tannins. It, however, has
the advantage of stimulating appetite in sheep (Tuah e_t al .
1985).
Cocoapod husk has to be dried quickly; otherwise it grows
mouldy and loses all the digestible carbohydrates. At present it
is dried electrically. The energy cost of obtaining one metric
tonne of dried cocoapod husk is about 400 litres of oil (Gibb,
1975). The efficiency of using solar driers should be tested and
if successful they can be adopted for use by small-scale farmers
and the state - owned large cocoa plantations.
The peels of yams, plantains and cassava (and perhaps
cocoyam for which no figures are available) are more digestible
than the straws, corncob, coffee pulp and cocoapod husk (Table
1). They are most likely low in lignin. The cyanide content of
the local varieties of cassava peels are not high but if there is
the need to reduce it further, this can be achieved by fermenting
the material before drying (Osei and Duodu, 1988). The crude
protein contents of these peels, apart from cassava, are high and
compare with that of tropical grasses (8X for grass hay,
Akinsoyinu and Adeloye, 1987).
Poultry manure has to be dried before it can be stored for
any appreciable length of time. When using poultry manure,
copper toxicity and urinary calculi (in males) may occur. On
the University of Science and Technology livestock farm, however,
even layer manure has been fed to sheep for about seven months
without any problems. The Djallonke breed of sheep may not be
very sensitive to these disorders.
Corncob has low in vitro dry-matter digestibility but it
responds to alkali treatment. It is bulked in the villages after
shelling of corn.
61
Feed intake, performance and feed costs of production using some
agro- industrial by-products and grass in sheep diets in Ghana.
Tables 2 and 3 contain feed intake, performance and feed costs of
production of animals fed various diets containing some agro-
industrial by-products, maize and dried grass. These trials were
conducted on the livestock farm of the Department of Animal
Science, University of Science and Technology (UST) Kumasi,
Ghana.
In experiment 1 (Table 3) the costs of kilogram gain were
2870.25 and 2512.05 for diets containing 607. and 45X cocoapod
husk respectively. For the diet containing 66X dried grass the
cost per kilogram gain was 2942.48.
In experiment 2 (Table 3) the cost per kilogram gain ranged
from 2437.12 to 2555.34. There was no maize in any of the diets
and the rations were formulated to contain mainly agricultural
by-products.
These figures demonstrate clearly the advantages
agricultural by-products have over dried grass. In fact in the
city of Accra, 1kg DM of cut grass costs 2133.3. If feed
conversion efficiency (FCE) is about 20kg feed/kg gain as was for
the diet containing 66X dried grass (Table 2) then the cost per
kilogram gain would be 22666.6. If FCE is about 10kg feed/kg
gain then the cost per kilogram gain would be 21333.3.
The FCE is however, most likely more than 10kg feed/kg gain.
It is at least about 15kg feed/kg gain and the cost of kg gain
would be 21999.5. Akinsoyinu and Adeloye (1987) in Nigeria
obtained a FCE value of 14.61kg feed/kg when they fed a diet
consisting of 66.6X grass hay and 26.6X maize to Djallonke sheep.
If diets based mainly on agricultural by-products are cheaper
than cut grass (which people buy in large quantities in Accra)
why are agricultural by-products not being used in diets for
sheep in the urban areas? The market exists for the sale of
these feeds.
62
Problems associated with the utilisation of agricultural by
products in sheep diets in Ghana
Apart from the nutritional problems discussed earlier when
discussing the types of agricultural by-products available in the
country, there are other problems. The first of these is perhaps
the lack of interest on the part of feedmillers to produce sheep
diets as most of the by-products are not found in the cities
where the commercial feedmills are located.
The cereal straws, apart from rice, are scattered on the
farms after harvesting the grains. They have to be bulked and
transported to the villages and stores. There are no machines in
the villages to process those straws for incorporation in diets
for ruminants. There are no sources of non-protein nitrogen to
be added to the straws as all the poultry farms in the country
are located near the big towns and cities and no urea is
imported. Cocoa pod husk, as indicated earlier, ought to be
dried quickly to retain its digestible carbohydrates and it is
found on the cocoa farms where animals are not allowed for fear
of damage to trees and fruits. Transporting the fresh husk to
the villages for drying is almost impossible.
US$1 = Cedi 250 (but fluctuates); I = Cedi
63
Table 2: Ration composition, growth rates, cost per kg feed (as
is basis), feed conversion efficiency (F.C.E) and cost
per kg gain of animals fed diets containing different
levels of cocoa pod husk and dried grass.
Ingredients
Cocoapod husk
Dried grass (Panicum maximum)
Corn
Dried br' vers-spent grains
Bone meal
Sodium chloride
Trace mineral-vitamin premix
Cost/kg of feed (Cedis ,
as- is basis)
Daily gain in weight (g)
Cost/kg gain (cedis) 942.48 654.35 574.85 512.05 870.25
Kg feed/kg gain (F.C.E
as-is basis) 23.80 16.83 15.24 14.11 24.66
232 Cedis = 1 US$
- 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0
66.0 49.25 33.25 20.0 6.0
7.25 14.0 19.0 21.25 25.25
25.0 20.0 16.0 12.0 7.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 9.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
39.60 38.88 37.72 36.29 35.29
22.42 35.51 43.55 46.65 20.72
64
Table 3: Ration composition, growth rates, cost per kg feed (as-
in basis), feed conversion efficiency (F.C.E) and cost
per kg gain of animals fed diets containing different
levels of cocoa pod husk and sodium hydroxide-treated
corncob.
Ingrediets Diets
12 3 4 5
Cocoapod husk - 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0
Sodium hydroxide treated
corn cob (10X)
Sun-dried poultry manure
Wheat bran
Common salt
Dicalcium phosphate
Trace mineral -vitamin premix
Cost/kg of feed
(as- is basis; cedis)
Daily gain in weight (g)
Kg feed/kg gain (F.C.E.
as- is basis)
Cost/kg gain (cedis)
Suggested solutions
Villages: In the southern parts of the country especially in the
forest belt the dry season is not very severe and animals rarely
lose weight. Sheep and goats are also allowed to graze freely in
the villages and they are not kept intensively. They are housed
only in the night.
The farms where crops are grown are also far away from the
villages and the people keep animals only as a "hobby" as they
are basically food and cash crop farmers. They are not motivated
65.4 49.4 32.0 16.0 -
19.0 15.0 12.4 8.0 3.4
15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
- - - 0.4 1.0
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
31.34 29.94 28.05 26.88 25.81
31.15 45.21 40.69 28.98 26.70
17.72 14.60 16.56 19.71 20.25
55.34 437.12 464.51 529.80 522.65
65
to spend time and money on these animals as they are not their
main sources of income. They may therefore not be interested in
transporting agricultural by-products from their farms to feed
animals but they may be interested in transporting them to the
villages for sale. It is suggested that the animals are fed with
fresh peels of cassava, yams, cocoyam and plantains every morning
before the animals are allowed to go out to graze or in the
evenings when they are brought into their barns for the night.
These people eat these foodstuffs every day and there will
be no problem obtaining the peels. Where a neighbour has no
animals, his/her peels could be collected by another fellow for
feeding to his/her animals.
In the northern parts of the country the dry season is more
severe and lasts a longer period of time than in the forest belt.
The people also have great interest in raising animals as the
animals contribute greatly to their incomes. Their farms are
also not very far away from the villages. The farmers could be
motivated to feed agricultural by-products from their own farms
but will not be prepared to buy feeds from commercial
feedmillers. They will be prepared to transport the straws to
the vi l lages.
The straws could be treated with wood ash solutions to
improve their nutritional value. The use of green crops as
supplements could be undertaken if drought-tolerant leguminous
trees and shrubs such as Acacia sp. are planted.
It may also be necessary to provide simple machines (similar
to corn mills found in some villages in the country) for
shredding straws before feeding to animals. Legume straws which
have higher nitrogen contents than cereal straws should be
incorporated in the diets.
The Extension Services Department of the Ministry of
Agriculture should be strengthened to advise farmers on the
proper treatments and feeding of straws and other agricultural
by-products.
66
Ci t ies
In the cities, peels of cassava, plantain, cocoyam and yams could
be bought from the chop bars and the garri factories by
commercial feedmills. These have to be washed to reduce soil
contamination before drying in the sun. They would then be
ground and incorporated in diets. Poultry manure could be
collected from the poultry farms, sun-dried and later used.
Dried cocoapod husk could be bought from the large estate cocoa
plantations and also from small-scale cocoa farmers. Cereal and
legume straws, and corncobs could be bought from large scale
farmers and also from small-scale farmers if they are willing to
transport them to the villages. Already, rice straw is baled by
some large-scale farmers for sale. These cereal straws and
corncobs could be treated with wood-ash solutions and dried. The
formulations of the diets, should be based on results of
experiments conducted in the research institutions.
Dried brewers-spent grains, wheat bran, maize bran and rice
bran could be bought to be used in the diets.
Feeds prepared with these ingredients could then be sold to
backyard farmers in the urban areas.
There is also the need to improve the performance of sheep
kept in the backyards in the urban areas. The local breed, the
Djallonke, has a very slow growth rate (about 20-50g/day). Under
village conditions, since no expenditure is incurred in their
feeding, this slow growth rate may not pose a great problem. In
the urban areas since people are going to invest in housing and
feeds, it is necessary to increase the productivity of the
animals. If a crossbreeding programme is to be instituted, then
the breed selected should have the good attributes which the
Djallonke has (high fertility, high prolificacy, and big gut
size) in addition to having fast growth rate and high feed
conversion efficiency.
67
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to Ms. Cecilia Turkson for typing the
script. Mr. S.Y. Annor is thanked for his assistance, and Mr.
S.S. Yambillah is acknowledged for the chemical analysis of the
feedstuffs. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana and the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, supported the
research and they are acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Akinsoyinu, A.0. and Adeloye, A. A. 1987. Studies on the
utilisation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L) seed shells by
sheep and goats in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 10th
International Cocoa Research Conference held in Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic, 17-27th May, 1987. Edited and
prepared for Printing by Transla- Inter Ltd. London, U.K.
pp. 867-871.
El-Naga, M.A. 1986. Addition of water to chopped maize stalk
improves its consumption, ARNAB Newsletter No. 6, Nos. 1 and
2, page 8.
Gibb, J.A.C. 1975. Energy costs and crop drying. Span 18(1):
31.
Mbatya, P.B.A., Kay, M. and Smart R.I. 1983. Methods of
improving the utilisation of cereal straw by ruminants. 1.
Supplements of urea, molasses and grass and treatment with
sodium hydroxide. Anim. Feed. Sci . Techno l . 8: 221-227.
Osei, S.A. and Duodu, S. 1988. Effect of fermented cassava peel
meal on the performance of broillers. Brit. Poult. Sci .
29: 671-675.
Tuah, A.K., Boye-Doe, N. and Saf o-Kantanka, 0. 1988. Studies of
the nutritive value of straws of six varieties of cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) and straws of two varieties of
maize (Zea mays) grown in the Ashanti forest belt of Ghana.
Submitted. Biological Wastes.
68
Tuah, A.K., Dzoagbe, S. and Adomako, D. 1985. Evaluation of
cocoapod husk as feed ingredient for sheep in Ghana.
Proceedings of the 9th International Cocoa Research
Conference, 12- 18th Feb, 1984, Lome, Togo, pp. 505-510
Tuah, A.K. and florskov E.R. 1987. A study on the degradation of
untreated, ammonia- treated, sodium hydroxide-treated and
water-soaked corncob and cocoapod husk in the rumen using
the nylon bag technique. paper presented at the ARNAB
Workshop held in Bamenda, Cameroon, 20-27 October, 1987.
69
DISSEMINATION AND UTILISATION OF RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY ON FORAGES
AND AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS IN KENYA
A.B. Orodho
Western Agricultural Research Centre
P. 0. Box 169, Kakamega, Kenya
ABSTRACT
Agricultural research is an essential service to the livestock
industry in Kenya. This is seen in the planning, execution of
research programmes and in the promotion and adoption of research
results and recommendations. Effective research on forages and
agricultural by-products can only be measured in terms of its
contribution to the solution of problems faced in the national
development. Research should start with identification of
farmer's problems and opportunities, develop and test appropriate
technologies under farmer's conditions and conclude with
solutions that would enable farmers to increase their income.
Generation, dissemination and utilisation of appropriate
technology depend on interdisciplinary team approach, organised
into an interacting and cohesive group involving researchers,
extension workers and farmers. There is need for strong
research-extension-farmer linkages in order to develop and test
suitable and adaptable technology that will increase production.
A lot of pasture and agricultural by-products research has been
carried in Kenya for many years and substantial amount of results
and technologies developed and recommended to farmers. Not all
these research results and technologies have been adopted by
Kenyan farmers.
This paper will attempt to look at the past and present
research and extension service organisation, their linkages and
the efforts made by these agricultural services in the
dissemination and adoption of the vast wealth of research
technologies available in Kenya. The paper will also discuss an
on-farm research approach as an effective means of dissemination,
utilisation and adoption of research technology.
70
INTRODUCTION
Kenya is an agricultural country because more than 80X of the
population depend on Agriculture and Livestock production for
subsistence, employment, income and other basic needs. With the
present annual human population growth of 3.8 - 4. OX , it has
been estimated that annual production increase of 5.5 and 8.8X
for meat and milk respectively are needed in order to maintain
the present per capita consumption for these products at least
through 1990 (Ministry of Livestock Development, 1980). All
experts, whether agronomists or economists, agree that increased
agricultural and livestock production remain the principal and
indispensable way of responding to the challenge of the rapidly
growing human population.
The main objective of Kenya's Livestock Development Policy
is to intensify livestock production in order to:
a) Provide sufficient animal protein for adequate nutrition for
the people and the surplus for export.
b) Alleviate poverty through creation of income generating
employments at all stages of livestock production and
c) Increase production of the necessary raw materials of
livestock products for the agro- industries.
With the rapidly growing human population, arable land has
undergone drastic sub-divisions and fragmentation and is now very
limited in highly populated areas. It is evident that increased
livestock production can only be envisaged as a result of growth
in return from land already under cultivation rather than bring
more new land under cultivation. In fact, it has been estimated
that the present land under pastures and animal production in
high potential areas will decrease at a rate of 3.2X per annum
due to more land being taken under subsistence crop farming.
Livestock research therefore aims at searching for more
productive and high-yielding forage crops, utilising of
agricultural by-products, developing appropriate technologies for
efficient utilisation of these products for increased livestock
71
production. The immediate goal of forage and livestock research
is to stimulate production under given farmers' situations.
Livestock research and extension services are the two most
important services necessary in technology development and
dissemination of research results to farmers for increased
livestock production. The extension services provide not only
the technical information and skills, but also co-ordinate
complementary services like input supply, credit and marketing -
all required to remove various production constraints to the
improved utilisation of farmer's resources. Kenya government is
strongly committed to improving and strengthening both the
agricultural research and extension services so that better
production technologies can be developed, disseminated and
utilised by farmers. The Government is also committed to
improving other important complementary services necessary for
the adoption of the developed technologies (Republic of Kenya,
1981; 1986).
RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY GENERATION
The agricultural sector of Kenya is normally divided into three
sub-sectors; small-scale, large-scale, and pastoral ists. Most
small-scale and large-scale producers are located in the medium
and high potential agricultural land occupying approximately 18X
of Kenya's land surface. Pastoral ists and nomads occupy the arid
and semi -arid range areas which cover about 80X of land surface
(Senga, 1976).
Although pasture research work in Kenya started way back in
1908, it was not until 1940 that systematic research started when
Edwards recognised the need and subsequently defined the major
ecological zones of Kenya and suggested that pasture research be
carried out in a series of stations covering the major zones
where 90X of the population lived (Edwards, 1940). The past and
current trend of pasture research work has been discussed (Said,
1985). Prior to Independence, technologies were mainly developed
to address problems of large settler farmers following
subdivision and fragmentation of some of the large-scale farms.
Consequently, research need for the small-scale intensive farmer
72
was quite different from that under the extensive production
system that was and is still being practiced to some extent i.e.
large hectarages, mechanical operations, hay-pasture farming,
large amounts of farm residues, fodder conservation practice,
access to information and finance.
In response to the changes in the farming systems and the
need to re-direct the country's livestock production to be more
responsive to the needs of specific farmers, research work has
been carried out in various Research Centres (Said, 1985) and
various technologies and recommendations formulated for farmers.
Past research achievements have been discussed and some of the
publications stemming from the work have been given by Orodho
(1983). A lot of research results and technologies have been
produced in the form of recommendations (National Agricultural
Research Station, 1976; 1984; Orodho, 1983). These have followed
systematic research work on:
a) Forage collection and evaluation aimed at collecting in Kenya
and introducing from other countries a wide range of important
plant ecotypes of potentially useful pasture and fodder
species and evaluating these collections and introductions
with reference to their usefulness in our Kenyan Pasture
Development Programme. The performance of some of these
materials have been compared in similar ecological zones of
Kenya and Ethiopia (Ibrahim and Orodho, 1981).
b) Forage breeding aimed at developing through selection and
breeding the most suitable forage materials identified during
the forage collection and evaluation for various ecological
zones and livestock farming systems.
c) Forage agronomy aimed at determining the most appropriate
cultural practices such as forage establishment (seed-bed
preparation, time of planting, method of planting, spacing,
seeding rates), forage management (weed control, fertilizer
requirements and rates, time and frequency of
harvesting/grazing, cutting heights) and forage conservation
(silage making, hay making and standing hay).
d) Animal production aimed at measuring and assessing the
forages, farm by-products, crop residues and other wastes in
terms of animal production parameters and
73
e) Range management aimed at developing appropriate range
management practices (bush control, re-seeding of denuded
areas, grazing management, stocking rates) and the improvement
of suitable livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, camels) through
proper livestock management practices and breeding/selection.
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS
One of the principal objectives of the Ministries of Agriculture
and Livestock Development is to promote agricultural production
through provision of extension services. In 1980 the Ministry of
Agriculture alone had more than 5,000 employees distributed at
National, Provincial, District and Divisional levels as well as a
vast representation in the rural areas up to sub- locational and
village levels (Ministry of Agriculture, 1980).
Effective dissemination of relevant forage research results
depends on many factors. It is often difficult to clearly
understand the causes for either success or failure in the
adoption of technology. Failure in adoption of forage research
results by farmers may be as a result of an inappropriate
technology being imposed on the farmers before the technology has
been properly tested and tailored to the need of the farmers.
Poor adoption of the forage results may also result from either
the farmers' own socio-economic constraints or from the fault of
the extension service. The latter is defined in terms of
insufficient staff, inadequate trained staff, wrong sociological
approach, lack of transport facilities, inadequate use of media
or the issuing of wrong advice to farmers.
Gap Between Research and Extension
In many countries there has been continuous reference to
insufficient liaison and consultations between research and
extension services and the inadequate communication among
extension officers and their front-line workers. Researchers
have always argued that their advisory reports and
recommendations were ignored, often left to gather dust in piles
or bookshelves in Provincial and District Offices seldom reaching
74
the front-line staff who are in actual contact with the farmers.
Researchers complain that extension staff rarely visit research
stations on their own initiative to obtain any useful research
results or to report any adoption problems with farmers.
On the other hand, extension officers in many countries,
argue that research reports are too technical and not presented
in a form that can be readily absorbed by extension officers or
farmers and that researchers did not go out often enough to the
field to examine farmers' problems. Some extension officers
complain that research is not often tailored to solve the needs
of the farmers. One fundamental problem is substantial gap in
terms of professional qualification and status between
researchers and extension staff. The gap considered may not only
be between research and extension but also between Agricultural
Officers, whether research or extension, and the technical field
level staff.
Dissemination Methods
Kenya Government is aware that utilisation of research results
will depend to a considerable extent on their proper
dissemination to farmers. Programmes to improve extension
services which include, among others, provision of additional
transport facilities and training of extension staff are being
implemented by both the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock
Development. There are a number of ways that are being used to
make the flow of information to the field staff more effective.
Orodho (1983) discussed various methods currently being used
in disseminating pasture research findings to farmers in addition
to the normal extension methods. These methods include tours,
field-days, demonstrations, pre-extension trials, fodder bulking
sites, visits to Research Centres, correspondences with farmers,
public media, lectures, seminars, scientific papers, farmers'
publications, agricultural shows and Provincial Research Advisory
Committees. Most of these methods involve research, extension,
farmers and other complementary services working together. Some
of these methods of research results dissemination have
weaknesses for they are dependent on the initiative of
75
individuals but are not built up into works programme as regular
procedure.
Linkages
Effective agricultural research can only be measured in terms of
its contribution to solutions of the farmer and to the National
Development problems. It is not enough to do research, obtain
results and develop technology, the research results and
technology developed must rapidly be transferred to farmers'
fields and be adopted. There is therefore, need not only for
effective Research-Extension-Farmer linkages, but also linkages
with all those complementary services which play a role in the
farmers' adoption of the developed technology as illustrated in
Figure 1. For technology development there is need for strong
linkages between Research, Extension and Farmer as illustrated by
the bold lines on the diagram. However, for technology adoption,
linkages should have been made with all the other important
complementary services as illustrated by the dotted lines.
Important complementary services that Research - Extension -
Farmers should have linkages with during livestock technology
development are:
a) The input supplies such as Kenya Seed Company, Kenya Grain
Growers' Co-operative Union (KGGCU).
b) The commodity Boards and Marketing agencies such as the
National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB), the Kenya Co
operative Creameries (KCC) and the Kenya Meat Commission
CKMC).
c) Financial and credit organisation such as the Agricultural
Finance Corporation, Commercial Banks, and
d) Price control services such as the committees that determine
appropriate prices and/or give incentives to farmers and the
bodies such as the Kenya Bureau of Standards that regulate
quality of chemicals and livestock feeds.
76
 77
Effective linkages between research, extension, farmer and
other complementary services such as input supplies, credit
organisations will ensure that the inputs recommended for
increased livestock production will be available and will be
supplied in areas where farmers can obtain them on time and that
the financial organisations will be aware of the farmers'
financial requirements ahead of time. Such effective linkages
will enhance proper planning and facilitate research results and
technology adoption.
The need for liaison is less clearly established for
marketing agencies concerned with animal products. The Review
Committee on Pasture, Seed and Fodder Development (Ministry of
Agriculture, 1983) recommended that agencies like KCC, KMC, Kenya
Seed Company should take an active role in supporting, morally
and financially, pasture and fodder crop research activities and
extension services since these agencies benefit directly from
products of those crops.
UTILISATION OF FORAGES AND FARM BY-PRODUCTS BY
SMALL-SCALE FARMERS
Due to the declining farm sizes in Kenya, there has been a rapid
move towards zero-grazing system of livestock management and thus
high-yielding fodder crops such as Napier grass and farm by
products have inevitably become more popular with farmers. Stotz
(1983) noted that crop residues consisting mainly of maize and
bean stover provided an average of 35 - 45X of the total
livestock feed requirements. The contribution of farm by
products to feeding cattle depends on farm size: the smaller the
farm the larger the proportion of feed drawn from the crop
residues compared to forages (Sands et al, 1982). These farm by
products are generally used throughout the year although their
use tends to increase during dry periods. Following a survey of
18 districts in Kenya, Goldson (1977) gave a list of 21 different
farm by-products that are commonly used by small-scale farmers
(Appendix 1).
78
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is a tall productive
perennial fodder grass that occurs naturally from sea level to
over 2,000 metre altitude. It has high production /ha in both
dry-matter and total digestible nutrients and is relatively
drought tolerant. A number of high-yielding cultivars have been
developed. With recommended management practices, Napier grass
can provide continued supply of green herbage throughout the year
and can act as a supplement feed during the dry months of the
year. It fits well in intensive small-scale farming systems.
Apart from Napier grass, many other forages (Table 1) have
been evaluated and found promising for various livestock
production systems. From research results, recommendations have
been made for these forages to be grown in the various ecological
zones of Kenya. Williams (1970) pointed out that "if we are
producing a great deal of unusable research, it means that we are
choosing the wrong problems. If we are producing a great deal of
usable but unused research, this means that we are researching
beyond the absorptive capacity of the industry."
ADOPTION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ON NAPIER GRASS
Because of the importance of Napier grass in the small-scale
livestock farming enterprise, the Pasture Research Specialist
Committee Meeting held at the National Agricultural Research
Centre, Kitale in 1980, set up a Napier grass Review Committee
comprising of the author and five other research officers. The
Review Committee was to tour various parts of the country to
determine whether research results and technology related to
Napier grass establishment, management and utilisation are being
followed by the small-scale farmers.
The committee developed two sets of questionnaires - one for
the farmer and the other for the extension officers and undertook
an extensive tour of 14 districts in 6 provinces of Kenya
(Appendix 2). During the tour which took 18 days, over 50 farms
were visited and detailed discussions held with each farmer or
farm manager. Discussions were also held with about 60
Government Extension Officers at the provincial, district and
79
sub-divisional levels. The discussions held and questionnaires
filled were mainly centred on:
a) Whether farmers knew and followed research recommendations and
if not, what were the main reasons for not doing so.
b) What further research was felt necessary on Napier grass
establishment, management and utilisation.
c) What constraints prevented Napier grass development in the
area.
Although this was a Napier grass review mission, some very
useful information was gathered on the use of other forage and
farm by-products (Kusewa et al, 1983). The Napier Grass Review
Committee confirmed that Napier grass was one of the most
important fodder crops used by small-scale farmers in the
country. It was noted that although many farmers are following
some of the research recommendations on Napier grass
establishment, management and utilisation, there were some
farmers who reported lack of awareness of research results and
technology on this important grass. A number of constraints were
reported as hindering Napier grass development and adoption of
research results as shown in Figure 2. Some of the most
important constraints given were:
a) Lack of adequate extension staff to reach more farmers
b) Lack of farmer's awareness of the importance of Napier grass
use
c) Lack of adequate transport for extension staff
d) Reluctance on the part of farmers to accept and adopt research
recommendat i ons .
e) Lack of finance by farmers
d) Unavailability of planting materials
It was also noted that a few extension officers were not
aware of the availability of research results and recommendations
on Napier grass to be extended to farmers. This indicated some
break-down in communication or inadequate linkage either between
research and extension service or between the agricultural
officers and the field level extension staff.
80
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68
Farmers also indicated that long distance travelled to get the
vegetatively propagated Napier grass planting material inhibited
spread of this fodder crop. Most farmers had obtained their
planting materials from either Government Farmer's Training
Centres, their neighbours or from Government Research Stations as
shown in Figure 3.
From the time this Napier grass review mission was carried
out to-date, the Ministry of Livestock Development has made
numerous efforts to develop and extend fodder crops to small-
scale livestock farmers in the country. A fodder bulking project
was started which multiplied a lot of fodder crops in the country
at sites within easy reach of farmers. Many farmers have
benefited from the planting materials bulked at those sites. A
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP/FAO project) was
started in 1980 to develop promising forage materials and extend
these to farmers through pre-extension trials (FAO, 1985). This
project was extended in 1984 with an objective of promoting the
use of improved fodder and pasture crops to small-scale farmers
(Ibrahim, 1988). A National Dairy Development Project which
started in 1980 is now covering 14 districts in Kenya, extending
the zero-grazing package to the small-scale farmers.
Inadequate extension services is one of the many obstacles
to increase livestock production that the Ministry of Livestock
Development is aware of and is planning to overcome (Ministry of
Livestock Development, 1985). The Ministry is steadily improving
and expanding its livestock extension activities and staff
especially those related to demonstrations that improve farmer's
management practices and awareness of livestock production
technologies .
The Napier grass review mission observed that some farmers
were reluctant to adopt research results and recommendations.
Other farmers tended to modify these recommendations to suit
their farming situations and circumstances. This indicated that
there is need to evaluate research recommendations under those
83
farmers conditions and ultimately come up with appropriate
domains tailored to the farmers' conditions. An on-farm research
as an effective means of dissemination, utilisation and adoption
of research technology is discussed below.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND ADOPTION THROUGH ON-FARM TRIALS
On-farm biological research is one of the main tools in the
farming systems approach to develop appropriate technology for
the small-scale limited resource farms. An on-farm team
basically composed of a socio-economist , forage agronomist,
animal production specialist and extension officer identifies
farmer's problems through diagonistic surveys, priorities these
problems and then brings them back to the research centres for
experimentation and technology development.
In order for the researcher to properly evaluate the
technology he is developing, it is necessary for the trials to be
conducted under the real condition of the small-scale livestock
farmer for whom the technology is being developed. This provides
opportunity for the researcher to fully understand the conditions
under which the farmer is operating and the extension officers
and farmer to actively participate in the forage evaluation
process.
Technology frequently responds differently to environment.
Most small-scale limited resource farmers, however, are not able
to apply inputs required to achieve maximum forage production
similar to those in Research Centres.
Because response to livestock technology can be different in
those less optimal conditions of poor environment found in farms,
it is essential to evaluate technology under these conditions.
By evaluating the technology both in the station and under
various farmers' environments, the technology is subjected to all
the good and bad that the farmers are going to give it if they
adopted it.
84
Figure 3. Origin oj NadiergruaB dtanting materiat* n redortep
qy Parmer a in varioua darta oj the country.
 
FF
DP
Teachera' treintng cut tegea
River qanka
Re*eerCh centre*
Farma r a ' own Farma
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GF
SG
Coodar»t 1 ve ranch»s
Farmers' training c»
Oi s tant Parm»r t
Govt, jarms
Show grounps
Butking c»ntr»s
85
The environment in which farmers produce forage crops is the
result of all factors that affect livestock production so that
livestock farmers are usually associated with each environment.
Other factors such as capital and labour also influence the kind
of environment under which forage crops are being produced.
Management which is responsible for allocating all the resources
to different enterprises in the farm is ultimately the most
important determinant of the crop environment.
In order to begin evaluating the influence of farmer
management on technology, farmers must be given an opportunity to
participate actively even in research managed trials. In order
to evaluate the economic factors on the technology, large plots
must be used. This means only a few treatments are included in
the trials and usually there are no replications.
CONCLUSION
For many years, the Kenya Government has had sound livestock
development policies which have encouraged the development and
utilisation of forages and agricultural by-products. A lot of
forage research work has been done in various research centres
and recommendations formulated for farmers. Most of the research
results on forage have been utilised by farmers to increase
livestock production in the country. There have been cases,
however, where not all research results and recommendations on
forages have been adopted.
Generation and adoption of appropriate technology depends on
an interdisciplinary team and approach organised into an
interacting and cohesive group involving researchers, extension
staff, farmers and other complementary services that affect the
technology adoption. An on-farm research approach is an
effective method that will enhance testing and adoption of forage
research results and technology because it incorporates both the
farmer and the extension staff actively in the research
evaluation processes and the researcher can participate actively
in extension activities. Because on-farm testing utilises a wide
range of farm environment, the feedback from the farmer is
86
immediate and the proper understanding of the technology aids in
the participating of clientele into most appropriate
recommendation domains for the benefit of the technology adoption
by farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to offer my special appreciation to Dr. S. Chema,
the Deputy Director/Livestock, Kenya Agricultural Research
Institute (KARI) for nominating me to attend this workshop. I
also would like to thank Dr. B.N. Majisu, the Director KARI for
allowing me to attend the workshop and to present the paper.
Funds that enabled me to attend the workshop were kindly provided
by the PANESA and ARNAB co-ordi nators to whom I am most grateful.
REFERENCES
Edward, D.C. 1940. A vegetation Map of Kenya with particular
reference to grassland types. J_^ Ecol . 28:377-385
F.A.0. 1985. Forage plant development and seed production,
Kenya. Project findings and recommendations. AG:
DP/KEN/80/003 Terminal Report .UNDP/FAO, Rome.
Goldson, J.R. 1977. Final report of the Pasture Research
Project. Nairobi Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture.
Ibrahim, K.M. and Orodho, A.B. 1981. Test adaptation trials of
forage plants in major ecological zones in Ethiopia and
Kenya. XIV International Grassland Congress Proceedings.
15-25 Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.
Ibrahim, K.M. 1988. Forage Plant Development and Extension.
Project Technical Report AG: DP/KEN/84/007: UNDP/FAO, Rome.
Kusekwa, P.K., Orodho, A.B., Okech, A. CO., Kavelenge, J.E.E.,
Irungu, K.R.G., and Ndiragu, C.E.M. 1983. An interim
report on a review mission on Napier grass management
production and utilisation in Kenya. National Agricultural
Research Station, Kitale.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1980. Management Manual for the
Department of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1983. Report on the Review Committee on
pasture seed and fodder development. National Agricultural
Research Station, Kitale.
87
Ministry of Livestock Development, Kenya, 1980. Livestock
development in Kenya. A policy statement, Nairobi.
Ministry of Livestock Development, Kenya. 1980. Animal
production research in Kenya. A draft policy statement.
Nai robi .
National Agricultural Research Station, Kitale. 1976.
Recommendations for growing pasture and fodder crop in
Kenya. (Memo).
Orodho, A.B. 1983. Pasture research in Kenya. National
Agricultural Research Station, P.0. Box 450, Kitale.
(Memo) .
Republic of Kenya. 1981. Sessional Paper No. 4 on National Food
Policy. Government Printer, Nairobi.
Republic of Kenya. 1986. Sessional Paper No. 1 on economic
management for renewed growth. Government Printer,
Nai robi .
Said, A.N. 1985. Past and current trends of pasture research in
Kenya. In: J. A. Kategile (ed). Pasture improvement
research in Eastern and southern Africa. Proceedings of a
workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 September, 1984.
IDRC-237e. International Development Research Centre,
Ottawa, Ont. pp. 180-209.
Sands, M.W., Fitzhugh, H.A., Kekovolo, J. and Gachuki, P. 1982.
Results of small farm system survey with implications to
the potential for dual purpose small farms in Kenya. Farm
Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. IV. Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock Development, Nairobi. 140 pp.
Senga, W.M. 1976. Kenya's agricultural sector. In: Agricultural
development in Kenya 0 An economic assessment . Oxford
University Press, Nairobi, Kenya.
Stotz, D. 1983. Production techniques and economics of small
holder livestock production systems in Kenya. Farm
Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. IV. Ministry of
Livestock Development, Animal Production Division, Nairobi.
140 pp.
Williams, B.R. 1970. Funding research, development and extension
for a flexible agriculture. Paper presented at a Symposium
on Self Perpetuating Inertia in Australian Agriculture,
University of Sydney, Australia.
88
Appendix 1. Farm by-products used by small-scale farmers.
By-products used X of districts in which
by-products were used
Crushed maize grain (rejects) 88.8
Green maize stalk 83.3
Potato vines 77.8
Maize stover 72.2
Brewers waste (Machicha) 66.7
Banana stems and leaves 61.1
Vegetable waste 55.6
Bean and soyabean hulls 50.0
Sunflower heads and seeds 50.0
Sugarcane tops 22.2
Pineapple waste 16.7
Sisal-leaf waste 11.1
Cowpea waste 11.1
Pigeon pea waste 11.1
Coconut cake 5.6
Coffee husks 5.5
Cotton-seed cake 5.5
Simsim cake 5.5
Cassava peels 5.6
Millet stover 5.5
Chick pea 5.5
Source: Goldson (1977)
89
Addenpix 2: Apmini * t rat 1 va piatrict qounparies oj Kany
 
^ diliiilai whara Nadtar grasa revtaw
ramiun tourap Tarmi anp hatp
ptacuaatona with j armor * anp extenaion atajj
90
EXPERIENCE IN THE UTILISATION OF FORAGES AND AGRO BY-PRODUCTS AS
INTERVENTIONS IN SMALLHOLDER LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
L.P. Nkhonjera
Department of Animal Health & Industry,
P. 0. Box 30372,
Capital City, Lilongwe 3, Malawi.
ABSTRACT
Means were calculated on the weight gains of Malawi zebu steers
stall-fed for beef. These steers were fattened using groundnut
haulms, maize stover and maize bran. The mean stall-feeding
period in Lilongwe Agricultural Development Division was 135 days
and the average total weight gain was 62.1 kg. Steers in the
Kasungu Agricultural Development Division were fed for 150 days
and gained 92.6 kg. In each case gain was seen to be influenced
by period of feeding and quality of feed though there was no
statistical analysis of the data.
The means for lactation length and lactation yields were
determined by simple division for the dairy cows in the Blantyre
and Mzuzu Milk Shed Areas. The average lactation length was 313
days and 2288.6 kg. as the average lactation yield. Lactation
length was seen to increase with breed. Milk yields were
substantially increasing with breed and decreased with the 7/8
crossbreed.
It was found that besides this level of performance adoption
of technology by farmers was affected by unqualified extension
services, high cost of inputs and low product prices which were
not reviewed at frequent intervals. Increased economic security,
high social status within the farmers and increased employment
opportunities were singled as obvious impacts of dairy farming
which are managed based on research recommendations.
INTRODUCTION
The Republic of Malawi is a landlocked country. It lies south of
the Equator between latitudes 9° 30'S and 17°S and longitudes
91
33 E and 36 E. The climate is subtropical. Rainfall is unimodal
occurring between November and April. The rainy season is
followed by a long dry season from May to October. The average
annual rainfall ranges from 750 mm in the drier parts of the
country to 1000 mm in the wetter parts.
The total land area is 119,140 sq. km, 20 percent of which
is under water in the form of lakes. The total population is 7.5
million (1987 population census).
The country has a basically agricultural economy. The
largest proportion of foreign exchange is earned from the
agricultural industry. It is estimated that over 85 percent of
the population live in the rural areas and depend on small-scale
agricultural production. Average size of holdings varies from
region to region and is 1.72,' 1.81 and 1.96 ha in the South,
central and North regions respectively. The cattle population is
estimated at 838,471 (Dep. of Animal Health and Industry,
unpubl ished) .
The following economic key indicators confirm the important
role of the agricultural industry to the economy of the country
(Econ. and Planning Dir., 1987).
1. Agricultural contribution to GDP - 38X
2. Labour force in Agriculture - 85X
3. Agriculture contribution to foreign exchange - 30X
4. Livestock contribution to the overall
agricultural GDP - 8%
The Agricultural sector in Malawi is divided into two
divisions. The smallholder (subsistence) sector grows crops
maize, rice, beans, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, and
pulses and keeps over 95 percent of the livestock. The estate or
commercial sector grows tea, tobacco, tung, coffee and sugar. In
both sectors there is adequate production of crop residues and
other agricultural by-products.
92
THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
This paper outlines the practical experiences in the utilisation
of forages and by-products in the two popular livestock
production systems of dairy and beef stall-fattening. It also
discusses the potentials of forages and crop by-products as
alternative forms of profitable land use through animal
production.
Stall feeding
The beef cattle fattening programme started in 1957. It has
since met with considerable success and has gained acceptance by
smallholder farmers in most parts of the country. The purpose of
the scheme is to produce top grade beef for the domestic market
with consequent sparing of foreign exchange. Additionally the
financial benefits that accrue to the farmer enables him to
purchase inputs to intensify crop production. An additional
benefit is in the production of manure which plays an important
role in the maintenance of soil fertility and hence increases
crop yields. The management system is based on resource
available to the farmer and fattening is mostly done soon after
crop harvest.
Dai rying
Rural dairying as a sideline of traditional and extensive cattle
keeping has been practiced in Malawi for a long time. Real
dairying originated with estate crop farmers before independence
in 1964. These farmers kept mainly Jersey, Ayrshire and Friesian
Cattle. Milk produced was used at the estates and in nearby
communities. Smallholder dairying is now a little over 1.5
decades old from the time it was initiated by the Food and
Agricultural Organisation (FAO/UNDP) in 1971. At the moment
there are 1156 smallholder farms established. The management
system is based on the cultivated forage crops of Napier grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) and in some cases complemented with Rhodes
93
grass (Chl or is gayana) while for concentrate feeds these are
procured from commercial feed companies that use ingredients of
agro- industrial by-products, and to some extent, locally mixed
rations from maize bran, cottonseed cake or dried Leucaena- leaf
meal .
This paper focusses the discussions on stall-feeding in the
Central Region where maximum use is made of crop residues of
groundnut haulms, maize stover and maize bran and the smallholder
dairy farming in the Blantyre and Mzuzu Milk shed Areas where
Napier grass is a cultivated fodder crop and very localised use
is made of crop residues due to the limited crop production
activities in the areas.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
The programme of beef cattle fattening commonly known as stall-
feeding and small-holder dairy farming exist in the four and five
of the 8 national Agricultural Development Divisions
respectively. For the purpose of this paper the following
criteria were used in choosing the source of data:
i) Information available on the feed resources utilised
ii) The feeding system which should exclusively be based on any
one of the two feed resources; forages with no crop residues
and the latter without the former
iii) Cows that completed one year lactation under the small
holder milk recording scheme
The data set used in this paper though small could be taken
to represent a complete set of all data that were recorded from
both the smallholder dairy and stall-feeding programmes.
Stal l - feeding
Records for individual steers fattened were built up for 1985,
1986 and 1987 from the Central Region of Malawi.
The data used are from a total of 3056 steers. Basic
information for each steer included issue weight and cold dressed
94
weight and total output weight was found by dividing the cold
dressed weight with a dressing percentage of 52 (Nkhonjera et al,
1984). The difference between this weight and the issue weight
was divided by the number of steers to arrive at the average
weight gain. The average gross income was the difference between
total output value and total issue value divided by the number of
steers.
Dairying
In the data set for dairy farming, average lactation length and
average milk yields were derived by simple division of the totals
of lactation days and milk yields by the number of animals in
each breed group. All the data was extracted from the records
kept under the milk recording scheme.
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
An extract from "smal l -holder dairy farming handbook in Malawi"
on feeding a heifer in her first lactation is used to illustrate
feeding standards in both the wet and dry seasons. These
standards are:
1. Wet Season
a) Young leafy grass from either Napier or Rhodes grass
b) Maize bran with some leucaena or groundnut cake or
cotton-seed cake.
2. Dry Season
a) Grass hay and/or silage
b) Groundnut haulms or sweet potato vines
c) maize bran with some leucaena or groundnut cake or
cotton-seed cake
In each case levels of combination were to be decided upon
based on the weight of the heifer cow, animal production record
and nutritive value (in terms of dry matter, digestible crude
protein and total digestible nutrients) of the ingredients.
95
The stall-feeding programme had the following as minimum
recommended package,
i) 1200 of maize bran (Madeya) for two steers
ii) A heap of groundnut haulms with volumetric dimensions of 5 x
4x2 metres
Hi) Initial liveweight of 227 kg and two permanent teeth and 250
kg liveweight for Malawi Zebu and Crossbred, steers (Mz x Fr
or Mz x Br) respectively.
MANAGEMENT
Stal l-f eeding
Two steers issued to a farmer in a group of 5 farmers were dosed
against internal parasites before putting them in stall. Whilst
in stalls steers were given crop residues of groundnut haulms,
maize stover and maize bran on ad lib basis. Water was available
at all times.
Dairy farming
A minimum area of 0.8 ha per a two-cow unit was required. Each
farmer established a pure stand of Napier and in a few cases a
pure stand of leucaena.
Very occasionally, mixed stands of Napier grass and silver
leaf (Desmodium uncinatum) could be seen. In the drier areas,
Rhodes grass (Chl or is gayana) was cultivated. Using the "cut and
carry" system, cattle were stall-fed on ad l ib basis. During the
dry season liberal amounts of hay and silage were fed in the
drier and wetter areas respectively. An alternate system of
feeding concentrates with maize bran as a production ration was
common as dictated by the supply of the concentrate feeds. All
cows were kept in stalls as a means of conserving energy, for
easy detection of heat and to avoid contact with local Malawi
zebu bulls. Cows within easy reach of dip tanks were dipped
while spraying was common in areas without dip tanks. Deworming
was done twice a year before and after the rains.
96
After parturition calves stayed with their dams for 5 days
after which they were separated. Hand milking started on the
fifth day. The calf is from this time on allowed to suckle for
30 minutes twice a day after each milking. These calves were
weaned at 12 to 15 weeks old. Each cow as she calved down was
immediately entered in the recording scheme. The farmer kept
records on; daily production, date served, veterinary treatment
received and remark column in which he was expected to report
amount of concentrate feed given, mortality and calvings.
RESULTS
Stal l-feeding
Means of weight and days in stall are given in Table 1. Since no
statistical analysis was done it was not possible to qualify the
differences in the weight gains by years and Agricultural
Development Division statistically. However in the Lilongwe
Agricultural Development Division (LADD) average weight gains
were lower than those in Kasungu Agricultural Development
Division (KADD).
Average gross income was higher in Lilongwe ADD and lower in
Kasungu ADD as shown in Table 2.
Dairy farming
Milk production parameters considered in this paper were
lactation length and total milk yields. Averages of total
lactation length and lactation yields are shown in Table 3.
Average financial returns are also shown in Table 3.
The average lactation yields were 2053, 2511 and 2302 kg.
For 1/2, 3/4 and 7/8th Friesian Crossbred cows. The trend was
that the higher the Friesian blood level the higher the milk
yields. When corrected to 305 lactation days yields were 2159,
2479 and 2059 kg for 1/2, 3/4 and 7/8 Friesians respectively.
Lactation length was longer with the 7/8 Friesian and
shortest for the 1/2 Friesian cows. However yields were the
lowest in case of the former.
97
Table 1. Performance of cattle fattened on crop residue and maize
bran in the Central Region.
ADD Year Issue
wt.(kg)
Total calculated
Total Av. Days
Output wt.gain in
wt.(kg) stall
LADD 1069 1985 123258 194132.7 66.3 135
767 1986 200954 239327 50.03 135
780 1987 101123 155567 69.9 135
KADD 227 1986 62768.8 86097.3 102.7 156
213 1987 55930.0 73505.46 82.5 150
Table 2. Gross farm income from fattening steers in the central
region.
ADD N Year Total issue Total output Average
Value
(MIC)1
Value Gross
(MK) Income (MK)
LADD 1069 1985 66516.77 145975.54 74.33
767 1986 113973.83 162325.51 63.04
780 1987 47988.77 142483.97 118.84
KADD 277 1986 42020.68 56410.96 63.39
213 1987 52022.32 64978.85 60.82
MK = malawi Kwacha (1 USS = 2.38 MK, average 1985, 1986)
Average prices of cold dressed carcasses were:
1985
1986
1987
MK1.12 (US $0.50)
MK1.26 (US SO. 50
MK1.70 (US SO. 68)
98
Table 3. Average lactation length milk yields and gross income
for dairy cows in the Blantyre and Mzuzu milk shed
areas.
Breed No. At lactation Milk Gross
length yields income per
litres cow (K)
1/2 fresian 18 290
3/4 fresian 24 309
7/8 fresian 11 341
2052.95 821.18
2511.07 1004.43
2301.9 920.76
Table 4. Total land size under Napier rhodes grass and leucaena
and herd size in the Blantyre and Mzuzu shed areas.
No. of cows Napier Land size (ha) Leucaena
Rhodes
2013 499.9 80.57 47.05
Average pasture land per cow: 0.31 ha
DISCUSSION
Steers in Kasungu Agricultural Development Division stayed in
stalls longer than the ones in Lilongwe Agricultural Development
Division. The recommendation is that steers have to stay in
stall for a minimum period of 150 days. By this time they will
have gained an average of 90 kg. However, Addy and Thomas (1975)
indicated that steers finished on fertilized Rhodes grass and
supplemented with 5 kg of maize bran stayed in stalls 130 days
and gained an average of 115.7 kg. In the results above the low
weight gains were attributed to two main reasons. In Lilongwe
ADDs farmers quite often ran short of feed and therefore steers
were removed before completing the recommended period. The
second reason is that due to inadequate feed supply which very
99
likely led to low feed intake the steers showed low weight
changes even if they stayed in stalls for 150 days.
It is recommended that two steers would require 1200 kg of
maize bran throughout the fattening period. Using the factor of
15 percent as maize bran from pounded maize grain, ideally there
should be about 88, 90 kg bags of maize within the locality.
Nowadays maize production levels are so dubious that it is very
unlikely to get more maize bran. Worse still, maize bran has
many alternative uses these days.
The price of cold dressed carcases depended on grade and
weight. Regardless of higher weight gains in Kasungu ADD it is
likely that the majority of the steers fetched the lower grade of
standard. In addition Lilongwe ADD farmers stayed longer in the
stall-feeding programme. They had therefore long experience to
be able to judiciously assess a finished steer.
The dairy data used are from areas with rainfall above 750
mm per annum. This is favourable for intensive cultivation of
pasture. Consequently due to the rapid growth potential,
pastures are in plentiful supply although there is limited land
under pasture. Although the sample is too small, the average
milk yields of 2289 kg is 4X higher than 2188 kg which was
reported by Agyemang and Nkhonjera (1986). Research recommended
that as Friesian blood level increases in a continuous upgrading
programme the resultant cows should be fed balanced rations.
Most of these farmers were feeding either concentrates from
commercial companies or these were diluted with maize bran.
Feeding was according to the production record of 1 kg of feed
for every 2 kg of milk. However, the 7/8 Friesian cows could
have not adequately been fed and probably that is why their milk
yields were low.
Besides the research recommendations on Napier fodders and
pasture grasses to be established, farmers established both
species regardless of the ecology of the area. The result was
that where these grasses were grown alongside each other, Rhodes
grass could not be conserved as hay in wet areas. Farmers
therefore opted to graze the grass, a management system requiring
100
heavy fertilizer application to the pasture. Most farmers could
not manage this. The grass therefore, became unacceptable to the
majority of farmers. Seed multiplication plots were also not set
up to enable expansion of pasture plots. An additional factor is
the cost of legume seeds which is prohibitively high.
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS TO USERS BY EXTENSION AGENTS
Quality of extension service was affected by: the lack of
effective leadership which is due to background training and lack
of motivation. A further limitation to adoption of technologies
such as silage making is the labour requirement in the absence of
mechanical facilities like choppers and compacting materials.
An integrated approach in planning crop and livestock
production does not exist. The consequence has been inadequate
feeds for livestock.
In the past, areas of research have been decided upon by
ministerial policy making body. This body has also reviewed
research findings to examine their relevance to the programmes
being promoted. However, the services of this body disappeared
and the result has been that a lot of research results have not
been passed onto users. Nevertheless field days have been
organised by both research and extension. In the former feedback
had been expected from extension agents the majority of whom had
poor background training. While the latter has used it as a
means to transfer technology to the producers. All farmers
training centres have established relevant demonstration units to
be used when conducting demonstrations classes on specific animal
production disciplines. In addition to meeting certain
standards, farmers who have intended to establish dairy farms
have undergone a two-week training course in dairy husbandry
including feed conservation. Stronger farmer group organisations
have been involved in order to participate in the development of
the dairy industry. Their functions are three fold; as a medium
for supply of inputs, to provide a forum for extension services
and to initiate self help programmes necessary for the
development of the industry.
101
Publications, handouts, other leaflets and the mass media
have been used to disseminate information.
INPUTS SUPPLY
Land holding sizes are becoming smaller and as population
increases farmers are finding it difficult to spare adequate land
for the number of cows. An alternative solution could be to
adopt a mixed pasture establishment under intensive management.
This again is restricted to areas of at least 1000 mm of
rainfall. Cost of legume seeds is also seen as an inhibiting
element .
PRICES
Farmers in both programmes have been sensitive to any lag in
price reviews. There has often been a decrease in participation
in stall-feeding. It is clear that (Table 2) besides other
factors the prices directly affected farm income. In dairy, milk
had found alternative markets which was a demonstration against
the low prices. Management of pastures and feed conservation has
been lagging behind. Farmers could not afford high prices of
fertilizers and some equipments.
Impact of utilisation of research results
Besides the shortfalls highlighted and with the recently
instituted price liberalisation scheme economic benefits are
being realised by the majority of farmers (Tables 2 and 3).
Dairy farming has become one of the most prominent source of
rural income. The economic advantages range from monthly flow of
income which offers economic security to the cutting down of the
dependency on inorganic fertilizers. Social status is above
average in most of the dairy areas. Nutrition has improved in
most families due to household consumption of milk. The farmers
organisations offer employment opportunities and provide social
services to the public. In general, there is a better economic
atmosphere.
102
CONCLUSION
The increase in livestock productivity is inhibited by a number
of factors; inadequate land, unqualified extension services and
high costs of some inputs. It is necessary that feed resources
research work should pay attention to some work in trying to come
up with low cost inputs. This will enable adoption of
technologies that could be most acceptable in the existing
economic climate. Interaction between extension and research is
of poor quality because the farmer is manned by personnel with
inadequate background training. Above all, frequent price
reviews are necessary if the farmers are not to lag in their
management systems.
REFERENCES
Agyemang, K. and Nkhonjera, L.P. 1986. Evaluation of the
productivity of crossbred da i ry cattle on smal lholder and
Government farms in the Republ ic of Malawi . ILCA Research
Report No. 12. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Economic and Planning Division, Office of the President and
Cabinet, Government of Malawi, 1987. An economic report.
Econ. Plan. Div., Government Printer, Zomba, Malawi.
Addy, B.L. and Thomas, D. 1975. Beef fattening systems from
Rhodes grass pastures. Research Bulletin No. 3/75.
Extension Aids Branch, Ministry of Agric. Lilongwe.
Nkhonjera, L.P., Agyemang, K. and Butterworth, M.H. 1987. The
performance of stall-fed for cattle for beef in Malawi.
Tropical Agriculture 54(2): 105-110.
103
FORAGE AND CROP BY-PRODUCT UTILISATION: PRELIMINARY RESULTS ON
FARMERS' ADOPTION WITH LACTATING DAIRY COWS
Kassim M. Biwi
Livestock Development,
P. 0. Box 159, Zanzibar.
ABSTRACT
Forage and crop by-products were utilised to feed lactacting
dairy cows in a crop- livestock integration package. Fourteen
smallholder farmers owning 3-5 hectares of land and practising
crop livestock integration with dairy cattle were monitored in
Unguja and Pemba to see how well the technological package was
adopted.
A forage mixture of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
Guatemala grass (Tripsicum laxum). gliricidia ( G l i r i c i d i a
maculate) or leucaena, (Leucaena leucocephala) and banana
pseudo-stems and leaves fed to lactating cows influenced milk
yield to indicate a reasonable good adoption of the feeding
practice by smallholders.
Number of insemination per conception were 2 and 3.4 and
calving intervals were 13.1 months and 14.3 months for Unguja and
Pemba respectively. Adoption in Pemba was slower compared to
Unguja inspite of breed differences of the cattle used.
Occurrence of East Coast Fever was more frequent in Pemba
and this indicated low adoption rate in the use of acaricides for
spraying.
It is expected that intensifying extension and credit
facilities will increase rate of adoption as these appear to be
the main constraints.
INTRODUCTION
Landmass area of Zanzibar is only 2332 km with a human
population of nearly 0.5 million people and growing at a rate of
104
2.7X per year (Dept. of statistics, 1984). Crop- l i vestock
integration has been advocated as a means of efficiently
utilising land in the cropping areas. On station research
carried out by FAO in Zanzibar between 1980 - 1985 indicated that
a farm family could thrive on 3 - 5 hectares of land if crop-
livestock integration is fully practised where dairy cattle and
few poultry birds are kept and crops and forages such as bananas,
sweet potatoes, cassava, elephant grass, guatemala grass,
gliricidia, leucaena and kudzu (Pureraria phaseoloides) are
grown. Forages and crop by-products fed to dairy cattle
tremendously increased revenues (Pedersen e_t al., 1984). Since
early 1987, a crop- l ivestock integrated technological package is
being disseminated to livestock keepers in the country.
This paper discusses preliminary results of production
parameters as adopted by farmers and the constraints encountered
during the process of adoption of the technological package.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selected Farmers
Fourteen farmers were selected within the two islands of Unguja
and Pemba. These farmers were given alphabetical identification
letters from A to N. Together they had a total of 21 milking
cows most of which were in their first lactation. The choice of
the farmers was limited by the rate at which monitoring could be
conducted on their farms, and also by the fact that during the
time of selection in early 1987, there was not as yet wide
participation by farmers. Selection was also based on the
willingness of the farmers to be monitored constantly and those
who agreed to grow forages and food crops, and to provide zero -
grazing management.
Cattle Used
In Unguja Island the type of breed used by the farmers was mainly
Jersey. In Pemba island a composite breed made up of Sahiwal,
Ayrshire and Brown Swiss originating from Wilson's farm at
Kilifi, Mombasa, Kenya was used. In Unguja the emphasis is on
105
milk production, while in Pemba the emphasis is on a dual purpose
animal for milk and meat.
Roughage Used
Forages grown were elephant grass, Pennisetum purpureum var Gold
Coast and guatemala grass, Tripscum laxum. Legumes included
Leucaena Leucocephala. G l i r i c i d i a maculata and Tropical Kudzu,
Pueraria phaseoloiders. Banana stems and leaves were the crop
by-products mostly used. These were all cut and fed to the
animals individually in their stalls. Nutritional values of some
of these forages is still being assessed.
Concentrate
A home made concentrate consisting of one part coconut cake to
three parts rice bran with some molasses and maclik supper, a
Wellcome Kenya Ltd mineral mixture, was provided to milking cows.
Supplementation was based on milk yield, one kilogram concentrate
for each 2 kg of milk after the first 4 kg. This mixture was
preferred because it was cheaper at TShs.125/- per SO kg compared
to TShs.500/= per kg for cattle feed manufactured by state owned
feed mi l l .
Technological Package
During the monitoring the technological package emphasized to the
farmers consisted of:
i) Record keeping
ii) Feeding practices
Hi) Forage and food crop maintenance
iv) Regular spraying (Disease survillance)
Parameters observed as a measure of adoption of
technological package included the following:
i) Actual milk yield and fat-corrected milk
ii) Number of inseminations per conception
106
iii) Calving intervals
iv) occurrence (No. of times).
Adoption rate of technological package was considered low,
medium and high as follows:-
i ) For mi lk yields
Mean yield below 1500 kg /Cow/lactation - low
Mean yield between 1500-2500 kg /Cow/lactation - medium
Mean yield above 2500 kg /Cow/lactation - high
ii) For number of inseminations per conception: -
3.5-4 and above inseminations - low
2 - 3.5 insemination - medium
1 insemination - high
iii) Calving intervals
above 15 months - low
13 - 15 months - medium
12 - months - high
iv) Disease occurrence
above 50X - low
25X - 50X - medium
below 25X - high
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Milk yield
Table 1 shows actual milk yield and fat-corrected milk yield
attained by farmers in Unguja island, while Table 3 shows actual
milk yield attained by farmers in Pemba island.
Arithmetic means for actual milk yield and yield of fat-
corrected milk for Unguja were 1940 kg /Cow/lactation and 2165 kg
/Cow/lactation respectively. The mean fat-corrected milk yield
found was similar to that reported by Hamad (1986). Hamad (1986)
found that milk yield in the first lactation in a large Jersey
dairy farm in Unguja was 2035.7 kg. Yield attained by the
107
smallholders monitored in this study compares favourably with
this finding.
The rate of adopting practices pertaining to milk production
was found to be in the medium range with 1940 kg /Cow/lactation
and 2165 kg /Cow/lactation for actual and fat-corrected milk
respectively. Mean actual milk yield for Pemba 1612 kg
/Cow/lactation was slightly lower compared to Unguja yield. The
adoption rate was found to be in the medium range.
Table 1: Actual and fat corrected milk yields per lactation
(Unguja).
Owner Cow No/Name Breed Actual milk Fat content Fat-corrected
yield (kg) (g/100 g) (kg)
A 1964 1
.1
1847 3.40 1681
Mabaka ,
.2
1690 5.50 2070
B Bimkubwa . 2456 4.26 2552
C 932 1325 4.51 1426
D 10 1 2527 3.40 2291
9 1 2407 3.30 2154
Mweusi I x3 1670 3.50 1545
E 933 2067 6.50 2842
12 2240 5.96 2899
F 975 2210 6.20 2939
G 919 1737 5.89 2229
979 1103 5.53 1356
Mean (X) 1940 2165
1. F = Friesian
2. J = Jersey
3. FX = Friesian Cross
108
Number of Inseminations per conception
Tables 2 and 3 show the number of inseminations per conception
for Unguja and Pemba respectively. The mean insemination per
conception in Unguja was 2 and 3.4 for Pemba. In both
situations, adoption was in the medium range. In Pemba there was
some difficulties experienced by the owners to detect heat.
Probably this explains the higher number of inseminations
compared to Unguja.
Calving Interval
Tables 2 and 3 also show calving intervals for Unguja and Pemba
respectively. The calving intervals found were 13.1 months and
14.3 months for Unguja and Pemba respectively. These findings
were in the medium range of adoption. At Kilifi, Trail and
Gregory (1981) reported calving interval of 13.1 months (394
days) within the Sahiwal crosses. The calving interval found
within the small holdings in Pemba is higher compared to that
reported at Kilifi. This again probably reflects the difficulty
experienced in heat detection in Pemba and also how effective the
adoption rate in observing heat symptoms was embraced by the
smal lholder.
Occurrence
East Coast Fever (E.C.F.) is one of the major cattle diseases in
Zanzibar. Tables 2 and 3 show the number of times ECF and
Mastitis occurred in Unguja and Pemba. Pemba showed a very high
occurrence of ECF at 70 per cent compared to Unguja 25 percent.
This means that there was a low rate of adoption as regards to
ECF surveillance practices in Pemba, whereas in Unguja adoption
was within the medium range. In both islands smallholders were
required to hand spray their animals twice a week, but it was
found that most of the farmers in Pemba did so irregularly.
Survel lance of mastitis was equally adopted in Pemba and
Unguja reported more cases. This was attributed to poor milking
hygiene specifically exibited by one smallholder in Unguja.
109
Constraints observed
Crop- l i vestock integration is a new technology to smallholders in
Zanzibar. Farmers are used to having separate areas for crops;
and cattle are tethered on open land or fallow land. Zero
grazing coupled with pastures and forage growing and utilisation
of crop residues are all new innovations. Constraints during
adoption were therefore observed and these included:
i) Financial constraints
ii) Socio-economic constraints
iii) Low perception
The major constraints observed was financial. The crop-
livestock integration package entails high investment. Cattle
shed, animals and drugs are all expensive and beyond the reach of
smallholders. To overcome this constraint, a credit scheme has
now been initiated. This entails low interest 2.5 - 3X and a
grace period of twelve months before loan repayment commences.
During monitoring it was difficult to find some of the
farmers particularly in the morning. Some smallholders were
found to have other jobs to maintain their families especially
during the early stages of adoption when no income was being
generated.
Most of the smallholders monitored had low standard of
education. They are simply peasant farmers. Their perception
was found to be low and took time. This indicated that more
frequent visits by extension staff were required, but adequate
transport and sometimes motor fuel shortage problems hampered the
exercise.
110
Table 2: Number of inseminations/conception, calving intervals
and disease occurrences (Unguja).
Owner Cow No/Name Breed No. of Inse. Calving Times
Treated
mi mat ion/ Intervals
Concet. Nos. (Months) ECF Mastitis
B
C
D
E
E
F
G
1964 1! 3 (0)
Mabaka ,1 1 (P)
Bimkubwa .1 1 (P)
932 1 3 (0)
10 1' 3 (P)
9 1s 3 (P)
Mweusi 1 :X 1 (P)
933 1 1 CP>
12 1 3 (0)
975 1 1 (P>
919 1 1 (A)
979 1 3 (P)
12
12
15
15
12
12
12
15
1 1
1
1 3
Mean (X) 13.1 0.25 0.5
F Friesian
FX = Friesian cross
(0) = Open
(P> = Pregnant
111
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112
CONCLUSION
Crop livestock integration appears to be a viable enterprise in
Zanzibar. Reasonable milk yield have been obtained using forage
and crop residues by smallholders in both Unguja and Pemba.
Efforts to improve extension and facilitate a credit scheme will
most likely improve adoption and income of the farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to all my staff who have helped in one way or
another in supplying some information pertaining to this paper.
REFERENCES
Department of Statistics 1984. Statistical abstract. Department
of Statistics President's office. Permanent Planning
Commission, Zanzibar.
Hamad, S.A. 1986. Genetic and environmental factors affecting
lactation milk and fat yield of a Dairy Herd in Zanzibar.
MSc. Thesis. West Virginia University, U.S.A.
Pedersen, C.H. Lund, P., Ali, R. and Vohra, D. 1984. Financial
report on second year's operation of two integrated crop-
husbandry demonstration units, FAO report. Document No. 2.
Zanzibar.
Trail, J. CM. and Gregory, K.E. 1981. Sahiwal Cattle:- An
evaluation of their potential contribution to milk and beef
production in Africa. ILCA Publication.
113
A REVIEW OF FORAGE PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION IN NIGERIAN SAVANNA
0.S. On i fade and E.C. Agishi
Forage and Crop Residue Research Programme
National Animal Production Research Institute
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
The low level of animal production from the savanna zones of
Nigeria is generally associated with the inability of the stock
especially in the dry season. Various forage species have been
evaluated and recommended for inclusion in these zones to
increase animal output. This paper examines the productivity
of these legumes and grasses with respect to establishment and
management under different production systems.
The extension of this research information to farmers is
discussed. The role of the government is assessed and
suggestions offered to improve the utilisation of these
research results by farmers.
INTRODUCTION
Nigeria lies approximately between latitudes 4 and 13 and
longitudes 3 and HE. It has an area of about 94 million
hectares 75% of which is savanna. The savanna extends from
latitudes 6 to 13 N. The savanna can be divided into
Sahel/Sudan Savanna and Guinea Savanna zones, corresponding to
annual rainfall of ,<300 - 800 and 800 - 1500 mm respectively.
Most of the estimated 12.5 m cattle, 12.8 m sheep and 26 m
goats in Nigeria are principally under extensive system. Forage
availability is an important nutritional factor. During the
wet season which lasts between 3 to 8 months, there is adequate
forage of good quality for ruminants; but during the dry
season, the range does not meet the feed requirements of these
ruminants both in terms of quantity and quality. During this
period, the range grazing has to be supplemented by the
114
utilisation of legume pastures, browse plants, conserved
fodder, crop residues and food processing by-products.
The use of highly productive good quality pasture grasses
and legumes has given increased productivity in these animals
in Nigeria (Agishi, 1971; de Leeuw and Agishi, 1978). Research
into both indigenous and exotic forage species has been going
on in Nigeria, particularly in the savanna zones, since 1950s.
The productivity, utilisation by livestock and extension of
these forage species to farmers is the subject of this paper.
FORAGE SPECIES EVALUATION
Introduction of pasture species into Nigeria started in the
1950s. Table 1 is the summary of the species found to be
adapted, and recommended for production on large scale in the
Nigerian Savanna (Agishi, 1979). The criteria used for their
evaluation were based on ease of establishment, high dry matter
yield, nutritive value, persistence, good seed yield and their
suitability for conservation as hay or silage. (Foster and
Mundy, 1961; Miller and Blair-Rains, 1963; Miller et ai, 1964;
Haggar et ai, 1971 and de Leeuw, 1974). Presently, the most
frequently cultivated forage species are gamba, Rhodes grass,
Digitaria, Signal grass, giant star grass, stylo, verano,
centrosema, lablab and Leucaena.
Table 1. Recommended forage species for the different
vegetation zones in Nigeria.
Vegetable Zones
Species Common Names SDS DS/SGS NGS SS
A. Grasses
Andropogon gayanus Northern gamba X XXX
Andropogon tectorum Southern gamba X X
Brachiaria decumbens Signal grass X XX
Cenchrus c i l i a r i s Buffel grass X XXX
Chi or is gayanus Rhodes grass X X
Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass XXX
115
Cynodon plectostachyus Giant star grass XXX
D i g i t a r i a decumbens Pangola grass
D i g i t a r i a smuts i i Wooly finger grass X X
Hyparrhenia ruf a Jaragwa grass XXX
M i l i n i s minutif lora Molasses grass XXX
Panicum maximum Guinea grass XXX
P. maximum cv. gatton Gatton panic XXX
P. maximum var .
trichoglume Green panic XXX
Pennisetum clandestinum Kikuyu grass X
P. pedicel latum Kyasuwa X
P. purpureum Elephant grass XXX
P. typhoides cv. Maiwa Maiwa millet XX
Setaria anceps Setaria X X
Sorghum a l mum Columbus grass X X
Tripsacum laxum Guatemala grass XXX X
B. Legumes
Ca ianus ca ian Pigeon pea X X X X X
Centrosema pubescens Common centro XXX
Desmodium intortum Greenleaf desmodium XX X
D. scorpiurus Samoan clover X X
G l i r i c i d i a sepium Almond blossom XXX
Lablab purpureus Lablab, Hyacinth
bean X X X X
Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena XXX
Macropt i l ium
atropurpureum Siratro XXX
Macrotyloma axi l l a re Axillaris X X
M. uni f lorum Horsegram bean XXX
Neonotonia wighti i Glycine XX X
Pueraria phaseoloides Puero (kudzu) XXX
Stylosanthes guianensis
cv. Schofield Schofield stylo X X X X
S. guinensis cv. Cook Cook stylo XXX
S. hamata cv. Verano Verano stylo XXX
S. humi l is Townsville stylo XXX
SDS » South of Derived Savanna NGS = Northern Guinea Savanna
DS = Derived Savana SS = Sudan Savanna
SGS = Southern Guinea Savanna M = Montane
116
FORAGE PRODUCTION
Seedbed preparation for sown pastures normally requires land
clearing, disc ploughing and harrowing. Forage species can
also be oversown in cultivated strips in burnt rangeland
(Haggar e_t aj., 1971; Perrier, 1982) or undersown in cereal
crops (Blair Rains, 1963; Saleem et al r 1986). Broadcasting
method of sowing has been found to be superior to drilling for
such legumes as centro, desmodium, siratro, stylo sown in
mixture with signal grass (Akinola, 1981) and Rhodes grass
(Onifade and Akinola 1986).
The mean dry-matter yields of grasses, legumes and their
mixtures grown under rainfed conditions are summarized in Table
2. It can be seen that on average, grasses produced higher dry
matter yields than legumes. Yields of grass/legumes mixtures
are higher than those of legumes alone but were within the same
range as sole grasses. From the various results obtained, it
was quite clear that nitrogen and phosphorus were the main
factors for grass and legume dry-matter yields respectively.
Phosphorus tended to depress grass dry-matter yield while
nitrogen had the same effect on legumes (Fayemi et. aj., 1970;
Haggar, 1971 andAgishi, 1982).
Dry-matter yields obtained in grass pasture under rain-fed
conditions were generally lower than those from both the
fertilized and unfertilized irrigated grass pastures (Agishi,
1984 and Ariba, 1987). These yields were in the range 5-20 t
DM/ha.
UTILISATION BY LIVESTOCK
Trials at Fashola (Adegbola and Onayinka, 1968) during the wet
season showed that higher liveweight gains (LWG) (184-187
kg/ha/yr) are possible from guinea grass/Centro than sole grass
pasture (82 kg/ha/yr). These and other results from (Table 4a)
are used in estimating the productivity of forages available in
the Nigerian Savanna. Dry season LWG are low except when
animals are supplemented or grazed on pure stylo pastures
117
(Haggar et al, 1971) for more than 37X of their grazing time.
However, Tuley (1968) observed that grazing stylo on 24 hourly
basis will eliminate the legume compared with only at daytime.
Table 2: Dry matter yields of pastures in Northern Guinea
Savanna of Nigeria (t/has)
Types of pasture Species Common Name D.M.(t/ha)
Grass (sole) Andropogon gayanus Gamba 7-10
Brachiaria decumben Signal grass 10-16
Cenchrus ci l iaris Buffel grass 8-15
Chloris gayana Rhodes grass 7-12
Cynodon plectostachyus Giant star grass 5-8
Digi taria smuts i i Woolly finger grass 5-8
Pan i cum maximum Guinea grass 8-14
P. maximum var.
trichoglume Green panic 6-11
Legumes (Sole) Centrosema pubescens Common centro 2-3
Lablab purpureus Lablab (a) 5-9
Stylosanthes guianensis
cv cook Cook stylo 7-11
S. guianensis cv
Schofield Schofi led stylo 7-11
S. hamata cv Verano Verano stylo 4-7
(Caribbean stylo)
S. humi lis Townsville stylo (a)3-6
Grass/ legume Gamba + stylo 9
mixtures Signal grass + Centro 10
Signal grass + Schofield stylo 14
Signal grass + Townsville stylo* 14
Rhodes grass + Schofield stylo 10
Rhodes grass + Centro 7
(a) = annual plant
* = Legume content low (10X)
118
Agishi (1979) reported a delay in the commencement of
weight loss from Verano stylo/buffel grass pastures compared
with grazing unimproved savanna. In addition, cotton-seed cake
supplementation was only necessary from late February at the
stocking rate of 1.1 heifers/ha. Okeagu et aj. (1985) reported
that cattle can be stocked on signal grass for 182 days and on
D i g i t a r i a smuts i i for 154 days in the wet season at 2.4
Tropical Livestock Units (TLU)/ha before they start to lose
weight.
Data on sheep grazing trials are lacking. In a
preliminary study of N-fertilizer on Rhodes grass, Onifade et
al (1986) reported a mean daily LWG of 12.6 g/ha at stocking
rate of 12 sheep/ha over a period of 168 days in the dry
season. Mean loss in weight (-5.9 g/ha) was recorded for sheep
at the highest stocking rate (36 sheep/ha) over the same
period.
A partial cost analysis showed that livestock production
on sown grass/legume mixtures is profitable (Tables 3a&b).
Similar findings were reported by de Leeuw and Agishi (1978)
from different grazing systems in the Nigerian savanna.
UTILISATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS BY FARMERS
The National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI),
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and some
Universities located in the savanna zones are primarily
responsible for research on forages. Information available
from research are made available in various forms viz.
journals, newsletters, guides, bulletins and posters (Yazidu,
1985). Other channels of reaching the extension workers and
farmers are through leaflets, slides, training courses, video
and films, radio, television, newspaper articles, open days,
conferences and seminars. All these channels are being used by
the National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison
Service (NAERLS), the overall institute responsible for the
linkage between research and extension in Nigeria. It also
liases with farmers and researchers.
119
Recently, NAPRI was also mandated to aid extension
activities in all aspects of livestock production. With the
existence of a Livestock Systems Research Programme (LSRP) and
the Livestock Research Extension Unit (LREU) at NAPRI, the
linkage between livestock farmers and researchers has been
further strengthened. On-farm adaptive research on forage
production is carried out by LSRP in the savanna zones. This
will also be expanded to other zones in the country. ILCA
carries out similar activities with pastoral ists in the sub-
humid zone and also within the savanna area of Nigeria. LREU
carries out similar functions with NAERLS but specifically for
the livestock industry. On the whole, personnel for extension
work are inadequate considering the huge number of farmers who
keep livestock. Yazidu (1985) reported that with the existing
institutions for training, the country's need for one extension
worker to 500 farmers may be met by the year 1990.
Farmers are usually assisted in procurement of inputs for
forage production. These inputs include, forage seed,
fertilizer, fencing materials, credit facilities/loans etc.
They are either made available directly by government
agencies such as the Nigerian Livestock Projects Unit or from
other sources. With respect to improved seed for sown
pastures, farmers are always encouraged to multiply the seed
available in the first growing season so that a greater area
could be sown the following season and the remaining seed can
be sold to other farmers. Presently, the demand for forage
seed is too high for NAPRI to cope with. This is because many
of the retired civil servants and members of armed forces who
have gone into livestock farming have been aware of the
benefits of improved forages for livestock production.
120
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121
Table 3b: Cost of pasture establishment
Annual costs
Cost items Total costs
(N/ha) (N/ha) (N/ha)
Bush clearing 200.00 20.00 20.00
Seedbed t i l l age 150.00 30.00 30.00
Seeds 180.00 36.00 36.00
Fert i l i zers 170.00 170.00 -
Ferti l i zers 60.00 - 60.00
Fencing (25 has) 196.00 150.00 15.00
Total 271.00 131.00
Note: Assuming N4 50/kg livewei ght is the farm- gate sel l ing
price for cattle, then a sustained production of 60.2 and
29.1 kg/ha are required to cover the annual costs of
grass and legume pasture respectively.
On smallholder level, the adoption of the fodder banks
technology has proved profitable to many farmers. Requests by
farmers for the establishment of improved forage legumes such
as lablab and forage cowpeas is on the increase.
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE UTILISATION OF
RESEARCH RESULTS TO FARMERS
(a) Construction of more access roads to the rural communities
(b) Allocation of more land specifically for forage production
(c) Training of more extension staff into subject matter
special ists
122
(d) Involvement of extension staff in the provision of inputs
and other forms of assistance to farmers.
(e) Provision of inputs promptly e.g. fertilizers and adequate
maintenance of equipment
(f) Contact between researchers, producers and extension staff
should be more regular
(g) Provision of more funds to aid in the extension of forage
production.
REFERENCES
Adegbola, A. A. and Onayinka, B.0. 1968. The management and
improvement of natural grasslands in Nigeria. Niger.
Agric. J . 5: 4-6
Agishi, E.C. 1971. Use of legumes for livestock production in
Nigeria. Samaru Agric. Newsl. 13: 115-119
Agishi, E.C. 1979. The performance of young heifers grazing
buffel grass - verano stylo pastures. Ann. Rep. NAPRI -
Shika pp 90-91
Agishi, E.C. 1982. verano stylo - a promising new pasture
legume for the Nigerian Savannas. Paper presented at the
National Conference on Beef Production in Nigeria held
in Kaduna, July 1982 Nigeria, Mimeo 19 PP
Agishi, E.C. 1984 - Field studies on seed production of
tropical grasses at Shika, Nigeria. Ph D thesis, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Akinola, J.0. 1981. Growth of signal grass (Brachiaria
decumbens) alone and with legumes in Northern Nigeria.
Trop. Grasslds 15: 130-134.
Ariba, 0.0. 1987. Effect of fertilizer nitrogen on the herbage
production of three pasture grasses supplementally
irrigated at Kaduna. Northern Nigeria. MSc. thesis,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Blair-Rains, A. 1963. Grassland Research in Northern Nigeria.
1952 - 62. Samaru Misc. paper No. 1 69 pp.
123
Fayemi, A. A., Odu, C.T.Ir and Fagbemi, A. 1970. Nutrient
requirement of tropical pasture legumes. I. influence of
soil type and N levels of the growth, nodulation and N
fixation of Centrosema pubescens and Stylosanthes
gracilis Nig. J^. Sic. 4: 311-318.
Foster, W.H. and Mundy, E.J. 1961. Forage species in Northern
Nigeria. Trop. Agric. (Trin). 38: 311-18.
Haggar, R.J. 1971. The production and management of
Stylosanthes graci l is at Shi lea. 1. In sown pastures. J .
Agric. Sci " 77: 427-36.
Haggar, R.J., de Leeuw, P.N. and Agishi, E. 1971. The
production of and management of Stylosanthes graci l is at
Shika, Nigeria. 2. In savanna grassland J.. Agric. Sci .
77, 437-447.
de Leeuw, P.N. 1974. The establishment of Stylosanthes humi l is
in Nigerian savanna. Paper presented at the 12 Int.
Grassl. Congr. held in Moscow, pp 839-850.
de Leeuw, P.N. and Brinckman, W.L. 1974. Pasture and rangeland
improvement in the Northern Guinea and Sudan zones of
Nigeria. In: J.K. Loosli, V.A. Oyenuga and B.M.
Babatunde. Animal Production in the Tropicsr pp 124-136.
Heinemann, Ibadan.
de Leeuw, P.N. and Agishi, E.C. 1978. A partial economic
analysis of grazing systems in the savanna zone. 8th
Livestock Conference, Samaru, Sept. 1978
de Leeuw, P.N. and Schilhorn, T.W. 1978. Performance of young
heifers of different dry season pastures. Ann. Rep.
NAPRI-Shikah-Mimeo.
Miller, T.B. and Blair Rains, A. 1963. The nutritive value
and economic aspects of some fodders in Northern Nigeria.
I. Fresh herbage. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18: 158-167
Miller, T., Blair-Rains, A.B. and Thorpe, R.J. 1964. The
nutritive value and agronomic aspects of some fodders in
Northern Nigeria. III. Hays and dried crop residues. J.
Br. Grassl. Soc., 19, 77-80.
Okeagu, M.U. 1981. Evaluation of nitrogen fertilized signal
grass (Brachiaria decumbens) pastures under cattle
grazing. M.Sc. Thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria.
124
Okeagu, M.U., Kallah, M.S., Ummuna, N.N. and Buvanendra, V.
1985. Productivity of grazed Brachiar ia decumbens and
D i g i t e r i a smuts i i pastures under different stocking
rates. Ann. Rep. NAPRI-Shika. pp 79-81.
Onifade, 0.S., Adu, I.F. and Akinola, J.0. 1986. Performance
of sheep grazing Rhodes grass (Chi or is gayana cv
Cal l ide)/stylo (S. guianensis cv Cook) pasture. NAPRI
Ann. Report. 1986. (NAPRI), Zaria, Nigeria.
Onifade, 0.S. and Akinola, J.O. 1986. Effect of seeding ratio
and sowing method on the production of Rhodes grass/stylo
swards in the Northern Guinea Savanna zone of Nigeria. J.
Anim. Prod. Res. 6: 29-37.
Perrier, G. 1982. Effect of ridging and harrowing with or
without seeding and fertilisation on forage production
and infiltration rates on range l and in Nigeria. A report
to LPU, Kaduna. 12 pp.
Mohamed Saleem, M.A., Otsyina, R. and van Kaufmann, R. 1986.
Some methods for improving fodder by incorporating forage
legumes in cereal cropping systems in the Nigerian
subhumid zone. In: I. Haque, S. Jutzi, S. Jutzi and
P.J.H. Neate (eds) proceedings of workshop on potentials
of forage legume in Farming Systems of Sub-Saharan
Africa. 16-19 Sept 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa. pp 363-378.
Tuley, P. 1982. Stylosanthes graci l lis. Herbage Abstract 38:
87-94.
Yazidu, I. 1985. Communicating with Nigerian farmers. Paper
presented at the Nigerian-Australia Seminar on
Collaborative Agricultural Research held in Shika,
Nigeria. Nov. 1983. pp 97-104.
125
PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF RESEARCH ON AGRICULTURAL BY-PRODUCTS
UTILISATION BY MODERN SMALL SCALE FARMERS IN THE SUDAN
T.A. Mohammed and B.I. Babiker
University of Khartoum, P. 0. Box 32,
Khartoum North, Sudan
ABSTRACT
This paper attempts to evaluate the state of research on
agricultural by-products and its useful lness to modern small -
scale farmers and other potential users. It highlights the
quality of the research reports generated and their relevance
and applicability on small-scale farms. For this purpose the
authors reviewed the available research reports and conducted
interviews with senior scientists and managers in the major
research institutes and some agricultural production centres.
Some modern small-scale farmers and feedlot operators were also
interviewed.
It was observed that the modern small-scale farmer have
received little, if any, benefits from the research undertaken
on agricultural by-products. This observation is related to
the relatively low quality research undertaken, so far.
INTRODUCTION
Approximately 258,000 of the 2,000,000 small-scale farmers of
the Sudan could be described as modern small-scale farmers each
cultivating an area ranging in size between 5-22 feddan with
cash and staple food crops. The majority of these farmers are
tenants on government irrigated agricultural scheme established
on the Nile and its major tributaries. Almost all farmers and
farm labourers maintain small herds of cattle, sheep and goats
as an alternative source of income, a way of diversifying
production, to guard against risks of crop failure and/or crop
price decline, as a source of food and to help with farm work.
1 1 feddan = 4200 m2
126
Under prevailing agricultural production system on small
farms crop and livestock production are not fully integrated.
The various available resources and land are directed to cash
and staple food crop production. A negligible area is
cultivated with forages. This has left farmers with no
alternative other than maintaining their livestock herds on
crop residues and to a lesser extent on fallow grazing
occasionally supplemented with off -farm produced concentrate
feedstuffs and forages.
Although the modern small-scale farmer employs relatively
modern means of agricultural production, he uses relatively
traditional means of livestock husbandry. One aspect of this
traditionalism is the way crop residues are used as the main
source of feed on the farm. Their use is not based on methods
that maximize the benefits and reduce the waste and,
consequently optimize the overall cost of production. More
importantly, the research that has been undertaken, to date, is
believed to be inadequate and not specifically orientated to
rationalizing the use of these by-products at the farm level.
The objective of this paper is to provide a preliminary
evaluation of the research generated so far on agricultural by
products and to examine its quality, relevance and
applicability on modern small-scale farms in the Sudan.
Agricultural By-Products Research Undertaken
An overview of the research undertaken and reported during the
period 1965-1988 is presented in Tables 1 and 2. Altogether 16
reports were generated out of 2 major research projects and a
number of small-scale research activities conducted by some
interested researchers and graduate students.
The two major research projects and the bulk of the
research activities were performed at the Institute of Animal
Production, University of Khartoum. The two major research
projects (by-product-Sudan) were financed by IDRC of Canada for
127
a total sum of about 300,000 Sudanese Pounds (Sudanese Pound =
US$ 4.5) over a 3 year period for each project.
The primary objective of the research undertaken was to
maximize the use of agricultural by-products in beef and sheep
finishing operations. In the Sudan, meat producing animals are
traditionally finished on dry feedlots using complete diets
composed of costly concentrate feedstuffs (grain and calces)
with little forage and/or agricultural by-product.
The research approach adopted was the conventional on-
station research methodology and only in one study (Ahmed et
al. 1985) was the non-conventional on-farm research methodology
employed. The technology embodied in the research undertaken
involved the use of feed mills, mixers and pelleters in
addition to chemicals (alkalis, acids and others) and
concentrate feedstuff ingredients.
Almost all of the research results verified the technical
feasibility of incorporating processed agricultural by-products
at levels of 25-45% of the diets of meat producing animals.
However, the economic feasibility of the majority of the
results was implied and was not demonstrated following proper
economic analysis. The results of the on-farm research trials
undertaken indicated the potential users' interest and
willingness to promote such a research approach.
Following the review of the above cited research the
following observations on the quality aspects and short-comings
of the research could be made.
128
Table 1: Inventory of agricultural by-products research
undertaken in the Sudan during the period 1966 - 1988
Agricultural Number of References
by-product research Reports
Sorghum Mustafa (1988); Mohamed
(1988); Mohamed Sal i h
(1986); El Hag and George
(1981); El Shafie (1976); El
Hag and Kurdi (1986); Osman
et al., (1987); Mohammed et
al, (1987); Farah (1986).
Dura hulls
Groundnut hulls
1 El Shafie and Mcleroy (1965)
6 El Hag (1986); El Hag and
George (1981); Ahmed et al
(1977); El Shafie et al.
(1976); El Hag and Hamad
(1983); El Hag (1986).
Baggase El Hag and George (1981);
El Shafie et al (1976);
El Hag and Kurdi (1986).
Cottonseed hul ls El Shafie and Osman (1965)
El Shafie and Mcleroy
(1965).
Cottongin trash
Total
1
24
Khalafalla (1988)
129
1. The bulk of the research undertaken on agricultural by
products is an individual rather than an institutional
activity as could be perceived from the weak integration of
researchers and the lack of mul t i -discipl inary approach. Few
of the activities were conducted by more than two persons.
2. It was apparent that the capacity of the Sudanese scientists
and institutions to generate research on agricultural by
products is limited.
3. Almost all of the research activities were reported in the
English Language (the elite Language) and very few of the
reports were abstracted in Arabic which is the mother tongue
of the majority of the population.
4. Almost all the research undertaken was targetted for
commercial dry feedlot operators and not small-scale
farmers. Some of the research was conducted for academic
purposes.
5. One shortcoming of the majority of the research conducted,
so far, on agricultural by-products, and as a direct
consequence of the lack of coordinated research efforts,
is the absence of economic analysis of the results.
Thus, although almost all research results indicated the
technical feasibility of agricultural by-products in
animal feeding, economically this has not been verified.
6. The technology employed involved the use of capi tal -energy
intensive machinery and relatively expensive chemicals and
concentrate feedstuff ingredients.
7. The majority of the research on agricultural by-products was
conducted on agro- industrial by-products, namely the
oilseeds, sugar cane and cotton ginning industrial by
products. Research on crop residue was limited to sorghum
stover.
8. The scientific merit of some of the research undertaken is
questionable. Some of the research reports reviewed
contained insufficient information, error of formulation and
design and the failure to answer fundamental questions on
the issues addressed by the investigator.
9. Little or no effort was made to introduce the majority of
the research results obtained to the potential users,
either, directly or through pilot or development
experimentation.
130
Relevance of the Research Undertaken to Modern Small Scale
Farmers.
Almost all of the research undertaken was of little or no
relevance to the modern small-scale farmer in the Sudan for one
or more of the following reasons:
1. The research emphasized the use of agro- industrial by-products
(Table 2) which are not available on the farm or nearby local
markets. They are available at industrial centres, distances
away from the modern small-scale farms, at relatively low
prices. Table 3 shows the crop and agricultural by-products
productivity and utilisation on modern small-scale farms in
the Sudan. It indicates that the agricultural by-products
available on the farm are the crop residues of sorghum,
cotton, groundnut (haulms) and wheat in that order of
magnitude. With the exception of cotton, which is grazed in
site, the bulk of the crop residues are collected and stored
for later use. However, not all of the estimated amounts of
the agricultural by-products produced on the farm are
available for collection and storage by the farmer. This is
related to the acuteness of labour shortage at harvest time
and the intensity of in situ grazing by nomadic livestock
trespassing to water in the nearby irrigation canals.
2. The research undertaken maybe more relevant to high
producing mature meat animals (finishing cattle and sheep).
The control treatments/diets were composed of high
concentrate feedstuffs. This is not always the case on
modern small-scale farms where the bulk of livestock are
kept for milk production. Meat animals are usually disposed
of at an early age at home or sold as feeders. Thus , the
feeding of high levels of concentrate on modern small-scale
farms is an exception rather than a rule.
131
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3. The technology embodied in the research undertaken involved
the processing of the agricultural by-products used. The
equipment and materials employed for the processing and
preparation of the diets are beyond the economic and
technical capabilities of the modern small-scale farmer, and
perhaps the country as a whole. The lack of electricity on
the farm and the frequent shortage of Petroleum fuel to
operate the processing equipment, in addition to the small
amount of crop residues produced on the farm, are enough
reasons to justify the inappropriateness of such a
technology on the modern small -scale farms.
Applicability of the Research Results
It was found that the results of the research undertaken are
inapplicable on small-scale farms and feedlots.
A number of factors have led to this inapplicability.
Major among these factors are:
1. The research that has been done, so far, is on livestock
finishing and more specifically on finishing in commercial
dry feedlots. As such it is neither related to the local
conditions of the small-scale farmer nor to the nature of
their animal raising activities. Small-scale farmers in the
irrigated production centres are concerned more with dairy
production than with fattening animals in feedlots.
2. The materials, tools and equipment used in the research are
dictated by the nature and scale of the business activities
in the commercial fedlots. This obviously hinders their
applicability at the small-scale level where the number of
animals dealt with is rather small.
3. The research is oriented mainly towards arriving at
technical feasibilities and technical optima. With the
exception of one or two research projects no economic
analysis has been done to translate economic optima into
134
monetary terms, i.e. cost savings and increased revenue that
could be extended to and understood by the small-scale
producers. There is need to provide adequate economic
incentives to the small-scale farmers to induce them to
adopt the improved production methods. This underlines the
need for economic analysis of research results if the
ultimate objective is to make the small-scale producers
benefit from them.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
. Research on agricultural by-products undertaken in the
Sudan is characterized by weakness, marginality and
disarticulation. This could be due, at least in part to the
inadequate human and financial resource allocated to
research institutions (Appendix) and to the lack of links
between them. The low pay, the lack of good support to
research and the absence of a healthy working atmosphere
are behind the low efficiency and dedication of the
scientists to produce good quality research.
. Agricultural technology is known to be location specific.
This makes it imperative to coordinate efforts to establish
and strengthen research work to adapt new agricultural
research and discoveries to local farming conditions. This
is likely to yield higher socio-economic returns and better
quality research.
. Small scale farmers are generally likely to be more
ignorant than enterprisers in other sectors of the economy
about the existing improved methods of production. Hence
properly designed extension services that disseminate
research results to farmers and bring to the researchers
their problems as a feed-back are also likely to yield
higher socio-economic returns and better quality research.
. Where possible, the tools and equipment pertinent to
applying the new production techniques that are recommended,
need to be designed to meet the needs of small-scale
production. Simple, locally available and relatively cheap
135
materials, equipment and tools would encourage the adoption
of the new techniques.
5 . Alternatively the new technology could be used
collectively by groups of farmers in co-operative
organisations or, perhaps, it could be provided as a
service at cost by the administrations of the production
units.
6 . Even for those to whom it is applicable i.e. commercial
feedlot operators, the research results that have been
arrived at, so far, have not been adopted. This is so
despite the fact that the results were demonstrated on
commercial dry feedlot premises. This is believed to be
related to the nature of the meat animals markets. In the
Sudan these markets are highly concentrated. The few
commercial operators who control these markets are not very
conscious of the cost effectivenes of the newly demonstrated
technologies.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, F.A., El Shafie, S.A. and Osman, H.F. 1977. Fattening
of Western Baggara cattle on rations of conventional
concentrates and agricultural by-products. Acta
Veterinaria (Beograd) 27(1): 21-27.
Ahmed, S.E., Mohamed, T.A. and El Hag, M.G. 1985. Survey and
on farm trials in private beef cattle finishing feedlots
in the Khartoum area. In: T.L. Nordblom, A.K.H. Ahmed
and G.R. Rotts (eds) proceedings of a workshop on
Research methodology for livestock on farm trials held at
Alepo, Syria, 25-28 March, IDRC - 242 e. 5-40, Ottawa, pp
14.40.
El Hag, F.M. 1986. Performance of feedlot beef cattle fed on
agro- industrial by-products versus concentrate feedstuff
under different seasons and management systems. M.Sc.
thesis (Anim. Prod.), University of Khartoum, Khartoum,
Sudan.
136
El Hag, G.A. and George, A.E. 1981. Performance of Western
Baggara bulls fed on rations containing high levels of
poor quality agro- industrial by-products. E_;_ Af r . Agric.
For. JL 47: 43-48.
El Hag, M.G. and Hamad, A.F. 1983. Sudan desert sheep
performance on variable levels of agro- industrial by
products supplemented with urea and cobalt. Wld. Rev.
Anim. Prod. 19: 21-28.
El Hag, M.G. and Kurdi , 0.1. 1986. prospects for efficient
utilisation of agro- industrial by-products and crop
residues for ruminants feeding in the Sudan with emphasis
on quantification, nutritional composition, constraints
and research results. In: Towards an optimal feeding of
agricultural by-products for l i vestock in Africa:
proceeding of a Workshop held at the University of
Alexandria, Egypt, October 1985 ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
El Shafie, S.A. and Mcleroy, G.B. 1986. Carcass
characteristics of feedlot fattened northern and western
Sudan Zebu cattle. Sudan J . Vet . Sci . Anim. Husb. 6:3-
11.
El Shafie, S.A. and Osman, A.H. 1965. Fattening of Sudan Zebu
cattle. II. Weight gain and carcass analysis of Kenana
cattle under two different types of feed. Sudan J , Vet .
and Anim. Husb. 6 (1) 75-82.
El Shafie, S.A., Osman, A.H. Khalil, K.A. and Tawfik, E.S.
1976. Preweaning and postweaning growth and its
relationship to feedlot performance and carcass
characteristics of bull calves. Sudan J . Vet. Sci . and
Anim. Husb. 17:1-16.
Farah, A. A. 1986. An appraisal of the economics of beef cattle
finishing in Khartoum, M.Sc. Thesis. University of
Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.
Khalafalla, M.K. 1988. Effect of dietary level of cotton gin
trash on nutrient utilisation and performance of Sudan
desert lambs. M.Sc. thesis. (Anim. Prod.), University of
Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
137
 Mohammed Salih, G.M. 1986. Effects of sorghum straw feeding on
feedlot performance of cattle, M.V. Sc. thesis.
University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.
Mohamed, H.K. 1988. Utilisation of unprocessed sorghum stover
supplemeted with different levels of concentrate stover
supplemented with different levels of concentrate on
performance of Sudan beef cattle, M.Sc. thesis (Anim.
Prod.), University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.
Mohamed, T.A. El Tayeb, A.E., Mustafa, A.F. and Khogali, H.M.
1986. Processed and unprocessed sorghum stover in beef
finishing rations. Paper presented at the 4th ARNAB
workshop, held in Bamenda, Cameroon, 20-27 October 1987.
Mustafa, A.F. 1988. Effects of plane of nutrition and
incorporation of milled sorghum stover in a conventional
concentrate diet on the performance of Sudan beef cattle.
M.Sc. thesis, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.
Osman, A.G., El Tayeb, A.E., Suliman, A.H. and Mohamed, T.A.
1987. Effects of sorghum straw alone or in combination
with molasses and nitrogen sources on performance of
Sudan desert lambs. Anim. Feed. Sci . Technol .
(accepted) .
138
Appendix: Human and financial resources of livestock research
institutions in the Sudan.
Livestock research institutions
ARC(NRC) LRA University TOTAL
Scientific and Technical
Personnel
Ph.D
M.Sc.
B.Sc.
Technicians
Total
Budget 1988 (000' pounds) 280
(a) Including budget for research in crop production One U.S.
Dollar is officially equivalent to 4.5 Sudanese Pounds
ARC = Agricultural Research Centre
NRC = National Research Centre
LRA = Livestock Research Administration
0 12
0 23
0 10
0 36
0 81
825
22 34
8 31
- 10
9 45
39 120
50 1155
139
FORAGE PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION AT THE SMALL-SCALE HOLDER LEVEL
IN TANGA DISTRICT, TANZANIA
1 2
P.E.X. Kapinga and E. Shayo (Mrs)
ABSTRACT
The paper reviews some forage research work conducted in the
coastal area of Tanga District and discusses the relevancy of
such research in the context of a small-scale dairy farmer.
Studies showed that the natural forages produced 5 t DM/ha and
were capable of supporting 1 AU per 2 to 3 ha. Improved
forages gave above 10 t DM/ha when fertilized whereas fodder
grasses and browse plants produced between 15 t and 20 t DM/ha
respectively. Recommended fodder species to the farmers
include Napier grass (Penissetum purpureum). giant and panic
(Panicum maximum) and leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) . Fodder
production and quality under the small-scale dairy farming
systems is more variable than that reported at the research
stations. Reasons for the variations and problems of forage
utilisation have been discussed. However, milk production
ranged from 5 kg/day, where only forages are used, to 10
kg/day, where forages are supplemented with concentrates.
Forage supply throughout the year at the farmer's level is very
much limited. Thus the future research strategies are
orientated towards solving the problem of feed shortages during
the dry season and looking for appropriate technologies for
forage conservation at the small-scale dairy level.
INTRODUCTION
The Tanga District is situated in the northern part of the
coastal belt of Tanzania. The area receives between 1200 to
1400 mm of rains per annum, falling in two seasons - the long
rains (March to June) and the short rains (September to
November). Mean temperatures are between 26 to 33 with
relative humidity ranging from 64 to 85X.
Livestock Research Centre, P.0. Box 5016, Tanga, Tanzania
Buhuri Livestock Training Institute, P.0. Box 1483, Tanga,
Tanzania
140
Three soil types are predominant in the district. The low
fertile light sandy- loam soils occurring along the coast, the
ledium-ferti le red loam soils of the inland and the black soils
hat occur along the valleys.
The vegetation cover is commonly known as "coastal forest,
avanna mosaic' which varies from open grassland (mainly tall
lyparrhenia spp) to dense high thicket. Large areas are
iccupied by wooded grasslands that also support vigorous growth
1f dum-lam (Hypaene tebaica) and gall acacia (Acacia
:anzibarica) (Lind and Morrison, 1974).
Research on forages had been conducted at two research
stations, Mlingano Sisal Research Station (inland) and Tanga
.ivestock Research Centre (coastal area). Several forage
:rials have been conducted since 1959 (Hopkinson, 1970) and
:ould be grouped under such subheadings as (i) assessment of
jrazing value and carrying capacity of natural flora (ii)
improvement of the natural pastures through fertilizer
application (iii) bush and weed control and the incorporation
sf improved legumes in the natural sward (iv) grazing
nanagement and animal performance studies on natural pastures
and (iv) adaptability and compatabi l i ty of improved grasses and
legumes.
Assessment of the grazing value and carrying capacity of the
natural flora.
Ground surveys, supported by aerial photographs and aerial
reconnaissance, were used to map grass- legume associations and
assess their importance to livestock production (van
Voorthuizen, 1970). The sandy-loam soils along the coastal
plain supported important grasses such as Hyparrhenia ruf a. H.
dissoluta. Setaria sphacelata and Andropogon schi rensis.
Associated grasses included Cynodon dactylon. Panicum infest um.
D i g i t a r i a mombasana and Bothriochloa glabra. Several
unpalatable legumes were noted to occur but their contribution
141
to the livestock industry were questionable. Such an
association was capable of supporting 1 AU per 3.2 ha and
produced between 3.9 to 4.5 t DM/ha. The red loam soils were
dominated by Panicum maximum with few grasses such as Cynodon.
D i g i t a r i a mi lan i iana and Hyparrhenia ruf a. Van Voorthuizen
(1970) noted that the latter grass cover were capable of
supporting 1 AU per 2.4 ha and produced 11.8 t DM/ ha when the
grass-wooded areas was cleared. Generally, forage production
fluctuated under grazing management and were lower than
seldomly grazed areas but crude protein levels were reasonable
almost throughout the year for both the grazed and ungrazed
areas (Watkins, 1969) (Table 1).
Improvement of the natural pastures
Trials aimed at improving the natural pasture through
fertilizer application, bush and weed control and the
incorporation of improved legumes in the natural pastures had
been attempted.
Application of deficient nutrients to the natural sward
had produced variable results but generally the response was
very low. The light sandy soils are deficient in many
important nutrients. The application of N, P, K, Mg, Cu and Co
had produced only 4.23 t DM/ha which was a 100X increase over
the unfertilized sward (Schmidt and Watkins, 1968). Noticeable
changes in the botanical composition of the pasture were the
increased legume component wherever P and K were applied
(Anderson, 1969; Hendy, 1975).
142
Table1.2rymatter(2M)yieldsandchemicalo positionfherbagufr m
seldomlygrazedandh aviareas.
TreatmentSeldongraz dHeavilygr zed
2MCP2aPMCP2a
1g/ha%/haX
2weekcuts1.328.69 931 1.22 18 28 83 6.3.32
1month2.18 633.32.28.2896 38 132 2.
2months3.14.81 236 3.32 291 863 6.3. 61 3months.946.31 233 12.38.2832 116 32.. 89
6monthsDMDMDM-0.23 .1 36 12.329
Source:watkins(1DM9).
CO
Table 2. Stocking rates and weight gains (kg) by Sahiwal cross
bulls grazing natural pastures
1969 1970
Stocking rate Gain/bul l Gain/ha Gain/bul l Gain/ha
Ha/bull
1.8 170. 4b 94. 7C 210. 7C
67.1c
1.2
188. 6a 157. 2b 128.4a 107. 0b
0.6 172. 7b 287. 7a 92. 7b 154. 5a
Figures bearing different superscripts on the same column are
different (P<0.05).
Source: Broatch (1970).
The problem of bush and weed encroachment in the grazing
lands had received the greatest attention as most of the
cleared or grazing lands tend to revert into bushland. So far
most of the technologies tested have not produced tangible
results (Hendy, 1975). It was noted that slashing alone was
ineffective in bush and weed control but where slashing was
combined with herbicide application (Tordon 101) to the
regenerated bushes a 90X kill was achieved (Hendy, 1973a).
Burning at the end of the dry season produced partial control
of trees and shrubs (Hendy, 1975).
Oversowing improved legumes into the natural sward had to
some extent been tried. Hendy (1973b) oversowed several
legumes onto the natural pastures after slashing the native
vegetation down to 10 cm. The only legume established was
siratro (Macropt i l ium atropurpureum) but gradually disappeared
from the sward. The cheapest method of introducing legumes
into the natural pastures was the strip ploughing of land and
sowing the legumes in the ploughed strips (Carrodus, 1975).
Legumes failed to establish when sowed into furrows and ash
seed-bed which received triple superphosphate fertilizers.
144
Grazing management and animal performance studies on natural
pastures
The major problem encountered in the use of the natural
pastures is that most of the valuable grass species disappear
under grazing and are replaced by low producing, less palatable
grasses, weeds and bushes (Broatch, 1970; Hendy, 1973c). This
occurred even when grazing was practiced at low grazing
pressures (Hendy, 1975). Broatch (1970) noted disappearance of
Brachiaria spp. at all the stocking rates tried whereas
Hyparrhenia sp. disappeared only under heavy grazing (1.2 and
0.6 ha/beast). Animal performance tended to vary with stocking
rates (Table 2) and the season of the year. During the rainy
period, 1.2 ha/beast gave the highest gain per beast, but all
stocking rates suffered similar weight losses in the dry
season. In investigating the effects of rotational grazing,
slashing and fertilizer application on the growth and botanical
composition of the natural pastures and animal performance,
Hendy (1973c) noted that the natural pastures were insensitive
to the changes in the grazing management imposed over a short
period i.e. the botanical composition appeared fairly stable
over the entire experiments so far carried out along the
coastal area of Tanga Hendy (1975) concluded that the desirable
stocking rate and management techniques that can maintain the
natural pastures at a reasonable level of production are not
yet known.
Adaptability and compatibility of improved grasses and legumes
Forage plant introductions particularly legumes, started in the
early 1960s with the objective of smothering weeds and
improving soil status in the sisal estates (Hopkinson, 1970).
But with falling prices of sisal in the world markets, the
sisal company integrated sisal production with other crops and
livestock production. Grasses were added to the legume
collections and plant evaluation was directed towards getting
adaptive and productive forage plants. Forage species proved
promising under the light sandy- loam soils. These included
145
Panicum maximum (local ecotype), Andropogon gavanus. Chl or is
gayana. Macropti l ium atropurpureum cv. Siratro, Stylosanthes
guianensis and Pueraria phaseoloides (Hendy and Carrodus,
1974). Adaptive forages on red loam soils were Brachiaria
ruziziensis. Cenchrus c i l i a r i s . Chl or is gayana. Cynodon
dactylon. Mel inis mi nut i f lora. Panicum coloratum. P. dues tum.
P. maximum. Pennisetum purpureum. Setaria anceps and S.
splendida. Legumes included Centrosema pubescens. Neonotonia
wight i i . Macropti l ium atropurpureum cv. Siratro and
Calopogonium mucunoides (Hopkinson, 1970).
Responses to fertilizer application varied with species,
but generally all responded to the fertilizer application
(Table 3). Pj. purpureum gave the highest yields under both
fertility levels but the lowest response to the applied
fertilizers came from P^ maximum.
Yields of Cj. gayana went up to 19 t DM/ha when nitrogen
fertilizers were applied together with P and K fertilizers at
the rates of 90, 90 and 120 kg N^ P2 05 and <20/ha,
respectively (Hendy and Carrodus, 1974). Compatibility of
grasses with legumes had been difficult to achieve along the
sandy coastal soils (Hendy and Carrodus, 1974) but several
grasses had shown to associate well with legumes on the red
loam soils (Hopkinson, 1970). Pj. coloratum and M_;. mi nut if lora
were the most compatible grasses with all the legumes tried but
the legume suffered severely under B^. ruziziensis. C. dactylon
and P^. maximum competition. It was also noted that where grass
competition was more severe, S^ guianensis survived the best
whereas where the competition was less severe, P_;. phaseoloides
thrived the best.
146
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147
Table 4 . Land use under three smallholder systems.
Land use 1 2 4
Cropping: Natural pastures 2.12 - .
Napier - 0.58 0.58
Luecaena 0.27 0.28 0.37
Cassava 0.56 - 0.44
Banana 0.32 0.86 0.54
Sorghum - - 0.63
Total crop area 3.85 1.82 0.58
Homestead + animal shed 0.18 0.26 0.12
Total farm area 4.03 2.08 2.68
Limitations on the use of research results
Two main features can be noted from the reviewed work:
1. Duration of the research: Most of the research work reviewed
could not last more than two years. Such a short period
could not provide enough information on the trend of the
results. For example, the experience gained with cultivated
forages shows that the plants could hardly persist more than
a year under grazing management along the coastal belt of
Tanga Region and that legumes had failed to persist more
than one growing season in mixed swards.
2. Inconclusive information: In reviewing research work on
grazing management, Hendy (1975) pinpointed that most of the
stocking rates tried and the grazing management imposed
could not provide sufficient information on the management
of the forages at reasonable productive levels. This shows
that some of the research results do not provide a ready-to-
use technology that can be transferred to the farmers or
extension personnels.
148
Considering these two general features it is unrealistic
to blame for a weak research - extension/trainer-farmer
linkage. Nevertheless, many research findings from outside the
district and from other countries with similar ecological
conditions have penetrated to some farmers through the
extension personnels and farmers' training institutions. This
has been the case for the smallholder dairy farmers in Tanga
District.
SMALLHOLDER DAIRY FARMING
The smallholder dairy farming is jointly coordinated between
the Regional Extension Office and the Farmers' Training Sector
in the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development and
supported by the Dutch Government through the Smallholder's
Dairy Extension Programme (SDEP). The programme is responsible
for training farmers in all aspects of dairy husbandry,
distribution of heifers to eligible farmers and the monitoring
of farmers' activities. The major objective is to improve
dairy enterprises on smallholder farms.
The programme started with the identification of the
smallholder farming systems and the training of the farmers.
Upon completion of the training, the farmers were eligible to
the acquisition of one heifer per hectare of planted fodder
crops.
This paper will only discuss the efforts taken by Buhuri
Livestock Training Institute in transferring some of the forage
production and utilisation technologies to the smallholder
dairy farmers in Tanga District.
In performing such a task, the institute in collaboration
with the district extension office have identified three major
types of smallholder dairy farming systems which in turn have
led to the construction of three representative smallholder
dairy models. The modes are used to demonstrate the keeping of
dairy cows at small-scale levels under the village conditions;
to monitor any improved technology before introducing to the
149
farmers themselves and to collect useful information and data
for teaching and advisory purposes.
During training, the farmers spent most of the time in
models (known as units) in order to acquaint themselves with
the techniques of establishing and managing small-scale dairy
farms.
Types of the smallholder systems
Each system or unit is maintained by a single family and keeps
two lactating cows and two followers (mainly calves).
System 1: The animals are tethered on natural pastures which
are dominated by locally growing Guinea grass (Pj. maximum) "
The system has constructed a multipurpose structure which
aids during milking, spraying acaricide against ticks and
other managerial practices. The farmer grows leucaena (L.
leucocephala) . cassava (Manihot esculenta) and bananas
(Musa sapiens) for supplementing the natural pastures. The
farmer aims at meeting all animal feed requirements from
his farm.
System 2: Practices zero-grazing (stall-feeding). Grows Napier
grass (P. purpureum) r leucaena and bananas. The farmer
purchases some feed stuffs especially energy and protein
concentrates. The farmer has constructed a good animal
shed capable of housing the milking cows and the followers
plus a feed store.
System 3: Practice zero grazing.
Grows Napier grass, bananas, cassava, leucaena and sorghum.
The farmer has to meet feed requirements from his farm and
practices silage making. Animal shed is made from locally
available building materials (thatched shed).
Feed supply and utilisation in the three smallholder systems
Many recommended forage species were screened for yield and
persistence before their introduction to the farmers. The
150
hairless Napier grass and leucaena were the most productive
fodder crops and were highly recommended for use by the
smallholder dairy farmers. A dwarf variety of bananas (locally
known as Malindi) was also recommended as a fodder crop because
it was popularly grown by the farmers along the coastal area
and does not dry up in the dry season. Likewise cassava was
recommended as an energy supplementary feed for the animals.
The average production of each crop is shown in Table 5.
Production figures for the natural pastures, Napier grass
and sorghum are within the reported averages but leucaena and
cassava produced lower yields (van Voorthuzein, 1970;
Hopkinson, 1970; Skerman, 1977; Acland, 1973). Considering
that each farm has to maintain 2.9 LUs, the total feed supply
from the farms seemed to be above the estimated animal
requirement (2.9 LU x 8.75 kgDM/LU/d x 365d = 9262 kg DM/yr).
But the actual feed consumption recorded, when hay was used
instead of banana pseudostems/ leaves and sorghum silage, were
10530, 10815 and 9773 kg DM/yr for the farms 1, 2 and 3,
respectively (Table 6).
Table 5. Average feed production in the three smallholder
farms.
Farms
Crop Fresh wt DM 1 2 3
kg/ha X kg/ha kg/ha-
Natural pastures 18000 25.0 4500 9540 - -
Napier 73329 22.5 16500 - 9570 957C
Leucaena 22100 30.0 6630 1790 1856 2452
Cassava 3603 28.0 1009 565 - 444
Bananas 53794 19.0 10221 3271 8790 552C
Sorghum 16917 26.6 4500 - * 2835
Total 15166 20216 20822
151
Table6.Seasonalfeedsupp yanutilizationhreesm llholderf ms.
Mid6pr-MidJlyly SeptOct S22ec-Jan2eb Mid6prTotal
<,d)(13d)62(62d)13Consumption 2armCrop6vail.USeds6vail.U edkgDM/yr
232
2283 9113
• 8 6 2 31 - 1 2 8 2 31 - 2
6.3
2
28.3
- 8 8 2 36 - 2 3 8 2 13 - 16
6.3
2
31.3
2 3 3 28 2 3 - 3
- 28 2 1 3
- 21
6 3 8
-
2 2 2
- 3 - 31 22 2
6.3
"
31.3
2 3 3 - 28 - 1 2 8 2 31 - 2
6.3
2
28.3
26 3 8 • 34
- 2 3 8 2 13 - 2
6.3
12
31.3
2 3 3 - 28 2 6
- 6 • 2 1 6 3
-
2
26 3 8 - 34 2 2
- 6 ■ 33 1 2
6.3
-
36.3
2 3 3 - 28 2 3
- 3 - 28 2 1 3
"
21
28
3 8 - - 2 2
- 3 " 2 16 2
6.3 " 28.3
Satural Cassava
Leucaena
Hay
Total Sapier
Leucaena
Cassava
Maizebran
Hay
Total Sapier
Leucaena
Cassava
Hay
Total
1 2 3
I-_ ts3
Table 7. Daily feed intake by animals in farms 2 and 3
Maize Leucaena Banana Napier Total
bran stem/ leaf
kg
Fresh weight 4 10 50 HO 208
Dry matter 3.5 3.0 6.0 17.5 30.0
Feeding the animals depended upon feed availability. It
was noted that when feed supply was abundant, the animals in
farms 2 and 3 were fed on the ration shown in Table 7.
Although the dry matter requirements by the animals were
met at certain periods of the year, the overall quality of the
feedstuff s remained much to be desired.
PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF SOME TECHNOLOGIES
Forage uti l i sat ion
Efficient use of the forages produced has been one of the
problems noted with the smallholder dairy farmers. The farmers
follow recommended spacing in growing the fodder crops but it
has been difficult to follow recommended cutting regimes. The
farmers are advised to cut the Napier grass within 0.75 -1.00 m
height but often they are forced to cut below those heights
when feed supply is limited. Likewise, when forage production
is at peak the farmers cannot harvest the herbage within the
specified height because consumption is below production. It
is during this period that fodder conservation could take place
(see Table 6 for April - July period).
153
Some reports show that fodder production from leucaena
harvested at one metre height is greater than harvested at the
ground level (Pound and Cairo, n.d). Simple trials at Buhuri
Training Institute indicated no difference in production
between the two cutting heights and the farmers have adopted
cutting the fodder at the ground level due to lower harvesting
losses and this method is more convenient.
Availability of inputs
The farmers are encouraged to apply farm yard manure in the
fields after each harvest in order to boost forage production.
The use of chemical fertilizers is very limited due to the high
cost. Lack of machinery for cultivation, harvesting and
chopping makes the job more cumbersome.
Lack of specialisation
Although the farmers are identified as smallholder dairy
farmers, actually they produce a variety of crops for home use
and sale. They grow maize, cassava, groundnuts and coconuts.
All these other crops have to use the same family labour, land
and time. This diversification has led to low forage and milk
production. Milk production under the smallholder dairy
farming in the rural areas get between 3 to 6 litres per cow
per day. Dairy farmers near towns get between 10 and 15 litres
per cow per day due to the use of high proportions of
concentrate feedstuffs.
FUTURE RESEARCH STRATEGIES
It has been realised that the major problem faced by the
smallholder farmers is the inadequacy of feed supply throughout
the year. With this in mind, the future research strategies
have: -
1. Continued to look for adaptive forage plants that are
drought tolerant and can maintain growth in the dry season.
154
2. Continued to develop cropping systems (crops + forage) for
the optimum food/feed production and land use.
3. Been developing proper technology of fodder conservation
(hay, silage, etc.) appropriate to the smallholder dairy
farmer.
4. Been designing simple tools or machinery which can improve
the efficiency of forage production, management and
uti lisation.
5. Continued to improve feed supply in order to meet the
nutrient requirements of the improved dairy animals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are greatly indebted to Dr. M. Shayo, the
Principal, Buhuri Training Institute for reporting some of the
forage innovations which are being advanced to the smallholder
dairy farmers in Tanga District and for the use of the data
collected from the various smallholder farms.
REFERENCES
Acland, J.D. (ed). 1973. East African crops FAO, Rome.
Anderson, G.D. 1978. Effects of fertilizers on botanical
composition and productivity of pastures on the sandy
soils of the Tanganyika Coast. Ej. Af r. Agric. For. J.
34:207.
Broatch, R.F. 1970. An investigation into the optimum stocking
rate on the natural pastures of Tanga Region. Annual
Research Report, LRC, Livestock Research Centre, Tanga,
Tanzania.
Carrodus, G. 1975. Investigation into cheaper methods of
establishing legumes into natural pastures on the sandy
coastal soils of Tanga Region. Annual Report, LRC,
Livestock Research Centre, Tanga, Tanzania.
155
Hendy, K. 1973a. Effects of slashing and TSP application
together and separately on a rested grazing area. Annual
Report, LRC, Livestock Research Centre, Tanga, Tanzania.
Hendy, K. 1973b. Oversowing legumes into natural pastures.
Annual Report, LRC, Tanga, Tanzania.
Hendy, K. 1973c. Effect of grazing management and fertilizer
on the growth and botanical composition of natural
pasture at Tanga. Annual Report, LRC, Tanga, Tanzania.
Hendy, K. 1975. Review of natural pastures and their
management problems on the north coast of Tanzania. E.
Af r. Agric. For. J^ 41:52.
Hendy, K. and Carrodus, G. 1974. Promising species from
introductions. Annual Report, LRC, Tanga, Tanzania.
Hopkinson, D. 1970. The potential of some pasture plants in
the sisal areas of the Tanga Region of Tanzania. Ej. Af r.
Agric. For. .K 35:299.
Lind, E.M. and Morrison, M.E.S. (eds). 1974. East African
Vegetation. Longman, London.
Pound, B. and Cairo, L.M. (eds) (n.d.). Leucaena: its
cultivation and uses. 0.D.A., London.
Schmidt, P.E. and Watkins, R. 1968. Response of natural
coastal pastures to fertilizers and some economic
consideration in beef production. Annual Report LRC,
Tanga, Tanzania.
Skerman, P.J. (ed). T977. Tropical forage legume. FAO, Rome.
Van Voorthuizen, E.G. 1970. A grazing potential in the Tanga
Region in Tanzania. J_j. Range manage. 23:325.
Wetkins, R. 1969. The effect of frequency of cutting natural
pastures. Annual Report, LRC, Tanga, Tanzania.
156
UTILISATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS IN RANGE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS IN KENYA1
E.K. Maranga
Egerton University,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Natural Resources,
P. 0. Box 536, Njoro, Kenya.
ABSTRACT
An overview of the development of range production and
management research on Kenya is presented. The status of
utilisation of research results in range production and
management systems is discussed with special reference to their
nature, record of utilisation and constraints in their
utilisation. On the basis of the nature of available research
results and the factors influencing their utilisation, the
paper presents a dossier of future agricultural research needs
for the small-scale farmers in the semi-arid and arid areas of
Kenya.
INTRODUCTION
Actual coordinated range research work in Kenya did not start
until in the late 1960's. Much of the early range research
work was exploratory and rudimentary in nature, focusing on
land use surveys, ecological monitoring and applied research on
specific problems of range development and productivity.
(FAO), 1967 - 1973; Gwynne and Croze, 1975). However, in the
course of the period spanning the mid 1970's and early 1980's,
emphasis in range research shifted dramatically away from
autecological research investigations to embrace synecological
dimensions in response to the utilisation needs of game
departments, national parks, irrigation schemes, tourist
Views expressed in this paper do not represent the official
policy of Egerton University or the Government of Kenya.
157
development organisations and the Range Management Division.
In the last half decade we have witnessed a coupling of
autecological and synecological research approaches in the
investigation of range - livestock - wildlife feed resources.
The need and rationale for integrated approaches to the study
of range - livestock - wildlife feed resources has been
facilitated by the establishment of range research institutions
in Kenya with the mandate of prioritising and executing range
research programmes with a view to generating innovations for
range utilisation and management on a sustained yield basis.
Research institutions with responsibilities in range
research and training in Kenya include: Kenya Agricultural
Research Institute (KARI), Moi University, University of
Nairobi (College of Agriculture), Egerton University (Faculty
of Agriculture), Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit
(KREMU) and the International Livestock Centre for Africa
(ILCA-Kenya) all of which undertake inventory and analysis of
range resource base and land-use planning in the rangelands.
In an attempt to provide a broad-based scenario of the
status of utilisation of research results in Range Production
and Management Systems in Kenya this paper will address aspects
relative to;
a) The nature of results available
b) Record of utilisation of available results
c) Limitations in the utilisation of available results
d) Future directions for agricultural research - What needs to
be done.
NATURE OF AVAILABLE RESULTS
The available results in Range Production and Management
Systems in Kenya comprise technical innovations that have
occurred mainly from the National Range Research Centre -
Kiboko, its regional substations and other public range
research and teaching institutions. These results could be
categorised as follows:
158
Range Improvement
Bush management
Reseeding and overseeding
Range Watershed Management
- Mechanical or physical work on soil or vegetation e.g.
contour furrowing and range pitting, water spreading,
revegetation etc.
Range Plant Ecology and Management
primary productivity: quality and quantity of forage
Forage development: evaluation and testing
Feed preservation and conservation on small-scale farms in
semi -arid regions
- Basic autecological and synecological work: habitat
variation, ecological status, phenology, physiological and
morphological adaptation to drought, soil - plant - water
relations, Defoliation stress in relation to water stress
and nutrient relations.
Ecological monitoring: Development of methodologies related
to evaluation of range resources; range inventory and
analysis of range resource ecosystem components.
Grazing management: Plant responses to grazing treatments,
season of use, mixed species utilisation, stocking rates and
grazing systems.
RECORD OF UTILISATION OF AVAILABLE RESULTS
The record of utilisation of technological innovations in the
area of range production in Kenya is perhaps not as impressive
as the scope of available technical information tends to
suggest. The reasons behind these are many but could be
conveniently categorized as being administrative, technical and
socio-economic. These aspects will be further developed under
constraints in adoption of new interventions. It is
instructive to note that the research extension concept in
range production systems in Kenya is at its infancy.
159
The concept is as old as the Range Management Division
which was formally instituted in 1963. The Range Management
Division is charged with the responsibility of research
extension among other things.
CONSTRAINTS IN THE ADOPTION OF NEW INTERVENTIONS
Local Involvement
Range planning and development research in Kenya has suffered
immensely from inadequate local involvement in projects. Aboud
(1982) pointed out that the absence of local contribution in
the design of projects meant for the benefit of country socio-
technical constraints generated by the beneficiaries were
responsible for the failure of the projects. Projects designed
by outsiders were viewed with suspicion by local people. The
recognition of the need for such projects remained nebulous in
the minds of the innovators (Child et al, 1984).
Land Tenure Problems
Lack of control over land is one of the major problems limiting
range livestock production systems. Production systems in
Kenya include Commercial Ranching, group ranching and
pastoralism. Many range improvement projects have not realised
their objectives because land policies are not adequate to deal
with the problems of better control of grazing land as is the
case with the group ranches in Kenya (Ayuko, 1981). It has
been an uphill task for the government to convince individuals
to apply available technologies for pasture improvement for
collectively grazed cattle or to attempt to improve existing
forage base by reducing livestock numbers. Attempts made
during the colonial and post-colonial era to sedentarize
pastoral peoples have been disappointing because the
confinement of large herds in unviable ecological land units
resulted in overgrazing, soil erosion and ecological
degradation. Sandford (1983) argues that the "tragedy of the
commons" analysis makes several unjustified leaps if it leads
160
to the conclusion that private ownership is the answer. He
also observes that behavioural models used in the analysis may
not be supported by anthropological studies. We now know that
some of our pastoral tribes in Kenya have well structured
regulations which when adequately enforced result in
appropriate levels of control of livestock grazing. The notion
that nomadic or transhumant populations must adopt sedentary
lifestyles may not be tenable in all situations as our Kenyan
experience demonstrates.
Appropriateness of Technology
The nature of available range research results often do not
translate easily into extension messages that can readily be
adopted by the clients. Sometimes, the rationale underlying
the implementation of range improvement or grazing schemes
remain unappreciated by a majority of the clients. For
instance the requirements for the maintenance of certain
grazing pressure and adherence to a grazing calendar associated
with conventional grazing systems in contrast to the
traditional wet-dry season grazing cycles are beyond the
comprehension of pastoral ists.
Cost of inputs
A considerable proportion of range research in Kenya is
conventional research carried out under controlled conditions
of an experimental farm.
Many technological innovations recommended by research
stations are costly in terms of inputs and associated
management operations which tend to run beyond the financial
capability of the average pastoral ist/farmer. However, the
government provides subsidies relative to certain inputs (e.g.
breeding stock) and extends credit facilities through the
Agricultural Finance Corporation to enterprising innovators.
161
Research Extension Methodology
The range extension service in Kenya utilises "bareza" (group
meetings) as the recipient group of range production
innovations rather than a select group of clients actually
involved in range- l i vestock production. It is assumed that of
relevant extension innovations, packages will be received and
adopted by more advantaged innovators from whom the less
advantaged innovators would learn (Aboud, 1982). Our
experience in Kenya has shown that this may not necessarily
happen. If it does happen at all, it is a very slow process
i ndeed .
The concept of training and visits although plausible in
principle has been faced with many constraints in range
extension programmes in Kenya (Towett, 1986). Some of the
problems have included inadequate inf rastructural facilities
constraining mobility, personnel resources, lack of equipment
and administrative constraints (e.g. Range Management Division
in Kenya falls under the Ministry of Agriculture
administratively and not directly under the Ministry of
Research, Science and Technology).
Social Acceptability of Interventions
Traditional range - livestock production systems in Kenya and
indeed in many parts of Africa are substantially geared towards
servicing subsistence needs. Other auxiliary livestock
utilities include social status and prestige. These service
functions have no inherent self driving inertia. Moreover,
these systems are not managed as business operations of
opportunities for improvement. This is particularly the case
even today with our pastoral sector in Kenya mainly being
managed as business operations and therefore remain
unattractive and uncompetitive in terms of opportunities for
improvement. This is particularly the case even today with our
pastoral sector in Kenya mainly being managed by pastoral
groups which include among others Maasai, Samburu, Turkana and
Rendille. Complicated social and cultural organisations
162
centred around livestock grazing and management have evolved
among these pastoral groups.
Our experience with the Kenyan situation is that these
traditional systems are not easily tractable to adopt
interventions arising from research based on experimental
research stations. This lack in the reception and adoption of
new interventions calls for serious attention to multiple - use
land management systems and for utilising the wealth of local
knowledge, and indigenous plant and animal genetic material.
Exotic species have been introduced, tested for a short time,
and suggested for adoption only to have these species
dramatically affected by periodic drought, parasitic
infestation, adverse social acceptability or disease.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH - SOME THOUGHTS ON
WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE.
It is important that research meant to address the real
needs of range production clients be carried out under
actual field conditions and not under idealised controlled
conditions of an experimental farm.
There is need to understand historical and co-adaptive
dimensions of savanna ecosystems in order to be in a
position to shed light on the functioning of these systems
and help to shape their future development.
- It is apparent from a review of existing research work on
Kenyan Rangelands that a fair amount of technical
innovations are available. However, there is need to place
these interventions within the broader social context in
order to enhance their social acceptability and
implementation.
We require studies of traditional resource management and
production systems as a basis for identifying constraints
and prioritizing research and ensuring that new
interventions are relevant to the concerns and needs of
Africa's small-scale farmers.
163
It is apparent from the present review that serious
consideration needs to be given to our research extension
linkages with a view to strengthening them. New
technological innovations are of no use if they cannot be
disseminated and at the same time meet the needs of the
intended consumers.
REFERENCES
Aboud, A. A. 1982. Range management extension services on
pastoral societies in Kenya. MS Thesis, Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio
Ayuko, L.J. 1981. organisation, structures and ranches in
Kenya. Pastoral network paper 116. Overseas Development
Institute, London.
Child, R.D., Heady, H.F., Hickey, W.C., Peterson, R.A. and
Pieper, R.D. 1984. Arid and semi-arid lands.
Sustainable use and management in development in
developing countries. AID/NPS Natural Resources Expanded
Information Base Project, Division of International
Affairs, National Park Service, Washington, D.C. 20240
F.A.0. (Food and Agriculture Organisation) various years 1967 -
1973. Rangeland surveys in Kenya. A series of 13
reports covering a total of 174,000 km of the country.
F.A.O, Rome
Gwynne, M.D. and Croze, H. 1975. East African habitat
monitoring practice; A review of methods of applications.
In proceedings of the seminar on evaluation and mapping
of tropical Africa rangelands. Bamako Mali 3-8 March
1975.
National Range Research Centre, Kiboko. 1973 - 1985. Annual
reports.
Sandford, S. 1983. Management of pastoral development in the
Third World. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 316 pp.
Towett, N.C. 1986. Range management in Kenya, 1945 - 1985.
In: R. Hansen, B. Woie and D. Child (eds). Range
Development and Research in Kenya. Proceedings of a
conference held at A. R.C. (Agricultural Research Centre),
Egerton University, Njoro, 474 pp.
164
THE USE OF CROP RESIDUES FOR LIVESTOCK FEED BY SMALL FARMERS IN THE
GAMBIA
Sandra L. Russo
Animal Science Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32606, USA
ABSTRACT
The Gambia, one of the smallest countries in Africa, was the
location of The Mixed Farming and Natural Resource Management
Project from 1981-86. The goals of the project were to
intensify and integrate crop and livestock enterprises in
existing Gambian farming systems. Cattle production was to be
improved through better nutrition during the dry season, by
range management techniques including deferred grazing,
improvement of rangelands through re-seeding and root
transplants, and the storing and feeding of crop residues.
Vi l lage- level feeding trials were conducted in four villages in
1983 and had increased to 33 villages by 1986. Not all land
innovations were used in each village. Socio-economic factors
such as the land tenure system, social value of cattle, high
labour requirements, limited market access, low land pressure
and farmers' goals had a profound effect on acceptance of the
innovations. Development and farmer goals must converge before
acceptance and adoption will occur.
INTRODUCTION
The climate of The Gambia is characterized by a distinct, short
rainy season from July-September and a long, dry season in
which rain never occurs. Total annual precipitation is 600-700
mm. The sharp dichotomy between rainy and dry seasons is the
dominant feature of the agricultural environment. The major
cash crop and source of foreign exchange is groundnuts; the
preferred crop food is rice.
165
Gambian farming systems are oriented around production of
groundnuts, rice and other cereals. Fallow lands around the
village, forests and swamps are considered to be communally
owned for grazing as are cultivated lands after harvest. The
farming systems are mixed agriculturally, with farmers
producing crops and owning livestock. Small stock such as
poultry and small ruminants are owned by many and are usually
kept in the compound areas. Draft animals (horses, donkeys and
oxen) are used extensively, primarily for transport. Everyone
aspires to own cattle, even urban dwellers, but only one ethnic
group (Fula) historically has experience in cattle management.
Cattle are of the N'dama breed which is fairly trypanotolerant .
The major feature of cattle production is the way the
herds are managed and their migration patterns. Animals are
grouped together into one or more herds and are cared for by a
hired herder who is most often Fula. The herder is responsible
for keeping the animals away from the croplands during the
growing season and for assuring that they have feed and water
most of the year. Herders are paid on a per head basis and,
when near the village, must share any milk with the owners.
Water and forage availability are the most important factors
when herders make migration decisions.
METHODOLOGY
The Mixed Farming and Natural Resource Management Project (MFP)
was a joint project of the Gambian government and U.S.A.I.D
(United States Agency for International Development) started in
response to the growing pressure of both human and livestock
populations on Gambia's limited land resource base.
Cultivation of former grazing areas, especially swamplands, led
to conflicts for food versus feed production. In 1984-85, for
example, cattle population increased by 7.3X while human
population increased by 3.4% (Vesseur et al., 1986). Both the
Gambian government and U.S.A.I.D. felt that crop and livestock
production needed to be integrated.
The project concentrated its activities on bushland and
upland rainfed agriculture, working with farmers and livestock
166
owners to determine how an adequate year-round forage supply
for their livestock could be produced. The first two years of
the project were involved with collecting baseline information
on the farming systems, research on maize and forages, on-
station livestock feeding trials, range management and seed
multiplication. Although the project worked country-wide,
range activities were concentrated in the two most eastern
divisions, McCarthy Island Division (MID) and Upper River
Division (URD). The technologies were designed to be extended
easily through a combination of modest governmental support and
strong farmer acceptance. Technologies were to be such that
farmers could continue to use and adopt them regardless of
government support.
Although there continued to be several distinct activity
areas for project staff, a serious attempt was made to
integrate all of these activities by 1983-84.
Interdisciplinary vi l lage- level activities became the operative
words for the final two years. The range management and forage
production programmes operated on both the research stations
and in villages. Research station work was directed toward
forage introductions, seed multiplication of grass and legume
species, intercropping experiments with forages and cereals,
and cattle feeding trials using crop residues. Objectives of
the village feeding trials were to defer an area from grazing
near the village, improve it, encourage the storage of crop
residues, and develop a year-round feeding strategy for cattle.
Groundwork for the village programmes was laid early in
the project by meetings with Livestock Owners Associations
(LOA). Villages were asked to set aside at least two hectares
of land for deferred grazing and range improvement. One
hectare was left unfenced, the other hectare was fenced with
wire mesh and barbed wire, using creosote- treated Gmel tna
arborea posts and steel fence posts. No attempt was made to
utilise local fencing materials. Fire lanes were made around
each plot. Plots were seeded with Cenchrus c i l i a r i s .
Sty losanthes hamata. S. qui anens i s . S . scabra. Andropogon
aayanus . and Pan i cum max imum. The latter two were also root
transplanted. Two weedings the first year were essential for
167
good stand establishment and grazing had to be deferred for two
rainy seasons. Shrubs were controlled in some areas with
herbicide injections of 2, 4-D. The project provided fencing,
seeds, herbicides, and transport while the villages provided
labour.
Crop residues have been an underutilised resource in The
Gambia. After harvest of the various cereal crops, the
residues are left lying in the fields. When the animals return
to the village areas after the cropping season, they are
allowed to graze on these residues but trampling spoils much of
this available fodder. The project encouraged the saving and
storing of these residues in a variety of ways. The only crop
residue that had been used to any great extent was groundnut
hay which was saved for use by draft animals and small
ruminants over the dry season. Farmers were encouraged to be
more efficient in gathering of the groundnut hay as it was by
far the best quality feed for their animals.
Four villages were selected to participate in actual
feeding trials in 1984, all of them in the eastern part of the
country. These were:
Vi l I age Signi f icant features
Boiram Swamplands used for grazing have
been converted to irrigated rice
production; most grazing sites are
1-5 km from water.
Pinai-Choya Extensive swamplands but severe
competition from other herds
during dry season.
Sukuta On river but banks are very steep;
large warthog population causes
serious habitat destruction.
Makama Sereh Limited river access; one-third of
grazing sites > 5 km from water;
wells dry up by mid-dry season;
severe soil erosion; very
isolated.
168
Villagers were asked to contribute two animals each for
the feeding trials, one of which would remain with the village
herd under normal management conditions, the second of which
would participate in the feeding trial. Long, protracted
discussions took place concerning what class of animals should
be fed. Two types were considered good candidates by the
villagers - the old, sick and lame cattle or young heifers.
The latter were chosen with a view toward the possibility of
calving earlier than the 4-5 year norm. This decision to
choose heifers was not without a great deal of project staff
input. Almost all of the farmers in
these villages, regardless of whether or not they owned cattle
or belonged to a Livestock Owners Association, contributed some
of their crop residues for the feeding trial.
The feeding trials started in January 1984. The heifers
were dewormed, ear-tagged and either weighed (at Boiram) or
taped for girth measurement. The "fed" group were placed in
the enclosed area where the crop residues had been stored and
were fed there for three months. Crop residues were maize,
sorghum and millet stovers, rice straw, Andropogon and Panicum
hay, and/or groundnut hay. The heifers were either taken to
water once a day or water was brought to them. They then went
onto the deferred range area for two months and finished the
dry season back in the enclosed areas on groundnut hay. By
1986, 33 villages were participating in the feeding trials.
Not all villages had every component of the package. In many
villages only crop residues were stored and fed without any
deferred grazing areas being developed. These latter villages
were also participating in the project's maize programme so
that maize stover was the primary crop residue saved in 27 of
the 28 villages which had only a supplemental feeding
programme. Estimates of the amount of maize stover used in
1986 were over 80 tons on a dry matter basis.
169
RESULTS
Boiram was the only village where we were able to place a
scale so quantitative data are scarce. In 1984, heifers in the
fed group lost an average of 2 kg over the six month period
while the heifers that remained with the herd lost an average
of 10 kg, representing 3 and 13X of their body weights. An
attempt was made to record girth measurements of the heifers in
the other villages. In all of the village programmes, elicited
responses from villagers were that the heifers in the feeding
trials looked "better" than those not in the trial but these
are purely subjective data.
Watering was continually a problem during the feeding
trials and methods of watering were modified on a village to
village basis. Water was either brought to the enclosed area
or animals were trekked to the nearest water source whether it
was a well, a swamp, or the river. The watering problem caused
the most discussions among the villagers and led to the
abandonment, in some cases, of cooperation between villages and
a strike, in another case, by village women who refused to draw
well water for the heifers. Several villages hired a herder on
a part-time basis to take the animals to water once a day.
In the deferred range areas there were significant
improvements in the amount of biomass on offer provided that
the fence had remained in place, the livestock had been kept
out, that the area wasn't burned accidentally or intentionally
or that the land wasn't claimed for crop production.
Utilisation of biomass in the deferred grazing areas ranged
from 29 - 58X with stocking rates of 6 - 12 TLU (Tropical
Livestock Unit) /ha in the 1985 season. In Pinai-Choya a bush
fire accidentally set by honey seekers destroyed most of the
area four days after the trial started in March 1985.
Fortunately, the stored crop residues were not burned.
During the first year of the feeding and deferred range
programme it was observed that the weights of the control group
170
did not start to drop until the end of March after the heifers
had been in the feeding trials for three months. As a result,
the following year's feeding period was changed to start in
April. This was an advantage in that less labour was required
to store crop residues. The actual manner of feeding the crop
residues was also changed by villagers from the recommended
method of separate storage and feeding areas with communal
feeding of all the heifers once a day. Some villages tethered
the heifers inside the enclosure with individual owners placing
a quantity of crop residues before their animal once or twice a
day. Other villages simply allowed all animals to enter the
storage area freely, eating from stocks at will. Another
adaptation of the crop residue feeding was that it changed from
being a communal effort by several villages to single village
efforts to, by 1986, individual efforts. In other words,
owners began to save their own residues for their own animals
in their own compounds. Farmers expressed surprise that their
cattle would eat so much of these crop residues, in particular
the maize, sorghum and millet stovers and the rice straw.
Utilisation of the stovers was as high as 60X and up to 100X
for groundnut hay (Deffendol, 1986).
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF RESULTS
The role of Animals in Gambian Farming Systems
Although livestock owners originally agreed that feeding young
heifers made sense, as time went by, the older, sick and lame
animals found their way into the feeding programme. This is
the first example of the conflict between development and
farmer goals. Development can be defined as increased total
production of crops or animal products, also involving
improvements in efficiency, e.g., increased output per unit of
labour and increased output per unit of land. The development
expert would thus see the long term goal of improved fertility
of young heifers as the logical endpoint of a feeding
programme. However, the Gambian livestock owner, whose goal is
maximisation of total number of animals, sees the survival of
all his or her animals right now as the more logical and
attainable end. In the event that project staff were right
171
about improved nutrition improving fertility, the owners placed
a bull in with those heifers that were being fed additional
feed in the feeding trials.
Project interviews of cattle owners at the central
abbatoir indicated that owners do not sell their livestock at a
seasonally opportune time. Over 3000 observations were made of
slaughters in 1985 disaggregated by sex and age (Russo and
Spencer, 1988). Male cattle made up 80X of the kill in February
when cattle were declining in weight and body condition. In
July the cattle kill of males dropped to 50X when cattle were
beginning to gain weight. Yearly average kills for 1985 were
63X male and 36X female. Table 1 indicates the contribution of
livestock to farmer income in The Gambia. Total income from
livestock represents, however, less than 25X of the total farm
incomer livestock owners in The Gambia as in other West
African countries look upon livestock as a form of risk
reduction and security. Livestock contribute to farmers
welfare in ways other than income or monetary considerations.
In a livestock survey in 1985, owners indicated that even with
more reliable markets they would be reluctant to sell any
animals until cash needs were sufficiently demanding e.g.
procurement of food for the family.
Table 1. Contribution of livestock to farmer income.
The Gambia, 1985.
Item X of Total
Sales and consumption
Cattle 28.4
Sheep & goats 14.7
Milk 35.1
Draft 12.9
Manure 8.9
Total 100.0
172
Inputs into livestock management are labour, feed and
capital, usually drugs (Table 2). Labour per herd is higher
for cattle but lower per head. Note that cattle, sheep and
goats rarely received any feed while draft animals always do.
Looking at the economic efficiency measures in Table 3, cattle
are indicated as having the highest net earnings per unit of
labour and per head for the herds studied in these four
villages. A significant reason for the high return per unit of
labour is the use of contract herders. Because the herds are
taken away from the crop areas during the rainy season,
compounds (the farm household unit) incur no labour costs for
cattle production. Sheep and goats show better earnings per
TLU and 1 Dalasi cost than cattle (see Table 3), yet cattle are
still preferred by most Gambians. This suggests that social
considerations regarding cattle ownership are more important
than monetary values to Gambian livestock owners.
Land Tenure Effects on Livestock, Crop, and Forage Production
The land tenure system in The Gambia does not function along
Western (capitalistic) understanding of land ownership.
Western land ownership is based on the concept of freehold
while in The Gambia and much of rural Africa, the landholder
has a very different set of rights. Land is to be used for
specific purposes with certain restrictions, most notably, the
restriction on transfer of rights. The original cultivators of
the land have usufruct right that is heritable but not
alienable. Moreover, lack of use means the land reverts to the
village and can be reassigned by the village chief or elders.
The grazing lands are open common to which every Gambian has
free access. Grazing land includes almost all national
territory which is not built on, cultivated or set aside as a
national forest reserve (Eastman, 1986).
173
Table 2: Inputs utilised in livestock management in four
Gambian villages by 24 farmers, 1985-86
ave. Labour ADEa Feedstuff s (kq) Costs
No. of herd per per per per per
herdLivestock Her ds si ze herd head herd head
Cattle 19 22.2 102.9 4.6 26C 1 22.63
Sheep 13 6.6 33.3 5.1 0 0 2.19
Goats 18 5.3 28.3 6.1 0 0 2.50
Oxen 11 1.9 44.1 19.4 1838 808 1.36
Horses 10 2.7 64.1 23.3 5159 1876 1.00
Donkeys 17 1.8 40.3 22.4 1482 826 0
aADE =
Adu lt Da'/ Equivalent
Labour time from males and females 13-59 yrs is 1.0
Other ages is 0.5. Total weighted hours are divided
by 8 to calculate ADE
In Dalasis, 1 US = 7 D.
One farmer fed groundnut hay to a single sick cow in June
Table 3: Economic efficiency measures for six livestock types
of 24 farmers, 1985-6
Donkeys
ADEa
Head
TLUB
1 Dalasi Cost
Cattle 11.91 54.49 69.03 34.36
Sheep 8.45 42.78 426.17 128.43
Goats 5.93 31.84 452.24 67.11
Oxen -17.40 -337.73 -422.22 -.83
Horsesc
-40.50 -944.53 -944.53 -1.01
Donkeys0 -17.87 -401.24 -177.61 -.97
See Table 2 for definition
TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit
1 cattle = .8 TLU 1 ox = .8 TLU
1 sheep = .1 TLU 1 horse = 1.0 TLU
1 goat = .07 TLU 1 donkey = .52 TLU
Numbers for draft animals do not include value of draft services
174
Conflicts over intrusions into crop lands are both
frequent and intense yet very few conflicts are reported over
grazing lands. Gambians do not believe that the livestock
belonging to other Gambians should be excluded from grazing
lands. Death losses, while serious in dry years, are still not
perceived as unacceptably high by livestock owners. Lack of
forage in the late dry season is not seen as a serious problem.
Fencing an area that is not cropland to keep cattle out of it
goes against their traditional beliefs about open commons yet
forage production and rangeland improvement required exclusive
control over the land just as crop production does. Experience
elsewhere in Africa has shown that controlled grazing is
extremely difficult to achieve in democratic societies and is
even difficult to achieve with coercion. The majority of
farmers disapprove of fencing and controlled grazing because
they do not see any benefits accruing directly to them.
Livestock ownership therefore assumes the role of land
ownership, i.e. the more livestock an individual owns the more
the benefits of the community's land accrue to that individual
(Hopcraft, 1981). Still, many Gambian villages have grazing
areas where they have already established more or less
exclusive customary rights through years of continuous use and
would be the type of villages in which to initiate deferred
grazing and fencing schemes. Makama Sereh, the very isolated
village in these studies, had the most success with deferred
grazing because there were no intrusions from outside
l i vestock.
Forages in Gambian Farming Systems
The concept of a crop that is planted solely for use by animals
is totally outside Gambian experiences. Livestock owners were
always impressed by the numerous types of forages they saw at
field days on the research stations but except for less than
half dozen owners, most did not care to try forage production
for their herds. Every attempt at forage production in the
villages, especially in the case of fodder banks, met with
175
misunderstandings and conflicts. Land presumably given for
several years to the project for legume fodder banks would get
reassigned by the chief for crop production in the second year.
Often, livestock themselves would unfasten the gates of the
fodder bank and totally defoliate it. The production of forage
crops conflicts with food crop production for both land and
labour. Improvements of the deferred grazing areas, for
example, took place at the same time that farmers were busy
with their food crops.
Two conflicting forces operate against including forages
in either small pastoral/semi -pastoral productions systems
(Mclntire and Debra, 1986). One is land abundance in rural
areas where herds are highly mobile, such as in The Gambia.
Forages compete with rangeland and crop residues which can be
grazed with very little labour input. The second force
operating against the inclusion of forages into the system is
land scarcity near urban areas, such as Dakar, Senegal, or in
rural areas where land is scarce due to high population
pressures, such as Western Kenya. There, forages compete with
food crops for land while more crop residues are available.
Table 4 indicates these conflicts and interactions and includes
the use of crop residues. One interaction is that crop
residues can be transported to urban areas and sold; another
interaction is that the herds can move to the rural areas. In
The Gambia, the advantages of livestock production as practiced
currently in terms of labour saving alone make it difficult to
convince farmers of the value of forage production per se.
Finally, many villagers looked at the imported fencing
materials and imported seeds and saw that this technology was
beyond their reach. Not only was it capital intensive in that
fencing 10 hectares cost approximately US $2000 but also no
attempt was made to use locally available fencing materials or
local forages. Thick, strong fencing of garden plots,
compounds and mosques is quite common, for example. Herdsmen
were asked (Lawry, 1987) if they thought it was possible to
have deferred grazing areas without fencing and they were very
176
doubtful, citing the tradition of the open commons as the
reason. As for the plant species used for renovations of the
sites, Andropogon is the only locally available species, all of
the other species are imported.
One of the project's goals was to develop a forage
production programme in the Ministry of Agriculture, both in
agronomy and range management. As discussed above, forage
production in The Gambia faces a number of obstacles. It will
occur if farmers see it as providing benefits to them and their
livestock. That it will do so is not yet apparent to Gambian
farmers. The Mixed Farming Project was mandated to begin a
forage agronomy programme which the agronomists started in the
usual way, e.g., plant introductions, variety testing and
fertilizer trials. This has been termed the notional stage of
technology evaluation and is the norm for the beginning of most
projects (Menz and Knipscheer, 1981). While such research
definitely needs to be done in The Gambia, it should not have
been the sole focus of the forage programme because improved
forages and pastures do not fit into current Gambian farming
systems. Nor, as discussed earlier, will forages fit into many
other African farming systems with abundant land resources.
177
Table 4. Food Vs. Forage Vs. Crop residues
LAND CONSTRAINT
ABUNDANCE - Food and forage crop -Forage crops are not
production coincide grown
- Crop production requires - Crop residues use not
economical more workers than
herding unless it is done
when there is a (i.e.,
grazing) labour surplus
(i.e. after food crop
harvest, during dry season,
by children, etc) or it can
be transported and sold in
urban areas.
SCARCITY - Forage crops compete - Forage crops are not
for crop lands grown
- Management of crop - Crop residues become
residues more increases, requires more
valuable animal production
may workers increase, herd
mobility decreases (i.e.,
stall feeding or animal
production decreases (i.e.,
large ruminant production
moves to rural areas).
Adapted from Mclntire and Debra (1986)
The success of the Crop Residue Feeding Innovation
The only well-accepted innovation was the adoption of crop
residue storage and feeding. As mentioned earlier, farmers
have their groundnut hay for use by draft animals and small
ruminants during the dry season. Therefore, it was not a major
178
technological leap, complicated management decision, nor
sociological blunder to ask them to save other crop residues.
Four years of research station feeding trials using every type
of crop residue in several combinations showed that weights of
growing animals could at least be maintained, if not increased,
over the dry season (Hedrick and Bojang, 1983; Russo and
Ceesay, 1986). This was corroborated in the village studies by
livestock owners who could see these benefits immediately.
Furthermore, in 1985, the rains were late so that only those
villages with stored crop residues had feed for their animals.
This made a deep impression on livestock owners and probably
contributed to the adoption of this innovation that year.
The major problem encountered was the amount of labour
required to store the crop residues. People are busy
harvesting crops but could not take the time to stack the crop
residues. One solution to this problem was through community
work days, a common practice in this Muslim country. A second
problem was the actual manner of storage, whether on platforms,
in the field, fenced, etc. Field staff were trained in storage
techniques, a handbook was written for extension staff (Russo,
1985), and many discussions with farmers took place. Once it
was explained that the crop residues had to be stacked so as to
avoid termite and small ruminant access, villagers soon came up
with their own local modifications and ways of storage. In
late 1985 when technical input by both the project and the
government was minimized, a survey was done of all the
participating villages and surrounding villages to see what
farmers were continuing to do without project input.
Overwhelmingly, the crop residue storage portion of the
deferred grazing scheme was the only part that was being
continued and picked up by other villages which had not been in
the programme (Russo and Patrick, 1986, unpublished data).
These adopting villages were all Fula, the only ethnic group
with experience in livestock management. This raises an
interesting question as to the importance of training crop
farmers in animal nutrition and management. An independent
survey in 1987 of villages participating in the feeding trials
(Lawry, 1987) also showed that the principles of crop residue
feeding have been widely adopted in both eastern districts.
179
A FRAMEWORK FOR FARMER ACCEPTANCE
An early examination of Gambian farming systems which could
have included socio-economic information and a more thorough
investigation of secondary sources of data about similar
projects would have led to a somewhat different design for this
project and a much different approach to the field work. It is
the current vogue to examine the "failures" of livestock
development projects in Africa but concrete suggestions to
prevent such failures are few. The most blatant design flaws
are an oversimplification of the farming system and strong
disciplinary biases. Focus on only one problem, for example,
inadequate feed supplies during the dry season, by only one
discipline such as range management inevitably leads to
perceived failures by both the development experts and the
farmers.
The project tried to introduce four innovations through
these vi l lage- level feeding trials with varying degrees of
success. Why did it fail dismally with some innovations and
succeed with others? The answers lie not in the biological
feasibility of each innovation because all were possible. The
blame cannot be laid on project personnel, political reasons
such as researcher vs. extension conflicts, nor weather as all
impinged equally on all innovations. Rather, answers must be
looked for in socio-economic areas. Borrowing heavily from
social science researchers, a methodology is proposed that can
be used in developing a framework for designing farmer/user
level programmes. This framework focusses on the potential
goals; conflicts that may arise between the so-called
development experts (both national research and extension staff
and expatriate staff) and farmers. Development is not simply
the study of responses to an innovation by a group of local
people but a study of the critical interactions between at
least two groups (Galaty, 1981). Use of this framework on the
four innovations is described by Table 5. It can be seen that
while development goals and farmer goals are similar, i.e.,
production of more feed, farmers concerns in 3 out of 4 areas
prevent them from adopting the innovation. These concerns are
180
all socio and/or economic. Some of the farmer concerns are
beyond their control, such as the land tenure system; while
some could be alleviated by cash alone. The framework simply
asks what logical conclusion can be reached concerning farmer
acceptance based on the constraints he or she faces. There may
be possible conflicts between government planners and donors
who have specific concepts and goals, local staff with their
own agendas, and the farmers who have a socio-economic system
which is perceived as being flawed by the former two groups.
This framework is used in Table 6 to explore other
possible innovations associated with livestock production in a
mixed agricultural system like The Gambia. The innovations are
rotational grazing, imposition of a grazing fee or setting
livestock quotas, practising selective feeding of certain
classes of livestock, and increasing offtake. With rotational
grazing, goals are similar in that more feed is a desired
product but farmers cannot or do not want to devote labour to
increased herd management. A grazing fee goes against farmer
goals to maximize herd size and against an almost universal
goal to avoid taxation of any kind. Farmer acceptance of the
first two innovations could be modified by a government and
about which farmers can do nothing. In the case of selective
feeding, again, a change in government policy, in this case,
the price structure, allowing more to be paid for better
quality meat might encourage more sales. Selective feeding is
a system requiring much labour and contact hours per animal.
In the Gambia, livestock owners are rarely the managers; over
90X of the input cost in livestock production is for contract
labour. The last innovation, increased offtake, could only
occur if nutrition were improved, leading to improved calving
and calf and adult survival. Data show that there are very few
surplus males, that the calving interval is 1.5 years, and that
calf mortality is 16X (Vesseur et al, 1986). For the latter
two innovations, farmer acceptance is questionable but not
necessarily negative.
The major problem with this framework, or with any other,
is getting people to use it. Using the framework may seem
unwiedly or too "soft" an approach for a biological scientist
181
but it is a rapid way to test which innovations might be more
acceptable to farmers and therefore, more likely to succeed.
Researchers who are willing to try a new fertilizer or vaccine
should be equally as willing to use the tool of another
discipline such as social science, to improve their programmes.
Table 5: Innovations introduced by the Mixed Farming Project,
1981-86
Innovation Development Farmer goal
goal
Farmer Farmer
concerns acceptance
Range
renovation
more feed more feed
low inputs
to LS
land tenure
system,
low land
pressure,
labour,
no seeds
no
Deferred
grazing
more feed
< overgrazing
more feed land tenure
low inputs system,
to LS social cost
economic
cost
Fodder banks more feed
> production
more feed
low inputs
to LS
land tenure
system,
compete with
CS,
no seeds,
'free' range
vegetation
no
Crop residue more feed
feeding > livestock
production
more feed tradition
low inputs low conflict
to LS with CS
yes
LS = Livestock systems
CS = Cropping systems
182
Table 6: Possible innovations in rangeland management for The
Gambia
Innovation Development Farmer goal Farmer Farmer
goal concerns acceptance
Rotational more feed more feed land tenure no
grazing < overgrazing low inputs system
in LS high level
costs
Grazing feed < overgrazing > herd size land tenure no
or livestock system
quota inequitable
seen as tax
Selective > production > herd size save all ?
feeding animals, no
market incentive
Increased > production > herd size management ?
offtake keep all incentive to
females market prices
most males already
sold
LS ■ Livestock systems
CONCLUSIONS
The struggle to design meaningful, useful and appropriate
research is not new and, in fact, has been the subject of many
meetings, conferences and panels. Concerned individuals and
institutions continue to believe that there must be a better
way and that it must be found soon in the light of the very
real problems faced by Africa. Recently, several researchers
have been developing frame workers and models to link
technological innovations and the agricultural system that is
both under study and the target for development. These
frameworks vary in their methodological approach, some using
183
local research and extension staff, secondary sources of data
and farmers as key components in design (Patrick and Russo,
1988) while others rely heavily on research staff, experimental
data and computers (Hart, 1987; ILCA; 1987). The former, into
which this particular framework can be fitted, is useful in
farming systems where little quantitative data is available yet
much is known about constraints in the system. It could,
indeed, be seen as the first step for the more quantitative
frameworks and models. The more analytical frameworks and
models are useful in agricultural systems which have had the
benefit of physical and biological experimentation and where a
decision needs to be made concerning which of many alternatives
to choose.
In many projects, potential development impact is not
quantitatively considered in the design and evaluation of the
technology selected (Hart, 1987). There are too often serious
gaps in knowledge and time lags between the notional stage of
technology evaluation which is the start of a project and
actual field implementation by farmers which could be ten years
down the road. Use of any of these frameworks to facilitate an
integrated development process is not only indicated, but
essential. Host planners seem to remain unaware and insulated
from the findings of experienced field workers that the most
important aspect of development is involving local populations
in the planning, design, implementation, and evaluation of
development activities intended for their benefit in light of
both farmer and development goals that the likelihood of
success increases.
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pp.
Eastman, C. 1986. Traditional Gambian land tenure and the
requirements of agricultural development. MFP Tech. REp.
19. MANR/GOTG/CID/CSU. 36 pp.
184
Galaty, J.G. 1981. Organisations for pastoral development:
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Galaty, D. Aronson, P.C. Salzman and A. Chouinard, (Eds.)
The future of pastoral peoples. IDRC, Ottawa. pp. 284-
293.
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evaluation of crop and livestock technology. Plenary
paper presented at the Farming Systems Symposium,
Fayettevi l le, AR. 23 pp.
Hedrick, D. and Bojang, M. 1983. Final report of the forage
agronomist, Mixed Farming Project. MFP Tech. Rep. 2.
MANR/GOTG/CID/CSU. 45 pp.
Lawry, S.W. 1987. Report of an assessment of deferred grazing
schemes in The Gambia. DAHP/GARD. Banjul, The Gambia. 11
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Mclntire, J. and Debra, S. 1986. Forage research in
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specificity problem in farming systems research. Agri .
Systems 7: 95-103.
Patrick, N.A. and Russo, S.L. 1988. A proposed framework for
designing livestock development projects in West Africa:
The Gambia as an example. jK. Agr . Human Values. 4(2&3):
105-110.
Russo, S.L. 1985. Handbook on the use of crop residues for
livestock feed. MFP/DAHP. Abuko. 11 pp.
Russo, S.L. and Ceesay, B. 1986. Research in forage agronomy
by the Mixed Farming Project, 1983-1986. MFP. Tech. Rep.
12 MANR/GOTG/CID/CSU.
Russo, S.L. and Spencer, W.P. 1988. Goals conflicts: Cattle
production in The Gambia. Paper presented at Intl.
Rangeland development Symp. Corpus Christi, Texas, pp.
65-80.
Vesseur, P., Hurkens, E.J., Eckert, J., Crouch, J.C. and
Mol, L. 1986. The Gambia cattle herd: a survey report.
MFP Tech. Rep. 13. DAHP/GTZ/MFP/MOA . Banjul, The Gambia.
24 pp
185
FORAGE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
IN UGANDA
E.N. Sabiiti and J.S. Mugerwa
Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry
Makerere University, P.0. Box 7062,
Kampala, Uganda
INTRODUCTION
The high potential for pasture productivity and subsequent
animal production in Uganda has not been fully exploited mainly
because the existing research data is not easily applicable to
the livestock farmers. For example, virtually all the
available data since the 1950's has come from research done on
research stations with little relevance to farmers problems
related to pasture management and utilisation. Even that
portion of the data that could be utilised by the farmers is
still locked-up on these stations, in libraries or with the
individual scientists. But most important is that the
overwhelming data is either descriptive or basic in nature
probably because of the developmental stage in forage research
in the country.
There are also several factors that have limited
utilisation of some of the research data that has relevance to
the farmers' problems. These include lack of emphasis by the
Government to support the application of such research data,
limited manpower to develop co-ordinated research and to
conduct on-farm research and to extend the results to farmers,
lack of the necessary inputs, type of data available and lack
of continuity in the research programmes.
The objectives of this paper are to review critically the
research data on forages with the view of identifying the major
constraints that have limited their utilisation and to suggest
appropriate approach for generating uti Usable forage research
data by the farmers.
186
Review of forage research programme since 1900
Until up to 1947, grass in Uganda was typically used for
resting land in the crop rotation system or shifting
cultivation. Emphasis was laid on soil conservation rather
than grazing as this was considered detrimental to the soil
fertility and subsequent crop production. Fortunately, Kerkham
(1947) found that the grazing of the "resting" land was
beneficial. Later on Stobbs (1969) and Stephens (1967)
confirmed Kerkham's findings. Their data created a new
awareness about pasture research that could be considered as a
"true crop" (Henderlong, 1973).
Type of research
Considerable review of research work done in Uganda since
1900's has been given by Henderlong (1973), Ogwang (1974),
Ochodomuge (1978), Sabiiti (1980) and more recently by Byenkya
(1989). Most of these reviews did not bring out vividly the
limitations or which research data was not easily applicable.
The following types of research were highlighted namely,
descriptive or exploratory, basic research (quantities) and
appl ied.
Descriptive research
This was necessary because information was needed before
forages could be introduced and this work began in 1906 up to
1954. During this period several grasses and legumes were
identified and by 1958 about 8 grass and 9 legume species were
recommended for further research Horrell (1958) and by 1970 a
generalised recommendation of forages for different agro-
ecological zones was produced (Table 1).
Quantitative research
The work which followed descriptive research emphasized
quantitative data on establishment, seeding rates, fertilizer
187
requirements, grass/ legume mixtures, inoculation, intensity of
grazing/defoliation, chemical composition and digestibility and
grazing trials to determine acceptability and animal
production.
In all, over 25 research projects of this type have been
reported (see references). Since most of this data was basic,
little of it could be utilised by the livestock farmers. For
example, knowledge about chemical composition and digestibility
which is abundant (Bredon and Horell, 1963; Bredon et al., 1963
(ab, Ogwang, 1974; Reid et al, 1973; Soneji et al., 1980;
Mugerwa and Bwabye, 1974; Odwongo and Mugerwa, 1980) although
very useful in forage evaluation, has no direct meaning to a
local farmer and as such a lot of these data are purely
academic and could not be utilised. A few examples of basic
data are given in Tables 2-4 and that have no relevance to
solving our farmers problems.
However, to an educated farmer, some of these data may be
useful since one could see easily the trend in crude protein
and digestibility with age.
The most useful quantitative research data available have,
unfortunately, been provided by a few research workers in
Uganda between 1965 and 1978 (Stobbs, 1965; 1966; 1969;
Bareeba, 1977; Odwongo 1976; Mugerwa et al, 1973; 1974;
Musangi, 1965; 1969; Soneji, 1970; 1971; Tiharuhondi, 1970;
Olsen, 1971; 1972; Olsen and Tiharuhondi, 1972; Mugerwa,
(unpublished data). These researchers related forage
production and animal responses. A few examples are shown in
Tables 5-6. Such data have a real practical meaning to the
farmer because the farmer is able to see the final product in
terms of milk, beef or crop yields and the costs when he
utilises the results on his/her farm.
188
Table 1: Species recommended for planted grasslands in the
different ecological zones of Uganda
Pennisetum Hyparrhenia Themeda Pennisetum
purpureum spp. zone triandra clandestinum
zone zone zone
Species
Good Poor Good Poor
soils soils soils soils Ankole Karamoja
Grasses
(a) Pasture
Brachiaria
brizantha
B. ruziziensis
Cenchrus
c i l i a r i s
Chl or is gayana
Cynodon
dactylon
C. plectostachyus
Hyparrhenia rufa
Me l inis
mi nut i flora
Panicum
maximum
Pennisetum
clandestinum
Setaria anceps
Pennisetum
purpureum
x
x x
x x
(b) Fodder
Pennisetum
purpureum
Tripscum laxum
189
Pennisetum
typhoides
Sorghum bicolor
(wi ld sorghum)
Zea mays X
Legumes
Centrosema
pubescens X
Desmodfum
intortum X
D. uncinatum X
Glycine wightii X
Macropti l tum
atropurpureum X
Medicago
sativa X
Sty losanthes
guianensis X
Tri folium repens
X X
X X
X
X
X
x where the species are adapted
190
Table 2: Percentage crude protein in the major grasses in
Uganda.
Species Ankole Buganda- Eastern Acholi Meani
Busoga region lango
Lake shore area
areas
Brachiaria s PP 7 01
Chloris gaya na 5 96
Cynodon dact ylon 8 27
D i g i t a r i a
scalarum
Hvparrhenia spp 4 41
Pan i cum
maximum 6 61
Setaria
spacelata 5 82
Sporobolus
pyramidal is 5 15
Themeda
triandra 4 14
Pennisetum
purpureum 6 28
Zonal Mean 5 97
14 07
12 52
23 56
19 96
11 78
Source: Bredon and Horell (1961).
12.77 11.28
12.65 10.95
- 15.92
- 19.96
10.60 9.54
12.65
11.36
15.00 14.07 13.49 12.54
14.45 - 12.28 10.85
10.91 8.04
4.14
13.02 12.52 12.52 11.08
15.68 12.65 12.17 11.08
191
Table3.2ffecto geonpr tein2fi rc nt nta ddiges ibilityfHa ryInd go. plant( eaf+stem)
IVDMD(wks)
2.2 62.3 2.1 39.6 2.1 2.8 28.1 1.1 6.2 2.8 19.8 28.1 18.3 11.3 -.1 13.2 13.1 11.8
28.2
XS2
33.2 31.3 46.9 16.9 46.9 18.1 18.2 11.6 16.9 6.1 28.1 19.2 6.2 31.1 26.1 39.3 66.8 2.3 6.1
Whole
XCP 26.6 26.1 2.6 26.1 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.1 22.1 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.9 2.3 2.2 1.3 2.3 2.3
IV2M2
56.8 33.1 31.3 53.3 31.3 53.3 31.3 30.8 18.9 16.3 11.3 13.1 13.1 11.3 11.3 12.6 12.2 11.3 18.3
Stems
XS2M
12.1 11.1 12.2 13.1 18.1 6.1 19.1 18.8 1.9 28.8 2.3 28.1 28.6 2.3 39.9 61.3 66.3 2.2 1.9
XCP 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.3 2.3 13.1 13.3 1.3 6.3 11.3 11.3 11.1 11.3 2.9 2.1 9.1 11.1 2.1 6.3
XIVDMO
61.1 62.3 62.3 2.2 62.1 39.9 54.1 26.6 28.6 28.1 28.1 26.6 28.1 2.6 2.2 28.6 2.3 6.1 26.2
Leaves XS2
32.1 31.2 36.9 31.3 36.2 31.8 2.2 34.1 34.8 46.2 46.1 2.3 11.1 13.1 31.6 31.8 13.6 46.1 34.6
XCP 6.1 6.8 6.1 21.2 21.6 21.1 26.8 26.3 26.1 26.2 26.2 2.1 2.1 26.3 2.1
DM.1
34.1 34.1 26.1
6ge
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Unfortunately, for the Uganda case, this type of research
came to a halt in mid 1970's with the onset of political
instability. Much of the research was done on the research
stations under high technology so there is no indication of how
such technology would produce under farmers' conditions of poor
management. We are not aware of any published work done at
farm level. Furthermore, most of the research was of short
duration and the conclusions always recommended further
research to generate more knowledge about the forage responses
to various management practices. Such data would be considered
as preliminary and this would limit their utilisation.
However, one big advantage we have achieved from some of
the research findings was to produce a handbook on pastures for
farmers (Wendt et. al. , 1970) although it is written in English
and as such has limited audience. Also there is hardly any
copy now available for the farmers and scientists.
Forage Development Phases
We are convinced that the research results to-date are
extremely important because of the developmental phases that
have to be followed in forage evaluation programmes. There is
generalised data on most of forage species under different
agro-ecological conditions in the country so it was and will be
necessary to continue with basic data generation on research
stations and then move to the farm-level studies. There is
also a need to develop or introduce new forage species to
replace the less productive ones with changing farming
practices.
Current Research Programmes
Reactivation of forage research began in 1986 with aid from
USAID following 15 years of no effective research. There is a
need to continue forage evaluation (Sabiiti et. a_l_. 1989).
Since the previous research programmes were terminated
194
prematurely and there is still too general or no information on
the potential of these forage species (both native and exotic)
in terms of animal productivity. The studies are based at
Makerere University Farm, Kabanyolo and Agricultural research
stations in the country. The new approach is collaboration at
both national and regional levels, e.g. with the Pastures
Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (PANESA) as this
generates quicker and more useful data.
We intend to extend our research programmes to the farm
level after generating adequate data and when funds do permit.
195
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Major constraints in Uganda and possible remedies
(i) Manpower
Forage research and development for animal production was
predominantly in the hands of expertriates; about 20 of them up
to 1973. Firstly, they were located on research stations where
there were the necessary facilities so there was hardly any
involvement with the farmers. Secondly, following the 1971
military government, all of these researchers left the country
and this marked the deterioration of forage research
programmes. From the literature, considerable publications
were done between 1965 and 1973 and thereafter publications
more or less ceased. This led to discontinuity in research and
eventual collapse. The few Ugandan scientists who remained
lacked facilities to continue with research either on research
stations or at farm level. In short, there is limited forage
and animal scientific personnel in Uganda to be effective in
forage research. For example, there is one qualified pasture
agronomist working in collaboration with three animal
nutritionists at Makerere University. There is a poor linkage
between researchers and extensionists and this is partly due to
limited qualified forage/animal extension personnel. People in
the extension tend to shy away from researchers and this has
tended to limit dissemination of research data to the farmers.
There is a need to train several forage, animal and
extension personnel so as to create confidence between the
researcher and the extension staff and increase interaction.
Furthermore, there has been lack of co-ordination in our
research programme for several years. Some research scientists
have quietly taken all their data leaving no publication behind
and have changed jobs since research does not pay well here.
The Government should create good conditions for researchers to
remain dedicated in their jobs by providing research funds,
promotion prospects and other incentives.
198
(ii) Government Policy
There is no clear-cut Government policy on how to implement
research data generated by the scientists. There is no full-
fledged department of Animal and Pasture production headed by
qualified personnel in the Ministry of Animal Industry and
Fisheries. Forage scientists who work with this Ministry are
generally ignored by the Veterinarians. A situation of this
kind is not productive for any researcher.
(iii) Lack of inputs
This is a very crucial factor both from the researchers and the
farmers point of view. Researchers lack the necessary inputs
such as funds, transport, equipment to conduct applied research
or even to reach the farmers; there is a poor extension system
with poor or no facilities to disseminate results; and the
farmer does not have the recommended inputs. For example,
elephant grass hybrids and forage legumes which have been
recommended by researchers have remained at the research
stations because of lack of planting materials. Pasture seed
is not available and if available it is too expensive. A kilo
of legume seed costs about Ug. Sh.1700/= (US$ 12) and this is
prohibitive to the farmers. The use of nitrogen fertilisers to
increase grass pasture under irrigation is too expensive
because of the high cost of nitrogenous fertilizers.
(iv) Type of technology
Most of the existing results were generated by using
complicated experimental designs and this would limit their
utilisation. Also a very important aspect is to try and
indicate the economics of such technology because a few of the
studies have incorporated this (Stobbs, 1967; Tiharuhondi et
aU, 1973) in Tables 7 and 8 respectively.
199
(v) Socio-economic constraints
The majority of our livestock farmers are rural (over 90X) and
have produced cattle in their traditional systems and seem to
be contented with that system because the new technology
involves high expenses to utilise. One farmer in 1976 found me
(senior author) studying forages at the University Farm and
commented that "I was wasting Government's money". Many
farmers take pastures for granted and this hinders adoption of
research findings. However, the progressive dairy farmers seem
to understand the importance of research.
Strategies to generate utilisable research data
We have indicated some of these strategies in our discussion
above and here we are emphasizing them once again.
i. Research must be geared toward solving farmers problems if
it has to be utilised. To overcome this constraint, there
should be collaborative research so that several problems
are solved at once and a full technological package
developed. Farmers should be involved; i.e. scientists
should visit farmers when planning their research in order
to see or be told those problems at the farm level.
ii. Training of personnel (research and extension) cannot be
overemphasized. This is lacking here and in other African
countries. Also farmers should be educated through mass
media, holding of field days or during workshops.
iii. There should be a clear-cut policy by the Government on
application of research data; otherwise the information
will remain where it was developed.
200
Table 7: Animal production under different grazing management
systems.
Continuous Three Six Mean
grazing paddocks paddocks
Liveweight gain per
acre (lb) 336 days 334 335 300 323
Mean l i vewe i gh t gain
per beast per day (lb) 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.48
Estimated gross return
(Shs.) at-50 per lb 167 167.50 150.00 161.50
Source: Stobbs (1967)
Table 8: Treatment cost and grain in beef production
KgN/ha
Costs (Sh./ha) Returns/Ha
N Irrigation Total Beef Value Net gain
(kg) (Sh) (Sh)
Non- irrigated
0 - - 0 187 939 939
224 509 - 509 307 1534 1025
448 1018 - 1018 464 2323 1305
672 1527 - 1527 544 2728 1201
Irrigated
0 - 395 395 153 768 373
224 509 395 904 489 2449 1545
448 1018 395 1413 654 3772 1859
672 1527 395 1922 748 3744 1822
Source: Tiharuhondi et al (1973).
201
iv. Publication of research information should be done in a
language which farmers understand. We are suggesting
farming bulletins or use of local newspapers.
v. The Government should create incentives for researchers to
stay in their jobs so as to keep continuity and this of
course, includes provision of research inputs. The inputs
should be available for the farmer.
CONCLUSION
Almost all the available data in Uganda has come from research
stations with better technology compared to the local small-
scale farmers. Secondly, most of the findings are descriptive
or basic in nature. This coupled with the above reason tends
to limit their utilisation.
Several constraints which have tended to limit their
utilisation have been discussed and strategies suggested. When
there limited data on forages, basic data is essential and in
order to generate a complete research package, collaborative
research is the best approach.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
we wish to acknowledge USAID for funding our current forage
research programmes and the senior author is thankful to PANESA
for providing the sponsorship to present this paper.
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206
SESSION It
ON-FARM FEEDING SYSTEMS
207
THE KILIMANJARO DAIRY FEEDING SYSTEMS: AN ATTEMPT AT
EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF ON-FARM LIVESTOCK RESEARCH
N.S.Y. Mdoe and G.I. Mlay
Department of Rural Economy
Sokoine University of Agriculture
P.0. Box 3007, Morogoro, Tanzania
ABSTRACT
The paper presents results of an evaluation survey conducted in
the Kilimanjaro highlands to determine the impact of phase I of
the Dairy Feeding Systems (DFS) project. Deviations from the
conventional experimental design is advanced as the major reason
for employing expost evaluation instead of quantitative analysis
based on statistical method in assessing the impact of on-farm
trials conducted in phase I of the DFS project.
The results of the evaluation survey reveal that the project
has had a positive impact on the performance of dairy cattle.
Farmers felt that the DFS project has been instrumental for the
current closer link between farmers and extension staff.
However, extension staff would have wanted to be more involved in
future project activities. Farmers considered shortage of
veterinary drugs, improved dairy heifers and scarcity of feeds as
the main factors constraining dairy development.
Introduction
Traditional approach to on-farm livestock research include steps
such as farm surveys, research at experimental station(s),
implementation, extension and interpretation of results
(Davendra, 1987). These steps have more or less been followed in
on-farm livestock research conducted in the highlands of
Kilimanjaro by an inter-disciplinary research team of the Dairy
Feeding Systems (DFS) project. Preliminary farm surveys were
conducted in 1984 (Urio and Mlay, 1984, Mdoe, 1985).
Experimentation on use of crop residues, molasses-urea mixture
and pasture agronomy have been going on at the Sokoine University
of Agriculture. The implementation stage involved the selection
208
of project participating farmers among the farmers who were
willing to participate. On-farm trials conducted during phase I
of the project included the incorporation of bean haulms, maize
stover and molasses-urea mixture in livestock basal rations.
Preliminary work on the incorporation of legumes on farmer plots
as a means to improve nutritive value of home grown pastures was
also carried out.
Except for the pasture agronomical studies started towards
the end of phase I of the project, the design of most of the on-
farm trials deviated from the conventional experimental design.
It was decided to ignore blocking for non-experimental variations
within and across households. Sampling was to be purposive
rather than random and the trials were to be farmer managed.
This decision was necessary after considering the following
factors:
i. The herd size per household was small, averaging 4 cows.
This factor restricts the number of treatments possible
within a single household.
ii. Large variation within and between households exists in
terms of breeds kept, age of animals, number and stage of
lactation of individual cows and feed management including
composition and feeding levels. Thus, under conventional
methods of experimentation, a design used need to separate
out these sources of variation from the treatment effects.
HI. Farmers attach high value to their animals and short of
providing them with animals for the trials, an experimental
design that requires differential treatment of the animals
or transfer of daily management to "outsiders" is bound to
fail.
The deviations from the conventional experimental design
imply that quantitative analysis based on statistical methods
cannot be employed in assessing the impact of the series of on-
farm trials conducted in phase I of the Dairy Feeding Systems
project. This paper employs expost evaluation in assessing the
impact of the on-farm trials on dairy production in Kilimanjaro
highlands. Expost evaluation is the analysis after the
209
completion of a project or of a distinct phase of it. According
to FAO (1981), the primary purpose of expost evaluation is to
review the overall relevance, efficiency, and effectiveness of a
project with a view to generating empirical lessons for planning,
designing and implementation of similar future activities. An
expost evaluation of projects requires considerable data and
information entailing measurement and assessment of effects and
impact. This calls for a systematic collection and compilation
of information on the selected key indicators (e.g. increased
production, benefit-cost ratio etc.) through project monitoring
and well designed periodic surveys. It should be emphasized that
the evaluation of the phase I of DFS project is just an attempt
to assess the impact of the farmer managed on-farm trials. The
evaluation is based on a single visit survey and its scope and
vigour fall short of a complete expost evaluation.
The objectives of the evaluation were to determine:
- the impact of the DFS project on dairy cattle management
- the impact of the series of on-farm innovations on milk
production
- the impact of the project on research-extension-farmers
l inkage
- ways and means of improving future project activities
2. Methodology
The evaluation was based on three target groups: project
participating farmers, non-project participating farmers and
extension staff at village, division and district levels. Data
for the evaluation were obtained by administering structured
questionnaires to the three target groups. It was planned to
interview all twenty project participating farmers but at the
time of the survey only 9, 4 and 5 farmers were available from
Ng'uni, Wandri and Mowo Njamu villages respectively. In case of
extension staff, the intention was to interview all of them.
However, at the time the survey was conducted only 9 extension
staff were available.
210
3. Survey Findings
3.1 Project participating farmers
3.1.1. Contribution of the Dairy Feeding Systems Project to Dairy
Production
All the interviewed project participating farmers in the three
villages indicated that they were not incorporating legumes in
fodder production before the project. 55X of the farmers
interviewed in Ng'uni village reported to have been incorporating
molasses in the basal ration of dairy cattle before the project.
All farmers in Mowo Njamu village indicated to have not been
incorporating molasses in the basal ration while only 50X of the
farmers interviewed in Wandri village reported to have been using
molasses even before the project. The information given during
the survey clearly indicates that all the project participating
farmers in the three villages were feeding dairy cows with bean
straw and maize stover.
With regard to the impact of the project, most of the
participating farmers interviewed in the three villages indicated
that the project has had an impact on dairy management in terms
of keeping records, use of molasses, better utilisation of maize
stover by chopping, increased use of crop residues and improved
pasture management practices (Table 1).
Table 1 shows that the greatest impact of the project on
dairy management has been on increased use of molasses and
keeping milk production records. The least impact has been on
increased use of crop residues and pasture management.
211
Table 1: Impact of project on Dairy Management.
Management practice
changed
Number of Farmers
Ng'uni Wandri Mowo Total
N j amu
No change in management 1
Record keeping 8
Extensive use of molasses 7
Milk measurement 3
Chopping maize stover 1
Increased use of crop residues 1
Pasture management 0
0 0 1
2 3 13
4 5 16
2 2 7
1 0 2
0 0 1
0 1 1
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
The resultant effect of changes in various management
aspects presented in Table 1 was the improvement in performance
of dairy cows in the research site. All project participating
farmers interviewed in Ng'uni and Wandri villages reported
performance of dairy cows to have improved as a result of the
project. In Mowo Njamu, 80X of the participating farmers
reported improvement in performance of dairy cows while 20X of
the farmers indicated that the performance of dairy cows remained
the same.
There has been an overall increase in milk yield per cow as
reported by project participating farmers (Tables 2.1, 2.2 and
2.3). On the average, milk yield increased from 4.5
litres/cow/day to 5.5 litres/cow/day in Ng'uni village. This was
a rise of 22X over the project period. In Wandri village, milk
yield increased by 21X from 5.25 litres/cow/day to 6.4
litres/cow/day. Average milk yield in Mowo Njamu increased by
23X from an average of 4.8 litres/cow/day to 5.9 litres/cow/day
during the project period.
212
3.1.2. Contact with extension staff
It was revealed during the survey that the Dairy Feeding Systems
project has had a very big impact on farmers contact with
extension agents. All the projects participating farmers
interviewed in the three villages reported that their contact
with extension agents had improved since the commencement of the
project. They strongly indicated that the project really opened
way not only to frequent visits by extension staff but also to
frequent visits by other government officials from district and
regional levels.
3.1.3. Farmers' views on future project implementation
Most of the project participating farmers interviewed during the
survey, had the view that the project should be implemented as it
was being implemented in the first phase. This view was given by
44X, 50X and 80X of the farmers interviewed in Ng'uni, Wandri and
Mowo Njamu villages respectively. Project participating farmers
from Ng'uni village felt that the sample size should be increased
while those from Wandri and Mowo Njamu villages felt that the
frequency of visits by researchers should be increased while
those from Wandri and Mowo Njamu villages felt that the frequency
of visits by researchers should be increased. The project
participating farmers interviewed reported a number of issues
they would like to be addressed in future. The issue reported by
majority of the farmers as one of the issues to be addressed in
future was that of availability of veterinary drugs which are
currently in short supply. Availability of minerals as one of
the issues to be addressed was reported by 67X and 40X of the
interviewed farmers in Ng'uni and Mowo Njamu villages
respectively. The issue of incorporating legumes in pastures was
reported by 60X, 22X and 25X of the project participating farmers
interviewed in Mowo Njamu, Ng'uni and Wandri villages
respectively. Other issues in the order of being reported by a
large proportion of the farmers as issues to be addressed in
future include research on improved pastures, availability of
concentrates, selection of high yielding cows, availability of
heifers and co-operative marketing of milk.
213
Table 2.1: Ng'uni village: milk yield before and during project
period.
Yield before Yield during Change in
Farmer No. project project yield
1 6.5 8.0 1.5
2 4.0 5.0 1.0
4.5 5.0 0.5
4.0 5.5 1.5
6.0 7.0 1.0
4.0 4.5 0.5
3.0 4.0 1.0
5.0 6.0 1.0
4.0 5.0 1.0
Total 41.0 50.0 9.0
Mean 4.5 5.5 1.0
Standard Error 1.10 1.26 0.35
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
Table 2.2: Mono Njamu village: milk yield before and during
project period.
Yield before Yield during Change in
Farmer No. project project yield
1 6.0 7.0 1.0
2 7.0 8.0 1.0
3 5.0 6.5 1.5
4 3.0 4.0 1.0
5 3.0 4.0 1.0
Total 24 29.5 5.5
Mean 4.8 5.9 1.1
Standar d error 1.79 1.82 0.22
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
214
Table 2.3: Wandri village: milk yield before and during project
period.
Yield before Yield during Change in
Farmer No. project project yield
•Litres-
1 7.0 8.5 1.5
2 5.0 6.0 1.0
3 5.5 6.5 1.0
4 3.5 4.5 1.0
Total 21.0
Mean 5.25
Standard error 1.44
25.5 4.5
6.4 1.125
1.65 0.25
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
3.2. Non-project participating farmers
Majority of the non-project participating farmers interviewed in
Ng'uni, Wandri and Mowo Njamu villages indicated that they were
aware of the existence of the Diary Feeding Systems project in
the area. The number of farmers who were aware of the project
was relatively small in Ng'uni village whereas only 45X of the
interviewed farmers in each of the remaining two villages
indicated that they were aware of the existence of the project in
their villages. The farmers indicated to have first learned
about the project from other farmers, village leaders and
extension staff.
3.2.1. Impact of the project on dairy production
The non-project participating farmers who reported to be aware of
the Dairy Feeding Systems project were further asked to indicate
215
if the project has made them change dairy management practices.
In Ng'uni and Wandri villages, all these farmers reported that
the project has had an impact on how they managed their dairy
herd. However, only 71X of the farmers who reported to be aware
of the existence of the project indicated to have changed dairy
management practices as a result of the project.
Dairy management practices which have changed include
feeding, pasture management, and record keeping. The non-project
participating farmers were also of the opinion that the changes
in dairy management have had an impact in the performance of
their dairy herd and improved as a result of management changes.
In Mowo Njamu village, only 86X of the farmers indicated
improvement in performance of dairy herd due to changes in
management practices.
There had also been an overall increase in milk yield as a
result of changes in management as reported by the non-project
participating farmers. Tables 3.1 to 3.3 show the impact of
changes in dairy management on milk production per cow per day.
In Ng'uni village, average milk yield increased from 3.7
litres/cow/day to 4.3 litres/cow/day during the project period.
Average milk yield in Mowo Njamu increased by 22X from 3.7
litres/cow/day to 4.5 litres/cow/day. In Wandri village average
milk yield increased by 25X from 3.6 litres/cow/day to 4.5
litres/cow/day during the project period. This shows that impact
was greatest for non-project participating farmers in Wandri
village where milk yield increased by 25% as compared to 22% and
19X for Mowo Njamu and Ng'uni respectively.
216
Table 3.1: Ng'uni village: daily milk yield before and during
project.
Yield before Yield during Change in
Farmer No. project project yield
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
•Lit res -
1 5.0 6.0 1.0
2 3.0 3.5 0.5
3 4.0 5.0 1.0
4 3.5 4.0 0.5
5 3.0 3.5 0.5
6 3.0 3.5 0.5
7 4.0 5.0 1.0
8 3.5 4.0 0.5
9 4.0 4.5 0.5
Total 33.0 39.0 0.6
Mean 3.7 4.3 0.7
Standard error 0.66 0.87 0.25
217
Table 3.2: Mono Njamu village: daily milk yield before and during
project
Yield before Yield during Change in
project project yieldLitresFarmer No.
1 4.0
2 5.0
3 3.0
4 4.0
5 3.5
6 3.0
7 3.5
Total 26.0
Mean 3.7
Standard error 0.70
5.0
6.0
4.0
5.0
4.5
3.5
3.5
31.5
4.5
0.91
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
5.5
0.8
0.39
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
Table 3.3: Wandri village: Daily milk yield before and during
project.
Yield before Yield during Change in
Farmer No project project yield
1 2.5 4.0 1.5
2 4.0 4.5 0.5
3 3.0 3.5 0.5
4 5.0 6.0 1.0
Total 14.5 18.0 3.5
Mean 3.6 4.5 0.9
Standar d error 1.10 1.08 0.48
Source: Mlay and Mdoe (1987).
218
3.2.2. Views on future project implementation
The non-project participating farmers reported a number of issues
that they would have liked to be addressed in future if the
project was to be extended. These issues reported in their order
of being reported by a large number of farmers include easy
access to veterinary drugs, pasture establishment and
improvement, easy access to concentrates and minerals, use of
molasses, general dairy husbandry, upgrading of animals through
artificial insemination and access to improved dairy heifers.
3.3. Extension staff
3.3.1. Contribution of the project
The main contributions of the Dairy Feeding Systems project in
the research site as indicated by the extension staff interviewed
during the survey include better use of crop residues through
implementation, use of alternative feeds and improved pasture
management. 56X of the extension staff indicated better use of
crop residues through supplementation as the main contribution of
the project in the research site. Improved pasture management
practices was reported by 22X of the interviewed staff as the
main contribution of the project. 11X of the extension staff
reported that the main contribution was that farmers learned how
to use alternative feeds for dairy cows. The remaining 11X had
the opinion that the project had not had any significant
contribution in the research site.
3.3.2. Views in future project implementation
About 44X of the extension staff interviewed gave the view that
the project should have several focal points in Hai district.
The views that researchers should frequently visit the project
site, local extension staff should be fully involved in the
project, and that the project should involve both poor and rich
farmers were suggested by 33X of the extension staff. Other
views given in the order of importance include intensification of
follow up, more research on fodder production, use of visual aids
to educate farmers on dairy husbandry, improving baling and
219
transportation of crop residues and emphasizing feed
supplementation.
4. Implementations of the evaluation results
The results of the survey indicate that the project has had a
positive effect on the performance of dairy cattle mainly
attributed to better utilisation of crop residues by choosing and
supplementating with urea-molasses mixture. Work on pastures was
just at its preliminary stage when phase I of the project ended
and therefore it is not surprising that farmers' have not
substantially changed their pasture management practices. Both
farmers and extension staff were of the opinion that research on
pastures should be given priority in future studies.
Farmers felt that the project has been instrumental for the
current closer link between farmers and extension staff.
However, extension staff felt that they would have wanted to be
more involved in the project than it was made possible under the
arrangement that prevailed in phase I of the project.
The main weaknesses related to the project include poor
follow up as a result of remoteness of researchers from the
project site, coverage (in terms of number of farmers and area)
was considered too small and limited involvement of local
extension staff at village level.
When proposals from farmers on problems to be addressed in
future were examined, it was clear that they considered shortage
of veterinary drugs and improved/exotic dairy cows as most
important factors constraining dairy development in the study
area. However, given that these can be available, feeds
(particularly roughages) will continue to be a problem. This is
supported by the fact that all the target groups gave emphasis to
pasture research among proposed future activities.
On the basis of continuous monitoring of the on-farm
experiments and the expost evaluation surveys, corrective
measures have been undertaken to improve performance in phase II
of the project. These measures include:
220
i. Location of a permanent technician at the project area to
ensure a close follow-up on on-going project activities.
ii. Significant part of phase II project activities to
concentrate on on-farm forage research with both researcher
and farmer managed trials.
i i i . Incorporation of farmers field days in the programme of
project activities.
iv. Making some project facilities available to extension staff
as a deliberate effort to facilitate increased participation
of extension staff in project work.
REFERENCES
Davendra, C. 1987. The relevance of On-farm animal production
research in Asia. paper presented at a workshop on On-Farm
Research/Extension and its Economic Analysis held at the
South-East Asian Regional Centre for Graduate Study and
Research in Agriculture, Los Banos, Laguna, Phillipines,
19-23 January 1987.
FA0. 1981. Monitoring Systems for Agricultural and Rural
Development Projects. FAO Social Economic paper No. 12,
Rome.
Mdoe, N.S.Y. 1985. An Economic Analysis of Alternative Dairy
Feed Management Systems in the Highlands of Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania. M.Sc. thesis, University of Guelph, Ontario,
Canada.
Mlay, G.I. and Mdoe, N.S.Y. 1987. An evaluation report of Phase
I of the Dairy Feeding Systems Project. IDRC project file
No. 3-P-82-0085, Morogoro, Tanzania.
221
BUDGETING AND ALLOCATION OF FEED RESOURCES
P.N. de Leeuw, B.H. Dzowela and R. Nyambaka
International Livestock Centre for Africa
P.0. Box 46847, Nairobi, Kenya
INTRODUCTION
In most of the semi -arid Eastern Kenya, small-scale farmers
cultivate maize, beans, cowpeas and pigeonpea as well as
keeping cattle, goats and sheep. The majority of farms are
between 2 and 15 ha in size and most land is privately owned.
Cropped land increases with farm size from 1.5 ha to 5 ha, the
remainder of the land being left for grazing (Rukandema, 1984;
Tessema et al, 1985). Annual rainfall is between 600 and 900 mm
per year falling in two seasons with a growing period of 50-80
days each (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983; Stewart and Kashasha,
1984). Cattle are kept for milk, traction and cash sales while
small stock are sold for cash. Cattle are the most important,
comprising 75-85X of the total livestock mass. Stocking rates
are high and decrease from 1.5 TLU /ha (Tropical Livestock
Units of 250 kg) for a 5/ha farm to 1.0 TLU/ha for a 10 ha
farm. Forage from rangeland and crop residues are the
principal feed resources. Except in good rainfall seasons
demand for livestock feed are likely to exceed supplies
resulting in overstocking, land degradation and low
productivity (de Leeuw, 1988).
On-farm research has shown that the fodder supply in
smallholder farms can be increased by 1 ) establishment of
grass- legume leys, 2) planting of grass and legume forages and
3) better utilisation of crop residues. Household welfare and
cash income was improved by channeling most of the planted
forage and high quality fodder to one or two crossbred cows for
milk production (Tessema et al, 1988). Livestock productivity
can be further enhanced by more efficient utilisation of feed
222
resources through proper budgeting and allocation of feed
resources to the various livestock enterprises maintained on
farms .
There is, therefore, a need to develop efficient feed
budgeting and al locative procedures that can assist in
manipulating feed resources to the best advantage of the farmer
and in line with his priorities for his various livestock
enterprises. The objectives of such procedures are 1) to
access the quantity and quality of all feed components, and 2)
to determine the production goals of each enterprise and
allocate feed in relation to their requirements within the
framework of overall feed supplies.
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES
To develop procedures for feed budgeting and allocation, the
following assumptions were made:
1. The existence of an average 'model' farm with a fixed land
area and a stable land-use pattern resulting in known areas
under crops and rangeland.
2. A fixed monthly growth rate for pastures and planted forages
and a fixed yield of crop residues at harvest together with
quality parameters for each component.
These assumptions are based on actual data and the
conditions under which smallholder farmers operate (de Leeuw,
in press). The projected 'model' farm has 9 ha of land, of
which 3 ha was cropped, one ha was allocated to planted forages
and legumes, and 5 ha was used as rangeland (Table 1). All
farmed land had maize and one third was sole-cropped and the
remainder was intercropped with beans, cowpeas and pigeonpea.
Estimated seasonal yields are derived from regular surveys data
measured during the 1987/8 period in a number of sample farms.
In total the 9 ha farm produced 32 t DM of feed or 3.7 t
DM/ha/annum over two growing seasons (Table 1).
223
Table 1: Land, Crops and Feed Resources of the 'model'
Type ha Yield t DM/ha Total
1st Season 2nd Season yield (t DM/ha)
Rangeland 5.0 1.7 1.5 16.0 (49X)
Maize Residues 3.0 1.7 1.7 10.2 (31X)
Beans and Cowpea 1.0 0.6 0.5 1.1 (3X)
Pigeonpea 1.0 - 0.6 0.6 (2X)
Planted grass 0.5 3.0 2.6 2.8 (9X)
Planted legume 0.5 1.9 1.7 1.8 (6X)
Total for farm 11.0 16.6 15.9 32.5 (100X)
Source: de Leeuw (in press).
Quality parameters were restricted to crude protein
content and digestibility; these were estimated monthly for
rangeland and planted forages. Since crop residues were
produced at fixed times after harvest, only two quality classes
were relevant: either when fed or grazed immediately after
harvest or when fed later leading to a small reduction in
quality (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2: Crude protein (CP) content and digestibility (DIG) of
rangeland, planted grass and legume forage (in X DM—)
Ran geland Grass Leg ume
Period CP DIG CP DIG CP DIG
Early season 12 65 12 65 20 65
Mid season 8 55 10 60 17 60
Late Season 6 50 8 55 15 55
Dry season 5 45 6 50 15 50
-/ means calculated from estimated monthly values (de Leeuw,
unpubl i shed)
224
Table 3: Crude protein (CP) content and digestibility (DIG) of
crop residues (in X DM).
Harvest time Early Late
Crops CP DIG CP DIG
Maize 6 50 4 45
Cowpea/beans 12 60 10 55
Pigeonpea 12 60 10 55
Source: de Leeuw (in press)
Four main livestock enterprises were kept on the'model'
farm. Crossbred cattle for milk production, oxen for traction,
a few zebu cattle and 15 small-stock (goats and sheep). The
total livestock mass was 2440 kg or 9.8 TLU, which converts to
a stocking rate of 1.1 TLU/ha (Table 4). Their daily feed
intake has been taken as uniform across enterprises at about 3X
of their liveweight and was kept constant during the year.
Based on the total stock weight of all enterprises, daily and
annual feed requirements were estimated at 73 kg and 26.3 t DM
respectively (Table 5). Thus, the 'model' farm produced
sufficient feed for its stock. Given the distribution of body
mass across the livestock groups, the crossbreeds required 40X,
the oxen 29% and the remaining 31% was needed for the zebu and
small-stock (Table 5).
225
Table 4: Livestock holdings and daily feed requirements.
Class/type Number Weiqht (kg) Daily Intake
Unit Total <a DM
CB Cows 2 350 700 21
CB heifer 1 200 200 6
CB calf 1 70 70 2
All crossbreds 4 970 29
Work oxen 2 350 700 21
Zebu cow 1 250 250 8
Zebu heifer 1 150 150 4
Zebu calf 1 70 70 2
All zebus 470 14
Goats
Sheep
10
5
20
20
200
100
6
3
Al l smal lstock 15 300
All stock 24 2440 73
Source: de Leeuw (in press)
226
Table 5: Monthly and annual feed requirements of different
stock classes.
Requi rements. t DM
Class/type Month Year % of total
Crossbreds 0.87 10.5 40
Work oxen 0.63 7.6 29
Zebus 0.42 5.0 19
Smallstock 0.27 3.2 12
Total 2.19 26.3 100
Source: Calculated from Table 4.
The budget started on 1 October in one year and ended on
30 September in the fol lowing year. For each feed component,
monthly changes (in t DM/ha) were determined and cumulative
totals were entered on the spread sheet. For instance, DM
yield of rangeland on 1st October was 1 t DM/ha as a left-over
of the previous year, which increased in monthly steps to a
maximum of 2.7 t (i.e. a 1.7 t increment in line with data in
Table 1) at the end of the growing season in February, declined
by 15X during the short dry season due to seed and leaf fall as
well as termite attack and insect damage. During the second
season, yield increased by 1.5 t/ha falling progressively by 5X
per dry month up to the end of the 'model' war. Cumulative
yields for forage grasses and legumes were assessed in a
simi lar manner.
Crop residues are easier to assess due to their fixed
harvest times and outputs. They are harvested twice during
January- February and May-June; as farmers did not harvest all
crops at once, availability was spread over several months.
For each monthly entry, protein content and digestibility
coefficients were added (Table 3).
The allocation of feed sources to each livestock
enterprise was expressed as a percentage of their total monthly
feed consumption (Table 6). The four groups were reduced to
227
three by combining smal l -stock with the zebu cattle herd. As
there was no shortage of total feed, the allocation was based
on quality with a priority ranking from crossbred, through
work-oxen to the zebu/smal l -stock group.
Table 6: Diet composition (X) of three livestock enterprises
over three-monthly periods.
Period Oct-Dec Jan-Mar Apr- Jun Jul -Sep Annual Mean
Feed Source Crossbreds
Rangeland 54 30 43 10 34
Mai ze 13 29 30 43 29
Grain legumes 7 7 3 10 7
Forage grass 23 17 17 20 19
Forage legumes 3 17 7 17 11
100 100 100 100 100
Work oxen
Rangeland 83 50 56 27 54
Mai ze 10 37 34 53 33
Grain legumes - 7 4 7 5
Forage grass 4 3 3 7 4
Forage Legume 3 3 3 6 4
100 100 100 100 100
Zebu s and sma l lstock
Rangeland 89 50 53 30 55
Mai ze 11 43 40 53 37
Grain legumes - 7 7 17 8
Forage grass - - - • -
Forage legumes - - - - -
100 100 100 100 100
Source: Calculated from assumed monthly diet composition.
228
The monthly consumption of each feed component was
calculated and subtracted from the cumulative total. It was
assumed that harvesting did not affect subsequent growth; hence
for each month the balance consisted of the quantity of feed at
the end of the previous month and growth minus consumption and
losses during the current month. A number of test runs were
done to adjust diet composition to available feed components to
avoid negative values. Thus, this part of the procedures was
done manually and no computer programme has as yet been
developed. For the final run, the crude protein and
digestibility contents of each of the three diets were
determined on a monthly basis.
RESULTS
In principle, the monthly feed allocation was based on the
availability and the quality of each feed source with
adaptation to priority rating for each livestock group.
However, since forage from rangeland and maize stover
constituted 80X of the total feed, all groups had to rely on
these two sources as the main components of their diet. Maize
residues were available only during two distinct periods and as
large-scale storage was thought unfeasible, most was allocated
soon after harvest.
Diet composition for the three livestock enterprises are
summarized over four 3-monthly periods (Table 6). Crossbred
cattle relied more on rangeland in the wet than in the dry
seasons and they, together with the oxen, were the main
beneficiaries of planted forages, which constituted 30X and 8%
of their respective annual diet. When the quality was high,
these forages were cut and carried and fed after grazing to
promote greater daily intake, whereas during the dry season
they also assisted to improve diet quality. The residues fed
during the first three months were stored feeds from the
previous year (Table 9).
Work oxen were given access to some planted forage and
legume residues in July-August to improve their body condition
229
for ploughing in the dry»season and again in October-Novempei
when tillage was required after the first rains. No planted
feed was supplied to the zebus and smal l -stock and they relied
entirely on natural pastures and crop residues (Table 7).
Table 7: Annual allocation of feed resources for crossbreds,
work oxens and other stock.
Source Crossbred Oxen Others Total use
X of total avai lable
Rangelands 22 26 28 76
Maize residues 30 24 30 84
Legume residues 41 21 38 100
Forage grass 71 11 - 82
Forage legume 64 17 - 81
Source: derived from Tables 4 and 6.
Table 8: Average crude protein content (CPX) and digestibility
coefficient (DX) in diets of three livestock
enterprises over 3-monthly periods.
Enterprises Oct-Dec Jan-Mar Apr- Jun Jul -Sep Annual Mean
Crossbreds (CPX) 9.6 7.3
(DX) 58 50
Work oxen (CPX) 9.2 6.0
(DX) 58 48
Zebus and (CPX) 9.2 5.3
smallstock (DX) 58 47
8.2 8.0 8.3
54 51 53
7.3 6.0 7.1
53 48 52
7.0 6.0 6.9
52 48 51
Source: Derived from Table 2, 3, 4 and 6.
230
Table 9: Annual feed utilisation and balance (t DM).
Start Livestock lost end
1/10 use 30/9
Rangelands 5.0 12.3 4.1 4.6
Maize residues 0.9 8.6 2.4 0.1
Legume residues 0.2 1.7 - -
Forage grass 0.5 2.3 0.5 0.5
Forage legume 0.2 1.4 0.4 0.2
Total 6.8 26.3 7.4 5.4
Source: Derived from Table 1, 5 and 6.
In terms of protein content, the crossbreds received the
best diet, followed by the work oxen. Differences in diet
protein between groups were pronounced, because protein content
is easy to manipulate as several sources of high-protein feed
were available, be it in limited quantity (Table 7).
Differences in digestibility were much less pronounced and
therefore providing crossbreds with a higher digestible diet
was difficult to accomplish. The overall value in feeds given
to crossbreds was only 2X higher than that in the diets of zebu
cattle and small-stock.
On an annual basis about 26 t of feed was used by the
three livestock groups or about 80X of the total annual
production of 32 t (Table 1); another 23X was assumed 'lost' to
other consumers (termites, wildlife, etc.) and decomposition
(Table 9). Overall, utilisation was slightly higher than
production with the result that less feed was carried over at
the end of the 'model' year than at its start. However, for
rangeland and planted forages sufficient herbage was left
standing to insure continued growth in the following year.
231
DISCUSSION
The feed supply of the model farm demonstrated that intensive
livestock production was possible in normal years provided one
hectare was set aside for planted forages and crop residues
were fully utilised. The timing of the allocation was crucial
and geared to specific animal requirements. In addition,
sufficient herbage was left for the next year to avoid
overgrazing and to secure sustained feed output. The assumed
stocking rate was realistic and 1.1 TLU/ha corresponded to the
actual rates recorded in the sample farms and in other parts of
the semi -arid zone (de Leeuw, 1988; Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983;
Tessema et al., 1985).
Further fine-tuning of the 'model' is required
particularly with respect to the quality parameters of the
different feed resources. Since monthly inputs were used, it
is possible to adjust feed allocation more closely to the
animal requirements by taking into account calving dates, stage
of lactation of crossbred, zebu and small-stock, or if
required, including feed for fattening stock for sale.
Iterative procedures can be included in the programme so that
feed resources are allocated automatically according to set
priority ratings of quantity and quality as was done for feed
allocation in smallholder farms in Bangladesh (Hermans, 1986).
The feed allocation programme is flexible and can be
adjusted for farm size, cropping pattern, herd size and
composition and production goal of farmers as well as changes
in yields and quality of each feed components. It can also
become a tool to test the effects of feed resources utilisation
on farm output when it is linked with holistic economic farm
models.
232
REFERENCES
Hermans, C. 1986. Adaptation of the Kahn model for a mixed
farming system in southeastern Asia. In: N. de Ridder,
H. van Keulen, N.G. Seligman and P.J.H. Neate (eds).
Modelling of extensive livestock production systems, 189-
230. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Jaetzold, R. and Schmidt, H. 1983. Farm management handbook of
Kenya: Vol II, East Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture
Nairobi Kenya.
de Leeuw, P.N. 1988. Livestock and fodder resources of
smallholder farms in semi -arid eastern Kenya. Draft
Report, ILCA, Nairobi, Kenya.
Rukandema, M. 1984. Farming systems of semi -arid eastern
Kenya: a comparison. g± Af r. agric. For. J . 44: 422-435.
Stewart, J.I. and Kashasha, D.A.R. 1984. Rainfall criteria to
enable response farming through crop-based climate
analysis. E^ Af r. Agric. For. J. 44:58-79.
Tessema, S., Emojong, E.E. Wandera, F.P. and Nderito, M. 1985.
Features of traditional farming systems as they affect
livestock production. A case study of 18 small-scale
farms in the dryland areas of the Eastern Province of
Kenya. Dryland Farming Research and Development Project,
Document No. 6, Machakos, Kenya.
Tessema, S., Emojong, E.E., Maluti, M. and de Leeuw, P.N.
1988. A strategy of livestock research adapted to semi-
arid small-scale mixed farming systems; Katumani
experience. In: Dzowela, B.H. (ed). Proc. of 3rd PANESA
workshop, p. 378-390, ILCA, Addis Ababa.
233
TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED CEREAL CROP-FORAGE PRODUCTION FOR
IMPROVED CATTLE PRODUCTIVITY: THE MALAWI EXPERIENCE
J.T.K. Munthali1, H.D.C. Msiska1, A.W.C. Zimba1 and
B.H. Dzowela2
INTRODUCTION
Intercropping is traditionally a widely accepted practice in
Malawi and it represents approximately 94X of the country's
total cultivated area (NSO, 1970; 1981). Intercropping, as
practiced by the smallholder farmers, is deliberately planned
to provide the farmer with a variety of returns to land, labour
and other inputs, minimize the risk of dependence upon one crop
that could easily succumb to environmental damage, and the
farmer also takes advantage of the differences among crops in
time to maturity. The overall benefit to the smallholder
farmer is increased food security and efficiency with which
scarce resources are used to produce food.
The concept and advantages to the following cereal crop of
including legumes such as groundnuts in a rotation, is widely
acknowledged by farmers, particularly those in Lilongwe and
Kasungu Agricultural Development Divisions. For cattle owners,
it has been demonstrated by trials at Chitedze Agricultural
Research Station that the inclusion of groundnut tops to basal
diets of maize stover doubles the liveweight gains of fattening
steers (Addy and Thomas, 1976; Mtukuso et al., 1984; Munthali,
1987). The prices of major inorganic fertilizers such as
ammonium sulphate (21X N), calcium ammonium nitrate (26X N) and
20:20:0 have risen by an average of nearly nine from 1969/70 to
1986/87 whereas the price of the major cereal grain, maize,
increased only sixfold during the same period (ARMP, Ministry
of Agriculture, Malawi, unpublished). Inorganic fertilizers
are therefore well above the reach of most smallholder farmers.
Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, P. 0. Box 158,
Li longwe, Malawi .
International Livestock Centre for Africa, P. 0. Box 46847,
Nairobi, Kenya.
234
Since the integration of cereals with food legumes is already
widely practised by the smallholder farmers, who also keep more
than 90X of the cattle in Malawi, a well planned integration of
cereals forage legumes through N-fixation should improve soil
fertility status for the subsequent or associated food crop,
whilst producing adequate quantities and added quality of the
residue dry matter which would benefit both a crop and a cattle
farmer.
This paper will review available information in the field
of integrating cereal crop-forage production, the degree of
acceptance of success, reasons for success or failure and
suggestions for improving the system in Malawi.
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
Research on integrating cereal crops (maize) with forage
(Rhodes grass and legumes) started at Chitedze Agricultural
Research Station in 1971/72 wet season.
The objective was to find a simple method and time of
undersowing forages with maize without reducing maize grain
yield whilst increasing total herbage dry matter to support the
smallholder cattle stallfeeding schemes. The studies showed no
reduction in maize grain yield although total herbage was
increased by undersowing maize with forages (Thomas and
Bennett, 1975a, b). Recent studies conducted by Dzowela
(1987a) and the Pastures Research Commodity Team, Chitedze
(unpublished) confirmed the reports made by Thomas and Bennett,
1975a, b). In one trial at Chitedze Agricultural Research
Station, maize was grown on the same ridges with forage legume
undersown on the same ridges only once at the beginning of the
experiment. Results persistently showed no appreciable
reduction in maize grain yields (Table 1) and maize grain
yields compared favourably with those obtained when maize was
either a sole crop or intercropped with food legumes (Table 2).
235
Maize stover yields dropped after the establishment year but
stayed the same during the subsequent years (Table 1) whereas
legume dry matter yields increased from the establishment year
onwards (Table 1). Total dry matter yield did not show any
pattern but yields during the following years never exceeded
those obtained during the establishment year of the trial
(Table 3).
Although the total dry matter yield declined after the
establishment year, total herbage crude protein yield (Table 3)
increased substantially by 1988 over that of 1986, except in
the maize - Cj_ pascuorum combination. In 1988, the maize -
herbage crude protein yield came from the forage legume except
again for the maize - C pascuorum combination. Therefore the
overall quality of the herbage improved with time as a result
of legume inclusion in maize crop.
In all the undersowing trials conducted at Chitedze
Agricultural Research Station, little emphasis was placed on
the possible contribution of nutrients by the undersown legumes
to the soil. Soil samples were collected from one maize- legume
intercropping trial, three years after establishing the
experiment. Soil analysis results (Table 4) did not show any
difference in the parameters analyzed between plots
intercropped with or without legumes. There were also no
differences among the maize-legume intercrops even though large
differences among legumes regarding their ability to fix
nitrogen have been reported (MOA, 1983). The application of
recommended rates of fertilizer to the maize crop in the maize-
legume intercropping trials might have reduced the ability of
the legume to fix nitrogen.
236
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In an attempt to quantify animal production from maize-
forage legume residues, a feeding trial was conducted on-
station using the 1988 maize-forage combination residues.
There were five treatments and three steers per treatment.
Unfortunately the quantity of the residues was poorly assessed
in the field so that all the maize stover-forage residues were
used up by the end of the month. The trial was, however,
continued using groundnut tops to finish the steers. All
steers received 5kg of maize bran to which 25g of salt had been
added, but the residues were fed ad l ibi tum. Steers were
dewormed at the beginning of the trial. All steers lost weight
during the first month during which the maize-stover legumes
were fed (Table 5), but started gaining weight during the
second and third months when groundnut tops substituted for the
forage legumes. Roughage dry matter intake was also very low
during the first month (Table 5) but improved dramatically
during the following months for all treatments.
Table 2: Grain yield (kg/ha) of maize grown as an intercrop
with selected food legumes
Intercrop
Year Sole Groundnuts Soybeans Cowpeas P. beans G. beans
mai ze
1987 6182 5807 6129 6319 6473 5795
1988 6653 6383 6055 6338 6323 6609
Source: Kabambe et al. (1987, unpublished and Munthali (1988,
unpubl ished)
238
Table 3: Total dry matter yield (kg/ha) and crude protein yield
(kg/ha) in maize-forage legume-mixed cropping.
Maize-Forage Total DM yield Total CP
combination
1986 1987 1988 1986 1987 1988
Maize - N. wightii 8308 5927 6484 505 436 644
Maize - C. pubescens 8704 6902 6416 545 531 577
Maize - C. pascuorum 8588 7113 5444 564 465 431
Maize - 0. uncinatum 8459 6646 8349 543 584 727
Crude protein of maize, N.. wight i i . C. pubescens. C.
pascuorum and D. uncinatum was 6.0X, 15.7, 14.3X, 14.5 and
13.9X respectively
239
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240
TableS.Li.ew ightchanges(kg/day)d d3int keofro6 hary,a ter
(kg/steer/day)ofste sfed,aize-fo ageleg6mecom1nations.
.aize-forage com1nations
Li.eweightchanges
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1
O.erall
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Intakein,onths
1Overall
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.aizestover-N.wightii-1 61 11.6
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.aizestover-C.pasc6oru,-1.11.161 .aizesto.er-C6ncinatu,-1.661.661
1.16.161 6 1.1136 1.661.1 1.66.1
1.6161.6
CO 4^
Although it is premature to discuss one month's data of
any feeding trial, it is important to note here the changes in
the proportion of forage legumes in the field, harvested and
ready to feed residues and orts. This factor might influence
the performance of animals fed harvested residues as is the
case with most stallfeeding operations in Malawi. In all cases
except in the C^. pubescens combination, there was a big loss in
the proportion of forage legumes between field samples and
those sampled at the time of feeding (Table 6.) The difference
in the proportion of legumes between the field and harvested
residues was mainly due to legume leaves falling to the ground
before and during harvesting as maize was stocked whilst some
legumes such as Centrosema pubescens and Neonotonia wight i i
were still relatively green. Centrosema pascuorum is a
creeping legume whereas Desmodium uncinatum falls to the ground
after growing to a given height. Therefore very little of
these legumes were harvested together with the crop residues.
Table 6: Proportion of legume dry matter in total dry matter in
1988
Maize-Forage Field Harvested Orts
combination Residues Residues
Maize stover - N^ wighti i 40.4 33.0 9.0
Maize stover - Cj. pubescens 36.0 36.0 23.0
Maize stover - C_;_ pascuorum 22.7 4.6 3.0
Maize stover - D. uncinatum 34.6 1.7 1.0
For stallfeeding purposes, the method and stage of
harvesting the legume hay needs to be carefully monitored, as
fallen leaves and dry prostrate legumes if left in the field
would be subject to termite damage.
242
Lessons Learnt
Apart from showing that intercropping maize with forages does
not reduce maize grain yields, the studies gave a number of
important observations on-station and even on-farm (Dzowela,
1987b; Chitedze Pastures Research Commodity, 1986 -
unpublished). First, in establishing grass-legume swards, the
maize can be used to suppress the growth of vigorous sown
grasses, allowing the legume to establish satisfactorily, and
resulting in mixed swards with much higher legume content than
that achieved by broadcasting the seed directly. Second, the
serious weed problem of Eleusine indica (rapoko grass) is
eliminated because sowing is done after a thorough weeding of
the maize. Third, on many light soils in the country,
stolonif erous grasses such as Rhodes grass, established by
conventional direct seeding cannot be grazed in the year of
sowing because of risk of sward damage. Therefore, undersowing
in the previous year permits pasture to sufficiently establish
themselves to allow grazing. Fourth, the nutritional quality
of the crop residues is improved by the presence of forage
legumes. Fifth, to allow maize to have a vigorous start, the
legumes should be cut back about three days before planting
maize where maize is continuously cropped on the same ridges
with legumes. Sixth, early leaf fall by some legumes such as
Neonotonia wight i i encourages termite attack of maize.
Therefore, forages with late leaf fall should be sought.
UTILIZATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS
In spite of repeated demonstrations to farmers by both the
extension service and researchers, the uptake of forage
research results has been slow. It has been shown time and
again that the smallholder dairy farmers, for whom most of the
forage research work is targeted, have only been keen to adopt
the research recommendation as a means of obtaining dairy cows
on loan. There are a number of set requirements for smallholder
dairy farmers and pasture improvement is one of them. As soon
as the farmer gets the animals, his interest to manage the
243
pastures appears to wane. Pastures are usually good during the
first two to three years after which one hardly sees planted
pastures on some farms.
There are, however, some exceptional smallholder farmers,
particularly in Blantyre Milkshed Area, who have been able to
adopt forage technology. On a national basis the problem of
pasture development and management is socio- economical , and it
is strongly linked with the customary land tenure system. No
farmer is committed to communal grazing land improvement.
During a simple diagnostic survey conducted by the
Adaptive Research Team at Chitedze, Mwafulirwa (unpublished)
made a number of observations on the utilisation of results
from undersowing forage research trials.
First, undersowing forages in maize is viewed by the
farmer with suspicion because the general extension message is
to keep a maize crop weedfree, therefore undersowing appears to
be in conflict with the accepted original message. This is a
serious extension message transfer of information that is
narrow minded, that looks at crop enterprises in isolation of
all other activities on the farm. Such farmers need on- farm
verification studies to further convince them that undersowing
if done at the right time does not reduce maize grain, but that
it increased the quantity and quality of animal feed resources.
Second, over-dependence on inorganic fertilizers for pasture
establishment could be reduced by the use of good organic
manure. This was demonstrated by a farmer who had applied
organic manure and inorganic fertilizer on one half of the
undersown field and inorganic fertilizer on the remaining half.
The field that had received organic manure was superior to the
one that had received inorganic fertilizer only and the
difference was persistent into the second year in which no
fertilizer or manure was applied. Thirdly, the survey
uncovered a farmer who had harvested and cured the pasture but
left it in the field to rot in spite of having animal feed
shortages. This might imply that the farmer was not advised
about keeping cured grass in dry condition and this is an
extension problem of not educating the farmers adequately. The
244
fourth observation was that a farmer who had successfully
undersown Rhodes grass in his maize, ploughed the grass during
the following year in order to grow sweet potatoes conflicting
the idea of feed resource improvement for his dairy animals.
In this case the farmer might not have perceived the benefits,
through increased milk production, that could have resulted
from feeding improved forages to his dairy cows. In all the
above examples, the message is that patience and continuous
follow-up is important when introducing a new technology to
smallholder farmers who may not see the immediate or future
benefits of such an innovation.
In some cases in Malawi, pasture development has been slow
because of lack of affordable pasture seed. Pasture seed
harvesting at farm level is a very new concept that requires
attention by our extension service. There is need for
continued collaboration between researchers and extensionists
on the one side, and the farmers on the other in order to wedge
a vigorous and effective campaign for pasture production and
uti l isation.
SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE THE UTILIZATION OF FORAGE RESEARCH
RESULTS
There is generally a lack of appreciation by smallholder
farmers to improve forages for their animals. Furthermore,
farmers appear to have accepted the low productivity of their
indigenous cattle that has occurred over the past two to three
decades. The decrease in cattle productivity has largely been
caused by declining levels of feed intake as grazing areas have
also declined over the years due to increasing land pressure
for cultivation of food and cash crops. Several cattle owners,
however, still recall the big productive animals they used to
have in the past and this offers a good chance of improvement
towards the desired type of animals through forage improvement.
In order to create awareness among farmers about the
potential of feeding improved forages to their animals, there
is a need to work initially with selected farmers in
strategically -located places. These would be farmers willing
245
to co-operate with both the researcher and extensionist to
improve animal feed resources. The farmers would obtain seed,
where the farmer cannot obtain seed easily, at a nominal fee
from the government agents together with all the technical
advice. Such farmers' units would act as centres of learning
and dissemination of new ideas.
The second stage that would have to be conducted
concurrently with the establishment of 'master farmers' would
be the production of forage seed at prices that can be paid by
farmers willing to invest in forages. Since no seed company
would undertake pasture seed production without an assured
market, the researcher or extensionist would be responsible for
producing seed initially. The government would therefore,
subsidize seed production until enough farmer awareness and
demand for seed had been created to enable commercial seed
production. Very often forage technologies never leave
research stations because of lack of seed material.
Thirdly, there is a need to begin approaching forage
growing from obscure angles. Research has shown that grasses
such as Rhodes grass reduce the levels of nematode infestation
of soils for subsequent crops and it has also been reported
that soil fertility and structure are greatly improved by
having grasses and forbes in fallow land (Tins ley, personal
communication). It might be worthwhile to deliver a complete
package of forage improvement for a number of purposes rather
than livestock feeding only. Such advantages as disease
control and soil fertility improvement could attract both
cattle owners and non-cattle owners. The overall benefit to
the country would be an increase in the hectarage under
improved pastures. The same tactic could work for farmers with
small land holdings. Selected annual forages (grasses or
legumes) would be intercropped with food crops with the major
objective of improving soil fertility and/or pest control. The
residues after crop harvest would then be grazed.
There are a lot of commercial estates in Malawi that are
growing grasses as part of a rotation. The scope for
increasing grass production on estates is even greater if
246
tenants would also be encouraged to grow it as part of a
rotation instead of having fallow land under forbs. Very
little of the planted pastures on the estates are used for
feeding cattle, and yet there are a lot of hungry cattle in the
country. It might be beneficial to investigate the
possibility of harvesting such grass and selling it to farmers
who have an animal feed shortage. This would act as an
additional source of income to the farmers growing grass whilst
serving those farmers who cannot grow enough pastures. The
same situation applied to maize stover and other crop residues
produced on estates. There is a need to find machines,
preferably mobile ones, for grinding crop residues and grass at
the site of production and to be sold and to enable farmers
(particularly small scale farmers) to mix complete feed
rations.
The above suggestions represent only a tithe of
possibilities of enhancing the utilisation of forage research
results . There has been enough research done and what is
required now is active production of such forages to enhance
cattle production. Production does not only involve the farmer
but it should encompass the researcher and extensionist as
agents of change. The agents of change need to be properly co
ordinated to avoid delivering what might appear as conflicting
messages to the farmer as was the case with undersowing pasture
in maize versus keeping maize weed-free. Finally, there is a
lot of scope to improve livestock production through a co
ordinated campaign to forage production and management and this
effort should be the responsibility of governments.
REFERENCES
Addy, B.L. and Thomas, D. 1976. Utilisation of crop residues,
Madeya and Leucaena for winter feeding in Lilongwe
District. Research Bulletin No. 2/76. Ministry of
Agriculture, Malawi.
NSO, (National Statistical Office). 1970. National sample
survey for Agriculture. National Statistical Office,
Zomba, Malawi.
247
NSO, (National Statistical Office). 1981. National sample
survey for Agriculture. National Statistical Office,
Zomba, Malawi.
Dzowela, B.H. 1987a. Maize stover improvement with legume
forages. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said and B.H. Dzowela
(eds), Animal feed resources for small-scale livestock
producers, proceedings of the Second PANESA Workshop
held at ILRAD, Kabete, Nairobi, Kenya, 11-15 November
1985. IDRC-MR165e. IDRC, Ottawa.
Dzowela, B.H. 1987b. Efforts to enhance maize stover
utilisation for smallholder livestock producers in
Malawi. Utilisation of agricultural by-products as
livestock feeds in Africa. Proceedings of a workshop
held at Ryalls, Hotel Blantyre, Malawi, September 1986.
ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
(MOA), (Ministry of Agriculture) 1983. Pastures handbook for
Malawi. Ministry of Agriculture, Lilongwe, Malawi
Munthali, J.T.K. 1987. Cattle fattening on basal diets of
maize stover and groundnut tops in Malawi. In: D.A.
Little and A.N. Said (eds), Utilisation of agricultural
by-products as livestock feeds in Africa. Proceedings of
a workshop held at Ryall's Hotel, Blantyre, Malawi,
September 1986. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Thomas, D. and Bennett, A.J. 1975a. Establishing a mixed
pasture under maize in Malawi. I. Time of sowing.
Experimental Agric. 11:257-263.
Thomas, D. and Bennett, A.J. 1975b. Establishing a mixed
pasture under maize in Malawi. II. Method of sowing.
Experimental Agric. 11:273-276.
248
USE OF RESEARCH RESULTS TO FORMULATE A FEEDING STRATEGY
FOR LIVESTOCK DURING THE DRY SEASONS IN UGANDA
F.B. Bareeba and J.S. Mugerwa,
Department of Animal Science,
Makerere University,
P.0. Box 7062,
Kampala, Uganda
ABSTRACT
Livestock production in Uganda is limited among other factors
by feed availability throughout the year. Research so far done
has shown the potential of crop residues, molasses/urea blocks
and poultry waste as ruminant livestock feedstuffs. These
results together with orage conservation in the form of silage
can be used to formulate a strategy for livestock feeding
during the dry season. The use of these research findings has
been limited by the weakness in the extension system in the
country.
INTRODUCTION
Uganda comprises of a total area of 236,000 km with an
estimated human population of 16 million. The cattle
population which reached a peak of 5.5 million in 1978 has
declined considerably (Table 1) due to the civil wars and a
series of disease outbreaks. About 90X of the livestock
population is made up of indigenous species and 95X of the
livestock is found on small-scale crop/livestock mixed farms.
Efforts are now underway to import cattle and restock the dairy
farms and ranches that have in the past lost most of their
livestock through civil wars.
Diseases apart, livestock feeds is one of the major
factors limiting animal production in the country. An
overwhelming majority of the ruminant animals depend wholly on
grazing and crop residues for the quantity and quality of
herbage available. The climate is characterized by two rainy
249
seasons during which periods there is luxuriant growth of
vegetation and two dry seasons when pasturage is scarce.
Supplementation with compounded feeds is, therefore, necessary
to maintain the animals and sustain production during the dry
season.
The country is constantly faced with problems related to
formulation of balanced rations for adequate feeding. Use of
concentrate rations based on cereal grains such as maize,
sorghum, millet or root crops as energy feeds and grain legumes
such as soybean, peas and groundnuts has led to direct
competition with man for the same food resources. This,
coupled with the high prices of the commercial feeds
necessitates feeding of more non- competitive feedstuffs.
This paper reviews research work done on utilisation of
agro-industrial wastes and fodder conservation. The use of
these results to formulate a strategy for feeding livestock
during the dry season is discussed.
CROP RESIDUES
The major crops grown in Uganda and their potential by-products
are given in Table 2. The estimated crop residue yields based
on crop acreages (1986) are shown in Table 3. These residues
are a potential feed resource especially during the dry season.
However, most of these residues are low in digestibility
because of high fibre content and are deficient in nitrogen,
minerals and vitamins (Table 4). The cellwalls of low quality
roughages are generally high in indigestible fractions of
lignin and silica (Jayasuriya, 1986). Efforts to improve
performance of animals fed on low quality roughages include
physical, chemical and supplementary treatments to increase the
nutritive value and digestibility of these roughages.
Senoga (1982) studied the effect of sodium hydroxide
treatment on in vi tro digestibilities of finger millet and
sorghum straws (Table 5). Treatment with 1.5X NaOH for one
hour maximized IVDMO for both finger millet and sorghum straw.
Improvement in digestibility was higher with finger millet
250
straw than with sorghum straw possibly because of higher
initial digestibility of sorghum straw.
The use of alkali treatment was found very expensive and
other alternate ways of improving straws are being
investigated. Urea treatment is one of the methods being
investigated as it is cheaper and easily available. Studies
are also underway to assess the nutritive value of fodder
legumes - Leucaena spp. and Sesbania spp. These will be used
to supplement the low protein content of crop residues to
improve their utilisation.
Molasses/Urea
The use of molasses/urea blocks as supplements would help to
sustain production, especially during the dry season. Molasses
and urea are readily available. Preliminary investigations
carried out at the Makerere University Farm have shown that it
is possible to use locally available binders (clay or anthill
soil) instead of cement or lime (Table 6). The blocks are being
tested for intake before they can be released to farmers.
Poultry Litter
The poultry industry in the country continues to be popular and
has grown rapidly (Table 1) due to concerted efforts by both
government and the private sector to set up more hatcheries and
to import day-old chicks. Most of the commercial poultry farms
use the deep litter system with either coffee husks or wood
sawdust as litter material. The country produces a lot of coffee
husks annually (Table 3) which is a potential feed resource.
Coffee husks and wood sawdust are poor quality roughages and are
poorly utilised by cattle when included up to 30X of the ration
(Ledger and Tillman, 1972). These could be improved by using
them as deep litter material for poultry. Poultry litter has
been used successfully in feeding ruminant livestock either
incorporated in dry rations or ensiled with maize (Battacharya
and Taylor, 1975).
251
Table 1: Livestock and Poultry Statistics, 1981 - 87 ('000)
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
Cattle 4745 4821 4871 4993 5000 5200 3905
Sheep 1384 1453 2035 1602 1674 1680 1682
Goats 2671 2804 1979 3091 3246 3300 2503
Pigs 196 206 233 227 238 250 470
Poultry* 176 324 1000 1200 3000 5000 8330
* Total number of birds on commercial farms including chickens,
ducks, turkeys and geese.
Source: Ministry of Economic Planning and Development;
Background to the Budget, 1988/89
Table 2: Major crops, field residues and by-products
Crop Field residue By-Product
Banana
Cassava
Sweet potato
Coffee
Cotton
Groundnut
Pseudostem, leaves Reject fruit, peels
leaves peels
vines peels
husks/pulp
stalks oilseed cake
haulms oilseed cake/shells
Beans & other legumes haulms
Cereals stover
Pineapple leaves
Sugarcane tops
bran, cobs
pulp
molasses, bagasse
Source: Bareeba and Mugerwa (1987)
252
Table 3: Estimated crop residue yields in
Uganda, in 1986 (v000 tonnes)
Crop Dry Residue
Finger mi l let 464
Maize 354
Sorghum 312
Rice 19
Wheat 10
Potatoes 764
Beans 285
Peas 49
Groundnuts 90
Soybeans 7
Simsim 22
Coffee 140
Source: Ministry of Economic Planning and Development:
Background to the Budget, 1988/89.
253
Table 4: Chemical composition of crop residues and agro-
industrial by-products.
DMX CP X Cell WallX
Crop residues:
Banana pseudostem 10 5 35
Banana leaves 20 16 50
Banana peel (dried) 90 8 20
Cassava leaves 30 19 40
Maize stover 90 5 75
Maize cobs 90 3 85
Rice straw 90 3 70
Sugarcane tops 30 5 70
Soybean straw 90 6 55
Groundnut haulms 20 15 40
Sweet potato vines 30 18 20
Fingermillet straw 90 9 60
Sorghum straw 90 6 65
By-Products
Coffee husks 90 9 55
Pineapple pulp 10 5 30
Maize bran 90 10 25
Molasses 25 4
Bagasse 50 1.5 85
Source: Anon (1985). Composition and nutritive value of Uganda
Feeds. Department of Animal Science, Makerere
University
254
Table 5(a): Effect of NaOH treatment on the chemical
composition and in vi tro digestibility of
f ingermi l let straw.
Item X NaOH
(X) 0 1 1.5 2.5
CP
ADF
Ash
IVDMD'
9.1b
42.6
10.8"
47.9"
8.2b
48.8
17. 2b
49.8"
8.2"
46.7
20. 7b
66. 1b
7.1a
43.0
25. 1b
65.5"
IVDMD - In vitro DM di gestibi l i ty
a,b means in the same row with different letters are
significantly different (p<0.05)
Source: Senoga (1982)
Table 5(b): Effect of NaOH treatment on the chemical
composition and in vitro digestibility of sorghum
straw.
X NaOH
1 1 em
(X) 0 1 1.5 2.5
_ ____ __B ___5 __B_
ADF 55.8 55.7 51.5 55.5
Ash 5.6" 11. 8b 15. 4C 16. 3C
IVDMD 49.1 53.4 55.6 47.9
IVDMD - in vitro DM digestibility
a,b,c: Means in the same row with different letters are
significantly different (p<0.05)
Source: Senoga (1982)
255
Table 6: Formulae of molasses/urea blocks on trial.
A B
Ingredient X X
Molasses
Urea
Salt
Maize bran
Binder
50 50
10 10
5 5
25 25
10 10
Binder in A = Clay;
Binder in B = Anthill soil
Table 7: Chemical composition of litter material and poultry
litter.
Item Wood Sawdust Coffee Coffee husks
(XOM) Sawdust litter husks litter
CP 1.8 21.1 9.1 21.9
True protein 1.5 13.6 7.5 13.3
ADF 86.9 26.2 52.3 45.6
Ash 2.36 27.7 8.6 20.1
Ca 0.41 5.22 0.56 2.94
P 0.04 2.44 0.26 0.80
K 0.37 1.25 0.27 0.45
Source: Kato, (1985)
256
Kato (1985) determined the accumulation and yield of
2
broiler litter by 150 broilers with a spacing of 0.1m /bird in
3 months. Litter DM (kg) doubled and crude protein (kg)
quadrupled in 3 months of litter formation. The results
suggested that 100 broilers could produce 1.11 metric tons of
poultry litter with 0.31 tons of crude protein in a year. The
chemical composition of the litter material and the poultry
litter are shown in Table 7. Although the litter has a high
nitrogen content, about 40-50X of this is NPN. The poultry
litter has a high ash content and high levels of Ca, P and K.
In a feeding trial, maize silages containing 0, 25 and 50X
of coffee husks - based poultry litter were fed to weaned
calves (Kato, 1985). There was a significantly higher P<0.05)
DMI/day on the 50X litter silage compared to the others.
(Table 8). However, live weight gain and feed efficiency were
not affected. In another feeding trial, the poultry litter was
mixed in a dry ration at 0, 15 and 30X. This concentrate
mixture was used as a supplement to growing calves that were
fed maize silage. Silage DMI and total DM I were not affected
by levels of poultry litter in the supplement (Table 9). The
daily live weight gains and feed efficiency were not different
among the treatments.
The results of this work demonstrated the potential of
poultry litter as a feedstuff for ruminants. It can be used in
formulating concentrate mixtures by replacing soybean or
cottonseed cake or it can be used to enrich maize silage.
Ensiling the poultry litter appears to be the most feasible
processing method to inhibit potential bacterial pathogens and
parasites in animal wastes prior to feeding.
FORAGE CONSERVATION
There is need for forage conservation in the country to bridge
the nutrient gap during the dry seasons when pasture is scarce.
In addition, intensive methods are the recommended farm
practices for dairy farming. Work so far done has been mainly
concerned with silage making with little attention to hay
making.
257
Bareeba (1977) studied the ensiling characteristics of
maize, maize - amaranthus (1:1) and sorghum silages preserved
with molasses (5%) or formalin (0.2SX) (Table 10). The low pH
values indicated a lactic fermentation in ll silages but
formaldehyde tended to reduce the lactic acid content. Kato
(1985) studied the fermentation pattern of maize mixed with
poultry litter up to 50X in laboratory silos (Table 11).
Litter addition at 30X and beyond tended to reduce lactic acid
and increased pH and NH,-X (X total N). However, DM losses
were reduced by the 40% and 50X level.
Bareeba (1977) fed the silages to determine the nutritive
value and milk producing potential of the silages. Maize
silage showed an overall nutritive superiority over other
silages as indicated by higher TDN (Table 12). Digestible
energy intake from silage was enough for maintenance plus at
least 5 kg FCM/day.
Table 8: Animal performance on poultry litter/Maize silage.
Litter X (DM basis) in si l age
I tem 0 25 50
Mean liveweight (kg) 77.1 77.5 74.5
DM intake
Kg/day
1.05a 1.29a 1.69a
g/KgLWG0-75/day
39. 8a 47. 5a 63. 3b
Diqest ibi l i tv
DM 40. 5a 44. 6b 37. 5a
OM 46.3 48.5 42.3
LWG(Kg/day) 0.13 0.18 0.17
DMI kg/kgLWG 8.1 7.3 9.7
a,b Means in the same row with different letters are
significantly different (P<0.05)
Source: Kato (1985)
258
Table 9: Performance of growing cows fed concentrate mixtures
containing poultry litter*.
X Litter in ration
Item 0 15 30
Average liveweight (kg) 157 187 175
Silage DMI (Kg/day) 2.75 2.61 3.30
Total DMI (Kg/day) 5.38 5.11 5.86
Digestibi litv (X)
DM 73.5 67.6 72.8
CP 81.6 77.4 80.0
LWG (Kg/day) 0.85 0.73 0.92
DMI (kg/kg LWG) 3.53 4.11 3.26
* Animals were fed silage ad l ib plus 3 kg/day of the
concentrate mixture
Source: Kato (1985)
Table 10: Fermentation pattern and chemical composition of maize
and sorghum silages.
Type of Silage
I tem MM FM MAM MS
PH 4.0 4.10 4.05 4.0
Butyric acid (XDM) 1.23 1.14 1.27 2.38
Lactic acid (XDM) 7.85 3.18 6.74 3.29
Acetic acid (XDM) 5.67 2.47 5.23 2.56
NH3-N (XDM) 0.096 0.045 0.94 0.095
DM Loss (X) 11.04 14.04 13.24 13.06
CP (X) 6.9 6.7 11.6 7.0
ADF (X) 41.3 41.4 39.3 47.4
GE (Kcal/g) 4.25 4.30 4.30 4.35
* MM = molasses-maize; FM = formalhydyde - maize; MAM ■ molasses
- amaranthus/mai ze; MS = molasses-sorghum
Source: Bareeba (1977)
259
Table 11: Fermentation pattern and chemical composition of
maize silage treated with poultry litter.
Litter X (DM basis) in silagi5
I tem 0 10 20 30 40 50
PH 3.8" 3.9" 4.1" 4.7b 5.6C 5.8"
Butyric acid (XDM) 0.43" 0.41"
0.88b 1.34c 1.68c 1.33c
Lactic acid (%DM) 4.03" 4.72" 4.14"
2.32b 2.70b 0.76c
Acetic acid (XDM) 4.34 4.36 4.78 4.12 4.62 4.88
NH3-N (X total N)
DM loss (X)
CP (X)
5.1"
6.3"b
20.6"
8.7b
7.7b
20. 0"
9.7bc
7.6b
19.3"
10. 4C
9.6b
17. 7b
13. 5d
11. 1c
16.7b
13.7d
22.9"
7.5"
ADF (X) 47.6 44.6 46.2 47.1 51.7 51.3
abc Means in the same row with different letters are
significantly different (p<0.05)
Source: Kato (1985)
Table 12: Silage DM intake and milk production potential of
maize and sorghum silages.
Type of si l age*
I tem
Silage DMI (kg/day)
Silage TDN (X)
Silage TDN Intake (kg/day)
Excess TDN intake
Overmaintanance energy (kg)
Estimate milk production
from silage (kgFCM/day)
MS FM MAM MS
10.3 9.2 9.6 9.7
66.1 64.6 63.2 60.7
6.8 5.9 6.0 5.9
2.64 1.78 1.86 1.75
8.0 5.4 5.5 5.3
* Estimates based on US - NRC 1971
MM = molasses-maize; FM = formaldehyde-maize; MAM -
molasses-amaranthus/maize; MS - molasses-sorghum
Source: Bareeba (1977)
260
This work was in agreement with that of Mugerwa et al
(1974) working with pasture. It was concluded that silage
could be fed in addition to pasture to supplement the low
digestible energy and protein intake from pasture especially in
the dry season. Enrichment of maize and sorghum silages by
ensiling them with high protein forages such as amaranthus or
poultry manure was recommended to reduce protein level required
in concentrate mixtures.
However, studies have not been done at the farm level to
determine the labour requirements and the cost - benefit ratio
of using silage. It appears silage making requires a lot more
than fami ly labour.
USE OF RESEARCH RESULTS
From the review, there is some information on the nutritive
potential of crop residues and poultry litter and conservation
of forage as silage. This information has been used by farmers
for feeding livestock especially during the dry season only to
a limited extent. Both the ministries of Agriculture and
Animal Industry and Fisheries handle agricultural extension.
The extension system has the following problems: -
I) Lack of clearly defined and focused agricultural extension
policy as evidenced by multiplicity of unco-ordinated
extension approaches and use of methods without farmer
consideration,
ii) Lack of sufficient training in extension methodology which
leads to lack of mission objectives and insufficient sound
technical information,
iii) Lack of planning by extension workers resulting in
haphazard choice of extension methods and poor teaching
and transfer of innovations to farmers,
iv) Budget limitations which lead to limited funds for
transportation in the field. There is poor supervision
and guidance,
v) Poor research-extension linkage. As such there is lack of
information from the field to the headquarters and
261
research stations or vice versa. There is therefore need
to document research results in the form of extension
bulletins which can be passed on to the farmer.
CONCLUSION
Research conducted so far has demonstrated the usefulness of
crop residues and poultry litter as feedstuffs for ruminant
livestock in Uganda. Successful results have been obtained
with silage making. Whether this practice can be adopted by
farmers will depend on the costs and benefits involved. The
use of these research results by farmers has been limited by
the weak agricultural extension system. Efforts are underway
to strengthen the research-extension linkage through the
proposed establishment of an autonomous National Agricultural
Research organisation (NARO).
REFERENCES
Anon, 1985. Composition and nutritive value of Uganda feeds.
Department of Animal Science, Makerere University.
Bareeba, F.B. 1977. The ensiling characteristics and nutritive
value of maize, amaranthus enriched maize and sorghum
silages preserved with either molasses or formaldehyde.
M.Sc. (Agric.) Thesis, Makerere University.
Bareeba, F.B. and Mugerwa, J.S. 1987. The potential of agro-
industrial by-products as ruminant feed in Uganda. Proc.
1st Uganda Pasture Network workshop, 15-17 December,
1987. Makerere University, Printery. Uganda.
Battacharya, A.N. and Taylor, J.C. 1975. Recycling animal
waste as a feedstuff, a review. J. Anim. Sci. 41, 1438.
Jayasuriya, M.C.N. 1986. Agro- industrial by-products as
ruminant feed. j_n Nuclear and related techniques for
improving animals in harsh environments. IAEA, Vienna,
Austria.
Kato, H. 1986. Poultry litter as a vehicle for feeding coffee
husks to growing cattle. M.Sc. (Agric.) Thesis, Makerere
Uni versi ty.
262
Ledger, H.P. and Tillman, A.D. 1972. Utilisation of coffee
hulls in cattle fattening rations. E.A. Agric. For J. 37,
234
Mugerwa, J.S., Lawrence, M.P. and Christensen, D.A. 1974.
Utilisation of urea and molasses for dairy cattle
feeding. E.A. Agric. For J. 39, 228.
Ministry of Economic Planning and Development: Background to
the Budget, 1988/89. Government Printer, Entebbe,
Uganda.
National Academy of Science, NRC 1971. Nutrient requirements
of dairy cows. 4th ed. Washington, DC.
Senoga, R. 1982. Effect of sodium hydroxide treatment on the
chemical composition and in vi tro digestibility of millet
and sorghum straws. Special project report, Faculty of
Agriculture, Makerere, University.
263
FEEDING SYSTEMS FOR MILK PRODUCTION IN THE HIGH POTENTIAL
AREAS OF KENYA: ON-FARM TRIALS
A. Abate , A.N. Abate and S. Gacugia
ABSTRACT
Composition of various types of feeds offered to Friesians,
Ayrshires or their crosses were studied in several farms
practicing zero-grazing, semi -zero-grazing and grazing systems
of milk production. The experiments were carried out in the
high potential areas of Kenya during the wet season. There was
uniformity in the chemical composition of concentrate fed
within and across farms except for the level of phosphorus (P)
which differed significantly ( P<0 . 01 ) between farms.
Composition of fodder varied significantly (P<0.01) between
farms with regard to crude protein (CP), fibre (ADF), calcium
(Ca) and P. Farms differed significantly (P<0.05) only in the
level of P in pastures. Pasture or fodder contributed most to
dry-matter (DM) intake averaging about 12.1 kg per animal each
day under grazing and about 10.0 kg when animals were fed in
confinement. A wide range of fodder was fed under semi-zero-
grazing and intake of DM from such supplements averaged 1.9 kg
per animal per day. Fodders fed under semi -zero-grazing were
superior to that fed under zero-grazing in terms of levels of
critical nutrients. Daily concentrate consumption differed
significantly (P<0.01) between farms and was highest (4.3 kg
DM) and least (0.44 kg DM) per animal under zero-grazing and
grazing respectively. Average milk production per farm was
12.0, 11.6 and 10.2 kg for zero- grazing, semi -zero-grazing and
grazing systems respectively. Given the level of production,
all the feeding systems were deficient in at least one
nutrient. It was concluded that for all systems, protein, Ca
and P supplementation seem desirable particularly when milk
production per animal is in excess of 10 kg per day.
Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Muguga, Kenya
Bayer (East Africa), Nairobi, Kenya
264
INTRODUCTION
The high potential areas of Kenya are defined as those
characterised by between 1200 and 2000 mm of rainfall per annum
with dairying as a major farm activity carried out in small
holdings. The historical development and ecological
distribution of the systems of milk production in these areas
have been reviewed (Chema, 1984) and corresponding milk output
including measures for increased yields discussed (Abate et
al., 1987b). There is also information on the economics of the
different production features of small holder dairying (Stotz,
1983). The type of feeding practised in each system is
generally known but data on the quality and quantity of
material fed particularly fodder are lacking (Abate et al.,
1987a). This study was initiated to assess the wet season
variation in nutrient supply to milking animals managed under
different systems of production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiments were carried out in 5 farms representing 3
systems of production as summarised in Table 1. Friesians,
Ayrshires or their crosses were selected on the basis of age,
parity and production and used in the experiments. The zero-
grazing trial was divided into two 28 day and two 18 day
periods. All other experiments consisted of 3 periods each of
30 days.
Table 1: Features of production system and experimental
conditions.
Farm Production systems n Days labour Water frequency
on trial per day
1 Zero-grazing 4 92 H i red X 3
2 Semi -zero-grazing 5 90 Fami ly x 4
3 Semi -zero-grazing 3 90 Fami ly X 2
4 Semi -zero-grazing 3 90 Hired X 2
5 Grazing 3 90 Hired X 2
265
Types of feed offered in each system are given in Table 2.
Under zero-grazing, each animal was fed individually from
concrete troughs twice a day at 08.00 and 15.00 hours. Each
time concentrate was first fed after which chopped Napier grass
was fed to appetite; the amount offered was weighed using a
spring balance of a 50 - 0.5 kg capacity. Little concentrate
was also fed at milking. Refusals were weighed every afternoon
and morning and samples accumulated over a week or 5 days.
In the semi -zero-grazing and grazing treatments animals
were individually fed from half -cut drums or basins. Feeding
of fodder was once a day either in the morning or afternoon;
the rest of the time, the animals grazed. All fodder was
chopped into 3-8 cms lengths before feeding. A balance similar
to the one described above, was used to weigh feeds offered and
those rejected daily. Concentrates, were rationed and fed
twice a day at milking. Intake from pasture was estimated
based on the acreage available for grazing, grass cover, time
spent on grazing and ranged from 2.0 to 3. OX of body weight. A
mineral supplement Baymix maziwa. was mixed in the concentrate
and provided in all trials to each animal. The frequency of
watering from piped, bore hole and standing rainwater is as
shown in Table 1 .
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Samples of Napier grass offered and rejected in the zero-
grazing trial were taken once a week and prepared for analysis.
In the other treatments, samples of all feeds offered and
rejected were collected once a month. Grazing was sampled by
clipping grass from randomly selected areas once monthly. All
concentrates were sampled periodically, accumulated over each
period and sub-sampled for analysis. Mi lk produced was weighed
and recorded daily for each animal. Heart girth measurements
were taken once in each period to estimate animal weight
changes.
ANALYSES
Samples were assayed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP),
fibre (ADF) and lignin using approved methods (A.0.A.C., 1980;
Van Soest, 1965). Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) were
determined after wet ashing using atomic absorption
spectrophotometry and a Beckman Spectrophotometer respectively.
Only data for 3 periods were subjected to least square analysis
and separation of means using the mixed model package of Harvey
(1987).
RESULTS
Types of feed offered to animals in each feeding system are
presented in Table 2. They included a variety of fodders,
pasture and a number of concentrates. In some farms fodder was
fed without additives, in others it was mixed with molasses.
Concentrates consisted of cereal grains, commercially
compounded feeds and by-products of industrial processing.
Very often a number of concentrates were mixed together before
feeding as a meal or in the crushed form as in the case of
maize grains. Some form of rotational grazing was practised
during the day; at night animals were grazed nearer the
homesteads.
The DM content of fodder increased with period in all
farms except where a fodder of particularly low DM was
introduced into the feeding system (Tables 3 and 4).
268
Chemically, the nutrient content of fodder varied with time
within a feeding system but the differences were not
significant (P>0.05). Under zero-grazing (Table 3) where
Napier grass was the only fodder fed this variation was in the
direction of lower CP. There was no recognised pattern of
change in nutrient levels under semi -zero-grazing; only in one
farm was there a significant (P<0.05) difference in the levels
of ADF with period (Table 4). The trend of higher DM content
with time was consistent in pastures of all farms (Tables 4 and
5). Since only one observation was recorded per period no
statistical test was possible to detect period differences with
regard to nutrient content of pasture. There were, however,
fluctuations of differing degrees in all nutrients.
Concentrate DM content was about uniform from period to period
(Tables 4 and 5). The CP content of the concentrates was also
uniform throughout the experimental period; mineral levels,
however, varied.
Table 3: Variation with period in the chemical composition of
feeds offered under zero-grazing.
Feed type Period DM CP ADF Ca
X X DM--
Fodder 1 12.4 10.4 45.2 0.13 0.27
2 15.7 9.4 41.2 0.26 0.21
3 17.4 7.0 44.3 0.28 0.18
Concentrates 1 88.9 17.0 - 0.88 0.67
2 86.2 16.4 - 0.89 0.64
3 86.7 16.1 - 0.83 0.65
(-) denotes not determined
269
Table1:Variationw hper odinthchemicalompositionff edsff redund rs m -
zero-grazing.
3 2.9
3.1
2.1bc
1.31 2.2 2.6 ,.2 36.1 2.18
2.21
,.3 2.1 2.31 2.34
2arm3 2 1.6 6.3
21.2b
1.46 3.2 2.3 6.3 13.1 2.12 2.2 89.6 2.2
1.13
2.6
1 31.1 1.3
11.6a 1.2 3.2 2.3 8.2 32.1 2.13 2.6 89.1 2.3 2.78 3.6
3 34.2 9.6 2.3 2.48 3.32 31.1 1.1 36.3 2.32 9.2 89.2 2.3 3.28
1.26
2arm 2 2.6 2.6 21.3 2.33 2.33 -.8 8.3 31.3
9.11 9.08 ,.2 11.2 2.2
1.23
1 2.3 2.6 28.3 2.31 3.31 26.3 1.8 32.6 2.13 3.2 89.6 2.8 2.28
1.21
1
3 2.1 6.2 21.8 2.33 3.21 36.3 1.2 34.1 2.13 2.39 48.6 2.2 2.11 1.2
2arm
2 2.3 2.9 31.8 3.18 2.20 26.2 8.6
33.2 3.16 3.13 ,.8 2.3 3.11 2.91
11 1.3 11.3 01.8 2.26 3.26 34.2 6.9 2.9 2.16 2.2
89.3 2.1 2.2 1.2
2eedtype
2rymatter2X 2rymatter,X
Cocentrate
2rymatter,X
2odder 2CDMX -2M Ca2X
P.X
Pasture
0CDMM 6-2X
Ca2X
DMX
2CDMX
Ca2X
DMX
Period
*X2M
Meanswithdifferentsuperscriptsalo gthsamer wagnifican lyd ferent(P<2.28).
^o
Table 5: Variation with period in the chemical composition of
feeds offered under grazing.
Feed type Period DM CP ADF % Ca P
X
Pasture 1 17.0 13.7 33.9 0.35 0.67
2 26.1 7.8 43.5 0.20 0.64
3 31.8 7.2 45.7 0.62 0.65
Concentrate 1 69.1 17.0 - 0.58 0.82
2 89.6 17.3 - 0.31 1.09
3 91.7 15.0 " 0.62 0.24
(-) denotes not determined.
Differences between farms in the levels of nutrients in
feeds offered are shown in Table 6. Crude protein, ADF, Ca and
P of fodder varied significantly (P<0.01) between farms. Crude
protein was significantly higher (P<0.01) under semi-zero-
grazing than in zero-grazing and grazing systems. Analysis of
variance showed that, overall, nutrient concentrations in
pastures of all farms was fairly similar (Table 6). Linear
contrasts of the farms showed them, however, to differ
significantly (P<0.05) in the content of P. The CP and Ca
levels in the concentrate were not significantly affected
(P>0.05) by farm but P concentrations were (P<0.05).
In Table 7 are shown animal weights, DM intake and milk
production per animal in each farm. In all systems, fodder or
pasture contributed most of the DM ingested. Intake of DM from
concentrate differed significantly (P<0.01) being highest under
zero-grazing and least under grazing. System of feeding also
significantly affected (P<0.01) the quantities of fodder
consumed per animal daily. Dry-matter intake from pasture was
similar in the semi -zero-grazing farms and significantly lower
(P<0.05) than under grazing. Animals in farm 4 were the
lightest and produced the least milk.
271
Animal requirements were met for protein and P but not Ca
in the zero-grazing system. Under semi -zero-grazing feeding,
animals were deficient in all nutrients when they produced at
least about 11 kg of milk, their requirements were, however
covered with production of about 6 kg of milk. Under grazing
the animals experienced protein and Ca deficits but had
sufficient intake of P.
Table 6: Variation with farm in the chemical composition of feeds
offered.
Farm
Fodder
11
2 3 4 5
Dry matter,
2CP, X
X 15.2
9.0ac
16.5
12.5"
18.0
10.2""
18.9
5.6C
-
ADF, X 43.6'
29. 1b 28. 6b 29. 6b -
Ca, X
0.22a 0.53b
0.52'
1.3b -
P, X
0.22a
0.23* 0.32"
0.14a -
Pasture
Dry matter, X - 27.8 31.8 22.1 25.0
2CP, X - 7.6' 7.8' 7.2' 9.6a
ADF, X - 35.3* 35.5' 37.4' 41.0a
Ca, X - 0.46'
0.10"
0.41a
0.23a"
0.44"
0.23ab
0.39a
0.33b
P, X
Concentrate
Dry matter, X 87.3 89.5 89.6 89.7 83.5
2CP, X 16.5* 16. 0"
16.8a
16.3"
16.4a
Ca, X
P, X
0.84'
0.65'
0.45a
1.07"
0.58a
0.04b
0.89a
0.46ac
0.50a
0.72ab
period
2X DM
Means with different superscripts along the same row are
significantly different (P<0.01 and P>0.05).
272
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273
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study show that in the high
potential areas of Kenya, there are differences in the range of
feeds offered to animals at farm level during the wet season.
These differences are often environmentally determined so that
farmers do not necessarily feed sufficient amounts of the types
of feeds that would produce maximum performance in their
animals in accordance with feeding standards. As a fodder,
Napier grass has been popularized by the extension service
(Stotz, 1983; Wouters, 1986; Abate et al., 1987a) and this
explains its use in zero -grazing and semi -zero-grazing
systems. The feeding of other fodders has developed over time
through farmers own observations and exchange of ideas with
each other. Cabbage was, for example, fed because it grew well
in the area, was cherished by cows, was fed by other farmers in
the neighbourhood and was believed to increase milk yield. Our
observations, showed that many small holders, fed cabbage at
least during milking. The farmers are, however, possibly
unaware of the goitergenic effects of feeding large quantities
of brassicas. At maturity, cabbage DM was still below 10X and
this would limit the intake of DM from this fodder. Weeds were
fed because it was noticed that during grazing cows
concentrated around weed-dominated areas. On analysis the
weeds were found to contain on average about 16X CP which is
useful in the maintenance of the N economy of animals largely
dependent on pasture. The farmers also fed potatoes and
molasses as sources of readily available carbohydrates in
addition to the wide range of concentrates offered. Mixing of
concentrates was a common feature of the farms practising semi-
zero-grazing in this study. For some farmers the practice
developed in an attempt to cut down costs by combining cheaper
concentrates with expensive ones. For others it was simply a
result of resource availability.
Dry matter of fodder offered to animals can be influenced
by feeding at early stages of growth. Thus the increase in DM
levels of fodders with time is an indication that in these
experiments, farmers knowingly avoided the feeding of high
moisture young fodders. This was achieved, in one instance,
274
through a time-staggered planting regime so that not all
fodders reached maturity at the same time. The near uniformity
in the chemical content of fodders fed with time (Table 4) has
practical implications. It shows that nutritionally, it is
advisable to feed a combination of fodders inorder to maintain
a high concentration of critical nutrients throughout the wet
season. To prevent the alteration of such a favourable
nutrient balance, it is desirable for farmers to plant and feed
sufficient quantities of each fodder.
The increases in DM content of the pastures in these
experiments were a reflection of maturity and consistent with
results reported elsewhere in Kenya (Said, 1971; Karue, 1974;
Abate, 1978). Fluctuations in chemical composition were a
result of new regrowths induced by precipitation within a given
period. Abate (1978) has shown similar changes in the protein
and fibre components of a predominantly Chl or is gayana pasture.
By practising some form of rotation the farmers allowed young
vegetative growth to mature and hence showed that they had
consideration for nutritive quality.
As purchased feeds, the DM content of concentrates can
only be influenced at the point of formulation. A farmer can,
however, affect the DM content by the method of feeding.
Addition of water or molasses to concentrates to reduce
dustiness etc., will reduce feed DM content (Table 5).
Changing of the type of concentrate with period was responsible
for the variation in the mineral levels with time.
In terms of nutrient concentration fodders fed under semi-
zero-grazlng were superior to that offered in zero-grazing.
However, semi -zero-grazing resulted in intake of low DM from
the fodders mainly because the content of DM of the fodders was
often very low. Cabbage and banana stems were examples of such
material. Intake under this feeding system can be improved by
planting more fodders like maize and oat which are capable of
accumulating DM with time.
Generally, all the pastures reported here were of
sufficient nutrient level to promote satisfactory milk
275
production if adequately consumed. Only in one farm was the
level of P near the deficiency margin (Table 6); all other
farms contained concentrations that are similar to those
reported by Howard et al. (1962). Calcium levels were
satisfactory and above the minimum below which deficiency is
likely to occur.
The differences in P levels in concentrates with farm were
because type of concentrate fed differed. There are also
several possible reasons to explain the variation with farm in
the intake of concentrate DM. These include farmers ignorance
as to the importance of concentrate as a production ration,
cost and availability, distance from source and the purchasing
power of individual farms. Stotz (1979) noted an inverse
relationship between the feeding of concentrate to cows and the
distance from the supply centre. Efforts should, therefore, be
made to produce concentrates nearer to the farmers and to
encourage them to feed higher amounts. The animals used in
these studies have higher genetic potential than was shown by
their milking performance and would, therefore, respond to
improved nutrition.
While it is true that feeding standards have no relevance
under certain feeding conditions, the results of this study
show at least one nutrient to be deficient in any one feeding
system. The effects of low dietary CP are manifested in
decreased yields which is undesirable since it affects farmers'
income. Supplemental protein is, therefore, recommended in the
semi -zero -grazing and grazing systems except where the animals
are poor milkers. Protein concentrates are expensive and this
may militate against their use as supplements. Establishment
of shrubs like Leucaena leucocephala on the farm is cheaper and
can supply some of the protein required by the animals.
Leucaena has been known to promote feed intake, utilisation and
production in ruminant animals. If minerals were not provided
in these experiments, the feeding systems were such that
supplementation would be necessary for Ca and also P
particularly when animals produced at least 10 kg of milk.
This is important so that mineral deposition may be favoured
during the wet season for use in periods of stress. If farmers
276
are educated on the merits of supplementation, they are likely
to adopt the practice. In these experiments, farmers who
previously fed fodder in the long form agreed to continue
chopping it because they realized it increased intake and
reduced wastage. Kategile (1986) has noted that farmers
acknowledge the benefits of improved feeding.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusion can be made from the results of
the present study:
a. A variety of fodders, some of them with as low as 5X DM are
fed during the wet season in feeding systems practised in
the high potential areas of Kenya.
b. Feeding a number of fodders together is superior to feeding
only one type in terms of concentration of critical
nutrients.
c. Concentrate fed under semi -zero-grazing is little but the
amount could be improved by producing compound feeds nearer
to the farmers and making the farmers aware of the benefits
of concentrate supplementation.
d. All the feeding systems are deficient in at least one
nutrient particularly when animals are good milkers.
e. For all systems protein and Ca supplementation seem
desirable particularly at high levels of milk production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr. R. Baptist of the Department of
Animal Production, University of Nairobi for useful discussions
on statistical matters.
277
REFERENCES
Abate, A. 1978. Dry matter and nutrient intake by grazing
dairy heifers from a predominantly Chloris gayana
pasture. M.Sc. thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Abate, A., Kayongo-Male, H. and Wanyoike, M. 1987a. Fodder for
high potential areas in Kenya. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N.
Said and B.H. Dzowela (eds), Animal feed resources for
smal l-scale l ivestock producers. Proceedings of the
second PANESA Workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, 11-15
November 1985. IDRC manuscript report. IDRC
(International Development Research Center), Nairobi. pp
116-124.
Abate, A., Wanyoike, M. and Said, A.N. 1987b. Milk production
under integrated farming systems in Kenya. Bul l Int.
Dairy Fed.. 221:5-9.
A.O.A.C. 1980. Official methods of analysis. 13th Ed.
Washington, D.C.
Chema, S. 1984. Milk production in Kenya. Paper presented at a
Workshop on the Potential for Small-scale Milk Production
in Eastern and Southern Africa held in Nairobi, 19-21
September, 1983. pp 34-47.
Harvey, W.R. 1987. User's guide for LSMLMW PC-1 version.
Columbus, Ohio, USA.
Howard, D.A. Burdin, M.L. and Lampkin, G.H. 1962. Variation in
mineral and crude protein content of pastures at Muguga
in the Kenya Highlands. J. Agric. Sci . (Cambridge)
59:251-256.
Karue, C.N. 1974. The nutritive value of herbage in semi-arid
lands of East Africa. I. Chemical composition. East
Afr. Agric. For. J. 40:89-95.
Kategile, J. A. 1986. Need for more milk production in SADCC
countries: a challenge to animal scientists. Paper
presented at the SADCC-SACCAR Workshop on Livestock at
Maseru, Lesotho, 24-26 November 1986.
Said, A. 1971. In-vivo digestibility and nutritive value of
Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandest inum) with a tentative
assessment of its yield of nutrients. East Afr. Agric.
For. jK 37:15-21.
278
Stotz, D. 1979. Smallholder dairy development in past, present
and future in Kenya. Ph.D. thesis, University of
Hohenheim, Fed. Rep. of Germany.
Stotz, D. 1983. Production techniques and economics of
smallholder livestock production systems in Kenya.
Ministry of Livestock Development, Animal Production
Division, Nairobi, Kenya.
Van Soest, P.J. 1965. Non-nutritive residues: A system of
analysis for the replacement of crude fibre. J^ Assoc.
Off. Agric. Chem. 50:50-55.
Wouters, A. P. 1986. Dry matter yield and quality of Napier
grass on farm level. Dairy Development Project, Ministry
of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Nairobi.
279
ON- FARM EVALUATION OF MAIZE BRAN AND COTTONSEED
CAKE AND INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED FORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
FOR MILK PRODUCTION IN MZUZU MILKSHED AREA OF MALAWI
M.S.L. Kumwenda and H.D.C. Msiska
Ministry of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Research
Chitedze Agricultural Research Station,
P.0. Box 158, LILONGWE, Malawi
ABSTRACT
On-station research work has developed promising animal feed
resource technologies for increasing milk production and these
are being evaluated on- farm with both research resources and
those of farmers. Preliminary results show that the inclusion
of cottonseed cake in maize bran-based dairy rations would
raise dairy farmers' gross margin/cow. If the programme will
be successful, the utilisation of research results will
eventually lead to more feed resources of high quality
resulting in increased livestock productivity with the end
result of attaining food security and improved farm income of
the smallholder farmers.
INTRODUCTION
In Malawi, smallholder dairy farming was initiated by the Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) through the agency of the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in the early 1970s.
The programme was set up in order:
1. to provide fresh milk for the increasing population
2. to reduce imports of milk by-products, and
3. to provide alternative sources of income to farmers
The national aim of the dairy development programme is to
achieve self-sufficiency in milk and milk products. Recent
figures show that production and consumption of milk and milk
280
products remains low; per capita consumption from the national
herd is estimated at approximately 6 kilogrammes (kg) per year
compared to 28kg per year for the Eastern and Southern African
region as a whole, and to 100 kg per year for European
countries (Anonymous, 1987). At the same time, there is an
urgent need to improve national human nutrition levels. The
pressure on land is increasing, and the population continues t
increase rapidly at the annual growth rate of 3.0X (Anon,
1988).
The government of Malawi has responded to these problems
by promoting smallholder dairying. The dairy programme is
concentrated in places designated as milkshed areas. There ar
three such milkshed areas: Blantyre in the Southern region wit
700 dairy farmers, started in 1970; Lilongwe in the Central
region with 400 dairy farmers started in 1972; and Mzuzu in th
Northern region with only 80 farmers, started in 1977
(Nkhonjera, personal communication).
Mzuzu milkshed area is situated on the Viphya plateau at
an altitude of 1'200 metres. The area has a mean maximum
temperature of 21 C; and a mean minimum temperature of 18 C.
The rainfall which is influenced by the South East Trade winds
blowing across the lake Malawi ranges from 1200 - 2300
millimetres (mm) annually. About 70X of the rain falls betweei
December and March while 125-250mm falls between May and
October in most places of the milkshed area (Anonymous, 1982).
This extended rainfall season provides an ideal environment foi
evaluating late maturity legumes which tolerate acidity
(Msiska, personal communication). The weather for this area is
also conducive for silage making; and it makes the pastures
remain green throughout the year. The area is characterized b}
Brachystegia woodland savanna vegetation while the soils which
are fairly acidic (pH.5.1) are mostly deep dark red uniform
sandy-clay ferrisols.
Crop production systems and animal feed resources in Mzuzu
Major crops grown in the area include maize, beans, citrus
fruits, and bananas; whilst cassava, groundnuts, potatoes,
281
coffee and finger millet are grown in small hectarages. Table
1 contains estimated average cultivated areas of the crop
enterprises for a few selected farms in Mzuzu.
Table 1: Estimated average cultivated areas of crops
enterprises for selected farms in Mzuzu
Crop enterprise Average cultivated area
(ha)
Maize 2.5
Beans 1.7
Fruits (citrus) 2.2
Bananas 0.7
Groundnuts 0.4
Cassava 0.5
Fingermillet 0.3
Potatoes 0.2
Coffee 0.4
Sources: Cusack, T.J. 1988. Report of a Reconnaissance Survey
in Mzuzu milkshed area (unpublished).
Apart from dairy cattle, farmers in Mzuzu also keep
poultry, goats and rabbits. For dairy production, two systems
of grazing are practised. One system is based on zero-grazing
(cut-and-carry) in which dairy animals never leave the stalls
and fodder/crop residues are taken to them throughout the year.
This system is not common in Mzuzu because the majority of the
farmers graze their animals on natural pastures. The other
system is 'open' grazing. In the case of Mzuzu, this system is
inefficient because animals have to walk long distances to
grazing areas from the homestead. They are taken back to the
homestead for milking. However, the majority of farmers
practice both systems, especially those with some established
improved pasture plots in addition to natural pastures.
282
Feed resources available in the area fall into three
classes:
1. Pastures:
(a) Natural
(b) Improved planted
2. Agro-industrial by-products and crop residues and
3. Other agricultural products e.g. Banana leaves and
pseudostems
Pastures
(a) Natural grazing
This represents the major feed resource in the milkshed area.
Grazing on natural pastures is commonly practised; as a result
not much effort, is made to establish improved pastures.
Farmers consider that pasture establishment is not essential
since there is unlimited natural grazing land.
(b) Improved established pastures
Very few farmers have improved pastures; such that they
practice both zero-grazing and 'open' grazing on natural
pastures. For those farmers who have improved pastures, grass
is cut-and-carried to the stalls for a short period of time.
After having exhausted these resources animals are taken out to
natural lands. The reason for this is that farmers establish
small plots of pasture which do not match with the size of
their herd.
The use of Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) is proving most
productive for those farmers who are able to utilise it
properly; however, many farmers are wasting this resource by
subjecting it to overgrazing or letting it overgrow and later
cut for bedding material in the stalls. Other grasses grown in
this area include Rhodes grass (Chl or is gayana) . Hamil panic
(Panicum maximum) and Guatemala (Tripsacum laxum). In this
area Rhodes grass does not seem to be persistent and is not
283
productive enough under present smallholder management
conditions. Legumes commonly grown in the area include Glycine
(Neonotoni a wi ght i i ) , Greenleaf (Desmodium intortum) .
Silverleaf (Desmodium uncinatum) and Stylo (Stylosanthes
guianensis) . However, farmers rarely have these forage legumes
on their farms. Those who have them have planted them as small
plots of pure stands of one or several species.
Agro- industrial by-products and crop residues
Feed resources included in this category are:
( i ) Mai ze bran
(ii) Cottonseed cake
(iii) Groundnut cake
(iv) Maize stover and groundnut haulms
Other agricultural products: In this category there are banana
leaves and pseudostems; and small quantities of potato vines.
A commercial concentrate, dairy mash from Limbe in the southern
part of the country when available is used in the feeding
systems.
Feed shortages during the dry seasons and sometimes during
the wet seasons constrain dairy production in the Mzuzu
milkshed area. A large portion of this area is under natural
pastures whose nutritive values are very low. In addition, the
main constraints for natural pastures are:
- seasonal and low productivity including the conspicuous
absence of legume species,
- lack of proper management, including serious overgrazing
- the traditional communal land tenure systems which hamper
efforts to improve the grasslands; and
284
- the inability to effectively carry out destocking
Improved pastures can increase milk production in the
region. However, farmers lack the skills in managing these
pastures once established. Weeds are left to grow together
with the pastures; and the pastures are not fertilized. In
most cases the blame is laid on the farmer, but the extension
workers take the leading role in the improper management of the
pastures because of lack of proper advice and guidance given to
farmers. To resolve the constraints, the following could be
done:
- need to device a production system that will ensure a
continuous supply of forage throughout the year
- need to device suitable technology of forage conservation
for the small-scale farmer, and
- need to intensify the production of pasture seeds for both
promising grasses and legumes
All these should go along with training of both extension
workers and farmers on the proper management of these improved
feed resource.
The high costs of commercial supplements and also their
scarcity at certain times limit their use in dairy rations.
Once these supplements are bought the feeding is not properly
done. They are fed in such limited amounts that farmers do not
reap the full benefits of supplementing. Farmers also lack
facilities for preparing feeds such as cottonseed cake in the
form that could be utilised by the animal.
REVIEW OF RESEARCH TO DATE
Most experiments on dairy production in Malawi have been
conducted to investigate alternative sources of nitrogen (N) to
be fed with maize bran. Maize bran is one of the most easily
obtainable and cheap feeds available in Malawi. It is low in
285
crude protein (10X CP) and if fed alone, it cannot meet the
nutritional demands for protein of high milk producing animals.
One of the agro- industrial by-product feeds that has been found
to give favourable milk yields when fed in combination with
maize bran, is cottonseed cake. Cottonseed cake is a valuable
high protein feed for mixing with carbohydrate feeds for
cattle. It is high in fat content. It is one of the richest
feeds in phosphorus, containing 1.0X or more of that important
mineral (Topps, 1961).
All previous work on the utilisation of maize bran alone
and in combination with other concentrates such as cottonseed
cake has been done on government research stations. With high
quality grass forages fed ad l ibi tum, a ratio of maize bran to
cottonseed cake that has been found most economical is four to
one, respectively. A series of feeding trials involving
different proportions of maize bran and cottonseed cake has
shown that as cottonseed cake levels in the maize bran-based
dairy rations increase, concentrate feed costs also increase.
The aim of varying the proportions of maize bran and cottonseed
cake was to come up with a higher crude protein level of the
proportion than that of maize bran alone and at the same time
arriving at the maize bran and cottonseed cake ratio that is
cost-effective. Although the current mixing proportion of
maize bran and cottonseed cake is four parts of maize bran to
one part of cottonseed, this is not the final recommendation.
Further studies are in progress to investigate the proportions
of feeding maize-bran and cottonseed cake to lactating cows
that could be cost-effective for small-scale dairy farmers.
Although CP levels are increased with subsequent increases in
levels of cottonseed cake (Table 2), the performance of cows in
terms of milk production varies considerably depending on the
quality of the forages fed. Table 2 contains the chemical
composition of one batch of samples of different proportions of
maize bran and cottonseed cake.
286
Table 2: Chemical composition of maize bran and a mixture of
maize bran and cottonseed cake (% of DM)
Component Proportions of maize bran and
cottonseed cake*
Dry matter 90.0 90.3 91.3 93.0
Crude protein 10.9 18.8 20.3 25.1
Neutral detergent fibre 26.6 27.2 26.9 29.7
Acid detergent fibre 8.2 9.9 10.7 11.7
*1 = 100X maize bran, 2 = 80X maize bran plus 20X cottonseed
cake, 3 = 60X maize bran plus 40X cottonseed cake; and
4 = 50X maize bran and 50X cottonseed cake
Source: Kumwenda and Munthali (1988)
The development of high quality feed resources in the form
of improved forages is one of the research objectives of the
pasture research programme in Mzuzu as well as in other parts
of Malawi .
Past research work carried out at Lunyangwa Research
Station and Choma Veterinary Livestock Multiplication Centre
identified grasses (Napier, Bana and Giant panic cv Ntchisi)
and legumes (Silverleaf desmodium, Tinaroo glycine. Cook stylo
and Macrotyloma) which could be successfully grown on the
acidic soils of Mzuzu. Work has also been conducted on
agronomical practices of managing the improved pastures. These
involved the use of fertilizers and manures. Table 3 contains
dry matter yields of Rhodes grass with no fertilizer or manure
applied, manure only, fertilizer only and manure plus
fertilizer from the work done at Choma.
287
Table 3: Rhodes grass yields (dry matter 1st year) by four
treatments
Treatment Yield (kg DM/ha)
Control 1090
Manure only 1720
Ferti lizer only 3420
Manure + fertilizer 3030
Source: Katuma (unpublished)
Results in Table 3 demonstrate that fertilizers and manure
can play significant roles in increasing pastures dry matter
production under these acidic soil conditions.
The available technology for pasture production is
described in the Pasture Handbook for Malawi (1983 edition). A
summary of crude-protein values and organic-matter
digestibility of prominent pastures in Malawi is given in
Tables 4 and 5.
The crude-protein content of young and improved grasses is
higher than that of unimproved forages (Table 4) and that of
legumes is even higher. Therefore, the inclusion of legumes in
grass pastures would improve the overall nitrogen content of
the forages. The digestibility of improved grasses is also
much higher than that of unimproved grasses (Table 5).
288
Table 4: Crude protein contents of natural grasslands and
improved forage species in Malawi
Species Crude-protein content
(X of DM)
Natural grasslands
- dry grass - wet season 11.0
- dry season 2.0
"Dambo" grass - young 6.0
3.0
Improved grasses
- mature
Rhodes - young 13.8
4.2- mature
Green panic - young 14.4
4.1- mature
Ntchisi panic - young 12.3
Improved legumes
- mature 4.1
Tinaroo Neonotoni a - young 23.1
14.4- mature
Endeavour stylo - young 19.4
13.6- mature
Source: Ministry of Ag ricul ture (1983). Pasture Handbook
for Malawi . Lilongwe, Malawi
289
Table 5: Digestibility of some natural grassland species and
improved forage species
Type of forage Organic-matter digestibility
at the end of wet season
(X DM)
Natural grasslands
Hyparrhenia spp. 31
Sporobolus spp. 30
Improved grasses:
Giant Rhodes grass 63
Ntchisi panic grass 61
Common guinea grass 62
Bushmine panic grass 65
Mature forage (Standing hay)
Buffel grass 35
Rhodes grass 40
Napier grass 35
Joint vetch 58
Siratro 47
Neonotonia 52
Source: Ministry of Agriculture (1983). Pasture Handbook
for Malawi . Lilongwe, Malawi
Crude protein and organic-matter digestibility are all
higher for improved pastures than natural pastures.
Bana Napier grass which grows very well in Mzuzu, could be
one of the grasses to be pushed to farmers. Although data is
not available in terms of its nutrient content, work done in
Kenya shows that Bana Napier grass has crude protein
percentages ranging between 8.6 - 14.0, acid detergent fibre
3.3 - 5.7; and digestibility of dry matter 56-72X. It yields
at least two tons of dry matter per hectare and could support
0.4 kg/day of weight gains for heifers and 10kg of milk/day
(Anonymous, 1985).
290
Another forage technology that has shown to provide a
cheap feed resource of high nutritive value to dairy animals is
the undersowing of forage legumes in cereal crops such as maize
(Dzowela, 1987). The undersown legumes are utilised together
with maize stovers during the dry season j_n situ or in feeding
stal ls.
Although the utilisation of maize bran and cottonseed cake
in dairy rations has proved a promising technology on station
this technology has rarely reached the farmer. Best-bet
forages are available. These too have not been widely taken up
by farmers. It is not surprising that in the Mzuzu milkshed
area, milk yields per lactation are still low, and calving
intervals are long. These are associated with poor nutrition.
There is also critical feed shortages during dry seasons. The
reasons for the failure of farmers to take up research
generated technologies are not clear.
In view of the foregoing, it was proposed to undertake a
study of smallholder dairy farmers. Initially the programme is
aimed at evaluating the economic benefits and on-farm milk
yield response to the utilisation of maize bran and cottonseed
cake and introduce and evaluate the best-bet forages as animal
feed resources. The overall objective is to promote or speed
up the adoption rate of these technologies.
This paper reviews on-station research done in the use of
maize bran and cottonseed cake in dairy rations and development
of forages as animal feeds. On-farm evaluation work of these
on-station generated technologies is outlined and the possible
utilisation of the research results in dairy production and
soil fertility maintenance contexts of the smallholder
producers is discussed.
291
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Utilisation of maize bran and cottonseed cake in feeding
trials: Farmers and location of trials
Farmers in the four bulking groups (dairy farmers associations)
were selected and these were divided into two groups (1) a
group of farmers with ten animals in total utilising pasture
feed resources supplemented with maize bran, (2) a group of
farmers with ten animals in total utilising pasture forage
resources supplemented with a mixture of maize bran and
cottonseed cake.
The criteria for farmer selection was based on:
a. a full time average farmer
b. willingness of farmer to participate in the research
management to collect reliable data and exchange experiences
with other animals
c. accessibility of his/her farm holding
Experimental animals and feed resources
Each treatment involved ten animals. The animals were those
that calved at about the same time. The animals were between
two and three lactations averaging seven years in age. Most of
them were 3/4 Fr x M2 (Friesian x Malawi zebu). Farmers
provided the forage feed resources, whereas the researchers
provided maize bran and cottonseed cake. The farmer got these
feeds free. The supplements were fed at milking time at the
rate of 1kg per 2.5 kg of milk produced per cow. All animals
were supplemented with maize bran two weeks before calving.
The mixtures of maize bran and cottonseed cake was in the ratio
of four parts to one part, respectively.
Experimental measurements
Farmers had their buckets calibrated for the quantities of the
supplements to be fed based on milk production. Most farmers
had calibrated cups for measuring milk. Those who did not
292
have, had to use cups that they used for their drinking water;
these had to be calibrated too. Daily milk yields were
measured and the amount of supplements offered and consumed
were recorded.
Feed and forage samples were taken for chemical analyses.
Labour costs were estimated. The farmers were given folders
with forms in which records were entered. The forms had
columns for recording any activity done by the veterinarian and
an Artificial Inseminator.
Gross margins were calculated to assess the economic
benefits of utilising maize bran and cottonseed cake.
Evaluation of improved forages on-farm
Best-bet forage resources will be established on the farmers'
fields involved in the feeding trial and feed budgeting to
ensure a continuous supply of forage throughout the year and
suitable technologies for forage conservation for dry season
feeding will be developed. Production of pasture seeds for
both promising grasses and legumes will be another activity for
the researchers in the milkshed area.
RESULTS
This programme has just started and the results included in
this paper are for one phase of a series of trials, of which
the second trial is in progress. Data is collected for a
period of five months for each trial.
Utilisation of maize bran and cottonseed cake
Data collected on milk production and concentrate consumption,
estimates on transport and labour costs were used to calculate
gross margins of the two treatments. However, milk production
on these farms was affected by several factors that were
difficult to quantify.
293
Major problems with on-farm testing include;
a. several levels of factors cannot be implemented within a
farm
b. limited number of animals
c. the animals may vary in breeds/crosses, age and number of
lactations
d. the basic management by the farmer vary considerably, and
e. success of the testing depends on willingness of the farmers
With the first feeding trial, a few problems were
experienced. Some farmers gave the feed for the animal on
trial to other animals in the herd. Some irregularities in
recording were experienced. It was not possible for
researchers to visit every farmer at least every week. The
dairy extension assistants (DEA) were given the responsibility
of closely monitoring and supervising of the trials, since each
bulking group has its DEA. DEAs' visits to participating
farmers was very irregular. However, there was good
cooperation from the farmers and a lot of interest in the
programme. Tables 6 and 7 present results of gross margin
analysis based on current production organisation in the
milkshed area. The prices used are those that are currently in
force. Revenue on milk sales assume that all milk was sold to
Malawi Dairy Industries (MDI) which infact is not the case.
294
Table 6: Gross margin for the dairy with animals fed maize bran.
Anima l numbers and performance
Average number of cows in milk 3
Average milk yield per cow/day (litres) 9.7
Average lactation length (months) 4
Revenue
Milk (3,533 litres) at Malawi Kwacha (MK) 0.45
per litre 1589.85
Variable costs
Concentrates: 30 bags of maize bran at MK4.70
per bag (MK) 141.00
Transport costs of feed at MK 0.50/bag 15.00
Labour costs (family) 2.50
Total variable costs (MK)
Gross margin (revenue-costs) MK 1431.35
Gross margin per cow (MK) 477.11
Table 7: Gross margin for the dairy farmer with animals fed a
mixture of maize bran and cottonseed cake.
Animal and performance
Average number of cows in milk 3
Average milk yield/cow/day (litres) 10.7
Average lactation length (months) 1
Revenue
Milk (3,913.8 litres) at MK0.45 per litre (MK) 1761.21
Variable costs Concentrates
(a) 8 bags of cottonseed cake at MK8.50/bag (MK) 58.00
(b) 30 bags of maize bran at MK4.70/bag (MK) 141.00
Transport costs of feed at MK0.50/bag (total of
30 bags) 19.00
Labour costs (family)* 12.50
Labour variable costs (MK) 240.50
Gross margin (revenue-costs) (MK) 1520.71
Gross margin/cow (MK) 506.90
* includes costs of milling and mixing the cottonseed cake.
295
 The gross margins/cow in Tables 6 and 7 show that the
farmer could get an additional MK29.79 by including cottonseed
cake in his maize bran-based dairy ration. Other sets of data
are being collected for the other trials. It is still early to
make any deductions based on these data.
Crude protein contents of the feed and forage resources
utilised by the animals in the study
Samples of maize bran, a mixture of maize bran and cottonseed
cake, and improved pastures collected were analyzed for crude-
protein content. Samples of natural pastures were taken but
the chemical analyses are not completed. Crude protein values
of the feeds issued to dairy farmers and the forage resources
available on their farms are presented in Table 8. Maize bran
contains less crude protein than maize bran mixed with
cottonseed cake. Crude protein values for forage resources did
not vary much among the different pastures. Values for Rhodes
grass were less than crude protein values of other grasses
(Hamil panic, Ntchisi panic, Napier and Guatemala in Table 8).
In general, the crude protein values of legume forages were
much higher than the protein values of grass forages (Table 8).
Table 8: A summary of crude protein contents of maize bran
mixtures of maize bran and cottonseed cake, and forage
samples collected from dairy farmers' fields (X of
DM).
Sample
Maize bran
Maize bran + cottonseed cake
Hami l panic grass
Napier grass
Rhodes grass
Guetamala grass
Silverleaf desmodium
Common centrosema
Number of Range Mean
samples
8 11.5 - 15.3 12.9
6 18.7 - 25.8 20.1
2 12.5 - 15.5 U.O
6 12.5 - 14.5 13.4
3 10.0 - 15.3 11.8
1 - 12.5
1 - 18.8
1 • 15.6
296
DISCUSSION
On-station animal feed resource technologies have been
generated in Mzuzu. But a very small proportion of these
technologies is utilised by the small-scale farmers. This is
shown by the low levels of milk yields in the area because
natural pastures are the feed resources that are commonly used.
Lack of researchers-extension workers and farmers interaction
has been common so that the technologies developed have not
found their way to the farmer. With the formation of bulking
groups (dairy farmers associations) things are likely to
improve. Work is done on a group basis and inputs required for
utilisation of results are not a problem since the associations
have funds that cater for purchases of feeds and other inputs
involved in the dairy production system. Thus, these
associations are acting as instruments for promoting the
adoption of technologies. Farmers will be able to buy
cottonseed cake and with proper feeding management and the
utilisation of improved forage resources milk production levels
will be increased.
The inclusion of legumes into the farming systems and the
encouragement of farmers to practise zero-grazing system, feed
CP levels will be increased, leading to the efficient
utilisation of the feeds, and soil fertility maintenance will
be enhanced.
If the testing of the on-station generated technologies
will be successful on-farm level, farmers will see increased
levels of milk production, reduced calving intervals and
reduced animal mortality rates. This will speed up the rate of
dairy development because there will be more replacement
animals. At present there is a critical shortage of dairy
animals in Mzuzu milkshed area.
CONCLUSION
Although there are some problems being experienced in carrying
out this programme, there are prospects for its success. The
297
successful adoption of the technologies will lead to use of
adapted high yielding forages. This will lead to more feed
resources of high quality, better utilisation of feed resources
resulting into:
- improvement of livestock
- reduced calving intervals
- increased milk production
- increased rate of replacement heifers
- increased reproductive efficiency of animals
- enhanced soil fertility maintenance with the final
attainment of food security and improved farm income
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1982. Pasture Research in Mzuzu Agricultural
Development Division - 1982/83. Department of
Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture.
Anonymous, 1985. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
Technical Note No. 1. On Animal Nutrition for the Animal
Production Research Department.
Anonymous, 1987. Project Outline for a Dairy Nutrition Study
in Mzuzu Milkshed Area - 1987/88. Department of
Agricultural Research, Malawi.
Anonymous, 1988. Malawi National Census Report. National
Statistical Office, Government Printer, Zomba.
Cusack, T.J. 1988. Report of the a Reconnaissance Survey in
Mzuzu Milkshed Area. Unpublished.
Dzowela, B.H. 1987. Maize stover improvement with legume
forages: In: (ed). Kategile, J. A., A.N. Said and 8.H.
Dzowela. Animal Feed Resources for Small-scale Livestock
Producers. Proceedings of the Second PANESA workshop,
held in Nairobi, Kenya, 11-15 November, 1985.
298
Katuma, K. , and Stoz, D. 1987. Malawi German Livestock
Development Programme Working paper No. 5. Ministry of
Agriculture, Malawi.
Kumwenda, M.S.L. and Munthali, J.T. 1988. Utilisation of
Maize Bran and Cottonseed Cake by lactating dairy cows in
Malawi. African Research Network for Agricultural By
products (ARNAB) newsletter (in press).
Ministry of Agriculture. 1983. Pasture Handbook for Malawi,
Lilongwe, Malawi.
Topps J.H. 1961. Animal Feeds of Central Africa. Occasional
paper No.1. Department of Agriculture, University of
Rhodesia, Salisbury.
299
ADOPTION OF FORAGE INNOVATIONS BY MALAGASY SMALL-SCALE DAIRY
PRODUCERS
J.H. Rasambainari vo, M. Razaf imananisoa and R. Razaf indratsi ta
Department de Recherches 200 techniques et veterinaire
P. 0. Box 4
Antananarivo - 121,
Madagascar
ABSTRACT
A survey of 38 smallscale daily farmers in the Malagasy
highlands was carried out in the 1987 dry season to assess the
extent of adoption of two innovations introduced by the
material extension service. These innovations were the growing
of improved perennial grasses for hay and for green fodder and
oats. The farms averaged 1.4 ha in size with 6.5 heads of
cattle of which 2.2 were daily cows. More than 80X of the
daily cows were Norwegian Red and their crosses. During the
dry season all of the farmers fed their cattle with oats which
had been raised as a catch crop on rice fields. Forty-eight
percent of them made hay with Chi or is gayana and Setaria
sphacelata. The reasons for the adoption of these innovations
are discussed.
300
SESSION III
FEED RESOURCES EVALUATION
301
LEGUME SUPPLEMENTATION OF MAIZE STOVER
T. Smith, B. Manyuchi and S. Mikayiri
Grasslands Research Station,
P/Bag 3701, Marondera, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
The value of legumes Lablab purpureus. Lablab. (LL). Vigna
unguiculata. Cowpea, (CP), Ca ianus ca Jan. Pigeonpea, (PP) as
supplements to maize stover were assessed in two experiments. In
the first lambs received 0, 100, 200 or 300 g of legume, with or
without cottonseed meal, and maize stover ad l ibi tum. All the
legumes increased total dry matter intake (P<0.001),
digestibility (P<0.05) and nitrogen retention (P<0.05). Stover
intake was not increased by the legumes but was by cottonseed
meal .
In the second experiment CP was compared with early (EPP) or
late (LPP) cut PP as supplements to lambs receiving a small
concentrate allocation and maize stover ad l ibi tum. Total intake
(P<0.001), digestibility (P<0.05) and nitrogen retention (P<.05)
were increased by all legumes, especially CP. In a further trial
lambs showed a marked preference for CP compared to PP especially
EPP. Yield of EPP per ha was markedly lower than LPP.
The results indicate improved nutritional status in lambs
receiving legumes and differences between legumes in their
nutritive value and acceptability. Some of the practical
implications of underfeeding and the role of legumes are
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Crop residues are an essential resource for dry season feeding of
ruminants in Zimbabwe. Maize stover is the most plentiful
(Sibanda, 1986; GFA, 1987) but as with all cereal stovers it has
a low crude protein and high fibre content. Treatment with urea
302
and supplementation with protein have been found beneficial when
feeding cattle or sheep (Smith et al, 1988). However, oilcakes
and urea are expensive and often in short supply and so other
sources of nitrogen must be considered.
The addition of a small quantity of green forage residues
was suggested as a means of improving rumen function (Preston and
Leng, 1984). This is not practical in regions with a clearly
defined long dry season. Blaxter et al (1961) showed that
substitution rates of one feed for another were much lower when a
good quality forage (straw) was offered with concentrates than
when a good quality (hay) was offered. This concept together
with the predictable response of a poor quality roughage to
protein supplementation (ARD. 1984) have been brought together in
the recommendations for the use of legumes as a component of dry
season grazing (Rukanda, 1982; Maclaurin and Grant 1987).
Mombeshora, Maclaurin and Reh (1987) discussed the establishment
of fodder legumes in communal areas of Zimbabwe.
The use of legumes in intercropping with either temperate or
tropical cereals has long been accepted. Dzowela (1987)
summarized the effects on the cereal crop (maize) of this
technique. In a series of trials the acceptability of legume
stover mixtures has been assessed in sheep and cattle, using
legume species known to grow in a high rainfall area (1000 mm/yr)
of Zimbabwe (Clatworthy and Nzi ramasanga, pers comm).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Three legume species, Lablab purpureus (Lablab, LL) Vigna
unguiculata (Cowpea, CP) and Ca ianus cajan (Pigeonpea, PP) have
been used in trials with sheep and cattle to assess their value
as supplements to maize stover. For the two experiments the
legumes were grown separate from the maize to allow control of
the legume: stover ratio in the diet. Legumes were also fed
separately to the stover in order to give accurate estimates of
intake.
303
Experiment 1
The three legumes (LL, CP, PP) were each fed as supplements (0,
100, 200, 300 g fresh material per day) to lambs receiving ad
l ibi tum maize stover with or without cottonseed meal (CSM, 140 g
fresh feed per day). Seven intake, digestibility and DM
retention studies were made, in the first six each legume being
tested in the presence or absence of CSM and in the seventh all
legumes being fed at 300 g with CSM. The degradabi l i ty of the
legumes was measured using nylon bags (Orskov and McDonald, 1979)
suspended in the rumens of mature fistulated steers, receiving a
fixed amount of a standard diet.
The legumes and maize stover were cut at the end of the wet
season, dried, baled and subsequently milled through a 14 mm
screen. Chemical composition of the feedstuffs is shown in Table
1.
Initially 16 recently castrated crossbred lambs (Merino &
Dorper) weighing between 20 - 30 kg (average 24.9 kg), were
ranked according to liveweight and randomized to the first set of
treatments. Throughout the trial losses of lambs were heavy (9
deaths) and replacements were made as appropriate. After each
dietary change there was a 21 - day adaptation period followed by
five days of intake measurements together with total collection
of faeces and urine.
Each legume was also offered to two yearling Friesian
heifers in amounts upto 2 kg/d. They also received 2 kg/d of
medium quality veld hay and 2 kg of the maize/urea concentrate.
This was a short study (14d) to gauge the acceptability of the
legumes fed to cattle.
304
Table 1: Dry matter (g/kg), nitrogen and ash concentration (g/kg
DM) and in vitro 0.M. digestibility (DOMDX) of the feeds
used in Experiments 1 and 2.
Dry matter* Ni trogen Ash DOMDX**
Expt 1:
Maize stover 928 3.8 24 48.4
Lablab 923 13.4 48 58.5
Cowpea 915 23.7 38 74.3
Pigeonpea 900 17.4 92 43.8
Cottonseed meal 930 63.3 136
Expt 2:
Maize stover 920 4.7 45 42.4
Cowpea 898 26.2 100 65.0
Early cut Pigeonpea 908 28.0 38 36.4
Late cut Pigeonpea 913 21.2 55 32.5
Urea/maize meal 885 24.3 34
(1 : 10)
* mean values during the experiment
**Ti l ley and Terry (1963)
Statistical analysis
The data was subjected to analysis of variance and regression
analysis when appropriate by use of the Genstat statistical
package. Data derived from the nylon bag technique was fitted to
the model of Orskov and McDonald (1979).
305
RESULTS
Variation between groups in liveweight increased, especially in
the later stages of Expt 1, and so intake and N retention data
are presented on the basis of metabolic liveweight (g/kg ' ).
Experiment 1
Both LL and CP were readily eaten but there was initial
resistance to PP. To overcome this, PP was mixed with CSM for
the first study with this legume. The results will be presented
in chronological order although for simplicity Table 4 follows
the same format as Tables 2 and 3.
Lablab In the absence of CSM, successive increments of LL
increased daily total intake (P<0.001) but reduced intake of
stover above 100 g of LL (P<0.05) (Table 2). Dry matter
digestibility was increased and that of acid detergent fibre
decreased by the increments. Lablab increased N intake and
retention (P<0.05).
306
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The addition of CSM to the diet substantially increased
stover intake, N intake and N retention but did not affect the
pattern of response. Without LL the digestibility of DM was
increased by CSM but where LL was fed the changes due to CSM were
smal l .
Cowpea: Successive increments of CP, with or without CSM,
increased total intake (P<0.001), digestibility of DM (P<0.05)
and N intake. In the absence of cottonseed meal organic matter
digestibility (P<0.05) and N retention (P<0.01) were increased by
CP. Faeces samples collected when the lambs were receiving CSM
were wrongly bulked and, therefore, organic matter digestibility
and N retention data is not available. The addition of CSM
increased stover intake. There was also a change in the pattern
of intake, without CSM a small non-significant increase as CP
increased was changed, with CSM, to a small non-significant
decrease (Table 3).
Pigeonpea: Total intake was increased by the addition of PP
(P<0.05) and generally stover intake fell (P<0.05) (Table 4).
The higher total intake with CSM was due entirely to the CSM.
Digestibility of dry and organic matter was unaffected by the
addition of legumes or CSM. However, N intake and retention were
increased by both legumes and SCM, the differences without CSM
being significant (P<0.001).
Three legumes: When the three legumes were offered at 300 g/d
with CSM they all increased total intake compared to maize stover
with CSM and legume (P<0.001) (Table 5). Stover intake was
greatest with CP and least with PP (P<0.05). Digestibility of
dry and organic matter was increased by all the legumes
especially LL and CP (P<0.05). All legumes increased N intake
and retention especially CP (P<0.001).
Dry matter and N disappearance: The loss of DM and N together
with estimates of degradabi l i ty constants a, b and c are shown in
Table 8. Cowpea had the greatest extent of DM and N loss
followed by LL and PP. Rates of degradabi l i ty (dg) of CP and LL
were simi lar.
308
Experiment 2
Total intake was increased by all the legumes (P<0.05) (Table 6)
and especially CP (P<0.001). Stover intake was reduced by the
inclusion of LPP (P<0.01). Early cut pigeonpea was not readily
eaten. Improvements in the digestibilities of dry matter
(P<0.05) and organic matter occurred with all legumes especially
CP and LPP. Nitrogen retention was also increased by all the
legumes (P<0.05).
309
Table1:,a3yintak s(g,./kg6-1),N6 ention(g,/kg1 )ddigestib3ity(%ofdietsba ed
on,aizesto. rs6pple, ntedw thC wpeadffe6dola,bs.
6,
1.1 1.1 1.6
X
(16g/d)
31
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X
11.1 -6.6 11.3
Cottonseedmeal
16
6.1b 6.6a 1.1b
X
1.6 -1.1 1.1
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1.1ab
X
1.1 -6.1 6.1
6
1.1a 1.1a 1.6a
X
6.1
X X
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1.ig 1.6 1.1 1.6
1.13
neal 11
1.1C 6.1a 1.6b 16.1b 6.16d
1.1
6.16
1.1
61.6
icottonseed
11
6.1b 6.1a 11.1b 6.1b
1.16c
6.6
1.161
6.6 66.1
61
36.1b 6.1a 6.6b 1.6b
-6.11b
1.1
6.16
1.1 6.1
Nc
1
1.6a 1.6a
1.a
6.6a
-6.61a
1.1 1.13
X X
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Cr6dep ot inXofdiet intake
intake(X)
Organic,atterd- Changeisto.er
Changeitotal
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Totalintake Sto.erintake
,dig
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311
When the lambs were allowed to select their diet CP was the
preferred forage. When CP was omitted LPP was eaten more readily
than EPP and maize stover intake increased substantially (Table
7). Water intake was approximately 2.7 1 / kg DM. Yearling
heifers ate EPP more readily than the lambs but CP was the most
readi ly eaten.
Table 5: Daily intakes (gDM/kg * ), N retention (g/kg ' ) and
digestibility of diets based on maize stover plus
cottonseed meal (130 gDM/d) and supplemented with
Lablab, Cowpea or Pigeonpea (300 g fresh/d) offered to
lambs
Treatments
Control Lablab Cowpea Pigeonpea SED
Total intake 52. 5a 75.0bc 80. 1C 71. 5b 2.47
Stover intake 41.4ab 41.6ab 43. 8b 37. 2a 1.95
DM dig (X) 53. 5a 60. 3b 60. 0b 57.9ab 1.72
Organic matter 55. 7a 60. 0b 61. 9b 58.8ab 1.93
N retention 0.339a 0.600b 0.831b 0.571b 0.0386
Crude protein X of diet 10.2 9.6 11.7 10.9
MEMJ/d 0.434 0.689 0.739 0.615
Change in stover intake (X) x 0.01 0.10 -0.18
(g)/g legume
Change in total intake (X) x 42.9 52.6 36.2
Means in the same row with different superscripts are
significantly different (P<0.05).
312
Table 6: Daily intakes (gDM/kg ' ), N retention (g/kg ' ) and
digestibility of diets based on maize stover and
supplemented with early cut pigeonpea (EPP), late cut
pigeonpea (LPP) or cowpea (CP) and a urea maize mix (177
g DM/d) offered to lambs.
Treatments
Control CP EPP LPP SED
Total intake 48.7°
Stover intake 34. 6b
DM dig (X) 49. 3a
Organic matter d i 9 ( % ) 50. 7a
N retention 0.132a
Crude protein X of diet 6.5
MEMJ/d 0.369
64. 4C 58.0bc 53.9ab 2.41
31. 0b 32. 4b 22. 2a 1.57
55. 3b 51. 2b 56. 0b 1.79
56. 4a 52. 4a 53. 1a 2.91
0.381b 0.319b 0.311b
9.7 8.8 9.5
0.532 0.449 0.426
Change in stover intake (X) x -0.18 -0.18 -0.69
(g)/g legume
Change in total intake (X) x 32.2 19.1 10.7
Means in the same row with different superscripts and
significantly different (P<0.05).
313
Table 7: Total daily intake (gDM.; gDM/kg ' ) and X contribution
of individual feeds to the total.
Pen Number
1 2 3 4
Total intake: (g/d) 1213 1303 1159 665
(g/kg°- 73 ) 97.4 99.3 88.0 53.1
Urea-maize mix 14.6 13.6 15.3 26.6
Cowpea 72.0 71.1 73.1 X
Early cut Pigeonpea X 3.3 5.3 8.1
Late cut Pigeonpea 7.0 4.8 X 23.1
Maize stover 6.4 7.2 6.4 42.2
XFed at a fixed amount of 177 gDM/ lamb/day
Dry matter and N disappearance from nylon bags suspended in
the rumens of fistulated steers was in the order: LPP EPP CP
(Table 8).
314
Table8:Drymtter(DM)andnitrog n34lossXf megum sincubatedn2lbags
therum noffist latedeers.
2ittedconstants
formodel
P=a+b(1-e
ct)+
LossXofDMandS
Incubationtime(hours)
2
2
36
18 2.2 81.6 -.3 81.6 19.8 61.1
27.1 88.9 28.2 28.8 13.9 13.3
28.3 81.3 13.3 81.3 -.3 6.8
X X X X X X
19.8 11.0 66.3 82.0 36.3 13.3 1.0 81.6 12.2 2.2 34.3 27.3
31.3 11.9 39.2
DM.0
33.8 11.3 31.1 28.8 33.1 66.1 33.1 2.9
33.3 66.9 1.2 27.2 32.3 38.1 16.6 13.9 30.3 61.8 31.3 66.1
X X X X X X
10.8 11.2 28.2 26.2 2.2 1.9
3.26 2.28 2.26 2.26 2.21 2.23 3.26 2.39 2.28 2.26 2.27 2.2
31.3 06.2 31.2 26.6
DM.1
32.2 31.6 22.6 21.1 6.2 2.1 26.6
2.3 38.8 10.8 61.3 26.6 32.8 36.1 66.1 2.3 1.3 34.3 18.9
2M S 2M S 2M S 2M S 2M S DM S
2xperiment1
Pigeonpea(PP)
2xperiment0
2arlycutPP
LatecutPP
Lablab
CO
Coupea Coupea
1—_
Ul
+Prsk2andMc2onald(1919).
DISCUSSION
When fed in fixed amounts all the legumes used in both
experiments increased total DM intake, digestibility and N
retention. Substitution of stover by legumes was highest with
PP, the mean effect of PP in Expt 1 and LPP in Expt 2 being a
reduction in stover intake of 0.3 g DM per g of PP consumed.
Digestibility of DM and organic matter was consistently increased
when LL and CP were fed, especially with the lower levels of
supplementation in Expt 1. With PP the pattern was not so clear.
Generally CSM increased stover intake and digestibility of those
diets not containing LL or CP. The reasons for the lack of
response to CSM when PP was fed in the first phase of Expt 1
(Table 4) are not clear. It was not possible to carry out acid
detergent fibre analysis on all samples. The results are similar
to those observed in goats receiving maize stover supplemented
with leucaena hay (Banda and Ayoade, 1986).
Energy requirements of lambs fed indoors are 0.414 MJ per
kg ' (ARC, 1980). By converting digestible organic matter
intake (DOMI) to ME (DOMI (kg) x 15.6 (ARC, 1980) inspection of
the available data show that lambs received maintenance only with
CSM, concentrates or 300 g CP, although by increasing total
intake all legumes raised ME intake.
Nitrogen retention was increased by all legumes and CSM.
Broster et al. (1978) reported excess N to be excreted in the
urine and N supplements to have little effect on faecal N,in
steers receiving fixed amounts of energy. In these experiments
faecal N was increased by the legumes suggesting that although N
loss after a fixed time, from nylon bags was high, turnover rates
were also high resulting in low digestibility.
Regression analysis showed that N retention (NRg/d) was
affected by N intake (N/g/d) and DOMI (kg/d) as follows
NR = -1.90 + 0.603 (+0.0233)NI (r=0.885) (1)
NR « -3.26 + 0.022 (+0.0013) DOMI + 0.634 (+0.0337)NI
(r=0.936) (2)
316
Equation 1 was derived from all NR data of Expt 1 and
equation 2 from the same data where estimates of DOMI were also
available. Using equation 1 the missing NR data for CP = CSM
(Table 4) becomes: 0.389, 0.477; 0.601; 0.677 (g N/kg0-73/d) for
0, 100, 200, 300 g CP respectively.
The low intakes of ME and low NR in the first phase of Expt
1 and equation 2 from the same data where estimates of DOMI were
also available. Using equation 1 the missing NR data for CP +
CSM (Table 4) becomes: 0.389; 0.477; 0.601; 0.677 (g N/kg0-73/d)
for 0, 100, 200, 300 g CP respectively.
The low intakes of ME and low NR in the first phase of Expt
1 probably contributed to the high rate of lamb mortality. Two
thirds of the original lambs under 25 kg initially and one third
over 25 kg died. Although most of the deaths were explainable it
is likely that nutritional stress increased susceptibility to
disease in young animals. Subsequently a small concentrate
allowance removed the problem.
In Expt 2 EPP had a higher N content and in vitro DMDX than
the LPP but was less readily eaten, especially by lambs. This
could be caused by either a very low level of mould, reflecting
the difficulties of making hay in the wet season, or toxins. The
yields (kg/ha) of DM and crude protein for EPP and LPP were
respectively: 2113, 394 and 2974, 370. A second cut of the area
used for EPP was not possible because of insufficient regrowth.
In Expt 2 the preferred legume was CP (Table 7) but in the
absence of CP intakes of maize stover and LPP increased. Water
intake during this period was 2.7 1 /kg DM eaten, higher than the
2 1/kg DM suggested for growing lambs in temperate climates (ARC,
1980).
The data suggests that the legumes were used as supplements
and had little effect on the utilisation of the stover. This
probably reflects their bulkiness and relatively low crude
protein concentration compared to CSM, which did increase intake
of stover. However, legumes are relatively cheap to grow and
often occur as by-products of human food or cash crops. These
317
factors together with the agronomic advantages of growing legumes
must be compared with other methods of supplementing and
upgrading roughages (Sundstol and Owen, 1984; Smith et al, 1988).
The cost of new technologies must be recovered from extra produce
for sale (Orskov, 1987) or for the farmer's own use. In practice
a combination of upgrading and supplementation will probably be
most beneficial.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. J.N. Clatworthy for helpful discussions,
L. Nziramasanga for supplying legume hays, E. Rusike, R. Chiwawa,
J. Chabona, L. Svishvah and their staffs for care of the animals
and chemical analysis, and Mrs. B. Chakanyuka for statistical
analysis.
REFERENCES
Agricultural Research Council, 1980. The Nutrient Requirements
of Ruminant Livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,
Slough.
Agricultural Research Council, 1984. The Nutrient Requirements
of Ruminant Livestock. Supplement No. 1. Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux, Slough.
Banda, J.L.L. and Ayoade, J. A. 1986. Leucaena-leaf hay as
protein supplement for Malawian goats fed chopped maize
stover. In: T.R. Preston and M.Y. Nuwanyakpa (eds) Towards
Opt i ma l Feeding of Agricultural By-products. Proceedings
ARNAB workshop, Alexandria, ILCA PP 124-128.
Blaxter, K.L., Wainman, F.W. and Wilson, R.S., 1961. The
regulation of food intake by sheep. Anim. Prod., 3, 51-61.
Broster, W.H., Smith, T. Siviter, J.W. Schuller, E. and Broster,
V.J., 1978. Experiments on the nutrition of the dairy
heifer. XI. Further observations on the effect of energy
intake on protein utilisation. Journal of Agricultural
Science, Cambridge, 9, 399-413.
318
Dzowela, B.H. 1987. Maize stover improvement with legume
forages. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said, B.H. Dzowela,
(eds). Animal Feed Resources for Smal l -scale Livestock
Producers. Proceedings of the second PANESA workshop, IDRC
Manuscript Report pp 174-181.
GFA consultants, 1987. Study on the economic and social
determinants of livestock production in the communal areas
of Zimbabwe.
Maclaurin, A.R. and Grant, P.J. 1987. Research experience of
reinforcing veld with legumes in Zimbabwe. In: J. A.
Kategile, a.N. Said, B.H. Dzowela, (eds) Animal Feed
Resources for small-scale l ivestock producers. Proceedings
of the second PANESA workshop, IDRC Manuscript Report pp
193-207.
Mombeshora, B.C., Maclaurin, A.R. and Reh, I., 1987.
Establishment of fodder legumes in two communal areas of
Zimbabwe. In: D.A. Little and A.N. Said, (eds) lit i l i sat ion
of Agricultural By-products as Livestock Feeds in Africa.
Proceedings of ARNAB workshop, Blantyre, ILCA P 172.
0rskov, E.R. 1987. Strategies for rural development with
emphasis on livestock production, resource utilisation and
FAO assistance. In: D.A. Little and A.N. Said, (eds)
Uti l i sat ion of Agricultural By-products as Livestock Feeds
in Africa. Proceedings of ARNAB workshop, Blantyre, ILCA
pp 159-164.
Brskov, E.R. and McDonald I. 1979. The estimation of protein
degradabi l i ty in the rumen from incubation measurements
weighted according to rate of passage. Journal of
Agricultural Science, Cambridge, 92:499-503.
Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1984. Supplementation of diets
based on fibrous residues and by-products. In: F. Sundstol
and E. Owen, (eds) Straw and Other Fibrous By-Products as
Feed. Elsevier, Amsterdam pp 373-413.
Rukanda, N.A.K. and Lwoga, A.B. 1982. The role of legumes in
improving natural grasslands for livestock production. In:
J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said and F. Sundstol (eds) Uti l i sat ion
of Low Qua l i ty Roughages in Africa. A UN Agricultural
Development Report 1, AAS, Norway pp 185-188.
319
Sibanda, S. 1986. The use of crop residues in livestock
production systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. In:
T.R. Preston and M.Y. Nuwanyakpa, (eds) Towards Opt imal
Feedi ng of Agri cul tural ByProducts to L i vestock in Africa.
ARNAB workshop, Alexandria, ILCA pp K0-K4.
Smith, T., Chakanyuka, C, Sibanda, S., Manyuchi, B. 1988. Maize
stover as a feed for ruminants. In: Proceedings ARNAB
workshop, Bamenda (in the press).
Sundstol, F. and Owen, E., 1984. Straw and Other Fibrous By
Products as Feed. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
T f I ley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A., 1963. A two stage technique for
the j_n vitro digestion of forage crops. Journal of the
British Grassland Society, 18, 104-111.
320
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF CROTALARIA OCHROLEUCA: I CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION AND IN. VITRO DRY MATTER DIGESTIBILITY
AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH
F.E.J. Mkiwa1, S.V. Sarwatt1, A.B. Lwoga and B.H. Dzowela
ABSTRACT
A study was carried out to determine dry matter (DM) yield,
chemical composition, and in vitro dry matter digestibility
(IVDMD) of Crotalaria ochroleuca ("marejea") at different stages
of growth. "Marejea" was planted and harvested at 2 weeks
intervals up to 16 weeks stage of growth.
The DM yields increased from 60 kg/ha at 2 weeks to 4670
kg/ha at 16 weeks. The total digestible dry matter (DDM)
increased from 38.8 at 2 weeks to 3007 kg/ha at 10th weeks and
then decreased to 2624.5 kg/ha at the 16th week. The crude
protein content decreased with advancing plant growth while crude
fibre increased. The IVDMD for the whole plant and leaf
increased with advancing stage of growth, peaked at the 10th
week, and declined thereafter. The IVDMD for the stem decreased
with advancing plant growth. From this study it was concluded
that, the best stage of maximum yield and nutrient content for
"marejea" is during the 10th week of growth.
INTRODUCTION
Crotalaria ochroleuca is widely distributed in Africa as an
indigenous legume (Pohill, 1982). The plant has been adopted in
the farming systems of the southern part of Tanzania particularly
for the purpose of improving soil fertility and weed control in
the farms. According to Gerold (1984) the legume was first sown
in 1942 by German missionaries who were actually the force behind
its adoption in this part of the country. Since then the legume
has been integrated in the farming system by the farmers in many
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
PANESA Coordinating Unit, ILCA, Nairobi, Kenya
321
parts of the country, and the legume "marejea" is locally named.
The potential of "marejea" as a livestock feed has been well
reviewed by Sarwatt and Mkiwa (1987; 1988). Its toxic effects
have also been pointed out. Although people have been feeding
"marejea" to goats and dairy cattle (Gerold, 1984) there are no
documented studies in Tanzania and only very limited elsewhere on
the feed value of this plant for livestock. In a series of
experiments designed to evaluate the nutritive value of "marejea"
as a feed for livestock it was decided to first determine dry
matter yield, chemical composition and IVDMD of "marejea" at
different stages of growth. This paper reports on the initial
stages of this work.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
During the rainy period of March, 1986 an area of one hectare was
ploughed, harrowed and "marejea" seeds broadcasted at a rate of
15 kg/ha and 40 kg/ha of triple superphospahte (TSP) was applied.
The seeds were neither scarified nor innoculated.
Samples for determination of dry DM yield, chemical
composition and IVDMD were collected at two-weeks intervals. A 1
2m quadrat was thrown at random six times in the field. All the
plants which were enclosed in the quadrat were cut, collected and
weighed to obtain the fresh matter yield. Sub-samples were oven-
dried to obtain DM content and other chemical components in the
plant. Other sub-samples were separated into leaf and stem
fractions which were later weighed, oven-dried and analysed in
the same way as for the whole plant samples.
Chemical analysis for the DM organic matter (OM), crude
protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE), total ash,
calcium and phosphorus contents of the forage samples were
carried out according to A.0.A.C. (1965). The IVDMD was
determined according to the procedure of Til ley and Terry (1963).
Statistical analysis of variance was done according to Snedecor
and Cochran (1980). Differences among treatment means were
determined using LSD.
322
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
DM and OM contents and yields of "marejea" with advancing plant
growth are shown in Table 1. Both the DM and OM contents
increased with advancing plant growth. The DM yield of 4.5
tons/ha observed on the 10th week in this study is lower than
that of 5.2 tons/ha (Mkiwa, 1988) and 12 tons/ha (Mukurasi,
1986). However, these differences would be due to seeding rate
and environmental conditions e.g. weather and soils. During the
10th weeks of growth a few of the plants were observed to flower.
For feeding purposes cutting on the 10th week should be the best
time when the yields are maximum. Rocha (1965) and Martin et al
(1976) reported that the DM yield of Crotolaria species peaks at
early flowering period. Yields of leaf and stem with advancing
plant growth are shown in Table 2.
The stem yields were lower during the first four weeks and
increased rapidly and remained high throughout the experimental
period. Crowder and Cheddar (1982) observed that stems yield
more DM than leaf. This is normally the case because with
advancing plant growth, the proportion of stem increases at the
expense of leaf due to an increase in the proportion of lignified
structural tissues.
323
Table1.2MandCcontentsyieldsof"marejea"w hadvancingplantgrow h.
W-7
Contents
2168Mean
2Mcontents(X)3.111.3336 12
DMyield(kg/ha)62168 233 11341866 79.1
CMcontent(X)6.88 32 111.3 19
OMyield(kg/ha)281231 234112 826 .1
CO
*Table2.Yieldsanproportionsoflantp"marej a"withdv nc ngantgrow h.
Plantp rtW-7
21Mean
2Myields(kg/ha)
Greenleaf3224821380136666.1
Stem3223112712186 81 .8
Proportionsofplantpa ts
3(Xoftotal2Myield)
Greenleaf21.162 88 216 333 6
Stem21.334 21 8.19626 18
Table3.Chemicalcompmoitionf".reje hsw oleplantith,v nc nggrowt(X/2M
oo (V) en
Mean 2.1 30.1 0.9 1.9
3.32
3.48
27 9.9 10.1 1.8 1.9
3.32 3.11
1
1.2 12.1 1.9 3.6 2.DM 2.2
-KS
2
2.1 38.2 2.1 1.3
9.01 1.26
U
19 26.9
36.3 3.3 1.1
3.33 9.82
8 28.6
30.1 3.0 8.0
9.32 3.13
6 2.0 2.3 3.3 3.9
3.31 2.2
1
33.1 20.1 0.1 1.8 3.36 1.1
0 38.8 2.1 1.3 0.6
3.38 1.2
Sutrient(X)
Crudeprotein
Crudefibre
2therextract
6sh
Phosphorus
Calcium
Table1.Chemicalcompositionf"m rejea"l afwithadv nc ngpl ntgrowth(XDM)
Mean 32.1 13.1 6.3 3.6
3.11
2
2.1
DM.6
1.6 6.0 2.2
2.76
1
08.3 34.3 1.1 6.9
3.38 3.60
2
2.3 2.0 6.1 8.0 2.31
3.92
S
W-1
31.6 1.6 1.2 8.8 3.36
3.81
2
8
31.1 6.8 8.3 1.3
2.30 2.13
6 33.2 2.6
8.1 6.1 3.31 3.28
1
36.0 11.9 9.3 1.1 2.31
2.92
2 38.1
13.3 9.3 3.8
3.30
1.2
Sutrient(X)
Crudeprotein
Crudefibr
2therextract
6sh
Phosphorus
Calcium
Table3.Chemicalcompositionf"marejea"stemwithdvanc ngpl ntg owth(%2M)
Mean 8.1 13.1 3.2 3.1 2.2 3.19 growth
2
3.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 2.1
2.83
ngplant
1
3.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 2.2 2.27
advanci
1S
2 6.3 28.1
1.1 6.1 3.2 3.2
antpartswith
U21S
W-1
2
6.1 28.1 1.2 6.8
2.22 3.82
of"marejea"pi
8
1.8 11.1 1.1 6.1 3.2 3.18
6
9.2 34.0 2.1 3.8 3.2 2.2
Table6.Jnvitro2Mdigestibility
1
2.2 31.1 3.1 3.2 2.6 2.28
0
2.1 2.6 3.8 1.1 2.1
3.92
Sutrient(X)
Crudep ot in
Crudefibr
2therextract
Ash
Phosphorus
Calcium
Plantp rt
2
2
1
Mean
2rymatterdigestibility(X)
Wholeplant61.63 96 2.361 8 Greenleaf66.182 27.2
Stem60.1239.226 18
2igestibility2Myie d(22MO)kg/ha)
Wholeplant38.8296.31191.62DM 12 .
Greenleaf33.22139 .12 6 6-
Stem6.816.6,.8291.23 1
28.1 2.3 46.9
228.1 218.1 230.3
26.2 63.8 38.1
229.8
483
129
61.1 62.3 31.6
262.3
271.1
22
28.1 11.1
212.9
12.3 863.6
The chemical composition of the "marejea" plant, leaves and
stem with advancing plant growth is shown in Tables 3, 4 and 5
respectively. The CP contents were observed to decrease with
advancing plant growth. The decrease was remarkably higher in
the whole plant and stem. Reddy e_t aj_. (1970) observed a
decrease in the CP content of the whole plant sunnhemp from
29. 3X at 2.6 days to 24. 8X at 35 days. Krishna et a].. (1985)
reported a decrease in the CP content of sunnhemp plant from
22. 6X at week 4 to 17. 8X at week 8. The mean CP content of the
"marejea" plant in this study was 25.1%. This is in close range
with those of 24. 9X reported by Balaraman and Venkatakri shnan
(1974) and 23. 7X by Mkiwa (1988), at about flowering stage. The
CF content in the whole plant, leaf and stem increased with
advancing plant growth. The same trend has also been observed by
Krishna et. a_l_. (1985) who reported a CF increase of 28.9X at week
4 to 44.5X at week 8. The ash content was also observed to
increase with advancing plant growth while the ether extract was
declining. The same trend for both ash and ether extract has
been observed by Whiteman (1980). Advancing plant growth had no
consistent effect on the calcium and phosphorus contents.
The results of IVDMD and the yield of DM of the whole plant,
leaf and stem as influenced by advancing plant growth is shown in
Table 6. The DMD in the plant and leaf was observed to increase
with advancing plant growth, reaching a peak value at 10th week
and declining thereafter. The DMD of the stem was observed to
decline from 62.7% at the 2nd week to 34.6% at the 16th week.
The results agree with those by Terry and Til ley (1963) who
showed that the in vitro digestibility of lucerne stems declined
from 85 to 56X at maturity. The low digestibility of the stem is
attributed to indigestible components which increase with
advancing plant growth (Minson, 1977). The DDM yield increased
with advancing plant growth. Chauhan and Tiwana (1983) using
cowpea reported a DDM yield increase from 19 kg/ha on day 45 to
25 kg/ha on day 94.
From the results of this experiment, harvesting "marejea" at
early flowering stage (corresponding to 10th week under Morogoro
conditions) seems to offer the maximum yield of digestible
nutrients.
327
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to PANESA, NORAD and SUA for
financial support which enabled this study to be carried out. We
are also grateful to J.S. Lugole of Sokoine University of
Agriculture for assistance with statistical analysis.
REFERENCES
A.0.A.C. 1965. Official methods of analysis (9th ed.) Assoc.
Off. Agric. Chem. Washington, D.C.
Balaraman and Venkatakrishnan, R. 1974. Nutritive value of
Sunnhemp (Crotalaria iuncea Linn) hay for sheep. Indian
Veterinary Journal 51 (5): 337 - 341.
Chauhan, T.R. and Tiwana, M.S. 1983. Effect of stage of
maturity on nutrient composition, in vitro DMD and fodder
yield on cowpea. Indian Journal of Animal Science 53 (9) :
1011 - 1013.
Crowder, V.L. and Chheda, H.R. 1982. Tropical grassland
husbandry. Longman London and New York, 563 pp.
Gerold (OSB). R. 1984. "Marejea" Rafiki wa Mkulima. Benedictine
Press Peramiho Ndanda, Tanzania 151 pp.
Krishna, N., Prasad J.R. and Prasad, D.A. 1985. Effect of
stage of maturity on chemical composition and nutritive
value of sunnhemp (Crotalaria iuncea Linn.) forage. Indian
Journal of Animal Science 55 (12) : 1 109- 1112.
Martin, J.H., Leonard, W.H. and Samp, D.J. 1976. Principles of
field crop production. MacMillan, New York, pp 272-274.
Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1988. The potential of Crotalaria ochroleuca
("marejea") as a feed for ruminant livestock. M.Sc. thesis.
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania.
Minson, D.J. 1971. The nutritive value of tropical pastures.
Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science
37:255.
Mukurasi, N.J. 1986. Agricultural attributes of Crotalaria
zanzibarica. Uyole Agricultural Centre, Mbeya, Tanzania
(unpublished).
328
PohiU, R.M. 1982. Crotalaria in Africa and Madagascar. A. A.
Balkama, Rotterdam, 389 pp.
Reddy, K.C., Soffers, A.R., Prine, G.M. Dunn, R.A. 1986.
Tropical legumes for green manure II. Nematode populations
and their effects on succeeding crop yield. Agronomy
Journal 38 (1):5-10.
Rocha, A.V. 1965. Apontamentos sobre cutivo da Crotalaria
usaramuensi na Estacao Zootechnica Central em Marine
Macado. English Summary Tropical Abstracts 21 (8) : 51 2 .
Sarwatt, S.V. and Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1987. The value of Crotalaria
ochroleuca as a livestock feed. In: A.N. Minjas, M.P.
Salema, S.V. Sarwatt, and J.J. Webber (eds) The role of
"mareiea" (Crotalaria ochroleuca) in Agricultural
production in Tanzania. Benedictine Publication. Ndanda,
Peramiho, Tanzania.
Sarwatt, S.V. and Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1988. The current status of
knowledge on the feed value of Crotalaria species in
Tanzania. In: B.H. Dzowela (ed). Proceedings of the 3rd
PANESA workshop held in Arusha, Tanzania 27th-30th April,
1987. 192 pp.
Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, G. 1980. Statistical Methods. 6th
ed. Iowa State University Press. Ames. Iowa 507 pp.
Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two stage technique for
the in vitro digestion of forage crops. Journal of the
British Grassland Society. 18:104.
Whiteman, P.C. 198 . Tropical pasture science. Oxford, London,
392 pp.
329
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF CROTALARIA OCHROLEUCA: II
THE EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTATION ON FEED UTILISATION AND
PERFORMANCE OF GROWING SHEEP
111 2
S.V. Sarwatt , F.E.J. Mkfwa , A.B. Lwoga and B.H. Dzowela
ABSTRACT
A study was carried out to determine chemical composition of
Crotalaria ochroleuca ("marejea") at three stages of growth -
pre-anthesis, anthesis and post- anthesi s . Feeding trials were
conducted to study the effect of "marejea" supplementation of low
quality Chloris gayana hay on the growth rate and feed
utilisation of growing sheep. In the feeding trials 12 young
male sheep were randomly allocated to four treatments: hay only
(T-), hay + 150g "marejea" (T,), hay + 300g "marejea" (T,) and
hay + ad l ib "marejea" (T.).
The crude protein (CP) content was highest (30. SX) at pre-
anthesis and decreased with advancing plant growth. The leaves
with a CP of 34.5% were observed to be the most nutritious part
of the plant. The crude fibre (CF) content was lowest at pre-
anthesis (36.7%) and increased to 40. OX at post-anthesis stage of
plant growth. Calcium and phosphorus contents were highest at
pre-anthesis.
Supplementation had a significant (P<0.01) effect on total
and daily weight gain. Total and daily weight gain increased
with increasing level of "marejea" supplementation in the diet
but there was no significant differences (P>0.01) among
supplemented animals in treatments T, and T,. Supplemented
animals as a group had significantly (P<0.01) higher daily gain
than their unsupplemented counterparts.
"Marejea" supplementation increased dry matter digestibility
(DMD) of hay but only significantly (P<0.01) with treatment T,.
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
PANESA Coordinating Unit, ILCA, Nairobi, Kenya
330
CP digestibility in T, was about three times that of the
unsupplemented group (T.). The organic matter digestibility
(OMD) increased with supplementation but was significantly
(P<0.01) higher only in treatment T,. Both faecal N and and
urinary N excretion increased with increased N intake and level
of supplement ion. The nitrogen balance value increased with
increasing level of "marejea" supplementation. It was negative
in treatment T. and highest in T,.
From the study it was concluded that "marejea" hay at pre-
anthesis stage had the highest nutritive value and can be used as
a cheap alternative protein supplement for growing sheep in areas
where conventional proteins are expensive or not available.
INTRODUCTION
Tropical grasslands support low levels of production due to their
low nutritive value of the forages (Humphreys, 1978). The
potential for much greater production are obvious but first the
problem of nutritional deficiency must be solved. Among the ways
of improving the nutritional status of these grasslands is the
incorporation of forage legumes into the grasslands through
oversowing or direct inclusion of the legume in the diet of
livestock. Supplementation of forage legumes in the diet of
livestock seems to offer a better alternative for small-scale
farmers.
One legume that is used in the southern part of Tanzania for
improving soil fertility and combating weeds is Crotalaria
ochroleuca locally known as "marejea". Efforts of introducing
this legume in the southern part of the country are through the
hard work of the Benedictine Fathers at Peramiho particularly Fr.
Gerold Rupper. It is interesting to note that the people in this
area adopted the use of "marejea" before any research information
about the legume was known. The motive behind the quick adoption
of the legume as suggested by Lupanga et a_l_ (1987) was monetary
value from either the sale of the seeds or money saved by using
"marejea" as a substitute for fertilizers which are expensive.
Another reason was the incentive and small presents given by Fr.
331
Gerold during his visits (Lupanga e_t a_i, 1987). According to
Lupanga et al. , 1987, if markets for seeds had dried up, the
farmers might have discontinued the use of "marejea". Few
farmers who have goats and/or dairy cows feed "marejea" to their
animals. Although no quantified data is available on the feeding
value of "marejea" to livestock, the performance of the animals
is reported to be good. The potential of "marejea" in the farming
systems of Tanzania and particularly as a feed for livestock has
been pointed out by Sarwatt (1986); Sarwatt and Mkiwa (1987); and
Sarwatt and Mkiwa (1988).
This study was, therefore, undertaken to determine the
chemical composition of "marejea" and evaluate its feeding value
through digestibility, growth and intake trials.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Forage production and preparation
During the long rains in March, 1987 an area of 0.5 ha was
ploughed, harrowed and "marejea" seeds broadcasted at a rate of
10 kg/ha. A triple super phosphate (TSP) fertilizer was applied
at a rate of 40 kg/ha. At three stages of growth i.e. at pre-
anthesis, anthesis and post-anthesis random samples were
collected for chemical analysis. The forage used in the feeding
experiment was harvested at anthesis. The forage was air dried
under shade in a barn. When the material was well dried, the
less woody stems were separated from the rest of the plant,
collected and stored in gunny bags.
Rhodes grass hay was prepared from established plots at the
University Farm. The hay was cut at post-flowering stage using a
forage chopper. The material was wilted for a day in the sun and
final drying was done in the barn. The hay was then stacked in
the barn ready for the feeding trials.
Digest ibi lity study
Twelve male adult Black Head Persian sheep of an average weight
of 30.4 kg were used for the digestibility experiment. The
332
animals were randomly alloted to the four dietary treatments (T.
- T.) in a completely randomized design. The animals were
weighed before and after each experimental period which consisted
of a 7-day preliminary period followed by a 7-day collection
period. All the animals were dewormed before the trial began.
The volume of urine was recorded daily, and 10X aliquots
were combined for each sheep in each period. Daily faecal
samples were. dried at 60 C, samples from sheep on the same
treatment were composited for analysis.
Intake study
Fourteen days after the digestibility study, the same animals and
treatments were used to determine intake. The animals were
weighed at the beginning and end of the preliminary period of 10
days, and at the beginning and end of the 10 day collection
period. Rations were offered ad libitum so as to allow for a
minimum of 20X refusals. During the preliminary period the
animals were allowed to attain the highest DM intake. All the
refusals were collected and weighed. From the weight of the
refusals intake per metabolic body weight (g/kg W ' ) was
determined.
Growth study
Twelve male Black Head Persian sheep of an average weight of 17.2
kg were assigned at random in a completely randomized design to
the four treatments (T. - T,). The animals were grazed for 8
hours daily on paddocks consisting mainly of Rhodes grass and
then subjected to the four treatments. All the animals were in
addition, given 4g mineral mixture and water ad l ibi turn. The
animals were weighed at weekly intervals during the experimental
period of 90 days. From day 88 to day 90 all the animals were
weighed daily in order to determine the final average live
weight.
To determine the quality of the pasture on which the animals
were grazing, the animals were followed twice every week during
the whole experimental period. Forage samples were plucked from
333
the grazing sites oven dried and bulked. At the end of the
study, the bulked forage was sub-sampled for the analysis of its
chemical composition.
Chemical and data analyses
All the dried samples of feeds, refusals and faeces were milled
through a 1-mm screen before they were analysed. Analyses for
dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP) and
fibre (CF), ash and either extract (EE) were conducted according
to the standard procedures (A.O.A.C. 1960; 1965). The urine
samples were analysed for nitrogen by the routine Kjeldahl method
(A.0.A.C, 1960). Some of the samples were sent to the National
Institute of Animal Science in Denmark for detailed analysis of
the plant parts. The results are presented in Table 2.
The data from the digestibility, intake and growth studies
were analysed in a completely randomized design as described by
Snedecor and Cochran, (1980). Differences among treatment means
were analysed using Duncan's multiple range test (Duncan, 1955).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The chemical composition of the forages
The chemical composition of "marejea" harvested at pre-anthesis,
anthesis and post-anthesis, Rhodes grass hay and that of pasture
grazed by sheep in the growth study is shown in Table 1. The CP
was noted to decrease with advancing stage of growth while CF
increased with advancing growth. Mkiwa (1987) reported crude
protein values of 28.2X, 25.6X and 17.1X when "marejea"s were
harvested at 6th, 10th and 12th weeks, respectively. These
values do not differ much from those obtained in this study.
Rhodes grass hay was of low nutritive value as indicated by the
low CP of 5.8X and high CF of 36.5%.
334
Table 1: Chemical composition of "marejea" hay at pre-anthesis,
anthesis and post-anthesis, rhodes grass hay, and
pasture fed to sheep in the growth study (DM basis).
Nutrient Pre- Anthesis Post- Rhodes Pastures
Anthesis Anthesis grass
hay
DM content (X) 81.2 85.4 87.3 88.0 90.0
Organic matter (X) 73.8 76.9 81.1 80.2 88.3
Crude protein (X) 30.5 25.1 18.5 5.8 14.7
Crude fibre (X) 36.7 38.4 40.0 36.5 24.6
Ether extract (X) 2.3 3.0 1.9 1.6 2.7
Ash (X) 7.4 8.5 6.2 8.7 8.4
Calcium (X) 0.77 1.54 1.21 0.1 0.3
Phosphorus (X) 0.30 0.38 0.26 0.01 0.1
The high CP values in the pasture could be attributed to the
hand plucking of pastures that consisted of several grass
species, leguminous plants and shrubs. Hand plucking of the
pasture after the grazing animals does not accurately represent
what the animal consumes. But this was the best alternative
estimation that could be used when there were no fistulated
animals.
Detailed chemical composition of "marejea" plant parts is
given in Table 2. The CP of the leaves of 34.5X and CF of 14.3X
indicates that the leaves are the most nutritious part of the
plant. The amino acids lysine and methionine in "marejea" leaves
335
are much higher than in lucerne, though when expressed as a
percentage of protein, the values are more or less the same in
the two forages. The Ca and P contents in "marejea" leaves are
not as high as in in lucerne, but the levels are adequate to meet
most of the livestock requirement (NRC, 1979).
Table 2: Detailed chemical composition of "marejea" plant parts
(X DM)
Nutrient Leaf Leaf
stalk
Stem
DM 19.1 20.2 25.4
CP 34.5 13.9 6.3
EE 7.2 2.5 1.4
CF 14.3 42.7 59.5
Ash 8.6 10.1 6.8
Insoluble fibre 34.4 60.7 76.1
Soluble fibre 3.9 5.4 3.5
Starch and Sugar 2.9 2.9 1.7
g calg 4.9 4.2 4.4
Lysine g/16g N 4.7 4.1 2.4
Methionine g/16g N 1.5 1.0 0.9
Ca 0.80 0.36 0.20
Mg 0.50 0.33 0.16
P 0.35 0.30 0.20
Fe 0.04 0.02 0.02
Mn 0.009 0.003 0.002
Zn 0.004 0.003 0.002
Cu 0.001 0.0007 0.0005
336
Table 3: Effect of "marejea" hay supplementation on nutrient
intake and apparent digestion coefficients of the
rations.
Parameters rations
T1 T2 T3 T4
Number of animal 3 3 3 3
Mean weights (kg) 21.5 26.1 24.1 24.5
Mean weight (kg W0-75) 9.25 11.2 10.4 10.5
Daily intake (g/day)
Dry matter
412. 8a 487. 3b 491. 7b 510. 2b
Dry matter (g/kg W ' )
49. 5a 58. 5b 59. 0b 61. 2b
Crude protein
18. 2a
2.2a
40. 5b
4.7a
58. 7b
7.0b
120. 5b
14. 5C
Crude protein (k/kg W0-75)
Digestibility coefficients
Dry matter
50. 7a 56. 6a 56. 2a 64. 3b
Crude protein
22. 1a 48. 3b 55. 7b 62. 4C
Crude fibre 59.8 58.2 57.3 51.2
Organic matter
57. 1a 57. 6a 58. 2a 66. 6b
abc = means in same row with different superscripts are
significantly different (P<0.05)
Intake and digestibility study
Results on intake and apparent digestibility are given in Table
3. The total dry matter intake (DMI) increased with increased
supplementation of "marejea". While there was a significant
difference (P<0.05) between the unsupplemented and the
supplemented diets, there was no significant difference (P<0.01)
among the supplemented diets.
337
Kitaly (1982), and Mero (1985) observed an increase in DMI
when Rhodes grass was supplemented with increasing levels of
protein supplement. The increasing level of "marejea" resulted
in a decline in the hay intake as observed in the growth study.
Robles e_t al_ (1981) reported that as the fibre content in the
diet decreased DMI increased because the animals increased intake
when the quality of the leaf is high. Dietary protein
supplementation is known to improve intake by increasing the
supply of N to the rumen microbes. This has a positive effect of
increasing microbe population and efficiency thus enabling them
to increase the rate of breakdown of the digesta. As the rate of
breakdown and passage of the digesta increases, feed intake is
accordingly increased (Van Soest, 1982). The crude protein
intake (CPI) and organic matter intake (OMI) increased with
increasing "marejea" supplementation.
The results have shown that dry matter digestibility (DMO)
increased with increasing level of "marejea" supplementation but
only significantly in T,. Several workers have reported that the
DMD improves when a roughage is supplemented with a legume or
concentrates (Elliot and Topps, 1963; Minson and Milford, 1967;
Gordon 1979; Butterworth, 1985). The crude protein digestibility
(CPD) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) increased with
increasing level of "marejea" supplementation. These results
compare favourably with those reported by El Haq (1976), Kitaly
(1982) and Massae (1984) and others who observed increases in CPD
and OMD with increased supplementation of protein. However, the
crude fibre digestibility (CFD) decreased with increased
supplementation. The low CFD observed in this study could be
due to increased DMI brought about by increased CP contents.
Increased DMI could lead to increased rate of passage of digesta
hence less time for rumen microorganisms to digest the crude
fibre.
Growth study
Results of feed intake and growth performance of the sheep used
in the growth experiment are given in Table 4 and 5 respectively.
The total DMI (g/day and g kg W * ) were observed to take the
338
same trend as those observed in the digestibility study. The
DMI, CPI and OMI increased level of "marejea" supplementation.
Elliot (1967) and Orskov et aj. (1971) observed similar trends
with cattle and sheep supplemented with different levels of
protein.
Both the total weight gain and daily gain increased with the
level of "marejea" supplementation. Total weight gain was
significantly different (P<0.05) between the unsupplemented group
and the supplemented. The growth rate increased from 34.2 g/day
for the unsupplemented group to 69.1 g/day for the sheep fed
"marejea" ad libitum. The daily gain of 50g for the
unsupplemented Black Head Persian sheep has been reported by
Nyaki (1981) using Rhodes grass hay as a basal diet. The big
difference observed with this study could be due to the high
crude protein content of the pasture grazed. Nyaki 's experiment
was conducted during the short rains and extended to the onset of
long rains in march.
Nitrogen balance
Nitrogen intake, excretion and retention increased significantly
(P<0.05) with increased level of supplementation (Table 6). This
is in accordance with the findings of Akinsoyinu (1974);
Reynolds, (1981); Kitaly, (1982); and Massae, (1984).
Unsupplemented animals were in negative nitrogen balance
indicating that the nitrogen content of mature Rhodes grass hay
is not sufficient for maintenance needs of sheep. It is thus
necessary to supply protein supplements when feeding such low
quality roughages as suggested by Gihad (1976) and Reynolds
(1981).
339
Table 4: Effect of "marejea" hay supplementation on nutrient
intake in the growth study
Parameters Rations
T1 2 T3 T4
Number of animals 3
Dry matter intake (DMI g/day)
Rhodes grass
"Marejea"
Total
Intake g/kw W0'75
Organic matter intake (OMI)
g/day
,l ,,0-75g/kg w
Crude protein intake (CPI)
g/day
g/kg W
172. 6a 160. 4a 100. 2a 100. 6b
- 75. 4a 140. 8b 152. 9b
176.6a 235. 8b 240. 2b 253. 5b
56. 9a 27.6b 79. 3b 83. 6b
160. 3a 226. 4b 212. 1b 230. 5b
20. 4a 27.6b 28. 2b 30. 4b
10. 2a 26. 5b 35. 6C 40. 6C
1.34a 3.4b 4.6C 5.3C
abc = means in same rows with different superscripts are
significantly different (P<0.05)
340
Table 5: Effect of "marejea" hay supplementation on the growth
performance of sheep
Rations
Parameters
P1
4 4
21.5 22.4
27.2 28.6
24.35
5.7b
25.5
6.2b
63. 7C 69. 1C
Number of animals 4 4
Initial liveweight (kg) 23.5 24.0
Final liveweight (kg) 26.6 27.8
Mean liveweight (kg) 25.1 25.9
a bTotal weight gain (kg) 3.1 4.8
Growth rate (g/day) 34.2 42.4
abc = Means in same rows with different superscripts are
significantly different (P<0.05)
Table 6: Effect of "marejea" hay supplementation on nitrogen
uti l i sat ion
Parameters
Rations
T1 T2 T3 T4
Number of Animals 3 3 3 3
Nitrogen intake g/day
3.1a 5.6b 11. 3C 18. 4d
g/kg u
0.3a 0.5a 1.3b 1.8b
Nitrogen Excretion (g)
Faecal
2.2a 3.3a 4.7b 8.3C
Urine
1.1a 1.8a 2.5b 4.9C
Total 3.3" 5.1*
7.26b 13. 2C
Nitrogen retained
g/day
-0.2a 0.4b 4.04C 5.2C
g/kw W0-75
-0.03a 0.04a 0.11a 0.35C
X of N-intake
-6.4a 8.2b 35. 7C 28. 4C
X of N-digested -29.4 14.8 64.2 72.3
abc = Means in same rows with different superscripts are
significantly different (P<0.05)
341
CONCLUSIONS
From the results obtained it can be concluded that "marejea"
hay improved DMI, CPI and OMI of low quality rhodes grass hay,
resulting in increased daily gain and total weight gain. It
could therefore be used as a cheap alternative protein supplement
for small livestock keepers in the rural areas which have little
or no access to conventional protein supplements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank PANESA (Pasture Network for
Eastern and Southern Africa) for the financial support which
enabled this study to be carried out.
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Akinsoyinu, A.0. 1974. Studies on protein and energy utilisation
by the West African Dwarf goats. Ph.D. thesis, University
of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1960. Official
methods of Analysis, 9th CDn. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem.,
Washington, D.C.
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1965. Official
methods of Analysis, 10th edn. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem.,
Washington, D.C.
Butterworth, M.H. 1985. Beef cattle nutrition and tropical
pastures. Longman, London 500pp.
Duncan, B.D. 1955. Multiple range test and multiple Tests.
Biometrics. -1:1-42.
El Hag, G.A. 1976. A comparative study between desert goat and
sheep efficiency of feed utilisation. Wld. Rev. Anim.
Prod. 12:43-48.
Elliot, R.C. 1967. Voluntary intake of low protein diets by
ruminants. 1. Intake of food by cattle. J. Agric. Sci.
(Camb.) 69:375-382.
Elliot, R.C. and Topps, J.H. 1963. Voluntary intake of low
protein diets by sheep. Anim. Prod. 5:269-276.
342
Gi had, E.A. 1976. Intake, digestibility and nitrogen
utilisation of tropical natural grass hay by goats and
sheep. J. Anim. Sci. 43:879-883.
Gordon, F.J. 1979. The effect of the protein content of the
supplement of dairy cows with access to ad l ibi tum high
digestibility wilted grass silage. Anim. Prod. 28:183-189.
Humphreys, L.R. 1978. Tropical pastures and fodder crops.
Longmans, London.
Kitaly, A.J. 1982. Effect of supplementing hay with different
levels of protein on growth performance and carcass
composition of Tanzania local goats. M.Sc. Thesis.
University of Dar es Salaam.
Lupanga, I. J., Mattee, A.Z., Mvena, Z.S.K. and Weber, J.J. 1987.
Social economic factors influencing the adoption of
Crotalaria ochroleuca in farming communities around
Peramiho. A preliminary study. In: Minja's A.N.; Salema
M.P.; Sarwatt, S.V. and Weber, J.J. (eds). The role of
"marejea" (Crotalaria ochroleuca) in Agricultural
Production in Tanzania. Benedictine Publications. Ndanda,
Peramiho, Tanzania.
Massae, E.E. 1984. A study of compensatory growth in Tanzania
sheep. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Dar es Salaam.
Mero, R.N. 1985. The effect of supplementing Chloris gayana with
Macropti l ium atropurpureus var. si ratro on dry matter
digestibility and voluntary intake. M.Sc. Thesis. Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1988. The potential of Crotalaria ochroleuca
("marejea") as a feed for ruminant livestock. M.Sc.
Thesis. Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro,
Tanzania.
N.R.C. 1979. Nutrient requirement of dairy cattle. National
Research Council. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Nyaki, F.P. 1981. Meat production from sheep. The effect of
breed and concentrate supplementation on the growth
performance and carcass composition. M.Sc. thesis.
University of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
Minson, D.J. and Milford, R. 1967. The voluntary intake and
digestibility of diets containing different proportions of
legume and mature Pangola ( D i g i t a r i a decumberis) Austr. J.
of Exp. Agric. and Anim. Husb. 7:546-551.
343
0rskov, E.R., McDonald, I., Fraser, C. and Corse, E.L. 1971.
The nutrition of the early weaned lamb. III. The effect of
ad libitum intake of diets varying in protein concentration
on performance and on body composition at different
liveweights. J. Agric. Sci. 77: 51-354.
Reynolds, L. 1981. Nitrogen metabolism of indigenous Malawi
goats. J. Agric. Sc. 96:347-354.
Robles, A.Y., Belyea, R.L. Martz, F.A. 1981. Intake
digestibility, ruminal characteristics and rate of passage
of alfalfa diets fed to sheep. J. Anim. Sci. 53:774-779.
Sarwatt, S.V. 1986. Chemical composition and j_n vitro dry matter
digestibility of Crotalaria ochroleuca cut at different
stages of growth. Dept. of Animal Science, Sokoine
University of Agriculture (unpublished).
Sarwatt, S.V. and Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1987. The value of Crotalaria
ochroleuca as a livestock feed. In: Minjas A.N.; Salema,
M.P.; Sarwatt, S.V. and Weber, J.j. (Eds). The role of
"marejea" (Crotalaria) ochroleuca) in Agricultural
Production in Tanzania. Benedictine Publications Ndanda,
Peramiho.
Sarwatt, S.V., Mkiwa, F.E.J. 1988. The current status of
knowledge on the feed value of Crotalaria species in
Tanzania. In: Ben H. Dzowela (Eds), proc. of 3rd PANESA
workshop held in Arusha, Tanzania. 27th-30th April, 1987.
Snedecor; G.W. and Cochra, G. 1980. Statistical methods. 6th
ed. Iowa state University Press. Ames, Iowa.
Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. 0 and
B books. Corvallis, Oregon.
344
RESEARCH ON MAIZE STOVER AS LIVESTOCK FEED ON SUAZI
NATION LAND
B.H. Ogwang and M.S. Mkhabela
Faculty of Agriculture
University of Swaziland
P. 0. Luyengo, Swaziland
ABSTRACT
The problem of feed shortage for grazing livestock in the
communal areas of Swaziland has been widely recognised and many
attempts have been made to rectify the problem. This paper
highlights some of the research results that have been obtained
relating to the potential contribution of maize stover to the
feed budget of the livestock. Hybrid maize varieties produce
higher stover yields than traditional varieties but have
comparable quality constraints to their adoption in the farming
system and strategies to improve their quality are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Crop residues are a useful source of supplementary feed for
ruminant livestock in the tropics and sub-tropics. Topps (1977)
reported that in the southern Africa region, animals grazing
natural pastures without supplementary fodder may lose up to 30X
of their maximum summer body weight in winter which obviously has
an adverse effect on their reproductive rate and general
performance.
In Swaziland, crop residues are used extensively in winter
by smallholder farmers. These farmers live on what is known as
Swazi Nation Land (SNL), rearing some 80X of the national herd
under a strongly traditional system of management characterized
by communal grazing. Because stock numbers are not controlled in
this sector, most of the communal grazing areas are overstocked
and annual losses of livestock due to malnutrition are believed
to be generally high. The remaining 20X of the ruminant animals
are raised under more favourable conditions on private and
parastatal farms or on government ranches.
345
Although crop residues should and probably do play a
critical role in meeting the winter feed deficit on SNL, their
use tends to be somewhat haphazard and their contribution to the
annual feed budget of grazing livestock have not been studied.
The data presented in this paper is drawn mainly from a survey of
rural homesteads which was conducted between 1985 and 1987 in the
middleveld. The middleveld is one of the four major
topographical regions of Swaziland. It has an environment which
is ideal for mixed farming and a wide variety of crops are grown
in association with over 1/3 of the national cattle population
(Anonymous, 1987). Some data from current on-station studies of
crop residue yield and quality are also included.
CROPPING PATTERNS
Almost all small-scale farmers on SNL grow crops mainly for
domestic consumption. The major crops grown are presented in
Table 1. The table shows that maize, which is the staple food in
Swaziland, occupies the bulk of the total cropped area (currently
estimated at some 58,362 ha) compared to the next important crop,
cotton, which occupies a relatively small fraction (13X) and is
confined almost exclusively to the lowveld.
Table 1: The percentage of cropped areas by region for major
crops on SNL
High Middle Low Lubombo Swazi land
veld veld veld
Maize 85 85 56 84 76
Cotton 1 2 34 2 13
Beans 5 2 - 6 2
Cowpeas 1 3 3 1 2
Groundnuts 1 4 2 3 2
Sorghum 2 1 3 1 2
Jugo beans 1 1 1 1 1
Sweet potatoes 2 1 ■ 1 1
Source: Survey of SNL during 1982/83 cropping season, Central
Statistics Office, Mbabane, Swaziland
346
The current survey which covered 350 homesteads in the
middleveld revealed a similar trend (Table 2). Maize, often
intercropped with pumpkins, was the dominant crop, taking as much
as 88X of the total arable land in comparison to the next crop,
beans, which occupied only 4X of the land.
Table 2: The proportion of homesteads growing each crop and the
area allocated to the crop per homestead.
Crop X of homesteads X of total area
growing crop occup ied by crop
Maize 99 88
Beans 29 4
Groundnuts 20 3
Sweet potatoes 20 2
Others 13 3
The dominant position of maize in the farming system
constitutes the basis for the current research thrust on maize
stover as a feed resource on SNL.
ANIMAL PERFORMANCE ON NATURAL PASTURES IN SWAZILAND
The performance of animals grazing natural pastures is usually
affected by rainfall patterns and available vegetation. The body
weight changes of beef cattle presented in Figure 1 is typical of
the trend to be expected from livestock grazing natural pastures
in Swaziland. Maximum weight gains occur in summer (December to
February): much of this weight being lost in winter (June to
September) when there is insufficient amount of good quality
forage. The weight changes in Figure 1 were monitored on Nguni
cattle, the common breed, which is of the Sanga Zebu type.
However, due to understocking at Luyengo University farm, the
performance of the cattle was probably much better than that of
livestock grazing on SNL.
347
THE PATTERN OF CROP RESIDUE UTILISATION ON SNL
The pattern of crop residue utilisation was examined by
monitoring cattle grazing activities in 20 homesteads in the
middleveld over a period of 8 months. It was observed that
during summer (October to March), the cattle spend almost all the
grazing hours on the the veld (natural) pasture in the communal
grazing areas). For the rest of the year, the animals graze
partly on the veld and partly on maize stover (Table 3).
Table 3: Total and crop residue grazing times (N=20).
Total grazing Crop residue X of total time
time grazing time spent on crop
Month (hours/day) (hours/day) resi dues
Mean SD Mean SD
March 9.1 0.91 0 - 0
April 8.8 1.09 0.2 0.04 2
May 9.3 0.84 3.1 0.27 33
June 9.2 0.92 6.5 0.55 71
July 8.4 0.96 4.6 0.39 55
August 8.7 0.97 1.7 0.33 19
September 9.2 0.93 0.5 0.03 5 ,
October 9.4 0.89 0 * 0
The period of intensive stover utilisation is between May
and July. When most of the stover has been consumed, the animals
will normally be left to graze on weeds, on fallow land and in
river valleys until they become completely dependent on natural
pasture in the communal grazing areas.
These results indicate that maximum utilisation of maize
stover takes place during the critical winter months although the
stover does not provide adequate grazing for the entire period.
That livestock continue to lose weight even while grazing on the
stover is probably a reflection of the quantity produced, its
quality as well as the form in which it is consumed.
348
Fiyuca i. buma tlnalura dararnalara a((acllug lha livaslock
ijt'ifi uF cmil* ■l Luyaugo.
- 150
i
 
 
Hay JJ ASO NOJ FMA
1961 ices
Y E A > I
349
Strategies to maximize stover yield on SNL
SNL farmers use many modern production practices and cash inputs
such as tractor hire for ploughing, on-drawn planters, hybrid
seed, pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Table 4 shows the
percentages of crop fields that receive some of these inputs.
Table 4: The use of modern inputs on SNL farmers' fields
(includes only RDA's).
Use of ox-drawn Use of hybrid Use of fertilizer
Season planter maize seed basal application
61.4 72.6
63.8 72.9
69.5 70.2
74.0 77.0
Source: RDA Management Unit (1984)
It is clear from Table 4 that the use of modern inputs for
maize production in rural Swaziland is relatively high compared
to other countries in the southern Africa region. The increasing
trend in the use of hybrid maize, which yields higher than
traditional varieties, prompted the current investigation on
stover yield potential as well as its quality. During the
1987/88 cropping season, stover yields of 15 high ranking maize
hybrids currently grown in a trial by Malkerns Research Station
were measured. The trials were carried out at two locations; one
in the highveld (Mangcongco) and the other in the middleveld
(Malkerns Research Station). The means for these two locations
are presented in Table 5.
1980/81 46.9
1981/82 54.1
1982/83 50.9
1983/84 48.6
350
Table 5: Grain yield, stover yield, stover/grain ratio and leaf
yield of 15 hybrid maize varieties (means for Malkerns
and mangcongco during 1987/88 cropping season).
Variety Grain Stover Stover/ Leaf yield
yield yield grain
t/ha t/ha ratio t/ha
PNR 6549 6.3 7.1 1.1 2.9
*PNR 6429 5.7 5.8 1.0 2.3
CG 4305 5.7 5.7 1.0 2.1
*CG 4403 5.4 5.1 0.9 1.7
*SNK 2147 5.3 7.7 1.4 3.1
*R0 415 5.3 6.9 1.3 2.6
CG 4609 5.2 6.2 1.2 2.4
*TX 379 4.9 10.1 2.1 4.2
*PNR 473 4.8 6.7 1.4 2.7
*A 323W 4.8 6.5 1.4 2.9
*AX 305W 4.5 4.7 1.0 2.1
*SR 52 4.3 11.8 2.7 3.7
*SSM 2039 4.3 6.3 1.5 2.6
*S 201 4.3 5.9 1.4 1.2
SAM83 TZRW 3.5 7.8 2.2 3.6
MEAN 5.0 7.0 1.4 2.7
* Recommended varieties for 1988/89 cropping season by Malkerns
Research Station, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
When the proportion of hybrid maize seed used by small-scale
farmers is ignored, the average maize grain yield on snl is
around 1.4 t/ha (FAO, 1984) with a stover yield of 5.0 t/ha
(Ogwang, 1988). By using hybrid seed, the farmer can almost
quadruple his grain yield and at the same time significantly
increase his stover yield (Table 5). The stover/grain ratio for
the hybrids average 1.4:1 while traditional varieties have ratios
in the region of 2.5:1 (Ogwang, 1986, unpublished data). It
351
appears that as selection progresses towards maximum grain yield,
there is a reduction in the quantity of stover produced. This
would seem to suggest the need to encourage the use of hybrids
such as SNK 2147 and TX 379 which have superior leaf yields since
this component has a higher quality compared to the stem fraction
in crop- l i vestock production systems.
Malkerns Agriculture Research Station is responsible for the
conduct of national maize performance trials and subsequent
variety release recommendations. Selected varieties are
multiplied by the Seed Multiplication Project of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Co-operatives for distribution to growers. An
efficient, mainly private sector distribution network exists in
the country which allows the maize to get close to the farming
communities. Once the stover component becomes an important
selection criterion at the Research Station, it should be
possible to get high stover yielding varieties to farmers within
a reasonably short time through this distribution network.
One of the major drawbacks in the use of hybrid maize has so
far been inability of SNL farmers to obtain yields close to those
presented in Table 5. Although the rate of fertilizer use is
increasing (Table 4), it appears as if many farmers apply it at
sub-optimal levels (de Vletter, 1983). The situation is probably
similar with other inputs. Factors contributing to these
practices need to be investigated.
THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MAIZE STOVER
A large number of researchers have evaluated untreated cereal
stovers and have concluded that they cannot maintain an animal
when fed alone. Although chemical analyses are still in progress
in this study the crude protein figures given in Table 6 indicate
that the quality of our hybrid stovers is likely to be comparable
to that of others reported elsewhere.
352
Table 6: The CP content of hybrid maize varieties (means for
Malkerns and Mangcongco during 1987/88 cropping season)
Variety CP (DM basis)
PNR 6549 3.S
PNR 6429 3.2
CG 4305 3.2
CG 4403 3.4
SNK 2147 3.7
Ro 415 3.3
CG 4609 4.0
TX 379 3.6
PNR 473 3.3
A 323W 3.6
AX 305 3.4
SR 52 3.4
SSM 2039 3.3
R 201 3.4
SAM83 TZRW 3.7
*CHECK 3.8
•Average CP content of maize stover sampled
from 20 homesteads on SNL.
The low crude protein levels raise the question of stover
treatment and supplementation, a subject which has received wide
coverage in recent years. These preliminary studies have
indicated positive results when the stover is treated with NaOH
(Table 7) or when supplemented with urea, molasses and maize
grain (Table 8).
Table 7 shows that the addition of NaOH to maize cobs
improves their j_n vitro organic matter digestibility and Table 8
shows that supplementing maize cobs with urea, molasses and maize
grain has a similar effect.
353
Table 7: The effect of varying concentrations of NaOH on the in
vitro organic matter digestibility of maize cobs (Zwane
1988)
Concentration maize cob
of NaOH organic matter
(g/100 ml water) Digestibi lity (X)
0 18.4
5 31.2
7 36.1
10 51.9
20 55.0
Table 8: The effect of supplementation with various ingredients
on the in vitro dry matter digestibility of maize cobs
(Adapted from Hlophe, 1987)
Proportion of
Maize cobs Urea Molasses Yellow maize X digestibility
100X - - 6.3
98X 2X - - 29.2
90. 5X 2X 7.5X - 34.2
83X 2X - 15X 30.3
75. 5X 2X 7.5X 15X 50.5
It remains to be seen if these trends will hold true in
actual feeding trials. A lot of emphasis will be put on molasses
in particular since it is a by-product of Swaziland's number one
export crop, sugar. During 1985, 127,200 metric tonnes of
molasses were produced and 72,400 tonnes were exported (Lebbie,
1988) leaving a very generous balance which, at the current
factory price of 7 US dollars equivalent per metric tonne, could
be very attractive for livestock feeding.
354
Moving to the feeding phase, will be met with numerous
constraints to the adoption of any subsequent stover technology.
Some of these constraints were identified from the 1986/87 survey
of rural homesteads in the middleveld and are presented in Table
9.
Table 9: Summary of constraints identified in a survey of rural
homesteads in the middleveld.
Technical:
Inadequate use of hybrid maize seed
Improper agronomic practices
Site specific problems
Very few farmers store the stover (15X)
Economic:
No money for inputs
Credit hard to get
Inputs not available
Seeds not easily available
Social :
Inadequate labour for harvest, transport and storage
Lack of farming orientation
Livestock reared for economic and intangible values
Communal grazing of stover
Although the constraints are divided into 3 distinct
categories it should be pointed out that there are few problems
that will fall in only one category. But these constraint groups
should provide a guideline on the research direction needed to
improve the utilisation of crop residues by grazing livestock on
SNL. A practical and systematic feeding package needs to be
developed based particularly on hybrid maize varieties.
355
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1987. Livestock census for 1986. Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Mbabane, Swaziland.
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),
1984. The maize industry of Swaziland. A Mission Report -
TCP/SWA/4401, Vol. 2, Technical Annexes. FAO, Rome.
Hlophe, R.H. 1987. Investigation on the effect of adding urea,
yellow maize and molasses on the j_n vitro dry matter
digestibility of corncobs. B.Sc. dissertation, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland.
Rural Development Areas (RDA) Management Unit, 1984. Estimation
of output : 1983/84. Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives, Mbabane, Swaziland.
Lebbie, S.H.B. 1988. The potential of agro-products as livestock
feed resources in Swaziland - an overview. University of
Swazi land Research Journal Vol. 1: 1-13.
Topps, J.H. 1971. The use of non-protein nitrogen for ruminants
grazing low protein pasture in Africa. FAO report on an ad
hoc consultation on the value of non-protein nitrogen for
ruminants consuming poor herbages. Kampala, Uganda.
de Vletter, F. 1983. The Swazi rural homestead. Social Science
Research Unit, University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni,
Swazi land.
Zwane, M.D. 1988. An investigation on the effect of sodium
hydroxide treatment on the |n vitro organic matter
digestibility of corncobs. B.Sc. dissertation, Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland.
356
RESPONSES OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF SHEEP FED CASSAVA PEEL AND
POULTRY MANURE BASED DIETS
A. A. Adegbola, 0.B. Smith and N.J. Okeudo
Department of Animal Science
Obafemi Awolowo University, lie Ife,
Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Five diets containing 0, 13, 25, 35 and 45X dried poultry manure
(DPM) were formulated such that DPM replaced 0, 25, 50, 75 and
100X of the wheat offals and groundnut cake contained in the
control diet 1. The diets were fed to 20 growing ewes in a 104
days growth study. Dry cassava peels and water were also
provided ad libitum.
The intake of the animals fed the 0, 13, 25, 35 and 45X DPM
diets were 87.1, 94.0, 88.6, 102.8 and 107.8 g/kg 0.75/day. The
differences were not statistically significant. Also no
statistical differences were observed in the growth rate of sheep
which varied from 84.5g/head/day for sheep fed the 25X DPM diets
to 100.6g/head/day for the animals on the 35X DPM diet.
Efficiency of feed utilisation decreased from 8.7kg feed/kg gain
to 10.5 as the level of manure in the diets increased from 0 to
45X. The growth performance of al the animals showed that sheep
can be reared on diets containing poultry manure as the sole
protein supplement, with dried cassava peels constituting 40 to
60X of the total diet. Sheep supplemented with poultry manure
diets had higher intake of the dried cassava peel than sheep fed
unsupplemented control diet.
INTRODUCTION
In 1986, Nigeria produced 14.7 million tonnes of cassava (FAO,
1986) while the demand for this crop was put at 25 million tonnes
for 1988. It is therefore safe to suggest that feeding cassava
meal to livestock is not likely to be an attractive economic
proposition. Cassava peel however, has been shown to form a
constant part of household waste-product traditionally offered to
357
sheep and goats in Southern Nigeria (Obioha, 1977). There are a
large number of vi l lage- level , small-scale and large-scale
"garri" processing factories which generated an estimated 2.9
million tonnes of cassava peel in Nigeria in 1986. Considerable
research effort is being put into processing cassava peel for use
by small ruminants at village level (Obioha, 1977; Adegbola and
Asaolu, 1986). The bulk of this waste product produced at
"garri" and starch processing factories will only be useful if
the peel can be incorporated into livestock diet formulation. If
such new feed packages can be developed, they may find a market
with household owners of small ruminant stock as well as urban
livestock owners of store-animals.
Compared to non-ruminants, very little work seem to have
been reported on the utilisation of cassava peels by small
ruminants. Walker (1951) reported feeding cassava peels to sheep
and goats in Equatorial Uest Africa with poor response.
Adebowale (1981) fed fermented cassava peels to sheep at 0, 20,
40 and 60X levels of inclusion to replace equivalent amounts of
maize in the control diet. He recorded growth rates of 60.0,
38.3, 30.6 and 66.7 g/head/day and feed/gain ratios of 7.8, 10.9,
11.8 and 7.4 kg feed/kg gain respectively. He concluded that
incorporating 20, 40 and 60% cassava peels in the control diet
increased economic returns by 15, 15 and 19X respectively.
Fomunyan and Maffeja (1987) reported that sheep fed 0, 35 and 70X
cassava peel-based diets complimented with elephant grass and
using cottonseed cake as the protein source gained 45, 107 and
227 g/day. They concluded that liveweight gains of sheep
increased with increasing levels of cassava peels intake and that
the peels show promise as dry-season feed for sheep. In an
earlier work Okorie, Obioha, Anyaekie and Ahamefule (1981) showed
that poultry manure can replace groundnut cake in the diet of
goats without any depression in growth rate and efficiency of
feed utilisation. Given a good source of carbohydrates such as
cassava peel, small ruminants ought to be able to make good use
of the readily available N source as poultry manure. The
objective of this study was to determine the response of sheep
fed a basal diet of dried cassava peels supplemented with
concentrates containing varying levels of hen-caged poultry
manure as the main source of N with a view to developing
358
acceptable simple feed compounds which can be made and sold at
village production level.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Hen-caged manure was collected within two days of being voided by
birds. The manure was sundried for two days by spreading to a
thickness of about 2 cm on polythene sheets on a concrete base.
Drying was terminated when the manure felt dry and gritty to
touch with a dry matter content of 85-91X. The cassava peels
were collected fresh from a "garri" processing plant, air-dried
for 8 days on a concrete slab and sun-dried for one additional
day to produce a dry matter content of 85-87X.
Five experimental diets were formulated so that poultry
manure would replace 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100X of the conventional
protein supplements (groundnut cake and wheat offals) contained
in the control diet 1 (table 1).
Table 1: Comparison of supplemental diet fed to sheep
Ingredients (X) Levels of DPM in supplement feed (X)
Ma i ze
Poultry manure
Wheat offals
Groundnut cake
Bone meal
Vit/Min. premix*
Common salt
0 13 25 35 45
74.0 67.0 61.0 57.0 53.0
0.0 13.0 25.0 35.0 45.0
20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
* Each kg of the vitamin mineral premix contains Vit. A., 640,000
1 .11.,
Vit, D3, 120,000 I.U., Vit. E, 640 I.U., CU, 360mg, Se, 8mg,
Mo, 60mg
359
Twenty growing ewes from a flock of WAD sheep, with an
average weight of 14.3 + 3.7kg were selected such that 4 animals
were randomly alloted to each experimental diet. Each animal was
treated as a replicate. Each animal was offered 55. Og of the
experimental diet per kg metabolic size per day. Half of the
daily ration was offered each animal at 9.00 hours and the
remaining at 15.30 hours. Dried cassava peels and water were
provided ad libitum. The orts from the cassava peels offered to
each animal the previous day were removed at 7.00 hours and
weighed, and about 30X more than the previous day's level of
intake were offered at 8.00 hours every day.
The animals were housed individually in pens measuring 1.8 x
0.5m. An adaptation period of 14 days was allowed before data
was collected for 90 days during which time the animals were
weighed weekly. The weight of an animal at the end of a
particular week was used to calculate the weight of the
concentrate feed that will be offered to that particular animal
the following week.
The chemical analyses for proximate components of the
experimental diets of dried poultry manure and dried cassava
peels were carried out using the methods outlined in AoAC (1975).
Data obtained on the growth rate, average dry matter intake
of cassava peels alone, and of cassava peels plus the
experimental feed, and the feed, as well as the efficiency of
feed utilisation of the different animals were subjected to a
two-way analyses of variance (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
RESULTS
Dried cassava peel and 75.4mg/kg content of HCN compared with
317.2 mg/kg for the fresh cassava peel (Table 2). The crude
protein content of the dried peel was 4.2X compared with 1.2X for
the wet peel. Sun-dried hen-caged manure contained a crude
protein (CP) of 20. 7X crude fibre of 10. 7X and an ash content of
19. 9X (Table 2).
360
Table 2: Proximate composition of poultry manure and peels used
in the experiment (X of dry matter)
Feedstuff Crude Crude Ether HCN
Protein Fibre Extract Ash NFE (mg/kg)
Sundried hen-cage
manure 20.7 10.7 0.9 19.9 37.8
Fresh cassava
peel* 1.2 2.3 0.4 1.1 23.0 317.2
Air-dried
cassava peel** 4.2 7.8 1.5 1.5 79.3 75.4
* Determined on the fresh sample with a dry matter content of
28X
** Air-dried for 8 days and sun-dried for one more day
The proximate composition of the experimental diets showed
that the control diet contained a crude protein content of 12.3X
compared with 14.4X CP contained in the diet supplemented with
45X DPM (Table 3). With the exception of the ash and energy
levels, there were no significant differences in the proximate
composition of the diets. Further, diets in which the main
protein source was completely replaced with DPM had energy
content of 3.6 kcal/g compared with 4.5 kcal/g for the control
diet (Table 3).
361
Table 3: Proximate composition of supplemental diets fed to sheep
(X of dry matter)
Levels of DPM
87.3 87.4 87.6 87.7 87.9
12.3 12.9 13.7 14.1 14.4
1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 2.9
3.2 8.1 11.0 14.4 16.9
2.5 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.1
68.3 62.8 59.0 55.3 52.6
4.5 4.1 4.1 3.9 3.6
Chemical analyses 0 13 25 35 45
Dry matter (X)
Crude protein (X)
Crude fibre (X)
Ash (X)
Ether extract (X)
Nitrogen free extractives (X)
Gross energy (Kcal/g dry matter
Average dry matter intake of cassava peels by animals fed
the control diet was 355.8g/day, while the intake by animals fed
the 13, 25, 35 and 45X dry poultry manure (DPM) diets were 406.3,
371.0, 512.8 and 526.5g/day respectively (Table 4). Differences
were however, not statistically significant. The average daily
dry matter intake of 790. 1g for the animals on the control diet
increased generally to 952.3/head/day as the level of the manure
in the experimental diets increased from 0 to 45X (Table 4). No
statistical differences were observed in the growth rate of the
animals fed the different diets. The fastest rate of growth rate
of 107.8g/head/day were recorded for animals fed 45 DPM diet,
while those on the 25X DPM diet grew the least gaining only
84.5g/head/day. The efficiency of feed conversion (kg feed gain)
increased from 8.7/kg gain for animals fed the control diet to
10.5kg/kg gain for animals on the 45X DPM supplement diet. The
differences were however not statistically significant.
362
Table 4: Response of West African dwarf sheep fed diets
containing different levels of dried poultry manure
(DPM) and cassava peels provided ad l ibi tum
Levels of DPM in diet supplement(X)
13 25 35 45
Drymatter offer of experimental
diet (g/kg metabolic weight/day) 47.3 47.3 47.8 47.9 48.0
Average dry matter intake of cassava
peels (g/kg metabolic weight/day) 39.8 46.7 40.8 54.9 59.8
Average total dry matter intake
(g/kg metabolic weight/dayO 87.1 94.0 88.6 102.8 107.8
Average dry matter intake of
cassava peels (g/head/day) 355.8 406.3 371.0 512.8 526.5
Average dry matter offer of the
experimental feed (g/head/day) 434 412.6 424.0 445.6 426.8
Average total dry matter intake
(g/head/day) 790.1 818.9 795.0 958.4 952.3
Average growth rate (g/head/day) 91.4 90.6 84.5 100.6 91.1
Efficiency of feed utilisation
(kg feed/kg gain) 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.5 10.5
DISCUSSION
All the animals grew fairly well and no statistical differences
were observed in the growth rate of the animals fed the different
diets. This observation is in agreement with the reports of
Hadj ipanayiotou (1984) who observed no differences in growth rate
between growing heifers, fattening kids, and fattening calves fed
30X DPM diets and the control animals fed soybean meal and
cottonseed cake diets. El-Hag and Kurdi (1986) reported that
animals consuming a 30X DPM diet performed better than those
consuming a 30X cottonseed cake diet. Adu and Lakpini (1983) on
the other hand observed that rams fed diets containing 0, 10, 20,
30 and 40X DPM diet recorded growth rates of 100, 83, 52, 41 and
32g/head/day respectively. It is very likely that the hay Adu
363
and Lakpini (1983) used as the energy source for their animals
were not as well utilised as the cassava peels were in this
study. Further it was observed that sheep on 45X DPM diets had
55X of their total dry matter intake from dried cassava peels
compared to 45X dried cassava peel intake for animals on the
control diet. The higher intake of dried cassava peel by animals
on DPM diets may be due to the fact that the 45X DPM diets had
lower energy of 3.6 Kcal/g compared with 4.5 Kcal/g for the
control diet and the animals had to take in larger quantities of
the dried cassava peels to meet their energy needs.
Feeding up to 55X cassava peels as the main energy source of
the animals in this study did not depress growth rate which
averaged 90-100g/day for the entire experiment. Adebowale (1981)
replaced maize with cassava peel and obtained a progressive
depression on growth rate of animals. Fomunyan and Maffeja
(1987) on the other hand observed improvements in growth rate,
dry matter and crude protein digestibilities when cassava peels
were used to replace elephant grass in the diets of sheep with
cotton seed as the main source of N. The lack of agreements in
these studies may be due to the fact that sheep utilise maize
better than cassava peels, and the peels better than the elephant
grass.
The efficiency of feed conversion figures ranged between 8.7
and 10.5 which is higher than the values (4.0 - 6.7) observed by
Okorie et ai (1981) but less than 19.8 reported by El-Hag and
Kurdi (1986). The sheep used in this study and that of El-Hag
and Kurdi (1986) had much higher average dry matter intakes than
was reported by Okorie e_t al. (1981) in their study. Also the
different energy sources used to make up the energy requirements
in the different studies may have affected the level of
utilisation of ingested feed differently, and consequently have
different effects on feed efficiency.
This study has shown that it may be worthwhile to
investigate the feasibility of compounding a growers diet for
sheepC based on dried cassava peel and up to 45X DPM. The next
phase in this study is designed to test the acceptability of
preparing and using such a diet at a village production level.
364
It is suggested that this technology of feed compounding
using 45X poultry manure can be transferred to a village in which
households raising small ruminants are prevalent or where the
village is near a commercial poultry unit generating waste. The
feed package can also be produced and sold on the shelf by
entrepreneurs with access to feed grains and dried poultry
manure. Farmers who own or keep small ruminant stock with access
to dried cassava peel should find such feed supplements adequate
for their sheep production enterprises.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the International Development Research
Centre, Ottawa, Canada for funding part of this study.
REFERENCES
Adebowale, E.A. 1981. The maize replacement value of fermented
cassava peels (manihot utilissima, Phoh) in rations of
sheep. Trop. Anim. Prod. 6: 54-59.
Adegbola, A. A., and Asaoulu, 0. 1986. Preparation of cassava
peels for use in small ruminant production in Western
Nigeria. In Preston T.R. and Nuwanyakpa, M.Y. (eds)
Proceedr of a workshop held at the University of
Alexandria, Egypt, October, 1985, ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 109-115.
Adu, I.F. and Lakpini, C.A.M. 1983. The utilisation of dried
poultry waste as protein supplement for growing yanksassa
sheep. J. Anim. Prod. Res. 13:601-610.
El-Hag, M.G. and Kurdi , O.L. 1986. Prospects for efficient
utilisation of agro- industrial by-products and crop
residues for ruminant feeding in the Sudan, with emphasis
on quantification, nutritional composition, constraints and
research results. In: Preston, T.R. and Nuwanyakpa, M.Y.
(eds). Towards optimal feeding of agricultural by-products
to livestock in Africa. ILCA, Addis Ababa, pp 22-32.
FAO 1986. FAO Production Yearbook. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, Italy 40 306 pp.
365
Fomunyam, R.T. and Meffeja, F. 1987. Cassava by-products in
rabbit and sheep diets. In: Little, D.A. and Said, A.N.
(eds). Utilisation of Agricultural by-products as
livestock feeds in Africa, ILCA, Addis Ababa, pp 103-107.
Hadj ipanayiotou, M. 1984. The use of poultry litter as ruminant
feed in Cyprus. Wld. Anim. Rev. 49:32-38.
Obioha, F.C. 1977. Forms and quality of root crop products in
livestock feeds. In: Ewe L.S.O. e_t aj_ (eds). Proceedings
of the first national seminar on root and inter crops March
21 -25th, 1977. National Root Crops Research Institute
Umudike, Umuahia, Nigeria pp 177-194.
Okorie, A.U., Obioha, F.C. Anyaehie, A. A. and Ahamefule, H.C.
1981. Dried poultry waste versus groundnut cake as protein
supplement for grazing West African dwarf goats and sheep.
Nigerian J. Anim. Prod. 8:141-148.
Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. 1980. Principles and procedures
of statistics. 2nd edition. McGraw Hill, London, 633 pp
Walker, 1985. Un aliment defamine: L'earce de maino
International Review of Applied Botany 31:542.
366
EFFECTS OF MANAGEMENT ON FEED AVAILABILITY, BODY WEIGHT,
AND BODY CONDITION OF THE INDIGENOUS GOATS IN CENTRAL
REGION OF MALAWI
S.K. Kama
Department of Animal Science, Bunda College of Agriculture
P. 0. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi
ABSTRACT
A survey of goat management systems was carried out in the
Central Region of Malawi on two sites. The first was Lilongwe on
six adjacent villages surrounding Bunda College of Agriculture.
The second site was Salima at Lifidzi ranch. Goats were weighed
and condition scored in March, June, September and December for a
period of two years. It was found that goats had higher weights
and were in best condition in September and in poorest condition
in March in both years. While at the ranch the loss in weight
was attributed to disease associated with intensification of the
production system, in the villages tethering and grazing in
limited areas during the wet season were the major constraints.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of the goat in Malawi is borne out of its
popularity as well as its numbers. Twenty eight percent of the
rural households in Malawi keep goats as compared to 13X, 8X and
2X keeping cattle, pigs and sheep respectively. The population
of goats is 1.6 million (National Sample Survey of Agriculture
1981/82). Half of the national flock is found in the Central
Region while a quarter is found in Lilongwe Agricultural
Development Division (Table I).
367
Table I. National sample survey of Agriculture 1981/82 Goat
figures - thousands in 8 Agricultural Development
Divisions.
Agricultural Development Divisions
Malawi Karonga Mzuzu Kasungu Salima Lilongwe
1.575.7 24.0 137.6 309.5 106.6 414.4
Liwonde Blantyre Ngabu
211.3 212.6 159.8
Malawi, a landlocked country with a population of 8 million
which is said to be increasing at the rate of 3. OX annually. At
a density of 85 people/km (NSO, 1987) per capita land
availability to smallholder farmers is 0.95 ha (Munthali, 1986).
Agriculture is the backbone of the country's economy. The
smallholder subsector predominates the industry contributing
about 77X of agriculture GDP (Reserve Bank of Malawi, 1988).
However, livestock production has been lagging behind. The major
constraints are poor management practices, breed types,
inadequate extension efforts and feed shortages just to mention a
few.
Natural pasture is the most important source of feed in
almost all ruminant livestock in Malawi. The success of the
smallholder goat production therefore largely depends on how the
farmers produce and manage their forage resources throughout the
year.
The objective of this work was to assess the goat management
practices, with a view to singling out the existing management of
feed resources in goat feeding and production.
368
METHODOLOGY
STUDY AREA
A study was carried out in the Central Region of Malawi at two
sites. The first site was six adjacent villages around Bunda
College of Agriculture in Lilongwe (14'35'S; 33°50'E; 1200 m).
The second was Lifidzi ranch in Salima (13 55'S; 34 28'E; 500 m).
The Central region like the rest of Malawi has a cool dry
season (May to August); a hot dry season (September to November)
and a hot wet season (December to April) which is also a crop
growing season, (mainly maize, groundnuts, beans and tobacco as a
commercial crop). In Lilongwe the soils are ferrogenous and the
vegetation is mostly open canopy woodland. In Salima, soils are
alluvial and vegetation is thicket savanna.
Animals and their management
A total 417 and 323 Malawi local goats in Lilongwe and Lifidzi
ranch respectively, were used in the study for a period of 2
years (1985 and 1986). All goats were identified by plastic tags
and all village goats were treated as one herd as were those at
the ranch.
Both in the Lilongwe area and at Lifidzi ranch, goats were
kept in night enclosures from which they were released in the
morning for grazing on natural pastures. In Lilongwe, goats were
left to roam freely during the day with no deliberate attempt to
herd them in the cool dry and the hot dry seasons. During this
period apart from grazing and browsing, goats were observed to
have an access to crop residues such as maize bran, maize grain
left in the harvested fields, pumpkins and pumpkin leaves, bean
pods and haulms, groundnuts and groundnut haulms and husks,
tomato fruits and leaves, potato shoots and tubers, cassava
leaves, banana fruits, peels and leaves and green vegetables
discarded from vegetable gardens (dimba). During crop growing
season (hot wet season) goats were restricted to prevent crop
369
damage. The common practice was to tether the goats (93X) on the
grazing site for the whole or part of the day. The other 7X of
the goats were herded by small children after school.
At Lifidzi ranch goats were herded on natural bush land from
7.00 to 11.30 hours and from 13.00 to 17.00 hours every day and
in all seasons.
Data collected
All goats were weighed in March, June, September and December
during the period of study. Ages of the goats were unknown and
were estimated using dentition (Wilson and Dunkin, 1984). In
Lilongwe, in addition to weighing, the goats were condition
scored from 1 to 5 (Appendix I). The data was analysed using
Advanced Statistical Analysis Package (ANAPAK) available at the
Bunda TRS SO Model 1 computer unit.
RESULTS
Liveweight
Male and female goats having only one pair of permanent incisors
had a mean liveweight of 21.7 - 4.6 kg in Lilongwe. In Salima,
mean liveweight was 22.0 - 2.0 kg for females. Figures for males
in Salima were not available (Table 2).
Liveweights for goats had increased to 31.5 - 5.0 kg in
Lilongwe and 29.5 - 5.2 kg in Salima among those with a full set
of permanent incisors (Tables 2 and 3). Likewise, withers height
changed from 47 - 2.2 cm and 45 - 5.0 cm to 55 - 3.6 cm and 52 -
2.0 cm in Lilongwe and Salima, respectively for goats with first
pair and full set of permanent incisors. This indicates that the
goats were growing until they had developed a full set of
permanent incisors which takes place at the age of 32 months or
later (Table 2).
370
Seasonal weight changes
In Lilongwe as well as in Sal i ma (Lifidzi ranch) the common
pattern in seasonal weight changes showed highest weights of
goats obtained in September (hot, dry season) and lowest in March
(hot, wet season). While in Lilongwe these differences were
statistically significant in both years (P<0.05), in Salima the
difference was significant only in the second year. On both
sites, weights obtained in June and December were intermediate of
the two extremes (Table 3). Although weights of bucks were
confounded by the fact that most of them were young and still
growing, the results still show lowest weight in March on both
sites (Tables 4 and 5).
On the whole, goats in villages were heavier than those in
Salima (Lifidzi ranch). In all seasons, this difference was not
statistically significant.
371
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372
Table 4: Seasonal changes in weight of bucks of 3 and 4 pairs of
permanent incisors in Salima (Lifidzi ranch).
Buck March June Sept Dec March June Sept Dec
No. 1985 1985 1985 1985 1986 1986 1986 1986
39.0 41.5 43.0 42.0 40.0 44.0 47.0 40.0
32.0 35.0 36.5 39.5 38.0 39.5 40.0 43.0
35.5 34.5 41.0 44.0 39.0 40.5 47.5 47.5
32.5 40.5 36.5 40.0 37.5 36.0 42.0 46.0
38.0 41.0 44.5 44.5 38.0 46.0 52.0 52.0
Mean 35.4 38.5 40.3 42.0 38.5 41.2 45.7 47.3
373
Body condition
Body condition scoring was carried out only in animals kept under
traditional system in Lilongwe. Results indicate that almost all
goats were in better condition in September (hot, dry season)
than in March (hot, wet season) (Table 6).
Table 6. Body condition of goats in Lilongwe in different
seasons.
Percent of animals scored
Condition December March June September
Score (Hot, wet) (Hot, wet) (Cool, dry) (Hot, dry)
1
2
3
4
5
0 0 0 0
0.69 1.5 0 0
51.05 87.39 1.61 1.0
44.05 10.37 4.03 5.0
4.21 0.75 84.36 94.0
374
DISCUSSION
This study has shown that goats have lowest dry weights and are
in poorest body condition in the hot wet season. The wet season
in Malawi is characterised by a profuse growth of forage and
herbage which ideally should enable goats to improve both in body
weight and body condition but this is not the case. The
situation is more grave in the traditional management system in
the villages than in the commercial system at the ranch, although
there too the pattern is the same.
While at Lifidzi ranch, the reason for loss in body weight
and condition in the wet season is contributed by disease
associated with intensification of the production system
(helminthiasis, coccidiosis and abscesses) (Edelstein, 1988),
tethering and the resultant poor nutrition seems the major cause
in the villages. Studies done in the villages in Salima (Central
Region) reported by Edelstein (1988), have shown that coccidiosis
and abscesses are not major problems in village goats and that
goats which were treated monthly with ant ihelmint i cs lost weight
equally the same as those not treated. This led to the
conclusion that ant ihelmint ics besides being uneconomically
expensive, have no effect on the performance of village goats in
the wet season.
Grazing area for goats in Central Region seems abundant in
the cool dry and hot dry seasons with crops harvested and goats
left loose to roam freely. However, this area shrinks with the
onset of rains when most of the land is used for cropping so that
goat owners resort to tethering or grazing in limited areas.
This results to inadequate herbage availability to the goats
hence loss of condition and weight. The consequences are higher
kid mortality and abortion rates, lower reproductive rates, birth
weights and litter sizes (Karua, 1988) and reduced growth rate
among weaners (Edelstein, 1988).
375
Tethering is a good management practice if properly done.
However, tethering on the same place everyday regardless of
wether forage is available or not, in addition to being conducive
to build of helminthes and restriction of breeding activities,
deprive the animal adequate nutrition. In the Central Region of
Malawi, this seems to be a major constraint to goat production.
Body weights and condition for goats both in the villages
and at the ranch improve after the rains because of unlimited
availability of herbage which in the villages is due to change in
management system coupled with reduced disease burden in both
systems. Availability of crop residues during this time is an
added advantage for the village goats although these dwindle as
the dry season progresses.
While at the ranch, the solution to wet season loss of
weight and the consequences in goats requires combined effort of
veterinarians, nutritionists and agronomists; in the villages it
lies mainly on proper management of feeding system. The present
tethering system could be modified to include rotation of
tethering sites both within and between days. Apart from having
nutritional benefits, the system would help reduce build up of
internal parasites at the tethering site. In intensively
cultivated or densely populated areas, cut and carry systems
would be adopted for wet season feeding. Such a system is
successfully practised in parts of Nigeria (ILCA, 1979). This is
particularly practicable in the Central Region of Malawi because
the herdsizes are small (six per household) (Khaila and Itimu,
1985) so that labour demand for this exercise can be low.
Preservation of crop residues and supplementation with
wastes from food processing e.g. maize bran are other feasible
sources of feed for the goat. Ayoade (1985/86) found that both
groundnut haulms and bean pods can significantly improve body
weight and growth if supplemented with maize bran.
Figures on the national offtake of goats are not available.
However a survey conducted by Khaila and Itimu (1985) found that
376
goat meat is onlv second to chicken in terms of preference among
the smallholder farmers in the Central Region. Per capita
consumption of meat is 3.2 kg (Bookers Agriculture International,
1983) of which 78X is beef. This seems to indicate that
contribution by other types of livestock is still very low. In
case of goats this can improve if farmers are educated on the
management of their feed resources.
Malawi government has a well organised extension service.
However, like the rest of Africa, all along, goat development was
not included in the extension packages. (Khaila and Itimu,
1985). It is more recently that the Malawi -German Livestock
Development Programme has established an extension and marketing
system for small ruminants in an effort to fill this extension
gap. It is hoped that this will act as an incentive for higher
goat production in Malawi.
Research on the goat suffered from the same neglect so that
information which can be used for extension services is lacking.
A study like the one reported here is only an initial effort to
provide such information. More integrated research whose results
can be generated into a system approach needs to be done.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to Dr. T.P.E. Makhambera, Dr. M.W.
Mfitilodze and Mr. J.W. Banda for their assistance and
encouragement in carrying out this research. Also thanks go to
the University of Malawi Research and Publication Committee for
funding this work.
377
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378
REFERENCES
Ayoade, J. A. 1985/86. A note on the effect of maize bran
supplementation on voluntary intake and liveweight change
of goats fed bean (Phaseolus) pods. Bunda Journal of
Agricultural Research 1:41.
Bookers Agriculture International. 1983. Livestock meat study
Report. Consultancy report to the government of Malawi.
Edelstein, M. 1988. Health problems associated with
intensification of the livestock industry. Paper presented
at the First National Workshop on Livestock Production in
Zomba, Malawi, 3-9 January 1988.
ILCA. 1979. Small ruminant production in the humid tropics.
Systems Study. No 3. ILCA, Addis Ababa.
Karua, S.K. 1988. Reproduction and growth of the indigenous
Malawi goats under traditional system of management. Paper
presented at the Goat Development Workshop held in Bikita,
Zimbabwe, January 1988.
Khaila, S.W. and Itimu, O.A. (In press). Small ruminant and rural
development in Malawi: A case study of goat production in
Lilongwe Rural Development Project. Paper presented at
workshop on designs and implementation of rural development
Strategies and programme. December 1985, Lilongwe, Malawi.
31 December 1984 - 5 January 1985.
Munthali, J.T. 1986. In: D.A. Little, and A.N. Said (eds),
Cattle fattening in basal diets of maize stover and
groundnut tops in Malawi. Proceedings on Workshop on
Utilisation of Agricultural By-products as livestock feeds
in Africa (ARNAB) held at Ryall's Hotel, in Blantyre,
Malawi, September 1986. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. July
1987.
National Statistical Office. 1988. Malawi Population and
Housing Census. 1987. N.S.0. Government Printer, Zomba.
Malawi.
National Sample Survey of Agriculture 1981/82. Department of
National Statistics. Government Printer, Zomba, Malawi.
April 1984.
379
Reserve Bank of Malawi. 1988. Financial and Economic Review.
20(1).
Russel, A.J.F., Doney, J.M. and Gunn, R.G. 1969. Subjective
assessment of body fat in live sheep. 1988. Journal of
Agricultural Science. 72:451-454.
Wilson, R.T. and Dunkin, J.W. 1984. Age at permanent incisor
eruption in indigenous goats and sheep in semi -arid Africa.
Livestock Production Sciences. 11:451-455.
380
FEEDING VALUE OF SESBANIA AND LEUCAENA BROWSE
Lemma Biru*, L.J. Lambourne** and Fana Tesfahunei*
ABSTRACT
Crossbred exotic x Barka and exotic x Boran milking cows in
month 3-5 of lactation (mean initial yield 6-9 kg/d) were fed
fresh-cut Sesbania sesban or Leucaena leucocephala to replace
part of the concentrate ration normally given during dry season
grazing of natural pasture. A concentrate was fed at the rate of
2 kg plus 0.5 kg per kg initial dairy milk yield to a control
group of 3 cows; in 4 similar groups either 0.3 or 0.6 of this
concentrate allowance was replaced by fresh-cut leucaena or
sesbania browse (1 kg browse dry matter per kg concentrate
replaced) during 1 week change-over, and 2 weeks experimental
feeding with a final week on the original concentrate ration.
All cows had access to dry season pastures. Leucaena was eaten
more freely (max. 12 kg fresh, 4 kg dry weight per day) than
sesbania (max. 8 kg fresh, 2.5 kg dry). Milk yield of the
browse-fed groups was significantly higher In the two 7-day
browse feeding periods than in the preliminary and final control
feeding periods. Milk yield was higher in the experimental than
the control periods by 0.45 kg/d in the controls, by 0.85 and
0.30 kg/d in the 0.3 and 0.6 sesbania groups, and by 0.76 and
1.18 kg/d in the 0.3 and 0.6 leucaena groups.
INTRODUCTION
Shortage of feed is the main constraint to livestock productivity
in the arid and semi-arid zones. Almost all year round, the
annual feed budget would not maintain the feed requirement of
livestock rations. A large proportion of the rift valley's
grazing lands have dry seasons lasting from six to eight months
each year. With the advancing dry season, grazing animals turn
* Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Adami Tulu Research
Centre, P. 0. Box 2003, Addis Ababa
** Formerly IAR, Feeds and Nutrition Consultant.
381
 more and more to browse to satisfy their daily needs for feed.
The advantage of browse is its ability to maintain its feeding
value into the dry season. (Skerman, 1977).
Being deep-rooted shrubs or trees, browses offer some
drought tolerance and being leguminous they provide forage of
higher nutritive value than dry season unimproved pastures. Jones
(1979) reviewed the use of Leucaena as forage, while Jones and
Jones (1984) reported that inclusion of leucaena In sub-tropical
pastures gave better annual weight gains in beef cattle and
supplementation with leucaena was shown to maintain production in
milking cows (Plucknett, 1970).
As part of a study of the adaptability of browses to a range
of environments in Ethiopia, Sesbania sesban and Leucaena
leucocephala were established at the IAR cattle research centre
at Adami, Tulu in the Rift Valley, 160 km south of Addis Ababa In
March 1987. This is a semi-arid zone, with 400-600 mm rainfall
in the months of March - July. Growth was studied under rainfed
conditions and under intermittent irrigation, and sufficient
amount of forage was available mainly from the latter area for a
short feeding experiment in November - December 1987, the middle
of the dry season, using cows in mid- lactation from the
crossbreeding herd at the Centre.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Both species were established in April with occasional watering.
Sufficient forage was cut each afternoon for that evening and the
following morning feeding. Records were kept of the total and of
the usable material harvested from both leucaena and sesbania.
Samples were taken for dry matter (DM) determination from the
feeds offered and from the residues, since the latter contained
much stemmy material of higher DM content.
Fifteen cows from the IAR crossbreeding study in months 3 to
5 of lactation were allotted to S groups of 3, each including
offspring of Barka and Boran dams. Groups were balanced as far
as possible for initial milk yields; group means ranged from 6.8
382
to 8.1 kg/d - and were then allocated at random to the control
treatment and 4 experimental feeds.
All cows received the concentrate allowance in 2 feeds, at
morning and afternoon milking times. Browse groups were tied for
one to one and half hours to eat their browse ration after
morning and afternoon milking. After morning milking, cows were
allowed to graze. Browse was given to replace 0.3 and 0.6 of the
concentrate. A surplus of about 30X was offered to ensure ad
libitum intake.
Milk records were taken as part of normal herd routine and
yield in the week (November 24-30) was taken as the initial
control value for calculation of concentrate entitlement, 2 kg/d
plus 0.5 kg per kg of milk. The control group received this
amount from December 3 until January 2, Browse was offered to the
other groups in small amounts on December 1 and 2; from December
3 to 11 the concentrate was reduced and browse increased to the
desired levels and then maintained for 2 weeks until December 25.
From December 26 no browse was fed; all cows returned to their
initial calculated concentrate entitlement until January 1 and
then to normal station feeding.
Browse intakes and milk yields were studied by analysis of
variance, milk yields were also adjusted by covariance on yield
in the initial week.
RESULTS AND METHODS
Browse intakes results are summarized in Table 1. Intake was
generally higher in the second experimental week (week 3) than in
the first (week 2), but the intake of sesbania was only slightly
higher in the 0.6 group offered about 12.5 kg/d than in the 0.3
group offered only 6.3 kg/d. Intake of the corresponding
leucaena-fed cows increased to over 1 1 kg/d when additional feed
was offered, compared to the 12-14 kg/d reported by Plucknett
(1970).
383
Table 1: Intake of cows offered sesbania and leucaena to replace
0.3 and 0.6 of their concentrate allowance*
Mean intake of concentrate* and fresh browse (kg/d)
Week 2 (12-18/12) Week 3 (19-25/12)
Group Concentrate browse Concentrate browse
Control 5.7 - 6.7 -
0.3 Sesbania 3.7 4.8 * 0.5 3.6 4.9 * 0.5
0.6 Sesbania 2.2 5.6 * 1.7 2.2 6.1 * 1.3
0.3 Leucaena 3.5 4.7 * 0.7 3.5 5.1 * 0.6
0.6 Leucaena 2.0 10.4 * 1.1 2.0 11.3 * 0.4
* Lower concentrate intake of leucaena groups indicates that
groups randomly assigned to leucaena had lower initial milk
yields.
Dry matter (DM) intakes (Table 2) show that browse intake
adequately replaced the planned 0.3 and 0.6 of the concentrate,
except in the 0.6 sesbania group. Concentrate intake in that
group was reduced by 3 kg DM but sesbania intake replaced only 2
kg of this amount.
Table 2. DM intake of cows fed browse to replace 0.3 and 0.6 of
their concentrate ration.
Mean intake of concentrates and browse (kg/DM/d)
Concentrate Week 2 (12-18/12) Week 3 (19-25/12)
entitlement concr browse total Concr browse total
Control 5.27 5.27 - 5.27 5.27 - 5.27
0.3 sesbania 4.85 3.44 1.69 5.13 3.44 1.73 5.17
0.6 sesbania 5.12 2.05 1.92 3.97 2.05 2.09 4.14
0.3 leucaena 4.65 3.26 1.41 4.67 3.26 1.58 4.84
0.6 leucaena 4.71 1.86 3.11 4.97 1.86 3.47 5.33
384
Leucaena DM intake averaged about 47% of the supplement, not
including the additional intake of grazed pasture and straw
offered overnight. There was no problem from the mimosine content
of leucaena even though leucaena formed more than 40X of the
total diet (Donaldson et al, 1970, Dharmaraj et al, 1984, Jones
and Jones 1984). The mimosine content of mature leucaena foliage
in the dry season is likely to be quite low.
Milk Production
Response of individual cows: Comparison showed that the mean
yield in the 2 experimental periods in all groups exceeded the
mean of the initial and final control periods. Calculation for
each cow showed that mean milk yield was higher in the
experimental than in the control periods by 0.45 kg/d in the
controls, by 0.85 and 0.30 kg/d in the 0.3 and 0.6 sesbania
groups and by 0.76 and 1.18 kg/d in the 0.3 and 0.6 leucaena
groups respectively. The increase in yield of the control cows
was because the experimental concentrate allowance was higher
than the Centre's routine concentrate feeding level.
Comparison with controls: Milk yields in the 2 experimental and
final control periods showed a significant correlation (r = 0.82)
with yield in the initial week. Milk yields adjusted by
covariance on initial yields are shown in Table 3, with results
of the analysis of variance indicated by superscripts.
Table 3. Adjusted milk yields of control and browse-fed groups
Mean yield (kg/cow/d)
Initial and final control periods 2 expt. per
Control group 7.22 7.62a*
0.3 sesbania 7.40 8.25b
0.6 sesbania 7.31 7.70a
0.3 leucaena 7.40 8.25b
0.6 leucaena 7.51 8.65b
* Values with different superscripts differ significantly
(P<0.01)
385
Whereas the 0.6 sesbania group milk yield was no higher than
the controls, the other browse-fed cows all gave significantly
higher yields; 0.3 sesbania and 0.3 leucaena gave similar yields
and the 0.6 leucaena group, although highest, was not
significantly higher than the 0.3 browse groups. This confirms
the result of the individual comparison of unadjusted milk
yields, above.
CONCLUSION
The original intention to feed browse to replace up to 75X of the
concentrate had to be modified. It would have been possible with
leucaena but not with sesbania. Except in the case of the high
level of sesbania, milk yield increased under browse
supplementation.
Whether response to browse supplementation is beneficial in
economic terms clearly depends on the cost of growing the forage.
1kg browse DM can be viewed as nutritionally equivalent to 1 kg
concentrate, but even with leucaena, there is likely to be some
wastage in feeding.
The mandate of the Institute of Agricultural Research in
Ethiopia is to conduct research and the extension activity is
being carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture. Within the
Ministry of Agriculture, the Fourth Livestock Development Project
is responsible for the extension activity of the pasture and
forage results (programme). The research-extension linkage of the
country was limited until 1985. Since then research-extension
linkage committees have been organised in various parts of the
country. It is hoped that in future, research results could be
easily disseminated to the farmers.
With regard to leucaena and sesbania utilisation the rate of
acceptance of these browse plants by farmers is encouraging.
It was reported that leucaena has been used in Hararge region by
farmers for fattening and in Gojan region farmers use sesbania
for alley cropping. This indicates that leucaena and sesbania
386
have been successfully adopted by farmers. Since more seeds
could be produced from both species, farmers can easily get the
seeds and in future it is likely that these browse species could
be easily multiplied and used by farmer in most parts of the
country.
The total cost of establishing 1 hectare of browse was about
30 cents per kg of forage harvested in the first year. In later
years the cost could be reduced to maintenance and harvesting,
and the yields from 3 to 4 harvests could be 9 to 10
tonnes/ha/yr. Hence the cost of forage should be not more than
about 5 cents/kg and the cost of concentrate is over 30 cents/kg.
This shows that sesbania and leucaena can replace the expensive
and often unavailable concentrate.
The economic benefit of sesbania and leucaena in terms of
milk and meat has shown considerable success both under research
and in farmers' condition. In the long run this innovation has
to be tested by farming system research unit which is now in its
foundation stage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Assefa Haile Selassie and Simon Abay
for their valuable technical assistance with all the browse-
feeding operations and Hailu Gebremariam, Centre Manager, for
accepting so cheerfully any interruptions to routine herd
management that the experimental operations caused.
REFERENCES
Dharmaraj, P., Rao, M.R. and Rao, V.P. 1985. Feeding subabul
leafmeal to lactating murrah buffaloes, Ind. J. Anim. Sci .
55: 389 (Nutr. Abstr. Rev. 55 no. 6254.
Donaldson L.E. Hamilton, R.I. Lambourne, L.J. and Little, D.A.,
1970. Assessing Leucaena leucocephala for deleterious
effects in cattle and sheep proc. Xlth Int. Grassl. Congr.
University of Queensland Pressr p. 780.
387
Jones, R.J. 1979. The value of Leucaena leucocephala as a feed
for ruminants in the tropics. Wld. Anim. Rev. 31:31.
Jones R.M. and Jones R.J. 1984. The effect of leucaena
leucocephala on liveweight gain, throid size and throxine
levels of steers in South-eastern Queensland. Aust . J. Exp.
Agric. Anim. Husb. 24:4.
Plucknett, D.t. 1970. Productivity of tropical Pastures in
Hawaii. Proc. Xlth Int. Grassl. Congr. P. A38. University
of Queensland Press, Brisbane.
Skerman, P.J. 1977. Tropical forage legumes. FAO, Rome.
388
MOLASSES ENERGY BLOCKS FOR BEEF CATTLE
C.W. Muendia and M. Khasatsili
National Agricultural Research Station, Kitale,
P. 0. Box 450
Kitale, Kenya
ABSTRACT
The present trial was to investigate the possibilities of the
farmer making his own concentrated energy blocks from the locally
available Ingredients and to determine at what cost he does so.
The suitability and acceptability of the blocks by steers were
also studied. 16 unreplicated blocks were made using molasses,
urea, salt, cement, corncob meal and wheat bran in 2 factorial
experiment. Block hardness was found to vary with block type,
location, technique of manufacture and to some extent with
temperature and humidity although there was no evidence that the
blocks hardened any more beyond day nine. In a 15-minute intake
observation, average consumption per 'visit- of molasses blocks
containing wheat bran was 142 g which differed significantly
(P<0.0S) from the average consumption of 96 g for those
containing corncob meal. Consumption of blocks containing wheat
bran was not affected (P<0.05) by method of preparation,
proportion of molasses or even the location of the blocks.
Consumption of corncob blocks containing 50X molasses was 131 g
which differed (P<0.01) from 68 for those containing 45X
molasses. Placement of blocks containing corncob meal in the sun
resulted into average consumption of 116 g, an amount different
(P<0.05) from 77 g for those placed in the shade. In all cases,
the cost of the blocks was between 20 and 2SX the cost of
Crystalyx, a standard commercial preparation.
INTRODUCTION
In beef cattle nutrition, energy among others can be limiting
especially in the dry season leading to slow livestock
development or indeed a reversal in livestock gains. In Kenya,
beef cattle numbers are estimated at some 9.5 million (ISNAR,
389
1985) and occupy large tracts of land in the principally 79% of
Kenyan rangeland. Beef cattle numbers given for 1983 through to
1985 (Owiro, 1985) would indicate that 11. 5X of the animals were
lost in the 1984 drought. Similar or worse losses have been
reported in the Sahel region of West Africa (Bourn et al, 1987)
and in Wollo, Shoa and Hararge provinces of Ethiopia (ILCA,
1986).
Pickstock (1985) has reported that in times of drought when
the energy and protein reserves of animals fall to dangerously
low levels, molasses - urea mixtures can be fed in amounts of
upto 2 kg a day thereby helping to satisfy both energy and
protein needs for maintenance. The use of liquid molasses and
urea have had their problems (ILCA, 1986; Sansoucy, 1986).
According to Sansoucy (1986) these problems are easily solved
through use of molasses - urea blocks whose advantages are in the
handling, storage, transportation and avan in the actual feeding.
The concept of energy blocks is not new and there are over 70
formulae adopted by various countries depending on the locally
available ingredients. (Sansoucy, 1986).
Though the technology involved in block-making is both
simple and practicable, such factors as ingredients used, mixing
technique and environmental factors affect the block stability.
The state of hardening is of particular interest from the point
of view of transportation and consumption by the animals. It was
for this reason that an investigation was carried out to study
the technique of making energy blocks using the commonly
available ingredients and to study the economics involved in
addition to determining how acceptable the blocks are to the beef
cattle.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The methodology of making molasses blocks was based almost
exclusively on the work of Sansoucy (1986). In a second set of
blocks, corncob meal replaced wheat bran as suggested by Shenkute
Tessema (personal communication). Sixteen unreplicated blocks
were made each weighing approximately 6.5 kg. The trial was on a
factorial layout with two different levels of molasses, (50X and
390
45X), two residues (wheat bran and corncob meal), two storage
systems (in the sun and under shade). Table 1 shows the
composition of the blocks.
Table 1. Composition of molasses blocks.
Wheat bran Corncob meal
Block type I II III
X
IV
Molasses 45 50 45 50
Urea 10 10 10 10
Salt 5 5 5 5
Cement 15 10 15 10
Wheat bran 25 25 n.a n.a
Corncob meal n.a n.a 25 25
n.a. = not avai lable
Mixing of the ingredients was carried out in a strict order
starting with molasses followed by urea, salt, cement and ending
with wheat bran or corncob meal. It was particularly suggested
by Sancoucy (1986) that the hardening process is improved by
mixing the cement with water first as the water contained in the
molasses was considered insufficient to wet the cement. To
investigate this, the cement was mixed with extra water (37 parts
to 100 parts cement w:w) before further mixing with the other
ingredients. It was also considered necessary to investigate the
stability of the blocks when placed in the open and under shade
to simulate the two conditions likely to prevail under real world
farming conditions. The factors investigated were block quality,
stability and block consumption by beef cattle.
Block quality
Nutrient content of the blocks was determined by proximate
analysis for dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, gross
energy and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
sodium and potassium using the accepted analytical standards
(AOAC, 1975). The fibre fractions were analysed according to the
procedures of Goering and van Soest (1970).
391
Block stabi lity
Hardness of the blocks was used as an indicator of block
stability. To determine hardness, a penetrometer, one of the
Chatillon precision instruments (Chatillon - N.Y.-USA. GAUGE R.
- CATL 719-20) was used. For every block there was determination
of the relative force needed to sink the penetrometer to a preset
depth. At any one time, four such determinations were made on a
block at 9.00, 12.00, 15.00 and 18.00 hours. The process was
continued daily for 12 days from 9/3/87 (day 5) to 20/3/87 (day
16). Data for days 5, 6, 10, 11 and 12 were excluded from
analysis due to missing values. An analysis of variance on block
hardness under various conditions was carried according to Steel
and Torrie (1980).
Block consumption by beef cattle
Block acceptance and consumption by beef cattle was determined in
a 15 minute observation. All the 16 blocks were weighed and
placed in boxes arranged in a wide semi circle. Eight observers
were assigned to watch over two blocks each. A herd of grazing
hereford steers was then released to sample the blocks. The
observers had to record the number of 'visits' by steers to all
blocks as identified in Figure 1. After 15 minutes, block left
overs were weighed and relative consumption calculated on 'per
visit' basis. Major comparisons were carried out by paired vt'
test (Snedecor and Gochran, 1967).
RESULTS
Block quality
The chemical composition of the blocks and their ingredients is
given in Table 2. The standard "Grystalyx" had higher dry matter
than the other blocks and contained no fibre. The Ca:P ratio of
"Crystalyx" is close to 2:1 whereas for the other blocks it
ranged from 11:1 for block type II to nearly 26:1 for block type
III. Except for calcium and crude protein, the crystalyx block
contained higher quantities of other chemical components than the
rest of the blocks.
392
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Figura L Ralaliva block harpuaaa wilh changaa In lemparalura
anp ralallva humipily.
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394
Block hardness
Block hardness varied significantly (P<0.001) both within the day
and also between the days (Figure 2). For those blocks kept in
the shade, correlation coefficients of pressure with temperature
and relative humidity were +0.55 ad -0.66 respectively. Although
none of the correlation coefficients were found significant
(P>0,05) there is a trend that would indicate that these two
environmental factors had an effect on block hardness especially
those in the shade. There was no evidence that the blocks
hardened any more beyond day nine.
At a relative penetration pressure of 4.71, the blocks kept
in the open were significantly harder (P<0.001) than those in the
shade which recorded a mean pressure of 4.56 (Table 3).
By use of xt' test on figures in Table 3, it was shown that
the mean pressure for wheat bran blocks was 5.39 which was
significantly different (P<0.01) from the mean pressure of 3.87
for corncob blocks. There were significant (P<0.001)
interactions demonstrated between treatments and sites. These
interactions were shown among the corncob meal blocks K, L, 0 and
P prepared without addition of water which unlike the others
hardened more in the shade than in the open. At a mean relative
pressure of 4.98, blocks with water added at mixing were
significantly harder (P<0.001) than those without added water
whose pressure was 4.28. 45X molasses blocks were harder
(P<0.001) at a pressure of 5.13 than 50X molasses blocks at a
pressure of 4.14.
395
Table 3. Relative block pressure
Sun Shade Mean
Block Pressure Block Pressure
A 5.89 B
C 5.93 D
E 5.68 F
G 5.05 H
I 5.23 J
K 2.75 L
M 4.54 N
0 2.57 P
5.76
5.83a
5.91
5.92a
4.71
5.20b
4.22
4.64c
5.15
5.19b
4.40 3.58*
3.44
3.99d
2.87
2.72f
Mean 4.71q 4.56r
Subscripts a,b,c,d,e,f, different at P<0.001
Subscripts q,r different at P<0.001
Block consumption by beef cattle
Consumption of blocks is shown in Table 4 followed by comparisons
of interest in Table 5. No differences were evident in the
consumption of wheat bran blocks irrespective of composition,
location or method of preparation. For the corncob blocks,
placement in the sun resulted into significantly higher
consumption (P<0.01) and so did inclusion of molasses at 50X
level compared to 45X. Overall, the consumption of wheat bran
blocks was higher (P<0.05) than for corncob blocks.
396
Table 4. Block consumption by yearling steers
Block
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
0
P
Block costings
The cost of making the energy blocks was compared with the
current cost of other preparations appearing in the market (Table
6). Some of these preparations are not in block form and for
that reason "Crystalyx" which is a trully commercial energy block
was used as the standard. It is evident that under current
prices block type I to IV cost between 20 and 25 percent the cost
of crystalyx while the other commercial supplements, that is,
molasses-urea mixture (MUM) and molafeed cost between 25 and 30
percent.
Total Number of Consumption
Consumption "visits" per• "visit"
(kg) (g)
5.20 31 168
3.70 37 100
5.30 35 151
2.80 65 43
5.80 52 112
4.65 51 91
5.60 26 215
5.10 20 255
2.00 23 87
1.20 35 34
4.75 58 82
2.10 48 44
2.70 21 129
1.80 18 100
5.90 36 164
9.20 40 130
397
Table 5. Comparisons on block consumption
Uheat bran Corncob meal
Variable Mean Mean T-value Mean Mean T-value
difference difference
39 7.44*
Location Sun 162 116
1-23MS40
Shade 122 77
Molasses 50X 168 131
0.90NS52
45X 116 68
Water without 166 105
°-9\s40
with 118
88
63 6.91*
17 1.89NS
Wheat bran 142
46 2.57*
Corncob meal 96
NS = Non significant (P>0.05)
* = Significant (P<0.05)
** = Significant (P<0.01)
398
Table 6. Comparative cost of blocks and other supplements
Block type Unit cost of/kg* Cost of 100 kg As X of
Crystalyx
block (US S) blockKshs US S
Equivalent
I
II
III
IV
MUM
Molafeed
Crystalyx
1.630
1.588
1.352
1.310
1.800
2.000
6.720
0.087
0.075
0.072
9.91
0.110
0.370
8.89
8.75
7.45
7.21
9.91
11.01
37.01
24.3
23.6
20.2
19.5
26.8
29.7
100.0
Assumptions
Wheat bran
Salt
Molasses
Urea
Cement
Corncob meal
1 US $ = KShs.18.158 as on
Nov. 12, 1988
Unit cost
(KShs/kg)
1.61
3.70
0.76
4.60
1.60
0.50
DISCUSSION
It has been demonstrated in this trial that it is possible to
make molasses urea blocks using the commonly available
ingredients. Both the dry matter and crude protein levels of the
blocks compare very closely to those of the "Crystalyx" blocks
(Table 2). One very big differences is that "Crystalyx" contains
no fibre components whereas other block types notably III and IV
contain more than 20X neutral detergent fibre. This could
perhaps explain the relatively higher gross energy determined for
the "Crystalyx" block. Wheat bran and corncob meal were the main
contributors to the fibre fractions for block types I to IV
(Tables 1 and 2).
399
Hardening and general stability is a crucial aspect of the
blocks. According to Sansoucy (1986) too hard a block would
result in inadequate intakes while too soft a block induce
overconsumption with the possible consequences of urea toxicity.
Those blocks containing wheat bran (blocks A through to H)
demonstrated better compactness (Table 3) unlike the other blocks
containing corncob meal which were inconsistently soft. The
ideal block pressure is unknown and "Crystalyx" used as a
standard here was so hard that the penetrometer could not
penetrate it at all thereby raising doubts as to whether 250 kg
animals could consume an average of 700 g per day considered
ideal for maintenance (Sansoucy, 1986). Prior mixing of cement
with additional water resulted into harder blocks in agreement
with the suggestion of Sansoucy. Many factors may have
contributed to the general softening of the blocks especially
among those made out of corncob. Temperature and humidity are
some of the suggested possibilities. Use of quicklime instead of
cement is said to give harder blocks and so does the use of
molasses with Brix degree (related to dry matter) equal to or
more than 85 as suggested by Sansoucy. The dry matter of the
molasses used here was 72X (Table 2). From the feed analysis
tables NRC, (1978) cane molasses with a dry matter of 75X has a
Brix degree of approximately 79.5.
It, therefore, follows that the molasses used in this trial
had a Brix degree of approximately 76, a figure that is well
below preference. The fact that 45X molasses blocks were harder
than those containing 50X molasses indicates that the higher
levels of cement in the latter blocks was an overiding factor in
the determination of block hardness.
Consumption of the blocks by yearling steers indicated that
the highest intakes were among the better compacted wheat bran
blocks (Table 5). In a real performance trial this may not
necessarily be a good thing. In a 15-minute period an average of
142 g of wheat bran blocks had been consumed. In a whole day
this could probably result into dangerously high levels while
corncob blocks containing 45X molasses, may on the other hand not
provide enough energy and protein for optimum utilisation of crop
400
residues. By manufacturing his own energy blocks using
ingredients that are available at fairly controlled government
prices the farmer would benefit from a saving of more than 75X
the cost of company manufactured blocks. The practicability of
utilisation of energy blocks at farm level is no longer in
question (Preston and Leng, 1987) and an improvement in livestock
performance is guaranteed (Sudana and Leng, 1987; Sansoucy et al,
1986). For Kitale, Kenya, conditions there is a realised need to
investigate the performance of steers given a selected number of
blocks. This is the next step of investigation especially in the
relatively drier months of December and February.
CONCLUSION
The technology of making energy blocks for dry season feeding is
both simple and practicable. However, getting the right kind of
block is dependent on may things among them being environmental
factors, ingredients used and manufacture technique. Although
molasses-urea blocks containing wheat bran were shown to be more
stable and were consumed at higher levels than those containing
corncob meal, complexity in real-life utilisation of the blocks
as a whole needs further investigation. The economic saving is
considerable over purchased commercial blocks although the real
benefit may turn out to be the improved livestock performance
since the farmer can alter block composition to suit his needs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to register their appreciation for the
laboratory analyses done by technologists S.K. Waweru and R.
Millo. Mr. Roger Kamidi assisted greatly with the statistical
analysis and interpretation of results for which we are trully
thankful. Kitale Research Centre Director, Mr. D.K. Muthoka is
thanked for creating the atmosphere that made the execution of
this trial possible. This paper has been prepared for
publication with the kind permission of the Director, Kenya
Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi.
401
REFERENCES
AOAC, (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), 1975.
Official methods of Analysis. 12th ed. Washington, DC
20044.
Bourn, D., Denda, I., Ridder, N., Wagenaar, K. and Wing, W. 1987.
Where have all the Livestock gone? ILCA Newsletter
6:(1):3-4.
Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage fibre analysis.
ARS of US Dept. of Agriculture. pp. 1-12.
ILCA, (International Livestock Centre for Africa) 1986.
Emergency cattle feeding. inj. SPORE No. 2 of 1986 CTA
Bimonthly bulletin of Technical Centre for Agricultural and
Rural Cooperation for disseminating of Scientific and
Technical Information, Wegeningen, The Netherlands, pp 7.
ISNAR (International Service for National Agricultural Research),
1985. Kenya agricultural research strategy and plan.
ISNAR 24(2):122.
NRC, (National Research Council), 1978. Nutrient requirements of
dairy cattle. No. 3. National Academny of Science,
Washington DC. 44, pp.
Owiro, Z. 1985. Ministry of Livestock Development Annual Report.
p. 27.
Pickstock, M. 1985. Molasses as drought feed for livestock.
Agric. Science Digest. M.F. Massey Ferguson 8:(3):3.
Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1987. Matching ruminant production
systems wi th avai l able resources in the tropics and sub
tropics. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australiar pp 192-196.
Sansoucy, R. 1986. Manufacture of molasses - urea blocks. World
Animal Review 57:40-48.
Sansoucy, Aarts, G. and preston, T.R. 1986. Sugarcane as a feed.
proceedings of an FAO Expert Consultation held in Sato
Domingo, Dominion Republic from 7 to 11 July 1986. pp 263-
279.
Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1967. Statistical methods. 6th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IOWA-USA.
402
Steele, R.G.D. and Torris, J.H. 1980. Principles and procedures
of statistics. 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
U.S.A. 390. pp.
Sudana, I.D. and Leng, R.A. 1987. Effects of supplementing a
wheat straw diet with urea or a urea-molasses block and/or
cottonseed meal on intake and liveweight changes of lambs.
ARNAB (ILCA) Newsletter 7:(3):22-23.
403
LIVEWEIGHT CHANGES IN SHEEP SUPPLEMENTED WITH SEED PODS
OF TWO LEGUMINOUS TREES IN SOUTH KORDOFAN, SUDAN,
DURING THE DRY SEASON
I.M. Hashim
Range/Livestock Section Centre
Western Sudan Agricultural Research Project, (WSARP)
P. 0. Box 10, Kadugli, Sudan
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the effect of supplementing seed pods of
kadad (Dichrostachys cinera) and haraz (Acacia albida) on sheep
liveweight change during the dry season. Seed pods were
collected after maturity in December. Diet selected by sheep was
determined by the bite-count method and intake was estimated by
the faecal index method, using 4 non- lactating sheep for the
total faecal collection. Seed pods and the diet selected were
analysed for nitrogen (N), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), in
vi tro dry-matter digestibility (IVDMD) and in vi tro organic
matter digestibility (IVOMD).
Three groups of non- lactating sheep, with 4 ewes in each
group were selected randomly from the stock of sheep belonging to
WSARP at the research farm. The first group was supplemented
with kadad seed pods, the second group with haraz seed pods and
the third group was the control, which survived on range forage
only. Supplements were offered every other day for 7 weeks.
Sheep in the three groups were then mixed in a corral and weighed
at random.
Crude protein (6.25 x X N) and NDF constituents of kadad
were 10.9% and 53. 1X, of haraz 16. 5% and 59.2% and of the diet
selected were 12.3 and 68. 1X respectively. In vitro dry matter
digestibility and IVOMD were 50.5% and 48.1% for kadad, 43.9% and
45.8% for haraz and 31.5% and 28.7% for the selected diet
respectively.
404
Dry-matter intake was 2.9 kg/100 kg body weight and crude
protein intake was 8.4 g/W ' kg/day. Kadad and haraz provided
additional N supplements of 6.8 and 11.2 g/W ' every other day,
respectively and more energy that resulted in an increase in
liveweight (P<0.005) for the supplemented group. Sheep
supplemented with haraz, however, gained more liveweight (P<0.05)
than sheep supplemented with kadad.
INTRODUCTION
Sheep rank second to cattle in importance within the transhumant
production system in south Kordofan. They are slaughtered for
various religious occasions and also sold in local markets to
cover cash expenditures (Fadlalla, 1985 a).
The primary constraint limiting sheep productivity is the
poor nutrition during the dry season, which extends from November
to June. During this period, crude protein contents of range
forage decrease from 19.3 - 13. 3X in July to 6.6 - 2.9X in
December and standing crop of herbage decreases from 3830 kg/ha
in October to 1838.4 kg/ha in February (Fadlalla, 1982) and is
almost consumed by the end of June. Under these conditions,
supplemental feeding is often of primary importance during the
dry season (Williamson and Payne, 1959). To address this
problem, sesame cake was supplemented to sheep during this period
(Cook and Fadlalla, 1985) but with a limited success since the
supplemented sheep performed only slightly better than the
control.
In the experiment reported herein, seed pods of kadad
(Dichrostachys cinera) and haraz (Acacia albida) are being tested
at an alternative supplement for sheep during the dry season.
Kadad yields about 1 kg of seed pods per tree (Hashim, in prep)
and haraz yields 125-135 kg/tree of seed pods that can be dried
and stored for future use (NAS, 1979). Objective of this
experiment were: (1) to quantify the nutritive value of sheep
diet and seed pods of kadad and haraz, (2) to determine intake
and liveweight changes of non-lactating sheep supplemented with
seed pods of the two locally available leguminous trees.
405
STUDY AREA
This study was conducted at the experimental farm belonging to
Kadugli Research Station in south Kordofan. South Kordofan lies
within the savanna zone of the sahelian belt, and can be
classified as having hot, semi-arid climate. March is the
hottest month at Kadugli with a maximum of 41 C and a minimum of
24 C. December and January are the coolest months with 35 C and
a minimum of 18 C. Rainfall varies from 700 to 800 mm, which
occurs in a single season, primarily from June to September,
although there is some rainfall in May and October. A short, hot
season occurs after the rains from October to November, followed
by cool, dry season from December to February. The main hot
season occurs from March to May.
The research farm, which is fenced, encompasses 760.6 ha.
The soil is dominated by cracking clays with patches of sandy
clays and sandy loams. Acacia seval dominates the cracking clays
and sandy loams; associated with this species are Sorghum spp.,
Aristida hordaceae. Cvmbopogon sp. and Dinebra ref raf lexa.
Balanites aegyptiaca. Ziziphus spina-christi and Acacia
polvacantha are widely dispersed in the research farm.
Dichrostachys cinera exclusively covers patches of sandy clays
and sandy loams.
The research farm is stocked with cattle, sheep and goats at
the rate of 9 ha/head-year, 10 ha/head-year and 10 ha/head-year,
respectively. Tap water is provided from the station head
quarters to the camp site on the research farm year-round.
Cattle, sheep and goats are herded separately in the
research farm, the herding usually starts at 8.00 a.m. After a
distance of 1.5 km or so the animals are herded back to the camp
for watering and shading, herded again in the evening for grazing
and corraled at the camp around 5.30 p.m.
406
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sixteen non- lactating sheep were selected and divided randomly
into 4 groups, 1 group was used for studying diet selection and
intake and the other 3 groups were for the feeding trials.
Sheep in the group of diet selection and intake studies were
harnessed with bags that were specially designed to fit females.
Sheep in this group were trained for accepting the bags while
they were being herded as usual before the start of the
experiment. After the completion of the training period, sheep
were followed by two observers, one for determining herbaceous
vegetation cover and the other for determining diet selected and
intake. Either observer selected sheep randomly from the group.
The first bite made by the selected sheep was considered the
starting point for the sampling of the herbaceous vegetation
cover in each grazed area. From this point, U line transects
each of 1/2 km long were randomly selected and were traversed.
Readings for the cover determination were recorded at 50 m
intervals along the line transects, using the ten-point frame
procedure (Leavy and Madden, 1933). The sampling was continued
for a week and was replicated for at least 3 sheep per day.
Diet selection was determined by the bite-count method
(Reppert, 1960). About 100 bites were recorded for a single
sheep per day and replicated for at least 3 sheep in each grazed
area. The sampling continued for a week. The diet selected was
composited for each sheep and was pooled for all sheep during the
period of sampling.
Intake was estimated by the faecal index method (Maynard and
Loosli, 1969) and 24 hr faecal collection according to the
following equation.
g faecal DM x X indicator in faeces
DM =
X indicator in forage
where DMI is dry matter intake. The indicator used was faecal
NDF (Waller et al, 1980).
407
Group feeding was conducted in a randomised complete block
design (Steel and Torrie, 1960). In addition to grazing, one
group was supplemented with seed pods of kadad, the second group
with seed pods of haraz and the third group was control. All
groups were corraled at 6.00 p.m. when supplements were offered
following the usual practice of herding and grazing. Intake of
the supplements was estimated by the following equation:
Intake, g/W0-75kg ■ 110.4 - 1716(100-CWC),
where CWC is the cell wall constituents and W is the body weight
(Goering and van Soest, 1970).
Dry matter and N contents were determined according to AOAC
(1984). Neutral-detergent fibre determination followed the
procedure of Goering and van Soest (1970). in vitro dry matter
digestibility followed the procedure of Tiltey and Terry (1963)
and IVOMD was determined as a loss in weight after being ashed ir
a muffle furnace for 8 hrs at 500 C.
Initial weight was recorded for sheep, which were numbered
in each group at the start of the experiment and every week
thereafter. Weighing was standardised according to Harris et al.
(1970). Sheep in the three groups were gathered in a corral at
7.00 a.m. and were given sufficient time to urinate and
defaecate. Weighing was then conducted at random.
Liveweight changes in sheep were calculated as the
difference between the starting weekly weight and the ending
weekly weight and averaged for sheep in each group. Weight
changes were then subjected to an analysis of variance and means
were separated by the least significant differences (Steel and
Torrie, 1960).
408
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Herbaceous vegetation constituted 1.7X of the ground cover, of
which 0.6X were grasses and 0.5X were forbs. Litter constituted
17. 9X, and the bare ground 81X (Table 1). Cover was not
determined for trees and shrubs because in sandy soils where
Dichrostachys cinera dominated, it formed impenetrable thickets
that rendered the sampling of this species and the species
associated with it impossible. Pratt and Gwynne (1977) reported
that fK cinera increased in overgrazed rangelands. After 3 years
of grazing it diminished in size to form impenetrable thickets
that had to be eradicated (Mckay, 1968).
During the dry season, sheep selected more shrubs and trees
than grasses and forbs (Table 2). Although it was not important
in the herbaceous cover and composition, Dinebra ref raf lexa was
the grass species selected most. As for shrubs and trees, D.
cinera constituted the major proportion of sheep diet; sheep ate
its dead, fallen leaves and fallen seed pods. Fallen flowers and
leaves of Acacia seval and Balanites aegyptiaca were eaten by
sheep as well as fallen fruits from the latter species. Seed
pods of Acacia polyacantha and A_;. seval also constituted a
considerable proportion of sheep diet during the dry season.
Table 1. Herbaceous vegetation cover and composition in the
research farm during the dry season.
Taxon Cover X Composition (X)
23.4
4.5
28.8
Grasses
Hyparrhenia pseudocymbora 0..26
Brachairia obtusiflora 0..05
Sehima ischaemoides 0..32
Forbs
Chorchorus sp. 0..16
Justicia sp. 0..32
Litter 17..89
Bare ground 81..00
H.4
28.8
409
Table 2. Diet botanical composition of sheep in the research farm
during the dry season.
Taxon Composition (X)
Grasses
Aristida hordaceae 0.42
Sen i ma ischaemoides 0.05
D i nebra ref raf lexa 10.54
Forbs
Ipomea sp. 0.83
Trees and shrubs
Dichrostachvs cinera (leaves) 29.07
seed pods 9.88
Balanites aegypt iaca (leaves) 10.66
fruits 0.95
Acacia seval (leaves) 0.74
flowers 33.12
Ziziphus spina-christi (leaves) 0.06
Acacia polyacantha (seed pods) 1.05
Albizia amara (leaves) 0.71
Acacia Senegal (seed pods) 1.88
Cadaba farinosa 0.05
In Drongas area of south Kordofan, Schima ischaemoides
constituted 71. 6X of sheep diet, Balanites aegypt iaca 5.9X, A.
seyal 5.7X and Dichrostachvs cinera. A. polyacantha and Ziziphus
spina-christi less than 1X (Fadlalla, 1985b). Fadlalla also
reported that forbs and shrubs constituted over 90X of the
transhumant sheep diet in late dry season.
410
Diet selected by sheep showed high crude protein and NDF
constituents (Table 3), and low digestibility. The high NDF
concentration and the low digestibility suggested low energy
intake by sheep during the dry season. The high crude protein of
the diet could be attributed to the high proportion of trees and
shrubs (88X) in the diet, particularly fallen seed pods and
flowers. During mid-dry season, sheep diet, which comprised 16X
trees and shrubs, contained 8X crude protein (Fadlalla, 1985b).
Crude protein constituents of the herbaceous vegetation during
the same period ranged between 6.6 and 2.9X (Fadlalla, 1982).
Seed pods of Acacia albida showed high crude protein and
energy contents (Table 3) and low dry matter and organic matter
digestibilities compared to seed pods of Dichrostachys cinera.
Dry-matter intake was 814.8 g/head/day for sheep
supplemented with seed pods of kadad, 855.9 g/head/day with
haraz, and 908.6 g/head/day for the control (Table 4). During
mid-dry season, dry-matter intake for lactating transhumant sheep
was 1252 g/head/day (Fadlalla, 1985b). On Forb Range in Montana,
dry-matter intake estimated for sheep during early, mid-and late
dry season was 900, 1100 g/head/day, respectively (Buchanan et
al., 1972).
Dry-matter intake per 100 kg body weight was 2.9 kg/day.
For breeds of sheep, including Merino, Blackhead Persian and
Droper, dry-matter intake per 100 kg body weight was 0.93, 1.27,
1.14 kg/day, respectively (Williamson and Payne, 1959). Fadlalla
(1985b) reported 3.9 kg/day for pregnant sheep in south Kordofan.
Crude protein intake ranged between 100.2 and 111.7
g/head/day (Table 4), which is comparable with crude protein
intake of 100 g/head/day by pregnant transhumant sheep (Fadlalla,
1985b). This could be related to the high crude protein content
of the diet selected by sheep in this study.
411
Supplements of seed pods offered, which were 3.5 kg of kadad
and 3.6 kg of haraz, were calculated according to the regression
equation of Goering and van Soest (1970). The amount of
supplement predicated by this equation was sufficient to feed
each group of sheep ad l ibi tum, the intake being 3.0 kg for kadad
and 3.4 kg for haraz. However, the intake of the supplement
predicted by this equation is subject to large errors and hence
should be used with caution. The relationship, which was based
on cell wall constituents and intake is fairly consistent in some
forages but unpredictable in others (Goering and van Soest,
Table 3. Chemical constituents of supplements and the diet
selected by non- lactat ing sheep in south Kordofan, Sudan
during the dry season.
Supplement
Constituent Diet Dichrostachys Acacia
cinera a lbi da
93.1 94.9
10.9 16.5
53.1 59.2
50.5 43.9
48.1 45.8
Dry matter 9.34
Crude protein 12.3
NDF 68.1
In vitro dry-matter
digest ibi l i ty 31.5
In vitro organic
digest ibi l i ty 28.7
412
Table 4. Performance of non- lactating sheep supplemented with
seed pods of Kadad (Dichrostachys cinera) and Haraz
(Acacia albida) in south Kordofan, Sudan during the dry
season.
Supp lemented
Item Control Kadad Haraz
Number of animals 4 4 4
Average weight (initial) kg 31.0 27.8 29.2
Voluntary dry-matter intake:
g/day 908.6 814.8 855.9
g/u0-75 69.2 67.3 68.1
kg/ 100 kg BW 2.9 2.9 2.9
Crude protein intake:
g/head/day 111.7 100.2 105.2
g/W°-75/day 0.5 8.3 8.4
Supplement/every other day:
amount offered (g/head) - 875.0 900.0
intake, (g/head) - 750.0 850.0
crude protein intake:
g/head - 81.8 140.3
g/W0-75/head - 27.0 44.7
Average 7-week weight
change (kg) 0.17
0.59a 1.12ab
Means with different superscripts are significantly different.
413
Supplemented sheep gained more liveweight (P<0.005) than the
control. The two supplements provided additional N intake of
81.8 g/head by kadad and HO. 3 g/head by haraz every other day,
and additional energy as well. On the other hand, sheep
supplemented with haraz gained more liveweight (P<0.05) than
sheep supplemented with kadad. The control sheep lost liveweight
during the experiment.
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baggara sheep. In: R.H. Cook (ed.). Transhumant
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Washington, U.S.A. pp. 122-147.
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1. Pregnant ewes during the dry season. In. R.H. Cook
(ed.), Transhumant production systems 1984/1985 research
results. Vol. Ill WSARP publication No. 43. Khartoum,
Sudan and Pullman, Washington, U.S.A. pp. 31-43.
Fadlalla, B. 1985 . The nutritional status of transhumant sheep.
2. Lactating ewes during the mid-dry season. In: R.H.
Cook (ed.), Transhumant production systems 1984/1985
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matter and crude protein of herbage clipped from ten
enclosures around Kadugli, south Kordofan. Annual report
1981/1982. WSARP, Kadugli, Sudan.
Goering, H.K. and van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage fibre analysis
(apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications).
USDA-ARS Handbook No. 379. USDA.
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Harris, L.E., Lofgreen, G.P., Kercher, C.J., Raleigh, R.J. and
Bohan, V.R. 1970. Techniques of research in range
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Reppert, J.N. 1960. Forage preference and grazing habits of
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Steel, R.G. and Torrie, J.H. 1960. Principles and procedures of
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415
THE EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTS OF OILSEED BY-PRODUCTS ON
THE UTILISATION OF LOW-NITROGEN FIBROUS DIETS BY SHEEP
K. Yilala
Co-ordination Office, OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD,
B.P. 1783, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
ABSTRACT
Four experiments in which native pasture hayr and sorghum stover
supplemented with varying levels of cotton seed and cottonseed
cake conducted with sheep are described.
Experiment 1 investigated the effects of supplementing
native pasture hay (predominantly Pennisetum pedicel latum with
two levels of cottonseed cake (0 and 60 g/kg diet DM) and three
levels of cotton seed (0,60 and 120 g/ diet DM) arranged in 2 x 3
factorial using 6 Bali Bali sheep in a 6 x 6 Latin square design.
There were increases in the apparent digestibilities of DM
(P<0.001), N (P<0.001) and OM (P<0.001) due to the inclusion of
cottonseed cake. Cotton seed and cottonseed cake interacted in
their effects on the digestibilities of OM (P<0.05) and N intakes
(P<0.01). Cottonseed cake increased both total and grass hay DM
intakes (P<0.01 and P<0.05) respectively. Cottonseed resulted in
substitution effects as its level was increased (P<0.05).
Experiment 2 investigated the effects of supplements of
cottonseed cake without or with (60 and 120 g/g diet DM) cotton
seed on the liveweight change of Djallonke sheep fed native
pasture hay. Twenty-one rams were grouped into three treatments
of 7 animals each in a randomized block design. The animals
gained 54, 76 and 74 g/day when 0.60 and 120 g/kg diet DM of
cotton seed respectively were combined with the cottonseed cake
supplement.
Experiment 3 investigated the effects of supplementing
sorghum stover with cottonseed cake at three levels (0,60 and 120
g/kg diet DM) in a double 3x3 Latin square design using Bali
416
Bali sheep. The diets containing cottonseed cake increased the
apparent digestibilities of DM (P<0.05) and N (P<0.001), and
total DM intake (P<0.05). The inclusion of 60 g/kg diet DM
resulted in increases in sorghum stover intake (P<0 . 05 ) .
Experiment 4 investigated the response of Bali Bali sheep in
liveweight change to the diets in Exp. 3. Three animals were
randomly assigned to each treatment and fed individually. There
were progressive increases in liveweight gain (P<0.05) but with
diminishing differences as the level of cottonseed cake was
increased. Cottonseed cake at 60 g/kg diet DM increased daily
intakes of total and stover DM. At 120 g/kg diet DM total intake
was increased but stover intake reduced.
It is concluded that cottonseed cake supplement at 60 g/kg
diet DM substantially improved the intake of both fibrous diets,
and was as effective as the high level (120 g/kg diet DM) in
liveweight gain. This level of inclusion may also be within the
economic reach of the farmers.
INTRODUCTION
There is a heavy concentration of ruminant livestock in the
heavily cropped (cereals accounting for 80X, Herman 1983)
Soudaninan zone of Burkina Faso. This shift in distribution,
particularly during the dry season is mainly due to the
relatively abundant cereal crop residues. Although on the
decline, there still exists substantial amount of native pasture
on fallow land left unutilised by the animals during the long dry
season because of its low nutritive components.
Despite the severity of feed deficit in the dry season
conservation of herbages is seldom a priority at the smallholder
farm level. Conservation of the native pasture in late
September, when the requirement of labour for crop production is
at its lowest ebb, has enabled harvest of up to 4460 kg/DM/ha of
fallow land. This was accompanied with increments in the
contents of digestible DM, N and P (by 9.2, 74.5 and 66. 7X,
respectively), and reduction in NDF and ADF (by 22.3 and 19. 5X,
respectively) when compared to the standing dry and mature
417
pasture herbage (Yilala, 1986). However, the N content of the
conserved herbage (9.0 g.kg DM) remained below the critical level
of 11.2 g/kg DM, below which voluntary intake of DM could be
depressed (Whiteman, 1980), to be followed by loss of liveweight.
Several studies have shown increased intake (Egan, 1965;
Kempton and Leng, 1979; Yilala, 1987) and positive responses in
liveweight gain (Kempton and Leng, 1979; Olayiwole and Olorunju,
1987) and retention of N (Egan, 1965; Nuwanyakpa and Butterworth,
1987) when such low-N fibrous diets were supplemented with
protein.
By replacing part of fallow pasture with forage or dual
purpose legumes and conservation as hay it was apparent that the
smallholder farmer could at least be partially self-reliant in
the source of nitrogen supplement (Yilala, 1986). Cotton being
the principal export crop representing 4X of agricultural land
use in Burkina Faso (Herman, 1983) its by products, cotton seed
and cottonseed cake, appear to be the cheapest amongst the
purchaseable sources of N and energy, and could be complementary
to forage legumes (Yilala, 1988a).
This paper describes the results of a series of experiments,
in which native pasture hay and sorghum stover were supplemented
with N and energy source. The experiments were carried out to
study the effects upon sheep of varying the levels of cottonseed
cake with or without cottons seed on the apparent digestibilities
of nutrients, voluntary intake and liveweight change. The
experiments were carried out on 2 ha of farmers' fallow land on
which forage was produced and conserved, and the animal shed
constructed. Resources that could readily available and are
within the economic reach of the farmers were given due
consideration in the overall approach. All the animals for the
feeding trials were contributed by the farmers and returned at
the end of the experiments.
418
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Designs
Experiment 1
This experiment was conducted to assess the effect of
supplementing native pasture hay (predominantly Pennisetum
pedicel latum) with two levels of cottonseed cake (0 and 60 g/kg
diet DM) and three levels of cottons seed (0, 60 and 120 g/kg
diet DM) on the apparent digestibilities of nutrients and
voluntary intake. A 6 x 6 Latin square design, using six Bali
Bali sheep, with the treatments arranged in 2 x 3 factorial were
used. Due to shortage of grass hay only five periods of 19 days
each were conducted, and this reduced the number of replications
from six to five.
Experiment 2
The effect of supplements of cottonseed cake without or with (60
and 120 g/kg diet DM) cottons seed on liveweight change of
Djallonke rams fed native pasture hay was investigated
concurrently with Exp. 1. The twenty-one rams contributed by
farmers, were grouped into three treatments of 7 animals each in
a randomized block design. The trial was conducted for 42 days.
Experiment 3
The effect of supplementing sorghum stover with cottonseed cake
at three levels (0,60 and 120 g/kg diet DM) were investigated to
assess the apparent digestibilities of nutrients and voluntary
intake. A double 3x3 Latin square design using six Bali Bali
sheep was used.
Experiment 4
A feeding trial was conducted to investigate the response of Bali
Bali sheep in liveweight change to the diets in Exp. 3. Three
419
animals were randomly assigned to each treatment. The experiment
had two periods: feeding sorghum stover without (21 days), and
with cottonseed cake (63 days including the 7 days for adaptation
to the supplement).
Feeding and growth period
Djallonke rams of age 10 to 15 months and weighing approximately
12.4 kg (Expt. 2), and Bali Bali rams aged 18 to 21 months and
approximately 45.5 kg (Expt. 4) were used for growth trials. All
animals were treated against internal and external parasites.
They were fed native pasture hay (Expt. 2) and sorghum
stover chopped to 6 cm in length (Expt. 4) ad l ibi tum in groups
and individually, respectively. The total amount of diet offered
(i.e. in two feeds given at 10.00 and 16.00 h) was 20X above the
daily consumption. The animals were given seven days to adapt to
the supplements. They had free access to mineral block licks and
drinking water.
Sheep were weighed weekly at about the same time on the same
day.
Digest ibi lity
Bali Bali sheep were confined in individual pens partitioned with
locally made mud bricks. During each experimental period of 19
days the animals were adapted to the diets from day 1 to day 12.
The remaining 7 days were used for voluntary intake measurements
and collection of faeces. The basal diets, native pasture hay
(Expt. 1) and chopped (6 cm) sorghum stover (Expt. 3), were fed
ad l ibi tum (20X above the daily consumption) in two feeds given
at 10.00 and 16.00 h. Drinking water and mineral blocks were
available at all times.
Faeces were collected into canvas bags harnessed to the
sheep. The collection was done every 24 h with a one day lag from
intake measurements. Faecal samples (10X of daily output) were
air and oven-dried for DM determinations and subsequent chemical
analysis.
420
Statistical analysis
The data were subjected to analysis of variance with the variance
partitioned into main effects and interactions in Expt. 4
(Cochran and Cox, 1957).
RESULTS
The chemical composition of the ingredients in the diets is give
in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of feed ingredients used in the
trials.
Average Composition of DM (X)
Ingredients N P NDF ADF Lignin
Basic
Native pasture hay 1.04 0.15 57.4 34.5 7.0
Sorghum stover 0.97 0.08 68.1 40.9 7.2
Supplements
Cotton seed 5.00 1.43 -
Cottonseed cake 7.68 2.85
Apparent digestibility
As shown in Table 2 (Expt. 1) inclusion of cottonseed cake in
native pasture hay based diet significantly improved the apparent
digestibilities of DM (P<0.001), N (P<0.001) and OM (P<0.001) and
DOMD value (P<0.001). Cottonseed also improved the interaction
with cottonseed cake (Table 3) and significantly influenced the
digestibilities of OM and N, and DOMD value (P<0.05, P<0.01 and
P<0.01, respectively). That is, the difference between the
observed OM digestibility and DOMD value were largest for the
diet containing 60 g/kg diet DM of cottons seed and for N
digestibility the diet with 120 g/kg diet DM of cottons seed.
421
Table 2. Effects of supplements of cottonseed cake and cotton
seed on the apparent digestibility of nutrients and
voluntary intake of native pasture hay by Bali Bali
sheep.
Main effects Significance
of
2Cottonseed cake Cotton seed effects
(g/kg diet DM) (g/kg diet DM)
60 s.e.d 0 60 s.e.d Cake Seed
Digestibility (X)
DM 63.7 68.9 1.10 61.9 68.4 68.5 1.30 *** ***
OM 64.3 70.6 1.18 64.8 68.8 68.6 1.45 *** *
DOMD 56.3 61.6 1.00 56.2 60.1 60.5 1.20 *** **
N 58.2 74.2 1.15 55.6 66.6 76.6 1.41 *** ***
Intake (g/day)
Total 1329 1551 52.28 1375 14.60 1485 60.03 ** ns
Hay 1147 1274 56.82 1309 1261 1130 69.59 ns ns
Standard error of difference
ns = not significant, * = P<0.05, ** P<0.01 and *** = P<0.001
422
Table 3. Effects of interaction of cottonseed cake and cotton
seed on the apparent digestibility of organic matter,
nitrogen and DOMO (in X).
Cottonseed (g/kg diet DM)
Cottonseed cake 0 60 120 s.e.d.
0 g/kg diet DM
OM 60.4 63.8 68.7 2.10
DOMD 52.3 55.8 60.7 1.67
N 43.8 56.9 74.2 2.00
§8. g/kg diet p_M
OM 69.3 73.8 68.5 2.10
DOMD 60.1 64.4 60.3 1.67
N 67.4 76.3 78.3 2.00
Significant effects were also observed in the apparent
digestibility of DM (P<0.05) and N (P<0.001) and DOMD value
(P<0.001) in animals receiving diets containing both levels of
cottonseed cake in the sorghum stover based diets (Table 4, Expt. 3).
Table 4. Effects of supplement of cottonseed cake on apparent
digestibilities of nutrients and voluntary intake of
sorghum stover fed to Bali Bali sheep.
Cottonseed caike (g/diet DM) Significance
of
Digestibility (X)
0 60 120 s.e.d effects
DM 59.2 72.5 71.2 1.83 •
DOMD 50.6 61.4 59.1 0.57 •**
N 39.6 71.6 75.7 2.44 •**
Intake (g/day)
N 7.2 19.8 28.6 0.82 ***
Total DM 964 1410 1265 40.9 *
Stover DM 964 1278 1001 40.9 *
423
Voluntary intake
Inclusion of cottons seed in Expt. 1 increased total and grass
hay DM intakes (P<0.01 and P>0.05, respectively). Cottonseed
showed a slight increase in total DM intake (P>0.05) and a
progressively decreasing hay intake as its level was Increased
(P>0.05) as shown in Table 2.
Both levels of cottonseed cake in the sorghum stover based
diets (Expts. 3 and 4) also led to significant increases in total
DM intake (P<0.05, Table 5 and P<0.05, Table 6, respectively).
However, animals receiving the diets containing 60 g/kg diet DM
of cottonseed cake showed the greatest intakes in total DM
(P<0.05 and P>0.05) and stover DM (P<0.05 and P>0.05) in Expts. 3
and 4 respectively.
Liveweight change
The results of liveweight gain (Tables 5 and 6) showed a high
coefficient of variation. This might be associated with the
problems of competition in group feeding whereas liveweight
measurements were made individually (Expt. 2). The inadequate
replications might be responsible for the large variation in
Expt. 4.
In Expt. 2 the difference in liveweight gain failed to reach
significance at P<0.05. The liveweight gain within treatments
varied between 14 and 100, 55 and 95, and 36 and 110 g/day for
treatments A, B and C respectively. The greatest liveweight gain
was obtained from the diet containing 60 g/kg DH cottonseed cake
+ 60 g/kg DM cottons seed.
424
Table 5. Effects of supplementing native pasture hay with
cottonseed cake and cottons seed on average daily intake
and liveweight change of Djallonke rams.
Cottonseed cake (g/kg diet DM)
Statistical
60 significance
(P-0.05)
0 60 120 s.e.d.
Intake1
DM (g/kg/day) 497 483 477
Liveweight change:
Initial weight (kg) 12.4 11.7 11.7
Final weight (kg) 14.6 14.9 14.8 0.77 ns
Weight gain (g/day)2 54 76 74 14. 5 ns
Supplement cost
USD/hd/day 0.47 0.81 1.19
USD/100 g LWG3 0.88 1.07 1.60
Calculated from average group daily intake
Coefficient of variation = 37. 7X
Liveweight gain
Although not statistically significant (at P=0.05) there
were progressive increases in liveweight gain, but with
diminishing differences as the level of cottonseed cake was
increased in Expt. 4 (Table 6). This rate of liveweight gains
during the first 14 days of the supplement were greater (P>0.05)
than in the subsequent period.
425
Table 6. Effects of supplement of cottonseed cake on voluntary
intake and liveweight change of Bali Bali sheep fed on
sorghum stover.
Cottonseed cake (g/kg diet DM) Significance
of
Intake
30 60 120 s.e.d effects
Total DM (g/day) 896 1047 1043 382.6 *
(g/kg LW) 18.6 21.8 22.3 1.11 *
Stover DM (g/day) 806 915 773 38.3 ns
Nitrogen 13.7 21.8 28.8 0.28 •••
Liveweight change
Pre- supplementation
Liveweight gain (g/day) 101 135 108 116 ns
Supplementation
Initial liveweight (kg) 47.6 46.7 45.3
Final liveweight(kg) 48.8
Liveweight gain(g/day)
days 1 to 14 33.3 71.8 109.7 45.30 ns
days 1 to 56 23.8 53.6 60.7 15.30 ns
Food conversion ratio 37.6 19.4 17.2 6.17 •
Supplement cost
USD/hd/day 0.61 1.23 1.65
USD/100g LWG 2.7 2.3 3.0
Coefficient of variation = 36. OX
Coefficient of variation = 44. 5X
DISCUSSION
The low and progressive decline in the intake of sorghum stover
prior to supplementation during the first 3 weeks, and the
increase during supplementation (Expt. 4) confirms the importance
of availability of a source of N for effective utilisation of the
426
stover. This effect might be associated with increased rate of
fermentation in the rumen (Mehrez and Orskov, 1978) or improved N
status of the animal (Egan, 1965) or both.
The aim of supplementation was to create the conditions that
will allow increased intake of the low - N fibrous diet and not
substitution by the supplement. Based on the DM intake of the
Control group (i.e. without supplements) substitution effects of
the supplement were calculated according to the ARC (1980). With
the inclusion of cottonseed cake at 60 g/kg diet DM (4.8 g N/kg
DM) intake of native pasture hay and sorghum stover increased at
the rate of 1.80 and 2.8 units, respectively (Appendix Table I).
No substitution effect were observed due to cottons seed at 60
g/kg diet DM without or with cottonseed cake. In another study
increased sorghum stover intake was achieved with 200 g cowpea
hay/kg diet DM, i.e with 5.2 g N/kg DM (Yilala, 1988a). With the
doubling of level of cottonseed cake (except in Expt. 3), cottons
seed and cowpea hay substitution effects were observed (Appendix
Table I).
These was a progressive fall in liveweight during the 3
weeks prior to supplementation (Expt. 4). However, during the
first 14 days of cottonseed cake supplementation, animals
receiving 60 and 120 g/kg diet DM gained 52 and 230X more,
respectively, than those on 30 g/kg diet DM. This possibly
indicates the occurrence of compensatory growth in response to
the relatively low N status prior to supplementation.
Due to the high coefficient of variation the author is
cautious to draw definitive conclusion from the results obtained.
However, considering the evidence from other studies (Orskov et
al, 1976; Hovell et al, 1983; Yilala and Bryant, 1985) in which
changing animals from low to high protein diets resulted in
compensatory growth, the finding in this study does not sound
atypical .
There are two reasons for emphasizing this point: (1) Since
there appears to be a decline in the rate of liveweight gain with
time it may not be necessary to include the same amount of
protein supplement in the diet during compensatory growth and
427
subsequent periods. (2) Under the observed farm conditions the
poor nutritional status of animals during the long dry season is
apparent. Therefore, talcing advantage of the relationship
between the residual effects of previous low N status and
possible greater retention of N during the first few weeks of
supplementation is of paramount importance. This will have
important implication in the efficiency of utilisation of the
limited sources of N that are at the disposal of the smallholder
farms.
The effects of cottonseed cake and cottons seed were
additive (Expt. 2). The highest response 'in liveweight gain was
obtained from the diet containing 60 g/kg diet DM cottons seed,
but with no extra advantage when the level was increased to 120
g/kg diet DM. The diminishing increase in the overall pattern of
liveweight gain when the level of cottonseed cake was increased
(Expt. 4) might suggest that energy was limiting. The acetate
type of fermentation that predominates in the stover based diet
might have resulted in low production of the glucogenic propionic
acid (Leng, 1982). This inadequacy of energy reducing the
effectiveness of high level of N for increased retention may be a
possible explanation (Yilala and Bryant, 1985).
Considering the cost of supplement/100 g liveweight gain and
rate of increase in the intake of fibrous diets, the
supplementary value of cottonseed cake at 60 g/kg DM is more
preferred than the other levels. The economic benefits realized
from the supplementation of crop residues are mostly assessed
based on the balance between the biological outputs (in terms of
liveweight gain) and the costs of purchased inputs and labour.
428
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430
This may not be adequate for an integrated crop-animal system
where inputs are generated within the system. This holds true in
most smallholder farm conditions.
Assessement of economic benefits under such conditions may
have to consider aspects of recycling of nutrients in which
nutrient outputs of the crop component (through crop residues)
serve as nutrient inputs to the animal, and vice versa (through
manure). To serve as an example, the quantity of DM and
nutrients that could be available for composting (for soil
fertilisation) were estimated from the daily feed refusals and
daily faecal output of sheep fed sorghum stover with supplements
of cottonseed cake and cowpea hay (Appendix Table II). The
increase in the contents, for example, of phosphorus (P) in the
faeces of sheep fed diets containing cottonseed cake is of
paramount importance to conditions of poor soil P status in the
Soudanian zone of Burkina Faso. It is, of course, assumed that
the cottonseed cake might have adequately supplied P and
satisfied the needs for the synthesis of microbial nucleic acids
in the rumen (Harrison and McAllan, 1980).
For a technology to be accepted it must be able to fit into
the objective conditions of the target farms. Farmers do
recognise that creating favourable nutritional conditions will
improve the performance of animals. However, the conditions that
they could create are limited by their economic stand. The
purchase of inputs such as protein or energy supplements in most
cases is beyond their economic reach, particularly when one
considers the need to supplement during the long dry season as in
the case of Burkina Faso. Any research work targeted to
smallholder farmers should be deliberately biased towards the
utilisation of on-farm or locally available resources that could
be readily available to and are within the economic reach of the
farmers in the overall approach of this and other studies.
The supplements of cottons seed and cottonseed cake in this
study are considered as complementary supplements to forage
legumes particularly for the latter part of the dry season
feeding. Encouraging results were obtained when Djallonke ewe
lambs were fed native pasture hay supplemented with on-site
431
produced cowpea hay for five months followed by cottonseed cake
for two months during the dry season. The animals gained up to
19 and 40 g/day liveweight on supplements of cowpea hay and
cottonseed cake, respectively (Yilala, unpublished data), during
this period when loss of liveweight is a common phenomenon.
The feeding in pens for such long period, a break away from
the traditional method, was accompanied with increased collection
and improved management of manure and feed refusals to make
compost. Organic matter is an indispensable resource that is
highly valued by the farmers to increase and maintain soil
fertility. With the application of compost (made from sheep
faeces, feed refusals and some Burkina rock phosphate) at 10
tons/ha it was possible to increase the yield of cowpea forage DM
from 2858 to 7751 kg/ha (Yilala, 1989b). Such benefits cannot,
Appendix Table II. Estimated quantity of dry matter, organic
matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in feed refusals and
faeces of sheep fed sorghum stover supplemented with cottonseed
cake and cowpea hay therefore, be ignored when input-output
relationships are examined to assess the economic benefits
realized from the supplementation of crop residues. The method
of analysis might become more complex when the source of
supplement is a forage or dual purpose legume grown on-farm.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions may be drawn from the study:
1. The low N - fibrous diets, native pasture hay and cereal crop
residues, will remain to be the major sources of metabol izable
energy (ME) for ruminants in Burkina Faso. The study has
undoubtedly confirmed that cottonseed cake, the cheapest among
the purchasable sources of N in the country, has improved the
utilisation of the above sources of energy through increased
digestibility and voluntary intake.
2. The findings suggest that sheep managed in the conventional
way prior to supplementation respond positively to protein
supplements in liveweight gain consistently. The rapid rate
of growth during the first 14 days of supplementation might be
432
as a result of the residual effects of the previous low N -
status of the animals.
3. The further improvement of liveweight gain when cottons seed
was added to the cottonseed cake might indicate the importance
of increasing the ME intakes of the animals too, although no
extra advantage was realized in liveweight gain by doubling
the level of cottons seed.
4. For every unit of inclusion of cottonseed cake at 60 g/kg diet
DM (4.6 g N.kg DM) the intakes of native pasture hay and
sorghum stover were increased by 1.80 and 2.78 units,
respectively. The same level of cottonseed cake in the diet
was as effective as the high level (120 g/kg diet DM) in terms
of liveweight gain. It is possible that the 60 g/kg diet DM
of cottonseed cake may also be within the economic reach of
the farmers.
5. The high content of P in cottonseed cake might have possibly
helped correct the deficiency of P in both native pasture hay
and sorghum stover for rumen microbial protein synthesis. It
appears that it can also increase the soil P status. Such
indirect contributions of protein supplements may need to be
considered in the analysis of economic benefits.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the Farming Systems Research
Programme of OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD- INERA (Institute National D'Etudes
et de Recherches Agricoles), Burkina Faso, for making the study
possible. Deepest appreciation are extended to Messrs Zoundi
Sibiri and Ouedraogo Saidou for their technical assistance.
Special thanks are due to PANESA/ARNAB for sponsoring my
attendance at the workshop.
433
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72-82. ARNAB/ILCA.
Oskov, E.R., McDonald, I., Grubb, D.A. and Pennie, K. 1976. The
nutrition of the early weaned lamb. IV. The effect on
growth rate, food utilisation and body composition of
changing from a low to a high protein diet. J^. Agric. Sci .
86:411-423.
Whiteman, P.C. 1980. Tropical Pasture Science. Oxford
University Press. Oxford.
Yilala, K. 1986. Observations on the conservation of forage
legumes and natural pasture as hay. In: Farming Systems
Research Report. pp. 78-82. OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD,
Ouagadougou.
Yilala, K. 1988a. Influence of inclusion of forage legume hay in
basal diet of sorghum stover upon intake and digestibility
by Bali Bali sheep. In: Farming Systems Research Report.
pp. 118-122. OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD-INERA.
Yilala, K. 1988b. Effects of phosphates and method of land
preparation on cowpea forage yield and nodulation. In:
Farming Systems Research Report. pp. 68-76.
OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD-INERA. Ouagadougou.
Yilala, K. and Bryant, M.J. 1985. The effects upon the intake
and performance of store lambs of supplementing grass
silage with barley, fishmeal and rapeseed meal. Anim.
Prod. 40:111-121.
435
USE OF SORGHUM BRAN AND GROUNDNUT HAULMS IN SORGHUM STOVER
BASED DIETS FOR CROSSBRED COUS
W. Mahabile, B. Mas i lo and B. Kiflewahid
Animal Production Research Unit
Department of Agricultural Research
P. Bag 0033 Gaberone, Botswana
ABSTRACT
Results are reported of a feeding trial in 1986/87 in which a
total of 62 half-bred Simmental (SX), three-quarter Simmental
(SSX) and half bred Friesian (FX) milking cows were fed sorghum
stover supplemented with sorghum bran, groundnut haulms or Lablab
purpureus hay.
During the wet season animals were grazed under conditions
similar to communal areas situation.
Average milk yields per lactation (kg) for SX, SSX and FX
were 702.5, 739.0 and 825.5, respectively, and did not differ
significantly (P<0.05): neither were there significant
differences in duration of lactation between or within breeds fed
the different diets. Average dam liveweight at parturition and
at 7 and 10 months post-partum were 480, 470, 483 kg for SX; 483,
456 and 466 kg for SSX; and 465, 459 and 452 kg for FX
respectively. Differences were not significant (P<0.05).
Average birth weights and adjusted 7 and 10-month liveweights of
SX calves were 38 kg, 178 kg, 216 kg, of SSX calves 36, 154 and
200 kg and of FX calves 36, 148 and 206 kg. Diet supplementation
with sorghum bran did not result in differences in calf
liveweight gains within or between breeds.
During the lactation period 7 of the cows and 5 calves died.
40X of calves born suffered from Kerato conjuct i vi t is, but later
recovered after treatment.
436
INTRODUCTION
In order to reduce large quantities (75X) of fresh milk and milk
products imports the government of Botswana livestock research
policy continues to place emphasis on the need to increase fresh
milk production locally (National Development Plan VI 1985). The
variable rainfall pattern in Botswana leading to seasonal milk
production hampers commercial dairying. It has been suggested
that a dual purpose beef/milk breed of cattle is more appropriate
particularly to resource-poor small-scale farmers than
specialized milk breeds. Past research has shown that these
farmers can produce more milk by keeping Simmental crosses and
feeding them crop residues, Lablab (Lablab purpurues) hay and
sorghum bran (APRU 1986). The Tswana/Tuli breeds of cattle have
limited potential for milk production.
Farmers in Botswana produce reasonable amounts of crop
residues even during drought years (Appendix I). Most of this
crop residue is left in the field and used randomly or
indiscriminately by livestock with part of it being trampled by
the animals or ploughed under by some farmers resulting in
wastage of available feed resources. These residues can have an
important impact on animal production if they are conserved as
soon as the grain is harvested. At this stage the yield and
nutritive value is relatively high (Mosienyane, 1983). In
addition to crop residues there are large quantities of Agro-
industrial by-products available for livestock in Botswana
(Appendix II). Generally, crop residues are low in nutritional
value. Even the ruminant livestock are not able to extract
energy in sufficient amounts per day to grow or produce milk when
fed these plant materials (Anderson, 1978, Said, and Wanyoike,
1987, Dzowela, 1987). Thus there is need to supplement these
materials with feedstuffs of higher protein and energy content.
Natural range deteriorates in nutritive quality and quantity
during the dry season with protein being the most limiting factor
(APRU, 1972). In order to maintain productivity protein
supplements must be fed during dry seasons. The relatively more
available protein sources are lablab hay, legume crop residues
(cowpeas and groundnut) and sorghum bran from sorghum milling.
437
On-farm and on-station trials have demonstrated that, under
drought conditions (Appendix III) lablab can yield up to 3.0
tons/ha dry matter.
Supplements evaluated in these experiments were sorghum
bran, groundnut haulms, lablab hay and dairy concentrate. Dairy
concentrate consisted of 2 parts sorghum bran and one part
sunflower meal.
The objectives of the study were:
- to evaluate the productivity of half-bred Simmental (SX), three
quarter-bred Simmental (SSX) and half-bred Friesian (FX)
crosses as dual purpose animals under grazing conditions
simulating the situations that exist in small-scale communal
areas.
- to examine the effect of various protein supplements on
Simmental and Friesian crossbreds fed sorghum stover based
diets during the dry season.
METHODOLOGY
Sixty two cows consisting of half-bred Simmental (SX), three
quarter bred Simmental (SSX) and half-bred Friesian (FX) crosses
were used in the feeding experiment.
The base breed was Tswana/Tuli cows. Each breed was divided
into 2 groups and fed different supplements. Supplements used
were sorghum bran, groundnut haulms, lablab hay and dairy
concentrate. All cows were left to graze and fed sorghum stover
ad libitum. Animals had free access to a mineral mixture
consisting of either bone meal:salt (1:1 ratio) or dicaldium
phosphate: sal t (1:1 ratio).
Sorghum bran was fed at 1 kg/kg of milk produced while dairy
concentrate was fed at 0.5 kg/kg of milk produced. Groundnut
haulms and lablab hay were mechanically chopped to facilitate
ease of handling and reduce wastage. Both supplements were fed
to meet approximately the requirement of a 450 kg cow producing 5
438
kg of milk/day of 3.5X butterfat in terms of total digestible
energy and crude protein (NRC 1978). Cows fed groundnut haulms
received 5 kg/day and cows fed lablab hay received 3.5 kg/day.
Cows were milked by hand twice daily (06.00 and 15.30 hours)
with calves present to stimulate milk let-down through initial
suckling for approximately 1 minute. Calves were left to suckle
for 30 to 60 minute after milking.
Calves born to these cows were divided into 2 groups.
Calves in group 1 were each supplemented. All calves had access
to grazing in a separate calf paddock.
Milking stopped when a cow produced less than 3 kg milk per
week. Calves were weaned at the end of lactation.
Routine vaccinations against brucellosis, anthrax,
blackquarter, botulism and pasteurel la; deworming and spraying
against ticks were administered. All calves were vaccinated
against calf-paratyphoid within 7 days after birth.
The following were kept:
- dai ly mi lk yield
- calf birth weights, 7 months and 10 months liveweights
- cow weight at parturition, 7 months and 10 months postpartum
- breeding
Samples of individual dietary supplements and sorghum stover
were taken and analysed in duplicate for dry matter, organic
matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ash, according to methods
approved by AOAC (1985) and in vitro dry matter digestibility
(IVDMD) and organic matter digestibility (1VOMD) according to
procedures by Ti l ley and Terry (1963).
Statistical analysis using the t-test (Snedecor and Cochran,
1967) was conducted on the data obtained from lactating cows and
calves that completed the trial.
439
RESULTS
Chemical analysis results showed that crude protein percentages
were 9.3, 11.5, 19.9, 16.4 and 6.4 in groundnut haulms, sorghum
bran, dairy concentrate, lablab hay, and sorghum stover
respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Chemical composition of the feedstuff s used in the
experimental diets.
Composition of dry matter X J_n vitro
Item Organic Crude Crude Ash DMD OMD
matter protein fibre
Sorghum bran 97.3
Groundnut haulms 90.5
Sunflower meal 92.8
Lablab hay 90.8
Sorghum stover 9.16
Dairy Conc. 95.8
11.5 3.2 2.7 54.4 47.2
9.3 24.3 9.5 55.0 50.3
36.5 21.4 6.7 55.8 54.0
16.4 27.7 9.2 59.9 57.1
6.4 32.5 8.4 59.8 54.8
19.9 9.2 4.0 54.9 49.4
two parts of sorghum bran to one part of sunflower meal
Table 2 shows the mean milk yield and lactation length of
cows used in the study. Amongst different breeds supplemented
with sorghum bran the half-bred Friesian crosses (FX) had the
highest mean milk yield (827 kg), compared to half-bred
Simmentals (SX) (740 kg) and three-quarter bred Simmentals (SSX)
(762 kg). Mean lactation length for SX, SSX and FX supplemented
with sorghum bran were 36, 30 and 34 weeks respectively.
However, there was no significant difference (P<0.05) in milk
yield and mean lactation length between different breeds
supplemented with sorghum bran only. Half-bred Friesians
supplemented with groundnut haulms produced 824 kg over a 36 week
lactation period.
440
Overall average milk yields (kg) for SX, SSX and FX
(excluding milk left over for calf) were 702.5, 739.0 and 820.5
respectively, but did not differ significantly (P<0.05). There
were no significant differences in duration of lactation between
or within breeds fed the different diets.
Table 2. Mean milk yield and lactation length of half-bred
Simmental (SX), three-quarter Simmental (SSX) and half-
bred Friesian crosses (FX) fed sorghum bran (S), dairy
concentrate (D), lablab hay (L) and groundnut haulms (G)
as supplements.
Number Mean mi lk Lactation
Breed Supplement of cows yield
(Kg)
length
(weeks)
SX S 9 740+246 36+6
SSX s 8 762+132 30+6
FX S 6 827+257 34+5
SX L 10 665+240 30+8
SSX D 10 716+328 30+9
FX G 7 824+208 36+8
Average parturition weight was above 450 kg for all cows
used in this study (Table 3), and similar for all breeds. There
was also no significant difference (P<0.05) in 7 and 10 months
post-parturition weights for the three breeds supplemented with
sorghum bran although the SX cows tended to gain weight, while
the SSX lost weight at 7 months post-partum, but maintained
weight thereafter. The FX cows tended to gain weight at 7
months, but lost weight at 10 months post-partum. Amongst the SX
groups, those fed sorghum bran were significantly heavier
(P<0.05) than those fed lablab hay at 10 months post-partum.
441
Table 3. Mean dam parturition weight, 7 and 10 months post-partum
liveweights (Kg) of half-bred Simmental (SX), three-
quarter Simmental (SSX), and half-bred Friesian crosses
(FX) fed sorghum bran (S), dairy concentrate (D), Lablab
hay (L) and Groundnut haulms (G) as supplements.
Number of Parturition 7 month 10 Month
Breed Supplement cows weight (kg) weight weight
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
SX
SSX
FX
SX
SSX
FX
S 10 486+46 490+73 512+50
S 10 490+52 465+50 469+35
S 6 458+38 470+50 458+53
L 11 473+46 449+27 454+29
D 13 476+46 446+40 462+65
G 9 472+52 448+36 446+26
(P<0.05)
Overall the liveweights of the crossbreds fed the different
supplements tended to decrease during the lactation period.
Table 4 shows the mean calf liveweights at birth, 7 and 10
months according to calf diets and dam. Calf birth weights were
similar across breeds. There were no significant differences
(P<0.05) in liveweight gains between calves supplemented with
sorghum bran and those not supplemented. This may be due to
adequate suckling and a light stocking rate for all calves in the
calf paddock. Therefore supplementation did not result in
increased liveweight gains. Average calf liveweights at 7 and 10
months indicate that calf growth was satisfactory.
442
Table 4. Mean birth weights 7 and 10 months liveweights (Kg) of
calves according to dam breed and supplement.
Month Number of Calf birth 7 month 10 Month
Breed calves Supplement weight (kg) weight weight
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
SX 9 S 36+4 174+42 210+50
sx 10 nil 40+6 183+33 223+33
SSX 8 S 37+5 149+23 211+29
ssx 14 nil 35+8 160+33 190+26
FX 8 S 36+5 146+33 217+36
FX 5 nil 36+3 151+41 194+46
All 27 S 36+4 155+35 212+41
All 29 nil 37+7 167+30 204+34
There were several cases of kerato conjunctivitis, cancer
eye and sweating sickness. Kerato conjunctivitis and cancer eye
were more likely to occur in calves with unpigmented eye
surroundings. Provision of shade and reduction of dust reduced
the occurrence of eye diseases.
Seven cows died in the trial period. The causes of
mortality by breed and diet were:
Three SX cows supplemented with lablab; one due to abscess
in the jaws, and two due to undiagnosed diseases.
Three SSX fed dairy concentrate; one due to calving
difficulty, and two due to wire ingestion, resulting in
penetration to the heart via the rumen cud.
One SSX cow supplemented with sorghum bran was killed by
thieves.
Seven cases of stillbirths were recorded
Two from SX cows fed lablab
Two cases from SSX cows fed sorghum bran
Two cases from SSX fed dairy concentrate
443
Six of these stillbirths occurred between September 1987 and
November 1987. Although specimen samples were submitted,
veterinary diagnostic reports did not show any disease causing
sti l lbirths.
Five calves died.
Three from SX cows; one due to a broken leg, one due to
sweating sickness, and one due to diarrhoea.
SSX cows lost two calves; one killed by thieves and one due
to weakness which resulted from lack of colostrum milk and death
of the dam.
Kerato conjucti vi tis infected 40X of all calves born. The
disease occurred mostly between December 1987 and April 1988,
which coincided with the longest day length and relatively higher
seasonal rainfall.
DISCUSSION
The nutrient content of sorghum stover is low, hence this feed
fed alone is not sufficient to maintain an animal let alone
production of milk unless it is supplemented with feed sources of
higher nutrient quality and quantity.
Large quantities of sorghum bran and other agro- industrial
by-products are available in Botswana, and are less costly
compared to dairy concentrates imported from neighbouring
countries. More interest is developing in the agricultural
sector to try to use these by-products to supplement crop stover
or grass hay-based diets. Most of the agro- industries are
situated in and around urban areas, where most of the fresh milk
consumers are situated. This makes it convenient for some small-
scale dairy farmers around urban areas to buy and utilise these
by-products by feeding them to dairy animals.
444
The variation in milk yield within breeds and across breeds
could be due to the fact that the base breed, Tswana or Tuli, has
not historically been selected for milk production. There were
also not sufficient numbers of cows per treatment.
The mean milk yield for the Friesian crosses was higher than
that of other breeds, reflecting the high milk potential of the
pure Friesian cows if kept under good management conditions.
With daily milk production of about 3.0 kg/cow/day
(excluding milk taken by the calf), and at the current producer
price of P 0.70/kg (US $ 0.36), a farmer would make about P
2.10/cow/day (US $ 1.07) less costs. On-farm feeding trials
showed that the average daily milk production values obtained
from half-bred Simmental crosses fed lablab hay and sorghum bran
under similar management conditions were 3.1 kg and 3.4 kg
respectively (APRU 1987), while the Tswana cows on similar diets
produced 1.4 kg and 1.6 kg respectively. The average lactation
length for SX (285 days) was longer than that for Tswana cows
(202 days). On average SX cows produced 12.8 times more milk per
lactation than Tswana cows. Therefore the rationale for using
dual-purpose animals such as Simmental crossbreds in this type of
production system is justified.
The fact that, on average, cows fed the supplements
maintained weight during the lactation period is essential for
dual-purpose beef/dairy cows such as the crosses used in this
study. The crossbred steers could be sold to the already well
established Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) at premium prices.
This would compensate for the relatively low milk yield in
crossbreds compared to that of pure-bred cows. If locally
available protein and energy rich materials such as lablab hay
and sorghum bran could be incorporated in a dairy diet, milk
production could be increased. Lablab hay and crop residue could
be produced on-farm with low inputs; the major cost being the
cost of labour for harvesting and storage. Sorghum bran which is
also produced on-farm and from Commercial Sorghum Mills appears
to be an adequate alternative to imported expensive concentrates
in this production system (APRU 1986).
445
It was not easy to quantify the amount of milk suckled by
the calf during milk let-down and after milking. Non significant
differences (P>0.05) in calf weights of the non supplemented and
supplemented groups could be due to enough grazing in the calf
paddock, light stocking rate and reasonable amount of milk
consumed by the calf. Most of these calves were calved after the
drought. With green lush pastures and reasonable amount of milk
consumed by the calf one would expect the sorghum bran supplement
would have little effect in improving liveweight gains.
By using locally available materials as feedstuffs for their
livestock, farmers would not only be helping our developing
industries but they would be fulfilling the national objective of
self-sufficiency in food production. More farmers are expected
to engage in arable crop and dairy production knowing they have
industries and consumers where they can sell and have their
produce to be processed. This will not only reduce the enormous
importation but also reduce the unemployment problem.
Farmers are encouraged to form co-operative societies.
These help dairy farmers to work together as a group, have milk
collection points and thus reduce the cost of each individual
farmer transporting his milk daily to the milk packaging and
processing centres. Through Financial Assistance Policy (FAP)
and other government programmes both the individual and co
operative farmers can get financial help from the government to
improve their farming enterprises and thus their welfare.
Although research/extension linkages are not as strong as
they ought to be, linkages are established through meetings held
periodically. At these meetings extension staff brief
researchers on problems in the field and researchers brief
extension staff on what research programmes are currently
conducted on-station as well as on-farm.
Research results and recommendations are published and
distributed to extension staff and farmers through Agrifacts - a
paper printed by Agricultural Information, of the Ministry of
Agriculture.
446
Although the government tries to protect local farmers from
outside market influx by issuing import permits, this has not
been easy for the planners. One of the reasons is that farmers
do not inform the planners of the amount of milk produced on a
regular basis.
In addition to on-station research, a Small-Scale Dairy
Project was initiated in 1985/86 to encourage milk production in
peri -urban areas. At the moment the project is working with
about 46 dairy farmers around Gaborone (DPR, 1987). The project
has been collecting and interpreting data on the technical and
economic viability of introduced Simmental crossbreds fed crop
by-products based diet and supplemented with legumes fodders
(Lablab hay) and/or sorghum bran. The milk yield data obtained
from on-farm trials with 40 dairy participating farmers (1986/87)
have been similar to those obtained from on-station trials. The
on-station trails reported in this paper will therefore
complement trials currently conducted in on-farm situations. The
success of on-station trials will depend on the adoption of the
technologies by farmers. The pilot dairy project will be the
basis for establishing dairy herds throughout Botswana.
CONCLUSIONS
Dry season feeding based on available farm crop stovers,
supplemented with high crude protein lablab hay, groundnut haulms
and milling by-products such as sorghum bran, is a practical
approach for feeding lactating and in-calf cows in small-scale
farm situations. These by-products are widely available on
small-scale farms in Botswana.
Dual purpose Simmental x Tswana crossbreds require less
management, health care and feed than pure bred dairy animals.
In addition to increased milk yield, these animals can be sold at
premium prices for beef as well as for use as draught animals.
There were no differences (P<0.05) in milk yield per
lactation between half-bred Simmental (702.5 kg), three quarter
Simmental (739.0 kg), and half-bred Friesian (825.5 kg), fed
447
stover-based diets supplemented with either sorghum bran or
lablab hay, groundnut haulms or dairy concentrate (sorghum
bran:sunf lower meal, 2:1 ratio). There were, however, variations
within SX and SSX breeds supplemented with different diets.
Management of lactating cows, in-calf cows and calves,
milking, animal health and record keeping procedures were
appropriate to small-scale dairy farm conditions. The management
system was adopted by participating dairy farmers.
Forty percent of all Simmental calves born were infected
with Kerato conjuctivi t is but later recovered after treatment
with Terramycin.
Calf growth in half-bred Simmental, three quarter Simmental,
half-bred Friesian were similar. During the trial, calves did
not respond to sorghum bran supplementation, indicating that the
quantity of milk suckled, and grazing conditions were adequate.
REFERENCES
Agricultural Statistics Unit, 1986. Botswana Agricultural
Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture Gaborone, Botswana.
Anderson, D.C., 1978. Use of Cereal Residues in beef cattle
production systems J. Animal Science 46:849.
APRU (Animal Production Research Unit) 1086. Livestock and Range
Research in Botswana, Ministry of Agriculture, Gaborone,
Botswana.
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1980. Official
Methods of Analysis. Thirteenth Edition, AOAC, Washington,
D.C.
DPR, (Dairy Project Report) 1987. Animal Production Research
Unit, Ministry of Agriculture Gaborone, Botswana.
Dzowela, B.H. 1987. Efforts to enhance maize stover utilisation
for smallholder livestock producers in Malawi. In: D.A.
Little and A.N. Said (eds). Proceedings of a workshop on
Utilisation of Agricultural By-Products on Livestock Feed
in Africa held at Ryalls Hotel, Blantyre, Malawi, September
1986, ILCA, Addis Ababa, pp. 27-36.
448
Mosienyane, B.P. 1983. Crop residues for Animal feeding.
Bulletin of Agricultural Research in Botswana, Ministry of
Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana.
Ministry of Finance and Development Planning. 1987. National
Development Plan VI. Gaborone, Botswana.
National Research Council (NRC), 1978. Nutrient Requirements of
Domestic Animals No. 5. Nutrients Requirements of Dairy
Cattle, fifth edition. National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
Said, A.N. and Wanyoike, M.M. 1987. The prospect of utilising
urea-treated maize stover by smallholders in Kenya. In:
D.A. Little and A.N. Said (eds). Proceedings of a workshop
on "Utilisation of agricultural by-products as livestock
feeds in Africa", held at Ryalls Hotel, Blantyre, Malawi,
September 1986. RCA, Addis Ababa, pp. 15-26.
Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. 1967. Statistical Methods,
Sixth Edition, Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Tilley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two-stage technique for
their in-vitro digestion of forage crops. Journal of the
British Grassland Society 18:104.
449
Appendix I. Average production of different crop residues
obtained during favourable rainfall and drought years
in Botswana.
Favourable rainfall
(1980-1981)
Drought years
(1982-1986)
Area Prodn Area Prodn
Crop residues harvested (MT) harvested (MT)
(MT) (Ha) (Ha)
Sorghum stover 127.0 57.0 60.0 18.4
Maize stover 53.0 34.0 13.0 11.0
Millet stover K.O 5.0 8.0 1.9
Pulses (beans) 14.0 5.0 4.0 0.9
Groundnuts 4.0 3.4 1.0 1.1
Source; Agricultural Statistics Unit (1986).
Appendix II. Total production per year of different agro-
industrial by-products in Botswana.
By-products Production (MT.DM)
Sorghum bran
Brewers' grain
Brewers' grain
Wheat bran
Hominy chop
Meat meal
Blood meal
Bone meal
(Barley-spent grain)
(Sorghum/maize- spent grain)
14,800
780
2,128
5,544
10,000
2,949
318
1,031
1 spent grain from beer malt brewing
spent grain from "chibuku" malt brewing
Sources: Sorghum Mi l ling Co. Kgalahari Breweries, Botswana
Breweries, Bolux Milling Co., Botswana Meat Commission, Personal
communication.
450
Appendix III. Average rainfall in Botswana during normal and
drought years.
Year Average rainfall (mm)
1979 399
1980 412
1981 555
1982 373
1983 332
1984 302
1985 321
1986 442
1987 389
Source: Rainfall Unit, Department of Meteorological
Services, Ministry of Works, Transport and
Communications, personal communication.
451
PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF MAIZE WITH GRADED LEVELS OF CORN
COBS IN PIG WEANER/GROWER DIETS
R.B. Fombad and F. Maffeja
Institute of Animal Research, Mankon Station
Bamenda, Cameroon
ABSTRACT
A study was carried out to investigate the effect of graded
levels of corncobs as partial replacement of maize on the
performance and carcass quality of weaner-grower Landrace pigs.
Thirty two Landrace weaner pigs averaging 16.02 kg, initial
liveweight were randomly assigned to four treatments with two
replicates (2 females and 2 castrates/replicate) In a completely
randomized design. Corn cobs were included at the levels of OX,
10X, 20 and 30X in isoproteinous diets. The pigs were given feed
on concrete floored pens and watered ad l ibi tum through automatic
nipple drinkers during a 12-week experimental period. Two pigs
from each treatment (1 female and 1 castrate) were slaughtered
for grading at the end of the experiment. Results showed
significant differences (P<0.05) between treatments in average
daily feed intake, daily weight gains and feed/gain ratios. When
used up to 20X, corncobs offer the most efficient and cost-
effective diet for pigs. When properly publicized, this ration
can cut down feed cost to farmers.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing feed costs due to competition between man and animals
for cereal grains has stimulated interest in ways of making use
of agricultural by-products in the diets of monogastrics and
ruminants. The North West and Western Provinces of Cameroon
produce 3,080 metric tons of farm residues (corn stover,
corncobs, rice straw, rice bran etc) annually (Fomunyan, 1984).
452
Corncobs a widely available crop residue that when treated and
used in pig feeding, it could reduce the cost of production and
improve the quality of their carcasses.
Studies on ways of improving the digestibility of the high
fibre content in corncobs abound in the literature. Beckman
(1921) and Burrow (1980) (cited by Sundstol, 1981) have used
several treatment methods (physical, alkali and microbiological
to improve the digestibility of corncobs. These three main
bonding methods are aimed to break the ligno - cellulose bonding
thus increasing the digestibility of the roughage. Babatunde et
al (1975) has recommended a level of up to 15X of corncobs in pig
grower finisher diets. It was the aim of this study to see to
what extent corncobs can efficiently replace corn in pig
weaner/grower diets.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Dried corncobs used in this study were collected from the
Institute of Agronomic Research (IRA), at Bambui Station. The
corncobs were ground into a meal and included at the levels of OX
(control group), 10X, 20X and 30X in isoproteinous diets (Table
1).
Thirty-two weaner landrace pigs averaging 16.02 kg
liveweight were randomly assigned to 4 treatments with 2
replicates (2 females and 2 castrates/replicate). The pigs were
treated for endoparasites, using "Exhelm" and for ectoparasites
with "Tigal" and allowed one week adaptation period. They were
group- fed ad libitum in concrete floored pens and water was given
through automatic nipple drinkers during the 12-week experimental
period.
453
Table 1. Composition of the experimental diets fed to
weaner/grower pigs.
Levels of comc obs
Ingredients OX 10X 20X 30X
Corn 60 50 40 30
Corncobs 0 10 20 30
Fish meal 4 4 4 4
Cottonseed cake 14 16 16 16
Groundnut cake 12.5 12.5 14.5 16.5
Rice bran 7 5 3 1
Bone meal 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Vitamin premix* 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Calculated analysis
100 100 100 100
Digestible energy
(Kcal/kg) 3308.62 3209.48 2989.44 2834.52
Crude protein(X) 20.08 20.06 20.91 20.21
Crude fibre (X) 2.91 6.28 9.40 13.19
Calcium (X) 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66
Phosphorus (X) 0.77 0.77 0.75 0.69
Lysine (X) 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.76
Methionine (X) 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.35
A vitamin/mineral premix manufactured by BEAUTS Co. Inc. Man,
U.S.A., to contain; Calcium 27X, Phosphorus 10X, Iron 0.6X,
Zinc 0.35X, manganese 0.25X, Copper 0.06%; Iodine 0.002X,
Cobalt 26 ppm. Selenium 4pp and per kg; Vitamin A 220,000,
Vitamin D 66,000, Vitamin E 44,014; Vitamin K 88 mg; Vitamin B
12; 0.76 mg; Niacin 1122 mg.
454
Pigs were weighed weekly and data on feed intake recorded.
For carcass appraisal, two pigs (one female and one castrate)
from each treatment were fasted for 18 hours during which they
were given only water and were slaughtered the following morning.
After chilling, the following carcass measurements were taken on
the right side: length from the anterior edge of the first rib to
the anterior edge of the aitch bone of the pelvis; back fat
thickness opposite the first and last rib and last lumber
vertebra; loin eye area, calculated from the tracing of the
longissimus dorsi muscle sectioned at the tenth rib.
The percent lean cuts taken on the left side included
percent ham, percent picnic shoulder, percent loin and percent
Boston butt.
The economic approach of this study was assessed assuming
all other cost rather than making feed constant throughout the
experimental period of all treatments. Cost analysis of the feed
used was carried out using current market prices of different
ingredients. Statistical analyses were done according to methods
of Steel and Torrie (1960).
RESULTS
Data on growth performance of pigs is summarized in Table 2.
Average daily feed intake decreased with an increase in the level
of corncobs in diets although average daily gains declined with
additional levels of corncobs. Pigs fed OX and 10X levels of
corncobs consumed significantly (P<0.05) more feed (1605 g and
1545 g) compared to intake (1354 g and 1343.5 g) of pigs with 20X
and 30X levels of corncobs respectively. Weight gains for pigs
with OX and 10X levels were significantly higher (473 g/day and
451 g/day) than for pigs with 20X and 30X (340 g/day and 331
g/day) respectively. In terms of feed conversion, pigs fed OX
and 10X levels of corncobs were better converters compared to
pigs fed 20X and 30X levels.
455
Table 2. Mean value of performance of pigs fed graded levels of
corncobs.
Levels of corncobs
Parameters S.E.M.
OX 10X 20X 30X
Number of animals 8 8 8 8
Initial weight (kg) 16.06 16.06 16.06 15.96 1.85
Final weight (kg) 59.18* 56. 93a 47.06b 47.81b 7.63
Daily feed intake (g) 1605a 1545ab 1355bc 1344c 116.0
Daily weight gains (g) 473a 451a 339. 5b 330. 8b 36.40
Feed/gain ratios 3.39a 3.53ab 3.99b 4.04b 0.22
Mortalities (number
of pigs) - - 2
a, b, c = Means within each row not having common superscript are
significantly different at (<0.05).
456
Table 3. Some carcass measurement of pigs fed diets containing
graded levels of corncobs.
Parameters (X)
Levels of corncobs
S.E.M
Carcass
OX 10X 20X 30X
yield*(X) 67.9 69.3 67.8 65.2 1.84
Length (cm) 71.7 68.2 68.5 66.5 2.34
Back fat
thickness(cm) 2.0a 2.0a 1.8a 1.2a 1.04
Loin eye area(cm) 16.9 18.3 16.4 16.0 2.03
Ham** (X) 30.5 28.2 29.6 30.4 1.84
Loin**(X) 33.4 31.0 31.4 30.8 1.84
Boston butt.**(X) 14.9 15.2 16.3 15.1 3.24
Picnic shoulder**
(X) 17.9 16.0 18.9 16.6 0.32
Lean meat**(X) 58.6 58.6 60.2 61.9 0.81
Bones**(X) 14.7 14.7 14.8 14.2 0.81
Fats**(X) 20. 1a 19. 9a 14.3b 13.1b 1.40
* = expressed as percentage of liveweight
** = expressed as percentage of carcass weight
a,b,c = means within row not having common superscript are
significantly different at (P<0.05).
457
1.605 1.545 1.354 1.343
3.39 3.43 3.98 4.07
113 107 102 97
382 367 407 391
3.38 3.51 3.99 4.03
Table 4. Cost and returns in feeding graded levels of corncobs to
weaner/grower pigs
Parameter OX 10X 20X 30X
Mean daily weight gain (kg) 0.473 0.451 0.340 0.330
Mean daily feed
consumption (kg)
Feed converstion ratio
Feed cost (FCFA/kg)
Income (kg live weight FCFA)
Revenue/cost ratio
Net income over feed cost
(FCFA/kg) 269 260 305 294
1 U.S. dollar » 295 FCFA.
Data on the effect of graded levels of corncobs on carcass
yield are shown in Table 3. Pigs fed graded levels of corncobs
had leaner carcasses than the pigs fed the control diet. The
percentages of lean meat increased with the increase of the level
of corncobs in the diets while the percentage of fat decreased.
On the whole no significant differences were observed in the
carcass yield obtained from each diet except for backfat
thickness and percentage fat.
The estimated price of corncobs was 25 FCFA/kg and was based
on transportation and processing costs. The cost of production
of 1 kg of feed decreased as the level of corncobs in the diets
increased. Economic data on feeding graded levels of corncobs to
pigs is summarized in Table 4. Total feed cost (corncobs)
including other ingredients was lowest (97 FCFA) for the diet
with 30X corncobs but highest (113 FCFA) for the diet with no
corncobs. Income was lowest 376 (FCFA/kg) liveweight in the diet
with 10X and highest 407 (FCFA/kg) liveweight in the diet with
20X levels of corncobs.
458
DISCUSSION
Data on the growth performance of pigs reveal that average daily
feed intake decreased with increase in levels of corncobs in the
diets compared to the control group. This decrease in feed
intake is probably due to high levels of fibre content in the
diets which made it unpalatable when compared to the control
diet. These results agree with the findings of Kornegay (1978),
and Cole et al (1967) which show that the pig can tolerate a wide
range of crude fibre in the diet provided energy density is
adequate. This shows that unless prevented by bulk or perhpas
palatability the pig tends to eat until its energy requirement is
fulfilled (Kornegay, 1978).
Average daily gains declined with additions of levels of
corncobs. This declined in growth rate agrees with previous
reports by Axelsson and Erickson (1953) when low nutritive value
feed is fed to pigs.
Pigs fed OX and 10X corncobs had feed intake, weight gains
and efficiency of feed conversion significantly (<0.05) higher
than pigs fed 20X and 30X levels of corncobs. Two mortalities
were recorded in the group with 30X corncobs in their diet due to
pronounced effect of vaginal prolapse. Female pigs fed tested
diets showed vaginal prolapse. Picard, (Personal communication)
attributed this effect to the level of fibre in the diet. This
were probably so because the corn from which the corncobs were
obtained was not treated with any chemical as the control group
did not show the same sign.
Pigs fed graded levels of corncobs had leaner carcasses than
the pigs fed the control diet. The percentage lean meat
increased with an increase in the level of corncobs in the diets
while the percentage of fats decreased. These findings are in
agreement with the works of Hoefer et. a_l. (1963); Merkel ej. al.
(1958) and Salmela et al. (1960) who reported that the production
of lean pork carcasses can be achieved by replacing high energy
feeds with bulky low energy feeds that are high in crude fibre or
by the addition of inert materials such as corncob cellulose,
sand and polyethylene in pig diets. Contrary to these studies
459
are the works of Babatunde et al (1975) who reported marginal
effects on carcass quality due to the fact that pigs had not
sufficiently eaten high levels of fibre.
In terms of gains from production, the diet with 20X
corncobs was the most profitable with a net income of 305 FCFA/kg
liveweight while the diet with 10X corncobs was the least
profitable test diet with a net income over feed cost of 266
FCFA. Although mean daily weight gain, feed consumption and feed
cost decreased successively with increased levels of corncobs,
diets with higher levels of corncobs did not necessarily yield a
high income per kilogram liveweight. This was probably due to
the similarity in the carcass that increased levels of corncobs
significantly increased the percentage of lean meat which has a
higher cash value.
The findings of this study indicate that corncobs can be
fed to pigs at the level of 20X to get leaner carcasses.
Corncobs are easily available in villages and can be ground in
corn mills for incorporation in pig diets. Increased use of
corncobs by peasant farmers could be enhanced by widespread
dissemination of this technology by extension workers.
Although the extension service in Cameroon is not well-
developed, formal and informal linkages can be made between
large-scale corn producers and pig farmers to increase the supply
of corncobs. Rural development organisations such as MIDENO
(North West Development Authority), WADA (Wum Area Development
Authority), PAFSAT (Promotion of Adaptive Farming Systems with
use of Animal Traction) and UNVDA (Upper Nun Valley Development
Authority) can incorporate these results into farm packages for
distribution to farmers. The economic benefits of these results
to farmers are substantial in terms of price and quality of meat
produced. Whereas the price of corn fluctuates between 50 and 85
FCFA/kg as a result of supply and demand, the price of corncobs
will almost invariably remain constant at 25 FCFA/kg under the
same conditions. Apart from the price incentive for users of
corncobs, maize producers will find a market for corncobs which
would otherwise be wasted.
460
The other technologies used in this study which constitute
concrete floors for pens, stone walls, automatic nipple drinkers
are appropriate for a research station but this could easily be
adapted to farmers' needs. They could have concrete floors
containing drinking and feeding troughs and hard wood walls.
Used motor vehicle tyres could be buried in pig fences as
drinking troughs. This would be inexpensive to farmers.
Farmers in Cameroon generally own the land they cultivate.
Since the construction of pens and the necessary infrastructure
constitute long term investiment on the part of the farmers, land
does not constitute a problem. In addition due to the fact that
all the required inputs increase the chances of the adoption of
the technology under discussion (i.e. improved feed for pigs),
they will be able to gain more.
The efficient utilisation of the results of this study
depends to a great extent on the education of the farmers. And
since farmers will generally be willing to accept new
technologies which they are convinced would serve their best
interests, the impact of improved feed for pigs would greatly
improve their production.
CONCLUSION
From the results obtained in this study corncobs can be used in
weaner/grower pig diets to obtain more lean meat. When treated
and fed, corncobs can enhance the growth performance of
weaner/grower pigs. The diet is relatively easy to prepare and
when used up to 20%, it offers the most efficient and cost
effective diet for pigs. When properly disseminated, this ration
can cut down on feed cost to farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help rendered by Messrs.
Joseph Nyume and Joseph Awemo in the management of the
experimental animals and collection of data. Gratitude is also
expressed to Drs. R.T. Fomunyan and E. Tambi for their
contributions and to MESIRES for providing funds for the study.
461
REFERENCES
Axelsson, J. and Erickson, S. 1953. The optimum crude fibre
level in rations of growing pigs. jK. Anim. Sci . 7:274-283.
Babatunde, CM., Fetuga, B.L. and Oyennga, V.A. 1975. Unique
problems in formulating swine diets in the hot Humid
Tropical environment. Proceedingsr of the first
International svmpos i urn feed composition. Animal Nutrient
requirements and computerization of diets. held in UTAH
State University, Logan, UTAH, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah, U.S.A. July 11-16, 1976, UTAH State
University Logan UTAH U.S.A.
Cole, D.J. A., Duckworth, J.E. and Holmes, W. 1967. Factors
affecting voluntary feed intake in pigs. II. The effect of
two levels of crude fibre in the diet on the intake and
performance of fattening pigs. Anim. Prod. 9:149-157.
Fomunyan, R.T. 1980. Report on the expert consultation
guidelines for research on the better utilisation of crop
residues and agroindustrial by-product in animal feeding in
developing countries, ILCA headquarters, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 5-9, March, 1984.
Hoefer, J. A., Pearson, A.M., Stevenson, J.w. and Linecke, R.W.
1963. Effect of fibrous feedstuffs fed during the
finishing period on gain, feed efficiency and carcass
characteristics of Swine. Quarterly Bulletin 45(3):480.
Kornegay, J. A. 1978. Feeding value and digestibility of Soya
bean hulls for Swine. J^ Anim. Sci. 3 ( 1 ) : 220-226.
Merkel, R.A., Bray, R.W., Grummer, R.H., Phillips, P.H. and
Bohstrat, G. 1958. The influence of limited feeding, using
high fibre rations, upon growth and carcass characteristics
of swine. I. Effects upon feed- lot performance. J. Anim.
Sci. 17:3-12.
Salmela, A.B., Rempel, W.E. and Gates, C.E. 1963. Reaction of 3
kinds of single cross pigs to levels of feed intake,
carcass characteristics. J. Anim. Sci . 22:886-896.
462
Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. 1960. Principles and procedure of
statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, U.S.A.
Sundstol, F. 1981. Methods of treatment of low quality
roughages. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said and F. Sundstol
(eds). Utilisation of low quality roughages in Africa.
Agricultural Development Report No. 1; Norway; AAS.
463
ON-SITE RESEARCH FOR THE ESTIMATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL STATUS
OF SHEEP AND GOATS GRAZING AT EL-OMAYED PASTURE AREA
N.A. Naga and H. Abd El-Salam
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Alexandria
Alexandria, Egypt
Summary
A governmental resolution which allowed the Bedouins of the
Matrouh Governorate to export sheep and goats resulted in
significant movement of flocks from the Nile delta to the Marsa
Matrouh area. The number of heads of small ruminants moving to
the new area was almost double that of the normal and led to
overgrazing and a deterioration of many parts of pasture land.
Research was initiated to determine the present nutritional
status of sheep and goats at El-Omayed, 90 km west of Alexandria.
Two university of Alexandria employees introduced the research
team to Bedouins at the site. Experiments to determine forage
preference, feed intake, grazing periods, the nutritive value of
consumed material the present and the proper carrying capacity
were all conducted using flocks of one influential Bedouin. His
flocks were managed by his five sons.
The grazing period and DM intake of goats in summer were
between 1/3 to 1/2 their corresponding values in winter. Sheep
did not show such degree of difference between summer and winter.
The studied pasture area was capable of supplying the existing
sheep with 77 and 85X of their TDN requirements in summer and
winter. The corresponding values for goats were 37 and 100X,
respectively. The proper carrying capacity of the studied area
was about 5 feddan/head in summer and 2.5 feddan/head in winter.
Treatments for improving the nutritional status of animals
were suggested. A mineral mixture was formulated to compensate
One feddan = 0.42 ha
464
for the recognised local mineral deficiencies. It was
manufactured in the form of licking blocks. This supplement
improved the performance of animals during summer by 22X. The
first co-operating Bedouin helped in extending the distribution
of these blocks to neighbours. Two years later, the number of
clients using the blocks reached 14.
INTRODUCTION
The pasture area at the northern coastal zone of the western
desert of Egypt (administratively known as Governorate of
Matrouh) was lately overgrazed due to the doubling of sheep and
goats there, during the last 10-12 years. This was a result of
the Government's action allowing the Governorate of Matrouh to
export sheep and goats. Export price was higher than the local
market price. However, during this period, feeds became scarce
and the Bedouins of Matrouh had to import feeds from the Nile
delta where feeds were also in short supply.
The present study aimed at studying the nutritional status
of the animals in El-Omayed (90 km west Alexandria) as a sample
area of the Matrouh Governorate. Means of improving the present
situation were also investigated. The implications of such a
study in a desert environment are described with emphasis on the
social and economical value of the results.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
El-Omayed has a temperature range of between 10 - 20 C
during the winter and 30 - 40 C in summer. Rainfall averages 150
mm annually, two thirds of which falls between November and
February. Rainfall is more intensive along the coastal region,
diminishing rapidly inland. Sandstorms occur during the spring,
frequently lasting three days over a 50-day period, called El-
Khamasin. Relative humidity during the summer may reach 72X
decreasing to 16X in the winter.
The soil at the experimental site is calcareous alluvium
with a high content of limestone (30-35X CaCo,). The soil
465
texture is fine and it is moderately affected by salts. However,
it is very poor in contents of organic matter, phosphorus,
nitrogen and most microelements.
The animals at the experimental site were mainly sheep and
goats (dark coloured) with very few donkeys. Animals under the
site conditions have one breeding season per year. Sheep at the
site were of the Barki breed. They were white coloured with
black head. Flock size ranged between 40 and 200 heads per
person. In 1965 sheep exceeded goats by 2.7:1. This number now
is moving towards a lower sheep/goat ratio. Veterinary service
was almost negligible in the area. Mortality rate, especially
around the age of weaning, was quite high (25-50X) with a peak in
summer.
The recognised (prevailing) plants on site were Cut and i a
dichotoma. Asphodelus microcarpus. Thymelaea hirsute. Plantago
albicans. Helianthemum lippi i . Canducellus spp, Convolvulus
lanatus and Rumex spp.
Identification of co-operating Bedouins
The research group was introduced to the inhabitants of the
experimental area through two University workers who are from
this area and are well-known by the Bedouins there. Both
individuals had maintained close contact over the years with
their friends and relatives at the research site. They also
observed the social traditions of the district and were therefore
viewed as solid personalities. They did not exhibit the
paternalistic behaviour characteristic of many non-Bedouins.
These University employees also knew and understood the research
staff and the purposes of research in question. They were
pleased to demonstrate to their employers their influence in the
district. Through them, the Sheikh, his five sons and
thereafter, 12 other Bedouins at the site were convinced to co
operate with the research team. This approach was required since
it is obligatory in Bedouin society to move under the umbrella of
the most influential person on site.
466
The Bedouin participation consisted of providing the animals
for the research team to carry out its observations and tests.
Their involvement was obtained under the following conditions:
a) A basal payment of 100 EGPVmonth to the head of the family.
In addition, frequent gifts (mainly of sugar, tea, flour and
clothes) were made, depending on the occasion.
b) A rental fee of one EGP/head/month for each animal studied.
c) A salary (30 EGP/month) for the person (one of the Sheikh's
sons) who shepherded the experimental flock.
d) At the beginning of each experiment, the head of the family
received between 15 and 30 EGP depending on the type of
experiment.
e) Salaries were provided for assistants as needed. These
assistants were always women or girls since the boys did not
agree to work. Each young girl employed for collecting range
plants was paid 0.35 EGP per 25 kg bag filled with a certain
plant species. The 12 to 16-year-old girls who assisted in
the experiments such as digestibility trials received 20
EGP/week.
f) Any veterinary care was preceeded by some payment to the head
of the family in addition to those who actually assist in
adminishing the treatments.
Experimental design; The oesophagal ly-f istulated sheep and goats
(as described by Schutte et al. 1971) were hired from the Sheikh.
Three sheep and two goats were selected. Surgery was made at the
experimental station of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Alexandria. After recovery, the animals were returned to the
site to be used in determining grazing preference and feed
intake.
The actual grazing period was determined by observation
using four research assistants who followed grazing animals (one
observer per animal) measuring the grazing time with a stop
watch. Sixteen sheep and sixteen goats were observed on four
consecutive days each month over the whole year.
* EGP = 1 Egyptian pound = 0.45 US$
467
Digestibility and mineral balance trials were conducted on
three sheep and three goats during both the winter and summer
seasons. These experiments were conducted according to
conventional methodologies.
The forage production of each feddan of rangeland was
estimated by using randomly - selected quadrat measurements from
10 locations per feddan. For each quadrat, the consumable plant
parts were collected manually, weighed, and the dry matter
content was estimated. These measurements were made monthly over
a complete year.
The number of feddans required to feed an animal was then
calculated by using standard feed requirement data and measuring
feed availability at the experimental site.
Studies on the effect of feed supplements were conducted on
two separate flocks of the Sheikh, each of 48 heads of sheep and
goats. The supplements were combined in a block manufactured at
the University laboratory. The carrier material was ground maize
stalks bound by molasses. The additives (minerals and vitamin A)
were dissolved in the molasses. Performance of the treatment was
measured indirectly by the willingness of the Bedouin to continue
using the blocks in subsequent years.
Logistics of field research: The experimental programme in El-
Omayed lasted for two consecutive years (two winter and two
summer seasons). A research assistant (Ph.D. student) with four
technicians visited the site twice weekly. They used a Jeep for
transport from the faculty location to the experimental site, a
distance of about 180 km round-trip. Transport costs were about
0.10 EGP per km. Two weighing balances were left on site, one
for the animals and the other for preparation of rations for the
digestibility trials. Bags, rubber funnels and tubing with
harnesses were required for the digestibility and balance trials
to collect the faeces and urine. A specific building for housing
the fistulated and experimental animals was constructed on-site.
468
The costs of such facilities were as follows:
USD
1. Vehicle 9,000
2. Bags, funnels and harnesses 800
3. Oesophagal fistula (3 pieces) 300
4. On-site building 200
5. Chemicals and glassware 1,000
6. Weighing balances 700
RESULTS
Consumed feed by eosophagal ly-f istulated animals would either
drop through the fistula into the fitted bag, or it passed
directly to the rumen. The amount of consumed dry matter (DM)
which dropped into the fistula was found to be higher in goats
than sheep as indicated in Table 1. The actual DM consumption of
feed during a 30-minute period can then calculated as follows:
DM collected in the fistula during 30 min. X 100
X of consumed feed dropped in the fistula
Botanical analysis of the material collected from the
fistula (Table 2) indicated that species preference was similar
for sheep and goats in summer. During the winter, sheep grazed
more Asphodelus microcarpus and less Thymelaea hirsuta. than
goats .
469
Table 1. Distribution of consumed DM (g/33 min.) between the
fistula and the rumen.
Type of Season Consumed Dropped in Passed to the
animal the fistula rumen
9 X 9 X 9 X
Sheep Summer 160 100 60 38 100 62
Winter 66 100 16 24 50 76
Goats Summer 55 100 26 48 29 52
Winter 56 100 21 37 35 63
Table 2. The percentage distribution of consumed pasture plants
by sheep and goats during the summer and winter seasons.
Plant species
Sheep
Summer Winter
Goats
Summer Winter
Asphodelus microcarpus
Thymelaea hi rsuta
Rumex spp.
Canducel lus spp
Hel ianthemum l ippi i
Plantago albicans
Cutandia dichotoma
Convolvulus lanatus
85 85 85 70
6 10 6 25
■ 1 -
- 1 -
4 1 4
4 1 4
- 1 -
Table 3 indicates that the daily DM consumption by sheep and
goats was almost similar in the winter while during the summer,
goats had a much smaller intake of DM. On an energy intake basis
470
(Table 4) goats suffered more than sheep in the summer season,
obtaining only 36. 7% of their required total digestible nutrient
(TDN). This suggests the importance of giving goats priority in
the use of government-distributed concentrates. In addition,
providing goats with some overhead shelter during the summer
season would be desirable.
The results in Table 4 indicated that the pasture conditions
in winter would enable a carrying capacity of one small ruminant
per 2.5 feddans (Table S). It may be assumed that the yield of
feed per feddan during the summer was actually the residual of
the pasture, that was not consumed during the winter season. In
summer season the carrying capacity must be at least 5 feddans
per animal if they were to obtain all their requirements from the
pasture alone.
Table 3. OM consumption, digestible protein and TDN content of
summer and winter pasture diets grazed by sheep and
goats.
Sheep Goats
Season Grazing
period
Consumed DM
period
Grazing Consumed
(h/day) (g/hd/day) (h/day) (g/hd/day)
XX XX
DM DP TDN DM DP TDN
Summer 3.25 1264 4.6 59 2.5
Winter 4.25 1338 2.3 73 5.0
550 4.5 63
1529 2.1 66
471
Table 4. Ability of local pastures to meet TDN requirements of
grazing sheep and goats at the El-Omayed site during the
summer and winter seasons.
Season TDN X in Consumed TDN Required TDN TDN intake
consumed DM (kg/head/day) (kg/head/day) as percentage of
requi rements
Sheep Goats Sheet Goats Sheep Goats Sheep Goats
Winter 70 68 0.936 1.040 1.1 1.0
Summer 61 60 0.771 0.330 1.0 0.9
85.1
77.1
100
36.7
* sheep body weight of 45 kg and goats of 40 kg.
Table 5. The carrying capacity (fed/animal) of grazing land at
the El-Omayed site for sheep and goats.
Available feed TDN Carrying
requirement capacity
Season kg DM/feddan kg TDN/feddan Sheep Goats Sheep Goats
Summer 70
(6 months)
Winter
(6 months) 118
42
82
201
201
191 4.8
191 2.5
4.7
2.4
The patterns of mineral balances indicated (Table 6)
positive balances in sheep and goats during the winter season.
Some problems (specially in sheep) of mineral deficiencies were
identified in the summer season (if the animals were not
supplemented with concentrates). Calcium balance was unusually
472
high especially with sheep. When a mineral mixture was composed
(Table 7) and given to the animals to compensate for the level of
deficiency, the TON content of the same amount of consumed DM was
increased by 22X (Table 8). Feed intake increased by an average
of 18X. These results indicated that providing grazing animals
during the summer season with some licking blocks containing the
deficient minerals could raise the adequacy of their TDN intake
(given the present levels of DM intake) to 98 and 50X instead of
77X and 37X of their requirement (see Table 4) for sheep and
goats, respectively.
Table 6. Mineral balance patterns (g/head/day) of sheep and goats
grazing the El-Omayed site in the summer and winter
seasons.
Sheep Goats
Mineral Summer Winter Summer Winter
N
Cu
Fe
Zn
Mn
Ca
«g
S
P
Na
K
1.55 4.60 1.05 0.70
0.01 0.03 -0.05 0.00
-0.08 0.44 0.47 0.65
0.08 0.03 0.08 0.03
-0.01 0.04 0.03 0.01
7.01 28.56 6.18 0.74
1.52 0.40 1.73 0.08
-2.91 0.20 1.42 1.90
-0.02 0.80 -0.48 0.13
10.76 1.07 13.19 1.73
0.69 1.15 12.07 1.91
473
Table 7. Composition of the supplemental mineral mixture for
grazing sheep and goats in the summer season.
Mineral salt G/Head/day
Sulfur 3.368
Ammonium phosphate 1.104
Zinc sulphate 0.092
Ferric sulphate 0.340
Manganese oxide 0.032
Total 4.936
Table 8. Effect of the mineral supplement on the digestibility of
nutrients for sheep fed summer pasture plants
Coefficient of digestibility (X)
Item Without supplement With supplement
DM 66 80
CP 44 52
EE 65 73
CF 85 89
N-Fext 70 86
TDN 62 73
DP 2.86 2.63
DISCUSSION
The preference of Asphodel us microcarpus and Thvmelaea hirsuter
although both contain colchicine and caumarine (Tockholm et. el .
1956), is not explainable within the limits of the present work.
However, it may be speculated from the chemical composition of
the individual plant species that these two selected plants had
474
less content and relatively more balanced calcium/phosphorus
ratios. The ash content of these two plants averaged 10X while
it was 15 - 22X in other plants.
The animals were selecting the more digestible fractions of
the plant. This would explain the high TDN content of consumed
DM (see Table 3) in both winter and summer.
The failure of goats to manage enough feed intake during
summer (Table 4) as compared to sheep may be explained on the
basis of body colour. Goats were either black or dark brown
which may have resulted in higher heat stress. Sheep were of a
white body colour.
The yield in kilogram of consumable feed per feddan is
mainly dependent on rainfall rate as claimed by Field (1980).
The same author indicated that soil fertility and rate of water
evaporation from the plants are also contributing factors to
pasture yield. Field (1980) found that DM yield at pasture
increases threefold by rainfall increase of 60X. Accordingly,
the carrying capacity presently found (Table 5) should not be
taken as a fixed estimate. Every year such a parameter should be
revised and adjusted. The mineral mixture supplement (Table 7)
should be also formulated according to the deficiencies found in
each location. Results of Yassen (1958) and Van Eys (personal
communication) emphasise the significant role minerals play on
feed intake and animal performance. Naga (1984) indicated that a
combination of vitamin A, urea and minerals significantly
improved the performance of adult and growing animals. The
excessive Ca retention (Table 6) could be adjusted to normal by
feeding a calculated amount of wheat bran (Naga, 1987). Phytic
acid in the bran would chellate the extra Ca in the diet and then
prevent its absorption.
The above information was used for manufacturing licking
blocks in the Faculty's laboratory. The licking blocks
contained mineral mixture, urea. Vitamin A, wheat bran, sodium
chloride, molasses and cement. The blocks were used for the
Sheikh's flocks only. The shepherds observed the crowding of
animals around the blocks in summer, the fast drop of placenta
475
after the dam's delivery (2hrs instead of 2-3 days), and the
significant reduction in offspring mortality. The research team
was asked to provide some licking blocks without mentioning that
the blocks would be passed onto neighbours. The licking blocks
were given free at the beginning, and later at a cost when
neighbours expressed more interest. The number of clients which
started with four, gradually reached 14 in 1.5 years. The
positive side in this activity is the continuity of purchasing
the blocks although the research team left the site when the
clients were 11.
REFERENCES
Field, D.I. 1980. Grazing capacity of rangelands. Somali Range
Bulletin No. 10 Nov. 1980. p 6.
Naga, M.A. 1984. In Better uti l i sat ion of crop residues and by
products in animal feeding: Research guide l ines- state of
knowledge. FAO Publication No. 50. FAO, Rome.
Naga, M.A. 1987. In: Isotope-aided studies on livestock
productivity in Mediterranean and North Africa, countries.
IAEA ( International Atomic Energy Agency) . Publ ication.
Vienna. Austria.
Schutte, J. A., Wilke, P.I. and Compaan, J. P. 1971. Surgical
procedure for the creation of an oesophageal fistula in
sheep. J_^ Agronmal ia 3:99.
Tockholm, V., Drar, M. and Abdel Fadeel. 1956. Student's Flora
of Egypt. Anglo-Egyptian Bookshop, Cairo.
Yassen, A.M. 1958. M.Sc. thesis. Univ. of Alexandria,
Alexandria, Egypt.
476
CAN AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS AND CROP RESIDUES SAVE THE
NIGERIAN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY
G.N. Egbunike and A.E. Ikpi
Departments of Animal Science and Agricultural Economics
University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is one of the countries where animal protein consumption
per caput is still very low being about 9.36 kg/caput/year
(Egbunike, 1988) without taking account of fish and game meat
consumed. Yet every sector of the livestock industry is having
serious setbacks mostly due to the escalating prices of feeds
which normally constitute 60-80X of production costs depending on
species.
Hitherto, Nigeria had depended almost exclusively on
imported feed ingredients for the production of compound feeds
and with the overvalued "naira" appeared to making some headway
in livestock production especially in the poultry sector which
utilised about 90X of compound feeds produced in the country.
With the economic recession and the noncomitant ban imposed on
the importation of the major constituents of livestock feeds,
especially grains, many entrepreneurs in the livestock industry
that are unable to withstand the tough competition have fallen by
the wayside. Under this condition wide variations exist in feed
supply and hence prices which have resulted in the present low
level of productivity of the animals regardless of the system of
management.
The capacities of livestock feed mills and average prices of
poultry feeds are summarised in Tables 1 and 2 respectively
considering that poultry feeds form about 90X of feed mill
products. It can be observed that at 50 or 65X maize inclusion
the amount of maize required cannot be met internally especially
when viewed against the background that this commodity is in very
high demand in other sectors of the economy viz for human foods
477
and for industries like the breweries. Thus, Nigeria must look
inwards for her feed resources. Fortunately, the pioneering work
of Oyenuga (1966) paved the way for the understanding that agro-
industrial by-products and crop residues could be economically
used to supplement the erratic feed supply.
This paper assesses the potential of agro- industrial by
products and crop residues to meet the nutrient requirements and
hence, support the growth and productivity of livestock in
Nigeria.
Table 1. Capacities of livestock feedmills in Nigeria for 1987
('000 metric tonnes).
Item Quantity
1. Total installed capacity 2,015.00
2. Utilised capacity 735.89
3. Percent utilised 36.52
4. Maize equivalent
(a) at 50X 1,007.50
(b) at 65X 1,309.75
Source: Anonymous (1988)
Table 2. 1987 average prices of poultry feed in Nigeria (Naira
per ton*).
Feed type Range Mean
Broi ler starter 868.67 - 1160.00 1050.90
Broiler finisher 863.00 - 1168.40 1017.30
Chick mash 867.78 - 1066.50 960.12
Grower's mash 721.00 - 1259.00 838.77
Layers mash 796.00 - 974.62 906.77
*US$ 1.00 = 4 naira (1987)
Source: Akinwumi (1988)
478
SUPPLY OF AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS AND CROP RESIDUES
Agro- industrial By-products
As shown in Table 3 the supply of agro- industrial by-products is
considerable being at least 738,271.6 tonnes per annum. Although
their rate of utilisation is dependent on their chemical
composition and the species of livestock in question, it is
evident that wheat bran/offals were the most common followed by
fresh or wet brewers' grains while maize bran and cassava chaff
were the least.
It is worthy to note that some of these data may represent
underest imat ions since they were collected from registered
industry only. For example in the cases of rice and cassava by
products (especially the latter), the aggregate of rural
producers could account for a very substantial amount of
production. However, mention must be made of the chemical
composition and physical form of these by-products which tend to
limit their usefulness. For example a bulky product containing a
high level of sugar would, due to high moisture content,
deteriorate rapidly during storage due to fermentation and
contamination by moulds (to produce mycotoxins) while oily
products become easily rancid. These by-products can be
classified as energy, protein and combined energy/protein
sources.
Energy sources are rich in fermentable carbohydrates and low
in protein. The best example is molasses traditionally used as a
carrier for urea in ruminant feeding. Molasses is produced in
the two sugar industries in Nigeria: Numan, in Gongola State, and
Bacita and Jebba in Kwara State.
Protein sources are mostly the oilseed cakes. Palm oilseed
cakes are produced in the southern part of Nigeria (Bendel, Cross
River, Imo and Rivers States) and form the most abundant and
least expensive oilseed cake available. It is however notorious
for being gritty and unpalatable. Cottonseed and groundnut cakes
479
are also important although the latter had declined drastically
about three decades ago and is only coming up again with this
spirit of looking inwards.
Combined energy and protein sources by-products considered
under this category are cereal and brewers' grains. Until the
ban on wheat importation, wheat bran was the most important
cereal bran in the country. However brans from traditional
grains (sorghum, millet, rice and maize) are growing rapidly in
quantity. As regards brewers' grains, most of the 32 breweries
originally produced wet grains that were available for the
asking. As the usefulness of the grains in livestock feeding
became increasingly clear, some of these breweries started to dry
some of their grains for sale. These dried grains constitute
only 5% of the total produced (Table 3).
Crop residues
With the advent of the oil boom in the mid sixties in Nigeria
came an unfortunate neglect of agricultural production which
hitherto yielded about 80X of Nigeria's export earnings. This
had an unparalleled drop in crop production and a concomitant
increase in imports to meet the needs of the fast growing human
population. All these led to a drastic reduction in the quantity
of available crop residues. However with economic recession
there is now an upward turn in the production of crops and hence
in the availability of residues.
It is known that most of the ruminants in Nigeria are found
in the Guinea savanna and Sahel zones where they are managed by
pastoral ists. These zones are the major cereal (sorghum, millet
and maize) growing areas of Nigeria. The amount of straws and
leaves left in the cereal plants after harvesting can be
estimated. For example in the case of sorghum which is the most
abundant of the cereals in these areas, the ratio of grains to
straw is 1:4 at the time of harvest. Thus with a production of
about 6 million tonnes of sorghum in Nigeria 24 million tonnes of
straw would be available for use in livestock production
annually. Also with a ratio of 1.3:1 for leaves and grains 5.2
million tonnes of leaves would be left behind. With the recent
480
FAO figures it must follow that this tremendous tonnage will be
more than equalled by total amount of maize, millet and rice
straws, giving a modest annual estimate of more than 52 million
tonnes of crop residues in this zone alone. In addition to this,
there is an estimated amount of over 400,000 tonnes of maize cobs
available for livestock feeding after the necessary treatment.
Table 3. Supply of major agro- industrial by-products by
registered companies in Nigeria (1985).
Type Production Price
(tonnes/yr) (It/ton)
Wheat bran/offals
Cottonseed cake
Groundnut cake/pellets
Palm kernel) meal
) cake/pellets
Molasses
)fresh
Brewers grains ) dried
) bran
Rice ) husks
) chaff
Cassava ) peeling
Maize bran
Total 738,271.60
* USS 1.00 = 2 naira (1985)
** n.a. = not available.
Source: Reddish and Scarr (1987)
LIVESTOCK TO BENEFITS FROM AGRO- INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS AND
CROP RESIDUES
Because of the poor quality of these materials, it is normally
thought that only ruminants can benefit from them. However, it
is now known that they can be beneficial to non-ruminants as well
after having been properly processed as shown later. For
382,666 139-180.00
6,707 315.00
6,970 550.00
50,000 60.00
33,000 65.00
24,000 51.00
190,000 n.a**
10,182 30-100
23,800 150.00
6,530 n.a
59.60
2,943
450 n.a.
481
 example, we have consistently used the items on Table 4 with the
exception of molasses, sorghum and maize stovers. The only
difference in the utilisation of these materials for ruminants
and non-ruminants would be the levels of inclusion in the diets.
In cattle production, these materials have been used for a long
time for fattening as was developed by the Livestock Project Unit
for smallholder farmers over a 120-day period. In this scheme
cattle of 200-340 kg liveweight are introduced to rations made up
of a combination of these materials as shown in Table 5. It is
obvious that the dried brewers' grains and molasses combination
is the cheapest. Average daily gains (ADG) of 0.38 - 0.85 kg
have been reported with fattening periods of not more than 160
days recording higher values. This makes it possible for two
complete fattening cycles per annum. If, for example, 30,000
additional tonnes of dried brewers' gains were made available
from the breweries and used for fattening cattle, 100,000 cattle
would, fed at 3 kg/head/day for 100 days, gain 5 million kg in
liveweight. At 60X dressing weight, this would give an
additional 3,000 tonnes of saleable meat.
Table 4. Chemical composition of some agricultural by-products
and crop residues.
Product DM Crude protein Metabol i sable
(X) (X or DM) energy (MJ/kg.DM)
Wheat bran 90 17.20 10.10
Cottonseed cake 90 26.90 11.00
Groundnut cake 90 48.60 12.00
Palm kernel cake 90 18.60 12.60
Molasses 75 4.10 12.70
Dried brewers' grain 90 20.40 10.30
Rice bran 89 10.60 10.80
Sorghum stover 93 4.75 6.28
Maize stover 94 5.60 "
482
Table 5. Typical rations formulated from agro- industrial by
products and crop residues for cattle fattening.
Rations
Ingredient
3.00 3.00 -
0.25 - -
1.00 1.00 1.00
2-3 2-3 3.00
• 0.50 -
A. Quantities (kg)
Wheat offals
Groundnut cake
Molasses
Crop residue/grazing
Cottonseed cake
Dried brewers' grains - - 3.00
B. Chemical composition
Metabolisable energy (MJ) 57.19 57.88 58.98
Crude protein (g) 615.00 623.00 657.00
C. Cost/head/100 days (N) 68.50 74.00 46.00
These materials have been used, when available, to avoid the
annual weight loss of cattle during the 5-6 months dry season in
the northern parts of Nigeria. This prevents the drop in
fertility while reducing both calf and herd mortalities. In
addition, heavier weaning weights would be achieved. It could
thus be construed that the benefits of dry season supplementation
far outweigh those of fattening.
As for small ruminants, agricultural by-products and crop
residues are also used for fattening and dry season feeding. For
example, Adebowale (1985) and Ademosun et al (1987) have shown
483
that inclusion of dried brewers' grain at 25 and 50X levels gave
weight gains in goats of 38.4 and 29.2 g per day respectively.
As regards poultry and pigs, which are more abundant in the south
and which have to be intensively fed throughout the year, by
products and crop residues with or without cassava peels (Tewe
and Egbunike, 1988) have virtually kept the industries going
without much loss in the level of production even at lower costs.
CONSTRAINTS ON THE COUNTRY-WIDE UTILISATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS
ON AGRO- INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS AND CROP RESIDUES
Constraints on the use of by-products and crop residues include,
according to El Hag and Kurdi (1986), bulkiness, location in
areas with lower animal population density, poor nutritive value
and unsui tabi l i ty for direct animal use. In Nigeria today, the
issue of the bulkiness and location in areas far from those where
the materials are needed has been partially solved by the
development of a good network of roads and the opening up of the
rural areas for development since the establishment of a
directorate charged with this function two years ago. As regards
the poor nutritive value and non-suitability for immediate animal
use, research results have shown that supplementation with
molasses, non-protein nitrogen (urea and poultry excreta) and
chemical (NaOH) and physical (grinding and pelleting) treatments
improve the nutritive value and intake and hence the response of
animals to some of these by-products. El Hag and Kurdi (1986)
concluded that physical treatment was more useful in improving
the nutritive value of these products and was also economically
more feasible than the chemical treatment. On the other hand
constraints on the use of research results on the by-products and
crop residues include the following:
Lack of appropriate terms.
As pointed out by Kayongo-Male et al (1986) the use of different
local names in different localities and by researchers
constitutes a problem calling for the adoption of a standard
system for describing crop residues and by-products. An example
is the use of "cassava peels" to describe a mixture of the peel,
flesh and some discarded tubers most of the time.
484
lack of biological screening
It is known that some of these products contain some abnoxious
materials that may be harmful to animals when used for a long
time. Because most of the experiments have been on short-term
basis, it has not been easy to adopt some of the recommendations
arising from research results blindly. Theobromine and
hydrocyanic acid contents in cocoa husks and cassava
peels/leaves, respectively, tacitly caution against long-term
utilisation of these products especially for breeders. For
example, Osuagwuh (personal communication) has shown that the
long-term feeding of cassava peels to breeding nanny goats causes
abnormal embryogenesis resulting in the birth of stunted neonates
that have very little chance of surviving.
Contrasting responses of animals of different species,
physiological states and ages.
Recommendations drawn from some results tend to ignore the fact
that different species or classes of animals e.g. ruminants and
non-ruminants) respond differently to agricultural by-products
and crop residues. Also animals of different physiological
status (pregnant or not) and ages would obviously respond
differently to these materials. Often the ages and liveweight of
experimental animals are not indicated while sometimes pregnant
or sick animals are used thus making adoption of results
therefrom difficult.
Composition differences of crops
It is continuously becoming clearer that varietal differences
exist in the morphological and chemical compositions of plants.
Except in experiments where the varieties of crops involved are
clearly stated, adoption of results may be jeopardised.
Conflict between the goals of the researcher and the farmer
In many instances the researchers work in complete isolation of
the end users of their results, the farmers. Under such
circumstances these results are a clear wastage of time and funds
485
as they are not normally adopted by the farmers. In a few cases
their adoption has been a failure. This may partially explain
the almost regular non-repetition of research results at the farm
level and calls for a proper exchange of ideas between the
researcher and the farmer and the development of proper packages
for the transfer of research findings from the researcher to the
farmer by extension experts.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The tremendous potential of agro- industrial by-products and crop
residues in upholding the aims of livestock production has been
indicated in this report. There is a supply of at least
738,271.6 tonnes of agro- industrial by-products nationally and 52
million tonnes of crop residues in the cereal belt of Nigeria.
Judicious use of these in conjuction with the grass/pasture
carryover from the rainy season in the form of hay or silage will
minimise the dry-season weight loss in our animals, especially
ruminants, and encourage acceptable weight gains while reducing
calf and herd mortalities. In the case of non-ruminants, the ban
placed on the importation of feed resources has been partially
contained by the use of these non- conventional feed resources.
However, there is need for more research to arrive at the
optional utilisation of agro- industrial by-products and crop
residues for livestock production in Nigeria. Emphasis should be
continuously placed on farming systems research so as to achieve
optimum production of both crops and livestock. The
investigation and development of alternative legumes and browse
species for supplementation of agro- industrial by-products and
crop residues should also be emphasised.
REFERENCES
Adebowale, E.A. 1985. Non-conventional feed resources in
Nigeria. Nig. Fd. J. 3:181-189.
Ademosun, A. A., Bosman, H.G. and Jansen, H.J. 1988. Nutritive
studies with West Africa Dwarf goats in the humid tropics.
In: 0.B. Smith and H.G. Bosman (eds) Goat production in the
humid tropics. Pudoc Wageningen. pp. 51-61.
486
Akinwumi, J. A. 1988. Economics of large scale use of alternative
feed resources to replace conventional ingredients in
livestock production in Nigeria. Proc. National Workshop
on "Alternative Formulation of Livestock Feeds in Nigeria".
ARMT1, Ilorin, 21-25 November, 1988.
Anonymous. 1988. Second national poultry survey.
Egbunike, G.N. 1988. Smallscale investment opportunities
In livestock and related enterprises. Proc. National
Workshop on "Investment Opportunities in Smallscale
Enterprises in Nigeria". NISER and Friedrich-Ebert
Foundation, Lagos , 21-23 November, 1988.
El Hag, N.6. and Kurdi, 0.1. 1986. Prospects of efficient
utilisation of agro- industrial by-products and crop
residues for ruminant feeding in the Sudan, with emphasis
on quantification, nutritional composition, constraints and
research results. In. T.R. Preston and M.Y. Nuwanyakpa
(eds), Towards optimal feeding of agricultural by-products
to livestock in Africa. Proceedings of workshop held at
Alexandria, Egypt, October 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa.
pp. 22-23.
Kayongo-Male, H., Said, A.N. and Kategile, J. A. 1986. Use of
INFIC nomenclature on crop residues and by-products
produced in Kenya. In. T.R. Preston and m.Y. Nuwanyakpa
(eds), Towards optimal feeding of agricultural by-products
to livestock in Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held at
Alexandria, Egypt, October 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa, pp. 42-
49.
Oyenuga, V.A. 1966. Nigeria's feeds and feeding stuffs.
University of Ibadan,. Press, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Reddish, P.M. and Scarr, M.J. 1987. Subsiding industries for the
livestock subsector. Proc. 11th Conf. Nigerian Soc. Anim.
Prod., Zaria. pp. 12-23.
Tewe, 0.0. and Egbunike, G.N. 1988. Utilisation of cassava in
poultry and pig feeding. Proc. Workshop on "The Potential
of Cassava as Livestock Feed in Africa", IITA, Ibadan, 14-
18 November 1988. International Institute of Agriculture,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
487
POTENTIAL OF RUBBER SEED AS PROTEIN CONCENTRATE SUPPLEMENT
FOR DWARF SHEEP OF CAMEROON
R.M. Njwe, M.K. Chifon and R. Ntep
Department of Animal Science
University Centre of Dschang
Dschang, Cameroon
ABSTRACT
The performance of West African Dwarf sheep fed concentrates
containing graded levels of unextracted rubber seed flour was
evaluated in two experiments. In the first experiment carried
out in 1984, 15 local sheep were fed concentrates containing 0,
10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent unextracted rubber for a period of
three months. Results indicated that sheep fed concentrates
containing 10 and 20X rubber seed had similar dry matter and
crude protein intake as those on the control (OX rubber seed),
while those maintained on 30 and 50X rubber seed concentrates
consumed significantly (P<0.05) lower levels of dry matter and
crude protein. The digestibility of dry matter, organic matter
and crude protein was significantly lower in sheep fed 30 and 50X
rubber seed concentrates compared to those on the 10 and 20X
concentrates. Animals fed concentrates containing 0, 10 and 20X
rubber seed gained 9, 10 and 17 g/day whereas those on
concentrates containing 30 and 50X rubber seed lost weight at the
rate of 26 and 51 g/day respectively. It was concluded that the
limit of 20X rubber seed in concentrate rations for sheep should
not be exceeded.
In the second experiment, 12 uncastrated male dwarf sheep
ranging in age from 8 to 14 months and weighing between 11 and 15
kg were used to investigate performance when fed fresh Elephant
grass and concentrate supplements containing 0, 10, 15 and 20X
unextracted rubber seed meal as a substitute for cottonseed cake
during a period of 56 days.
Dry-matter intake decreased as the level of rubber seed in
concentrate supplement was raised. There were no significant
differences in dry matter, organic matter and crude protein
488
digestibility between the control and all other treatments
containing rubber seed meal. Daily weight gain of sheep fed
concentrates containing 0, 10, 15 and 20X rubber seed were 36,
50, 41 and 38 g/day respectively. Twenty percent level of
incorporation of rubber seed meal or flour in concentrate rations
for sheep is recommended. Application of results on the
industrial and smallholder scale is discussed particularly as
regards collection, shelling, detoxification and extraction of
oil to obtain the cake which is a valuable protein source for
livestock.
INTRODUCTION
There are large resources of conventional and non-conventional
feeds in Cameroon that can be profitably used in stimulating
animal production in general and small ruminants in particular.
Prominent among the non-conventional agro- industrial feed
resources is rubber seed. At the moment the country has the
potential of producing 26,000 tons of rubber seed and the
quantity will increase considerably when young plantations begin
to produce fruits and with the creation of new plantations.
Rubberseed meal and the cake are higher in total digestible
nutrients than soya-bean meal and is highly promising as a
protein supplement. Rubberseed meal has a high level of lysine
and tryptophan, making it a good companion for maize in poultry
and pig rations, but poor in lysine (Ensminger and Olentine,
1978). Rubber seeds can be processed into oil and cake by
pressing or ether extraction. The seed yields about 44 X oil, 50
X cake and 6 X other wastes. The cake may contain 8 - 15 X oil.
The oil is comparable to soya-bean oil. The oil can be used for
making paint and varnish (IRCA, 1982). Also, seeds when boiled
and drained are eaten by Indians in the Amazon Valley of South
America (Seibere, 1948).
Despite its potential as a protein feed for animals, fresh
rubber seeds contain a toxic factor, cyanogenetic glucocide. The
content in fresh seeds is about 200 mg/100 g of seeds (Gick et
al . 1967). In the presence of the enzyme limarinase or in a
slightly acid medium the cyanogenetic glucocide is converted to
489
hydrocyanic acid which is poisonous. Symptoms of poison include
increased pulse rate, no response to stimuli and spasmodic
muscular movements (Maner, 1972). The hydrocyanic acid combines
with hemoglobin to form a cyanohemoglobin complex which cannot
carry oxygen. Small quantities of hydrocyanic acid do not result
in death but may adversely affect the health of the animal
(Stosic and KayKay, 1981). Detoxification of fresh rubberseed
can be carried out by the following methods: Storage of fresh
seed for 5-6 months before oil extraction; heat treatment by
roasting fresh seeds in a kitchen oven or boiling in hot water,
and soaking seeds in ash solution for 12 hours after which they
are washed.
Although the cake or rubberseed meal can be used as animal
feed (IRCA, 1983; Stosic and KayKay, 1981) little attention has
been devoted to exploiting it in Cameroon as feed for livestock.
The first experiment was therefore designed to assess the
value of rubberseed flour as the major protein source in
concentrate supplements for West African Dwarf sheep. The second
study was designed to limit the level of rubberseed flour in
concentrates to below 20 X such that it substituted cottonseed
cake in the diet of Dwarf sheep. The 20 X or less level of
rubberseed in sheep concentrate supplements was based on the
results of the first experiment.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Experiment 1
Fifteen adult West African Dwarf sheep from the University farm,
weighing between 15 to 20 kg were used for the study. Prior to
the experiment they were dewormed and sprayed against ticks. The
animals were randomly assigned to five treatments in a completely
randomized design. The basal ration was fresh Guatemala grass
(Tripsacum laxum) cut on a daily basis while the treatments were
five concentrate supplements containing 0, 10, 20, 30 and 50 X
rubberseed flour on weight basis.
490
Rubberseed flour was obtained from seed that had been stored
for 6 months and boiled to detoxify them. The proportions of
feedstuff's in each concentrate are shown in Table 1 while the
proximate composition is shown in Table 2. Animals were
maintained in individual metabolism cages during the entire
experimental period of three months (January-April 1984).
Concentrate (200 g/day) was served to each animal at 09.00 hours
every morning while chopped forage (1.0 kg) was served at 10.00
hours and 16.00 hours. Water was provided to each animal ad
l ibi tum. Residues were weighed the following morning in order to
estimate intake. The sheep were weighed weekly. During the last
week of the experiment faeces were collected for evaluation of
digestibility of diets.
Table 1. Experimental rations for local sheep.
Ingredients (X) Concentrates
A B C D E
Maize 100 90 80 70 50
Milled rubber
seed - 10 20 30 50
Bicalcium
Phosphate 1 1 1 1 1
Salt 0. 5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100
491
Table 2. Proximate composition of Guatemala grass and
concentrates fed to local sheep (X).
DM OM ASH CP CF ME NFE
Forage I 28.84 93.60 6.40 15.95 32.58 1.57 43.50
II 26.16 93.28 6.72 15.67 29.25 2.89 45.47
Concentrate
A 86.65 97.67 2.33 9.08 2.18 2.23 84.18
B 85.26 96.63 3.37 11.28 2.50 2.63 80.22
C 86.58 97.72 2.37 13.13 2.13 3.18 77.22
D 84.14 97.11 2.89 15.59 3.48 3.73 74.31
E 84.84 96.70 3.30 23.20 7.00 5.47 61.03
I, II represent experimental periods
A • control (no rubberseed in concentrates)
B = 10X rubberseed by weight in concentrate
C = 20X rubberseed by weight in concentrate
D = 30X rubberseed by weight in concentrate
E = 50X rubberseed by weight in concentrate
Experiment II
Twelve uncastrated West African Dwarf rams ranging in age from 8
to 14 months and weighing between 11 and 15 kg from the
University farm at Dschang, Cameroon were used for the
investigation. The animals were dewormed and sprayed against
ectoparasites before the study began. The animals were randomly
assigned to four treatments in a completely randomised block
design. The basal diet was chopped fresh elephant grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) . cut on a daily basis while the treatments
were for concentrate supplements containing 0, 10, 15 and 20 X
rubberseed flour on weight basis. Rubberseed had been stored for
6 months and boiled to detoxify them. The proportions of various
feedstuffs in each concentrate are shown in Table 3 while their
proximate composition is shown in Table 4.
Animals in each treatment were group-fed for 7 weeks (March-
May 1986) and thereafter they were transferred into individual
492
metabolism cages for a period of 2 weeks for evaluation of feed
digestibility. The daily ration, 600 g/day of concentrate
supplement per group of animals was served at 08.00 hours and
10.00 hours while 6 kg of fresh elephant grass was also served
twice a day. Residues of concentrate and forage were weighed
after every 24 hours to estimate feed intake. Salt licks and
fresh water were provided ad libitum while polyvitamin was
provided in drinking water every fortnight. Animals were weighed
weekly.
In both experiments proximate analysis of forage,
concentrate and faecal samples was carried out according to the
methods of A.0.A.C. (1970). Data from the experiments were
analysed according to the procedures of Steel and Torrie (1980)
for analysis of variance and the Duncan's multiple range test was
used to test for significant differences between treatment means.
RESULTS
Experiment 1
Dry matter intake, digestibility and liveweight gain by sheep on
various treatments are presented in Table 5. Dry matter intake
ranged from 30.58 to 54.29 g/day/W , kg. There were no
significant differences in dry matter intake between sheep fed
concentrate supplements containing 0, 10 and 20 X rubberseed
flour with consumption of 53.84, 52.89 and 54.22 g/day/W * kg
respectively. When the percentage of rubberseed flour in
concentrate was increased to 30 and 50 X there was a significant
(P<0.05) decrease in dry matter intake. The trend was similar
for crude protein intake. Crude protein intake decreased from
7.20 to 5.61 g/day/W « kg as rubberseed flour in concentrate
was raised from 0 to 50 X.
493
Table 3. Composition of rations fed to local sheep.
Ingredients
(Percentage) A B c D
Maize 76.1 69.9 66.8 63.7
Rubberseed cake 0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Cottonseed cake 22.4 18.6 16.7 K.8
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bicalcium phosphate 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Total 100 100 100 100
Table 4. Proximate composition of concentrate rubberseed and
forage.
Components
(percentage) A B CD Rubber Forage
seed
Dry matter
Ash
Crude protein
Crude fibre
Ether extracts
Nitrogen free
A = Control (only cottonseed cake)
B = 10X rubberseed
C * 15X rubberseed
D = 20X rubberseed
89.8 90.4 90.3 90.3 92.7 15.35
3.5 5.1 3.2 3.8 2.6 13.90
20.5 19.3 19.3 19.6 21.0 8.48
3.1 3.7 3.6 6.3 4.0 16.96
5.7 8.1 10.9 12.3 39.7 3.78
67.2 64.2 53.0 58.0 32.7 56.88
494
Dry matter digestibility decreased as the level of
rubberseed flour in rations was raised. Whereas for the control
treatment dry matter digestibility was 77.91X for rations
containing rubberseed it declined from 73.22X (10X rubberseed
flour) to 57.42X (50X rubberseed flour). The same trend was
observed for organic matter digestibility. Crude protein
digestibility was quite high with values ranging from 74.96% to
79.99X for treatments with rubberseed flour in the concentrate.
There were no significant differences between treatments.
While animals on the control treatment and those containing
10 and 20X rubberseed flour registered increase in weight or
maintained their weight, those on concentrate containing 30 and
50 percent rubberseed flour lost weight continuously up to the
7th week after which they began to register gains but the initial
weight was not attained when the experiment ended. Sheep on
diets containing 30 and 50 percent rubberseed flour had an
average daily weight loss of 21 and 51 g respectively, while
those having 10X and 20X rubberseed flour registered daily weight
gains of 17 and 10 g respectively. The average daily gain for
the control ration was 9 g.
Experiment II
Feed intake, digestibility and live weight gain by dwarf
sheep maintained on fresh elephant grass and concentrate
supplements containing various levels of rubberseed flour as
substitute for cottonseed cake are presented in Table 6.
There were no significant differences in dry-matter intake
between treatments. Values ranged from 59.82 to 63.18
g/day/W " kg. Crude protein intake decreased as the level of
rubberseed flour substituted for cottonseed cake in the
concentrate was raised. Differences between treatments were not
significant. For the control treatment, crude protein was 9.25
g/day/W ' kg while for sheep on concentrates with 10, 15 and 20
X rubberseed daily crude protein intake was 9.25, 8.66 and 7.68
495
g/day/U ' kg respectively. Dry-matter digestibility ranged
from 67.22 to 70.66 X for sheep having concentrates with
rubberseed flour while for those on concentrates containing only
cottons seed as protein supplement it was 69.62 X. There were no
significant differences between treatments. Organic matter and
crude protein digestibilities were high with ranges of 69.29 to
72.36 and 73.21 to 76.45 X respectively. There were no
significant differences between treatments. There were
significant differences between treatments in daily weight gain.
Whereas sheep on the control ration gained 36 g/day those on
concentrates containing 10, 15 and 20 X rubberseed flour had
weight gains of 50, 41 and 38 g/day respectively. Sheep on
concentrate with 10X rubberseed flour had significantly (P<0.05)
higher weight gain than other treatments.
496
Table 5: Feed intake digestibility and live weight gain by West African dwarf
sheep fed fresh Guatemala grass and concentrate supplements containing
various levels of rubberseed flour.
TREATMENTS
Feed intake
A B C D E
Dry matter g/day
g/day/W0.7Skg
448.08 370.67 369.61 326.11 298.17
53.84a 52.59a 54.22a 37.56b 30.58b
Crude protein g/day 66.63 50.69 54.08 51.43 48.99
g/day/W0,75kg 7.20 7.19 7.94 5.92 5.61
Dry matter 77.91 73.22ab 72.50b 60.95c 57.42d
Organic matter 79.28a 74.15b 73.52b 69.90c 60.52c
Crude protein 80.22a 79.10a 78.37a 74.96a 79.99a
Live weight changes
Mean initial weight (kg) 18.86 12.36 12.53 20.30 22.36
Mean final weight (kg) 19.80 13.76 13.40 18.10 18.06
Average live
weight gain (g/day) 9 17 10 26 56
NB: Figures in the same row with the same letter script are not significantly
different (P>0.05)
497
Table 6. Feed intake, digestibility and live weight gain by
castrated dwarf sheep fed elephant grass and concentrate
supplements containing graded levels of rubberseed flour
as substitute of cottonseed cake.
Treatments
Feed intake
A ■ C D
Dry matter g/day 464.24 430.53 535.81 365.83
g/day/W 5kg 63.14 63.88 59.82 55.22
Crude Protein g/day
g/day/W0 kg
67.62 67.22 61.95 51.29
Digest ibi l itv (X)
9.25 9.25 8.66 7.68
Dry matter g/day 69.62 67.22 67.22 70.66
Organic matter 71.77 69.44 69.29 72.36
Crude protein 75.18 76.21 73.21 76.45
Weight changes
Mean initial weight kg 13.58 11.33 13.33 12.00
Mean final weight kg 15.60 14.13 15.60 14.13
Average live weight
gain (g/day) 36 50 41 38
A = OX rubberseed
B = 10X rubberseed
C = 15X rubberseed
D = 20X rubberseed
DISCUSSION
In both experiments, there is generally the tendency for dry
matter intake to decrease as the level of rubberseed flour in
rations is raised, but this decrease is not significant until the
20X level of incorporation is exceeded. Bo Gohl (1982) pointed
out that rubberseed cake can constitute upto 25X of rations for
poulets so long as it is supplemented with sulphur containing
498
amino acids. Buvanendran and Siriwardene (1970) reported that
rubberseed meal could be used upto the level of 20X for broiler
rations while Maffeja (1984) found 20X level of incorporation
appropriate for pig rations. Rubber seed may be incorporated in
rations at higher levels after detoxification and defattening
(Stosic and KayKay, 1981). The seed used for the experiments
being reported here were not defatted. Riviere (1978)
recommended 0.5 - 1.0 kg/day of rubberseed cake for young cattle
while Bo Gohl (1982) suggested 2 - 3 kg per day for adult cattle,
but indicated that the product was not quite appetising to sheep.
A decrease in crude protein intake with increase in the
level of rubberseed flour in concentrate supplements for sheep
was also evident in both experiments. This may be associated
with diminishing amounts of concentrate that are consumed as
rubberseed proportion in the concentrate is increased which is
particularly significant when the proportion exceeds 20 X.
Dry matter digestibility was generally high in both studies,
indicating that the rumen microbial population was adequately
supplied with dietary nitrogen. The high digestibility of crude
protein was also an indication of efficient use of dietary
protein.
Meanwhile weight gains were poor in Experiment I when
compared to the same levels of incorporation of rubberseed flour
in Experiment II (i.e. 10 and 20X). This may be attributed
partially to the use of adult sheep in Experiment I whereas
growing sheep were used in Experiment II. Also, rubberseed was
the major source of dietary protein in Experiment I whereas
cottonseed cake and rubberseed were used in experiment II. This
could have introduced differences in efficiency of feed intake
and utilisation between the two groups of animals. However, the
consistent loss in weight by sheep fed concentrate rations with
30 and 50 X level of rubberseed flour in experiment I may be
attributed to the possibility of accumulation of hydrocyanic acid
in the product which may not have been adequately detoxified
before the seeds were milled into flour. Weight loss could also
result from the low dry-matter intake that was observed.
499
At the moment, rubberseed is not used as animal feed despite
abundant production in various rubber plantations in the rainy
forest region of Cameroon. The cost of production involves
collection from the plantations, shelling of fruits to obtain the
seeds, detoxification either by treatment with ash solution or
heat or long storage for at least 6 months, milling of seed into
flour, and separation of oil to obtain the cake using a press or
ether extraction.
Utilisation of rubberseed meal or cake has a lot of
applications at the level of the smallholders in the southern
parts of Cameroon where rubber plantations employing a large
labour force are common. Associated with these plantations are
smallholder schemes which also sell latex to the large
agricultural corporations.
The abundant family labour available in rubber plantations
can supplement family income considerably from collection of seed
which can be marketed and subsequently processed into the oil and
cake on an industrial basis. The oil can be transformed into
soap, paint and varnish.
The smallholders can provide better quality feed for
poultry, pigs, sheep and goats just by collecting and processing
rubber seeds that are presently allowed to rot in plantations.
Locally undefatted meal or cake can be used as animal feed. The
only constraints against the exploitation of the product are the
cost of collection; the bulky nature of the fruits containing the
seeds and the tendency for the seed to become mouldy as they are
not stored under proper conditions. Also, rubberseed production
is seasonal. A large crop is obtained between August and
September while a minor one occurs in December and January.
Interrupted supply will therefore demand adequate storage to
cover other seasons of the year. These constraints can be
surmountable at the smallholder level. Any press used for palm,
soybean or groundnut oil extraction can also be used for
rubberseed oil extraction. Since there is competition for
consumption or export of palm, soybean or groundnut oil,
rubberseed oil at the smallholder scale may form a basis for
small-scale soap production at the family and village level.
500
Small-scale farmers in the south of Cameroon are not aware
of the potential of using rubberseed as animal feed and
production of soap from its oil. There is a need to develop a
cheap press for extraction of rubberseed meal and a fruit cracker
to reduce the time factor associated with these operations so
that the processing of rubberseed is more appealing to small-
scale farmers. Pilot studies in a rural setting to demonstrate
the processing of rubberseed and possibilities for utilisation
are needed for smallholders in order to captivate their interest.
CONCLUSION
Utilisation of undefatted rubberseed meal in rations of sheep
should not exceed the 20X level of incorporation. Higher levels
may be used if extraction of oil is carried out to obtain the
cake. A mixture with other protein sources like cottonseed cake
is an advantage. Detoxification is a prerequisite for
utilisation of rubberseed. Processing and use of rubberseed meal
or cake as animal feed especially for small ruminants has a lot
of potential at the smallholder scale. Soap production is a
small-scale industry that can develop from the processing of
rubberseed.
REFERENCES
A.0.A.C. Association of official Analytical Chemists. 1970.
Official methods of analysis. Washington D.C. USA.
Bo Gohl, 1982. Les aliments du be' tail sous les tropiques:
Donne'es sommaires et valeur nutritive. Division de
Production et Sante' Animale, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Bufanendran, V. and Si ri wardens, J. A. 1970. Rubber seed meal in
poultry diets. Ceylon Vet. Jj. 18:33-38.
Ensminger, M.E. and Olentine, C.G.J. 1978. Feeds and nutrition.
Clinton Press, Clovis, California, USA.
Gick, L.T. Samsudin, M.D., Husaini, B.S. and Tarwotjo, I.T. 1967.
Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 20:1300-1303.
501
I RCA (Institut de Recherche sur le caoutchouc en Afrique) 1981.
L'Hevea cultures en France: les station I.R.C.A. (Institut
de Recherche sur le caoutchouc en Afrique) des Caraibes.
Caoutchouc et Plastiques 630:69-70.
IRCA (Institut de Recherche sur le caoutchouc en Afrique). 1983.
Utilisation des graines d'hevea. Caoutchouc et Plastiques
629:83-84.
Maner, J.H. 1972. Cassava in swine feeding. In: First Latin
American Swine Seminar, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, September 18-
21, 1972. Centrol International de Agriculture Tropical,
Cali, Colombia.
Meffeja, F. 1984. Utilisation of agro-industrial by-products in
animal feeding: Replacement of cottonseed cake with 0, 20,
30 and 40X rubberseed meal supplemented with blood meal in
pig rations. Final year Memoire, ENSA Dschang University
Centre, Yaound Cameroon.
Riviere, R. 1978. Manual d' al imentat ion des ruminants
domestiques en milieu tropical Ministere de la Cooperation,
Paris, France.
Stosic, D.D. and KayKay, J.M. 1981. Rubber seed as animal feed
in Liberia. World Animal Review 39:29-39.
Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. 1980. Principles and procedures
of statistics 2. 2. biometrical approach. 2nd ed. McGraw
Hill Book Company Inc., New York, USA.
502
THE UNEXPLOITED POTENTIAL OF IMPROVED FORAGES IN THE MID-ALTITUDE
AND LOWLAND AREAS OF ETHIOPIA
Alemu Tadesse
Institute of Agricultural Research
P. 0. Box 2003
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Livestock production is an important integral part of the farming
systems in all parts of Ethiopia. This sector of agriculture
plays a vital role in the livelihood of the majority of people In
the country. In spite of this, the productivity of livestock is
low mainly due to malnutrition and undernutrition.
This paper gives a brief summary of the major factors
contributing to low productivity of Ethiopian livestock in the
mid-altitude and lowland areas of the country and describes the
potential role of improved forages in overcoming these problems.
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is an agricultural country whose large majority of
people are engaged in farming. Production of food crops and
livestock are simultaneously done in the cultivated highland and
mid-altitude areas. Food crops are produced for subsistence and
livestock are raised to provide mainly draft power for crop
cultivation and other secondary outputs like milk, meat,
hide/skin, dung, manure etc.
LIVESTOCK POPULATION
Ethiopia with its 36.7 million heads of cattle, 24 million sheep
and 17.7 million goats, owns the largest livestock population in
Africa and is among the top ten in the world (FAO, 1973). The
majority of the cattle population of Ethiopia (78X) are found in
the mixed farming highland and mid-altitude zones and the rest
(22X) are found in the lowland pastoral ist areas (Beyene Kebede,
1985)
503
The highland and mid-altitude zones of the country support
75X of the sheep population and 27% of the goats. The lowlands
are inhabited by 25X of the national sheep flock and 72X of the
goats (Galal, 1980).
CATTLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
In the mixed farming mid-altitude areas cattle are kept primarily
for traction purpose and provide milk and meat as by-products.
Cattle number per family in these areas is usually small. Cattle
obtain their feed requirement by grazing on natural pastures,
fallow lands, marginal lands that are not suitable for arable
farming and to some extent from crop residues. Due to allocation
of more land for crop production, grazing lands are limited.
Because of the seasonality of rainfall distribution, grazing
conditions are not favourable for more than half the year. Thus
animal weight gains obtained during the wet season are lost
during the dry season when the feed supply declines both in
quality and quantity.
In the lowland pastoralist areas where no or little farming
is practised cattle are kept to provide mainly milk. The
climate in these areas is harsh with low, unreliable and unevenly
distributed rainfall and with year round high temperatures.
Animal production usually concentrates around water points and
herd size per family is usually large. Range lands in these
areas are heavily overgrazed due to high livestock population
density. The zone provides the largest proportion of meat
production in the country (Alemu Tadesse, 1987).
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY
Livestock productivity in Ethiopia in high and mid-altitude and
lowland areas, in particular is generally, low due to several
factors such as poor genetic make up, poor nutrition and poor
veterinary care. But poor nutrition is the major limiting
factor. Animals in these zones and other parts of the country
depend mainly on natural pastures for their feed requirements.
504
NATURAL PASTURES
Natural pastures which provide more than 90X of the livestock
feed are very poorly managed in both ecological zones. In the
mixed farming mid-altitude areas better soils are used for
cropping and the main permanent natural pasture lands are found
on the upper slopes of hills and seasonally waterlogged areas.
In the lowlands where extensive pastoral ism is practised most of
the land except for rivers, swamps, lakes and deserts contains
natural pasture which may be associated with woodland in the
wetter areas.
Considering the country as a whole, grazing lands contribute
53X (FAO, 1981) of the total land area. Even though the amount
of grazing areas seems to be large, the yield and quality of the
pasture is very low. Due to poor management and overstocking,
natural pastures in both ecological zones are highly overgrazed
resulting in serious land degradation, loss of valuable species
and dominance by unpalatable species.
In the subhumid mid-altitude areas natural pastures are
dominated mainly by Hyparrhenia species which tend to grow fast
and become stemmy and fibrous within short period of time thus
losing their palatability and feed value. In these areas the
overgrazed pastures are dominated by unpalatable Sporobolus and
Pennisetum species. Herbage growth is luxuriant during the wet
season and this gives large bulk of herbage during the dry season
which is be burnt to encourage regrowth in subsequent rains. In
semi-arid mid-altitude zones, rainfall is the major factor
influencing primary productivity. In some areas feed reserves
are so low that a single season of lower than average rainfall
can result in the loss of lives of many animals.
Because of diversity of climate, a number of forage species,
mainly grasses, are found in both ecological zones. As opposed
to natural grasslands of the highland areas which are rich in
legume species, grasslands of the mid-altitude and lowland zones
have low proportion of legume. The proportion tends to decrease
with decrease in altitude. The less abundant native legumes of
the lower altitude have sprawling growth.
505
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE
In spite of their poor productivity cattle play a very important
role in the livelihood of the majority of people in the rural
areas of the mid-altitude and lowland zones of the country. In
mid-altitude areas where crop production is the primary
occupation of the farming community, they are used as a source of
mechanical power to cultivate farm lands. They also provide the
main source of animal protein in the form of meat and milk. This
protein has higher dietary value than protein of crop origin. In
this zone cattle are a form of saving or investment readily
converted into cash when the need arises. So, they contribute an
important share of farm income (Legesse Dadi et al, 1987).
In the lowlands the livelihood of the pastoral ists wholly
depend on the milk obtained from cattle. Here also they are used
as source of income.
TESTED CULTIVATED PASTURE AND FODDER CROPS
Over the past two decades quite a large number of annual
perennial forage and fodder species have been tested in the mid-
altitude and lowland zones of the country under rainfed and
irrigated conditions respectively. As a result many useful
improved herbage species have been identified for both ecological
zones.
Chloris navana. Panicum coloratum. Panicum maximum. Melinis
minutif lora. Pennisetum purpureum. Zea mais. Sorghum vulgare.
Sorghum almum. Desmodium uncinatum. Stvlosanthes guianensis.
Leucaena leucocephala. Dolichos lablab. (Lablab purpureus.
Macropti lium atropurpuruem and Vicia atropurpurea are the most
promising pasture and fodder species among the tested species so
far and are recommended for mid-altitude areas ranging in
altitude from 1000 to 1800 m (Lulseged Gebre-Hiwot and Alemu,
1985).
The recommended perennial forages are highly productive
(Tables 1 and 2) and in the sub-humid mid-altitude areas under
506
rainfed conditions can give two harvests during the time of
normal rains and three to four cuts during years of more than
average rainfall.
In research centres and some dairy state farms, the first
cut which is usually taken in mid- July is used for making silage
the regrowth which is cut in October is used for making hay.
Following hay-making, the pasture fields provide considerable
grazing for about two months sometime during the early months of
the dry season (November and December).
Chloris gavana. Cenchrus ciliaris. Pennisetum purpureum.
Pan i cum spp, Medicago sativa and leucaena leucocephala are
promising species for semi -arid and arid lowland areas below 1000
m usually under irrigation.
Table 1. DM yield of improved forages in the sub-humid mid-
altitude areas of Ethiopia.
DM Yield (t/ha)
Varieties/species 1982 1983 1984 1985 Mean
Annuals
Oat-8237 8.37 8.57 8.04 n.a. 8.33
Sorghum sudanense 5.43 15.96 14.08 n.a. 11.84
Sorghum a l mum 13.53 17.34 12.74 n.a. 14.33
Dolichos lablab 5.16 14.04 11.74 n.a. 10.31
Perennials
Chloris gavana - 9.21 15.55 20.57 18.34
Pan i cum coloratum - 9.93 18.00 13.64 13.86
Pennisetum purpureum 16.25 14.41 26.60 14.78 18.01
Desmodium unci natum - 1.40 14.70 8.72 10.28
Source: IAR (1986)
n.a. Not available
- not recorded
507
Table 2. DM yields of two varieties of Leucaena leucocephala at
sub-humid mid-altitude areas of Ethiopia.
Dry matter yield (t/ha)
Varieties 1981 1982 1983 Mean
Peru 7.69 12.82 15.22 11.91
Cunnigham 6.93 12.64 17.01 12.19
Source: IAR (1986)
In irrigated areas of the lowlands alfalfa and Rhodes grass
are very important and can give 8-10 harvests with herbage yield
of 45-55 t/ha DM each year. (Lulseged Gebre-Hiwot, 1985).
In general, as research results show (Table 3), the
introduced improved species are more productive than naturally
occurring swards and have higher nutritive value. The length of
green feed period/growing season is longer for cultivated
pastures than for native pastures.
508
Table 3. DM yield of Chl or is gayan aand natural pasture harvested at
monthly intervals in the subhumid mid-altitude areas of Ethiopia.
Dry matter (X) Dry matter (t/ha)
Months Chloris Native chloris Native
gayana pasture gayana pasture
August 30.0 27.0 6.46 3.46
September 33.0 33.0 8.77 4.64
October 40.0 35.0 10.32 5.64
November 47.0 50.0 10.41 5.94
December 64.0 52.0 12.55 4.03
January 58.0 68.0 10.38 4.53
February 61.0 76.0 8.98 5.17
March 66.0 78.0 11.50 4.42
April 59.0 69.0 6.92 2.89
May 52.0 56.0 8.32 5.86
June 44.0 39.0 9.86 9.96
Mean 50.4 53.0 9.44 5.13
Source: IAR (1986)
ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPROVED FORAGES IN NATURAL PASTURES
As indicated in the previous section, most of the natural grazing
lands in the mid-altitude and lowland zones are highly overgrazed
due to mismanagement and over stocking. Their productivity and
feed value are also low due to low proportion of legumes.
Improved forages, mainly legumes, can improve the productivity of
these pastures by improving the fertility status of the soil.
They can also improve the feed value of native pastures since
they have more protein content than naturally occurring grass swards.
To improve the productivity, vegetation compost ion and feed
value of degraded natural pastures, oversowing of improved
legumes and grasses has been tried in the mid-altitude areas.
Results (Table 4) indicate that Stvlosanthes guianensis showed
superior establishment on burnt natural pasture while Desmodium
uncinatum is potential species for this purpose. Rhodes grass
failed to establish with minimum soil disturbance.
509
Table 4: DM yield and percent composition of improved legumes oversown in
hyparrhenia-dominated natural pasture in the subhumid mid-
altitude areas of Ethiopia.
Treatments Oversown legumes
DM yield (t/ha) Percent composition
Legumes Native legumes Native
pasture pasture
I + Stylosanthes guianensis
(cv. Endeavour)
+ S. guianensis (cv. Cook)
+ S. humilis
+ Desmodium uncinatum
S. guianensis (cv. Schofield)
II + S. guianensis (cv. Endeavour)
+ S. guianensis (cv. Cook)
S. humilis
D. uncinatum
S. guianensis (cv. Schofield)
III S. guianensis (cv. Endeavour)
S. guianensis (cv. Cook)
S. humilis
Desmodium uncinatum
S. guianensis (cv. Schofield)
IV S. guianensis (cv. Endeavour)
S. guianensis (cv. Cook)
S. humilis
D. uncinatum
S. guianensis (cv. Schofield)
0.05 2.69 2.0 98.0
0.02 2.67 0.7 99.3
- 2.97 - 100.0
- 3.26 - 100.0
0.07 2.54 3.0 97.0
0.17 3.12 6.0 94.0
0.28 3.86 7.0 93.0
0.18 2.99 6.0 94.0
0.41 3.68 10.0 90.0
0.38 2.88 12.0 88.0
0.19 2.70 7.0 93.0
0.09 2.53 3.0 97.0
0.08 2.74 3.0 97.0
0.54 2.90 16.0 84.0
0.42 3.07 12.0 88.0
0.09 3.28 3.0 97.0
0.53 3.05 15.0 85.0
0.06 3.99 2.0 98.0
0.27 3.56 7.0 93.0
0.55 2.82 16.0 84.0
Note: + Treatments
I = Undisturbed natural pasture
II = Disc-harrowed natural pasture
III = Oxen-ploughed natural pasture
IV = Burned natural pasture
Source: IAR (1986)
510
Conventional methods of pasture establishment demand high
capital cost and labour. Low cost establishment methods such as
intercropping forages with food crops are economically feasible
for resource poor farmers. Research results (Table 5 and 6)
indicate that some improved forages such as Chl or is gavana and
Desmodium uncinatum can successfully establish when undersown to
maize after final weeding of the crop without affecting maize
grain yield. The forages persisted well for three to four years
after establishment.
It is a tradition among the majority of farmers in the mid-
altitude areas to abandon their crop lands to naturally
regenerated fallows after some years of continuous cultivation.
This is done for soil fertility restoration purposes. Fallowing
is good since it allows accumulation and storage of nutrients in
the above ground vegetation for later release to the surface
soil. It also helps to add organic matter to the surface soil
thereby increasing total nutrient and cation exchange capacity.
It also has the additional value in reducing crop-associated
weeds, pests and diseases (Mohammed Saleem, 1984). If improved
forages are planted on fallow lands they have double advantage of
rapidly restoring the fertility of soil and providing nutritious
herbage to livestock. The forage which successfully establishes
using the indicated method can be effectively used for this
purpose.
511
Table 5. Grain yield of maize intercropped with different forage
crops at two mid-altitude areas of Ethiopia.
No Intercropped forages
Maize grain yield (q/ha)
Bako Awassa
1 Control (no intercropped forage) 73.3
2 Chl or is gayana (cv. Pokot) 67.5
3 Chl or is gayana (cv. Masaba) 77.9
4 Chl or is gayana (cv. Rongai) 74.9
5 Pan i cum maximum 74.2
6 Brachiaria ruziziensis 81.7
7 Cenchrus c i l i a r i s n.a
8 Desmodium uncinatum 66.0
9 Medicago sativa n.a
10 Phaseolus lathyroides n.a
58.9
59.2
n.a
n.a
58.5
n.a
58.4
62.7
56.4
58.7
Mean 73.4 59.0
cv 19X 13.9
SE +7.0q/ha +5.8q/ha
n.a not available
Source: IAR (1982)
Table 6. Dry matter yield of different forages undersown to
maize in the subhumid mid-altitude area of Ethiopia.
Dry matter yield (t/ha)
Intercropped forages 1983 1984 Mean
Chl or is gayana (cv. pokot) 8.26
Chloris gayana (cv. massaba) 11.78
Chloris gayana (cv. Rongai) 10.65
Desmodium uncinatum 5.68
14.42 11.38
12.47 12.12
15.14 12.89
7.53 6.60
Source: IAR (1986)
512
SEED PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF IMPROVED FORAGES
Except few, most of the improved tropical forages adapted to the
environmental conditions of the mid altitude and lowland areas of
Ethiopia have no problem of flowering and seed setting. Small
quantities of seeds are often collected from experimental plots
and bulking seed production mini plots. Observations made at
Bako which is one of the subhumid mid-altitude areas of the
country, show that Rhodes grass at optimum seed rate and row
spacing on experimental plots can give up to 700 kg of seeds/ha.
Pan i cum coloratum. Desmodium uncinatum and Stvlosanthes
guianensis gave seed yields of 500 kg/ha, 400 kg/ha and 350 kg/ha
respectively. Lablab purpureus gave about 1700 kg of seeds/ha
(unpublished data).
Work done at the same location also indicated that seed
yields of vetch ( V i c i a atropurpurea) could be increased by upto
600X (Table 7) when grown and supported by fences. This allows
multiple harvests.
Table 7. Effect of support system on seed yield of V i c i a
atropurpu rea
Seed y ie ld ( q/ha)
Treatments 1983 1984 1985 Mean
Without support
With support
7.71
48.71
6.39
51.99
5.96
49.59
6.69
50.10
Source: IAR (1986)
PRESENT STATUS OF IMPROVED FORAGES IN THE FARMING SYSTEMS OF THE
MID-ALTITUDE AND LOWLAND AREAS OF ETHIOPIA
As in many other parts of the country, diffusion of research
results has been slow in the mid-altitude and lowland areas
513
mainly due to non-availability of a well-organised extension
system, particularly before the establishment of Research and
Extension Linkage Coordination Division (RELC). This Division
was established two years ago based on the agreement made between
the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) and the Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA) in order to bridge the gap between research and
extension which is the major bottleneck to the development of
Ethiopian agriculture.
Although many useful and suitable improved forages have been
identified for the two ecological zones, they have not
effectively reached the farming community. Only two species,
Chl or is gavana and Medicago sati va are used in research centres.
Some dairy producer co-operatives which are emerging in some mid-
altitude areas own crossbred cattle which require better feeding.
These co-operatives are growing pastures and fodder crops such as
oats, vetch and Rhodes grass. The improved pastures are used for
hay or green feeding.
FACTORS LIMITING THE UTILISATION OF IMPROVED FORAGES IN THE
SMALL-HOLDER SECTORS
1. Farmers give more priority to the production of food crops.
They are reluctant to devote their extra land and labour for
production of forages. This is mainly due to economic factors
and due to lack of knowledge.
2. Poor co-ordination among research institutions and development
organisations.
Due to lack of co-ordination there is very loose link
between research and extension. Researchers do not get enough
feedback information to enable them to plan their research
activities based on the need of farmers. So, most of the time,
projects are proposed based on locally perceived problems.
3. Shortage of seeds of required species.
There is no forage seed producing organisation in the
country at present. The Ethiopia seed enterprise is the only
514
seed- producing organisation which is engaged in the production of
seeds of selected food crops only. So there is acute shortage of
pasture seeds in the country.
4. Lack of low cost packages is another limiting factor.
CONCLUSION
The livestock sector plays a very important role in the overall
development of Ethiopia's agriculture. The country has a large
cattle population, vast areas of grazing lands and suitable
environment for raising livestock. The people also have the
traditional background and knowledge of raising livestock for
different purposes. All these are potential resources awaiting
exploitation for improving the country's livestock productivity.
Experience indicates that with the application of some
improved management practices, such as using improved feeding
systems, the productivity of livestock can be raised. The
promising improved forages identified so far can also contribute
much towards improving the productivity of livestock in both
ecological zones.
In order to facilitate the immediate diffusion of improved
forages into the farming systems of the two ecological zones, the
farmers need to learn the importance of these species in
improving the productivity of livestock. A well-organised
extension system is required for this purpose.
The Research and Extension Linkage Co-ordination Division
can play a great role in this aspect. Thhere was recently
established in IAR inorder to bridge 'the gap between research and
extension. The main task of the division is to demonstrate
research results on farmers' fields and train development agents
on how to utilise research results. The division is also
mandated to feed back information on farmers problems to
researchers.
The problem of seed shortage also needs to be solved in
order to efficiently utilise these species. The effort being
515
made by the Fourth Livestock Development Project of the Ministry
of Agriculture to make forage seeds available to farmers is one
possible solution for the problem. But still more effort is
needed from other organisations like the Seed Enterprise of
Ethiopia in producing seeds of the recommended forages in larger
quantities for both ecological zones.
REFERENCES
Alemu Gebre Wolde. 1985. The status of beef cattle research in
Ethiopia. Paper presented at the workshop on Review on the
Status of Livestock, Pasture and Forage Research in
Ethiopia, held in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia, 8-10 January 1985.
Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Beyene Kebede. 1985. The status of dairy research and
development in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the workshop
on Review of Status of Livestock, Pasture and Forage
Research in Ethiopia, held in ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
8-10 January 1985. Institute of Agricultural Research,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation). 1981. International
scheme for the co-ordination of dairy development and
international meat development scheme. Report on Ethiopia,
17 May - 18 June 1980, FAO, Rome. pp. 67-71.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation). 1973. Livestock and
meat industries in Ethiopia: Present situation and prospect
for future development in Ethiopia. FAO, Rome.
Galal, E.S.E. 1980. A contribution towards a plan for sheep and
goat research and development in Ethiopia. Institute of
Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1986. Progress Report.
Department of Animal Science, Pasture and Forage Team,
April 1984 to March 1985. IAR. Addis Ababa.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1982. Progress Report.
Department of Animal Science, Pasture and Forage Team
1981/82. IAR, Addis Ababa.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1986. Progress Report.
Department of Animal Science, Pasture and Forage Team,
1983/84. IAR, Addis Ababa.
516
Legesse Oadi, Gemechu Gedano, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun. 1987.
Bako Mixed Farming Zone Diagnostic Survey Report. Wollega
and Shewa regions. Department o Agricultural Economics and
Farming Systems Research, Report No.1.
Lulseged Gebre-Hiwot. 1985. The status of pasture and forage
research and development in Ethiopia. Paper presented at
the workshop on Review and Forage Research in Ethiopia held
in ILCA Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 8-10 January 1985.
Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Lulseged Gebre-Hiwot and Alemu Tadesse. 1984. Pasture research
and development in Ethiopia. In: J. A. Kategile (ed)
Pasture improvement research in eastern and southern
Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held in Harare,
Zimbabwe, 17-21 Sept. 1984. IDRC, Ottawa, Ontario, pp.
77-91.
517
THE POTENTIAL OF SWEET POTATO (I POMEA BATATAS (L.)LAMB) AS A
DUAL PURPOSE CROP IN SEMI-ARID CROP/LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS IN KENYA
N.K. Karachi*
National Dryland Farming Research Centre,
Katumani
P. 0. Box 340
Machakos, Kenya
B.H. Dzowela
ILCA
P.0. Box 46847
Nairobi, Kenya
ABSTRACT
The potential of sweet potatoes ( I pomea batatas(L. )Lamb) for use
as a dual purpose crop in crop/ livestock systems of semi -arid
Kenya was studied on twelve accessions. Root initiation (fibrous
and fresh roots), vine growth and nutritional quality and effects
of supplementing vines and cottonseed cake (CSC) on growth of
Boran weaner male calves were investigated.
Time to fibrous root initiation was not significantly
different (P<0.05) but significant differences (P<0.05) were
observed in mean root numbers and lengths after 10 days of
growth. Accessions differed significantly (P<0.05) in time to
freshy tuber initiation, enlarged tuber numbers and tuber weight.
Trends in vine components (stem and leaves) yields showed a
decline after 120 or 150 days from transplanting. A significant
(P<0.05) time x vine dry matter (DM) accumulation rate
interaction was obtained. Percent protein (CP), cell contents
(CO, cell wall constituents (CWC) and acid detergent lignin
(ADD differed significantly (P<0.05) among the accessions while
acid detergent fiber (ADF) and ash were not significantly
different (P>0.05).
* Present address, International Coucil for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF), P. 0. Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya
518
Supplemental vines and cottonseed cake significantly
improved (P<0.01) intake of Rhodes grass hay, calf growth rates
and feed conversion efficiencies.
The data suggests that sweet potato vines could replace CSC
as a livestock feed supplement.
Implications on the use of vines as livestock feed
supplements are discussed. The variation exhibited in the
attributes measured indicate that selections that optimise tuber
and vine yields are possible.
INTRODUCTION
Crops and livestock form integral components in providing for the
human population in semi-arid Kenya. This has necessitated re
orientation in developing technical packages that integrate the
two production systems. Several studies have reported on dry
matter production and distribution in sweet potato ( Ipomea
batatasd. )Lamb) during growth and development (Austin, 1973;
Huett and O'Neill, 1976; Karachi, 1982a and Bourke, 1984).
Attempts were further made (Karachi, 1982b) to broadly classify
Kenyan materials into dual purpose tuber and vine producing types
based on tops: tuber yield ratios.
The dual purpose types have a potential role in the
development of production technologies that aim at integrating
crops and livestock commodity factors into an integral production
system. The following investigations were initiated to study
production characteristics, forage quality and animal production
potential of some selected Kenyan sweet potato accessions for
inclusion into crop/livestock production systems.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Twelve accessions, Mania, Namala, Mkizumu, 3011, Kiganda, Munyoka
(R), Calorine Lee, Musinya, Widowi, Mulenjet, Opiemo and
Lunyulule were used in each experiment.
519
Experiment 1: Fibrous root development
The experiment was conducted in an open grasshouse at National
Dryland Farming Research Centre, Katumani. The aim was to
determine whether there were differences in fibrous root
initiation and growth between the accessions under adequate
moisture conditions.
Five 30 cm long apical vines from each accession were cut at
a node, tied loosely together with cotton thread and put in 10 cm
diameter, 20 cm long polythene bags. The cut vine tips were
bedded into 3 cm depth of water. The experiment was a randomised
complete block design with three replications. Indications of
root initiation were recorded on each vine daily as swellings at
the nodes. Mean root lengths and numbers were recorded 10 days
from root initiation for each accession. Water in polythene bags
was not changed during the experimental period.
Experiment 2: Tuber development and vine quality
Two experiments involving yearly replanting were conducted under
rainfed conditions at Beef Research Station, Nakuru. Each
experiment was established after 30 mm establishment rainfall was
received; a total of 610 mm (year 1) and 590 mm (year 2) was
received during the growth periods.
Plot sizes were 6 m x 3.6 m. The design was a split-plot
with accessions as main plots and sampling dates as sub-plots.
There were three replicates. Vine cuttings, 30 cm long, were
planted on flats at 60 cm within row spacing and 30 cm between
row spacing. Fertilizers at the rates of 20 kg P/ha, 15 kg K/ha
and 10 kg N/ha as single superphosphate, muriate of potash and
calcium ammonium nitrate, respectively, were placed in small
furrows about 3 cm depth and width adjacent to vine rows and
immediately covered. The plots were clean weeded throughout the
experiment.
520
Trends in tuberisat ion and dry-matter accumulation were
monitored over four harvest dates ranging from 120, 150, 180 and
210 days after planting. Six randomly selected adjacent plants
were harvested by hand digging leaving the border plants. On
each harvest date, total number and fresh weight of enlarged
tubers, >3 cm diameter, clean of soil and total fresh weight of
vines were recorded. Subsamples, on replicate basis, of enlarged
tubers (sliced) and vines were dried in a forced draft oven
(105 C for 24 h) for dry matter (DM) determination. Another set
of subsamples was dried at 60 C for 24 h, ground to pass through
2 mm sieve and stored in airtight plastic bottles for chemical
analysis. Crude protein (CP) was determined by microkjedahl
method and ash content as described by AOAC (1970). The fibre
fractions were determined according to Goering and Van Soest
(1970).
Bulking plots of the same accessions were established at the
same time for a feeding trial.
Experiment 3: Effect of supplement sweet potato vines and
cottonseed cake (SCS) on growth of weaned Boran calves.
The experiments were conducted aimed at comparing growth rates of
penned Boran calves fed on chopped (approximately 3 cm length)
Rhodes grass hay as basal roughage supplemented with either sweet
potato vines (mean CP, 13X on DM basis) or cottonseed cake (mean
CP, 33X on DM basis). Sweet potato vines were 210 days old from
transplanting. The vines were harvested, air dried and chopped
(approximately 3 cm length) before commencement of the trials.
Ail weaners were dewormed before the start of the experiment
using Ranzole (Merk, Sharp and Dohme B.V. Netherlands Commercial)
mineral supplement 'stock lick', from Unga Feeds Ltd, Nairobi and
water were provided ad libitum
Calves, 131+5, 134+7 and 140+4 kg (experiment 3a) and 132+6,
129+3 and 126+ kg (experiment 3b) initial mean fasted liveweights
(16h without water or feed) were either fed hay (fid. lib), hay +
500 g vines DM and hay + 200 g DM cottonseed cake head/day. The
supplements provided additional 65 and 66 g crude
protein/head/day respectively. In experiment 3b the weaners were
521
supplemented with additional 100 g urea/molasses, (4% CP)
head/day to improve forage intake. Each experiment consisted o
a preliminary period of 14 days to allow adjustment of weaners
diets and facilities. Calves were randomly allocated to
treatments in groups of nine per pen. Half of the estimated ha'
intake (established during the adjustment period) was mixed witl
the supplements and offered at 09.00 h. The remaining forage
component was offered at 14.00 h allowing 15X more forage than
that consumed the previous day. The experimental design was a
randomised complete block with two replications.
Records were kept of feed offered, less refusals, to obtair
intake data. The dry matter intake was calculated on a basis o1
7 day totals of dietary components offered, less refusals. At
the start of each experiment and after every 15 days during the
feeding period, starved weaner liveweights were taken.
Chemical composition of feeds on offer was determined as
described in experiment 2. in vitro dry matter digestibility wa
estimated by Till ey and Terry (1963) procedures. Statistical
analyses of all data was done according to Steel and Torrie
(1980). Means were subjected to Duncan's multiple range test fo
determination of significant differences.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fibrous Roots
Time to fibrous root initiation was not significantly different
(P<0.05) between the cultivars but significant differences
(P<0.05) were observed with fibrous root numbers and root length
(Table 1). HoViever, relationships between these rooting
characters are not apparent. This experiment should be conducte
under field situation to examine whether the accessions exhibit
similar growth trends under limited moisture conditions.
Freshy roots
Time to production of thickened tubers as measured by roots
>3 cm diameter (Table 2) differed significantly (P<0.05) among
522
accessions. Generally, accessions Mania, 3011 and Muyoka (R)
could be classified as early tuber initiators (<than 150 days
from transplanting) while the others (except Namala, Mulenjeti
and Lunyulule) which did not produce tubers are late tuber
initiators. The late tuber initiators also tended to have
significantly higher (P<0.05) root tuber numbers. Root tuber
numbers and tuber weight varied among accessions confirming the
results of Karachi (1982b) and Randle (1987). Accession 3011 had
the highest and significant (P<0.01) mean tuber weight
(21.4+2.2g) while Muyoka (R) had the lowest and significant
(P<0.01, 3.3+0.4g). Accession Opiemo had the highest and
significant (P<0.01) mean tuber numbers (13.3+1.5g) and Muyoka
(R) the lowest and significant (1.7+0.1g). No apparent
relationship between root tuber numbers, tuber weight or time to
tuber initiation was evident.
Tops dry weight
Changes in dry weights of tops components are shown in Figure 1.
A significant (P<0.05) harvest time x species interraction was
detected. Accessions showed declined trends in leaf and stem DM
accumulation after day 120 from transplanting but at different
rates. The leaf component declined at a higher rate than that of
the stem fraction leading to a reduction in leaf contribution to
total DM with maturity which conforms with Randle (1987). This
could eventually result in reduction of the nutritive value of
the vines (Karachi 1982a). The declining trends were most marked
when enlarged root tubers were recorded suggesting most
assimilates were directed to tuber development (Austin, 1973 and
Bhagsari and Harmon, 1982).
523
Table 1. Fibrous root initiation, number of roots (mean + S.E)
and root lengths (cm, mean + S.E)
Accession Days to root Number of roots Root lengths (cm)
initiation (10 days from
ini t iat ion)
Mania 4 8.9 + 1.2 11.5 + 0.5
Namala 3 15.3 + 2.9 15.5 + 1.3
Mkizumu 5 6.5 + 0.8 5.0 + 0.6
3011 4 7.8 + 1.2 5.0 + 0.2
Kiganda 4 3.3 + 0.2 8.0 + 1.2
Muyoka (R) 3 9.4 + 1.1 6.0 + 0.3
Calorine Lee 3 6.6 + 0.5 10.5 + 1.1
Musinya 3 6.4 + 0.3 12.5 1 1-7
Widowi 3 4.7 + 0.2 10.0 + 0.7
Mulenjeti 4 9.2 + 0.7 8.2 + 0.3
Opiemo 3 7.3 + 0.4 10.1 + 0.9
Lunjulule 6 8.8 + 0.4 4.0 * 0.1
LSD (P<.05) NS 4.3 3.5
524
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526
Chemical composition of tops
Chemical composition of tops (Table 3) showed significant
(P<0.05) differences in protein content (CPX), cell contents
(CCX), cell wall constituents (CWCX) and acid detergent lignin
(ADLX). Acid detergent fibre (ADFX) and ash contents were not
significantly different (P>0.05). The content of these
attributes ranged by approximately 5, 13, 11, 4, 6 and 2
percentage units respectively between the accessions indicating
that selections could be made that optimises vine nutritional
qualities. Overall, the materials show protein levels are
adequate to meet animal requirements for beef production (Church,
1980). However, the lignin levels are high which is
characteristic of forbs (Van Soest, 1982). A.N. Said (unpublished
data) recorded low water intake and high urination rates by sheep
fed sweet potato vines. Fractionating the mineral content in the
ash and the DM content in the forage may assist in explaining
this observation.
Calf responses
Chemical composition of rations offered (Table 4) indicate
protein content was slightly above levels that intake is
depreseed (6-8X CP, Van Soest 1982). In vitro dry matter
digestibility (IVDMDX) show that the feeds were of medium quality
and generally improved with supplementation.
527
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Table 4: Chemical composition and j_n vi tro dry matter
digestibility of rations.
Experiment 1
Ration CPX ADFX ADLX ASHX IVDMD%
hay alone 6.1 53.9 5.6
hay + vines 6.8 51.3 6.1
hay + CSC 7.2 51.7 6.4
Experiment 2
hay alone 6.5 52.6 5.2
hay + vines 7.1 47.8 5.6
hay + CSC 7.4 50.2 6.2
10.4 40.1
12.3 47.3
11.8 48.8
10.6 43.6
13.6 50.7
12.6 46.2
Table 5: Effect of vines and cottonseed cake (CSC)
supplementation on DM intake and calf growth rates
Treatments
Expe riments
Total DM intake hay hay + vines Hay + CSC S .E.
(kg/day)
2.7a 3.5b 4 .1c .25
Growth rate (kg/day)
.11a .28b .37C
.03
Feed conversion
24. 5b 12. 5a 11 .1a 1 .37
ratio (feed/gain)
Expe riment 2
Total DM intake
3.4a 4.2b 4 .6b .21
kg/day
Growth rate (kg/day .18a .34b
.39b .05
Feed conversion ratio
18. 9b 11. 8a 11 ,8a 1 .12
( few/gain)
S.E. - Standard error
abc - means within a row followed by different superscripts
differ (P<.01)
529
Weaners supplemented with vines and cottonseed cake consumed
30 and 50X more (P<0.01) total DM respectively than those fed on
grass alone (Table 5 experiment 3a). The improved feed intake
was associated with 2.5 to 3.4 times (P<0.01) gain in calf
liveweights and 49 to 55X improved (P<0.01) efficiencies in
utilising the feed above that of calves fed on grass alone.
Inclusion of urea/molasses (experiment 3b) increased (P<0.01)
total DM intake, liveweight gains and feed utilisation
efficiencies. The magnitude of gain was 1.9 and 2.2 times
(P<0.01) and feed efficiency, 38X (P<0.01) above that of control
calves. Molasses was probably associated with overcoming dietary
energy deficits since liveweight gains were similar among the
supplemented groups. Cottonseed cake contains substantial levels
of energy.
Practical implications
Inherent climatic constraints in semi-arid bimodal rainfall zones
with < 1 20 growing days, entail that the cult i vars/accessions
should initiate fibrous and fresh root growth and the
partitioning of assimilates between tops and root tubers within
relatively short growth periods. Although no differences were
exhibited on time to fibrous root initiation, data on root
numbers and lengths suggest that differences may exist in the
ability of the accessions to exploit the available moisture.
This could be a critical determinant of successful establishment
under unreliable and limited moisture conditions typical in semi-
arid environments. Freshy root initiation by accessions 3011 and
Muyoka (R) indicate their ability to produce tubers within the
period effective moisture is expected (in Machakos). The other
accessions appear suitable for semi-arid unimodal rainfall high
altitude areas, 150-180 growing days (in Nakuru) while accessions
Namala, Mulenjeti and Opiemo are essentially vine producing types
under these growth conditions.
Sweet potato tubers are used as dry season human food
security. Prolonged storage of tubers in the soil leads to leaf
shed and increased synthesis of fibre fractions in the stem which
are antiquality characteristics. Vine DM accumulation rates
declined within 120-150 days from transplanting but showed
530
minimal change at 210 days suggesting this would be the optimal
feeding period. Therefore the use of sweet potato vines as feed
supplement in the dry season may require selection of materials
with capacity to retain leaves. Another possibility would be to
cut vines before leaf-shed for storage. However information on
effects of cutting vines on tuber storability is lacking.
Supplementing weaners with 500 g/head/day of vines effected
growth equivalent to that of calves fed 200 g cottonseed cake
head/day. At the current price of KShs.7.00 (USD 0.35)/kg high
grade cottonseed cake it is apparent that compounding feeds based
on vines rather than cottonseed cake would be an attractive
venture. Greater value would further be obtained from
supplementing vines to dairy stock or replacement heifers than
beef -animals. Nevertheless, the DM content of fresh vines is
usually <30X, necessitating feeding substantial amounts.
REFERENCES
A.0.A.C. 1970. Official methods of analysis Ass. of Off.
Analytical. Chem., Washington D.C.
Austin, M.E. 1973. Patterns of dry matter distribution during
development of sweet potato ( 1 pome a batatas) . Hort . Sci "
48:11-17.
Bhagsari, A.S. and Harmon, S.A. 1982. Photosynthesis and
photosynthate partitioning in sweet potato genotypes J ,
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 107:506-510.
Bourke, R.M. 1984. Growth analysis of four sweet potato ( I pomea
batatas) cultivars in Papua New Guinea. Trop. A g r i c "
(Trin) 61:177-181.
Church, D.C. 1980. Digestive physiology and nutri t ion of
ruminants. 0 and B Books Inc., Corvallis, Ore., U.S.A.
Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P.J. 1970. Forage fiber analyses
(apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications),
USDA Agri. Handbook. 379, Washington, DC.
Huett, D.0. and O'Neill, G.H. 1976. Growth and development of
short and long season sweet potatoes in sub-tropical
Australia. Exp. Agric. 12:9-16.
531
Karachi, M.K. 1982. The performance of sweet potato Ipomea
batatas(L)tamb) in Western Kenya, I. Effect of nitrogen and
phosphorus combinations on yield. E.Af r. Agric. for J.
47:55-59.
Karachi, M.K. 1982b. The performance of sweet potato ( Ipomea
batatas(L)Lamb.) in Western Kenya. II. Yield of 31
cultivars. E_ .Af r. Agric. for J. 47:60-67.
Randle, W.M. 1987. Freshy root growth and development and
localized dry weight changes of four sweet potato
cultivars. Trop. Agric. ( T r i n ) 64:333-339.
Steel, R.G. and Torrie, J.H. 1980. Principles and procedures of
statistics: A biometrical approach. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.
Ti l ley, J.M. A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A 2-stage technique for the
in vitro digestion of forage crops. J_j_ Brit. Grassl . Soc.
18:104-111.
Van Soest, P.J. 1982. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant:
ruminant metabolism, nutritional strategies, the
cellulolytic fermentation and the chemistry of forages and
plant fibres. 0 and B Books, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon,
U.S.A.
532
SESSION IV
TECHNOLOGY TESTING, EVALUATION AND ADOPTION
533
INTERCROPPING TRIFOLIUM SPP. IN WHEAT AND ITS SUITABILITY FOR
SMALLHOLDER FARMER CONDITIONS OF THE ETHIOPIA HIGHLANDS
J.C. Kahurananga
ILCA
P. 0. Box 5689
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
In May/June 1987 two annual Ethiopian clovers, Tri fol ium decorum
and T. quart inianum were intercropped in wheat, Triticum aestivum
on a vertisol at Shola, Addis Ababa (2380 m, 9° 02'N), and on a
Nitosol at Holetta 40 km West of Addis Ababa in single or double
alternate rows or by broadcast. The intercropped wheat received
30 kg N/ha and the clovers 0, 20, 40, Or 80 kg P/ha. Control
wheat plots received split-applications of 0, 30, 60, 90 kg N/ha.
There were no significant grain yield reduction by intercropping
from which 1075-1992 kg grain/ha were obtained. Broadcasting
significantly gave less yield than row planting. P had a linear
effect on legume yield which varied from 471-5766 kg/ha. Holleta
had higher yields due to better drainage and sufficient rains
during the growing season. Shola had lower yields mainly due to
some water logging in wheat and low rainfall for the clovers as
there were insufficient rains in many parts of Ethiopia.
INTRODUCTION
Previous evaluation of annual native Tri fol ium spp. showed that
they can produce up to 6 t DM/ha thus indicating potential for
livestock feed under highland conditions (Kahurananga and Tsehay,
1984). This potential can be realised if these legumes are used
under mixed crop/livestock farmer conditions. Usually
smallholder farmers do not readily adopt the cultivation of
forages as they devote both land and labour to crop production.
The forages can only be adopted if they are introduced into
534
cropping systems. One way of achieving this is through
intercropping. This provides nutritious feed for livestock while
at the same time improving soils fertility through biological N
fixation which in turn sustains crop production. Therefore, the
purpose of this study carried out in 1987 was to develop
methodologies for intercropping annual Tri fol ium spp. into wheat,
suitable for smallholder farmer conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The trial was conducted at two sites. The first one was at ILCA
Headquarters, Shola, Addis Ababa (9°02'N, 38°4'E) at an elevation
of 2380 m on gently slopping ground with seasonally water- logged
black clay, Vertisol. The soil was slightly acidic (pH 5.8) and
very deficient in both total N (0.19X) and available P (8.68
ppm). Total annual rainfall in 1987 was 1090 mm with 723 mm
falling during the growing season from May to October (Shoamare,
1988). Average maximum and minimum temperatures during the
growing season were 22 C and 11 C respectively. See Table 1 for
detai ls.
The second site was at the Institute of Agricultural
Research (IAR) station at Holleta, 40km West of Addis (9°03N,
38 30E) at an elevation of 2400 m on gently slopping ground with
well drained red brown clay loam soil, Nitosol. The soil was
acidic (pH 5.5) and deficient in total available N (0.12X) and
available P(9.00 ppm). Total annual rainfall was 1102 mm with
797 mm falling during the rainy season from May to October.
Average maximum and minimum temperatures during the growing
season were 21 C and 8 C respectively. (Gebre Hiuot et al 1987).
See Table 1 for details.
The experiment was a randomized split-plot design with three
replicates. Two clovers, Tri fol ium decorum and T. quartinianum
were intercropped in wheat, variety Enkoy at 3 spatial designs
plus wheat alone and 4 sub-plot fertilizer treatments of 0, 20,
40, 80 kg P/ha. Urea was applied at a rate of 30 kg N/ha in all
wheat rows. There was an extra sole wheat control with 4 split-
plot treatments of 0, 30, 60, 90 kg N/ha. In all there were 8
main plots and 32 sub-plots in three replicates.
535
 The main plots were 5 m x 2.4 m with 1 m paths and the sub
plots were 15 kg of clover/ha. The first spatial design
consisted of alternate rows of wheat and clover at 20 cm rows and
the clover also 20 cm apart. The third consisted of wheat in 20
cm rows and the clover broadcast. A row woker was used to make
shallow rows (1 cm) for clover and deeper ones (5 cm) for wheat
into which fertilizer was applied and mixed with soil before the
seeds were planted. Clover seeds were scarified with sand-paper
prior to planting. The planting dates were 25 May at Holetta and
2 June at Shola.
Observations taken included emergence date, percentage
germination, first and full flowering dates for clovers and
tillering and heading dates for wheat. The clovers were
harvested at 50X flowering and the wheat at full maturity. The
legumes were harvested at Holetta on 23 October and the wheat on
6th November. The harvesting dates for wheat and legumes at
Shola were 22 October and 7 November respectively. Two 50 cm x
50 cm random quadrats were cut at 2 cm stubble height from each
sub-plot using sheep shears. Material from each sub-plot was
bulked, weighed and a 250 gm sample taken and dried in the oven
at 65 for 24 hrs for estimation of dry matter. In the case of
wheat, the seed heads were removed before the straw was oven-
dried. The wheat heads were dried in the sun and then threshed
and the seed weighted. After samples were taken all the wheat
was harvested and the remaining stubble and clover left for
cattle which ate it to the ground level.
536
Table1.RainfalldtemperaturedatfoHolettaSho ,2thiopia,1981.
temperature(?C)at1.3
Maximum
Shola
DM.9
2.1 22.8
DM.1 DM.3
22.3 34.1 21.2 22.1
DM.3 DM.3
2.2
6ir
Minimum Holetta 22.9 22.3
DM.6
22.6 22.6 22.2 2.9 2.2 34.3 22.6
DM.3 DM.3
Shola 6.6 2.2 11.1 11.1 11.1 2.1 11.3 11.3 11.1 9.1 1.1 1.3
Holetta
2.3 2.1 6.8 8.2 8.8 1.8 8.8 9.1 1.8 3.6 2.2 3.2
of
days
Shola 2 10
2 6 2 DM
31
2 2
9 1 1
Sumber
Rai2
Holetta
3 2 1 2 2 DM
21
6 2
6 2 3
(mm)
Shola
6.2 32.8 29.1 18.2
1DM.3
2.1 192.6 29.2 13.9 6.6 2.1 2.1
Rainfall
Holetta
2.1 12.1 11.3 82.1 61.3 28.3 182.1 22.8 12.9 19.2 11.1 2.1
January
2ebruary
March 6pril
Hay
June July
6ugust
September
October
S2ember 2ecember
Total
1122.3
289.9
12
178
Sources:AdaptedfromGebreHiwotal;(1981);hoamare;48).
273
RESULTS
The data were subjected to analysis of variance and the results
are given in Table 2. Data from the sole wheat with N fertilizer
only were analysed separately (Table 4).
Grain yields varied from 906 kg/OM/ha in broadcast plots to
2280 kg/OM/ha in row plots at Holetta. There were no significant
yield differences between single or double rows but there were
significant differences between rows and broadcast plots
(P<0.01). Broadcast plots gave lower yields. Straw yield varied
from 2140 kg DM/ha to 5240 kg/OM/ha. Once again the broadcast
plots gave lower yields. Average legume yields varied from 471
to 5766 kg DM/ha. Legume yields followed similar trends with T.
quart in) anum significantly out yielding T. decorum without much
detrimental effect on wheat yield P<0.01). Fertilizer P had a
linear effect on legume yield. There was no significant P effect
on wheat yield which also had received 30 kg N/ha like all
intercropped wheat. Fertilizer N did not significantly affect
yield on sole wheat which did not significantly differ with that
of intercropped wheat (P<0.05). In the intercropped plots total
DM production significantly exceeded wheat alone (P<0.01).
The results at Shola followed a similar pattern with some
exceptions. Wheat yields were slightly, though not significantly
lower than at Holetta. However, the clover yields were very
significantly lower (P<0 .001 ) . Also, single row plots
significantly exceeded double row plots but still broadcast plots
had the lowest yields (P<0.01). Fertilizer N had a significant
effect on wheat yield (P<0.05). In all, the yields at Shola were
lower than at Holetta.
DISCUSSION
Intercropped methodology
The most significant outcome of this trial was the successful
intercropping of the annual Ethiopia Trif ol ium spp. in wheat
538
without any significant reduction in wheat yield. This confirms
other research in the highlands in 1987 whereby Trifol ium spp.
were interplanted in wheat on Vertisol sites without reducing
wheat yield (Tedla et al, 1988). The clovers can therefore be
integrated into smallholder farming systems for producing high
quality feed within the cropping enterprise.
The developed methodology consists of planting wheat at the
normal seeding rate of 150 kg/ha and one and half times the
normal seeding rate of clover or 15 kg ha in single alternate
rows 20 cm apart. The usual P fertilizer rate of 40 kg/ha used
for clover is suitable. However, since the clover yields
obtained were about half those obtained when grown alone it is
important to test production at 20 kg P/ha. A rate of 30 kg/ha
seems to be suitable for wheat. The usual recommended fertilizer
is 100 kg/DAP ha with 18 kg N/ha and 21 kg P/ha (Wolde Mariam,
1971.
The wheat and clover were planted at the same time and the
clovers were planted at the same time as the wheat at Holetta and
later at Shola. The ideal situation is for the clover to mature
after wheat. It is therefore still necessary to look at
different planting dates or relay intercropping of the clovers.
Also several accessions of all the potential clover species need
to be tested in order to select late flowering ones as only 2
species were used in this trial. Previous trials showed
significant interspecific and intraspeci f ic variations among the
Ethiopian clovers (Akundabweni , 1984; Kahurananga and Tsehay,
1984).
Effect of soil and climatic factors
There were significant differences in production between the two
sites. One contributing factor was drainage. Holetta which was
well drained had better wheat yields than Shola which was
waterlogged. Wheat prefers reasonable drainage (Purseglove,
1972). Another factor affecting the trial was rainfall
distribution during the growing season. There was heavy above
average rainfall in May (206% at Shola) which necessitated the
rather early planting in May. Wheat is usually planted in the
539
Ethiopian highlands in June/July (Wesphal, 1975). Unfortunately
the rainfall in June at Shola was only 51 mm which was 18X of the
average for that month (Shoamare, 1988). This severely retarded
the growth of clovers which were at the seedling stage although
the wheat fared better. Similar observations were reported from
Degollo, one of the vertisol project sites (Abate et al, 1988).
Similarly the subsequent months had below average rainfall. This
reflected the pattern in most of Ethiopia as there were
insufficient rains in June and July in most places (National
Meteorological Services Agency, 1987).
The rainfall distribution at Holetta was much better and
both the wheat and clovers grew well. This means that
intercropping is suitable in areas with long growing seasons. In
the United States, intercropping of small grains including wheat
and soybeans has been successful in areas which have sufficiently
long and moist growing seasons (Kaplan and Brinkman, 1984).
Factors affecting adoption
The most important aim in crop production is crop yield. No
smallholder would adopt a technology which reduces yield.
Intercropping clovers in wheat did not reduce grain yield. There
was the added bonus of high quality feed which could be harvested
as hay or grazed with stubble. Another factor which affects
adoption is labour requirements at harvesting. This favours late
maturity species such as T. decorum which would mature after the
wheat is harvested. The alternative is to use early flowering
species such as T. steudneri for providing green-feed to
livestock. Short maturing wheat varieties ready for harvest
immediately after the end of the rains would also be at a later
date after the wheat is established. There is therefore need for
fine-tuning of the intercropping package for on-farm testing. A
crucial pre- requisi te will be production of large amounts of
seeds sufficient for such testing.
540
Table1:heeffectofPandmethodplantingon,yi ldinter roppedw at
TrifoliumsppatHole taandSh l ,Ethiopia,n616.
.ean,(kg/kg)
leg6me
iShola
166
11
661 161 161
161 11
661 111 16 111 11 66
161 666 111
111 161 116 16
wheat&
Holettc
616 36
616 666
611 16
1,
116
16 11 36 36 16 13 111
116
66 13 111
116
Leg6,e
Shola
111
111 66
116 111
61
131 111 16
11
11 61 616 11 11 111 61 11 11 16
Holetta
66
161
11
111 111
166 16
161
11 166
111
16
116
161
116
16 6S1
661 116 111
wheat
Shola
166 11
11
161 161
161
116 111 11 116 616 116
161 161
161 11
1611 616 161
111
Total
Holetta
11
111
661
61 11
111 661 616 61 166 11
161 111 116 611 611 111 1616
61 11
grain
Shola
11 61
11
161
11
661 616 666 666
166
1761 666 166 61
161
11
661 111 116
11
wheat
Holetta
61 11
111 611
61 61
611 666 166 166 61 111 616 166 11
166 166
6S1 61
161
grain Shola
116 61
661
61
116 616 611 11 116 61 111
111
111
11
611 166 161 616 161 111
(P)Wheat
iHoletta
61 ,1
1611
61
161 66
11
111 166 66 111 11 111 61 ,16 1616 116 661 116 61
Levelof
(kgha"1) 1 11 6 11 1 1 6 81
Tdbroadcast1
21 6 81 1 1 41 81 0 21 41 81
Levelof
T6at,ent
Td1row
11 H H
Td1rows
" M 11 1 11 H
Tq1row
11 11
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542
Table3:Leve sofsigni icancetr atmenteffectsnDMyi ldointe croppedwhand
Trihsti'h thhHolet aandS ola22t 34273421981.
wheatgrainstr wTo lwhe tLeguneWh atle Mne
TreatmentHole taSholaHol ttSholaHoletSh laHolettShHoletSh a
Plantingmethod2.32763SS3 DM6*.0881S3 219*3.0161DM2 2*2. 3 9*9 73.28 MS.99 4*
Plinear2.2299*2.133 DM9 3988**3.2 93*.997 *3 3 93. 26.3 309. 1***3 9
Trifoti'spp.2.3623DM3 91MS2.3633S3.28ODM2.36 49 1 D3.2 21***2. 193. MS9 90 *■1rowvs2rows3.323MS2.22 **2.1691SS3 9 6629 H2. 6**3 SS3.9162DM9 131DM2. 0*
122rowsvs
broadcast2.332*3.2276DM2.3 01*3 122 2*2.91 83 098*9. 13 *3.996 **3.9 ***
DM2notsignificantPO.28
*SignificantP<2.33.
**HighlysignificantP<3.21.
***VeryhighlsignificantPO.271.
Table1:2ffectofSon2Nyi lds(kg/ha,ofwhe tatHole taandShola,2 hiopia,1981.
LS2(P<2.28)
HolettaShola
62,
HolettaSholaHolettashola
kgN/ha
HolettaShola
2
HolettaShola
2
Wheatgr in12221348271 61162119813 848 Wheatstraw36612236282 13381303193613-222 6
1DM126481 9361333129936 73 26313
Total
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was done with the assistance of Ato Abdulkadir
Ahmed, Field Assistant and field workers Fikade Lake, Zeray
Yithun, Gedey Bahare and Solomon Wechafo to whom I am most
grateful. I am thankful to Mr. Robin Sayers, biometrician of the
Computer Unit of ILCA for all the statistical analysis.
Permission to publish and present this paper was kindly given by
Dr. J. Walsh, ILCA's Director General and Dr. K. Peters, Deputy
Director General Research.
REFERENCES
Akundabweni , L. 1984. Forage potential of some annual native
Tri f ol ium species in the Ethiopian highlands. Ph.D.
thesis, South Dakota State University, South Dakota, USA.
Gebre Hiwot, L., Tekle Tsadik, T., Hagos, G.M. and Mekonnen, T.,
1987. FNE highland replicated grass/legume mixture trial
results, Holetta. Forage Network in Ethiopia Newsletter
No. 18:3-7.
Kahurananga, J. and Tsehay, A. 1984. Preliminary assessment of
some annual Ethiopian T r i f o l i um species for hay production.
Tropical Grasslands. 18:215-217.
Kaplan, S.L. and Brinkman, M.A. 1984. Multiple cropping systems
with oats and barley. Agronomy Journal . 76:851-854.
National Meteorological Services Agency. 1987. Agro-
meteorological report, July 1987. Farming Weather Bulletin
Monthly Publication No. 290/87. national Meteorological
Services Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Purseglove, V.W. 1972. Tropical Crops. Monocotyledons.
Longmans, London.
Shoamare, M. 1978. Climatic records for ILCA research sites
1987. ILCA, Addis Ababa.
Tedla, A., Jutzi, S., Kahurananga, J. and Tothill, J. 1988.
Results of undersowing clovers mixture in bread wheat on
improved vertisols in the Ethiopian highlands. ILCA, Addis
Ababa.
545
Westphal, E. 1975. Agricultural systems in Ethiopia. Centre for
Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen.
Wolde-Mariam, K. 1971. Plant husbandry. CADU (Chi l al o
Agricultural Development Unit), Asella, Ethiopia.
546
STRATEGY OF SADCC/I CRI SAT REGIONAL PROGRAMME ON THE IMPROVEMENT
OF SORGHUM AND MILLETS AS FORAGES
S.C. Gupta and E.S. Monyo
SADCC/I CRI SAT Sorghum and Millets Improvements Programme
Bulawayo
P. 0. Box 776,
Zimbabwe
INTRODUCTION
Sorghum and millets are the major crops grown in the marginal
rainfall areas of SADCC countries. As a proportion of the total
area under cereal production, these crops account for 77X of the
area under cereal crops in Botswana, 35.6% Tanzania, 27.9%
Lesotho, 26. OX Mozambique, 25. 1X Zimbabwe, 11. OX Angola, 10.2%
Malawi, 8.4X Zambia and 3% Swaziland (FAO 1986). Livestock
production is a very important component of the agriculture in
the semi -arid regions, because apart from providing milk and meat
for food, they also provide traction power, transportation,
manure, hides and skins and other industrial products. Sorghum
and millets being the most important crops in these regions are
thus likely to play a very important role in the nutrition of
livestock. Currently only commercial farmers who account for a
very small proportion of the farmers in the region grow these
crops wholly for livestock feed. However most of the communal
farmers who are the majority graze the stover after the grain is
harvested. Most studies have revealed that the nutritional
quality of the stover is not very good (Martin and Wedin, 1974;
Rose et al, 1980; Ross et al, 1983). However, its continued use
for grazing is imperative, therefore there is a need to improve
the nutritional value of the crop residue without sacrificing
grain yield.
Pasture improvement in the SADCC region is concentrated
mainly on the improvement of natural grasslands which form the
main source of nutrients for Africa's livestock. It is known
that in the absence of major animal diseases, nutritional stress
is the major constraint to increased livestock production
(Chigaru, 1985). Nutritional stress can only be alleviated
547
through an integrated research involving enhanced nutrient
productivity from the Land. Successful forage legumes, cereal
crop intercrops have been reported in which livestock gets
nutrients from both the crop residue and the legume during the
dry season (Saleem, 1985), through undersowing of Stvlosanthes
guianensis three weeks after the grain sorghum. In Botswana,
Chandler (1985) obtained high yields with lablab (Lablab
purpureus) and velvet beans (Stizolobium spp.) when these were
undersown in maize fields. When Siratro (Macropt i l ium
atropurpureum) was established under sorghum and maize it made a
very useful contribution to quality by increasing the crude
protein content of fodder hay by 2.2X. Several reports have been
published on the use of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) .
The cultivars Gold Coast and Cameroons have been recommended for
cultivation in Malawi (Anonymous, 1975). Elephant grass is the
most commonly grown grass used a fresh fodder for silage in
Mozambique (Timber-lake and Dionisio, 1985). Hay (1978) observed
that during the wet season, elephant grass, greatly outyielded
Rhodes grass (Chl or is gayana). coloured guinea grass ( Pan i cum
coloratum) . stylo (Stvlosanthes guianensis) . desmodium (Desmodium
spp.) and siratro. During the dry season, elephant grass still
maintained higher yields than the other species.
Interspecific hybrids between pearl millet and elephant
grass were first reported by Burton (1984). The importance of
this interspecific cross stems from the fact that the cross, a
sterile triploid yields more fodder than either of the parents,
its forage quality is better than that of elephant grass and it
can be produced commercially (Powell and Burton, 1966). Other
useful aspects of this cross are the possibilities of
transferring useful traits (e.g. disease resistance) from
elephant grass to pearl millet.
The productive potential of the panic grass ( Pan i cum
maximum) c.v. Ntchisi for cut-and-carry was found to be about
three fourths of that achievable by interspecific crosses between
pearl millet and elephant grass (Dzowela, 1985).
The interspecific hybrids between pearl millet and elephant
grass have been released in different parts of the world. Some
548
examples are banagrass in South Africa and NB21, MB67 and PBN-83
in India.
Hanna and Monson (1980) observed a range of variability in
dry matter yield distribution and forage quality attributes in
different elephant grass by pearl millet interspecific hybrids.
The variability thus observed suggests that these factors could
be improved by selecting the right elephant grass clones as
pol l inators.
Increasing the digestibility and intake of forages by using
relatively simple inherited genetic characters is one of the most
exciting areas for forage improvement. A case in point is the
simply inherited dwarf (d2) gene in pearl millet found to reduce
the height of plants by one-half, increase the amount of leaf by
50X and still manage to realize 78% as much dry matter per
hectare as its near isogenic tall counterpart (Hanna, 1975). The
d2 gene in pearl millet produced only 85X as many steer days of
grazing as the tall but animals on the dwarf millet made 20X
better daily gains while steer gains per hectare were equal for
both millets (Burton et al, 1969).
In a study to evaluate the yield and nutritive value of
sorghum, (Sorghum bicolor (l.) Moench) maize and pearl millet
residues, Mosienyane (1983) observed that the dry matter
digestibility of pearl millet was poorer than that of sorghum and
maize stover. This is due to high concentration of lignin
(Cherney et al, 1988). Efforts are underway to improve the
stover quality of pearl millet by reducing the lignin content
through modification of the l i gni f i cat i on process like the one
observed in brown-midrib (bmr) maize plants (Grand et al, 1985).
Recently a bmr gene has been found in pearl millet that reduced
permanganate lignin concentration in the stems of bmr millet by
one half that of normal millet and improved its j_n vi tro dry
matter digestibility to a level better than that of sorghum and
maize (Cherney et al, 1988). This gene improved the quality of
pearl millet similar to that of bmr mutants of sorghum and maize.
Thus the bmr trait in pearl millet has an excellent potential of
improving the quality of forage pearl millet and even make
possible the utilisation of pearl millet stover which otherwise
549
is left in the field in most countries in Africa. The quality of
pearl millet stover is poor in Africa because most of the
variet ies/landraces grown are very tall (poor leafrstem ratio)
and stems are very thick. In India pearl millet stover is fed to
animals but the plants are medium tall, have thin stems coupled
with high tillering. It will be worth comparing different types
of pearl millet possessing different morphological traits such as
leafiness, plant height, stem thickness, brown-midrib, tillering
and forage quality traits to establish the association between
morphological traits and forage quality.
To get a good picture of the potential role sorghum can play
in the livestock industry of the SADCC region, one has to look at
the achievements of forage sorghum research work elsewhere.
Sorghum bicolor var. sudanense (Sudangrass) was introduced in USA
by C.V. Piper and the first variety (Wheeler) was released by
Carl Wheeler in 1911. California 23 was distributed to farmers
in 1938 (Peterson and Miller, 1950). Tift was another forage
sorghum variety selected from a cross between Leoti red sorghum
and other sudangrass selections (Burton, 1943). Since then
several varieties of sudangrass have been released in USA. Few
examples are sweet sudangrass (Karper, 1949), Piper sudangrass
(Smith and Ahlgren, 1952), Lahoma (Anonymous, 1954), Greenleaf
(Pickett, 1954) and Georgia 337 (Burton, 1964).
During the last twenty years, several forage sorghum
varieties have been released in India. These are: JS 73/53,
Meethi sudan, HC 136, HC 171, HC 260, UP Chari 2, RC 2, PC 6, PC
9 and PC 23.
STRATEGY
The SADCC/ I CRI SAT regional programme organised a Cereal Forage
Research Monitoring Tour from 10 to 23 February 1988 in which 15
scientists from the region including the PANESA coordinator
participated. The group visited five countries: Zimbabwe,
Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Mozambique and the future
strategy on improvement of sorghum and millets for forages was
discussed.
550
The strategy was discussed with the regional programme's
technical advisory panel in March, 1988 at Maseru, Lesotho and
with the Donors' Review Panel in June, 1988 at Matopos, Zimbabwe.
Their contribution helped in improving our strategy. An outline
of our strategy is presented below:
Research strategy
The strategy will aim to specifically:
To improve sorghum and millets for dual purpose particularly
by improving the quality of crop residue in high yielding
entries. Brown midrib genes will be utilised in sorghum and
pearl millet to improve their dry matter intake and
digestibility attributes.
To develop better varieties of banagrass i.e. to generate
interspecific hybrids between selected pearl millet and
elephant grass accessions and to evaluate them for fodder
yield and quality under moisture stress situations.
To improve forage sorghum for forage yield and quality. This
will be done by generating crosses between sorghum and
sudangrass and selecting in segregating generations bmr genes
which will be utilised to improve the intake and
digest ibi l i ty .
Intercropping studies involving sorghum and millets with
fodder legumes and grasses will be carried out to maximize the
grain, crop residue and legume fodder yield. Useful fodder
trees and browses will be included in such studies.
Collection and maintenance of all the forage species relevant
to the region and to use them in crop association studies
where ever appropriate.
Improvement of pearl millet and finger millet for hay and/or
silage will be a low priority.
551
Determination of usefulness of small millets as forage crops
in the SADCC countries. The improvement of small millets for
forage in the near future is of low priority.
Support strategy
As there are not many breeders and/or agronomists in SADCC
working on this aspect, one of our strategy will therefore be to
strengthen the national programmes by providing them with short
training courses or training towards a degree.
Efforts will be made to improve the research facilities such
as forage laboratories in different SADCC countries.
- We shall involve ourselves to a limited extent through
collaboration with the national programme on feeding trials
where large quantities of grains are required.
Forage breeders, agronomists and animal nutritionists from the
region are working hand in hand and the regional programme
will act as a co-ordinating unit for improving the utilisation
of sorghum and millets as forages.
ACHIEVEMENTS
Introduction and Evaluation
The improvement of sorghum and millets for forages was started
late in 1987 and since then the major activity has been
introduction, maintenance and evaluation of the materials. A
total of 152 sorghums and 106 sudangrass accessions have been
introduced from USA, India, Argentina, Australia, Lesotho,
Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Tanzania. These include male-sterile
lines on A1 cytoplasm as well as lines with bmr genes. 146
accession of pearl millet, 36 of Pennisetum glaucum spp Monodi i .
20 Napier grass, 5 pearl millet x Napier grass hybrids and 65
minor millets (5 species) have been introduced from USA,
Ethiopia, Indian, West Africa, Botswana, Tanzania, Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Australia. Recently 2 accessions of P.
pedicel latum. 5 of P. polystachion and 2 Panicum maximum were
552
introduced from Tifton, USA. In addition to this 85 forage
species were introduced from the International Livestock Centre
for Africa, (ILCA), Ethiopia.
Cereal forage yield trial
A trial of 25 pearl millet entries was conducted in all SADCC
countries except Angola and Zambia during the 1987/88 season.
None of the introductions was superior to Babala millet which was
developed in South Africa. However 11 entries: PS 126, PS 135,
PS 192, ICMS 7704, PS 472, 84-52, PS 200, 52-9 x 51-13, 86-10242,
PS 195 and 435 x 51-5 were selected for high tillering,
resistance to diseases, and fodder yields.
Forage Sorghum Introduction Nursery
A nursery of 105 forage sorghum accessions including sudangrass
was grown at Aisleby, Zimbabwe and Maseru, Lesotho in single row
plots. Based on visual scores, eight entries were selected.
During 1988-89 all the entries together with new introductions
will be re-evaluated.
Breeding Programme
During the 1988 off-season, the following crosses were generated:
Sorghum x sudangrass: 256
Sorghum A lines x sorghum/sudangrass: 102
Pearl millet x Napier grass: 15
Pearl millet x Monodi i : 119
Monodi i x Napier grass: 16
All these crosses will be evaluated and advanced during the
1988/89 rainy season.
A forage pearl millet composite is being constituted by
recombining 38 forage pearl millet lines.
553
1988-89 Trials
Eight trials have been organised for the 1988/89 season. The
list of trials together with the number of entries and number of
locations in each country is given below:
- Cereal Forage Yield Trial: 20 entries, 23 locations in 8
countries.
- Regional Forage Sorghum Introduction Triel: 81 entries, 11
locations in 5 countries.
- Regional Sudangrass Introduction Trial: 90 entries, 11
locations in 4 countries.
- Regional Forage sorghum B-line Evaluation Trial: 49 entries,
8 locations in 4 countries.
- Regional Forage Millet Introduction Trial: 64 entries, 11
locations in 6 countries.
- Minor Millets Evaluation Trial: 64 entries, 5 locations in 3
countries.
- Cereal Forage Preliminary Variety Trial: 10 entries, 2
locations in Zimbabwe.
- Monodi i Evaluation Trial: 15 entries only at Matopos.
The above list shows the interest and the commitment among
the forage scientists to collaborate on the improvement of
sorghum and millets for forages. This also provides an
opportunity to provide a large number of accessions to the
scientists in the region, with the hope that these accessions can
be incorporated in crop- l i vestock production systems.
554
COLLABORATORS
The main collaborators on a country wise basis are:
Botswana
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Swazi land
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Tanzania
Arabia Moyo
Victor R. Ramakhula
C.F.B. Chigwe
Celia Jordao
Inacio Maposse
Paul D. Mkhatshwa
Brenton B. Xaba
Bhola Nath
Peter Hatendi
T. Smith
G.M. Mitawa
Agronomist
Agronomist
Breeder
Nutritionist
Agronomist
Agronomist
Nutritionist
Breeder
Nutritionist
Nutritionist
Agronomist
A mul t i -discipl inary approach is being followed where
breeders, agronomists and animal nutritionists are working
together. As the project grows, assistance from pathologists and
entomologists may be required.
SUMMARY
The improvement of sorghum and millets for forage was started
late in 1987. The strategy was developed in February 1988,
during the Cereal Forage Research Monitoring Tour in which 15
scientists from the region including the co-ordinator for
ILCA/PANESA participated. The strategy was further refined
during the Technical Review in March 1988, and the Donor's Review
in June 1988. The major research activities have been
collection, seed increase and the evaluation of germplasm
accessions of sorghum and millets and related species from many
sources. Regional trials are being organised and a breeding
programme has begun. Crosses have been generated among sorghum,
sudangrass and sorghum male-sterile lines as well as among pearl
millet, Napier grass and P. glaucum sp. monodi i accessions to
produce better varieties of forage sorghum and banagrass (pearl
millet x napier grass). Research on the improvement of the
nutritive value of crop residue will (dual purpose) be initiated
in 1989 once the forage laboratory facilities are established.
555
REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1954. Lahoma, a new sweet sudan. Seed world 74:36.
Anonymous, 1975. Report on pasture/cattle research project/ODMA.
Burton, G.W. 1943. Tift Sudan. Ga. Coastal Plain Exp. Sta. Circ.
11. Tifton, Georgia.
Burton, G.W. 1944. Hybrids between napier grass and cattail
millet. J. Hered. 35:227-232.
Burton, G.W. 1964. Georgia 337 Sudangrass. Crop Sci. 4:666.
Burton, G. W., Monson, W.G., Johnson Jr, J.C., Lowrey, R.S.,
Chapman, H.D. and Marchant, W.H. 1969. Effect of d2 dwarf
gene on the forage yield and quality of pearl millet.
Agron. J. 61:607-612.
Chandler, D.R. 1985. Review of range and pasture research in
Botswana. In: J. A. Kategile (ed). Pasture Improvement
Research in Eastern and Southern Africa: proceedings of a
workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 Sept. 1984.
Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1985. pp:115-142.
Cherney, J.H., Axtell, J.D., Hassen, M.M. andAnliker, K.S. 1988.
Forage quality characterization of a chemically induced
brown-midrib mutant in millet. Crop Science. 28:783-787.
Chigaru, P.R.N. 1985. Keynote Address. Some issues facing
pasture research workers in Africa. In: Kategile, J. A.
(ed). Pasture Improvement Research in Eastern and Southern
Africa: proceedings of a workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe,
17-21 Sept. 1984, Ottawa, Ont. IDRC, 1984.
Dzowela, B.H. 1985. Highlights of Pasture Research in Malawi:
1975-84. In: J. A. Kategile (ed) Pasture Improvement
Research in Eastern and Southern Africa: proceedings of a
workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 Sept. 1984.
Ottawa, Ont. 1985 pp:59-76.
FA0. 1986. FAO Production Tapes (1986) Rome.
Grand, C.P., Parmentier, P., Boudet, A. and Boudet, A.M.
1985. Comparisons of lignins and of enzymes involved in
l igni f i cat ion in normal and brown-midrib (bm3) mutant corn
seedlings. Physiol. Veg. 23:905-911.
556
Hanna, W.W. 1975. Breeding better forages. In: Forage-fed Beef:
Production and Marketing in the South. Papers presented at
the Southern Regional Forage-Fed Beef Research Workshop,
New Orleans. Louisiana, October 1975. John A. Stuedemann
(Editor-in-Chief), ARS, USDA, Watkinsvi l le, Georgia.
Hanna, W.W. and Monson, W.G. 1980. Yield, quality and breeding
behaviour of pearl millet x napiergrass interspecific
hybrids. Agron. J. 72:358-360.
Hay, R.K.M. 1978. Yield, water use and rooting pattern in six
tropical pasture species. Research Bulletin of Bunda
College of Agriculture (Malawi) 9:13-39.
Karper, R.E. 1949. Registration of sorghum varieties, V. Agron.
Jour. 41:536-540.
Martin, N.P. and Wedin, W.F. 1974. Effect of fall weathering on
yield and composition of grain stover. Agron. J. 66:669-
672.
Mosienyane, B.P. 1983. Crop residues for animal feeding.
Department of Agric. Research; Ministry of Agriculture:
Bulletin of Agricultural Research (Botswana) 1:3-9.
Peterson, M.L. and Miller, M.D. 1950. Sudangrass in California,
Calif. Agric. Ext. Circ. 165, California.
Pickett, R.C. 1954. Greenleaf - A new sudangrass. Seed World
74:8, 44-45.
Powell, J.B. and Burton, G.W. 1966. A suggested commercial
method of producing an interspecific hybrid forage in
pennisetum. Crop Sci. 6:378-379.
Ross, W.M., Gorz, H.J. and Haskins, F.A. 1980. A preliminary
investigation of forage quality characters in hybrid grain
sorghum residues. Maydica 25:41-53.
Ross, W.M., Gorz, H.J. Haskins, F.A., Rutto, J.K. and Ritter, R.
1983. Combining ability effects for forage residue traits
in grain sorghum hybrids. Crop Sc. 23:97-101.
Saleem, M.M.A. 1985. Forage legumes in agropastoral production
systems within the subhumid zone of Nigeria. In: Kategile.
J. A. (ed). Pasture Improvement Research in Eastern and
Southern Africa: proceedings of a workshop held in Harare,
Zimbabwe, 17-21 Sept. 1984. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1985.
pp:222-244.
557
Smith, D.C. and Ahlgren, H.L. 1952. New and better piper
sudangrass. Hoard's Dairyman 97:328-329.
T imber lake, J. and Dionisio, A.C. 1985. Review of the use of
improved pasture species in Mozambique. In: J. A. Kategile
(ed). Pasture Improvement Research in Eastern and Southern
Africa: proceedings of a workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe,
17-21 Sept. 1984. Ottawa, Ont. IDRC, 1985. pp. 143-152.
558
RHODES GRASS BREEDING IN ZIMBABWE: AIMS, ACHIEVEMENTS,
PROSPECTS AND ROUTE TO AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION
1 2
P. A. York and E. Nyamadzawo
INTRODUCTION
Sir George Stapledon (1940; 1942) founder of the Welsh Plant
Breeding Station and William Davies (1952) advanced the concept
of grass as a crop. The acceptance of grass as a crop with
concommi tant improved management are fundamental prerequisites to
the development of grass through breeding effort. Put simply,
improved seed has to be sown whether as long or short term leys
or as permanent pasture to be of benefit.
The PANESA region has seen sporadic grass selection work in
Zambia and Tanzania (Van Rensburg, 1969) and Kenyan breeding
input (Bogdan, 1969) and more recently great improvement in
Kenyan cultivars (Boonman, 1978). In developed countries pasture
breeding has benefited from longer term involvement. The highly
competitive nature of grass breeding in EEC countries for example
is witness to the grass crop precept.
Grassland utilisation in Zimbabwe ranges from the grazing of
unimproved veld through to intensive irrigated pastures based on
Kikuyu grass. The most extensively sown pasture grass is
Katambora Rhodes grass (Chl or is gayana Kunth). The Rhodes grass
breeding project in Zimbabwe arose as a response to the
identification of important regional pasture research topics in
an IDRC-Pasture workshop in Harare in 1984 (Clatworthy, 1985).
Katambora is grown in rotation with tobacco to control
Meloidogyne iavanica (root-knot nematode). A four year ley is
recommended (Martin, 1967) to overcome the longevity of nematode
eggs even in bare fallow soil. Potential area of use is in the
region of 200,000 to 250,000 ha with annual reseeding of up to
60,000 ha.
Grasslands Research Station, P. Bag 3701, Marondera, Zimbabwe.
2
Henderson Research Station, P. Bag 2004, Mazowe, Zimbabwe.
559
Katambora, a diploid Rhodes grass, came into use in the
nineteen fifties in Zimbabwe (West, 1952). It is less productive
and palatable than tetraploid strains such as Zimbabwe Giant.
The more productive cultivars are less effective in controlling
root-knot nematode (Shepherd, 1968; York, 1989 a).
Primary aim of the breeding project is the inclusion of good
nematode resistance in a variety with greater forage production.
For a grass used in arable rotation requiring resowing every
fifth year or more frequently, seed yield is also an area of
concern. A valuable export market for Katambora seed magnifies
this requirement.
Aimed initially at the commercial sector in Zimbabwe, the
successful combination of yield and root-knot resistance could
encourage the use of grassland/arable rotation in communal
farming. Such a variety would serve a multiple role in
controlling root-knot nematode, improving soil structure,
reducing erosion as well as providing valuable forage and seed as
a cash crop.
Aspects of the breeding project have included hybridization
studies, variety and germplasm assessment - agronomic,
nematological and flowering behaviour. The breeding programme
has two separate approaches; interploid hybridization between
Katambora and tetraploid Rhodes grass, and enhancement of
nematode resistance and other characters within tetraploid
strains.
BREEDING HABIT
Rhodes grass has been variously described as outcrossing Bogdan
(1961) and apomictic (Hutton, 1961). Barnard (1971) described
Katambora as 'probably apomictic1. However the stock for which
Hutton claimed apomixis although diploid was not Katambora, but
commercial (Pioneer) which according to Hutton was similar to
Nzoia - this appeared uniform in Marondera nursery and had good
nematode resistance (York, 1987; 1989 b). Later Australian work
560
discounted apomixis in various material (Jones & Pritchard,
1971). Hybridization studies at Marondera (York, 1987) using
cellophane bags to effect selfing and crossing only resulted in
seed set when Katambora flowers of different plants were bagged
together. Outcrossing was clearly demonstrated in tetraploids by
Bogdan (1963).
GERMPLASM ASSESSMENTS
A range of diploid and tetraploid Rhodes grass cultivars and
collections has been obtained from various sources. An
observation nursery was established at Marondera in 1987. Plants
were spaced at 1/5m and kept distinct by trimming. Accessions
showed inter and intravarietal variation in vigour, habit,
foliage type and flowering rate. Flowering date was amongst the
most quantifiable characters. Table 1 shows the range of
flowering behaviour observed.
The range of variation exhibited by most accessions supports
the normal outcrossing mode of reproduction for this species.
Boonman (1978) showed that early flowering resulted in improved
seed yield and was related to vigour in Kenya. Earliness was
sufficiently heritable for selection purposes and led to the
creation of Elmba from Mbarara and Boma from Masaba.
561
Table1:Suimaryoffloweringdata28C.gay naaccessio st
Maronderaasd ystofir tloweremergencef m1.1.81.
Group
6ccession
with
6ccession eIr
Group
rn
2 2
11
2 6 43 6 2 2
- 1:
2 DM 16 19 2 91 83 39 48 DM* -
2 - 1 2 1 2 2 16 36 - 2
earliestplant
latestplant widestrange
smallestr nge earliestplant
latestplant widestrange
smallestrange earliestplant &widestrange largestplan smallestrange
2
31
2 34 DM 2 - 91 34 ma2 2
2iploidsexcl
1atambora 1atambora
Tetraploids
34661
233 3362*2
*Plantswithf rstoweremergencelathan6/1norec d d
e212earliestndlatep antofaccession
r,3overallandmeanngerespectively2numberfacc ss ons
to
Low night temperatures have been associated with poor
seedset in Rhodes grass (Loch & Butler, 1987). In Zimbabwe low
night temperatures (below 10 C) occur in many parts of the
tobacco - hence Rhodes grass - areas by mid-April. Ideally
flowering should be timed so that the majority of seed has been
set and filled by this date, mainly hardening thereafter.
Katambora is managed so that it flowers in a flush and is
harvested late April/early May. Tetraploid varieties which may
be quantitative short day plants (Dirven et al. 1979; Loch, 1984)
tend to flower later and reach a peak more slowly. The data from
the observation nursery showed as wide a range in date of first
flower emergence amongst tetraploid plants as diploid; some could
flower as early as Katambora. Photoperiod differences aside, it
should be possible to select for earliness and improved seed
yield as achieved in Kenya.
VARIETY ASSESSMENT
Agronomic Characters: Field trials were established in December
1986 to compare the forage yield, flowering behaviour and seed
production of eight tetraploid varieties with those of diploid
Katambora. Sites were Chiredzi, which was irrigated to give
total water similar to the other sites, Marondera and Mazowe.
Forage yields for the year after establishment are given in Table
2. Tetraploids generally outyielded Katambora as expected. The
better varieties overall were Elmba, Boma and Mt. Makulu 56. The
greatest difference between tetraploids and Katambora was 80%;
average superiority of tetraploids was in the order of 30X. The
varieties retain a large degree of plant to plant variation.
Talcing individual plants during screening for nematode resistance
would result in 30 - 40% yield gain over Katambora and possibly
more. The forage productivity attained compares favourably with
18-19 t DM/ha in more heavily fertilized trials (Rodel, 1969)
with Giant in Zimbabwe. At a seasonal at N fertilisation rate of
120 kg/ha Chiredzi site gave over 20 t DM/ha from some
tetraploids.
563
Table 2: Dry matter yield of 9 Rhodes grass varieties at 3 sites
in Zimbabwe during the growing season 1987/88.
kg/plot Mean t/ha
Variety/ Si te Chi red zi Mazowe Marondera
Katambora 41 34 37 13.6
Mt. Makulu 60 42 43 19.6
Samford 54 39 39 17.6
Callide 54 41 37 17.4
Giant 53 36 37 16.8
Mbarara 57 43 42 18.9
Elmba 52 52 49 20.4
Masaba 53 43 43 18.5
Boma 59 42 43 19.2
S E 5X 3.5 2.9 2.7
Seed yield data are given in table 3 and flowering progress
in Figure 1. The tetraploid cultivars and strains showed poorer
seed content than Katambora throughout, but the potential seed
yield is very high as shown by crude yield at Marondera. All
heads were taken which tended to depress seed content
unreal istical ly compared to farm practice. Given this, the true
seed yield of Katambora and Callide were reasonable. Late
harvesting favoured the tetraploids over Katambora. Germination
of rubbed and extracted caryopses was high for all varieties.
1988 was a good year for tetraploid seed - one local farmer
obtained PLSC (pure live seed content) in excess of 30X from his
Giant Rhodes grass.
564
Table 3: Seed yield of 9 Rhodes grass varieties at Marondera
g/plot
Variety Crude seed *Caryopses lPLS'
106 20.5
21 4.4
42 8.0
106 15.3
61 10.9
32 12.9
17 4.9
10 3.5
17 3.2
S E 5X 78.0 9.8
Katambora 516
Mt Makulu 56 474
Samford 509
Callide 785
Giant 551
Mbarara 250
Masaba 348
Elmba 288
Boma 491
*150 kg a 25X PLSC = 94 g/plot
PLSC = Pure Live Seed Content
Similar flowering patterns were obtained at the three sites.
The earlier flower flush of Callide at Marondera largely explains
the better seed production of this compared with other tetraploid
varieties. The locally adapted Giant also showed an earlier
flower flush than other tetraploids. The varieties Elmba and
Boma selected on the basis of their flowering pattern in Kenya
(Boonman, 1978) were not different from their respective
progenitors, Mbarara and Masaba. The similarity of the Kenyan
cultivars may result from genetic drift since their release
(Boonman, pers. comm.) or may be due to photoperiod differences
between their selection site in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The Kenyan
varieties were consistently later than Callide and Giant:
selection on the basis of earliness in one environment need not
lead to earliness in another. The performance of Callide gives
some hope that even a small improvement in date of flower flush
will give a boost to the seed content of other tetraploid lines
in Zimbabwe.
565
Figure 1. Flowering progress of 9 Rhodes grass cultivnra at
8 Maronriera in 1 988 based on semiloganthm.c
assessment of numbers of flowers, means of 4
replicates.
70 i
50 ■
« 30
v
!o
10
 
-T-
60 80 100
Days from 1 .1 .88
120
566
Nematode Host Status Assessments: The susceptibility of a range
of diploid and tetraploid Rhodes grass accessions was compared
using nematode eggs in suspension as inoculum (York, 1989 b).
The level of nematode eggs and range of response are presented in
Table 4. Generally tetraploid accessions comprised more
susceptible plants with susceptibles being more extreme than
among diploids. Some tetraploids were less susceptible than
others but all allowed more nematode reproduction than Katambora.
The better forage yielder, Elmba was the most nematode
susceptible. The distribution of host status suggested that
susceptibility at least was under polygenic control. The number
of egg-masses developed was the major determinant of
susceptibility, and size of root system was not a factor in
number of egg-masses produced. Although diploids supported fewer
egg-masses per plant on average and more plants were completely
resistant than with tetraploids, this generalization was not
strong enough to recommend diploid varieties for root-knot
control .
BREEDING PROGRAMME
Interploid Hybridization: The basis for this approach is the
genetic affinity of diploid and tetraploid Rhodes grass.
Japanese cytological studies indicate a degree of autoploidy
(Nakagawa and Sato, 1981) hinted at by earlier workers (Moffett
1944). The occurrence of a natural triploid is also encouraging
(Pritchard & Gould, 1964). Interploid hybridization has proved
possible with other autoploids, e.g. cocksfoot (Dactyl is
glomerata) (Carol l & Borill, 1965). The sufficient homology of
genomes and the ' spotaneous' non- reduction or restitution of
diploidy in gametes from diploid plants allow the formation of
tetraploid zygotes by fusion with normally reduced gametes from
the tetraploid. Other configurations may occur especially
triploids which would require backcrossing to restore the
tetraploid condition.
The usefulness of this approach depends on the existance of
a recessive genetic marker stock anthocynanin-f ree (Bbgdan, 1963)
which will facilitate the identification of hybrids without
567
recourse to labourious cytological techniques. The anthocynanin-
free flowers are distinctively 'yellow-heads'.
Seedling bases are also free of purple pigmentation in this
stock, but Katambora is normally purple pigmented, so that purple
based seedlings from a 'yellow head' stock has been isolated at
Marondera. Hybridization in cellophane bags between Katambora
and anthocyanin-f ree tetraploid plants suggests that 1X of
caryopses formed on the tetraploid may be interplead (York,
1987).
To be of value, clearly large numbers of crosses have to be
attempted. This is being accomplished on a field scale this
season. There are two advantages to this approach; i. if the
cross is successful a resistant yet anthocynanin-f ree line may be
selected from the heterozygous stock - in the absence of adverse
linkage. This would permit the ready identification of resistant
material in seed certification schemes; ii. The 'yellow head'
stock was produced by selfing and although itself vigorous, a
small proportion of the progeny when the stock is intercrossed
are albino. Inbreeding depression would result rapidly if
selection for resistance within this were attempted, especially
as the 'yellow heads' are very nematode susceptible (York, 1989
c). Interploid hybridity would release some variation and
vigour.
Selection for Root-knot Resistance in Tetraploid Material:
Screening tests at the Tobacco Research Board of Zimbabwe showed
that the Zambian strain Mt. Makulu 56 (Van Rensburg, 1969) may be
less susceptible than some tetraploid varieties (Way, pers.
comm). This variety was assessed during 1987 to determine the
proportion of resistant plants and degree of susceptibility of
individual plants. Figure 2 shows the frequency distribution
obtained. 14X of the parent stock were devoid of egg-masses 12
weeks after inoculation with 5900 eggs of M. iavanica (York,
1989a). 37X of the population would allow maintenance or
increase the nematode population. The resistant plants have
formed the basis of a mass and recurrent selection programme to
increase the proportion of resistant plants in this tetraploid
background.
568
After two selection cycles the proportion of resistant
plants as measured by mf (ratio egg-masses/inoculum egg-mass
equivalents) is as shown in Figure 3. There has been a
significant increase in the proportion egg-mass free plants.
Some plants still support more than maintenance level of nematode
reproduction. The rapid increase in proportion of resistant
plants suggests that resistance itself is governed by fewer
genes.
The selected susceptible stock shows a greater degree and
wider range of susceptibility than the parent stock. Already the
resistant selection is comparable with Katambora. Further
selection will be undertaken to increase and fix resistance.
Progeny of paired hybridizations of plants of known nematode
susceptibility/resistance will be screened to investigate
genetics of resistance.
From the first selection cycle, plants showed a range of
flowering rates as demonstrated in Figure 4. 10X of these plants
were not significantly different from Katambora in date of first
flower emergence. Earlier plants had significantly more
flowering tillers at 90 days (from 1.1.88) than later plants.
The proportion of resistant plants among progeny of maternal
plants selected for earliness and vigour showed some variation,
but overall the level of resistance was comparable with that of
the bulk selection. There was no apparent adverse correlation
between nematode resistance and earliness. The results indicate
that root-knot resistance and early flowering can be combined in
a tetraploid background.
569
Figure 2. % Frequency distribution of host status of Mt. Makulu
56 plants expressed as egg-masses per plant.
%f
14 r>
 
50 100 150
egg-masses
250
570
Figure 3. % Frequency distribution of susceptibility of parent
stock (P) and resistant (R) and susceptible selection (S)
from Mt. Makulu 56 a mf (ration eff-masses/inoculum).
S5
40 '
30 *
%f
20 y
Vt~u
XL
0 3 fi 9 12 If) 18 21 24 27
nif (pgR-mnsses/inoc.)
571
figure -J. Flowering of selected root-knot resistant lines from
Ml. Makulu 56.
150
100
o
° 50
60
Days from 1.1.88
A58
 
90
572
PROSPECTS
The desired combination of root-knot resistance, at least as
effective as that of Katambora, improved seed quality through
earlier flowering and a yield superiority of a minimum 40-50X
over Katambora seem quite achievable. What is required is
sufficient time to take selection for all traits to the optimum
level and for fixation of these characters.
ROUTE TO AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION
The keenness of commercial farmers in Zimbabwe to improve on the
forage production of grass in the tobacco rotation without
sacrificing root-knot control will ensure the popularity of a new
cultivar with the above features. There is legislation on Plant
Variety Rights and on Seed Certification in Zimbabwe. However,
the most widely sown pasture cultivar, Katambora is subject to an
'informal' scheme. Control of seed quality is excellent, but the
view that Katambora was apomictic led to relaxed standards of
seed increase on the assumption that all stocks were identical.
It is pretty uniform but was never stabilized for root-knot
resistance; stocks may differ to some degree in resistance,
although Katambora generally is more resistant than tetraploid
cultivars.
The successful product of this breeding programme will
demand more careful management. Mother plants of a resistant
tetraploid will be established to give Breeder's Seed, some of
which will go to long term storage. Mother plants will be
propagated vegetatively periodically and give rise to successive
sequences of Prebasic, Basic and Certified seed as with temperate
grasses (Anon, 1978). An improved outcrossing variety must be
multiplied through as few generations as practicable from its
basis to seed for farm use. This is more critical in a variety
incorporating specific pest resistance: Seed certification and
documented provenance of seed will be essential. To capitalise
on breeding gains tight control will remain necessary throughout
the useful lifespan of the variety. To ensure resistance is not
lost periodic monitoring of host status of different generations
of seed stocks to M. iavanica is advisable. This should be
573
Table1.HoststatusofCg yanaoM.iavanic
%plants
masses
2 2 2 28 89 81 92 2 82 6 163
oids
2er
egg
Tetrapl
egg-masses/
13.8
Mean plant 33 2 13 28 16 13 , 2 19 21
n DM DM 26 1 21 DM DM DM 2 22 23
6ccession
eggmasses
31 2 40
Giant
Hbarara
Masaba
2ltifca Boma
Callide Samford
Mtakulu26
plants
2er3 1 - 34 2 34 - 6 2 6 -
11
ds X
iploi
egg-masses/
2:
Mean
plants
36 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6ccession
n 2 2 19 2 26 28 2 DM 2 2 2
2 2 34 6 28 1 28 2 26 2 2
coupled with virulence tests of different M. iavanica populations
to detect resistance breaking races as soon as possible.
Short term funding of such projects can result in outright
loss of material - few of van Rensburg's selections are available
now-or reduced value of material e.g. through inadequate seed
isolation after varietal release as occurred in Kenya (Boonman,
pers. comm.). Sustained breeding effort with pasture species
could be done on a co-operative regional basis with longer term
joint funding or external support.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1978. Principles of herbage seed production. Welsh Plant
Breeding Station, University College of Wales, Aberystwth,
Wales, U.K.
Barnard, C. 1972. Register of Australian herbage plant
cultivars. pp 99-100. Division of Plant Industry, CSIRO,
Canberra, Australia.
Bogdan, A.V. 1969. Herb. Abstr. 39:1-3.
Bogdan, A.V. 1963. Chloris gayana without anthocyanin
colouration. Heredity, London, 18:364-368.
Bogdan, A.V. 1961. Intravariety variation in Rhodes grass
(Chloris gayana Kunth) in Kenya. J. Brit. Grassld. Soc.
16:238-239.
Boonman, J.G. 1978. Rhodes grass breeding in Zimbabwe. Ill Seed
and herbage yield in selections of four maturity classes
based on intravariety variation. Euphytica 27. 649-656.
Carroll, C.P. and Borrill, M. 1965. Tetraploid hybrids from
crosses between diploid and tetraploid Dactyl is and their
significance. Genetica 36:65-82.
Clatworthy, J.N. 1985. Pasture research in Zimbabwe, 1964-1984.
In Pasture Improvement Research in Eastern and Southern
Africa. Ed. J. A. Kategi le. Proc. IDRC Workshop Harare,
Zimbabwe 17-21, Sept. 1984. pp. 25-58.
Daulton, R.A.C. 1963. Controlling M. iavanica in Southern
Rhodesia Rhod. Agric. J. 60:150-152.
Davies, W. 1952. The grass crop: its development use and
maintenance. E & F.N. Spon Ltd. London, U.K.
575
Dirven, J.G.P., van Soest, L.J.M., and Wind, K. 1979. The
influence of photoperiod on head formation in some
Brachiaria species and Chl or is gayana cv. Masaba. Neth.
jK Agric. Sci. 27:48-49.
Hutton, E.M. 1961. Intervariety variation in Rhodes grass
(Chloris gayana Kunth). J. Brit. Grassld. Soc. 16:23-29.
Jones, R.J. and Pritchard, A.S. 1971. The method of reproduction
in Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana Kunth). Trop. Agric.
(Trinidad) 48, (4), 301-307.
Loch, D.S. 1984. Constraints on seed production of Chloris
gayana cultivar, Ph D. Thesis, University of Queensland,
Australia.
Loch, D.S. and Butler, J.E. 1987. Effects of low night
temperatures on seed set and seed quality in Chloris
gayana. Seed Sci. & Technol. 15. (3). 593-597.
Martin, G.C. 1967. Longevi ty of Meloidogyne iavanica under
conditions of bare fallow in Rhodesia. Rhod. Agric. J.
64:112-114.
Moffett, A. A. 1944. Note on the cytology of Rhodes grass. Rhod.
J. Agric. 41:11-13.
Nakagawa, H. and Sato, H. 1981. Cytological studies on tropical
grasses 1. Meiosis of pollen mother cells and the
formation of pollens of Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana
Kunth). Bull. Kyushu Nat. Agric. Expt. Sta. 21:317-331.
Pritchard, A.J. and Gould, K.F. 1964. Chromosone numbers in some
introduced and indigenous legumes and grasses. CSIRO Div.
Tropical Pastures Tech. paper. No. 2, CSIRO, Australia.
van Rensburg, H.J. 1969. Selection of productive strains of
Chloris gayana in Zambia. Gvt. Printer, Lusaka, Republic of
Zambia.
Rodel, M.G.W. 1969. The effect of applying nitrogen in various
ways on the herbage yield of Giant Rhodes grass (Chloris
gayana Kunth). Rhod. agric. J. 66:43-45.
Shepherd, J. A. 1968. A nematode survey of tobacco soils in
Rhodesia and Zambia and the effects of grass-tobacco
rotations on nematode populations. Rhod. J. agric. Res. 6.
(1). 19-26.
576
Stapledon, R.G. 1940. Regrassing an essential part of food
production. (1942) Ley farming. War food production
advisory bulletins No 1 and 2 - University College of
Wales, Aberystwth, Welsh Plant Breeding Station. Cambrian
News Ltd. Aberystwth, Wales, U.K.
West, 0. 1952. Promising new grasses for selected pastures in
Southern Rhodesia, Rhod. Agric. J. 49:89-95.
York, P. A. 1987. Rhodes grass breeding. Ann. Rep. Div. Livestock
& Pastures, Dept. Res. & Specialist Services, Zimbabwe.
York, P. A. (in press, a). Resistance to Heloidogyne javanica
(root-knot nematode) in Chl or is gayana (Rhodes grass).
Hematologics 1989 in print.
York, P. A. (in press, b). Range of susceptibility within and
between deploid and tetraploid strains of Ch lori s gayana
(Rhodes grass) to Meloidogyne javanica (root-knot
nematode). Revice de nematologie.
York, P. A. (in press, c). Progress and prospects for combining
resistance to Meloidogyne javanica (root-knot nematode)
with improved forage yield in Chl or is gayana (Rhodes grass)
strains. Proc. XVIth Int. Grassld. Cong. Nice 1989.
577
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF J_N VITRO TECHNIQUES TO FORAGE GERMPLASM
T.J. Ruredzo and Jean Hanson
Forage Genetic Resources Unit
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA)
P. 0. Box 5689, Addis Ababa
ABSTRACT
Lack of seeds for collection, conservation, multiplication and
distribution of forage germplasm is a major constraint to greater
availability and utilisation of germplasm of some forage species.
In Vitro culture techniques can be applied to overcome these
constraints. Procedures are being developed at ILCA for the
collection and conservation of the forage grasses, Cynodon and
Digitaria, and the multiplication of these and browse species.
The results and their current and potential application to
increase availability of selected forage germplasm from the ILCA
genebank are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The genetic resources activities of collection, multiplication,
storage and dissemination are conventionally carried out using
seeds. However, some vegetatively propagated species seldom
produce viable seeds and other species only produce seeds after
several years. Other outbreeding species produce heterogeneous
seeds which do not represent the original genotype. Until
recently the only means of collecting these materials was by
cuttings, tillers or whole plants which are bulky and short
lived. Conservation of these species was in field genebanks,
where the material is maintained in the vegetative state
requiring considerable space, careful management and plants are
at risk from pests, diseases and natural disasters.
The development of j_n vi tro methods for genetic resources
has been possible due to recent advances in j_n vi tro culture.
Many species have been successfully collected (IBPGR, 1984),
cultured (Sharp et aj., 1984, Ammi rato et al_, 1984), multiplied
578
(Hussey, 1983) and some maintained for long periods j_n vitro
(Withers, 1980). .In vitro methods use less space and fewer pests
inputs than conventional methods and cultures are protected from
pests and diseases, including viruses. In genetic resources, in
vitro technology can also be used for disease elimination giving
rise to higher yielding plants which are subject fewer quarantine
restrictions and for creating variability in genotypes through
adventitious regeneration. Work in progress at ILCA on
appropriate methods of collecting Digi taria decumbens. conserving
Cvnodon and Digi taria species and multiplying these former
species and Leucaena leucocephala. Erythrina brucei and Sesbania
sesban in vitro is reported. Their potential use in forage
genetic resources is discussed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The plant species used in this work and their ILCA (accession)
numbers are given in Appendix 1. The grasses and Leucaena were
harvested from plots at the Zwai Seed Multiplication Site of ILCA
whilst the other legumes were collected at ILCA headquarters.
Surface sterilisation
Leaves were removed to reveal axillary buds from stem cuttings.
The stem cuttings used in the collection experiment were
then washed for 30 minutes in 1.0g/l of Halazone water purifying
tables in the open air.
Stem cuttings used in the rest of the experiments were
divided into cuttings of one node each and the rest of the work
was carried out in a laminar flow cabinet. The cuttings were
washed thoroughly in distilled water, surface sterilized by
dipping in 90X alcohol, washed in sterile water, and shaken in
locally available bleach (formula unknown) for five minutes
followed by at least five washes in sterile distilled water.
579
Inoculation
Stem cuttings for the collection experiment were divided into
nodal cuttings and inoculated straight onto medium containing
five different combinations of Benlate with Rifamycine under non-
aseptic conditions.
Nodal cuttings used for other experiments were prepared for
culture by cutting off the severed edges exposed to the
sterilizing agents. Axillary buds and meristems (2-3 leaf
primordia) were dissected asceptically in a laminar flow cabinet
with the aid of a stereoscopic microscope at a magnification of
X10.
Green pods with mature but green seeds of Sesbania sesban
were washed in tap water and opened to remove the seeds in the
laminar flow cabinet without surface sterilization for research
on adventitious regeneration of Sesbania. The embryos were
squeezed out of the seed coat and divided into embryo axes,
cotyledons and hypocotyls for culture.
Excised nodal cuttings, buds and meristems were placed on a
culture medium solidified with 0.7X (w/v) agar in glass test
tubes which were covered with cotton wool plugs and aluminium
foil. The culture media used were based on Murashige and Skoog
(MS) medium (Murashige and Skoog, 1962). The media were denoted;
MS3, 1/2MS3, MSS, MSSG, and MS2 (Appendix 2). The media were
supplemented with 3X (w/v) sucrose, 1.07 x 10 M naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA), 2.22 x 10 M benzylamino purine (BA) and 1.44
x 10 M gibberrelic acid III. All media were autoclaved for 15
minutes at 121 C after adjusting the pH to 5.6.
Embryo-derived explants of Sesbania were cultured on agar
solidified MS3 medium supplemented with 10 and 10 benzyl
aminopurine.
Incubation
Cultures for the collection experiment were incubated under
ambient conditions in the laboratory.
580
Cultures were kept for normal growth in an incubator between
25 and 29 C and illuminated for about twelve hours by white
-2 -1
fluorescent light (36uEM s PAR). After four to six weeks some
well established cultures were transferred to incubators which
were kept at 15 C and 5 C for slow growth conservation. These
were observed monthly and ten cultures were sampled and put back
in the normal growth incubator after every 100 days.
Rooting
Where there was no spontaneous rooting, shoots were rooted by
dipping their bases in 10 M indole-3-butric-acid (IBA),
inoculating on fresh medium and incubating them under normal
growth conditions.
Transfer to soi l
Cultures of C. aethiopicus (ILCA 2006 and 6624) and C. dactylon
(ILCA 13828 and 13831) were retrieved from the agar solidified
medium, washed with distilled water to remove agar and
transferred to sterilized vermiculite, sterilized forest soil and
unsterilized forest soil in clear plastic boxes and kept in the
normal growth incubators. After two weeks the cultures were
transferred to unsterilized forest soil in plastic pots and
covered with plastic bags to maintain a high relative humidity.
The humidity was kept high by frequent watering. The pots in
plastic bags were transferred to the greenhouse after two weeks
in the normal growth incubator. The plastic bags were opened
after two weeks in the greenhouse and finally removed after
another week.
The procedure of using unsterilized soil has been modified
into a minimal facility method which is successful for the
transfer of cultures to untreated soil. The cultures are
transferred to unsterilized forest soil in pots, covered with
plastic bags and kept in an uncontrolled environment greenhouse
throughout their establishment.
581
RESULTS
Col lection
55X of Dig) taria decumbens cuttings collected under minimal
facility conditions and cultured on MS2 medium supplemented with
1.5g/l Benlate and 0.1 g/ l Rifamycine in the open air were
successfully recovered without contamination after eight weeks
(Plate 1). It was also observed that some cuttings grew in spite
of visible bacterial contamination. Whilst fungal contamination
was only 5% in this, the best treatment, bacterial contamination
was high at 40X.
Initiation and multiplication
In vitro cultures of all the accessions of grasses and legumes
were initiated from axillary buds, meristems and nodal cuttings
in all media tested. Whilst cultures were successfully initiated
in the different media, the accessions showed preference for
different media irrespective of the species (Table 1). Both
grasses and legumes have been successfully multiplied using nodal
cuttings of the in vitro cultures.
Slow growth conservation
Established cultures were kept under slow growth conditions for
up to 300 days. Retrieved cultures were successfully re
established under normal growth conditions except for Digi taria
decumbens (ILCA 9729) which did not survive 5° for 200 days
(Table 2).
Adventitious regeneration
Adventitious shoots were recovered from embryo-derived cotyledons
(19X and 24X) and hypocotyls (35X and 62X) of S^ sesban cultured
on MS3 medium supplemented with the two highest levels (10 and
10 of BA respectively (Plate 2). In addition to caulogenesis
from these explants, some embryo axes cultured on these media
formed multiple shoots.
582
Establishment in Soil
In vi tro cultures of two accessions of C. aethiopicus (ILCA 2006
and 6624) were successfully transferred to sterilized vermiculite
without any plant mortality. 67 and 92X of C. dactylon (ILCA
13828 and 13831) and 38X of C. aethiopicus (ILCA 6624) were
successfully established in sterilized forest soil. More
significantly, 67 and 83X of C. dactylon (ILCA 13828 and 13831
respectively) and 50X of C. aethiopicus (ILCA 6624) were
successfully established in unsterilized forest soil directly
from in vitro conditions (Plate 3).
583
Plata 1. Rooted plantlati Dlgltarin decumbens from in vitro rol|ertion (8 weeks)
Plate 2. Adventitious regeneration from hypocotyl tissue of Sesbania sesban.
Plate 3. Establishment of Cynodon aethiopicus cultures~tn soil
 
Plate 1
 
 
Plat* 2
Plat* 3
584
Table 1. Establishment of cultures from different explants on 3 media.
Species Accession Medium
Number
Percentage establishment
Axillary Meristems Nodal cutting
bod cultures cultures cultures
Ci dactylon 13828
13829
13831
Ct aethiopicus 2006
6624
D. decumbens 9729
0. smuts ii 6611
U. leucocephala 11662
E. bruceii
S. sesban 10865
MS3 66 77
MSSG 60 ~-
MSS 6% 80
MS3 33 40
MSSG 15 --
MSS 9 60
MS3 56 60
MSSG 64 --
MS3 50 ..
MSSG 23 --
MSS 74 --
MS3 76 43
MSSG 91 --
MSS 90 100
MS3 60 ..
MSS 66 40
MS3 17 ..
MS3 4 --
MS3 -. ..
1/2MS3 -- --
MS3 -- ..
1/2MS3 -- ~•
MS3 — --
1/2MS3
53
93
75
90
35
75
42
21
58
585
Table 2. Survival of cultures after retrieval from slow growth storage.
X survival after storage
Species Accession Medium Temperature
100 200 300 days
C. dactvlon 13831 MSS 15 100 100 100
MSS 5 100 100 --
MS3 15 60 100 100
13828 MSS 15 90 82 --
MS3 15 100 100 --
C. aethioDicus 6624 MS3 15 90 50 --
D. decumbens 9729 MS3 5 60 0 --
586
So far an eighty percent success rate has been achieved
using the minimal facility method for transferring j_n vi tro
cultures to soil. Plants derived from j_n vi tro field collection
and slow growth conservation have been directly transferred to
untreated soil using this method.
DISCUSSION
In vitro collection methods have already been developed for other
crops. Using minimal facility in vitro field collection methods,
Altman et al (1987) reported 83X success for wild species of
Gossypium whilst Assy Bar et al (1987) reported 90X success for
coconut, after keeping the cultures for four weeks. Great care
must be taken in interpreting results because the best treatment
at four weeks became heavily contaminated after eight weeks using
minimal facility methods for the collection of D. decumbens.
Time factors are therefore important since collection missions
can be for very long periods of time.
Over the past two decades it has been shown that even within
species, different genotypes can have different requirements for
optimum growth j_n vitro (Evans et al, 1981). In the grass and
browse species used here, medium preferences were observed in the
establishment of different accessions. Since genetic
conservation intends to capture the whole gene pool of an
accession it is important that the conditions under which optimum
numbers of explants and accessions can be established as cultures
be determined and adopted. Work is in progress to evaluate the
possibility of j_n vitro selection.
Obligate bacteria, fungi and viruses can be eliminated from
in vitro cultures by using meristem culture together with
thermotherapy (Kartha, 1986). These techniques rely on the
establishment of cultures from meristems with three or fewer leaf
primordia. Thermotherapy techniques will be eventually developed
for the species which were successfully initiated from meristems
in this work.
587
Growth suppression using low temperatures is the most
promising approach to j_n vi tro conservation. The temperate
forage grass species Loliumr Festuca. Dactyl i s and Phleum can
tolerate 2-4 C (Dale, 1978, 1980); even so, some tropical species
such as Ipomea batatas. (Alan, 1979) and Manihot esculentum
(Roca, 1978) cannot tolerate temperatures below 15°C. Despite
the varied temperature tolerance of accessions, the grasses used
here show good recovery rates for up to 300 days at 15°C.
Further investigations are necessary to adequately establish
survival rates at lower temperatures.
In vi tro multiplication of forage grasses and legumes has
been routinely carried out in this work using nodal cuttings
which give rise to genetically stable plants. It may be hastened
by using adventitious regeneration forming masses of shoots from
parts of the plant without meristems. Apical axillary meristems
can also be induced to form multiple shoots. Whilst multiple
shoots from pre-existing meristems and plants that form
adventitiously directly on the explant are usually genetically
identical to the mother tissue, those from indirect adventitious
regeneration through a callus stage have been found to be
genetically heterogeneous in some species (Scowcroft, 1984). Of
particular interest is the genetic enhancement of desirable
agronomic characters in some of these so called somaclonal
variants when compared to the mother plants (Larkin and
Scowcroft, 1981; Scowcroft, 1984). Work is in progress at ILCA
to root and establish adventitious regenerants from cotyledons
and hypocotyls of S. sesban in soil for eventual evaluation.
A successful ui vi tro genetic resources programme also
requires minimal facility techniques for re-establishment of
cultures in soil. The results obtained at ILCA have been very
significant because plantlets have been established in soil with
very high success rates using minimum facilities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of
the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources for this
project.
588
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germplasm. PhD. thesis, University of Birmingham,
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Altman, D.W., Fryxell, P. A. and Howell, C.R. 1987. Development
of a tissue culture method for collecting wild germplasm of
Gossypium. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, 71:14-15.
Ammirato, P.V., Evans, D.A., Sharp, W.R. and Yamada, Y. (eds)
1984. Handbook of Plant Cell Culture, Vol. 3, Crop
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Assy Bar, B., Durand-Gassel in, T. and Pannetier, C. 1987. Use o
zygotic embryo culture to collect germplasm of coconut
(Cocos nucif era L. ) . Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter,
71:4-10.
Dale, P.J. 1978. Meristem tip culture in herbage grasses.
International Association for Plant Tissue Culture.
Calgary Meeting. Abstract No. 1206, 106. Calgary, Canada.
Dale, P.J. 1980. A method for j_n vi tro storage of Lol ium
multif lorum Lam. Ann. Bot. 45:497-502.
Evans, D.A. Sharp, W.R. and Flick, CD. 1981. Growth and
behaviour of cell cultures: Embryogenesis and
Organogenesis. In: T.A. Thorpe (ed), Plant Tissue Culture.
Methods and Applications in Agriculture. pp. 45-113,
Academic Press, New York.
Hussey, G. 1983. J_n vi tro propagation of horticultural and
agricultural crops. In: Plant Biotechnology. S.H. Mantell
and H. Smith (eds): pp. 111-138. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
IBPGR. 1984. The potential for using j_n vi tro techniques for
germplasm collection. Rome.
Kartha, K.K. 1986. Production and indexing of disease-free
plants. In: Plant Tissue Culture and its Agricultural
Applications. L.A. Withers and P.G. Alderson (eds): pp.
219-238, Butterworths, London.
Larkin, P.J. and Scowcroft, W.R. 1981. Somaclonal variation - a
novel source of variability from cell culture for plant
improvement. Theor. Appl. Genet. 60:197-214.
589
Murashige, T. and Skoog, f. 1962. A revised medium for rapid
growth and biossays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol .
Plant. 15:473-497.
Roca, W.M. 1978. Report: Genetic Resources Unit, CIAT, Colombia.
Scowcroft, W.R. 1984. Genetic Variability In Tissue
Culture: Impact On Germplasm Conservation and Utilisation.
A technical report commissioned by The In Vitro Storage
Committee. IBPGR, Rome.
Sharp, W.R., Evans, D.A., Ammirato, P.V. and Yamada, Y. (eds).
1984. Handbook of Plant Cell Culture. Vol. 2. Macmillan
Publishing Company. New York.
Withers, L.A. 1980. Tissue Culture Storage for Genetic
Conservation. IBPGR Technical Report, IBPGR, Rome.
590
Appendix 1. Plant species used in the experiments
Species ILCA accession number
Cynodon dactylon
Cynodon aethiopicus
Digi taria decumbens
D i g i t a r i a smutsi i
Sesbania sesban
Erythrina brucei
Leucaena leucocephala
13828, 13819 and 13831
2006 and 6624
9729
6611
10865
11662
Appendix 2. Culture media used
MS3 MS medium without IAA or kinetin and with 3X sucrose
1/2MS3 medium diluted to half the normal concentration
maintaining 3% sucrose
MSS Salts of MS medium with myo- inosi tol , thymine. HCI and 3X
sucrose
MSSG MSS medium with glycine
MS2 MS medium without IAA or kinetin and with 2% sucrose
591
PRODUCTIVITY OF OVERSOWN NATURAL PASTURES IN NORTHERN TANZANIA
M.L. Kusekwa1, S.N. Bitende2 and M.D. Ngowi1
ABSTRACT
Natural pastures are the cheapest and main source of feed for the
ruminant livestock population in Tanzania. These pastures occupy
about 60 million hectares of Tanzania mainland's approximately 87
million hectares. The majority of the cattle, goats and sheep
are kept by small holder livestock keepers in rural areas where
communal grazing is commonly practised (Anon, l983). Herbage
production of these pastures is contained by overgrazing, poor
species composition and general land degradation.
Oversowing of natural pastures with improved forage species,
particularly legumes, improves the production and quality of
resulting pastures. At Tengeru, Arusha it was found that natural
pastures oversown with Desmodium intortum produced an average of
15.6 tonnes DM/ha annually as compared to annual yield of 13.0 of
tonnes DM/ha from natural pastures alone. Liveweight gains of
heifers grazing oversown natural pastures were, however, only
slightly higher (10X) than those of heifers on natural pasture
alone.
This paper discusses the potentials of oversown natural pastures
in the improvement of livestock productivity with special
reference to work done at Tengeru, Arusha, northern Tanzania.
Tanzania Livestock Research Organisation, Livestock Production
Research Institute, Mpwapwa, Tanzania.
Tanzania Livestock Research Organisation, Livestock Research
Centre, Tanga, Tanzania.
592
INTRODUCTION
Natural pastures are important in Tanzania in that they support
most of the ruminant livestock population. However, their
productivity is low due to the inherent low production and
quality of the component species (French, l957; Calo l976;
Mwakatundu, l977).
Natural pastures can be improved through employing the following
ways:-
i) Improvement of the management and utilisation of the
existing natural pastures.
ii) Replacement of natural pasture species with improved ones
and
iii) The use of the combination approach involving oversowing of
natural pastures with improved species, particularly
legumes.
Improvement of management and utilisation of natural
pastures is in itself constrained by the inherent low
productivity and quality of herbage of the existing plant species
(Calo, l976). Replacing them with improved species by
cultivation and seeding is unlikely to be adopted due to the high
costs involved. A more realistic approach would appear to be the
employment of oversowing techniques for natural pastures
development. Limited experience in Tanzania has shown that
desired species could be successfully introduced into the natural
pastures with minimum operations such as hard grazing, burning,
use of herbicides and minimum cultivations (Northwood and
Macartney, l969; Lane and Lwoga, l978; Kusekwa, l982; Lwoga,
l983). The work by Anderson and Naveh (l968) and Naveh (l967) in
northern Tanzania, that reported by Lane and Lwoga (l978) and
that of Rukanda and Lwoga (l981) in Morogoro have suggested that
a number of legumes could be grown in these areas. Therefore it
593
was a matter of importance to carry out studies on how to
successfully establish these species in natural pastures by
techniques that employed oversowing methods.
This study has endeavoured to throw some light on oversowing
techniques to be used, what species are most suited for
oversowing performance of oversown natural pastures under grazing
and the growth of animals grazing these pastures.
The objectives of this study were:
(a) To determine the best method of seedbed preparation for the
establishment of pasture legumes by oversowing.
(b) To determine the role of phosphatic fertilizers in the
productivity of oversown natural pastures, and
(c) To determine the most suitable legume species for oversowing
purposes and their role in increasing the productivity of
natural pastures in terms of herbage and animal production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plot and grazing experiments were conducted from April, l979 to
December, l983 at the Livestock Training Institute, Tengeru, in
Arusha, Northern Tanzania. Detailed description of the research
site and the methodology used for the plot experiment are given
in earlier reports (Kusekwa and Lwoga, l986; Kusekwa, l988).
Grazing Experiment
Two legumes, out of the 9 tested for suitability for oversowing
in the plot experiment, Macropt i l ium atropurpureum (Siratro) and
Desmodium intortum (Greenleaf desmodium) were selected and
oversown into paddocks after the natural pastures had been hard
grazed. The oversown pastures were given one year for
establishment before grazing was introduced.
At grazing, two stocking rates were used and the basis for their
selection was the recommendations by Pratt e_t al. (l966) that the
594
carrying capacity for Ecological Zone II (i.e. Humid to dry
subhumid) was 1-2.5 ha/stock unit. Yearling dairy heifers grazed
the pastures for six months of the year during the growing season
and part of the dry season. The experiment lasted for 3 years
(1981, 1982 and 1983) and, each year, a new batch of heifers was
used.
Pasture types (treatments):
(a) Siratro oversown natural pastures (Siratro)
(b) Greenleaf desmodium oversown natural pastures (Greenleaf
desmodium)
(c) Natural pasture alone (control).
Stocking Rates
Only two stocking rates were used instead of three or more as
generally recommended (Mannetje et aj. l976) because land and
animals available for experiment were limited.
(a) High stocking rate (SR.) = 2 animal units/ha or 4 heifers/ha
(liveweight ranged from 120-150 kg).
(b) Low stocking rate (SR,) * 1 animal unit/ha or 2 heifers/ha.
Experimental design
The randomized block design was used in which 12 paddocks made up
of all combinations between the three pasture treatments and 2
stocking rates were replicated twice. Three heifers were
allocated to each paddock. Thus the paddocks for the high were
0.75 ha each and those for the low stocking rate were 1.5 ha
each.
Measurements
Various measurements were taken during the course of the study
which included soil tests, botanical composition, dry matter
production, pasture quality and liveweight gains.
595
Botanical composition
The Dry Weight Rank (DWR) method as described by Tothill et aj.
(1978). The rank BOTANAL computational package as described by
Tothill et a! (1978).
Dry matter production
Dry matter production was determined by placing cages in the
paddocks to exclude grazing animals. The growth of the pastures
was then monitored, that within and outside the cages, by cutting
regularly samples for dry matter production assessement.
Liveweight gains measurements
The animals were weighed twice a week during the entire grazing
period. Weighing was done in the mornings, from about 7.00 hrs
to about 9.00 hrs. The weighing of the animals was arranged such
that it coincided with spraying for tick control (on Tuesdays and
Fridays) .
RESULTS
In this paper, results showing the effects of oversown pasture
legumes on natural pasture and animal productivity, dry-matter
yield, botanical composition and liveweight gains, will be given.
Results on pasture legumes suitability for oversowing,
establishment, persistence (survival), dry matter production and
responses to phosphatic fertilizer application are reported
elsewhere (Kusekwa and Lwoga, 1986, Kusekwa, 1988).
Annual dry-matter yield
The annual DM yield (kg/ha) was not significantly affected by
oversowing with legumes as shown in Table 1. However, the 1983
DM yield (11,626 kg/ha) was significantly lower than those of
1981 and 1982 (16,007 and 15,182 kg/ha, respectively). This
represented decreases in DM yield of 27X between 1981 and 1983
and 23X between 1982 and 1983. Within pasture treatments the
decline in DM yields in 1983 was lower than that for 1981 and
596
1982 (P<0.05) except for the control pasture where the 1983 DM
yield was significantly lower (P<0.05) than that of 1981.
However, it was in the control pasture where the decrease in DM
yield was largest, 33X as compared to 27X and 21X in the Siratro
and Greenleaf desmodium pastures respectively.
Table 1. Effects of oversown pasture legumes on annual dry-matter
yield (kg/ha)
Pasture 1981 1982 1983 Means LSD (0.05)
treatments S.E
1 Siratro 15410 15343 11142 13965 3629.5 1411.7
2 Green leaf
desmodium 17210 16554 13485 15570 2951.7 1148.1
3 Control 15402 13650 10251 13101 3887.7 1512.1
LSD (0.05) NS NS NS NS
S.E. 2596 2901 1193 1350.9
Table 2. Effects of stocking rate on annual dry-matter yield
(kg/ha) SR. ■ High Stocking rate, SR2 = Low Stocking
rate.
Stocking rate 1981 1982 1983 Means LSD (0.05) S.E.
SR1 15965 14586 11101 13884 3721.2 1447.4
SR2 16049 15779 12151 14660 3231.2 1256.8
Means 16007 15182 11626 14272 3455.8 1344.1
LSD (0.05) NS NS NS NS
S.E. 670.0 841.0 975.0 388.1
597
Table 3. Overall botanical composition (X) of an oversown natural
pasture over three years (1981-1983).
Pasture
component 1981 1982 1983 Means LSD (0.05) S.E.
Grasses 78.8 80.9 79.3 79.7 NS 0.63
Sown legumes 10.7 8.8 11.9 10.5 NS 0.90
Volunteer
legumes 4.0 3.6 5.5 4.4 NS 0.58
Weeds 6.7 6.8 3.5 5.7 NS 1.08
Table 2 shows that stocking rate had no significant effects
on DM yield. However, OM yield declined with time: at SR. (high
stocking rate) there was a decline of 30X between 1981 and 1983.
Similarly at SR, (low stocking rate) there was a decline of 24X
between 1981 and 1983. Both these declines in DM yield were
significant (P<0.05).
Presentation yield (kg/ha) during the grazing period.
Presentation yield or available DM during the grazing period,
determined by sampling at the beginning, middle and end of each
grazing period (H., H- and H, respectively) did not differ
significantly between pasture treatments. However, the mean DM
yield for sampling dates were significantly different (P<0.05).
Mean DM yield at H} (4,995 kg/ha) was lower (P<0.05) than that at
H. (10,856 kg/ha, a reduction of 54X in available DM between
these sampling dates.
Stocking rate had no significant effect on presentation
yield (available DM) at the various sampling stages during the
grazing periods. The declines in available DM between H. and H.
were, however, significant (P<0.05). At SR. the reduction in
yield was 58X while at SR, it was 49X.
598
Botanical composition of pastures
Table 3 shows that pasture component species, grasses, sown
legumes, volunteer legumes and weeds, did not differ
significantly between years. However, in Table 4, all the
pasture component except volunteer legumes changed with years.
The contact of the sown legume, Siratro in 1983 (2X) was
significantly lower than that of 1982 (9.8X) (P<0.05). In the
Greenleaf desmodium pastures in Table 5 sown legume and the weed
contents differed significantly between years (P<0.05).
Greenleaf desmodium content in 1983 (33. 6%) was higher than in
1982 (16.7X) while weed content in 1983 (4. OX) was lower than in
1981 and 1982 (7.1X and 7.3X respectively).
Pasture quality
The crude protein contents and digestibility coefficients of leaf
herbage from the pastures declined significantly (P<0.05) with
time during the grazing period. In the Siratro pasture, CP
content dropped from 14X at H. to 10.8X at H, and digestibility
dropped from 66. 8X to 60X at H. and, respectively. In the
Greenleaf desmodium pasture CP content declined from 15.6X at H.
to 11.2X at H3 while digestibility declined from 64.3X at H1 to
55.9X at H,. In the control pasture, CP content varied between
12.0X at H1 and 7.3X at Hj while digestibility was 62.3X at H,
and 50.3X at H,. The control treatment, natural pasture alone,
tended to drop in quality faster than the Siratro and Greenleaf
desmodium pastures. This was indicative of a general improvement:
in the quality of herbage of legume oversown natural pastures.
599
Table 4. Overall botanical composition (X) of a Siratro oversown
natural pasture over three years (1981-1983).
Pasture 1981 1982 1983 Means LSDC0.05)
component S.E.
Grasses 83.3
Siratro 6.5
Volunteer legumes 4.4
Weeds 6.4
Table 5: Overall botanical composition (X) of Greenleaf desmodium
oversown natural pasture over three years (1981-1983).
80.1 90.8 84.7 6.94 1.91
9.8 2.0 6.1 5.38 1.48
3.7 4.4 4.2 NS 0.23
6.9 2.9 5.4 2.43 0.67
Pasture 1981 1982 1983 Means LSDC0. 05)
component S.E.
Grasses 63.4 73.1 56.2 64.5 12.14 3.34
Greenleaf
desmodium 25.7 16.7 33.6 25.4 10.46 2.88
Volunteer legumes 3.4 2.8 6.5 4.2 NS 1.88
Weeds 7.1 7.3 4.0 6.1 2.18 0.60
Liveweight gains (LWG) of grazing animals
The LWG per head of heifers was not significantly affected by
pasture treatments but was influenced significantly by stocking
rates (P<0.05). At SR., LWG per head was 56.0 kg and at SR, it
was 77.2 kg, working out to the equivalent of 311 gm and 429 gm
LWG per head per day at SR. and SR. respectively. Although
pasture treatments did not affect significantly LWG per head of
the heifers, there was an overall improvement in the growth of
the animal grazing oversown natural pastures as shown in Figure 1
and Appendix Figures 1-3.
600
LWG/ha of heifers during the 6-month grazing period was
significantly affected by pasture. At SR- and SR2 LWG/ha was
higher, 224.1 kg than at SRp, 154.3 kg. This represented a
LWG/ha/day of 1245 gm and 857 gm at SR. and SR2 respectively.
Figure 2 and Appendix Figures 4-6 show the relationship between
LWG/head and LWG/ha at the two stocking rates.
DISCUSSION
Dry-matter (DM) yield
The annual dry-matter yield of the natural pasture was not
significantly affected by legume oversowing (Table 1). However,
legume oversown natural pastures in particular, Greenleaf
desmodium, consistently produced more DM than the Siratro and
control pastures. Clatworthy (1984), in Zimbabwe, observed
increased DM production of a natural pasture oversown Desmodium
uncinatum (Silverleaf desmodium). Other workers have reported
increases in pasture production when suitable pasture legumes
were successfully incorporated (Walker, 1969; Stobbs, 1969 and
Lwoga, 1983).
The general decline in DM production over the three years
could be attributed to effects of defoliation and hence fertility
decline and depletion of food reserves for regrowth. It is shown
that DM yield declined the least on the Greenleaf desmodium
pasture, 21. 6% as compared to 27.7X and 33.4X on the Siratro and
control pastures respectively. This follows closely the legume
content in the pasture in that, the higher the legume content in
the pasture the smaller the decline, a function of fertility
build-up through N-fixation by the legume component. The
abnormally low rainfall in 1983 (Appendix Table 1) is thought to
have further depressed DM yield that year.
601
Presentation yield
Presentation yield at the various sampling dates was not
significantly affected by oversowing with legumes although
Greenleaf desmodium pastures had consistently more dry-matter
yield at all sampling dates during the grazing period. Keya et
al (1971) observed a 28X and 31X increased in DM yield in a
natural pasture oversown with Desmodium intortum and D. uncinatum
respectively. Presentation yield declined at each sampling date
and decline was more severe at SR. than at SR.,. This could be
attributed to faster removal of herbage than was being replaced
by regrowth during the grazing period while the differences
between sr. and SR- could be attributed to more severe
defoliation at SR.. Other workers have reported declines in DM
yields with increase in stocking rates caused mainly by increase
in stocking rates caused mainly by increase in bare ground and
unproductive species (Jones et. al . 1984; Mannetje, 1984).
However, in this study, there was no evidence of pasture
deterioration caused by grazing pressure exerted by SR. and SR-,.
602
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Botanical composition
Botanical composition was not influenced significantly (P>0.05)
by either pasture treatment or stocking rate. It has been
reported that high stocking rates tended to encourage weed
invasion and depletion of desirable species (Humphreys, 1981).
In this study, both SR. and SR- were significantly lenient to
maintain stable pastures.
Botanical composition did not change significantly (P>0.05)
between sampling dates or between years. However, the Siratro
pastures dropped significantly (P<0.05) in their legume content
(from 2.8X in 1982 to 2. OX in 1983). This suggests that Siratro
was being selectively grazed and that regeneration through seed
setting was hampered (Jones, 1981; Tothill and Jones, 1977).
Pasture quality
Pasture quality in terms of CP content and digestibility was
found to be higher in legume oversown natural pastures than in
natural pastures alone. The decline in quality was also slower
when initial values were higher (Tothill, 1986). This points to
the usefulness of grass pastures as overall feed quality is
improved. Oversowing of forage legumes into natural pastures has
also been reported to increase the quality of the resultant
herbage where Macropti l ium atropureum and Stylosanthes guianensis
were oversown in Themeda. In vitro DM digestibility and CP
content were 55. 7X and 9.1X respectively on oversown natural
grasslands as compared to 51. 9% digestibility and 8.1X CP on
natural grassland alone (Rukanda and Lwoga, 1981).
Liveweight gains
The liveweight gains of heifers was not significantly influenced
(P>0.05) by pasture treatments. However, the liveweight gains,
per head and per hectare, on the Greenleaf desmodium were
consistently higher than those on the Siratro and control
pastures. The lack of a significant difference in the LWG's
605
between pasture treatments is in agreement with observations by
other workers who found that, in the wet season, animals
performed similarly on natural pastures and on improved pastures
(Mannetje, 1984; Tothill, 1985 pers. comm; TothiU, 1986). Feed
quality improvement resulted in increases in LWG's and that the
quality factor was more evident in the dry season. In this study
quality of pasture in terms of CP did not fall below the
suggested critical level of 6.5X CP (Jones et al_, 1984).
Stocking rate influenced significantly (P<0.05) LWG per head
and per hectare with the higher stocking rate giving higher
LWG's/ha than the low stocking rate while the pastures remained
fairly stable. Intermittent 6-month continuous grazing of
oversown natural pastures appear to have been appropriate at both
SR. and SR- evidenced by the relatively stable botanical
composition. The higher DM yield, presentation yield, legume
content and leaf CP content on the Greenleaf desmodium pasture
than on the Siratro and control pastures reflected the overall
better LWG's of heifers on this pasture.
Relevance of oversowing to pasture improvement in Tanzania
It is our view that this technology has a role to play in the
development of forage resources in Tanzania. The majority of the
reasons advanced for poor adoption of innovations by small-scale
farmers also apply with regards to oversowing. However, we
specifically consider the following factors to be important:-
Oversowing was best suited to systems where some form of land
ownership existed, namely commercial holdings under governmental,
parastatal or private control. Here the technology has been and
is being employed for pasture development. Small-scale farmers
could readily adopt this technology (all other things being
equal) through setting aside a piece of land, on communal land,
for development. The rule practised here was "use the land, gain
it and vice versa" (Anon, 1986).
Necessary inputs such as seeds, appropriate machinery and
management were in short supply. This was likely to slow the
adoption process.
606
Inadequate research-extension linkage was a limiting factor to
adoption of this technology.
Oversowing, being a low-cost pasture development method, is
likely to be widely used when and if the rightful settings are
developed including its promotion through extension leaflets and
demonstrations.
CONCLUSION
In this study it has been shown that pasture development could be
achieved through oversowing natural pastures with legumes.
Oversown natural pastures were shown to be more productive, in
terms of DM yield and LWG's, than untreated natural pastures.
However, management of the oversown pasture and the forage
legumes to be used varied with agro-ecological zones involved.
Thus there was a need of extending this kind of study to cover
the various zones of the country so as to develop this technology
for each situation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful for advice and assistance from various people in
the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, the
Tanzania Livestock Research Organisation (TALIRO), Sokoine
University of Agriculture (SUA) at Morogoro and the International
Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
notably Professor A.B. Lwoga and Dr. J.C. Tothill for their
supervisory role to the senior author. Special thanks are due to
Mr. J.J. Mbekelu for his diligence in the day-to-day supervision
of the field work. We are indebted to the Royal Netherlands
Government, Research Council, (Tanzania), World Food Programme
(WFP) (Tanzania), International Development Research Centre
(IDRC) (Ottawa, Canada), ILCA, TALIRO and SUA, for their support
in this study. Last but not least, we wish to thank the PANESA
and ARNAB Steering Committees for involving us to prepare this
paper.
607
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Toth ill, J.C. Jones R.M. 1978. BOTANAL, a comprehensive sampling
and computing procedure for estimating pasture yield and
composition CSIRO. Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures.
Tropical Agronomy. Technical Memorandum No. 8.
Toth ill, J.C. 1986. The role of legumes in farming systems of
sub-saharan Africa. In: I. Hague, Jutzi and P.J.H. Neate
(eds). Potential of forage legumes in farming systems of
sub-saharan Africa. Proc. workshop held at ILCA, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-19th September, 1985. 162-185.
Walker, B. 1969. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer and forage
legumes on Cenchrus c i l i a r i s pasture in Western Tanzania
East Afr. Agric. For. jK 38:375-382.
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TECHNIQUES FOR INTRODUCING FORAGE LEGUMES TO THE SMALL-SCALE
FARMERS OF THE SEMI-ARID REGION OF KENYA
D.M.G. N jarui
National Dryland Farming Research Station,
P. 0. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya.
ABSTRACT
A range of forage legumes which are well adapted to the semi-arid
mid-altitude environments of Kenya have been identified in trials
lasting several growing seasons. Growth habits and persistence
within the plant genotypes selected vary from short-lived annuals
to perennials. Data have been obtained on agronomic performance
and phenological characteristics in a range of temperature -
moisture environments in eastern Kenya.
Possible ways of integrating these forage legumes into
existing farming systems will include undersowing or
intercropping with cereals, use on erosion control bunds or
terrace banks, in the improvement of degraded, non-productive
grassland, or in simple cut-and-carry fodder plots. The
possibility of using these techniques with individual legume
genotypes is discussed in this paper. With successful
introductions into farm systems, it is likely that the legumes
will increase soil fertility, reduce soil erosion and
consequently increase livestock and cereal production.
INTRODUCTION
Semi -arid regions cover about 59% (342,000 km ) of the total land
area in Kenya. Soils range from clays to well drained reddish
and stony sands. The eastern region has a marked bimodal
rainfall pattern with two pronounced wet and dry seasons
(Kusekwa, 1985). Annual rainfall averages 500-800 mm, but is
irregular and erratic with pronounced erosive downpours and long
drought periods. These attributes make mixed farming
(crops/animal production) in the semi-arid environment a risky
enterprise (Rukandema, 1984).
618
Rapid increases in population densities and intensity of
cultivation and grazing within the smallholder farming systems
have resulted in severe depletion of soil fertility and severe
soil erosion. On the cultivated lands, contour bunds and
terraces are commonly used for controlling erosion. These are
sometimes planted with grasses but commonly left bare, making
them a target *of erosion. On grazing lands continual intensive
defoliation and trampling have led to land denudation,
insufficient regrowth and the development of marked erosion in
many areas.
In some grazing lands, adequate perennial grasses are
present but it has been estimated that livestock carrying
capacity in lowland Machakos (and similar semi-arid areas) is 1.5
ha to 6 ha/livestock unit, an indication of poor quantity and
quality pastures (Wheeler and Jones, 1984).
Forage legumes do not feature prominently in the existing
farming systems, despite their potential to improve soil
fertility, check soil erosion and contribute to the livestock
feed resource base. It has been suggested (Thairu and Tessema,
1987) that productive legumes are absent from pastures in the
semi-arid regions for various reasons including:-
i) failure to tolerate heavy grazing
ii) drought susceptibility and
iii) non-avai labi l i ty and high cost of seeds
The research programme described in this paper has
concentrated on the search for adapted species over the last 4
years and is now shifting emphasis to the search for places where
the adapted species identified can be fitted into the farming
systems. Special techniques may be required to integrate forage
legumes into the farming systems of the semi-arid regions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
More than 160 accessions of forage legumes from 23 genera were
tested over six growing seasons. The main experiments were
conducted on row plots at Katumani (altitude 1600 m, mean annual
619
rainfall 717 mm, mean annual temperature 19.6 C, soil type:
chromic luviso, pH 6.5) and Kiboko (975m, rainfall 595 mm, mean
temp. 25.7 , soil type: rhodic ferrasol, pH 5.8). Further
assessments were made of swards in selected accessions at four
other locations (Kiboko, Mua Hills, Maruba and Ithookwe) (See
Menin et al, 1989).
The evaluation was in double row plots (2 m row x 1.5 m
2
inter-row) and in multi-planting sward plots (16 m , of 20 best-
bet accessions) in a randomized complete block design with 3
replaces. Two weeks after legume seedling emergence a basal
fertilizer was applied along one row of the row plots and evenly
broadcasted over the entire sward plots.
Monthly agronomic and phenological characters recorded
included plant population, heights, plant development (e.g.
flowering, seeding) visual bulk ratings (cumulative herbage on a
scale of 1-5) and pest/disease incidence. In addition, the
multi -plant ing swards had the objective of measuring seasonal dry
matter production.
In the multi -plant ing swards, at 4 sites, a total of 12
plantings were done in 5 seasons although not every site was
planted in each season. Each planting consisted of 3 reps of 20
accessions. Eleven accessions were common to all plantings while
another 12 accessions were grown in a reduced number of
plantings.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of the row plot experiments, involving numerous
observations of yield (bulk dry matter assessments), persistence,
drought tolerance, seed production etc., allowed a ranking of the
performance and adaptability of the individual accessions. These
are listed below, and in Tables 1, 2 and 3 and in Figure 1.
The sward experiments allowed a more systematic analysis of
yield and adaptability. An example of the data being obtained is
given in Figures 1. Each curve on Figure 1 represents either
linear or quadratic regressions with 10-12 data points per
620
accession and coefficients of determination (r ) normally in the
range 80 to 90X.
Individual assessment
(a) Short-lived annual forage legumes
Because of the prolonged dry period in this environment, annual
legumes might be better adapted than the perennials. Annual
legumes can often self - regenerate from seed where the wet season
is short.
Suitable potential species and cultivars of annual legumes
have been identified, notably Centrosema pascuorum cv. Cavalcade
(K14418), Aeschynomene americana cv. Glenn (K19897), Hacroty loma
af ricanum CP 24972 (K14348) and Centrosema vi rginianum CP 2748
(K14399).
These are fast growing, prolific seeders with excellent
regeneration. A difficulty with cv. Cavalcade is that its seeds
are carried away by harvester ants into their nest. Otherwise
establishment of these annuals is easy. They are non-aggressive
in their growth pattern, and thus suitable for cereal
intercropping. Because of their fast maturity, they are able to
escape the dry period.
b) Long-lived annual forage legumes
These are sometimes referred to as short-lived perennials.
Favourable soil temperatures and moisture initiate fast
germination followed by excellent herbage growth during warm
weather.
A good example is Lablab purpureus cv. Rongai - a rampant
and vigorous mult i -purpose legume. The grain can be used as
human food and the residues can be fed to animals. It forms a
Table 1: Short-lived annual legumes for use in the semi-arid
region.
621
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Figure 2. Changes in visual ratings of bulk dry matter (VBR) with
time for three forage legumes at Maruba, Machakos.
(a) Iflblflh purpureus
(hi Qesmanthus virgatus
(rl Macrotyloma afrkanum
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625
suitable intercrop with cereals. Cassia rotundi folia cv. Wynn
(K18177) and Stylosanthes hamata cv. Verano (K14428) are prolific
seeders. They have ability to colonise quickly due to excellent
regeneration from seed. Seeds of Cassia rotundi folia cv. Wynn
are usually carried by harvester ants thus lowering the
regenerative capacity. Alysicarpus rugosus CP 52351 (K14384), is
a good seeder but regenerates poorly due to hard seedness. It
establishes a good stand if seeds are well scarified. It is non-
aggressive and thus suitable for intercropping.
c) Perennial forage legumes
Although rainfall limits production in semi-arid areas,
favourable temperatures, light intensities and substantial
storage of moisture after rains offer opportunities for growing
reasonable good quality herbage from mixtures including perennial
legumes.
Some Stylosanthes. Desmanthus and Macropt i l ium spp are
outstanding in dry matter production and wider adaptability in
the semi -arid zone. They have excellent perennation, good
regeneration and remain green during the dry period. Other
notable genera are Macrotyloma. Rhynchosi a. Neonotoni a and
C l i t o r i a . Initial establishment of most of these perennials is
slow, but they tend to be more productive in the second season.
This is an advantage if intercropped with cereals since the
cereal crop will have time to establish without much competition.
Desmanthus vi rgatus cv. CPI 40071 (K14456) is a deep rooted
species, which firms the surrounding soil, making it suitable for
stabilizing terrace banks. This species tends to shed leaves
during the dry season, but this forms a mulch which releases
nitrogen after decomposition.
The Stylosanthes spp are prolific seeders. Their ability to
colonize low fertility soils is an advantage. S. scabra cv.
Fitzroy and Stylosanthes f rut icosa cv. CPI 41219A (K14426) are
slow to establish but persist well and are vigorous in the second
season. Similarly, Clitoria ternatea. cv. CPI 48337 (K14403)
grows quickly in the second season. This species is attacked by
626
powdery and downy mildew at maturity. There are wild types
growing on the semi -arid zone of eastern Kenya especially in
black cotton soi ls.
Macrotyloma axi l lare. cv. Archer (KK462), Neonotonia
wighti i . cv. K2366 and cv. Cooper and Macropt i l ium atropurpureum
cv. Siratro (K14461) all form a good early stand. Together with
their excellent perennation, this makes them suitable for several
farm situations.
INTRODUCTION OF LEGUMES INTO FARMING SYSTEMS
Forage legume research in the semi -arid Kenya has lagged behind
that in the high potential areas, so that relevant technology for
farmers has not been developed. Forage legumes can best be
introduced as part of an overall farming system. Legumes which
could be used to provide ground cover on arable land and high
quality livestock feeds during the dry season should be given
priority.
a) Intercropping
Intercropping is defined as growing a mixture of two or more
crops simultaneously on the same field. In semi -arid eastern
Kenya, most of the legume/cereal intercropping involves grain
legumes, such as Ca ianus. Lablab and Vigna (Chabeda, 1986). The
extent to which forage legumes can be used in such mixtures is
not known. The advantages that have been advanced (Nnadi and
Haque, 1986) for such an intercropping are:
i) the possibility of nitrogen accretion from the legumes to
cereals,
ii) maintenance of a continuous feed supply during the dry
season,
iii) more efficient utilisation of low quality cereal residues
through the addition of high-potential forages
iv) increased crop productivity, and
627
v) greater security of return compared to sole cropping
Forage legumes growing in association with cereal crops will
compete for limiting resources, particularly water. More
research is needed before we can determine whether the short term
negative effects of such competition is balanced by the potential
long-term benefits of forage legumes.
b) Improvement of grazing land
Eroded, infertile land could provide significant additional
forages. Legumes are commonly good pioneer plants (Russo, 1986;
Lazier, 1987). If legumes are oversown into existing grass, they
can dominate pastures and substantially improve their production
and quality over dry periods. Persistence of the legumes depends
on the existence of a sufficient quantity of germinable seed at
the start of the growing season and persistent effective
rhizobial associations (Wheeler and Jones, 1984).
In view of excessively high stocking rates, farmers will
have to adjust livestock numbers to the available feed supply by
selectively culling unproductive animals and increasing animal
feed production per unit area. Initially, avoidance of grazing
on areas where young forage legumes have been introduced is a
pre-requisi te to any improved management. Later, light grazing
can be allowed to reduce competition from native vegetation and
promote establishment of the sown species. Grazing of stylos
which are hard-seeded can enhance germination since the seed
passes through the ruminants' alimentary canal where there is
slight scarification. Soil disturbance by grazing animals can
allow seed cover and germination at the onset of rains.
A main target area for introducing legumes will be denuded
bare areas where there are scattered grasses. The use of
"matengo pit" technology can provide micro-catchments to aid
establishment (Gichangi, E.M.G, Soil conservation, Ministry of
Agriculture, Kenya, personal communication). Attempts will be
made to oversow strips and broadcast seeds into native pastures
during the more reliable short rainy season.
628
The success of forage legumes in grazing lands will depend
very greatly on the grazing pressure they experience. The
possibility of raising production per animal and reducing animal
numbers per unit of grazing land is an important subject for
research.
c) Terrace bank stabilisation
Although rainfall is limiting in the semi-arid region, usually it
occurs as large erosive storms which can, among other effects
damage the bare banks of terraces on cropland. Perennial grasses
are used in some cases to stabilize these structures, but the
potential role of deep-rooted, perennial shrub legumes has
received little attention. During the dry season, they could be
slashed for animal feed. They could also provide some mulch and
improve soil fertility within the cultivated terrace bank.
d) Cut-and-carry fodder plots
Fodder banks, concentrated units of forage legumes, (Mohammed-
Saleem et a_l_ 1986) could be planted and maintained for several
seasons near homesteads or in a block of land which is fenced to
deter grazing and allow protein accumulation. During the dry
season, these could be cut to provide additional protein for
sedentary animals. Labour would be required to cut-and-carry
forages and to manage the animals.
Farmers could restrict feeding of fodder banks to only the
most responsive animals in the herd (e.g. lactating cows). It is
probably important to ensure sufficient seed-drop and stubble at
cutting for regeneration in the following seasons.
e) Ley farming
Ley farming, rotation of cereals and forage legumes, emphasizes
long-term soil fertility management for sustained crop
production. In many farming systems across the world, the
presence of legumes has been found to increase soil nitrogen
through fixation of atmospheric N and decay of plant residues or
root nodules.
629
Although fertilizers can replenish soil nutrients and meet
crop requirements, they are too expensive for the low income
small-scale farmers. A fast-growing legume cover crop would
protect the soil, improve soil structure, improve water
infiltration and reduce erosion. If in the subsequent season a
cereal crop is grown, it may benefit from the residual effects of
the legumes.
However the inclusion of forage legume leys in the cereal
crop rotation means that some land is taken out of food crop
production for at least one and possibly 2-3 seasons with the
slower growing species. Hence research is needed to determine
this loss in production is balanced by enhanced production from
the cereal crops following the legumes.
CONCLUSIONS
The potential productivity of semi-arid environments could be
more fully exploited by better and greater use of grain and
forage legumes. Total land area is not such a limiting factor,
in introducing cultivated pastures and forage crops because
farmers cultivate no more than 56X of their holding (Tessema and
Emojong 1984; Tessema et al 1985). The fact that most land is
demarcated and privately owned offers scope for both
intercropping legumes with cereals improving natural pastures
with legumes and instituting proper grazing management.
Although at present farmers find it difficult to allocate
their land and labour to growing forage crops, once the benefits
from forage legumes in providing nitrogen for increased livestock
and crop production are realised, this barrier might be overcome.
Seventeen potentially useful forage legume accessions are
being multiplied. These are legumes identified from the
GOK/ACIAR legume evaluation programme for the semi-arid region of
Kenya (Njarui et al. - unpublished). See Appendix 1. Harvested
seeds will be distributed to farmers through extension officers
and to interested researchers. However, small quantities of the
seed could be obtained through the Director, NDFRS, Katumani, P.
0. Box 340, Machakos, Kenya.
630
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Mr. P.K. Kusewa, Centre Director,
NDFRS , tCatumani and Dr. B.N. Majisu, Director, KARI, for
permission to publish this paper. Financial support for the
legume evaluation programme was provided by the Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research through the ACIAR/CSIRO
Dryland project. The assessments reviewed in this report are the
result of collaboration between the author and Mr. W.M. Beattie,
Dr. B.A. Keating and Dr. R.K. Jones. Useful guidance received
from Dr. M. Karachi is appreciated. Dr. B.A. Keating, Dr. J.R.
Simpson and Ms R. Wangaliwa assisted in the preparation of this
paper.
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Kategile, A.N. Said and B.H. Dzowela (eds). Animal feed
resources for smal l -scale l i vestock producers. Proceedings
of the second PANESA workshop, held in nairobi, Kenya, 11-
15 November 1985 IDRC manuscript report Canada. pp. 125-
148.
Wheeler, J.L. and Jones, R.J. 1984. Potential for forage legumes
in Kenya. In: UNDP/FAQ Dryland Farming Research and
Developement project KEN/74/017 Katumani ^ Kenya.
632
Appendix I: List of accessions under seed multiplication.
Species CPI/Cultivar K No. Origin
1 . Aeschynomene americana
2. Alysicarpus rugosus
3. Cassia rotundif ol ia
4. Centrosema pascuorum
5. Cl i tori a ternatea
6. Desmanthus vi rgatus
7. Desmodium intortum
8. Lablab purpureus
9. Macropti l ium
atropurpureum
10. Macrotyloma af ricanuiti
1 1 . Macrotyloma axi l l are
12. Neonotonia wight i i
13. Stylosanth.es guianensis
14. Stylosanthes guianensis
15. Stylosanthes hamata
16. Stylosanthes scabra
17. Stylosanthes scabra
cv Glen 19897 Mexicc
52351 14384 Malawi
cv Wynn 18177 -
cv Cavalcade 14418 -
48337 14403 Tanzar
40071 14456 Brazi l
cv Greenleaf 14455 -
cv Rongai 14420 Kenya
cv Siratro 14348 Mexicc
24972 14348 Zambia
cv Archer 14462 -
cv Cooper cv Cooper Tanzar
- A. compos ite Kenyf
cv Cook 18189 Colomt
cv Verano 14428 Venezue
cv Fitzroy 14431 -
cv Seca 14430 -
633
LABORATORY EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF PROCESSING METHODS,
TREATMENT AND COFFEE CULTIVAR ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND
IN VITRO DIGESTIBILITY OF COFFEE PULP
Getachew Gebru , Beyene Chichaibelu and Jess D. Reed
ABSTRACT
Experiments were conducted to study: (1) the effect of dry
processing of coffee cherries and ensiling with urea on the
chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of coffee pulp,
and (b) the effect of variety of fibre and phenolic components.
Zero, 40, 50 and 60 grams of urea were dissolved in a litre of
water and added to dry-processed coffee pulp (DCoP) (1 litre/kg
of air-dried DCoP) sealed in plastic bags (3 replicates) and
incubated for 15 and 30 days.
The experiment on the relationship of variety to chemical
composition was studied on the wet processed pulp. Fourteen
varieties of coffee cherry were collected from high and low
altitudes in Kaffa Administrative Region.
Treatment level had a significant effect (P<0.05) on the
neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent Fibre (ADF) and
content of soluble phenolics. Nitrogen (N) and content of
soluble phenolics showed a significant increase at 5 and 10X
levels respectively. However, urea treatment did not alter the
in vi tro dry-matter digestibility (IVDMD).
Lecturer, Department of Animal Science, Alemayu University of
Agriculture, P. 0. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
Professor of Animal Science and Dean of the Graduate School,
Alemaya University of Agriculture, P. 0. Box 138, Dire Dawa,
Ethiopia.
Formerly Animal Nutrition Scientist, International Livestock
Centre for Africa, P. 0. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
634
There was a large difference in the content of soluble
phenolics (15-41X), potassium, iron and manganese. There was a
trend for the content of phenolics to increase in varieties
harvested at higher altitude. NDF showed negative and positive
correlation with the soluble phenolics and insoluble
proanthocyanidins respectively. Varietal and environmental
effects on the nutritive value of coffee pulp appear to be of
considerable importance.
INTRODUCTION
The low productivity of livestock in Ethiopia, which has the
largest animal population in Africa, is caused in part by poor
nutrition. Though natural grasslands are important feed
resources, their present capacity to support increased livestock
productivity is reduced by their low yield and poor quality.
Seasonal growth pattern of the grasslands and high grazing
pressure further limit the availability of herbage. Lack of feed
resources often imposes a major constraint on animal production,
particularly during the dry season. Rapid development of
improved pasture and cultivated forages is not always possible
because of limitations imposed by technical, economic and human
factors. Therefore animal production must be integrated with
crop production and allied processing agro- industries.
It is anticipated that mechanization will increase
cultivated land area in Ethiopia devoted to food production, and
that this will increase the availability of agro- industrial by
products some of which can find use as feed as- is or as
components in compounded feeds. However, the bulk of the
available by-products are presently not effectively utilised
amongst other resources due to inadequate knowledge of their
value in feeding systems. The potential use of the by-products
is also determined by the time and place they become available
and the alternative use. Use of by-products ensures that
ruminant animals are complementary rather than competitive with
man in meeting their feed requirement.
635
Coffee is an agricultural crop of significant economic
importance in Ethiopia. Coffee pulp is the major primary by
product from the processing of coffee cherries. The bean is the
main crop. After processing the pulp and hull are either dumped
or utilised rather unproducti vely. Better utilisation of the by
products could make the cultivation and processing of coffee more
economical. For years the only use for coffee pulp has been as a
fertilizer for the coffee plant, a practice dictated more by the
lack of alternative usage of the pulp than by its effectiveness
as a fertilizer. Coffee pulp should be considered as a means of
alleviating the scarcity of animal feed.
Different approaches have been used to improve the nutritive
value of various coffee residues, such as physical (grinding,
heating and drying) and chemical treatments (calcium, and sodium
hydroxide) and their combination have been used to eliminate the
ant i -nut ri t i on physiological factors such as caffeine, and
tannins. The economics of AIBP treatment should not be viewed
only in relation to increased livestock production. Sustaining
animal production during periods of fodder shortage and
preventing death due to starvation has economic advantage
(Jayasuriya, 1984).
The chemical treatment of fibrous residues using urea has
been known for some time now. Enzyme urease hydrolyses urea and
releases ammonia. Ammonia in water is an alkali that can improve
the digestibility of low quality roughages (Sundstol, 1981).
Fresh coffee pulp is an abundant by-product, but its
nutritive value as an animal feed is limited by the presence of
anti-nutritive physiological factors like caffeine and tannins.
If adverse effects could be eliminated by physical or chemical
treatments then the utilisation of nutrients in the pulp could
increase. Sodium hydroxide and sodium metabisulf i te have been
used and with some success. However chemical treatment of feeds
in the tropics is restricted by costs, availability and necessary
machinery, available technical ability and safety. Urea seems
promising in this line, because it is cheap and easy to get and
has minimal hazards.
636
It is also essential to understand how much of the variation
in the nutritive value of coffee pulp is attributed to the effect
of processing methods. Genetic and environmental factors may
also affect the nutritive value of coffee pulp. In order to
develop feeding systems which utilise coffee pulp as a main
ingredient of the ration, factors which affect nutritive value
need to be determined.
The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of
cherry variety, processing method and treatment on chemical
composition and in vitro digestibility of coffee pulp.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiment 1: Urea treatment of dry-processed coffee pulp.
Coffee pulp: Source and processing procedure. Pulp was
obtained from coffee-processing centre of the Ministry of Coffee
and Tea Development in Gelemso, Hararge, Eastern Ethiopia.
Coffee cherries are processed by the dry method. The cherries
are left on the tree to dry. The dried cherries are collected
and mechanically separated into the bean and other fractions.
Treatment procedure
40, 50, 60 grams of urea were dissolved in l litre of water. The
urea solutions were applied at the rate of 1 litre/kg of air
dried pulp. The 1 kg lots of pulp were thoroughly mixed and
transferred into plastic bags. The bags were tightly closed and
left at room temperature, for a 15 and 30 days reaction period.
The control (water treated) was stored in similar manner.
Sample processing and method of analysis
The contents of all bags were removed, oven dried at 60 C for 25
hrs, ground to pass a 1 mm screen and bottled for chemical
analysis at the ILCA nutrition laboratory. All samples described
were assayed for IVDMD, NDF, ADF and ADF-lignin (Goering and Van
637
Soest, 1970), omitting decahydronaphtalene and sodium sulfite in
the NDF procedure (Van Soest and Robertson, 1980).
Hemicel lulose was estimated as the difference between NDF
and ADF contents. DM and ash were analysed by the methods of the
AOAC (1980). Nitrogen and N in NDF (NDF-N) were determined by
the macro-kjeldahl procedure using sodium sulfate and copper
sulphate in the digestion mix and collecting the distillate in a
boric acid solution. Phenol ics and tannins soluble in aqueous
acetone were determined by a gravimetric procedure based on
precipitation with ytterbium acetate (Reed et al, 1985). All
determinations were conducted in duplicate.
Proanthocyanidins that are insoluble in neutral detergent
were determined by methods described by Bate-Smith (1973) as
modified by Reed et al, (1982). Five milligram of NDF were
placed in a test tube, 5 ml of 5% concentrated HCL in a n-butanol
were added and tubes heated at 95 C for one hour. Absorbance was
read at 550nM using UV-VIS spectophometry. If Proanthocyanidins
were present in the NDF, the n-butanol-HCL solution turned red.
Results were expressed at A„. per gram NDF.
Experiment 2: Laboratory evaluation of wet-processed pulp
obtained from 15 cultivars of coffee cherries in Ethiopia.
Description of experimental materials
Ripe coffee cherries of selected coffee cultivars (Table 1) were
collected from two coffee plantation projects in Kaffa
Administrative Region and were brought to ILCA laboratory (Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia) for studies involving the chemical analysis of
the pulp and fractionation of the components of the fruit.
Separation of the pulp from the cherries
The pulp was separated from the beans manually. Following
separation, the pulp was transferred into plastic bags, labelled
and frozen until the time of analysis.
638
The coffee beans (containing mucilage + hulls) were washed
to remove the mucilage and then dried in a forced draft oven for
5 days. The dried beans plus hull were threshed by hand and
separated by using an electrically operated seed blower. The
weight of the beans and hulls were recorded for each cultivar.
Preparation of the pulp for analysis
The pulp from each cultivar was weighed and the weight recorded.
It was then oven-dried at 60 C for 24 hours, ground to pass 1 mm
sieve and bottled for laboratory analysis.
Table 1. List of coffee cultivars used in the study.
Identification Area of
col lection
Remark
7440B
7440G
744 G
75227G
75227B
74548
744B
741G
741B
0.C.B
0.C.G
74112B
74112G
74158G
74165G
Bebeka
Gumma r
Gumma r
Gummar
Bebeka
Bebeka
Bebeka
Gummar
Bebeka
Bebeka
Gummar
Bebeka
Gummar
Gummar
Gummar
Native unimproved cultivars
Native unimproved cultivars
Chemical Analysis
NDF, ADF and N were determined as stated under experiment 1r
Lignin was determined by treating ADF with sulphuric acid
(Goering and Van Soest, 1970). Proanthocyanidins that are
639
insoluble in neutral detergent, phenol ics and tannins that are
soluble in aqueous acetone were determined by methods as
described in experiment 1.
Statistical analysis
Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to estimate
correlation between NDF, ADF, Lignin, soluble phenol ics and
Insoluble proanthocyanidins.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment 1: Effect of dry processing and urea treatment.
Chemical composition of dry-processed pulp is compared to
wet-processed in Table 2. Pulp obtained from the dry method of
processing coffee cherries shows a high level of NDF, ADF and
Lignin. This suggests that the material has low nutritive value.
The dry processing of cherries results in a by-product comprising
mucilage, hulls and pulp. The presence of the hulls or the
parchment along with the pulp contributes to the high content of
fibre components. Coffee hull is reported to have high
concentration of lignin, pentoses and hexoses (Murillo et al,
1977). Phenolic compounds show a higher concentration in the
dry-processed pulp. These compounds can form insoluble complexes
with proteins and may reduce OM and N digestibility (Getachew e£
al . unpublished data).
640
11.12 10.6
7.09 4.8
57. 14 29.5
52.08 25.7
16.40 5.6
20.00 11.5
32.48 24.6
.422 .554
.153 .116
Table 2. Chemical composition of the dry and wet processed pulp
(X DM)
Dry Wet
processed processed
Crude protein
Crude Ash
NDF
ADF
Lignin
Insoluble proanthocycanins*
Soluble phenolics
Calcium
Phosphorus
* expressed as A,-i-n/g NDF
The urea-treated and ensiled pulp had a strong odour at
opening. Mould presence was detected in all samples ensiled, but
it was only severe in the un-treated pulp. The reason for the
mould growth could be inadequate seal and presence of air in the
ensi led material .
The ensiled material showed a dark brown colour as opposed
to the light brown colour of the material before ensiling. The
colour change could possibly arise from reactions such as
phenolic condensation or condensation of aldehydes formed by
sugars with nitrogenous bases (Maillard reaction). N in
complexes formed by Maillard reaction is unavailable to the
animal and thus reduce the utilisation of the feed.
The urea treatment effects on the chemical composition and
IVDMD are shown in Table 3. Treatment level had a significant
effect (P<0.05) on the content of CP and soluble phenolics but no
significant effects were observed on other parameters. Sub
division of the urea level sum of squares showed a linear trend
641
of the effects of treatment level on nitrogen, lignin and soluble
phenol ics.
Treatment time had a significant effect on NDF, lignin and
insoluble proanthocyanidins. The 15 days treatment time had
lower contents of NDF, lignin and insoluble proanthocyanidins.
Different roughages show varying responses to ammonia treatment
(Coxworth et al, 1976; Arnason and Mo, 1977). Cereal straws are
very different than coffee pulp in the type of lignin and
susceptibility of alkali treatment. Also urea is not as
effective as other alkalis. The inferiority of urea treatment
could also be due to reaction of ammonia with carbon dioxide to
form ammonium carbonate which reduces the efficiency of urea
treatment (Mason and Owen, 1986).
Table 3. Chemical composition and j_n vi tro dry matter
digestibility of urea treated and untreated pulp.
% DM
soluble j_n vi tro
CP NDF Lignin Phenolics Digesti
bility
Urea level (g/Kg DM)
0 11.5 64.0 20.2 33.0 47.3
40 15.6 61.9 20.3 30.3 51.4
50 16.8 66.1 21.3 27.1 49.0
60 17.2 64.8 21.6 30.0 47.9
Signi f icance * * NS * NS
Treatment days
15 15.6 62.6 9.9 31.2 49.9
30 14.9 65.9 21.8 29.3 47.8
Significance NS ** ** NS *
* P<0.05
NS = Not significant
642
Experiment 2. Variation in the chemical composition of
coffee pulp among several Ethiopian coffee cherry cultivars
processed wet.
The yield of fractions from cherries of eight randomly
selected cultivars is shown in Table 4; the yield of coffee pulp
on dry matter basis represents 28X of the weight of the whole
fruit. The variation in content of DM, N, NDF, ADF and lignin
was low (Table 5) but the range in content of soluble phenolics
was large, between 15 and 41X. Altitude did not have a large
effect on the composition of coffee pulp although there was a
tendency (Table 6) for fibre components to be lower and soluble
phenolics and insoluble proanthocyanidins to be higher in
cultivars grown at higher altitudes. It appears that cultivars
had a greater effect on the composition of pulp than the
al t i tude.
Table 4. Average yield of fractions from cherries of eight
randomly selected cultivars.
Fractions 0 X (Range)
Coffee pulp 27.38 (25 - 31)
Coffee hulls 17.50 (15.5 - 20)
Beans 51 .68 (40 - 62)
643
Table 5. Chemical compositin of the pulp from 15 coffee cultivars.
Composition (X DM)
Insoluble
Cultivar DM N NDF Lignin ADF Soluble proanthocyanidins
phenolics A 550/g NDF
7440B 87.5 1.7 28.0 4.7 23.7 30.5 8.3
7440G 86.9 1.6 31.1 8.1 27.8 15.9 14.3
744G 87.3 1.9 26.8 4.2 23.2 24.3 9.3
75227G 88.8 1.5 22.5 6.9 28.4 18.8 14.5
75227B 86.0 1.5 32.5 7.0 28.3 24.8 14.1
7454B 87.7 1.7 32.1 8.6 29.0 21.0 12.2
744B 87.4 1.7 28.9 6.9 25.5 23.6 10.0
741G 87.1 1.9 26.5 2.9 23.0 25.7 10.5
741B 87.1 1.6 33.5 5.6 27.2 20.5 10.0
O.C.B 87.1 1.9 26.5 5.1 21.6 32.8 11.0
O.C.G 88.6 1.5 27.0 5.6 22.4 40.6 12.6
74 1 1 2B 87.5 1.4 33.3 5.9 25.8 18.5 12.7
741 12G 87.5 1.5 33.4 5.0 29.0 18.9 10.5
74158G 85.2 2.2 30.2 4.4 25.1 27.2 10.4
74165G 87.7 1 .6 30.4 5.0 26.3 25.1 11.8
Mean 87.3 1.7 29.5 5.6 25.7 24.6 11.5
S.D. 0.88 0.21 3.24 1.54 2.52 6.40 1.88
644
Table 6. Effect of altitude on pulp composition.
Constituent 1200 mts 1800 mts
NDF 29.1 + 2.7 26.7 + 3.5
ADF 25.8 + 2.4 25.7 + 2.8
Lignin 5.9 + 1.5 5.4 + 1.8
Soluble phenolics 24.9 + 5.0 25.2 + 8.1
Insoluble proanthocyanidins 11.1 + 1.8 12.9 + 2.0
Cultivars with a high content of NDF seem to have a low to
moderate content of soluble phenolics. This relationship led to
a negative correlation between NDF and soluble phenolics (Table
7). However the correlation between NDF and insoluble
proanthocyanidins was positive. Correlation of soluble phenolics
and insoluble proanthocyanidins with other fibre components had
the same sign as correlations with NDF and ADF. Large quantities
of soluble phenolics if absorbed and excreted in the urine may
lead to an over estimation of energy value (Reed, 1986). Soluble
phenolics form indigestible protein and carbohydrate complexes in
the digestive tract that increase fibre and lignin excretion in
the faeces (Osbourn et al, 1971). Thus prediction of
digestibility based on fibre components need to be adjusted for
the content of soluble phenolics. Moreover the assumption that
NDF represents cell wall carbohydrate and lignin in such residues
is incorrect as NDF is associated with insoluble
proanthocyanidins and may contain tannin-protein complexes.
645
Table 7. Correlation between NDF, ADF, Lignin (LIG), soluble
phenolics and insoluble proanthocyanidins (A550/g NDF)
in pulp of 15 Ethiopian coffee cultivar.
Insoluble
Soluble Proanthocyanidins
phenolics A55r/g NDF NDF ADF
.32
.48 .52*
.65** .21 .61*
A550/NDF
NDF
-.28
-.76**
ADF -.41
LIG -.40
* P<0.05
** P<0.01
Utilisation of the research results
This work was conducted as a basic study to look into some of the
inherent constraints of the material and possible improvement by
chemical treatment. Past studies of coffee pulp have suggested
that coffee pulp has potential as livestock feed even though
problems in its utilisation were encountered (Squibbo, 1 950;
Colborn and Hoxey, 1974, and Abate, 1986). Urea treatment,
therefore was tested to asses its effect on the nutritive value
of coffee pulp. Moreover the study on the relationship between
coffee varieties and chemical composition was conducted to shed
some light on the possible effects of plant genetic factors on
the concentration of certain ant i -nutri ti ve factors in the pulp.
The salient features of this research results were:
(a) Coffee pulp, depending on the methods of processing employed
on the cherries, showed variations in nutritive value (Table
2). Effort, therefore, need to be made in adopting the
method of processing (wet) that gives a better coffee grain
yield and also a by-product with a better nutrient
concentration for livestock feed.
646
(b) Weak alkalis like urea in water do not have significant
effect in improving the energy status of coffee pulp in view
of the effect of alkalis on the l igno-cel lulose complex.
However the urea may impart nitrogen and thus improve rumen
fermentation.
(c) Due to high moisture content and bulkiness, coffee pulp
cannot be utilised in areas far away from the processing
site. Drying of coffee pulp at the site of production is not
practical because of the use of the drying patios for the
coffee grains. Ensiling coffee pulp without additives is
practical. The coffee pulp ensiled for 5 months did not
spoil except the top layer that showed mouldiness.
(d) The feeding value of coffee pulp in relation to the cultivars
of the coffee tree is a point that could open further
research into the investigation of the genetic factors
associated with the coffee tree as they affect nutrient
concentration. This enables one to develop plant-specific
screening methods to determine the nutritive value of by
product of various coffee cultivars. Coffee cultivars
resulting from the joint selection for the feed value of the
coffee pulp as well as coffee bean yield and quality will
result is substantial economic gain.
Problems concerned with full utilisation of the research results
Extension and research linkage
In putting research into practice, research, development,
extension and farming are equally important and interrelated.
The limited attention and priority often given to extension does
not allow feed-back mechanisms to function properly and thus the
time attention given to solving problems which limit production
may be long passed.
With very little effort made in understanding the system, it
will be difficult to develop interest in utilising the research
647
results. Lack of a viable national extension programme has
resulted in the shelving of research results in research
institutions and in poor integration of research scientists into
the local community. The development of the peasant cooperatives
in Ethiopia is a welcome trend that would allow the recognition
of the importance of extension, and of course, research
institutions have a lot to offer in this respect. Strengthening
the weakest link in the chain i.e. extension, would allow
researchers to work on feed-back mechanisms that follow the
understanding of the constraints and development options of the
current feeding system.
CONCLUSION
It may therefore be concluded that the availability of certain
by-products like coffee pulp, per se does not warrant their
immediate inclusion in livestock feeding. This calls upon the
characterization of the material so that the inherent nutritional
problems are defined. Further understanding of the nature of the
complexing of nitrogen with the polyphenols and simple and
cheaper methods of splitting this complex may allow efficient use
of coffee pulp. The wet method of processing the coffee cherries
could provide a by-product that has a better nutritive value and
help in realizing the integration of livestock production with
the crop production and allied processing industries.
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Calborn, L.N. and Hoxey, M.J. 1974. Animal Nutrition: Some
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the determination of the acid detergent fibre and lignin
fractions. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 30:13A-14A.
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Squibbo, R.L. 1950. Present status of dried coffee pulp and
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650
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
EXPERIENCE FROM NORTHERN KENYA
Charles L. Amunyunzu
UNESCO-Turkana Resource Evaluation and Monitoring Unit (TREMU)
Turkana, Kenya
ABSTRACT
It is through the realisation that to minimise the effect of
natural calamities on man, man himself and his relationship to
his environment had to be studied and understood thoroughly, that
the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme was set up by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO).
The paper gives a brief overview of one of the pilot
projects, the Integrated Project on Arid Lands (IPAL), under MAB
that has looked at livestock production and problems of
environmental degradation and desertification in arid and semi-
arid land inhabited by nomadic pastoral ists. The paper looks at
how production in these nomadic pastoral systems could be
increased for the good of the country as a whole especially in
the supply of meat and livestock products. It also looks at some
of the constraints to improved livestock production, problems
encountered and offers some suggested remedies.
INTRODUCTION
The integrated approach to resource management in northern Kenya
has been carried out under the auspices of the Integrated Project
on Arid Lands (IPAL) in the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.
MAB is a United nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO) - sponsored programme started in 1971 as a
result of the existing climate of general awakening to all manner
of environmental concerns sparked off by the experiences and
enthusiasm generated by the International Biological Programme
(IBP), the first major venture in International Biology Research
651
(di Castri et al, 1981). Following the recognition that there
was general deterioration of major world ecological systems and
predictions of a gloomy outlook for the world by the year 2000, a
biosphere conference convened by UNESCO in 1968 recommended the
setting up of an inter governmental and interdisciplinary
programme of research. At about the same time, natural resource
managers all over the world had discovered that a lot of the
research information available at that time was of little value
for their planning purposes because man had been ignored and yet
the research results were supposed to be of most benefit to him,
plus the haphazard nature in which the research topics had been
chosen. MAB activities officially began following the first
session of its co-ordinating council in November 1971 (UNESCO
1971).
Its objectives are:
1. To encourage both natural and social science research on
environmental problems. Man and his interactions with the
environment play a central role in the research.
2. To encourage research that has direct and pragmatic
application for improved land use and resource management.
3. To encourage the training and promotion of environmental
education as an essential component of research.
4. To test the feasibility of integrating research findings in
both natural and social scientific disciplines through
specific research projects.
Fourteen major themes of research were identified covering the
whole range of major ecosystems from polar to tropical zones
excluding oceanic ecosystems. Due to financial and human
resources constraints, the MAB programme has up to now been
restricted to six main areas (UNESCO, 1987):
1. Coastal areas and islands;
2. Humid and sub-humid tropics;
652
3. Arid and semi -arid zones;
4. Temperate and cold zones;
5. Urban systems and;
6. Biosphere reserves.
IPAL PROJECT
The tendency by many natural science researchers in the 1950's
was to choose singe plant or animal species and study them in
detail in complete isolation of their interaction with other
plants or animal species and the environment in general. With
the establishment of ecology as a major scientific and research
field and the evolution of the ecosystem concept in the 1960's,
there emerged a trend towards defining the environment in terms
of major global ecosystems and the development of global models
from which global solutions to environmental problems were
designed. In the late 1960's and early 1970's there was an
impatience to put long-discussed ideas on ecological approaches
to land development to rest at the field level, a trend which
itself implies a willingness to experiment and to accept failure
(Lusigi, 1986).
The IPAL project developed in northern Kenya in 1976 (Figure
1) was an outgrowth of this concern to bring mult i -discipl inary
research to the field level where it could address some of the
most urgent problems of the deterioration of arid lands -
inhibited largely by pastoral nomads (Lusigi, 1986).
653
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The IPAL programme had a working hypothesis: Through
research and training improved land use systems can be devised to
reverse the trend of land degradation and to sustain land
production for needs of a growing (and partially sedentarised)
population of northern Kenya (Figure 2). Man is a central factor
having significant influence on the ecosystem. Due to this
influence, his way of life and interaction with his environment
had to be clearly understood through the human component of the
study. As the study was looking at productivity of the whole
ecosystem, two other components also had to be understood.
1. Abiotic component - climate, geomorphology, soils, hydrology
2. Biotic component - primary production and secondary production
STUDY AREA
The choice of a suitable study site is critical in an ecosystem
study if the objectives of the study are to be adequately
realised. It is important that the site be representative in
order to incorporate all situations and processes being observed
or investigated (Lusigi, 1986).
The IPAL study site was selected to meet this criterion.
2
With an area of 22,500 km it is sufficiently large and covers
the major biotic communities found in the area. From near
woodland in the south, where Ngurunit station is located, it
extends northwards up to the edges of Chalbi Desert. On the west
it is bounded by Mr. Kulal, a major water catchment area and to
the east by Mt. Marsabit. The study area covers the home ranges
of the Rendille, Gabbra, Boran and Samburu pastoral ists who are
the major nomadic tribes in the area. The problems of aridland
deterioration are to be observed to varying degrees in this area.
The area is undergoing a process of man-made desertification
largely due to the following factors.
1. deterioration of the herb layer due to overgrazing;
2. deterioration of the woodlands due to wood cutting for boma
(livestock night enclosures) constructions;
655
3. fuelwood needs and house construction
4. increase in both human and livestock numbers as they become
sedentarised.
Recurrent drought and loss of their livestock base has
forced many pastoralists into famine-relief villages and there is
a gradual reduction in the practice of a nomadic lifestyle as a
survival strategy.
EVOLUTION OF THE PROGRAMME
The 1PAL programme evolved through three main phases: 1)
Inventory and description phase, 2) Management plan phase and 3)
Pilot programme phase programme phase.
Inventory and descriptive phase.
This phase involved the compilation of an inventory of all the
natural resources in the study area and the productivity. In the
range and woodland ecology component, vegetation was the most
important renewable natural resource. Answers to the following
questions regarding vegetation were sought during this phase.
a) What major plant communities occur in the region and what are
their species and structural characteristic?
b) What is their distribution (plant communities) in relation to
climate, altitude, soils topography, human and animal
inf luence.
c) What are the characteristics biomass densities of the two main
layers (herb/tree) in each major plant community in relation
to mean rainfall, drainage, soil conditions, human and animal
influences?
d) What are the annual primary production levels in each major
plant community in relation to recent rainfall under different
conditions of soils, drainage and use.
656
The answers to the above questions constituted the baseline
data upon which future ecological monitoring depends. A further
series of questions were posed, the answers of which relate more
directly to the management of vegetation resources.
a) What proportion of annual primary production is available to
livestock and what proportion is actually consumed.
b) What proportion of the biomass and annual production of wood
is used by the pastoral ists for building, fencing, fuel and
what are their annual requirements?
c) What is the spatial distribution of utilisation of the
vegetation ?
d) What are the tolerance levels of different plant communities
to exploitation?
e) What are the rates of change in plant biomass and productivity
in different areas of region in response to animal and human
impact?
In human ecology answers to three basic questions were
sought during this phase:
a) What was the population structure of the nomadic pastoral ists?
b) What were their needs and how do they relate to their
envi ronment?
c) What were their aspirations
On livestock which is the basic resource upon which the
livelihood of the nomadic tribes depends, answers to several
questions were sought during this phase:
a) What is the livestock species composition?
b) What is the traditional animal husbandry for the different
animal species?
657
c) What are their nutritional requirements
d) What are their feeding habits?
e) What major diseases affect the livestock?
f) What are the main constraints to increased production?
The management plan phase
The information obtained from the above questions was used in
formulating a management plan for the study area. The management
plan was intended to contribute to the improvement of the well-
being of the pastoral people in all ways, but in particular
(assisted by an appropriate education), by the development of an
improved land-use a system that will reverse the trend of land
degradation and sustain land production for the needs of the
growing and partially sedentarised pastoral population (Lusigi,
1984). The resource management plan was based on the following
principles:
a) That the people of the range areas must be allowed the
opportunity for full development in terms of modern world and
in accordance with the principle of human rights;
b) That range areas should be developed, conserved and managed in
accordance with the ecological principles of proper land-use;
c) That, in so far as other principles allow, the range areas
should be developed to yield benefit to the national economy.
The Pilot Programme Phase
This was a testing phase whereby the ideas recommended in the
resource management plan were put to test on the ground on a
small-scale to determine their workability. This was necessary
so as to remove any unworkable ideas from the plan before
recommending it to the general public. At this phase the project
was not only looking for the success of some of the
recommendations but was also ready to accept failure.
658
RESULTS
Most of the results have been published in the IPAL Technical
Report series (Lusigi, 1984). This paper will highlight only
some of the major findings.
On livestock
1. There were five major livestock species kept in the study area
- sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys. The pastoralists
try as much as possible to have a good mix of all the
livestock species.
2. Livestock are kept mainly as source of food (milk, blood,
meat) and as a sign of wealth and prestige.
3. Three major constraints to improved livestock production in
the area are disease, nutritional deficiency and non
availability of water.
4. Livestock husbandry is also a constraint to improved
production especially due to the fact that many pastoralists
keep too many unproductive animals.
On the Range
1. The problem of overstocking is concentrated around permanent
settlements with permanent water supply and guaranteed
security while the rest of the area is under utilised and
about 40% of the study area is hardly used at all.
2. The range in the area can support up to twice the current
livestock numbers without causing any serious damaged to the
environment with proper water distribution.
On the Pastoralists
1. There is an increasing tendency for the pastoralists to become
sedentarised in line with the official government policy. The
nomads are settling down to take advantage of public services
659
provided for by the government and other donor agencies:
schools, health services, water, security, etc.
2. Most of the settlement is taking place in areas that were
formerly reserved for drought and dry season grazing. These
areas are now lost to the nomadic pastoral i sts.
3. Mortality rate amongst the pastoralists especially in children
has bone down and general life expectancy improved resulting
in an increase in population and hence pressure on the
available resources.
DISCUSSIONS
In recent years, the arid and semi -arid areas in Kenya which
cover over 70X of the total area have been receiving more
attention as population and hence pressure on the land resources
in the rest of the country increase. These areas are being
looked upon increasingly to provide meat and other livestock
products to the rest of the country. As demand for these
livestock products increases there is great need to increase
their production. One way of increasing production is by the
removal of the constraints mentioned above. To ensure increased
forage availability, the pastoralists should be encouraged to
continue keeping mixed herds that should be constantly moved, and
formerly under utilised areas should be opened up for greater
ut i l isat ion.
In arid and semi-arid environments, the pastoralists over
hundreds of years have developed several survival strategies,
which include constant movement of their herds and the keeping of
several livestock species. In areas where most of the herb layer
consists of annual plants and the majority of perennial plants
are either dwarf shrubs, shrubs or bushes, the most prudent way
to utilise the range and ensure survival is to keep a diverse
herd of livestock species that are able to utilise the whole
range of available forage. In cases of drought, which are common
in these areas, the diverse herd has got its advantage. During
any drought, the small stock and cattle are the first to be
affected while the camel continues to provide milk and blood for
660
much longer periods. Following the drought, small stock recover
fastest and provide food for the pastoral ists as the cattle and
camel recover at a slower pace.
Rainfall is erratic and sporadic in both its temporal and
spatial distribution in these arid areas. Therefore constant
mobility is essential if the pastoralist wants to take advantage
of new plant growth following the rains.
About 40X of the study area is not utilised due to lack of
water. If these under utilised areas were opened up for use, it
is possible to increase livestock production to twice its current
levels. These areas can be opened up through a controlled
grazing regime based on provision of drinking water. The grazing
regimes have to take into consideration the customs and
traditions of the local people.
Another major constraint to increased livestock production
is the disease factor. I PAL studies showed that with the input o
simple veterinary packages coupled with education on proper
animal husbandry, it is possible to increase tremendously
livestock production from the arid lands. The animal husbandry
should also lay emphasis on the culling of unproductive animals
such as excess males and those that are too old.
There has been a lot of effort put into improving the lives
of the nomadic pastoralist through improved livestock production.
Most of these efforts have had no noticeable effects on the lives
of the nomads for various reasons:
1. The blue print for many of the development programmes had been
developed elsewhere and just super- imposed on the nomadic
pastoral ists. IPAL studies have shown that no two sites are
similar even if they border each other but are inhabited by
different nomadic tribes. Therefore, each area should be
understood thoroughly before initiating any development
activities especially where it involves pastoral i sts.
2. The technological base available in an area was not taken into
consideration especially in the provision of water for
661
livestock. No due consideration was given to what would
happen or would run the programmes started when the time came
for the donor agencies to pull out. If one has to improve
livestock production in arid areas through provision of better
distributed watering points, then the technology involved must
be simple enough for the local pastoral ists to manage on their
own, e.g. simple hand pumps that can be repaired in the field
or techniques of protecting shallow wells to prolong their
life span.
3. Traditional grazing patterns, if not taken into consideration,
can lead to failure of any new recommended grazing regime.
This was evident in the study area where four times a year,
the livestock had to be brought to the permanent settlements
for blessing and thanks giving by the whole family of the
pastoral ist in the ceremony of sorio. Therefore, any
recommended grazing regime in this area which fails to
accomodate this traditional sorio ceremony is bound to meet
with little success at the moment.
4. Any new recommendation concerning development and improvement
of livestock production that deviates from the traditional
practices should be tested and its viability ascertained in a
pilot scale before being recommended for wider application.
5. The current education curriculum does not lay much emphasis on
traditional agriculture even in the schools in arid areas
where there is little chance of putting that knowledge into
practice. Even at the institutes of higher learning much
emphasis is placed on the traditional livestock species in the
higher potential areas and those best adapted for the arid
areas like the camel are normally just mentioned in passing.
Now that these arid areas are being incorporated into the main
economy there is also a need for special curriculum more
applicable in these areas to be developed.
With increased livestock production, there will be a need to
remove the excess production if degradation to the environment
through overstocking is to be avoided. Therefore, all these
management interventions designed to improve livestock production
662
in arid areas should be accompanied by improvement in the
marketing infrastructure. The pastoralist has got to be assured
of any outlet for his livestock with guaranteed attractive
prices. There must be other goods which can acquire with the
money from the livestock sales.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, as population increase in most African countries,
the people will look more and more towards the arid and semi -arid
areas as a source of meat and other livestock products. There is
an increasing need to improve livestock production in these areas
to meet the increased demand. There is a need to incorporate
these formerly neglected areas into the national economy. The
only way to do this is through an integrated approach to
management of the fragile natural resources based on sound
ecological knowledge of the concerned ecosystems that will ensure
sustainable production without degrading the range.
REFERENCES
Di Castri, F., Hadley, H and Damlamian, J. (1981) MAB: The Man
and the Biosphere programme as an evolving system. AMBIO,
Vol. 10, No. 2-3, Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm.
Lusigi, W.J. (ed). 1984. Integrated Resource Assessment and
Management Plan for Western District. Marsabi t . Kenya.
Parts I and II. UNESCO, Nairobi.
Lusigi, W.J. 1986. Pilot projects of interdisciplinary research,
training and demonstration for an ecological approach to
land-use. The case of the integrated project on arid lands
(IPAL) in northern Kenya. A paper presented to the
International Coordinating Council of the UNESCO Programme,
man and the Biosphere (MAB), Paris, 20-25 October 1986.
UNESCO, Paris.
UNESC0. 1971. International Coordinating Council for Programme on
Man and the Biosphere, first session. MAB Report Series 2.
UNESCO, Paris.
UNESC0. 1987. Programme, on Man and the Biosphere (MAB). A
special guide to MAB. UNESCO, Paris.
663
A GUNNY-BAG ENSILING TECHNIQUE FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMERS
IN WESTERN KENYA
1 2 1
K. Otieno , J.F.M. Onim and M.N. Mathuva
ABSTRACT
Maize (Zea ways) stalks, sugarcane (Saccharum of f icinarum) tops,
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) stalks and bana grass (Pennisetum
purpureum x P. typhoides) were chopped and compacted in synthetic
gunny bags which were then buried in a trench silo 5 m long, 3 m
wide and 1.5 m deep. To some bags of each crop, molasses was
added at the rate of 5X by weight of the material in the bags on
green matter basis. The molasses was diluted with an equal
amount of water before application. The silages was then sampled
after two months. The pH of all the silages was in the range
expected for good silages (pH 3-4) except that of bana grass
without molasses which had a pH of 5.18. Addition of molasses
thus improved the fermentation quality of bana grass. Maize
stalks, sugarcane tops and bana grass with molasses silages had
the highest condition scores based on appearance and smell. Bana
grass without molasses had the lowest score. Ensiling appeared
to lower the in vitro dry-matter digestibilities of maize stalks,
bana grass and sugarcane tops by approximately 4.68X, 11.45X and
16.18X respectively and increased that of sorghum stalks by
1.91X.
INTRODUCTION
Western Kenya (Figure 1) has a bimodal rainfall pattern with the
long rains occurring in March, April and May, and short rains in
September, October and November with an annual mean rainfall of
about 1600 mm.
Ministry of Livestock Development/SR-CRSP, Maseno, Kenya.
Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development,
Morrilton, Arkansas, USA.
664
The distribution of livestock feeds closely follow this
pattern resulting into periods of feed shortage in between the
rainy seasons with the effect that there is often a deficit
between feed availability and its demand on the farms. To
stabilise the supply throughout the year and ensure adequate
nutrition of the livestock, there is a need to conserve the
excess feeds that occur during the rains. This can also enable
the farmers to increase the herd size on a given farm (Hart et
a_l.. , 1984). Conservation would also be important in that it
would be in line with the government's policy on the development
of production in high and medium potential areas through
investment proposals which emphasise zero and near zero-grazing
of livestock (Anon, 1981).
Feeds can be conserved either as hay or as silage. However,
the major limitation to the use of these methods by small-scale
farmers is the lack of simple and appropriate technologies for
hay balling and ensiling. The feed resources (FR) project of the
Small Ruminants Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-
CRSP), Kenya has already developed a simple hay balling box for
small-scale farmers (Onim et aj.., 1985). However, there are
certain feeds available on these farms which would be more
suitable to conserve as silage than as hay.
This paper reports on a study undertaken to evaluate the
technical feasibility of using synthetic gunny-bags and molasses
(or jaggery sugar) as an additive for ensiling small batches of
some forages commonly available on the small-scale farms in
western Kenya.
665
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666
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials:
a) Crops ensiled.
Maize stalks
Maize is the most important food crop grown in Kenya and since
its introduction in the middle of the 16th century (Miracle,
1966) it has become the main staple food of most Kenyans. It is
grown practically everywhere in the country with the small-scale
farmer playing an important role in its production. The greater
proportion of small-scale output comes from holdings with less
than five hectares in size (Senga, 1976) and this is a common
feature in western Kenya. The sum total of maize output from
both large and small-scale sectors puts western Kenya as the
major growing area in the country (Maritim, 1982).
Apart from its importance as a food crop in the region,
maize is equally important as livestock feed and it is used
either as thinnings, leaf strappings, toppings or as stover which
is left over after harvesting the ears. The toppings and the
stovers are, however low in quality and usually the animal would
select only the softer and more palatable leaves rejecting the
tough and stemmy portions. To miximise the use of maize as a
livestock feed, it would be appropriate to harvest the stalks
while still green, chop everything including the stem and ensile.
When cut at this stage the quality of the stalks will still be
higher than that of the dry stover and there would be little
wastage in the form of refused stems.
However, unlike in the developed countries where it is
common to ensile a whole maize plant with ears, in the developing
countries the high demand for grains for human consumption
militates against the use of a whole maize plant for ensiling.
Fortunately, in western Kenya, a lot of maize is harvested green
667
for sale as boiled or roasted maize for human consumption. This
is done when the ears are at early-dough to hard-dough stage
which coincidental ly is also the time recommended for cutting
maize for silage in western Kenya (Sheldrick, 1975).
The maize crop used in the study reported here, was thus
harvested when the ears were ready for roasting, and that was 125
days from planting. The cobs were sold for consumption and the
green stalks chopped for ensiling.
Sorghum stalks
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is also a popular crop especially in
lower parts of western Kenya (altitude below 1300 m a.s.l.) such
as South Nyanza, Kisumu, Busia and Siaya districts (Figure 1).
It is often made available to livestock as feed either by
defoliating the leaves which are then fed to the livestock while
tethered or by grazing the livestock in the sorghum fields after
harvesting the heads. An alternative to leaf stripping and field
grazing would be to harvest the heads and then ensile the green
stalks.
However, unlike in maize where the ears can be harvested and
utilised when still green, the sorghum heads have to be fully
mature before they can be harvested and sun-dried for threshing.
The sorghum stalks used in this study were thus obtained
from a local farmer near the Maseno research station after he had
harvested the heads and this was about 150 days from planting.
Sugarcane tops
Sugarcane (Saccharum of f icinarum) is increasingly becoming one of
the major cash crops for small-scale farmers in Kenya. In 1981
for instance, of the estimated 3.8 million metric tons of
sugarcane produced in Kenya, 1.7 million metric tons of sugarcane
was produced by smallholders (Schluter, 1984). The figure
increased to 57X in 1982/83. However, it should be indicated
here that a key policy issue in Kenyan agriculture is the balance
to be maintained in land allocation between sugarcane and maize.
668
Western Kenya is a major sugarcane growing area in the
country and most of the cane goes into white sugar manufacturing
or into jaggery factories. However, the cane tops are often
burned before harvesting cane or thrown to waste and only a small
proportion of it is used for livestock feeding. This could be
mainly due to lack of appropriate methods for conserving it since
after it dries it becomes rough and less palatable.
In this study the cane tops were obtained from a small-scale
sugarcane farmer near the Maseno research station when he was
harvesting his cane for sale to a nearby jaggery factory.
Bana grass
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and its derivatives such as
bana grass (P. purpureum x P. typhoides) is the most widely grown
cut-and-carry fodder crop in Kenya. Over 30 types of Napier
grass have been tested in Kenya and currently bana is the most
popular type especially for dairy cattle feeding. Yields of upto
10 tons of dry matter (DM) per hectare (ha) after 8 months of
growth have been reported in Kenya (KARI, 1985). In western
Kenya Mathuva et ai (1985) reported a cumulative dry-matter (DM)
yield of 40 tons/ha after 3 cuts in a year with an application of
100 kg N/ha of NPK (20-20-0) fertilizer. Because of these very
high yields there is often excess of it on the farms especially
during the rainy seasons. The recommended cutting height for
utilisation is when the grass has attained a height of 1 m and
when the grass is left in the field for a longer duration it
overgrows into canes which are of little use to livestock. When
the excess is conserved as hay it becomes very brittle and rough,
making it less palatable to livestock. The alternative would be
ensiling. The bana grass that was used for this study was
harvested when about 1 m high and that was 101 days from
planting.
669
b) The additive used: Molasses:
Molasses, which is a by-product of the sugarcane and sugarbeet
industries is a relatively cheap source of fermentable
carbohydrates which is widely available in the tropics and which
is not a staple of the human diet (Preston and Leng, 1985).
In industrialised countries, molasses has been used in the
manufacture of drinking alcohols e.g. rums, industrial alcohols
for mixing with petrol to constitute gasohol, fattening
livestock, e.g. in Cuba (Preston and Willis, 1974) and in
compounding livestock feeds to improve palatabi l i ty, pelleting
and reducing dustiness. However, in the developing countries
molasses is more available than the other potential feed
ingredients. It can be used as a source of fermentable
carbohydrates providing the basis of the diet for ruminants, as a
palatable carrier for urea, minerals and other nutrients for
improving the efficiency of utilisation of low-N diets (e.g crops
residues, sugarcane and agro- industrial by-products) and as a
source of trace minerals and some macro-elements e.g. sulphur,
calcium and potassium (Preston and Leng, 1985).
It has also been used widely from the beginning of this
century as an additive in silage (Castle and Watson, 1985) and
excellent results have been obtained with lucerne silages (Reed
and Fitch, 1917).
In the study reported here it was used mainly to provide the
fermentable carbohydrates for appropriate lactic acid
(CHj.CH(OH).COOH) fermentation that would result into a well-
preserved silage. It was also hoped that it would improve the
pa la tabi I i ty of the silage and that by acting as a source of
trace minerals and some macro-elements it would improve the
overall quality of the silage. The molasses was purchased from a
nearby white sugar factory at the price of Ksh. 100.00 per ton*.
* 1 USS = 16.00 KSh., 1986.
670
c) Synthetic gunny bags
These are commonly available in retail shops in the country and
are traditionally used for packaging sugar, salt, rice and maize
flour. The empty bags are then sold in the local open markets at
a price of about Ksh. 7.00 per bag. The decision to use these
bags in the study were based on the assumptions that:-
1. It would be easier to ration the silage at the time of feeding
if it is in small batches of known quantity.
2. Spoilage at feeding due to aerobic deterioration would be
reduced since the bags would be easier to remove and this
would reduce the length of exposure to air.
3. It would be easier to apply the desired amount of molasses to
the small batches which are known quantity than to unknown
quantity (by weight) of materials in a trench or pit silo.
4. Since the different crops available on the farms for ensiling
reach physiological maturity at different times, the gunny
bags would allow each to be ensiled as it becomes available.
5. If any of the crops is more susceptible to spoilage, this
spoilage would be confined to only a few bags containing that
crop.
6. The bags would allow the ensilage of small batches of the
available forages, and
7. The bags would be reused in ensiling several times before they
got old.
The bags used in this study had no polythene liners inside.
d) The trench silo
The silo that was used in this study was a trench dug 5 m long, 3
m wide and 1.5 m deep giving a total volume of 18 m as
recommended by Stotz (1983). Neither the floor nor the walls of
the trench were cemented.
671
Methods
The different crops were each chopped separately using a double-
bladed hand operated chaff cutter and the chopped materials
subsequently packed tightly into the synthetic gunny bags. Each
bag was then weighed using a spring balance and each weighed 38
kg. For each of the crops used half of the bags received
molasses while others did not. The molasses was applied at 5X by
weight of the materials in each bag on green matter basis. Thus
each bag received about 2 kg of molasses which was diluted with
an equal amount of water before applying uniformly on to the
materials in the bags. The dilution was to ensure uniform spread
of the molasses which is normally thick and viscous. Samples
were taken from each of the bags for DM estimation and chemical
analysis.
Each bag was then tightly knotted using sisal twines and
then arranged horizontally in rows in the pre-dug trench silo. A
polythene sheeting was then overlaid on top of the bags before
covering with soil which was then tightly pressed by trampling on
it. The silo was then left undisturbed for two months after
which it was opened for the first sampling of the silages. The
subsequent samplings followed after four and six months
respectively.
Duplicate samples were taken per crop and treatment, one
sample being dried in an oven at 100°C for 24 hours for DM
determination while the second sample was sun-dried for four days
and used for laboratory analyses.
Nitrogen determination on the samples was done in duplicate
according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(A.0.A.C, 1975) methods. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid
detergent fibre (ADF), sulphuric acid lignin (ADD and cellulose
were determined according to the procedure described by Goering
and Van Soest (1970). The digestibility was determined by the in
vi tro technique of Till ey and Terry (1963). The percentage of
lignin in ADF was merely calculated from the results.
672
The pH of the silages was determined by soaking 20 g of the
materials overnight in 100 ml of distilled water. This was then
divided into three portions, filtered and pH determined using a
pH meter. The mean pH for each crop was then calculated.
During the sampling the silages were visually assessed in
terms of appearance. The smell of each silage was also noted.
An arbitrary condition score was then used to compare the silages
in terms of appearance and smell.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows a summary of the mean values of quality parameters
for the treatments two months after ensiling. The DM levels of
the ensiled crops together with the additional water soluble
carbohydrate (WSC) from the molasses had marked effects on the
fermentation quality of the silages. The pH values were all in
the range expected for good silages (pH 3-4) except in the case
of unmolassed bana grass silage which also had a foul smell
attributable to putrefaction. In the molassed bana grass silage,
the pH was not very different from that of maize stalks,
sugarcane tops and sorghum silages. This difference in pH
between the unmolassed and molassed bana silage was caused by
high contents and hence low DM of 15.90X (c.f. 22.58X for maize)
and the WSC content of the ensiled crops. Grasses are generally
inherently low in WSC and this means that they have less
substrate for lactic acid fermentation. Where molasses was added
the level of WSC was raised and this improved the quality of the
fermentation thus lowering the pH . In the unmolassed bana grass
silage, the acidity was not sufficient to suppress the growth of
clostridal bacteria which were responsible for secondary
fermentation of lactic acid to butyric acid (C,H7C00H) and
deamination and decarboxylation of amino acids resulting into
putrefaction (Stoskopf, 1981).
673
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674
The pH level at which clostridial activity is prevented
varies with water content of the ensiled material. At a water
content of 50X silage can be well preserved at a pH of 5.0
whereas secondary aerobic fermentation can occur in silage with
85X water content even when the pH is below 4.0 (Thomas and
Young, n.d.). With moist materials the content of water tends to
counteract the preservative action of the primary fermentation
acids. This explains why, without an additional source of WSC to
ensure rapid drop in pH, it was not easy to achieve excellent
silage in unmolassed bana grass. A pH below 3.5 was necessary
to achieve this as illustrated in Figure 2. The data shows
slight increases in DM of the silages where molasses was applied
and this agrees with the observations of McDonald (1981) who also
noted that losses of soluble carbohydrates in effluent,
particularly from wet crops, can be high and this can also
influence the type of fermentation in the silage. Table 2 shows
a comparison of the silages using an arbitrary condition score.
675
Table 2. Conditions scores* of the different silages on the basis
of appearance and smell.
Conditions scores
Types of silage Appearance Smell Total score
Mai ze stover
Silage without molasses 3 3
Silage with molasses 3 3
Bana grass
Silage without molasses 2 1
Silage with molasses 3 3
Sugarcane tops
Silage without molasses 3 3
Silage with molasses 3 3
Sorghum stover
Silage without molasses 2 2
Silage with molasses 2 2
* The scores used are 1 = poor, 2 = moderate and 3 = good. For
appearance, a condition score of 3 indicates a brownish, well
pickled silage while for smell it refers to the typical silage
smell without any foul odour often associated with putrefaction.
676
Figure 2. Fermentation quality In relation to
silage and DM content.
 
15 20 25 30 35 40
OM content (%)
Source: Thomas and Young (n.d.) .
45 50
677
It can be seen that the bana grass silage without molasses
had the lowest total score and the addition of molasses greatly
improved the score.
In all the crops presented in Table 1, except bana grass, CP
was lower than the minimum level of 7X below which the intake of
forages is markedly reduced (Milford and Minson, 1966). Protein
supplementation would therefore be necessary for efficient
utilisation of these silages. This becomes even more crucial in
cases where molasses is added. Studies elsewhere (Peralta and
Hughes-Jones, 1981; Sutton, 1979) have shown that when molasses
is used, even at restricted levels, as the sole supplement to low
quality roughages, digestibility, rate of passage and voluntary
feed intake may be reduced. This is because the molasses would
promote a rapid growth of fast-growing sugar digesting microbes
and these would deprive the slower-growing cellulolytic organisms
of what little N is available in the rumen (Gilchrist and
Schwartz, 1971). Bana grass had the highest in vitro dry-matter
digestibility (IVDMD) with sorghum having the lowest (Table 1).
It is not clear why bana grass which also had the highest lignin
as a percentage of ADF ( l ignin/ADFX) had the highest IVDMD.
Sands e_t a[_. (1982) reported a negative correlation between IVDMD
and lignin/ADF ratio for certain feeds in western Kenya.
Ensiling appeared to lower the IVDMD of maize stover, bana
grass and sugarcane tops by approximately 4.68X, 11.5X and 16.18X
respectively and increased that of sorghum stalks by 1.91X.
Deville and Cheong (1978) however, reported similar digestibility
and volatile fatty acid pattern between fresh cane tops and cane
tops silage with the addition of molasses and ammonia in a
feeding trial with goats.
Although organic acids with and without formalin are
currently being widely used as silage additives and are rated
highly in terms of their effects on preservation and animal
performance (Anon, 1983), it is claimed that many of them are
unpleasant to use. This has caused a renewed interest in
molasses and today simple effective methods of handling and
applying it to crops have been developed. Ely (1978) has reviewed
the effect of silages treated with molasses on milk production
678
and he concluded that this additive was most successful with low
DM, high protein crops.
Consideration for practical utilisation
The results from this study demonstrate the technical feasibility of
ensiling maize stover, surgarcane tops, bana grass and sorghum
stover in synthetic gunny bags. It also shows the importance of
using molasses as an additive when the material to be ensiled has a
high water content. Our immediate concern now is to extend this
technology to our clientele, the small-scale farmers in Western
Kenya. In our research programme we follow the systems approach as
shown in Figure 3. Having developed the technology on the station,
the next phase is to implement it on the farms, first as a
researcher-managed trials, then as a researcher- farmer managed
trials, before it is fully given over to the farmers themselves. As
an initial step in this process we have conducted training workshops
for our field staff and some representative farmers from the study
communities in which we are operating. These representative farmers
were also people with certain responsibilities in their respective
communities e.g. assistant chiefs, primary and secondary school
teachers etc. On the other hand we have also conducted training
workshops for the farmers themselves in schools within their
communities. The workshops involve theoretical packages developed
on the station. These are conducted in the local languages of the
farmers. In addition to this, we have regularly mounted field-days
in our research station and invited the agricultural extension
personnel and local farmers. We do also participate in the local
agricultural shows. These activities have created a working
relationship between us (researchers), our clients (the farmers) and
the extension personnel. It also reduces the amount of work that
the extension staff have got to do. In many instances the extension
personnel are not able to make regular visits to farmers within
their designated areas of work. This is usually due to the fact
that they have too many farmers to serve across a very wide area
with no proper provision for transport (Reynolds et al., 1984).
Thus the diffusion of new technologies would be too slow if one
relied entirely on the extension staff. Moreover, individual farm
visits would be too cumbersome. Thus group extension approach can
be more appropriate and practical.
679
Figure 3. Implementation strategy for SR-CRSP research activities involving dual-purpose
goat production system for smallfarms in Kenya.
Characterization of small
systems in Western Kenya.
Resources, Constraints,
Interactions, Inputs, Outputs
Analysis of systems using
computer models of biological
and economic components
Component Research Activities
Conducted On-station and On-farm
Biological components:
- Feed production/preservation
- Goat nutrition/management
- Goat health
- Goat breeding
- Product acceptance/utilisation
Sociological components
Economic components
Integration of results from component
research in design of alternative
goat production systems
On-farm testing of alternative goat
production systems
I I
Transfer/adaption of SR-
CRSP research to goat
production systems in
other tropical farming
systems
Extension of proven production systems
to small farms in Kenya
680
Important too is the question of whether the inputs in this
technology would be readily available within reach to the farmers
and whether they will be able to afford them. It has to be
accepted that adoption of any innovation involves some initial
capital inputs and sometimes these can be very substantial. The
two major sources of capital inflow for smallholders in western
Kenya can be categorised broadly into on-farm and non-farm (or
off-farm). The non-farm sources of income are mainly in the form
of urban migration and subsequent wage employment particularly by
the male members of the households and remittances from sons and
daughters employed in the urban areas.
Mukhebi e_t a_L , (1986) reported that on average 66X of the
total household cash receipts of the families within the clusters
where SR-CRSP works is derived off-farm. The importance of non-
farm income and/or loans in financing innovation in the rural
areas in Kenya only become evident when it is realized that if
the average poor smallholder in Central, Nyanza and Western
provinces, for instance, were to increase his purchased farm
inputs to the level of the mean for all smallholders, he would
have to reduce his household consumption by 25X if he has to meet
the costs off his normal income (Collier and Lal, 1984).
One form of non-farm income is credit from financial
institutions. Even though it is generally agreed that access to
credit facilitates agricultural innovation in Kenya, self-
financing has been more important than formal credit as a
motivating force in increasing productivity for most smallholders
(Commins et aj.. 1986). As Pischke (1977) argues, self-finance is
simpler, involves the farmer in less financial risk than the
formal credit and leaves the farmer in greater control over his
activities. It is also compatible with gradual, risk-averting
innovation with respect to enterprises not subject to
indivisibilities. Moreover, formal credits are also often
difficult to administer and this raises the question of whether
they are really cost-effective. If seen in this light then it
can be argued that rather than provide credit to marginal
producers, the government should invest more in the productive
infrastructure such as roads and marketing facilities. According
681
to Ranjhan and Faylon (1987), strong institutional back-up is
required to introduce a new technology in a way that it can be
adopted by farmers.
In Tanzania, for instance, dairy farmers around Kilimanjaro
area have been using molasses extensively for feeding their
livestock. However, its use has been more or less limited only
to a few "progressive" or well-to-do farmers. This is because
they are the ones who could afford transport to bring in the
molasses from about 20 km south of Moshi town. The Government
therefore through the FAO/UNDP dairy development project has now
established a distribution network for molasses in Arusha and
Kilimanjaro area (Urio, 1987). This project has constructed a
small plant for mixing urea and molasses and also established
collection centres in selected villages where upto 10,000 litres
of molasses can be stored and from where farmers can purchase
them. For our smallholders in western Kenya we are also
experimenting with jaggery sugar which is much easier to obtain
as it is sold locally in the retail shops. Initial results are
already encouraging.
It would be difficult at this stage to talk about the
economic benefits of this technology since an attempt to quantity
these at this stage when the farmers are still just being
introduced to it would lead to an unrealistic assessment.
Feedback from the on-farm trials will certainly be of value in
pointing to us the strengths and the weaknesses of this
technology.
REFERENCES
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Official Methods of Analysis 12th ed. Washington.
Castle, M.E. and Watson, J.N. 1985. Silage and milk production:
Studies with molasses and formic acid as additives for
grass silages. Grass and Forage Science. 40:85-92.
Collier, P. and Lai, D. 1984. Why poor people get rich: Kenya
1960-79. World Development. 12(10) : 1007- 1018.
682
Commins, S.K., Lofchie, M.F. and Payne, R. (eds) 1986. Africa's
agrarian crisis. The roots of famine Lyne Rienner
Publisher, Inc. Boulder, Colorado.
Devile, J. and Cheong, Y.W. 1978. Digestibility and ruminant
volatile fatty acid production of sugarcane tops silage by
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Ely, l.0. 1978. The use of added feedstuffs in silage
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Des Moines, IOWA. pp. 235-280.
Gilchrist, F.M.C. and Schwartz, H.M. 1972. Microbiology in the
rumen in relation to the nutrients and physiology of the
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Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P. 1970. Forage fibre analysis
(Apparatusr reagentsr procedures and some appl ications) .
Handbook No. 379, ARS, USDA. Washington, D.C. pp. 1-20.
Government of Kenya 1981. Sessional Paper No. 4 on National Food
Policy, Nairobi, Kenya.
Hart, R.D., Onim, J.F.M., Russo, S.L., Mathuva, M., Otieno, K.,
Fitzhugh, H.A. 1984. An analytical framework for feed
resources research on mixed farms in Western Kenya. SR-
CRSP Technical Report No. 46. Small Ruminant collaborative
Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP), Nairobi, Kenya.
KARI, (Kenya Agricultural Research Institute). 1985. Technical
Note No. 1 on Animal Nutrition. Feb. 1985, Kabete, Kenya.
Maritim, H.K. 1982. Maize marketing in Kenya; an assessment of
interregional commodity flow pattern. Department of
Economics, University of Nairobi, Kabete, Kenya.
Mathuva, M., Onim, J.F.M., Fitzhugh, H.A. and Otieno, K. 1985.
yield and quality evaluation of potential forage grasses in
western Kenya. Proceedings of the Fourth workshop of Small
Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-
CRSP), Kakamega, March, 1985, SR-CRSP, Nairobi, Kenya.
Milford, R. and Minson, D.J. 1966. Intake of tropical pastures.
Proc. of the 9th International Grassland Congress, Sao
Paulo, Brazilr pp. 815-828.
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1983. Silage
Additives, 1983 season. Min. of Agric., Fisheries and
Food, U.K.
683
Miracle, M.P. 1966. Maize in tropical Africa. The University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Mukhebi, A.W., Nyaribo, F., Oyugi, L. and Knipsheer, H. 1986.
Cash flow patterns of small-scale farm households in
Western Kenya. Proceedings of the Fifth workshop Small
Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP)
Kenya, Kabete, Nov. 1986. SR-CRSP, Nairobi, Kenya.
Onim, J.F.M., Mathuva, M., Otieno, K. and Fitzhugh, H.A. 1985.
Simplified hay making for small-scale farmers in western
Kenya. Proceedings of the Fourth workshop of Small
Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP)
Kenya, Kakamega, March 1985, SR-CRSP, Nairobi, Kenya.
Peralta, A. and Hughes- Jones, M. 1981. Effect of restricted
molasses on feed intake, feed conversion and weight gains
of young bulls. Tropical Animal Production. 4:1-12.
Pischke, J.D. von 1977. The political economy of farm credit in
Kenya. Ph.D. dissartation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow,
U.K. pp. 261-262.
Preston, T.R. and leng, R.A. 1986. Matching Livestock Production
Systems to available resources. Pretesting edition. ILCA,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Preston, T.R. and Willis, M.B. 1974. Intensive beef production.
2nd ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford 567 pp.
Ranjhan, S.K. and Faylon, P.S. 1987. On-farm testing of animal
research technologies generated in the institution. The
case of Carabas development. In: P. Amir and H. knipsheer
(eds). Proceedings of On-farm animal research/extension
and its economic analysis. Los Banos, Philippines, 19-23
January, 1987. Winrock International Institute for
Agricultural Development, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA.
Reed, D.E. and Fitch, J.B. 1917. Alfalfa silage. Kansas
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 217, Kansas,
USA.
Reynolds, J.E., Mbabu, A.N. and Nolan, M.F. 1984. Extension
Services and the smallholder: A report of preliminary
findings. Proceedings of the third workshop of Small
Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP)
Kenya. Kabete, 5-6 March 1984. SR-CRSP, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Sands, M.W., Fitzhugh, H.A., Kekovole, J. and Gachuki, P. 1982.
Results of small farm systems survey with implication to
the potential for dual-purpose goats on small farms in
Kenya. Proceedings of the First workshop of Small Ruminant
Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP) Kenya,
Nairobi, 15 March, SR-CRSP, Nairobi, Kenya. pp. 12-34.
Schluter, M. 1984. Constraints on Kenya's food and beverage
exports. Research Report 44. International Food policy
Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
Senga, W.K. 1976. Kenya's agricultural sector. In: J. Heyer,
J.K. Maitha and W.M. Senga (eds) Agricultural development
in Kenya. An economic assessment . Oxford University
Press, Nairobi, pp. 67-110.
Sheldrick, R.D. 1975. Optimum cutting period for silage maize in
Western Kenya. E^. Afr. Agric. For. J^ 40(4) :394-399.
Stoskopf, N.C. 1981. Understanding crop production. Reston
Publishing Company, Inc. Reston, Virginia.
Stotz, D. 1983. Production techniques and economics of
smallholder livestock production systems in Kenya.
Ministry of Livestock Development, Animal Production
Division, Nairobi. In: Farm management handbook of Kenya.
Vol. IV. p. 48.
Sutton, J.D. 1979. Rumen function and the utilisation of readily
fermentable carbohydrates by dairy cows. Tropical Animal
Production. 4:1-12.
Til ley, J.M.A. and Terry, R.A. 1963. A two stage technique for
the in vitro digestion of forage crop. .K Br. Grassl .
Soc. 18:104-111.
Thomas, C. and Young, J.W.0. (eds) (n.d). Milk from grass.
Billingham Press Ltd., Cleverland, U.K. 104 pp.
Urio, N.A. 1987. Feed resources for dairy farmers in
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said and
8.H. Dzowela (eds), Proceedings of the second PANESA
workshops Animal feed resources for smal l -scale l ivestock
producers held in Nairobi, Kenya, 11-15 Nov. 1985. IDRC-MR
165e, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa,
Ontaria. pp. 167-173.
685
TECHNIQUES USED FOR TESTING THE DEVELOPED LIVESTOCK AND
PASTURE METHODOLOGIES PRIOR TO THE EXTENSION OF RESULTS IN
THE SEMI-ARID MID-ALTITUDE AREAS OF KENYA
F.P. Wandera , D.M.G. Njarui , S. Tessema , J.M. Kavoi ,
M. Nderito1
Summary
A comparison of two techniques (approaches) adopted by National
Dryland Farming Research Centre (Katumani) Kenya, is discussed.
The "pre-extension" trial which introduced components of
livestock production system, attempted to alleviate feed
shortages especially during the dry seasons by providing farmers
with forage planting material and encouraging them to adjust
their livestock numbers to available feed resources. However,
this approach came up with discouraging results as these
component technologies were poorly adopted (Ockwell et al, 1987).
The "whole-farm" approach which involved an introduction of
a "package" of technologies for improvement of livestock
production and which recognises the importance of systems concept
to farming has given indicators of success in evaluating the
suitability of developed technologies on farmers' fields.
Indications of replacement of lower yielding indigenous
livestock breeds with higher yielding crossbreds is seen, higher
milk production (about 2000 kg/lact) and higher growth rates (325
g/day for heifers) are realised on the farms.
National Dryland Farming Research Centre, Katumani, P. 0. Box
340, Machakos, Kenya.
2
Formerly with Dryland Farming Research and Development Project,
FAO, Katumani, Kenya.
686
Thus for successful testing and/or adoption of livestock
pasture production research results by farmers, an understanding
of the functions and functioning of the system is essential.
Secondly, an appreciation of the need to introduce a package
(feed, management, health care and possibly change of breeds),
which will convincingly improve farmers return to labour and land
could lead to higher rates of adoption of livestock/pasture
developed technologies.
INTRODUCTION
Developed technologies through agricultural research for better
management of livestock and crop production, have not been easily
accessible to the farmers, in the semi -arid areas of Kenya. This
has been due to poor linkage between researchers/extension
services and farmers, an assumption by scientists that components
within a farming system operate in isolation and are not
interlinked, and that external factors to the farm unit e.g.
communication, availability of credit facilities and marketing,
among other factors, do not affect the farmers' ability to adopt
technologies.
Thus in formulating research programmes no due consideration
is normally given to these factors, with consequent results of
limited adoption of the developed technologies.
The farming systems approach to research and development
adopted by Katumani, first described the physical environment and
farming systems of the semi -arid areas of eastern Kenya and
identified constraints to the livestock production faced by the
farmers, as follows:-
1. The dryland areas cover an estimated 46 million hectares
(80.8X of total land mass) ranging from agroecological zones 4
to 6. 16X of this is under what is termed as the semi -arid
lands (zones 4 and 5).
2. The semi -arid area is characterised by a bimodal pattern of
rainfall with annual average of 500-800 mm, with two peaks in
April and November. Two pronounced dry seasons are
687
experienced (Jan. 15 to March 6 and again July 1 to Nov. 3)
(Dennet et al, 1982).
3. A freehold land ownership system is prevalent with farmers
owning between 1 and >20 hectares, with a mean of 7.5 ha out
of which 2.5 is cropped and 5 ha left for livestock production
(Tessema et al, 1985).
4. Farmers avert risks by practising mixed cropping and livestock
production.
5. Cattle, sheep and goats are kept by almost all farmers and
normally under stocking rates which many times exceed the
carrying capacities of the farms (Tessema et al, 1985; Ockwell
et al, 1987).
6. Periodic short-fall in feed availability during the dry
seasons and droughts imposes severe nutritional stresses to
the animals with resultant low productivity (i.e. meat, milk
and draught power) and even pre-disposes the animals to a
number of diseases that frequently lead to high rates of
mortal i ty.
7. Livestock culture rather than livestock economy forms the main
reason for livestock keeping. However farmers are forced to
sell some of their livestock only during food shortages and
when cash is required e.g. school fees for their children.
8. Availability of credit to the small-scale farmers for
livestock improvement programmes is inadequate or in most
cases, non-existent. This is because of the lack of economic
data on proven technologies to support loans for livestock
enterprises (Tessema et al, 1985; Ockwell et al, 1987).
Having defined the farming system and the attendant problems
and constraints, the second stage was designing the research
programmes and experimentation. This generated a package of
technologies that could possibly alleviate the identified
constraints.
688
Tessema et al (1987) outlined the improved package as
follows: -
1. adjustment of livestock numbers to the available feed supply
2. improvement of natural grazing area by selective bush
clearing, reseeding, burning, etc.,
3. improved use of crop residues,
4. conservation of excess forage for dry season feeding,
5. Maintenance of a systematic disease control schedule,
6. improvement of the stock through use of crossbred cows and/or
dairy goats and
7. improvement of management - semi -zero-grazing, provision of
stock shed, watering, manure collection etc.
In the third stage, testing of the developed technologies
under on-farm situations is undertaken. Two approaches have been
attempted. First a "pre-extension" trial in which component
technologies were extended. Later a new approach was muted
mainly due to experiences gained in the pre-extension trial.
This approach introduced a "package" of technologies to the
farmers, in full appreciation of the main factors that limit
implementation of developed livestock technologies on farms.
PRE-EXTENSION 'COMPONENT' TECHNOLOGY TESTING APPROACH
The initial diagnostic survey (Rukandema et al, 1984) indicated
that the rough unimproved natural pasture, supplemented with poor
quality maize stover during the dry season, resulted in poor
livestock responses (e.g. too weak oxen at the end of a dry
season to plough effectively.
This prompted a feed resource improvement component to be
formulated for testing on the farms. Together with this, a
policy of destocking to adjust livestock numbers to available
feed resources was encouraged for adoption by the participating
farmers.
The two components were tested together with crop production
technologies on 18 selected farmers throughout the mandate
region.
689
The selection criteria (Bakhtri et al, 1984) were as
fol lows;-
1. The person selected should be a full-time average farmer
2. He/she should have both crop and livestock
3. He/she should be willing to participate in the research
activity, be able to accept and implement advice given, and
be willing and able to collect simple data and share
experience with other farmers.
4. His/her farm should be located near a road for easy access
to enable frequent visits to be made by both research and
extension workers.
Planting materials (root splits for Napier grass, leucaena
seedlings and seeds for Rhodes grass/Makueni guinea
grass/stylo/si ratro mixtures) were provided to the farmers and
advice for planting given. Farmers were also encouraged to
adjust their livestock numbers.
RESULTS
Although the farmers appreciated the problem of feed
shortages, priority for labour use was given to cropping
activities (planting and weeding) and it was only after weeding
that the forage material was planted. This late planting
generally resulted in poor establishments due to inadequate
moisture and loss of viability of vegetative propagules.
Whenever there was successful establishment, farmers did not
utilise the material to feed their indigenous animals and left
the material to grow old. Traditionally farmers in this area did
not plant forage for their indigenous stock and felt that the
planted forage should be utilised by a more productive grade
animal in order to realise profitable returns to labour and land
used.
690
Farmers did not respond completely to advice to adjust their
stock numbers. Thus in a nutshell, the pre-extension farmers did
not adopt any of the introduced livestock improvement
technologies.
This necessitated a serious assessment of the approach and a
realisation that a new approach must be worked out: the whole
farm as a production system.
THE 'WHOLE-FARM' PACKAGE APPROACH
Before formulating technological packages under this approach, an
attempt was made to thoroughly understand the existing system.
While more 'one-visit' data collection surveys were carried out
(Kenya marginal/semi -arid lands pre- investment inventory 1982,
Rukandema et al, 1984) a detailed case-study of the traditional
livestock production system was undertaken (Tessema et al, 1985;
and Ockwell et al, 1987).
From these studies farms could be classified in three
different farm sizes (Table 1a): small, medium and large (average
size of 3.3 ha, 7.6 ha and 12.8 ha respectively). Farm sizes do
not conform to the agro-ecological zones and the cropped area is
hardly more than 3.5 ha whatever the size of the farm.
Livestock numbers do not conform to the carrying capacity of
the area (Table 1b) and there is more serious overstocking
problem in the drier than in wetter areas (stocking rates being
2, 4. and 5.4 times the carrying capacity of UM4, LM4 and LM5
respectively). More goats are kept than sheep due to the
preference for goat meat in the region. However the number of
goats is more in drier areas and cattle in wetter areas (Table
1b).
691
Table 1a. Farms size characteristics in the areas in the Study
area of eastern Kenya.
Farm AEZ Farm size Crop area Grazing areas
Classification (ha) (ha) (ha)
Large UM4 15.2 4.9 10.3
8.4
9.2
Medium UM4 8.8 3.7 5.7
3.5
6.0
Small UM4 3.2 1.9 1.3
0.8
2.8
Notes:
1. Agro-ecological zones are derived from Jaetzold and Schmidt
(1983)
2. Farm sizes are compiled from Tessema et al (1985)
Table 1 (b). Livestock ownership in study area of eastern Kenya.
H
LM4 10.4 2.0
LM5 12.7 3.5
LM4 5.0 1.5
LM5 9.0 3.0
LM4 2.3 1.5
LM5 4.5 1.7
AEZ Cattle Sheep Goats LSU LSU/ha Tech . Cap. /ha
UM4 14.66 2.33 10.67 10.13 1.67 0.5 1.00
LM4 8.13 1.13 11.37 7.79 2.60 0.39 0.76
LM5 7.72 6.71 22.43 10.13 1.53 0.21 0.37
Notes:
1. Livestock numbers are derived from Ockwell et al (1987)
2. Technical carrying capacity is estimated from Jaetzold and
Schmidt (1983)
692
Livestock production levels, Table 2, are relatively low
mainly due to feed shortages and low genetic potential of the
breeds kept.
Table 2. Production levels under unimproved system.
a) Milk yield
Mean daily yield (kg) 1.55
Mean lactation length (days) 286
Mean lactation yield (kg) 443
b) Growth rates (g/day)
Cattle Goats Sheep
Calves 205 Kids
Weaners 212 Year I ings
Heifers/young
bulls 64 Does
Cows 17 Breeding
Breeding bulls 15
44 Lambs 29
30 Yearlings 18
17 Young rams 24
6 Ewes 4
Breeding rams 11
Source: Tessema et al (1985).
Although most improved technologies for livestock production
are deemed labour intensive, Table 3 shows that there is likely
to be adequate labour especially during lax cropping activity
periods to carry out required livestock activities and in a sense
provide more return to labour at that time.
693
Thus against this background, a new 'whole- farm' approach
technique of testing livestock developed technologies was muted.
The design and the implementation of the on-farm research
based on this approach, is clearly outlined by Tessema et al
(1987). Farmers are selected on the basis of agro-ecological
zones: -
1. UM4 - 700-800 mm rainfall
2. LM4 - 600-700 mm rainfall
3. LM5 - 500-600 mm rainfall
and three farm sizes: 1) <5 ha, 2) 5-10 ha, 3) > 10 ha. Two
farms from each farm size class in each agro-ecological zone are
selected. Thus a total of 18 farms is formed. To assess the
performance of the introduced technologies a second group of
farmers (18) is selected where data is collected on the existing
systems.
694
Table 3. Family labour supply and demand for livestock activities
Average labour Milking Health Feeding Herding add Boma Total livestock
supply (min) care (Min) watering cleaning demand on
*AAME (hrs/day) (Min) (Min) (Min) labour (Hrs)
62.87 41 14 75 770 5 15 hrs 5 min
*AAME Average Adult Male Equivalent
695
Computer modelling and simulation are used to assess the
potential applicability, input requirements, constraints and
outputs.
Budgeting and sensitivity analysis techniques are used to
determine optional farm plans. The farm plans developed are
finally discussed with the farmers and modified to reflect their
preferences and willingness to test the techniques.
The developed technologies are introduced step by step
starting with feed resource base improvement (Table 4), then
housing and introduction of the animals.
The introductions into the farms are under express
management of the farmers. Therefore, to make the farmers feel
responsible inputs are not provided free of charge but are to be
repaid to the research station. However this is on condition
that the innovation contributes substantially to the net income.
Otherwise inputs are written off as research expenditure.
Two weekly data collections on livestock/pasture production
parameters are done and analyses made by regression equations,
variance analysis and cost benefit analyses to test the economic
feasibi lity.
An integrated system of feeding, utilising the available
feed resources is likely to ease the fluctuations of the feed
availability and quality especially when conservation is
incorporated into the production system. Figure 1 shows the
distribution of dry and green seasons as far as feed availability
is concerned and indicates the physiological status that a dairy
cow could follow.
An integrated feeding regime thus should follow the
physiological demand of the cow as follows:
696
Period I and III - growing season
graze natural pasture, give fodder grass ad l ib and
restricted fodder legume
Period II - Growing season/dry season (short)
Natural pasture grazing, restricted fodder crop
residue and fodder legumes (higher intakes)
Period IV - Dry season (moderate)
Poor quality pasture grazing, crop residue (treated)
plus fodder legumes, hay/silage feeding.
Although the outlined feeding regime has not yet fully been
incorporated into the participating farmers, the response of what
is already being practised by the farmers is seen in the
improved production of milk, from 448 kg/lactation to 1471
kg/lactation and improved growth rates of their stock (calves
growing at a rate of 800 g/day, heifer at 325 g/day, cows at 120
g and steers and bulls at 146 g and 169 g respectively).
697
Table 4. Feed resources on selected farms.
DM yield Nutrient Composition In vitro
Feed description in Ash CP NDF ADL DM
tons/ha X X X X digestibility
Natural pasture 2.15 8.32 7.73 72.36 6.41 44.52
Stover
Ma i ze 2.54 11.92 2.59 69.55 9.32 41.83
Sorghum 1.00 6.80 6.53 52.97 3.26 50.06
Fodders:
Bana 6.80 15.54 9.08 63.37 3.93 59.08
Bajra 7.30 14.89 11.79 58.12 5.15 62.36
Pan i cum 5.10 13.16 12.98 60.28 5.32 56.62
Pasture grasses:
Rhodes 3.00 9.95 11.15 73.88 6.28 54.76
Guinea grass A. 00 12.12 10.41 66.32 5.88 50.88
Cenchrus 2.60 7.73 8.21 71.10 4.94 50.22
Legumes:
Leucaena 4.00 7.93 27.28 38.13 9.80 64.78
Pigeon peas - 6.81 13.90 59.88 14.83 55.16
Dolichos ■ 6.87 15.54 43.90 6.46 63.17
Notes: -
(1) Natural pasture figures are averages from 20-210 days old
herbage while planted pasture figures are average from 20-80
days old.
(2) Maize and sorghum stover yields based on 1/3 of recommended
populations commonly found in the area.
Source: Ministry of Livestock Development, 1983 annual report.
698
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chanQaa anp raaptng ayatBma. Feeping, syitami ara fnpicatep aa denup
I to 1V.
 
699
Other indicators of success of this package approach are:
1. Improved grade animals are now replacing the local breeds.
One farmer out of six on whose farms innovations have been
implemented has already replaced all of his indigenous
livestock with grade ones.
2. Farmers have expressed the intention of payment for their
livestock rather than return the initial cow to the centre.
3. Although initially the centre was providing for drugs and
accaricides, now the farmers are buying these with money from
the sale of mi lk.
4. Fodders introduced are well cared for.
5. Manure is regularly collected and applied to cropped area,
other farmers have been extending manure application to
fodders.
Thus although the study is not yet complete, indications are
that this approach has been more acceptable to the farmers than
the former 'component' approach. The main incentive here is the
realisation of improved livestock production especially milk
production, without which other components of the package might
not have been adopted.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The system concept as applied to the mixed farming situation in
the dryland can be di agramat i ca l ly represented as in Figure 2.
The major sub-systems are represented, the crops and the
livestock subsectors. Within the livestock sub-system, about
four major components are conceptualised; feed resources, health,
animal and housing.
All the four components work towards achieving the same goal
(output) which in this case is improved growth rates, more milk,
more draught power and better reproductive efficiency. However
under the concept of systems approach, change in any of these
components is seen as an improvement only when the whole system
is improved.
700
Thus before any technology is tested or extended at farm
level, it is important to thoroughly define the system into which
the technology will be injected, stating clearly the component(s)
that is/are targeted for improvement.
The second important factor is to understand the managerial
skills and factors that affect the decision-making process of
farmers and their aspirations.
Pre-extension component approach was not successful because
of inadequate understanding of the farmer's utilisation of his
resource base (Ockwell et al, 1987). A detailed case-study
approach was found to be more effective in gathering the
information that led to a better understanding of factors that
interplay in a livestock production sub-system (Tessema et al,
1985).
From this study it was envisaged that livestock and pasture
production technologies required a system approach even much more
than the crops since forages alone are not outputs on the farm
and animals require a feed base establishment among other
factors. Thus a 'whole-farm' approach package was adopted as a
testing tool.
It was also envisaged that packages should be tailored to
ecology and farm size: Dairy goats in drier ecologies and on
small farms and dairy cows in wetter areas and on large farms.
When testing and/or extending a feed resource component, its
success on farm will be seen through increased levels of animal
products. However this increased productivity might only be
realised when animals that can respond to improved feeding and
management are used. At certain times this might lead to
scientists going out of their way to provide for other components
of the system (e.g. introduction of dairy cow, housing and better
health care facilities) in order to test the viability of the
technology( ies) .
701
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REFERENCE
Audi, P.0. 1985. Training and visits (T & V) and development of
small-scale subsistent agriculture in the semi-arid areas
of Kenya - A Katumani experience. In: W. Mututa and G.E.
Okwach (eds), proceedings of agr icul tural research and
extension for the drylands of Kenya workshop. Embu, Kenya
pp. 12-20.
Bakhtri, M.N., Gavotti, S., and Kimemia, J.K. 1984. On-farm
research at Katumani: The pre-extension trials experience
(with special reference to semi-arid areas of Eastern
Province of Kenya) g± Agric. and For. J . Special vol. issue
No. 44:437-443.
Dennet, D.M., Rogers, J. A. and Stern, R.O. 1982. Rainfall at
Kampi ya Mawe and Katumani in 1982. Tropical Agricultural
Meteorology Group, Departments of Agricultural Botany and
Applied Statistics, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.
Jaetzold, R. and Schmidt, M. 1983. Natural conditions and
farming management information. Farm management handbook of
Kenya. Vol. II. Part C East Kenya. Ministry of
Agriculture, Kenya-German Agency for Technical Cooperation
Rossdorf, West Germany.
Kusewa, P.K. (1985). Pasture and Fodder Crops for Dryland Areas.
In: W. Mututa, and G.E. Okwach. (eds). Proceedings of a
workshop on agricul tural research and extensi on for
Drylands of Kenyar held at Embu, Kenya, 2nd-6th, December,
1985. pp. 180-189. Ministry of Livestock Development,
Kenya.
Mohammed, L. and Jeza, A. 1985. Some characteristics of farmers
and the farming envi ronment in the semi -arid reqi ons of
Machakos, Kitui, Embu and Meru districts of Kenya. In: W.
Mututa and G.E. Okwach (eds), proceedings of agricultural
research and extension for the drylands of Kenya.
Workshop, Embu, Kenya. pp. 26-28.
Ockwell, A. P., Mohammed, l. and Ngulu, S. 1987. Farming systems
of the semi-arid tropics of Eastern Kenya: A case study
of18 farms: In improvement of dryland crop and forage
production in African semi-arid tropics ACIAR/CSIRO Project
No. 8326, Machakos. Annual report 1986-87.
703
Rukandema, M. 1984. Farming Systems of semi -arid Kenya, a
comparison. E^. Af r. Agric. and For J . Special issue Vol.
No. 44.
Tessema, S. 1988. Improving ruminant livestock production on
small farm systems under semi-arid farming conditions of
Eastern Kenya (end of assignment report) UNDP/FAO - Dryland
Farming research and Development Project KEN/74/017,
KEN/81/011 and KEN/86/028, Machakos, Kenya.
Tessema, S., Emojong, E.E., Maluti, M. 1988. Strategy of
livestock research adopted to semi-arid small-scale mixed
farming system. The Katumani experience. In: B.H. Dzowela
(ed), African forage plant genetic resources . evaluat i on of
forage germplasm and extensive l i vestock product ion
systems. Tanzania, 27-30 April, 1987. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. pp. 388-401.
Tessema, S., Emojong, E.E., Wandera, F.P. and Nderito, M. 1985.
Features of traditional farming systems. A case of study
of 18 small-scale farms in the dryland areas of the Eastern
Province of Kenya. Dryland Farming Research and
Development Project KEN/81/011, Machakos, Kenya. Document
No. 6.
704
EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON RHODES GRASS AND LUCERNE
PASTURES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCES TO DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AT
CUTTING AND ASSOCIATED CHANGES IN NUTRITIONAL QUALITY
Daniel Keftasa
Institute of Agricultural Research,
Kulumsa Research Centre, Ethiopia.
ABSTRACT
Rhodes grass (Chl or is gayana) fertilized at 0 or 138 kg
N/ha/yr and lucerne (Medicago sat i va) were grown at Kulumsa (8 N,
2200 m altitude) representing medium- high land zones of Ethiopia.
Samples were taken every 10 days for about 100 days during two
growing seasons (March-May and July-November) in 1986. The
samples were analysed for dry matter yield, crude protein (CP),
organic matter digestibility (OMD), fibres (NDF, ADF), Ash,
lignin and major mineral elements.
Nitrogen fertilization increased yield, rate of growth and
improved CP content and OMD during the earlier part of growth but
N-fertilized Rhodes grass produced reproductive inflorescence
earlier and produced forage of low CP, high fibres, low OMD, P,
K, Mg and Na at the advanced stage of growth. The average rate
of decline in CP due to advance in maturity was 0.14 and C.11X
/day with and without N- f ert i l i zat ion respectively. The
corresponding decline in OMD was 0.28 and 0.19X /day
respectively. Lucerne produced forage of high CP, low fibres,
high OMD, K, Mg, Ca and high lignin at all stages of growth and
the minimum levels of CP & OMD reached due to advance in maturity
were significantly higher than those of Rhodes grass.
It was concluded that maturity stage at cutting is the most
important factor which determines the quality of Rhodes grass
pasture and cutting at 10-50X heading or about 50 days regrowth
period can be recommended.
705
As to the utilisation of these and such research findings at
present in Ethiopia, some issues were raised. Lack of
appropriate integrated livestock/forage crops research, extension
and production systems, poor research-extension linkage, less
emphasis on livestock and forage extension, shortage of inputs
(e.g. forage seeds) are recognised as some of the problems facing
forage development in Ethiopia to date.
INTRODUCTION
Livestock production plays an important role in Ethiopian
agriculture. It is an integral part of all farming systems and
provides milk, meat, draught power, manure, hides and skins.
Approximately 60 X (Taylor, 1984) of the total land area is
utilised for raising livestock which are thus the largest single
users of land resource in the country. Cattle production
constitute the main component of the highland mixed farming
system with small dairy herds, high traction power demand and an
intensive crop and/or vegetable production. The highland is
characterized by high human and livestock density leading to
overgrazing, land degradation and low agricultural productivity.
The main reason for low productivity of livestock is
inadequate feeds both in quantity and quality. There are few
areas that can supply sufficiently good quality natural herbage
for existing livestock for the whole year owing to the marked
seasonality of rainfall distribution. Fodder production from
improved grasses and legumes is limited to a few experimental
farms due to lack of well planned crop/ l i vestock husbandry
systems, low technical expertise, restrictions relating to small
farm size due to population pressure and overall low standard of
agricultural production.
In recent years, the use of sown pastures has received
considerable attention in areas where high producing cross-bred
daily animals are owned. Rhodes grass (Ch l or is gayana) and
lucerne (Medicago sat i va) mixture is probably the most successful
sown perennial grass-legume mixed pasture. Results from various
706
experiments in low medium altitude parts of Ethiopia (Sisay 1975;
Haile, 1977; Tsegahun et al, 1986; Jutzi et al 1986; FNE 1986;
1987) indicate that Rhodes grass and lucerne have a high
potential as livestock feed in terms of dry matter production and
nutritional value.
Rhodes grass has been a popular perennial grass in the
tropics and sub-tropics of East & Southern Africa, Australia and
Central America. Originating in Eastern and Southern Africa, it
is valued for its (1) ability to set seed, (2) relative ease of
establishment and ability to cover ground, (3) tolerance for
drought, light frost, soil salinity and (4) suitability to be
grown in association with many tropical legumes, clovers and
lucerne. A detailed review on botanical and agronomic attributes
and utilisation of Rhodes grass has been published by Bogdan
(1969). Agronomic characteristics and cultivation techniques of
Rhodes grass with reference to seed production in Kenya are
presented in Boonman (1973) and Keftasa (1985) has presented
highlights on Rhodes grass seed production in Ethiopia.
Lucerne is probably the oldest cultivated forage crop in the
world and has been called the "Queen of forages". Although it
originated in the Mediterranean climate of the Near East and
Central Asia it is grown in almost all parts of the world. Some
of its merits include tolerance to drought and low temperatures,
a vigorous symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium and its high
feeding value. Extensive review on lucerne have been published
by Hanson (1972) and Leech (1978).
Mixed Rhodes grass- lucerne pastures have been known to be
advantageous for higher yields and quality over their
monocultures. A mixture of Rhodes grass benefits from the
transfer of fixed nitrogen from lucerne when the nodule and/or
the roots (and shoots) decay. Lucerne contains higher digestible
protein and major mineral elements (Ca, P, K, Mg) than Rhodes
grass but its yield is usually lower, less persistent and more
difficult to harvest and cure as hay. So Rhodes grass- lucerne
mixture combines the yield and quality aspects of the component
monocultures and may reduce harvesting and utilisation problems.
707
Benefits from mixed stands of such pastures can be
efficiently exploited only if proper management strategies such
as optimum fertilization and accurate cutting or grazing
frequencies are followed. A number of research results and
literature reviews indicate that nitrogen fertilization (Howard
et al, 1962; Raymond, 1966; Clatworthy, 1967; Miaki, 1968;
Whitehead, 1970; Wilson and Haydock, 1971; Henzell, 1971; 1977;
Minson, 1973; Binnie, 1974; Hacker & Minson, 1981) and plant
maturity at cutting (Blaser, 1964; Butterworth, 1967; Milford and
Minson, 1968; Stobbs, 1971; Minson, 1971b; 1972; Soneji et al
1971; 1972; Said, 1974; Rocha and Vera, 1981; Hacker & Minson
1981) is the factor which influences the nutritional value of
pastures. Nitrogen frequently limits grassland productivity in
the tropics. Nitrogen fertilization has been well known to
increase dry matter yield and protein content of the herbage but
affects herbage digestibility only slightly. Whitehead (1970),
Wilson (1982) and Van Soest (1982) have reviewed published
reports from different sources and concluded that the change in
dry matter digestibility due to fertilizer N has been positive,
negative or insignificant.
It is generally recognised that the nutritive value of
tropical pasture falls as they mature due to a rise in fibre
content with increasing maturity. Minson, (1971a) showed that
the rate of decline in digestibility of Rhodes grass was about
0.1X /day when the overall trend of a long period is considered.
In another report (Minson, 1972) showed the mean rate of fall in
digestibility of Rhodes grass to be 0.25X /day between 28 and 70
days of regrowth but decreased to 0.17X /day during 70-98 days of
regrowth.
Minson and Milford (1967) have shown that the digestibility
of different varieties of Rhodes grass declined from 0.08 to
0.15% /day due to advanced maturity. Hacker and Minson (1981)
reviewed numerous research results and concluded that after
initial growth pasture plants decline in digestibility with time.
They reported that the decline is more rapid in grasses than
herbaceous legumes in which digestibility remain high. Raymond
708
(1966) reviewed reports of various authors on pattern of herbage
digestibility and established a prediction formula for temperate
grasses showing a steady decline in digestibility with increasing
stages of maturity. A detailed work on this subject by Said
(1974) shows that digestibility occurs after forage plants has
headed, the reasons being increase in structural constituents
(CF, cellulose and lignin) and a decrease in the non-structural
constituents, mainly the soluble carbohydrates.
The common explanation for the decline has been the fall in leaf:
stem ratio and rise in cell wall components coupled with
increased l ignif ication.
There are a number of interesting pieces of work done on the
nutritional content of lucerne in temperate regions and Rhodes
grass in East Africa and Queensland, (Australia). However, full
information is lacking on the yield and quality profile of Rhodes
grass- lucerne pastures relating to different cutting stages under
Ethiopian conditions. The results depicated in this paper
obtained from field experiments carried out to study effects of
nitrogen fertilization and maturity stage on yield and quality of
Rhodes grass- lucerne pastures at Kulumsa; representing the
medium-highland parts of Ethiopia.
METHODOLOGY
The research site is located at an altitude of 2200 m, latitude
8 N, on a clay soil with a pH of 6.2, a P content of 32 ppm, a
long time when total annual rainfall of 850 mm and with mean
maximum and mean minimum temperatures of 22 and 10 C
respectively.
Rhodes grass and lucerne were sown in rows of 20 cm spacing
at sowing rates of 2.5 and 8 kg/ha pure germinating seed were
used. Fertilizer was applied at planting and at the rate of 100
kg/ha. DAP (18/46 N/PjOj) was 100 kg/ha. TSP (46X, P205) was
applied every second year. Nitrogen fertilization at the rates
709
of 0 or 138 kg N/ha/yr was superimposed on Rhodes grass at the
beginning of each growing season. Herbage samples were taken at
10 days interval to determine dry matter yield, digestibility,
contents of neutral detergent fibre (NDF,) acid detergent fibre
(ADF), ash, lignin and contents of crude protein (CP), calcium
(Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K) and sodium
(Na). The samples were analysed for dry matter yield and
contents of crude protein and minerals according to the
specifications by Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(AOAC) (1975). NDF, ADF, lignin and ash were determined with a
micro fibre apparatus using the Goering and van Soest (1970)
procedures. Organic matter digestibility was determined
according to Lindgren (1979) and metabol i zable energy content was
estimated from the regression equations presented by Lindgren
(1979).
Rainfall, evapot ranspi rat i on, relative sunshine hours and
temperatures are shown on figures 1 and 2 respectively.
In this paper the two growing seasons are denoted as short
(Feb-May) and main (June-Sept) growing seasons following the
traditional terms for Ethiopia highlands.
RESULTS
As shown in Tables 1 through 4, dry-matter yields of Rhodes grass
increased steadily upto 72-83 days of regrowth period and then
decreased slightly or remained high. Average rates of increases
in dry-matter yields during these periods were 121 and 65
kg/ha/day in the short rainy season with and without nitrogen
fertilization respectively. The corresponding rates of increase
in the main rainy season were 70 and 30 kg/ha/day respectively.
Dry-matter yields of lucerne was generally lower than those of
Rhodes grass except in few cases in non-nitrogen fertilized
Rhodes grass in the earlier part of the regrowth period. Lucerne
started growth faster than Rhodes grass as soon as the rains
began and also declined earlier in dry-matter yield mainly due to
leaf senescence and leaf diseases such as leaf spot (Pseudopezi z
medicaginis) .
710
Nitrogen fertilization increased the crude protein content
of Rhodes grass by about 15X at the early stage of growth but N
fertilized Rhodes grass contained less crude protein content at
the advanced growth stage. The crude protein of Rhodes grass
declined markedly due to advance in maturity. The rate of
decline was about 0.1 and 0.08X /day in the short and the main
rainy seasons respectively in non-nitrogen fertilized Rhodes
grass and 0.17 and 0.14X in the short rainy seasons and the main
rain seasons respectively in nitrogen fertilized Rhodes grass.
Lucerne contained high crude protein in the earlier part of
regrowth period but declined at the rate of 0.15X /day during 72
days of regrowth and then stagnated around 19 X.
Nitrogen fertilization improved the organic matter
digestibility of Rhodes grass in the earlier part of growth
period but at the advanced stage of maturity the organic matter
digestibility of nitrogen fertilized Rhodes grass was inferior to
the non-fertilized ones.
The organic matter digestibility of Rhodes grass increased
slightly during 25 days of regrowth in the short rainy season and
declined steadily at the rate of 0.36 and 0.28X /day with and
without nitrogen fertilization respectively (Table 1). In the
main rainy season organic matter digestibility declined steadily
at the rates of 0.20 and 0.10X /day with and without nitrogen
fertilization respectively. The organic matter digestibility of
lucerne was almost always higher than Rhodes grass in both
seasons. It declined steadily at the rate of about 0.2X /day in
the main rainy season (Table 4) during the short rainy season it
increased slightly in the growth period of up to 25 days and
declined then after at the rate of 0.17X /day.
711
Figure 1. Monthly rainfall evapotraspiration and relative sunshine and hours at
at Kulunisa, Ethiopia, 1986.
Evapotranspiration
rainfall
Relative sunshine his
 
712
Flgurt 2. Mrou monlhly nealiauA aud minim* »««c1uf] al Kuluon. Elhiodia. 1111.
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As shown in Tables 2 and 5 both the NDF increased with
advance in maturity. It appears that both NDF and ADF were lower
in nitrogen fertilized Rhodes grass if cut early but higher if
cut late (advanced maturity). This feature of NDF and ADF
contents followed the pattern of crude protein content and
organic matter digestibility. Lucerne contained less NDF and ADF
than Rhodes grass at all stages of cutting and their contents
increased at slower rate than that of Rhodes grass. The ADF ash
of Rhodes grass was found to be quite high as compared to lucerne
indicating the presence of large amount of silica which could
severely interfere with digestibility. It appears higher in
nitrogen fertilized Rhodes grass and its trend of increase with
maturity is not consistent. The ADF ash content of lucerne was
somewhat higher in the earlier part of growth and was not
detectable in most of the cases in the latter part of growth.
The lignin content of both Rhodes grass and lucerne increased
with maturity. Lucerne contained more lignin than Rhodes grass
and there were no marked differences in lignin contents of Rhodes
grass due to nitrogen fertilization.
As shown in Tables 3 and 6, generally the total ash content
of both species declined as the maturity advanced but some
increases were also observed in non-nitrogen fertilized Rhodes
grass. It was observed that the P, K, Mg and Na contents
declined due to advance in maturity in both species but the Ca
content was fluctuating and the trend was not consistent. This
higher content of Ca in the middle (about 50 days regrowth) and
at the latter growth stage might be due to the role of Ca in the
plant as a structural element. Lucerne contained more K, Ca, Mg
and Na than Rhodes grass in almost all of the cases. The P
contents of Rhodes grass and Lucerne were not distinctly
different but it appears that Rhodes grass contained higher P
than lucerne at early part of the cutting stages but less in the
later part. Ca:P ration increased with maturity, the peak being
around 50 days growth period and the magnitude is higher in
lucerne than Rhodes grass.
716
The crude protein content, organic matter digestibility and
mineral contents of Rhodes grass reported in this paper are
comparable to the earlier findings in Ethiopia (Evaldson, 1969),
Uganda (Soneji et al, 1971; 1972) and Kenya (Said 1974; Abate et
al, 1981). This work indicates that stage of maturity at cutting
is the most important aspect to determine feeding value. Both
yield and quality varied according to growing season. That the
short rainy season produced forage of high yield and quality in
this particular study may be due to higher maximum and minimum
temperatures (Figure 2) more irradiation and sufficient rainfall
condition (Figure 1). Work is going on at Kulumsa (Keftasa,
unpublished) to demonstrate the practical application of these
findings to adopt more frequent cutting systems in a year than
the conventional single-cut in the main growing season.
717
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Table3:Seutrald te g ntfi342),6cid(6-ashnl gni
contentsofRhodesgra sa dlucer eadiff r ntc t ing2wi hthou
S-fertilizationdur ngthemair 2s ason2of1928.
62-ashLignin %of2M 3.1 8.2 1.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 1.1^2.3 1.1^.1
6.3i1.1
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31.8^28 .2-2.1 .3*3.9
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2.6^1.6 27.3^.1
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727
DISCUSSION
Various field studies and laboratory analyses concluded that the
existing feedstuffs in Ethiopia, native pastures and crop
residues, are poor in quality thus providing inadequate protein,
energy, vitamins and minerals. In certain areas where improved
forage crops are introduced farmers fail to utilise them at the
optimum developmental stage when the herbage is high in quality
to satisfy livestock needs and support production. One reason
for this failure is lack of strong extension support in adopting
the recommended practices.
In Ethiopia the Institute of Agricultural Research OAR)
with the began research on crops, livestock and forages began in
1966. IAR's broad objective was the formulation of a national
policy for agricultural research which should be within the
framework of the country's central plan. This national policy
for agricultural research should then be to implement through co
ordinated programmes of applied research. Soon after the
establishment of IAR, the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit
(CADU), the first comprehensive pilot project, was established in
Arsi region in 1967 under the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA).
CADU undertook various research programmes in cattle cross
breeding of cattle and forage evaluation in addition to the
extension programme. As a result of the effort of these two
major institutions in forage research, it has been possible to
recommend a number of forage species and their cultural practices
for different ecological zones of Ethiopia (Lulseged Gebre-Hiwot
and Tadesse, 1985).
Agricultural extension was initiated since the 1950s. The
Ministry of Agriculture has been the main organisation
responsible for organising, giving advice and assistance as well
as services to the peasant sub-sector. Within the Ministry
today, departments for animal breeding and feed resources
development are directly concerned with introduction and
utilisation of improved forage crops.
728
The Animal Breeding and Feed Resources Development
Department through its various projects (e.g. Fourth Livestock
Development Project, FLDP) promotes forage development,
introduction of improved forages crops and management techniques,
forage seed production on farmers fields (on contract basis),
adaptive research and training of farmers and development agents.
The Soil Conservation Development Department multiplies seeds of
grasses and multipurpose forage shrubs on nursery sites and
undertakes plantations on catchment sites. The two departments
work in close co-operation.
At the field level the linkage between research and
extension has been weak in general and worse in the fields of
livestock and forage development. To promote the research
extension linkage certain measures have been taken in crop
production, such as IAR/MOA joint research programmes, farming
system research (on-farm trials) and research-extension liaison
committees of which none is involved in livestock/forage fields.
Although there are development agents on over 2000 centres (FAO,
1985), quite a small propotion (in terms of time or resource
allocation is working in this field) indicates that there is less
emphasis on livestock and forage development. The current
research and extension systems focus mainly on improving of major
cash crops (cereals, pulses, oil crops, cotton and coffee) with
little integration with the livestock subsystem in such areas as
forage legume-based crop rotation, alley cropping, etc.
There is an acute shortage of forage seeds in the country.
There is still no agency responsible for production and
certification of forage seeds. There are some forage seed
production programmes within the MOA at the South-Eastern Zonal
Office for Agricultural Development (ex CADU), FLDP and soil
conservation nurseries. However, production has been much below
the requirements. There is considerable demand for forage seeds
for planting at state-owned cattle breeding stations dairy
development and beef production enterprises as well as dairy co
operatives and individual smallholders who own upgraded dairy
cows. Utilisation of improved forage crops at the smallholder
level has not been successful due to low return to local zebu
729
cattle and competition for scarce land and labour. At present
the use of fertilizers on pasture lands remains to be
questionable due to limited availability, low level of credit
services and capital investment. FAO (1985) reported that only
14X of Ethiopia farmers used fertilizers (8.76 kg/farmer) but
that only 2X use improved seeds (food crops). In Arsi region
where research and extension programmes have been relatively more
effective, the corresponding figures were 47X (31.75 kg farmer)
and 21X fertilizers and improved seeds respectively.
Experience in Arsi region shows that small-scale farmers and
farmers' co-operatives who own cross-bred dairy cows adopted
favourably forage production. Oats/vetch mixtures, fodder beet
and Rhodes grass are planted about 600 ha of land every year with
dry matter production/ha comparable to state-owned dairy and
cattle breeding farms. Any recommended package related to
improved forage crops may need to be accompanied by improvement
of the existing low producing animals otherwise the package may
not be economical.
The introduction of the training and visit extension system
is expected to improve the currently weak research-extension
linkages through regular training of development agents who visit
farmers frequently and regularly to pass on relevant technical
messages and also bring back farmers' problems to researchers.
The integration of forage development with soil conservation is
expected to reduce competition for arable land and help to
develop a good landuse system. Emphasis should be placed on
forage legumes for a sound integration of forage production in
cereal crop rotation systems requiring minimum inorganic
fertilizer input particularly at smallholder level. The success
of forage production in Ethiopia would be measured through its
incorporation into dairy and beef production programme.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. John Tothill and Professor Abdullah N.
Said of ILCA for their sincere interest in my work and for their
encouragement during the preparation of this paper.
730
Many thanks also go to Dr. Seme Debela, General Manager of
the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, for his
permission and assistance to attend this workshop.
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733
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734
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735
PASTURE RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN NIARI VALLEY RANCHES
Jean Diamouangana
Dipection Generale de la Recherche
Scientifique et Technique
B.P. 2499
Brazzaville, Republic Populaire du Congo
ABSTRACT
Almost thirty years ago the government of the Congo established
five large ranches covering a total area of 80,364 ha in the
Niari valley. In December, 1986 the estimated livestock
population was 32,200 head constituting 45X of the total cattle
population in the Peoples Republic of the Congo. Over the past
few years changes in the vegetation cover of the ranches,
probably due to mineral deficiencies, have been observed.
Consequently, tests were conducted on the vegetation cover of the
ranches between 1975 and 1987 to collect scientific data with a
view to improving the management of these important forage
resources and increasing animal growth.
The tests revealed that - the mean above-ground biomass was
20 kg/DM0.01 ha (2000 kg DM/ha) during the month of December. It
increased rapidly between January and May, reaching a maximum
yield in June- July.
- Optimum mean above-ground biomass yield varied between 80 and
135 kg DM0.01 ha (8000 and 13500 kg DM/ha) . There was a
significant difference between the mean biomass yield of
Louboula ranch (P<0.001) and the other four ranches at
Massangui, Louamba, Lolila and Dihesse.
- the relation between volume (x) and biomass (y) is expressed
by the equation.
y = 0.51x + 25.19 (r = 0.56, P<0.05)
These results were particularly useful in the production of
forage potential maps to be used by ranch managers.
736
Tests conducted on mineral nutrient contents of forages,
mineral block licks, and maize bran in the valley showed that:
- the iron and management contents, of forages were
satisfactory and the cobalt contents were within the desired
limits. Copper and zinc contents however, were well below
the desired limits.
- the copper, zinc and manganese contents of the maize bran
were high. Consequently the distribution of maize bran and
mineral block licks as remedial measures against copper and
zinc deficiencies was recommended.
There was a need, identified, that micro-elements contents
of the blood plasma and hair of animals should be tested.
INTRODUCTION
Environment
The Niari valley, located on Scisto calcareous rock outcrops is
part of the Niari river basin, which covers some 15,000 km
extending from 12°30' and K°00'E longitude and 2°30' and 4°30'S
latitude (Figure 1). The valley receives 1100 to 1400mm rainfall
between October and May and experiences a marked drop in the
amount of rainfall in January and February. Between May and
October, there is a long dry season.
Mean annual temperature is 24 C and mean relative humidity
is 83X. Using the French soil classification system, soils of
the study areas may be classified as:
f erral i tic soi ls
poorly evolved mineral soils;
hydromorphic mineral soils.
737
Soil analytical tests done on these soils in the study
ranches revealed, a soil texture ranging from fine to very fine,
organic matter content of 3.5X, and mean pH of 5.0.
The vegetation consists of intermediate forest (Koechlin,
1961) but savanna grasses, Hvparrhenia diplandra. Schizachyrium
platyphyl lum and Annona arenaria are predominant species.
Research conducted
Changes in the vegetation cover were observed and mineral
deficiencies in the cattle herds were observed for several years.
Consequently, tests were conducted on the herbaceous cover during
the 1975 and 1987 period to collect basic data with a view to
monitoring these forage resources, ensuring more efficient
management, diagnosing mineral deficiencies and identifying ways
of alleviating these deficiencies. The tests focussed on:-
-herbage above ground biomass and volume
-micro-element contents of forages, mineral block licks and
maize bran produced in the region
STUDY METHODOLOGY
Estimation of dry matter yield
Biomass is the weight of living organisms per unit area (Touffet,
1982). Estimates of biomass were made on 406 stations covering
the five ranches (Massangui, Louamba, Louboulou and Dihesse).
The study was preceeded by observations of above ground biomass
variation in several stations.
738
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The above-ground biomass of the grass cover was measured
using the cut-and-carry method (Faye et al, 1986). Dry matter
2
vegetation was harvested from two 1m quadrats and samples were
cut at a 2.5cm stubble height. Fresh weight was recorded and
dry weights, after oven-drying at 85 C for 24 hrs were also
recorded. A mean biomass (in kilograms of dry matter) per hectare
for each station was then calculated.
Estimation of volume
Volume was expressed as the product of size of biomass in m /ha
for each station. Forage samples were obtained from three
topographical locations in the Dihesse ranch (slope, depression,
flat terrain). Samples of mineral salt (block licks) were
obtained from Dihesse ranch and from stocks of the Direction
General de Office du Gros Betail (OGB) in Brazzaville.
Analyses of soil samples were carried out at the ORSTOM
Centre in Brazzaville. The macro-elements contents were
determined by the Soils and Vegetation Laboratoire of the Centre
de Cooperation International en Recherche Agronomic pour le
Development (CIRAD) in Montpellier, France. Determinations of
micro-elements contents of forages, mineral block licks and maize
bran samples were done at the Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine
Veterinaire des pays Tropicaux (IEMVT) in Maison Alfort, France.
Statistical analyses of biomass and volume data were done on
the Apple Microcomputer with softwares developed by Professor
Cusset of the laboratoire de Phytologie Quantitative, at the
Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris. Correlations between
biomass and volume were calculated on the Boss microcomputer with
softwares developed by Moukoko and Dimi of Mathematics Department
of Marven Ngouabi University, Brazzaville.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the growth cycle of forages at Dihesse ranch. The
mean December biomass was estimated at 20 kg DM/0.01 or 2000 kg
DM/ha and rapidly increased between January and May. It reached
a maximum growth in June-July when mean biomass ranged between 80
740
to 95 kg DM/0.01ha depending on the year. Although not shown in
this graph, it was observed that biomass decreased considerably
from the latter half of July. Consequently, it appeared that the
optimal biomass correspond with the flowering/fruiting periods of
the dominant perennial grass species.
Optimum biomass for all the ranches are given in Table 1. A
comparison of the means using the poisson test (Table 2) shows a
significant difference between above-ground biomass of the grass
cover at Louboulou ranch and biomass of the other four ranches.
Based on these data it is clear that the optimum biomass
differences could be used for estimating the carrying capacities
of the ranches (Boudet, 1978). The carrying capacity of a unit
area of pasture is the maximum stocking rate possible which the
unit can support without irreversible deterioration. Within the
framework of management and rotational utilisation of pastoral
resources this definition of capacity is of real practical
interest. Consequently, with the assistance of the Institut
d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire de pays Tropicaux potential
maps of each ranch were produced (Diamouangana, 1988;
Diamouangana and Kiyidou, 1983; Diamouangana et al 1984). If
allowance is made of biomass losses during the dry season, due
to trampling and the need to maintain some ground cover to
protect soil from various agents of erosion, it could be
estimated that about one-third of the palatable above-ground
biomass is consumed annually. Also if we adopt the tropical
livestock unit (TLU) of 250 kg at maintenance with a daily
consumption rate of 6.25 kg of dry matter, then the carrying
capacity estimates vary between 1 and 2 TLU/ha. So far estimates
of carrying capacity have been theoretical and several tests will
have to be done. Boudet (1978) suggested that these tests should
focus on the condition of the herds which should not suffer
excessive weight losses during the dry season and should have the
capacity for rapid compensatory weight gain once the rainy season
starts.
741
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742
Table 1. Analysis of variance in dry matter yields (kg DM/ha) of
the grass cover of the ranches
Ranches Massangui Louamba Loui la Louboulou Dihesse
No of
stations 69 80 80 79 94
Mean yield 93.7 89.0 80.,0 134.8 94.9
Variance 1543.9 1206.6 513,.0 2168.3 1488.8
Standard
deviation 32.29 34.73 22,,65 46.56 38.58
Confidence
95X +77.0 +44..39 +91.25 +75.61
interval 99X +101.36 + 58,.44 +120.12 +99.63
Table 2. Comparison of mean dry matter yields in kg DM/ha of the
herbage in the ranches (Polssons test)
Ranches Massangui Louamba Loui la Louboulou Dihesse
Massangui 1.00 0.77NS 2.55* 5.82*** 0.19NS
Louamba 0.77 ns 1.00 1.94 NS 7.02*** 1.19NS
Loui la 2.55* 1.94 NS 1.00 2.55* 3.16**
Louboulou 5.82*** 7.02*** 9.42*** 1.00 6.06***
Dihesse 0.19NS 1.19NS 3.16** 6.06*** 1.00
Descoing (1976) noted that volume, the function of area
covered by mass could be calculated quite easily in the field,
and that the major constraint in its calculation was inadequate
knowledge of the vegetation. By establishing coefficients of
correlation between volume and biomass, the biomass can be
743
correlation between volume and biomass, the biomass can be
calculated from the volume which is more easily obtained.
Figures 3 gives the line of regression of volume and standing
biomass and the coefficients of correlation. The relation
between volume and biomass was studied by trying out various
permi tat ions of simple mathematical models. The linear function,
by its very simplicity proved to be most appropriate.
Mineral composition of forages
The mean mineral contents of forages at Dihesse ranch are given
in Table 2. Several authors (Faye and Grillet, 1984; Faye et al,
1986; Lamand, 1972; Lamand, 1979) have considered such analyses
of forages to be correct. The deficiency limits for forages and
other fodder crops were established by Conrad et al (1985), Faye
and Grillet (1984), Faye et al (1986) and Lamand (1972, 1979) as
fol lows:
Cobalt
Copper
Zinc
Manganese
I ron
0.07 ppm of DM
7.00 ppm of DM
45.00 ppm of DM
45.00 ppm of DM
50.00 ppm of DM
The iron and manganese contents in the current study were
satisfactory. The cobalt contents were within the accepted
deficiency limits but those of copper and zinc were well below
the deficiency limits.
Chemical composition of mineral block licks
Block licks distributed in the Niari valley ranches were in the
form of rock salts obtained from the Tchitondi (House) potash
deposits (Table 3). The sodium content of both samples was
between 30X and 40X of dry matter. They were extremely deficient
in calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. The iron
contents were satisfactory, but cobalt, copper, zinc and
manganese contents were well below the deficiency limits.
744
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able 3. Cobalt, copper, manganese and iron contents of forages
in Dihese ranch during the 1977-78 vegetation cycle in
ppm (Serre, 16.17).
Sample locations Cobalt Copper Zinc Manganese Zinc
1 0.04 3.5 22.5 179.4 96.4
2 0.11 3.7 20.1 181.5 101.8
3 0.03 3.6 19.7 258.3 68.7
Mean and
standard deviation 0.06 3.6 20.7 206.4 88.9
+ 0.04 + 0.39 + 1.51 +44.95 +17.75
In depression
1 0.04 2.7 19.7 169.9 54.9
2 0.03 2.7 20.6 191.6 62.7
3 0.10 2.1 47.7 211.6 96.7
Mean and 0.056 2.5 29.3 191 71.4
standard deviation + 0.03 +0.34 +15.91 +20.86 +22.22
On flat terrain
1 0.08 3.6 23.1 185.7 324.7
2 0.15 3.3 23.4 213.8 468.0
3 0.06 2.4 15.8 167.0 149.5
Mean and 0.09 3.1 20.7 188.8 314.0
standard deviation +0.05 +0.62 +23.55 +159.51
Instory laterit zone
1 0.09 3.5 25.8 134.2 443.4
2 0.07 3.5 23.0 201.0 290.0
3 0.06 3.7 19.5 374.9 294.0
Mean and 0.07 3.6 22.7 236.7 443.4
standard deviation +0.01 +0.12 +3.15 +124.25 +87.43
746
The mineral composition of maize bran produced by the Nyaki
cattle feeds mill and popularly used in the Niari valley ranches
is shown in Table 4. These compositions can be considered as
satisfactory for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium,
copper, zinc, manganese and iron. The content of cobalt was
unsatisfactory.
Table 4. Chemical composition of maize bran produced by the Nkayi
catte feed mi l l
Elements Fine maize bran Remulled maize bran
on X DM basis
94.33
17.64
11.51
2.59
62.59
5.67
0.07
0.12
1.24
0.38
1.24
12.10
0.03
86.10
65.40
X of dry matter
Organic matter 93.77
Total protein content
(N x 6.25) 18.98
Row cellulose 11.88
Fat content (ether
exitract) 3.56
Nitrogen free extracts 59.35
Total mineral matter
(ashes) 6.23
Insoluble hydrogen
chloride 0.07
Calcium 0.13
Phosphorous 1.39
Magnesium 0.45
Potassium 1.38
Trace-elements (zn ppm) 11.70
Copper 0.03
Cobalt 90.50
Zinc 65.40
Iron 101.00
747
Table 5. Chemical composition of block licks
Elements Sample 1 Sample 2
on X DM basis
X 100 dry matter
organic matter -(*) 0.76
Minerals -(*) 99.24
(Ashes)
Insoluble hydrogen
chlorides -(*) 0.03
Calcium 0.11 0.02
Phosphorus 0.00 0.06
Magnesium 0.04 36.91
Potassium 0.11
Sodium 39.00
Trace-elements (in ppm)
Cobalt -(*) 0.02
Copper 1.50 11.80
Zinc 1.30 3.50
Manganese 13.80 5.90
I ron 69.00 211.00
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The above ground biomass of forages in the ranches varied between
80 and 135 kg DM/0.01 ha, which production is comparable to that
of the savanna grassland of Lamto in the Ivory Coast (Cesar,
1981; Fournier, 1987). The theory of correlation between volume
and biomass may be considered proven and biomass can therefore be
estimated using the equation derived.
Y = 0.51x + 25.19
where y is biomass (kg DM/ha)
and x is volume (M DM/ha)
748
Tests on micro-elements contents of forages in the Niari
valley although in their early stages show that cobalt, copper
and zinc contents are below the desired limits. Research on
trace element deficiencies should be more comprehensive and
involve the animal itself by evaluating the amount of micro
elements such as molybedenum and selemium in the blood plasma an
hair. This study is relevant in identifying problems in forages
and feed resources in real world animal production systems.
The chemical composition of the mineral block licks from the
Tchitondi region was considerably varied and appeared to be
extremely deficient in cobalt, copper, zinc and manganese. The
macro-element contents (Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and
potassium) and micro-element contents (Copper, zinc and
manganese) of the maize bran produced by the cattle feeds mill
were extremely high. This makes maize bran as a mineral
supplement product of major importance to livestock production in
the Peoples Republic of the Congo.
REFERENCES
Boudet, G. 1978, Manuel sur les paturages tropicaux et les
cultures fourrage. Ministere de la Cooperation, Paris,
258p.
Cesar, J. 1981. Cycle de la biomasse et des repousses apres coupe
dans la savane de Cote-d' Ivoire. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays
Trop. 34 (1), p. 73-81.
Descoing, B. 1976. Approche des formations herbeuses tropicales
par structure de la vegetation. These Doct. Etat Sc. Nat
Univ. Sc. & Tech. du Lungedoc.
Canrad, J.H., McDowell, L.R., Ellis, G.L. and Loosli, J.K. 1985.
Mineraux pour les ruminants de paturages des regions
tropicales. USAID, Universite de Floride, Gainsville,
96 p.
Diamouangana, J. 1988. Contribution a l'etude des formations
herbacees patures de la Vallee du Niari (Republique
Populaire du Congo). Sous presse.
749
Diamoungana, J. and Kiyidou, P. 1983. Notice des cartes des
potential ites fourrages des ranches Massangui, Louamba,
Louila, Louboulou, Dihesse au 1/20.000. Hinistere de
la Culture, Arts et de la Recherche Scient i f ique.
Direction Generale de la Recherche Scientifique
Brazzaville, 5 vol. 55 p, 51 p, 59 p, 55 p, 53p.
Diamouangana, J., Lamarque, G. and Kiyindou, P. 1984. Un exemple
concret de co-operation: la cartographic des ressources
fourrage de la Vallee du Niari (Republique Populaire du
Congo). Rev. Elev. Med. Pays. Trop. 37 (3), p. 361-365.
Faye, B. and G ri l let, C. 1984. La carence en cuivre chez les
ruminants domestiques de la region d'Awash (Ethiopie).
Rev. Elev. Med Vet. Pays Trop. 37 (1), p 42-60.
Faye, B. Grillet, C. and Tessema, A. 1986. Teneur en eligo-
elements dans les fourrages et le plasma des ruminants
domestiques en Ethiopie. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop.
39 (2), p. 227-237.
Fournier, A. 1987. Cycle saisonnier de la phytomasse et de la
production herbacee dans les savanes soudaniennes de
Nazinga (Burkina Faso). Compararaision avec d' autres
savanes ouest Africaines. Bul l . Ecol . 18 (4), p. 409-
430.
Koechlin, J. 1961. La vegetation des savanes dans le sud de la
Republique Populaire du Congo (Capitale Brazzaville)r mem.
Orstom No 1, Paris, 310 p.
Lamand, M. 1972. Causes, consequences biochimiques, patholoques
et prophylaxie des carences en o l i go- elements chez les
ruminants. A l iment-Vie. 59 (2), p. 154-172.
Lamand, M. 1979. Le diagnostic des carences en ol igo-elements:
l'analyse du sol ou de la plante? BuI l , Techn. CRVZ-Theix-
INRA. 35, p. 27-36.
Touffet, J. 1982. Dictionnaire essentiel d'Ecologie. Ouest-
France, Rennes, 108 p.
750
SOME CONSTRAINTS TO ADOPTION OF AGRO-BYPRODUCTS RESEARCH RESULTS
BY THE COMMUNAL FARMERS OF ZIMBABWE
L.R. Ndlovu and S. Sibanda
Department of Animal Science
University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
Livestock in communal areas of Zimbabwe are dependent on natural
veld during the rainy season and on crop by-products during the
dry winter months. The main types of stovers available are from
maize and sorghum, whilst groundnut hay is the main legume
stover. However, the quantities produced, vis-a-vis the
livestock numbers, are inadequate and thus need to be used
judiciously. Adoption of technologies that would improve the
utilisation of these feeds would benefit farmers communal areas.
Very few of the farmers have adopted these technologies. Reasons
for this lack of adoption include restricted flow of information,
lack of cash to buy inputs, lack of appropriate processing
equipment, low quantities of complementary crop residues and
multiple roles of livestock. It is necessary that there is a
great need for on-farm research and for researchers to interact
directly with farmers to better appreciate their problems and
resources.
INTRODUCTION
Communal area farmers are found mainly in natural regions 4 and 5
(Clatworthy, 1987). These areas are characterised by low and
eratic rainfall (less than 500 mm per annum on average) and can
have long spells of dry periods within the rainy season. In
addition, the soils are poor and fragile. Livestock in these
areas is mainly dependent on natural veld during the winter
months (Sibanda, 1986). However, because of the soil types and
rainfall patterns the amount and type of cropping varies greatly
and so does the availability of crop residues. The main types of
cereal stovers found in the areas are from maize and sorghum,
whilst groundnut hay is the main legume stover found. The
quantities of the stovers available can be estimated from grain
751
production by assuming that the grain yields are equivalent to
the stover yield. In 1987 the residues obtained in communal
areas are reported as follows:
maize 2 million tonnes,
sorghum 80,000 tonnes,
soya beanstalks 2000 tonnes,
groundnut hay 70,000 tonnes,
Source: CSD, 1988
The livestock population in the communal areas, estimated by
the Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Lands,
Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, indicates that in 1987 there
were about 3 million cattle, 1.6 million goats and about 260,000
sheep. As all this population would have to depend on crop
residues for about 2-3 months of the year, it is apparent that
the crop residues are inadequate and need to be utilised
judiciously to achieve even a modicum of livestock production.
Crop residues are generally of low nutritive value to
ruminant livestock because of high fibre and low nitrogen content
and, consequently, low degradabi l i t ies in the rumen. There are
notable exceptions like groundnut hay tops, sweet potato leaves
and cottonseed hulls, to name a few. With some treatment,
chemical or physical, the nutritive value of the residues can be
improved (Mason and Owen, 1986). Supplementation with energy
and/or protein sources without treatment has also been found to
improve the nutritive value of stovers (Dixon, 1985; Ndlovu and
Buchanan-Smith, 1985). In Zimbabwe several experiments on
improving utilisation of crop by-products through physical
treatment, chemical treatment and supplementation (Reynolds,
1984; Smith et al, 1987, Ndlovu and Manyame, 1987) have been done
on station. The results from these trials have not yet been
adopted by the farmers. Sibanda (1986) noted that even though
the majority of farmers in communal areas now harvest stovers,
very few supplement the stovers on feeding.
This paper aims to discuss some of the reasons that
contribute to this anomalous situation where technology exists
but is not utilised by the group most likely to benefit from it.
752
THE CONSTRAINTS
Restricted flow of information
Research in Zimbabwe is mainly carried out at research stations
or the University, even though aimed at solving communal area
problems. The flow of information from the researchers to the
farmers is infinitely slow. Very few researchers report their
results in publications anyway. Field days organised to show the
public research in progress usually attract commercial farmers
only. Thus there is a need for the researchers to communicate
with the farmers, not necessarily through extension personnel.
Lack of cash to buy inputs
The resources available to the communal area farmers are limited
and cash for livestock inputs is scarce. Urea, ammonia and other
alkalis that can be used to treat crop residues are expensive.
The probability of them being extensively used in communal areas
without financial aid of one form or another is remote. Using
ureas as a supplement at feeding would require smaller amounts
and thus be cheaper than other forms of nitrogen supplementation.
However, there is a real danger of poisoning the animals through
excess urea. Hydration (Ndlovu and Manyame, 1987), even though
inexpensive, can only be done in areas with abundant water
supplies. Very few communal areas enjoy adequate water supplies.
Lack of appropriate processing equipment
Pre-feeding processing such as chopping and milling are known to
improve the utilisation of crop residues. However, communal area
farmers cannot afford to purchase and run power-driven machines.
Production of hand and animal driven machines such as chaff-
cutters would be beneficial. Presently these machines are not
avai l able.
753
Low quantities of complementary crop residues
Supplementation of cereal crop residues with legume hays would be
an effective, simple and cheap way of improving the use of crop
residues. However, this is constrained by the small quantities
of legume hay produced in communal areas due to inadequate
rainfall and poor soil types.
Multiple role of communal area livestock
Lastly, the aims of the communal area farmer vis-a-vis his
livestock may not be conducive to adopting technologies that
require extra input. Researchers, therefore, need to link
technologies to improved crop production (and milk production)
rather than improve animal per se. In Zimbabwe, most communal
area farmers keep cattle primarily for draught and manure
(Scoones and Wilson, 1988). Therefore, appealing to the farmers'
own objectives would enable scientists to sell their technology.
CONCLUSION
It is concluded that restricted flow of information from
scientists to farmers, the unsui tabi l i ty of the technologies
proposed and the nature of the message reaching the farmer are
serious constraints to adoption of research results. There is a
need for on-farm research and researchers serving as
extensionists.
REFERENCES
CSO, (Central Statistics Office). 1988. Statistical yearbook.
Government Printers, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Clatworthy, J.N. 1987. Feed resources of small-scale livestock
producers in Zimbabwe. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said and
B.H. Dzowela (eds), Animal feed resources for smal l -scale
livestock producers Proceedings of the second PANESA
workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya 11-15 November, 1985.
IDRC-MR 165e. International Development Research Centre,
Ottawa, Ontario.
754
Dixon, R.M. 1985. Increasing digestible energy intake of
ruminants given fibrous diets using concentrate
supplements. In: R.M. Dixon (ed). Ruminant feeding
systems uti lising fibrous agricultural residues.
Australian National University Printery, Canberra,
Austral ia.
Mason, V.C. and Owen, E. 1986. Urea versus ammonia for upgrading
graminaceous materials. In: T.R. Preston and M.Y.
Nuwanyakpa (eds), Towards optimal feeding of agricultural
by-products to l ivestock in Africa. Proceedings of a
workshop held at the University of Alexandria, Egypt,
October, 1985.
Ndlovu, L.R. and Buchanan-Smith, J.G. 1985. Utilisation of poor
quality roughages by sheep: Effects of alfalfa
supplementation on ruminant parameters, fibre digestion and
rate of passage from rumen. Canadian Journal of Animal
Science 65:693-703.
Ndlovu, L.R. and Manyame, Z. 1987. The effect of hydration on
the utilisation of maize stover by steers. In: Abstracts
of papers from the 4th annual workshop on the theme
"Oversowing constraints to the efficient uti l i sat ion of
agricultural by-products as animal feed held in Bamenda,
Cameroon, October 1987. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Reynolds, L. 1984. Alkali treatment of forages In. J. Grant
(ed), Proceedings of the Z i mbabwe Society for Animal
Production Volume I Zimbabwe Society for Animal Production,
Harare, Zimbabwe.
Sibanda, S. 1986. The use of crop residues in livestock
production systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. In:
T.R. Preston and M.Y. Nuwanyakpa (eds), Towards optimal
feeding of agricultural by-products to l ivestock in Africa.
Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of
Alexandria, Egypt. October 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
755
Scoones, I. and Wilson, K. 1988. Households lineage groups and
ecological dynamics. Issues for livestock research and
development in Zimbabwe's communal areas. Paper presented
at a workshop on "The socio-economic determinants of
Livestock Production in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas",
Masvingo, September 1988.
Smith, T., Chakanyuka, C, Si banda, S. and Manyuchi, B. 1989.
Maize stover as feed for ruminants. In: Abstracts of
papers from the 4th annual workshop on the theme
"Oversowing constraints to the efficient uti l i sat ion of
agricultural by-products as animal feed held in Bamenda,
Cameroon, October 1987. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
756
IMPROVEMENT OF NITROGEN LEVEL IN RUMINANT'S DIET
THE PROBLEM OF DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ON UTILISATION
OF UREA AND BROWSES AS NITROGEN SOURCES IN SAHELIAN FEEDING
SYSTEMS
Safietou Fall
ISRA LNERV
BP 2057, Dakar, Senegal
ABSTRACT
The problem of protein supply for livestock traditionally-raised
in the Sahel and the constraints to using urea and browse plants
at the farmer's level has been highlighted.
In the case of utilising urea either as non-protein nitrogen
source or as a reagent for low quality roughage treatment, the
constraints involve its unavailability in rural areas, difficulty
in handling this potentially toxic compound, water shortage and
the low educational level of farmers in the Sahel.
The main constraints to browse utilisation are in relation
to optimal range management and environment preservation. Some
technical points such as selection of species, their secondary
productivity and toxicity, remain to be clarified by more
research.
The education of farmers is of major importance in the
introduction of the new feeding techniques.
INTRODUCTION
Bioclimatic constraints are still the main limiting factor to
availability of feeds for ruminants in the Sahel.
The dissemination of available research results which
propose well-adapted solutions to these constraints is of
particular urgency.
757
Cereals and high energy nitrogen concentrates remain costly
not to mention problems of transport and of competition for
livestock with alternative usages. Some agro- industrial by
products with high nutritive value are exported consequently
making their availability scarce.
In Sahelian countries, therefore, ruminant feeding systems
are naturally based on natural pastures and low quality roughages
like cereal straws which are good sources of cellulose but low in
digestible nitrogen (see Table 1). Chemical and/or physical
treatment including nitrogen, energy and mineral supplementation
are indispensable for optimal utilisation of low quality
roughages.
Among nutritional constraints, protein deficiency appears to
be one of the most important. Protein sources are expensive and
some proposed solutions involving utilisation of oil meals and
cereal brans seem to have poor applicability for large-scale
extensive livestock production. Therefore urea and browse plants
could be used as locally available and cheaper nitrogen sources.
For more than 50 years, research work on protein in the
nutrition of ruminants has identified urea as the most promising
chemical for cereal straw quality improvement and non-protein
nitrogen supplementation (Jackson, 1979; Sundstol, 1984).
However the dissemination of research results concerning African
traditional livestock have been poor.
Browse plants are other readily available sources of protein
in pastures. During the dry season, browse plants could
constitute as high as 50X of the diet of cattle. In the case of
small ruminants browse plants could constitute around 80X of
their diet (Guerin et al, 1985) when grazing. The available
information describes the nutritive value of trees and shrubs;
their high protein content and aptitude to enhance nitrogen level
of the diet of ruminants is emphasised (Le Houerou, 1980; Kone,
1987; Fall, 1988). Urea supplementation and browses can
758
therefore be used to reduce nitrogen deficiencies and improve
livestock productivity in the Sahel.
My objectives are to (1) highlight several considerations
linked with practical dissemination of research results, (2)
identify constraints and (3) propose some solutions for making
nitrogen supplementation to low quality fodder using urea and
browse plants possible at the farmer's level and finally (4) to
indicate priority areas in making such on-farm research
investigation.
CONSTRAINTS TO ON-FARM UREA UTILISATION IN SAHELIAN COUNTRIES
Urea for nitrogen supplementation in the ruminant's diet. Urea
availability (Table 2).
In most of the Sahel ian countries urea is not locally produced.
This chemical is imported and widely used as fertilizer. In
Senegal, around 10,000 t/year are imported and manufactured for
fertilizer production. This quantity is below the national
requirement for soil improvement and urea usage in livestock
feeding could increase the deficit.
The Government's subsidy is decreasing from year to year;
the objective being to encourage private initiative but resulting
in a decrease in urea distribution, availability and cost of urea
are major constraints to popularisation of urea production. Both
livestock and the soil need greater quantities of urea for their
improvement.
The question is whether urea supplementation is feasible and
profitable for extensive livestock production. On-farm trials
coupled with economics studies are needed.
759
Table 1. Urea availability and cost in Senegal (Tons)
1986 1987 1988
Total requirement
for soil improvement (tons)
17000 17000
Imported quantities
(tons)
10000 8000
Price (tax free)
CFA* kg
60 60 60
Government contribution
CFA* kg
24 16
Dakar price CFA/kg 70 70 70
Rural market price
CFA /kg 75 70 75
Requirement for ruminants
supplementation 171550
298 CFA = 1 USS (1988)
Source: Ministry of Rural Development (personal communication)
Our estimation: 20 g/head (small ruminant)
200 g/head (cattle).
Urea (ammonia) dosage toxicity and ruminants digestive
pecul iari t ies.
Microorganisms in the ruminant's stomach have the capacity to use
non-protein nitrogen in order to synthesise their own body
protein which is absorbed by the animal host.
760
In the rumen urea is attacked by micro-organisms, ammonia release
occurs rapidly which could be toxic depending upon the amount of
urea intake. The content of urea in a ration should not exceed
2-3X on a dry basis. In practical conditions given quantities
are 150 to 200 g/TLU or 15 to 20 g/sheep. Gradually offered over
the day, urea can improve forage digestibility and nitrogen
supply for the ruminant. An overdose leads to a rapid ammonia
poisoning. So the daily dose appears to be a constraint on-farm.
Farmers must be aware of the potential toxicity of ammonia when
using urea. The sale of urea should therefore be in units whose
dosage has been prepared separately for the small ruminant and
cattle respectively.
761
Table2.Sutritivev luofce ealstraws
Sorghum
straw34=3)
6 9
31
1 1 26 6
3.2 3.2 2.1 3.1
91i 34i
31-
27827
278- 138-
32i
0.1i
2.16S
3^
8.0i
34)
-(3) 13(3) 2(3) 83(3) 2(3)
19(3 11( )
12.2(3) 11-1(3)
±9.1
98(3)
Millet
Straw 486i 62i 341i
81-
32i DMi 13i 3.1 1.8 1.1 48i
Maize straw34=1)
1 3 9 1
12 2
21 28 32 7 27
1. 2. 2. 3.
(6) (6) (6)
Rice
straw34)
82+19
2i6
362271
32(1) 128( ) 62(2)
-
1.9(2) 2.1(2)
- .
Chemicalcomposition
digestibilityandintake
Organicmatter*
Crudep otein*
Crudefiber*
S2* 6-*
Lignn* Silica*
Calcium*
Phosphorus*
Magnesium* Potassium*
Cont'd
27J to
co
Cont'd
Table2.Sutritivev luofce ealstraws
ChemicalcompositionRice digestibilityandintakes raw34)
Cobaltppm Copperp m
Zincppm
Manganeseppm
S^odiumppm
2ry-matterdigestibility
(sheep)p12719+33)
Organicmatter
digestibility28
(sheep)p127
Intakeg/ g
sheep18-314
cattle2DM..
34=3)
►*2.27 i2.6 i1.3
21 21
Sorghum
straw 2.3< 3.1 2.1 193i DM1i
2.6273 1 6.3-1 1 6.1-3 2 21.8-6 3
- -
Straw(S)
3DM-11
Millet 31(2)
2
straw34=1)
3.16
2.9 16.3 6.3 18(1)
Haize 22 34
*g/kgdrymatter
Source:2alleta(1981)
The same attention should be given to urea storage so as to
prevent a fasted ruminant animal from helping itself. The farmer
should keep it in an out-of-reach box.
Characteristic of urea-added diets. To optimise urea's digestive
capacity, a good supply of energy, true proteins and minerals are
needed. Easily digestible sources of energy are molasses and
cereals. The first is available in sugar-cane producing areas
while the second is difficult to obtain on account of nutritional
needs by humans and other monogastric animals.
Urea mixture in the diet should be as homogeneous as possible to
ensure progressive consumption by the ruminant. This aspect
involving diet preparation may be a constraint to the farmer
since urea is sold in a pellet form. It has to be dissolved in
water before it is mixed with the other components of the diet.
This implies that a good water supply, a blendor or a hand-mixer
(like fork) to impregnate forage with urea solution are needed.
Concerning the addition of true proteins for a well-balanced
ration, NRC (1976) estimates that urea level should not exceed
30-40X the protein requirement of the animal. This goes to show
that urea cannot solve the whole problem of nitrogen requirement
in protein deficient diets.
Minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus but also sulphur
and cobalt, are required for optimal activity of rumen microbes,
the true users of urea. Availability of such mineral supplements
in traditional livestock production systems must be adequately
addressed.
Availability of water in the Sahel is the most important
constraint to urea utilisation. Animals on a urea diet should be
watered as regularly as possible. It is advisable to give water
ad l ibi tum which is almost impossible in the Sahel.
Temporary water points dry-up early in the dry season. The
maintenance of drilled wells is a major problem: as such wells do
not work often and the distance between them in the Ferlo area in
764
Senegal is too far (See Figure 2). Hence herds are watered once
every two days which is not adequate to satisfy ruminant
requirements. These conditions evidently do not allow urea
introduction.
Establishment of beef fattening schemes in areas where
water supply is adequate offers the best condition for a
successful dissemination of results involving urea usage in the
diet of ruminants.
Poor palatability of urea-added diets may be a constraint to
its acceptance by ruminants. The addition of molasses and/or
common salts to urea-added diets significantly improves
palatabi lity.
Farmers therefore need to be aware of those characteristics
of urea-based diets in order to ensure good absorption and
prevent ammonia intoxication.
Improving the nutritive value of low quality roughages by urea
processing
Urea processing
Comparison of urea with other chemical and physical methods for
improving straw quality.
A major limiting factor to straw utilisation is its bulkiness and
low concentration in digestible nutrient. The low nitrogen
content of straw has a negative effect upon its digestibility.
Several physical and chemical methods have been used to
improve the intake and digestibility of straws although both
methods have their drawbacks.
Physical treatment by chopping or milling straws consumes
energy and needs equipment and hence is costly. However rice
straw is less rough and does not need to be chopped on farm.
Hand cutting sorghum with a chopper and milling straw help in
making them more easily edible.
765
For chemical treatment of low quality roughages, several
alkaline or acid reagents are proposed. Among these, ammoniation
by urea offers greater promise because of its feasibility and
because it supplies non protein nitrogen (Jackson, 1979;
Sundstol, 1984; Fall et al, 1987). Also it is more accessible to
the farmer compared to other chemicals. Urea is three times
cheaper than sodium hydroxide which is not available in rural
areas in Senegal, for example. Unfortunately, urea too has its
constraint .
Technical constraints to dissemination of urea treatment of
cereal straws
In addition to the availability of urea and the potential
toxicity of ammonia, there is a need to make urea- treatment of
cereal straws adaptable to tropical conditions. According to
Jackson (1979) one method of treating straw with urea is to mix
straw with 5X urea. The dry procedure method involves injecting
urea in the straw using high pressure. The resultant temperature
rise seems to give the best forage quality. Unfortunately, the
cost and unavailability of the needed equipment makes that
technology out of reach for Sahelian farmers on a large scale.
The second method involves a small quantity of water where a
5% urea solution is sprinkled over the straw at the rate of 1
litre of solution per kilogram of straw to make it reasonably
damp (Fall et al, 1987). The urea-straw mixture is kept in a
silo and left for incubation for two (in tropical climate) or six
weeks (in cool climate). This latter method is recommended for
drought conditions in the Sahel. Needless to say, it also
protects the environment from pollution.
Urea-ensiling helps to improve intake, digestibility and
nitrogen content of poor quality roughages (Table 3). However
its proportion in the diet of the ruminant should be limited so
as to avoid risk of ammonia toxicity for beef cattle or
transmission of toxic compounds in milk for dairy cattle (Preston
and Leng, 1987). In north Europe treated straw is usually around
766
30X of the diet (Preston and Leng, 1987). More research work is
needed to evaluate accurately the daily optimal consumption of
urea-treated straws for sheep and cattle in Africa.
The urea-ensiling method seems to be easily applicable.
What it needs is to be made adaptable to rural conditions. In
view of the non-availability of suitable equipment in rural areas
where livestock are raised, the use of locally available tools is
a must to popularise straw ammoniation by urea treatment.
Physical treatment of straw
Before urea-ensiling takes place, long cereal straws are chopped
in order to make them easy to handle and to enable the reagent to
reach the cell wall. Rice straw is less rough and does not need
a reduction of length. As most of the choppers are more or less
sophisticated and electric-operated which may not be available in
rural areas, the chopping process may be carried out by hand with
a hatchet.
Tools of treatment
Urea solution can be sprinkled by watering cans instead of straw
being urea-ensiled in big metal containers as is done in northern
Europe. The process can be carried out in a silo hollowed out of
soil laid over with cement or clay.
A mixture of urea solution with straw takes place, the silo
can be covered with a polythene tarpaulin which might not be
readily available in which case banana or palm tree leaves can be
used just as well. Complete sealing is essential as some ammonia
gas can escape. All necessary precautions should be taken to
counteract the loss of ammonia through the silo.
Ensiling time
Although treated straw may be conserved for a long period from a
technical point of view, ensiling time may be a constraint for
small-scale farmers who may not have the capacity to treat a
great quantity of straw at once. They prefer to treat the
767
required amount each week. The reported optimum ensiling time is
from 10 days (in warm climate) to six weeks (in temperate
countries). Research should be carried out to find out influence
of decreasing ensiling time on straw quality improvement.
Cost of urea treatment of straw
As discussed earlier, the cost and non-availability of urea in
rural areas make it a major constraint to its utilisation. It is
estimated that treatment cost in rice producing areas is three
times that of its cost price; i.e. treatment cost is 45 CFA/kg
while its cost price is 15 CFA/kg.
Very few studies have been made in Sahelian countries about
the costs involved to produce milk or liveweight gains made of
urea-ensiled straw. Economics of straw ammoniation by urea
should be a major on-farm research work in order to be precise
about the costs and profits involved and to convince farmers to
adopt technology.
CONCLUSION
The ability of urea to enhance the nitrogen level of ruminant's
diet either as supplement or as chemical reagent for improving
low quality roughages has been proved for many years.
In Sahelian countries the dissemination of available
research results is limited by a) lack of suitable equipment b)
scarcity of urea in rural areas, c) its high price, and d)
potential toxicity by quick ammonia intra- ruminal release.
More on-farm research could solve technical constraints and
find ways and means of making feasible adaptations in rural
areas. Needless to say, farmers' training is pre requisite for
introducing urea in Sahelian feeding systems.
768
Table 3. Effect of urea treatment on straws nutritive value
Crude protein Dry-matter Dry-matter
g/kg DM digestibility intake
p100 g/kgW0-75
Rice straw
Urea 5X ensi led 79
Control 45
54-4 (N=6) 61 - 10 (N=6)
43 i 4 (N=6) 48-3 (N=5)
Maize stover
Urea 5X ensiled 149
Control 39
57-5 (N=6) 53 - 10 (N=6)
49 ± 2 (N=6) 40 i 5 (N=5)
Millet stover
Urea 5X ensi led 141
Control 84
49-6 (N=5) 31-7 (N=4)
39 i 6 (=5) 31- 7 (N=4)
Sorghum stover
Urea 5X ensi led 146
Control 42
65-3 (N=6) 68-3 (N=6)
47 ± 5 (=2) 501 6 (N=5)
(source Fall et al, 1987).
769
CONSTRAINT TO UTILISATION OF BROWSE PLANTS IN THE DIET OF
RUMINANTS IN THE SAHEL
Recent results have shown the importance of trees and shrubs in
ruminant feeding in Africa (Le Houerou, 1980). In natural
pasture they can reach 70 to 80X of sheep and goat's diet during
the dry season (Guerin et al, 1985). Leaves, flowers and fruits
of browses are well known for their high level of nitrogen which
improves the ruminant's protein supply (Le Houerou, 1980; Kone,
1987; Fall, 1988).
Some 100 browse species are consumed according to Le Houerou
(1980). In the Sahelian Ferlo area of Senegal, the main genus
are Acacia. Balanites. Calotropics. Guiera. Boscia. Zyziphus and
Combretum.
Nutritive value, harvesting and management constraints can
be a limiting factor to browse usage at the farmer's level.
Nutritive value of browse plants
Chemical composition
Chemical composition of browses may be a limiting factor to their
digestibility. High maturity contributes to high proportion of
cell wall which plays a negative role upon digestibility. Part
of the proteins may be imprisoned in l ignocel lulose and cannot be
reached by protein microbes (Guerin et al, 1988). So the total
protein may not be available. It depends on the degree of
l igni f icat ion, the age and part of the plant.
Occurrence of tannins in browses has been mentioned by
McLeod (1974), Diagayete (1981) and Reed et al (1985). These
antiquality factors have a negative effect, specially upon
digestibility and protein metabolism.
Research should be undertaken to identify the best period of
harvesting according to its stage of development and which
nutrient can be available in what part of the plant.
770
Intake and toxicity
Limiting factors to browse intake are in relation to the chemical
composition of the browse plant. Some species can be rich in
digestible nutrient but are unplatable.
Tannins and other toxic compounds contribute to the
unpalatabi l i ty of trees and shrubs. Most of them remain to be
identified, their toxicity and seasonal variations studied.
However, browse intake varies according to the season and year.
During a drought period when food is scarce, ruminants are known
to accept unpalatable species.
A long adaptation period seems to improve the intake of
browses.
Digestibility and intra- rumi nal degradation.
A high proportion of cell wall and lignin fraction contribute to
lower digestibility of browses. The poor intra-ruminal
solubility in a short incubation period explains, in part, the
low intake of some species (Fall, 1988). Research should be
undertaken to find out a feasible method of browse ensiling to
cut back this negative effect of the cell wall.
On-Farm utilisation of trees and shrubs
Browse harvesting
Most of the Sahelian countries do not have any legislation
regarding the utilisation of natural pastures. They should enact
such legislation to enable the farmer to be involved in range
management. Such legislation would facilitate an orderly use of
pasture so that it would not be disrupted by movement of herds
looking for water and food. Currently ruminants use browse
plants freely in pasture. Some browse species are over-grazed
while others are not touched. Stocking rates are often too high
and bush fire is still destroying a great part of pasture land.
771
Therefore, to make the best use of available feed resources,
farmers should cut and save trees and shrubs for the worst part
of the dry season.
Piot (1980) has made a review of some exploitation
techniques. The review describes the haphazard cutting down of
trees, not helping in their regeneration and/or the protection of
the environment. According to the review only the upper leaves
of trees should be cut to allow regeneration to take place.
Storage of trees and shrubs
In the Sahel storage of browse plants for fodder reserves is a
necessity. While the usual practice in West Africa is to sun-dry
most of the harvested Acacia fruits this procedure may affect the
nutritive value of some species.
Hentgen (1985) says Azadirachta indica leaves are stored by
ensiling with salt, a method which method offers promise.
However proper training of farmers must precede introduction of
that technology.
Supplementation of ruminants
Browse supplementation (to ruminants) calls for more
investigation on the resultant weight gain and on milk
production. This is necessary so that sound recommendation can
be made on their use.
Browse management in pasture
A whole methodology of browse exploitation has to be defined. It
would include a time table of browse harvesting methods, species
to be protected, storage and distribution to ruminants as
supplement. Direct utilisation of browse in pasture needs more
research work to be able to control the optimal stocking rate.
Browse management must therefore take into account all
technical and particularly social constraints constraints.
772
Harvesting: In addition to the problem of methodology,
utilisation of browse plants has to be seen in light of
collection of species and an optimal period for harvesting.
It is not easy to define harvesting methodology applicable
to all genera. Variations in phenological behaviour justify a
particular study of each genus or species. The goal is to
exploit and allow browses to regenerate. Cutting leaves and
small branches seems to be a good method of harvesting (Piot.
1980).
Some species are high in nutritive value while others are
practically useless as ruminant fodder. An association of
chemical and secondary production criteria should allow a given
number/type of species to be protected or introduced in pasture.
The choice of browse harvesting period is of major
importance. One must bear in mind that cutting too early can
break the process of development of reproductive parts (flowers
and fruits) while cutting too late can lead to an excess of
lignif ication and a decrease in the nutritive value of trees and
shrubs. Species variation in development cycle suggests adoption
of different periods of harvesting according to their phenology.
Storage of harvested browses: A good storage of leaves or fruits
of trees and shrubs can overcome bioclimatic hazards like fire,
drought, and wind as well as pests such as insects or birds.
They can contribute to limit undernutrition and mortality of
ruminants in the Sahel.
The depressive effect of sun-drying upon nutritive value
suggests that ensiling should be tested with local tools.
Direct uti l isation in pasture: The free choice method does not
help to improve management in the present situation in the Sahel
where there is a large movement of herds of Sahel ian livestock
during the dry season. The free choice method would result in a
disordered exploitation of natural pasture. The survival of some
browse species may be threatened due to overgrazing, consequently
encouraging useless species to develop.
773
/The determination and control of adequate stocking rates
could minimise the constraints to direct utilisation of browses
in pasture situation.
CONCLUSION
Some browses have a high digestible protein level and are
available in the Sahel where livestock are raised traditionally.
Constraints to the optimal utilisation of browse plants at
the farmer's level involve variation in nutritive value, range
management as well as the educational level of the farmer
himself.
Research on browse plants need to be intensified in order to
answer questions involving choice of species and collection
including their secondary productivity.
GENERAL CONCLUSION
Undernutrition of protein is the main constraint to livestock
production in the Sahel.
Because the usual protein sources, like oil meals or seeds,
and by-product of animal origin, are either expensive and not
available in livestock grazing areas of the Sahel, research
workers must now think in terms of practical on-farm utilisation
of low cost protein sources like browses or urea. The ability of
urea to improve the nitrogen content of the diet of ruminants is
now an established fact. The adoption of this technology, i.e.
the use of urea, in the developing countries of the Sahel by
farmers could help in supplying more protein and improving low
quality roughages. Unfortunately, these research results are not
that well-known amongst Sahelian farmers. Constraints to the
introduction of that new feed technology in traditional livestock
growing areas involve risks of toxicity, water shortage, cost and
availability of urea in rural areas, lack of equipment as well as
low educational level of farmers. There is need for basic
education in the management of appropriate feeding methods for
maximising the profit of urea-supplemented diets.
774
Research needs to be carried out on-farm to be able to
recommend which local tools to use, the best urea-straw ensiling
time and the economics of on-farm urea utilisation as a new
feeding technology in rural areas.
Optimal utilisation of browses requires a better knowledge
of their nutritive value, the techniques of harvesting and
secondary productivity. In addition to technical constraints,
the problem of range management needs to be investigated. On-
farm research efforts should include education of the farmer in
environment preservation.
REFERENCES
Diagayete, 1981. Untersuchungen zur erweiterung der kenntnisse
uber den futterwert westaf rikanischer f utterplanzen.
Dissertation zur Erlangung des grade eines Doktors der
Agrarwissenschaf ten vorgelegt der facultat IV.
Agrarwissenschaf ten II der Universitat Hohenheim.
Hohenheim, West Germany. 135 p.
Dicko-Toure, M.S. 1980. Measuring the secondary production of
pasture: An applied example in the study of an extensive
production system in Mali. In: H.N. Le Houerou (ed.),
Browse in Africa: the current state of knowledge. Papers
presented at the International Symposium on Browse in
Africa, Addis Ababa, April 8-12, 1980. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, pp. 247-253.
Fall, S. 1988. Utilisation digestive par les ruminants
domestiques de ligneux fourrages disponibles au Senegal.
Rapport ISRA-LNERV No. 59 Alim. Nut. Sept 1988. Dakar,
Senegal. 100 pp.
Fall, S., Guerin, H., Sail, C, M'baye, N.D. 1987. Les pailles
de cereales dans le systeme d'al imentation des ruminants au
Senegal. Rapport ISRA-LNERV No. 70, Sept. 1987. Dakar,
Senegal, pp. 68.
775
Guerin, H., Richard, D. Friot, D., Kone, A.R., avec la
collaboration technique de A. Duche, p. Lefevre, G. Bernard
et M. El Djendoubi. 1988. Interet du dosage de la
lignocel lulose (ADF) et de son azote residuel pour estimer
la valeur nutritive des fourrages naturel sahelien. A
paraitre.
Hentgen, A. 1985. Les arbres fourragers en Inde:une chance pour
l'elevage des ruminants. Fourrage. No. 101, Mars 1985.
pp. 105-119, 125.
Jackson, M.G. 1979. Le traitement de pailles pour l 'al imentation
des animaux. Evaluation de la rentabilite' technique et
economique. Etude FAO: Production et sante' Animales, No.
10. FAO, Rome. pp.68.
Kone, A.R. 1987. Valeur nutritive des ligneux fourragers en zone
sahelienne et soudanienne d'Afrique occidentale: Recherche
d'une methode simple d'estimation de la digest ibi l i te' et
de la valeur azotee'. These Doct 3' erne Cycle, Univ. Paris,
VI, Dec. 1987. Paris, France. 150 pp.
Le Houerou, 1980. The role of browse in the Sahelian and
Soudanian zones. In: H.N. Le Houerou (ed.), Browse in
Africa: the current state of knowledge. Papers presented
at the International Symposium on Browse in Africa, Addis
Ababa, April 8-12, 1980. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp.
83-100.
McLeod, M.N. 1984. Plant tannins: Their role in forage quality.
Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews. 44(11 ):804-815.
NRC (National Research Council). 1976. Urea and other non
protein compounds in animal nutrition. NAS, Committee on
Animal Nutrition, Washington, D.C. 120 pp.
Piot, J. 1980. Management and utilisation methods for ligneous
forages: Natural stands and artificial plantations. In:
H.N. Le Houerou (ed.), Browse in Africa: The current state
of knowledge. Papers presented at the International
Symposium on Browse in Africa, Addis Ababa, April 8-12,
1980. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 339-349.
776
Preston, T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1987. Matching ruminant production
systems with available feed resources in the tropics and
sub-tropics. Penambul Books, Animale, New South Wales,
Australia. 245 pp.
Reed, J.D., Harvath, P.J., Allen, M.S., Van Soest, P.J. 1985.
Gravimetric determination of soluble phenol ics including
tannins from leaves by precipitation with trivalent
ytterbium. J_^ Sci . Food. Agric. 36:255-261.
Sundstol, F. 1984. Definition des procedures a suivre pour les
recherches sur le traitement des residues de recolte et des
sous-produits agro- industriels dans les pays en
developpement. In: En vue d'une mei l leure ut i l i sat ion des
residues de recolte et des sous-produits agro-industriels
en alimentation animale dans les pays en developpement.
siege du CIPEA, Addis Ababa, 5-9 Mars 1984. Rapport de la
consultation d'experts FAO/CIPEA. FAO, Rome/CIPEA, Addis
Ababa. p. 36.
777
/Figure 1: Area or cereat dropuction <n Senegat.
I Ltveatock zone
48:■48■. Mit tBi end aorOhuiii are
\[[\\ Ar a>■ or iiLb crodding
Mai 10 am
 
778
Figure 2 . Sahet <an Far to araa : pritting ptatrtbuttun <n SenaOat
 
flay hap J 1 ,'
Ftfwpt^.
9 priIIing
Bourtia: Uaaion 1 188/ ) .
 
779
ADOPTION OF THE RHIZOBIUM INOCULATION TECHNOLOGY FOR PASTURE
IMPROVEMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Douglas J. Khonje
Soil Microbiologist,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Chitedze Agricultural Research Station,
P. 0. Box 158, Lilongwe, Malawi
ABSTRACT
The production of high quality livestock and livestock products
depends on adequate and nutritious pastures. Such good pastures
need to be cheaply produced by incorporation of legumes instead
of using large quantities of expensive nitrogen fertilizers. In
most sub-Saharan Africa the potential of such pastures is high.
However, for proper establishment legumes should be inoculated
with an appropriate Rh i zobium inoculant. A major constraint to
exploiting the Rh i zobium inoculation technology is that most
farmers are not aware of the technology and its benefits.
Efforts should be made to increase farmer awareness and
appreciation of the technology through a mul t i -discipl inary team
approach.
INTRODUCTION
In most countries of sub-Saharan Africa food and cash crops such
as maize, groundnuts, cassava, cotton and tobacco are among the
major crops dominating agricultural production. However, the
cropping system under most smallholder conditions in this region
includes livestock production.
Livestock production relies upon pastures which need to be
both highly productive and nutritive. In order to produce high
yields of high quality dry matter, large amounts of nitrogen
fertilizers are needed. Nitrogen fertilizers are available in
most countries of sub-Saharan Africa. However, the cost of such
fertilizers is very pohibitive to most smallholder farmers. For
example in Malawi, over the past ten years, the price of the
three most commonly used nitrogen fertilizers: compound 20-20-0,
calcium ammonium nitrate, and sulphate of ammonia has increased
780
by 253X, 255X and 391X respectively. On the other hand, prices
of livestock products at the farm gate have not changed equally
to warrant use of expensive nitrogen inputs on pastures.
Consequently, very few farmers use nitrogen fertilizers on their
pastures.
An alternative to the expensive inorganic nitrogen
fertilizers is to incorporate legumes and apply the nitrogen
fixing bacterium Rhizobium spp. This technology is not a new
concept in sub-Saharan Africa (Haque and Jutzi, 1984; Haque et
al, 1988; Savory, 1972; Thomas, 1973; Thomas and Addy, 1977).
To successfully adopt use of Rhizobium inoculants in pasture
improvement, it is essential that legume varieties suitable for
the target ecological zone be identified and matched with
appropriate Rhizobia for optimum nitrogen fixation. The
inoculation technology itself need to be simple enough both in
scope and means of application.
Undoubtedly the use of pasture legumes is not at the same
level nor uniform all over sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently any
attempt to describe in detail the situation in each country in a
paper of this nature would be futile. Therefore this paper
mainly describes the Rhizobium inoculation technology in Malawi
as an example of exploiting the Rhizobium- legume symbiosis in
pasture improvement in sub-Saharan Africa. Wherever possible,
examples from other countries in the region are also given.
Prospects and constraints to adoption of the inoculant technology
and possible solutions are discussed.
RATIONALE FOR USING RHIZOBIUM INOCULANTS
Biological nitrogen fixation is a natural process whereby
atmospheric nitrogen is reduced to ammonia. In legume, this
system operates in the root nodules formed by the nitrogen fixing
Rhizobium spp. In most natural ecosystems, heavy losses of
nitrogen occur due to crop uptake, leaching, erosion,
deni tri f icat ion etc. However, significant replenishment of
nitrogen occurs in most soils mainly due to biological nitrogen
fixation (Hardarson et al, 1987).
781
Nitrogen provided in this form is not only cheap but also
does not impart other undesirable aspects such as pollution
hazards due to heavy use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers. In
addition, inoculation of seeds, plants and soil with Rhizobium is
even simpler than applying correct doses of inorganic nitrogen
fertilizers such as urea or diammonium phosphate.
The inoculation of legume seeds with Rhizobium has been
practiced in agriculture for several decades. The mixture of
Rhizobium cells and a carrier e.g. peat, filter-mud, bagasse etc
is what constitutes the Rhizobium inoculant (Okon and Hardy,
1983). If inoculants are properly used, significant amounts of
nitrogen could be fixed. Due to problems in measuring exact
quantities of nitrogen fixed, only estimates could be made. The
validity of such estimates strongly depends on the method used to
estimate nitrogen fixation. Table 1 shows some estimates of
nitrogen fixed by some grain and forage legumes. It can be noted
that forage legumes fix larger amounts than grain legumes. This
is probably a reflection of the duration of the crop: most grain
legumes are annuals while most forage legumes are perennials.
Comparable data for nitrogen fixation by forage legumes in sub-
Saharan Africa are shown in Table 2. With such high amounts of
nitrogen provided in a cheap way, it is imperative that
exploitation of this natural system be encouraged.
Pasture improvement offers an excellent opportunity for
exploiting biological nitrogen fixation in sub-Saharan Africa.
Many pasture legumes in addition to providing their own nitrogen
for good growth are also rich in protein and highly nutritious to
livestock (Sprague, 1975). Use of nitrogen fertilizers on
pastures faces strong competition from the demand of nitrogen
fertilizers by cereals which provide the bulk of staple food for
most people in sub-Saharan Africa. As such, any advocation of
applying nitrogen fertilizers to pastures is already a skeptical
idea to the smallholder farmer. Thus promotion of using
inoculants on pasture legumes in both pure and mixed legume-grass
swards seems logical.
782
Table 1. Estimates of nitrogen fixation by grain and forage
legumes.
Legume species Maximum fixation
(kg/ha/year)
Grain legumes
Arachis hypogaea 124
Caianus ca ian 280
Canavalia ensirforis 49
Cyanopsis tetragonoloba 220
G l vc i ne max 180
Lupinus spp. 208
Phaseolus aureus (green gram) 342
P. aureus (mung bean) 61
P. vulgaris 64
Pi sum sativum 85
V i c i a faba 552
Vigna sinensis 354
Forage legumes:
Calapogonium muconoides 450
Centrosema pubescens 395
Desmodium unicnatum** 178
Lespedeza spp 193
leucaena leucocephala* 580
Lotus corniculatus 1 16
Medicago sat i va 463
Mel i lotus alba 183
Stylosanthes spp 220
Trifol ium spp 673
V i c i a vi l losa 184
Source: Adapted from Hardason et al (1987)
* Data reported by Guevarra (1976) quoted by Sanginga
** Data reported by Haque and Jutzi (1984)
783
Table 2. Some values of Nitrogen fixation in sub-Saharan Africa
Region Rainf al l Legume Nitrogen f i xed
(mm) (kg/ha)
Nigeria 1,143 Centrosema 280
(rainforest) pubescens
Nigeria 1,085 Stylosanthes 84
(savanna) guvanensis)
Uganda >1,143 Centrosema pubescens 161
(tropical, subhiumid) Stylosanthes
guvanensis
Kenya 1,111 Desmodium uncinatum 178
(W. Province)
Zimbabwe 908 Lotononis bainesii 62
(high rainfall sandve Id)
Tanzania* ND Leucaena leucocephala 110
Malawi* ND Stylosanthes guianenses
Source: Adapted from Thomas (1975)
* Data from Haque and Jutzi (1984)
ND - No data presented
BENEFITS FROM INOCULATION WITH RHIZOBIUM SPP
Inoculation is a cheap insurance that the legumes will have
adequate nitrogen for its growth. In most soils of sub-Saharan
Africa, Rhizobium spp of the 'cowpea' miscellany occur freely.
As such most pasture legumes nodulate naturally. For example
Thomas (1973) reported that Aeschynomene americana. Calapogonium
muconoides. Centrosema pubescens. Desmodium intortum^ Desmodium
uncinatum.,. Indigofera hirsuta^. Neonotonia wightii^. Pueraria
phaseoloides and Stylosanthes spp nodulate very well in Malawi
without inoculation. According to Thomas (1973), similar
responses have been reported for Centrosema pubescens. Pueraria
phaseoloides and Stylosanthes guianensis and S. erecta in
Tanzania, Stylosanthes guianensis and Desmodium intortum in
Uganda, Desmodium spp in Kenya and Zimbabwe.
784
However for such legumes, it is essential that the amount of
nitrogen fixed be quantified because the Rhizobium spp forming
the nodules may not be effective. If ineffective nodulation is
the case, then inoculation with a highly effective and efficient
strain would ensure large amounts of nitrogen to be fixed.
Such improvements in nodulation of legumes which nodulate
freely with local Rhi zobia have been achieved in groundnuts in
India (Nambiar, 1985). According to Nambiar (1985), out of 15
cultivar x Rhizobium strain combinations the average increase in
pod yield of inoculated over the uninoculated plots was 16X. It
is significant to note that such responses were obtained in
fields where the uninoculated plots had 200-600 nodules per
plant. Similar responses could be obtained in pastures if legume
varieties are properly matched with efficient Rhi zobia.
However, some legumes like leucaena leucocephala are strain
specific (Trinick, 1968). Leucaena has been imported into most
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Rhizobium strain does not
occur naturally in such countries. As such, inoculation of
leucaena is beneficial. Sanginga (unpublished data) reported
good responses of leucaena to inoculation at two sites in Nigeria
(Table 3). The effect of inoculating with an effective strain
was equivalent to the application of 150 kg N/ha.
In Malawi inoculation of leucaena has always improved the
establishment of this forage legume. (Savory, 1979; Davis,
1982). Responses, however, are influenced by the legume variety,
Rhizobium strain and site where the crop is grown.
Similar responses of Stylosanthes guianensis cv Cook have
been obtained in Malawi and inoculation mainly enhances
establishment (Table 4) (Davis, 1982).
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVELY NODULATED PASTURE LEGUMES
In terms of livestock production higher content of nitrogen in
inoculated forage legume (Table 5), implies higher plant protein
for livestock and therefore increased liveweight gains.
785
Thomas and Addy (1977) have demonstrated that legume-based
pastures can contribute substantial liveweight gains in both wet
and dry seasons (Table 6). More recently, Dzowela (1985) has
reported that Stylosanthes guvanensi s cv Cook can be effectively
used to improve natural grasslands and liveweight gains. Similar
improvements in liveweight gains from stylo-based grasslands have
also been realised in Swaziland (Ogwang, 1986). In Malawi,
unfertilized Chl or is gayana - Desmodium uncinatum pasture gave
significantly higher average daily liveweight gains than the
grass pasture alone (Dzowela, 1986).
It is evident from the above examples that effectively
nodulated pasture legumes could contribute significant dividends
to the development of livestock industry at the smallholder level
of production in sub-Saharan Africa. The major impact of such
legume-based pastures is in reducing the cost of producing high
quality livestock.
RHIZOBIUM INOCULANT DEMAND
Despite the realisation of the benefits of inoculating legumes
for pasture improvement, there are relatively few data to
indicate use of Rhizobium inoculants in sub-Saharan Africa.
786
Table 3. Effect of urea fertilizer and inoculation with Rhizobium on
nodulation, growth and nitrogen fixation leucaena at IITA and
Fashola, Nigeria, at 24 weeks after planing.
Treatment Nodules Nolduels Nodule Shoot Shoot Nfixed
(number/ from dry wt.a dry N (kg/ha)
Fashola
plant) inoculant
strains X
(mg/
plant)
(9/ (kg/ha)
Uninoculated 36 69 179 26 82
NDb
150 kg N/ha 36 69 87 72 232 ND
Rhizobium IRc1050 40 78 485 79 228 ND
Rhizobium IRc1045 15 94 174 68 209 ND
IITA
Uninoculated 0 0 0 51 174 0
150 kg N/ha 0 0 0 130 445 0
Rhizobium I Re 1050 17 100 187 103 398 224
Rhizobium I Rc 1045 34 100 277 121 448 274
LSD (5X)
Fashola 11 ND 23 12 53 ND
IITA 12 NO 25 22 66 ND
At 12 weeks after planting.
Not determined
Source: Sanginga (unpublished data)
787
In Malawi, inoculants for several legumes are produced and
sold at a modest cost of MK1.50 (USD 0.55) per 50 g packet (Table
7). Sales have increased slowly from 448 x 50 g packets in
1976/77 to 1775 x 50 g packets in 1987/88 (Table 8). The number
of inoculant buyers has fluctuated greatly. However the number
of buyers does not necessarily reflect the number of inoculant
users. The current system in Malawi is that the Agricultural
Development Divisions purchase the inoculant in bulk and then
distribute it to the respective smallholder farmers. Use of
inoculants in pastures is shown in Table 9. As it can be seen
from this table, more inoculant use is in grain legume. This is
a reflection of emphasis on growing grain legume such that
pastures are unfortunately, considered secondary. In Kenya total
inoculant sales have increased from 630 packets in 1981 to 5206
packets in 1985 (Nairobi MIRCEN, 1986). The increase in sales is
attributed to effective demonstrations at annual agricultural
shows.
788
Table 4. Response of Stylosanthes guvanensis cv Cook to field
inoculation with Rhizobium
Rhizobium Site Dzalanyama Mbawa
Treatment
MG 5013
R 3861
R 3943
R 3811
R 3884
R 3837
R 3871
Uninoculated
11467a 8546
10753ab 8730
10340abc 9514
9711abc 8203
9259bc 9789
9026bc 9988
8662c 9582
8468c 8716
Mean
SE +
CVX
9711 9133
631.1* 475. 8NS
15.2 18.1
Data followed by the same letter in a column are not
significantly different from each other according to Duncan's
Multiple Range Test at P = 0.05.
* = Significantly different P * 0.05
NS = Not significant
Source: Davis (1982)
789
Table 5. Response of Stylosanthes guianensis cv Cook to field
inoculation with Rhizobium
X Nitrogen in legume (Data of single harvest only) May 1977.
Rhizobium Site Dzalanyama Mbawa
Treatment
MG 5013
R 3861
R 3943
R 3811
R 3884
R 3837
R 3871
Uninoculated
Mean
SE+
CVX
Data followed by the same letter are not significantly different
(P = 0.05).
* significantly different at P = 0.01.
*** significantly different at P = 0.005.
Source: Davis (1982).
1.68a 1.61a
1.66ab 1.55ab
1.66ab 1.50bc
1.65ab 1.49bc
1.62abc 1.46bc
1.47bc 1.43c
1.32cd 1.42c
1.24d 1.40c
1.54 1.48
0.059*** 0.035**
9.4 5.7
790
Table 6a. Total cattle liveweight gain (kg) during the wet
season.
Malawi Friesian x Grade Mean
zebu MZ Fr
Rhodes grass
Rhodes grass + legume
Response to legume
Grazing period (days)
Table 6b. Liveweight changes (kg) during the wet season. Cattle
grazing Rhodes grass forage with or without cottonseed
cake (protein) supplement and Rhodes grass - legume.
Malawi Friesian x Mean Response
zebu MZ to protein
72.7 80.4 67.0 73.4
78.7 90.5 74.8 81.4
+6.1 + 10.1 +7.8 +8.0
163 163 125
Rhodes grass -3.2
Rhodes grass + legume +19.0
Rhodes grass + supplement +18.0
+0.7 -1.3 -
+300 +24.5 +25.8
+286 +23.4 +24.7
Source: Thomas and Addy (1977).
791
Table 7. Rhizobium inoculants available in Malawi.
Code Number Legume species Weight of seed treated
by one 50 g packet
CWP Cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata) 25 kg
Axillaris
(Macrotyloma axi l l a re) 10 kg
G l yc i ne
(Neonotonia wighti i ) 10 kg
Si ratro
(Macropti l ium atropurpureum) 10 kg
Joint vetch
(Aeschnomene americana) 5 kg
Stylo
(Stvlosanthes guianensis) 5 kg
DES (MG 500) Silver-leaf
(Desmodium uncinatum) 10 kg
Greenleaf
(Desmodium intortum) 5 kg
LOT (MG 5007) Lotononis
(Lotononis bainesi i ) 2 kg
LEU (MG 707) Leucaena
(Leucaena leucocephala) 10 kg
CEN (MG 512) Centro
(Centrosema pubescens) 10 kg
BNS (MG 336) Beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris) 25 kg
SOY (MG 614) Soyabean: all varieties
(Glycine max 25 kg
LUC (MG 400) Lucerne
(Hedicago sat iva 10 kg
GNT (TAL 1000) Groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea) 25 kg
GUA (MG 5017) Guar
(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) 25 kg
792
Inoculants for most other legumes are available by special
request from.
Microbiology Section
Chitedze Agricultural Research Station
P. 0. Box 158
Li long we
Malawi. Phone: 767 222
Table 8. Total Rhizobium inoculant sales in Malawi, 1976-1988.
Growing
season
Number of Number of
buyers 50 g packets
sold
Total
cost (Kwacha)*
1976/77 ND 448
1977/78 ND 616
1978/79 14 1089
1979/80 20 872
1980/81 22 1179
1981/82 23 3481
1982/83 11 1741
1983/84 18 975
1984/85 20 1296
1985/86 16 1145
1986/87 38 1767
1987/88 ND 1775
224.00
308.00
544.50
436.00
520.00
1741.00
1384.25
731.25
972.00
858.75
1325.25
1221.25
ND = No data.
* = The cost of inoculant was 50 tambala per 50 g packet in
1976/77.
In 1982/83 the price was raised to 75 tambala.
Present price since 1988/89 season in MIC 1.50 (1US$ = MK
2.65)
793
Table 9. Types of inoculants distributed in Malawi during 1986/87
and 1987/88 seasons.
Inoculum
type
Legume
species
Number of packets
distributed
1986/87 1987/88
CWP General 38
DWS Desmodium spp 32
LOT Lot ononis 0
LEU Leucaena 148
CEN Cent rosema 12
BNS Common beans 141
SBG & SBH Soyabeans 1176
LUC Luc erne/ a l f a I f a 10
GNT Groundnuts 8
GUA Guar beans 200
PEU Peuraria 2
63
33
0
62
5
1275
0
6
0
400
0
Total 1767 1869
Source: Microbiology section, (Unpublished data).
CONSTRAINTS TO ADOPTING INOCULANTS FOR PASTURE IMPROVEMENT
Several reasons limit farmer adoption of the rhizobium inoculant
technology. The most fundamental one is that the majority of
smallholder farmers are not well informed of the technology. In
sub-Saharan Africa, very few demonstrations have been established
to show farmers the beneficial effects of inoculating pasture
legume seed.
In Malawi, a recent in-service course on use of inoculants
involved 90 participants from both research and extension
establishment. The presentations by the participants revealed
surprising data. Almost three-quarters of the participants did
794
not know the value of inoculants in agriculture. Less than half
had actually seen inoculants and only about a quarter had used
inoculants. Most of those that had used inoculants had used them
as supplements to high levels of nitrogen fertilizers. Obviously
the smallholder farmer in such an environment will not realise
the benefits of inoculation readily.
Munthali and Dzowela (1987) have given three other
constraints to pasture improvement in Malawi. Communal grazing,
high pasture establishment costs and small size of holdings in
addition to competition with other crops for labour etc. Similar
problems have been reported from Zimbabwe (Clatworthy et al,
1986) and Nigeria (Mohammed-Saleem, 1986). In Gambia (Russo,
1986) and in Swaziland (Ogwang, 1986) land tenure systems are
prohibitive to improvement.
Probably a significant constraint is that farmers do not
want to take any risks. The inoculation technology has not been
demonstrated clearly that it will improve pasture production and
thus livestock.
In Malawi, an additional constraint is the adverse publicity
that the inoculants advocated require refrigeration. In an
experiment comparing the thickness of inoculant packaging
material (DAvis (1982) had categorically shown that the
inoculants produced in Malawi remain viable for up to 12 weeks at
26 C. The optimum planting period in the rainy season in Malawi
is 4 weeks. Meteorological data indicate that during the period
November to January, average room temperature in Malawi should be
between 18 C and 25 C. Under smallholder grass- thatched house
conditions, temperature should be about 20 - 26 C or even lower.
Considering all the above data, it is recommended that the
inoculants produced in Malawi can be stored at room temperature
for up to six weeks. However, most research and extension staff
immediately think of refrigeration and are reluctant to have
inoculants in remote areas until refrigerators are provided.
This is similar to problems encountered in advocating
leucaena for rotational grazing in Australia due to the adverse
795
publicity on the extreme effects of mimosine toxicity (Wildin,
1983).
In countries where credit systems are operational e.g.
Malawi, credit packages are oriented towards food/cash crops. No
component to include pasture seeds and inoculants is included.
Farmers are thus inclined to grow crops with readily available
inputs. This season (1988-89), South-Mzimba Agricultural Project
in Malawi is including inoculants in the credit package
(Gwembere, personal communication).
In addition to the above constraints, the recommendations
for establishing pasture legumes under smallholder conditions
might be prohibitive to adoption. For example, advocating
undersowing pastures in maize appears to be in conflict with the
other recommendations that the farmer should keep the crop free
of weeds, and, in most regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the
cropping system is mostly mixed intercropping. In this situation
the farmer needs to be advised properly that the legume/grass
pasture is an important crop to his enterprise that has a dairy
cattle component in it. Without proper advise, adverse results
may be obtained. Mwafulirwa (unpublished data) gives an example
from Malawi: two farmers had to experiment further on the
establishment of Rhodes grass under maize until they realised no
maize grain yield reduction.
Undersowing of pastures in maize is not a new introduction
in sub-Saharan Africa (Thomas, 1975). However, in Malawi the
technology has not been widely adopted because of lack of
institutional support in/form of follow-up extension effort and
provision of a credit package (E.S. Mwafulirwa, unpublished
data).
Further to the above statements, the legume species being
promoted for incorporation in the current cropping systems may be
inappropriate for smallholders. For example, the need to
inoculate them with Rhi zobia might be too demanding on the
farmers. In addition the nature of some legume e.g. silverleaf
Desmodium adhering to clothes, legs etc makes such legumes
796
unattractive to include in an undersowing enterprise since the
farmer experiences discomfort during field visits and maize
harvest. The review by Nnadi and Haque (1986) shows that more
work is needed on forage legume cereal mixtures in sub-Saharan
Africa in order to fit this technology in the traditional farming
systems of the region.
Baker et al (1986) discussed some factors for non-adoption
of a technology. They further stated that people farm for
different reasons and therefore the technology should meet
producer goals. Mwafulirwa (unpublished data) has examples to
this effect: one farmer had established a beautiful Rhodes grass
pasture by undersowing in maize. However in the second year he
ploughed the pasture and planted sweet potatoes. Another farmer
also had a good pasture which he harvested and cured but left it
in the field until it got rotten. This farmer, however, had feed
problems but never fed the hay to his livestock. A number of
lessons can be learnt from these examples e.g. farmers' priority
setting, labour requirement and probably the farmers do not
regard livestock as an integral part of their farming system
needing more attention.
Finally, the distribution of Rhi zobium inoculant and pasture
legume seeds is in itself a limiting factor. In most of sub-
Saharan Africa inoculants and legume seeds are not readily
available at the usual retail outlets for farm inputs. Thus,
despite the recommendations, farmers have no access to the
inputs. In malawi, Rhi zobium inoculants are produced at Chitedze
Agricultural Research Station in Lilongwe. Inoculants are sent
to various parts of Malawi only upon request. Some pasture
legume seed is available at the National Seed Company of Malawi
but the seed might be very expensive for most smallholders to
purchase.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Rhi zobium inoculation technology can have great dividends to
livestock production. However, for the technology to be adopted,
more work is needed. A mul ti -discipl inary team of specialists in
797
agronomy, animal science, farm management and local leaders
should work together to provide a package of recommendations for
specific areas.
A farming systems approach is required to bring research
workers in close co-operation with local extension staff and
farmers. This, probably, would streamline the transfer of the
technology.
In order to increase awareness, numerous demonstrations at
easily accessible sites and highly visible locations representing
production areas need to be set up. All available forms of the
media should be used to inform farmers of the benefits of
inoculating legumes, source of inoculants and legumes seeds and
locations where additional information could be obtained.
Finally inorder for technology transfer to be successful,
the following are the essential elements that need consideration
(Baker et al, 1981).
1. Goals and procedures need to be clearly defined.
2. Competent staff need to be involved.
3. Appropriate disciplines to be involved to farmer's needs.
4. There should be mutual confidence between the farmer and field
staff.
5. There should be total community involvement.
6. Adequate funds should be available inorder to execute the
programmes.
7. Administrative support should be provided to the technology
transfer teams and their programmes.
8. Staff continuity should be guaranteed.
9. Suitable support staff in addition to the component staff
should be available.
10. There should be adequate time allowed for the technology
transfer since changes occur slowly as farmers do not want to
take risks.
798
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Baker, B.S. Lewis, P.E., Inkeep, E.K. and Maxwell, R.H. 1983.
West Virginia University Allegheny Highlands Project: a ten
year experiment technology transfer. In: J. A. Smith, and
V.W. Hays (eds). Proceedings of the XIV INTERNATIONAL
GRASSLAND CONGRESS held at Lexington, Kentucky, USA, June
15-24, 1981. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. pp:1810-
812.
Clatworthy, J.N. 1986. The possible role of forage legumes in
communal area farming systems in Zimbabwe. In: I. Haque,
S. Jutzi and J.H. Neate (eds), Potentials of forage legumes
in farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a
Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-19
September, 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 265-288.
Davis, P.E. 1982. Legume microbiology research in Malawi. 1976-
1981. Final report of the ODA Technical Cooperation
officer. February 1982. Lilongwe, Malawi.
Dzowela, B.H. 1985. Highlights of pasture research in Malawi.
1975-84. In: J. A. Kategile (ed), Pasture improvement
research in eastern and southern Africa. Proceedings of a
Workshop held Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 September 1984.
IDRC-237e. International Development Research Centre,
Ottawa, Ontarior pp. 56-76.
Dzowela, B.H. 1986. Value of a forage legume component in summer
beef fattening systems in Malawi. In: I. Haque, S. Jutzi,
and P. J.H. Neate (eds), Potentials of forage legumes in
farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa Proceedings of a
Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-19
September 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Haque, I. and Jutzi, S. 1984. Nitrogen fixation by forage
legumes in sub-Saharan Africa: Potential and limitations.
ILCA Bulletin 20:2-13.
Haque, I., Jutzi, S. and Neate, P. J.H. (eds) 1986. Potentials of
forage legume in farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa.
Proceedings of a workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 16-19 September 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
799
Hardarson, G. et al. 1987. Biological nitrogen fixation in field
crops. In: B.R. Christie (ed), CRC handbook of Plant
Science in Agriculture Vol 1.. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton,
Florida. pp. 165-191.
Munthali, J.K. and Dzowela, B.H. 1987. Inventory of livestock
feeds in Malawir pp. 66-69. In: J. A. Kategile, A.N. Said
and B.H. Dzowela (eds), Animal feed resources for small-
scale l ivestock producers. Proceedings of the Second
PANESA Workshop, held in Nairobi, Kenya, 11-15 November
1985. IDRC-MR 165e. International Development. Research
Centre, Ottawa, Ontario.
Nairobi Rhizobium MIRCEN. 1986. Agricultural shows as a channel
of creating awareness about Rhizobium technology to the
farming community in Kenya. MIRCEN Newsletter. Vol. 9,
No.1, January 1986.
Nambiar, P.T.C. 1985. Response of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea
L.) to Rhizobium in the field: problems and prospects
MIRCEN Journal of Appl ied Microbiology and Biotechnology
1(4)293-309.
Nnadi, L.A. and Haque, I. 1986. Forage legume-cereal systems:
Improvement of soil fertility and agricultural production
with special reference to sub-Saharan Africa. In: I.
Haque, S. Jutzi and P.J.H. Neate (eds), Potentials of
forage legumes in farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa.
Proceedings of a Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. pp. 330-329.
Ogwang, B.H. 1986. Research on Forage Legume in Swaziland. In:
I. Haque, S. Jutzi and P.J.H. Neate (eds), Potentials of
forage legumes in farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa.
Proceedings of a Workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, 16-19 September 1985. ILCA, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. pp. 289-304.
Okon, Y. and Hardy, R.W.F. 1983. Developments in basic and
applied biological nitrogen fixation. In: Plant
physiology. A Treatise. Vol. VIII. Nitrogen metabolism
Academic Press, New York.
800
Russo, S.L. 1986. The introduction of forage legumes into
Gambian farming systems. In: I. Haque, S. Jutzi and P.J.H.
Neate (eds). Potentials of forage legumes in farming
systems of sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a Workshop
held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-19 September 1985.
ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Savory, R. 1972. Pasture improvement in Malawi: The
introduction of legumes into various soil -climate
management ecosystems. Proceedings of the seventh congress
of the Grassland society of Southern Africa held in Harare
(Zimbabwe), 26-28 January 1972. pp. 87-92.
Savory, R. 1979. leucaena leucocephala (Lam) de Wit. Varietal
evaluation and agronomy. Ph.D. thesis, University of
London, London, U.K.
Sprague, H.B. 1975. Characteristics of economically important
food and forage legumes and forage grasses for the tropics
and sub-tropics. Technical Series Bulletin No. 14. USAID,
Washington, D.C. 107. pp.
Thomas, D. 1973. Nitrogen from tropical pasture legumes on the
African continent. Herbage Abstracts. 43(2):33-39.
Thomas, D. 1975. Growing leguminous pastures on the Lilongwe
Plain. World Crops. Nov/Dec. 1975. pp. 258-260.
Thomas, D. and Addy, B.L. 1977. Tropical pastures and animal
production in Malawi. World Review of Animal Production.
13(3):47-52.
Trinick, M.J. 1968. Modulation of tropical legumes. 1.
Specifically in the Rhizobium symbiosis of Leucaena
leucocephala. Expl . Agric. 4:243-253.
Wildin, J.H. 1983. Adoption of leucaena for cattle grazing in
Australia. In: J. A. Smith and V.W. Hays (eds). Proceedings
of the XIV International Grasslands Congress held at
Lexington, Kentucky, USA, 15-24 June 1981. Westview Press,
Boulder, Colorado.
801
PROBLEMS AND UTILISATION POTENTIAL OF SEASONALLY WATERLOGGED
LANDS IN ZIMBABWE: A BRIEF REVIEW
P. Nyathi
Dept. of Research and Specialist Services,
Makoholi Research Station, P/Bag 9182, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
INTRODUCTION
Overstocking has been identified in most agricultural literature
in Zimbabwe as the main factor that has led to degradation,
reduced grass growth, and the replacement of decreaser grass
species by increasers and/or invaders. The latter are mostly
unpalatable to livestock. Invader grass species although
prevalent in degraded dryland grazing areas are also found in
"darnbos". Problems of dambo utilisation hinge on the ability of
dambos to support large livestock numbers during the dry months
of the year when grass elsewhere in the grazing area is low in
nutritive value and quantities are also low. That livestock
numbers have either been maintained or decreased during drought
years, and increased during years of copious rainfall raises the
question of whether overstocking is the cause of the problem. It
may be argued that dambos have formed a buffer between starvation
and death, and therefore their management, development and
utilisation is the key to increased livestock production rather
than reduced livestock numbers as suggested by proponents of
overstocking as the cause of the problem.
This paper highlights the soil types, the extent of dambo
distribution in Zimbabwe, problem of definition, morphology,
vegetation and significance of dambos in peasant agriculture.
At the end of the paper, preliminary data to show trends in
dambo herbage production is presented.
SOILS
There are many different soil types in Zimbabwe. There are soils
derived from granite (most common rock), predominantly that named
sandveld (with little clay content) which drains well, dries
802
quickly and has low organic matter (OM) and phosphorus (P); then
there is paragneiss - a soil which is a result of the weathering
of an unusual rock type reformed from granite (brown, slightly
red sandy loams) (Bishop, 1975).
Black turf soils (very fertile, heavy clay, hard when dry,
very sticky when wet) are derived from a less common rock,
basalt. Dolorite weathers to rich red clay soils scattered
throughout Zimbabwe. Kalahari sandstone weathers to Kalahari
sands (very fine grained soils of low fertility found in the
drier regions of the west of the country. Serpentine, the most
common rock on the "Great Dyke", weathers to shallow greyish
brown sand loam soils unsuitable for crop production because of
presence of nickel and chromium salts that are harmful to plant
growth. Norite is a rock found in some sections of the Great
Dyke and forms clay soils more like black turf soils (north and
south of Selous).
Mopani soils are found in dry areas, are composed of heavy
clay and are very alkaline. Two main types of dambo soils occur
in Zimbabwe (Whitlow, 1985) and have been characterised thus;
a. Calcic hydromorphic soils comprise dark grey or black clays
with a high base status. The dominant clay is
montmori l loni te, hence these soils resemble vertisols in their
behaviour with respect to expansion and contraction during
wetting and drying phases. Whitlow (1985) further stated that
carbonate concretions sometimes occur in subsoils within zones
of fluctuating water table. Calcic hydromorphic soils occur
in broad depressions on mafic rocks in areas receiving over
600 mm rainfall per year. The mafic rocks comprise dark humic
soils overlying light coloured sandy or sandy clay soils which
generally have a low base status, with kaolinite being the
prevalent clay mineral. Whitlow (1985) found that mottling
and iron concretions are common in subsoils within dambo
margins.
b. Non-calcic hydromophic soils originate from siliceous parent
materials and are the most extensive of the dambo soils in
Zimbabwe covering in excess of one million hectares of dambo
land (Whitlow, 1984a).
803
Peaty dambo soils, comparable to those found in parts of
Zambia (Brammer, 1973) are quoted by Whitlow (1985) as
representing a third type of hydromorphic soil. Three main
pedological process occur in the non-calcic hydromorphic soils:
i) organic matter accumulation
ii) g l eying and
in) clay translocation
It should be noted here that organic matter accumulation is
an advantage to the establishment of pasture legumes on dambo
sites. This is reinforced by further findings (Whitlow, 1985)
that dambo soils are characterised by well defined organic
surface horizons which increase in depth from dambo margins to
wetter sites, and that the OM is generally well decomposed on
drier areas (margins) but becomes progressively more fibrous and
peaty towards low-lying waterlogged sites. The latter fact
supports the idea of introducing pasture legumes on the periphery
of dambos with a view to improvement of the quality of forage.
Gleying effects relate to both permanently and periodically
saturated soil horizons. The permanently wet horizons are
typically pale grey to white in colour due to a decrease in free
iron content from the dambo margin to its eye where a reduction
of iron compounds into a ferrous state occurs (Whitlow, 1985).
Microbial activity is limited by the acid, waterlogged conditions
(Whitlow, 1985) but Purves (1976) points out that microbial
activity under anaerobic conditions assists in the process of
iron reduction thereby enabling its removal by lateral drainage.
Removal of iron and production of bleached or pallid subsoils is
a process regarded as ferrolysis (Brinkman, 1985) and would seem
to occur in some dambos in Zambia as well as in Zimbabwe
(Whitlow, 1985). Waston (1964) described ferricrete formation at
a depth of 2.5 metres within a dambo near Harare and explained
that, that marked the lower limits of the dry season water table
level. This observation suggests that the soil above 1.5 metre
depth should be moist enough to support both grass and pasture
legume growth during the dry periods of the year and is part of
the basis of the hypothesis.
804
TOWARDS A DEFINATION OF VIEWS
Locally known as "vleis" in Zimbabwe, and dambos in central and
southern Africa, these seasonally wet areas are not adequately
defined. The problem of dambo definitions in Zimbabwe has been
alluded to by Rattray et al. (1953), Thompson (1972) and Whitlow
(1980, 1984b). The definition given by Ivy (1981) is accepted
officially for the purposes of legislation in the Natural
Resources Act.
Def ini t ions
Author and year Definition
Ivy 1981 Land that is saturated to within 15 cm of the
surface for the major part of a rainfall
season of average or above average rainfall
and which may exhibit one or more of the
following characteristics: i. the presence
of mottles or rust-like stains in root
channels within 15 cm of the surface.
ii. a black topsoil horizon very rich in OM
overlying pale leached sands;
iii. a dark grey or black heavy clay showing
considerable surface cracking when dry.
Thompson 1972 A vlei is a depression at the head of, or
flanking, a water course in which the soils
are saturated during the rainy season, and
which remains saturated to within 50 cm or
less from the surface for some considerable
period thereafter.
Rattray et al 1953 A low-lying, gently sloping, treeless tract
of country which is seasonally waterlogged by
seepage from the surrounding high ground
assisted by rainfall, and which contains the
natural drainage channel for the removal of
excess run-off from this surrounding ground.
805
All of these definitions do not account for those areas that
are waterlogged throughout the year with visible fluctuations in
the water level as seasons change into the driest part of the
year. All three definitions recognise seasonal waterlogging
during the rainy season but do not indicate when this water
logging ceases during the year. This raises my contention that,
if to a great extent these lands are waterlogged during the rainy
season, this is so because their use at that time is not
necessary as grazing elsewhere on topland would be at its best.
It is during the dry periods of the year that these waterlogged
lands play their role as fodder banks (not grazed or sparingly
grazed during the rainy season, and fully utilised during the dry
months) .
DAMBO DISTRIBUTION AND MORPHOLOGY
Dambos cover an area of about 1.228 million hectares or 3.6X of
the total land area in Zimbabwe (35.6 million hectares) (Whitlow,
1984a) (Table 1). Over one million hectares or nearly 90X of
dambos in Zimbabwe occur on gneisses or intrusive granites. The
former are mainly tonalitic in composition, with sodic feldspars
being common, and the latter are dominated by adamellites with
potash feldspars being common (Whitlow, 1979). Dambos are
confined mainly to the headwater regions of rivers draining the
central plateau of Zimbabwe, and account for up to 30X of the
land areas of granitic terrain (Whitlow, 1980).
Morphologically, they vary from broad, lobate depressions
through to narrow linear features extending several kilometres
down valleys. They also vary greatly in their materials.
Whitlow (1985) sound a warning that this variable character of
dambos makes it difficult and dangerous to generalise about the
effects of human activities on dambos (each situation is unique
in some way). As earlier noted, some dambos are wetter and for
longer periods than others and it is this feature which should be
used to advantage for pasture legume introduction into dambo
vegetation. The wetness is an advantage in that it provides
abundant moisture for plants; ensuring a reasonable harvest even
806
during the drought seasons (Mazambani, 1982). The disadvantage
is that waterlogged soils are typically badly aerated
necessitating removal of excess water to enable proper root
development (Whitlow, 1983). Butzer (1976) noted that vleis in
Africa are best developed on plateaux where for about five months
rainfall ranges from 800 to 1300 mm per annum. Bond (1963, 1967)
advances the idea that dambo processes may have definite climatic
limits. In Zimbabwe, dambos certainly are prone to drying out
during the long dry season, perhaps more so than those in higher
rainfall areas of between 700 to 1000 mm per annum, and are
certainly prone to drying out during the long dry season, perhaps
more so than those in higher rainfall regions in Zambia (1000 mm
per annum) and Malawi (Whitlow, 1985). Butzer (1976) suggested
that some dambos are inactive in Zimbabwe but did not indicate
how he reached that conclusion. However, Goudie (1983) explained
that there is likelihood that, with changing environmental
conditions during the late Quaternary period, rainfall regimes
have at some stage been more favourable for dambo development
than those which now prevail. In general, one might regard
climatic conditions in Zimbabwe as being more marginal for the
development and maintenance of dambos than elsewhere in south-
central Africa (Whitlow, 1985).
Table 1. Dambo distribution according to variation in average
slope in Zimbabwe.
Slope under 2 2 to 4 Over 4 Total area
38.4X 45.6X 16.0X 100X
(492,334 ha) (584,646 ha) (205,139 ha) (1,228,120 ha)
Source: Whitlow, (1984b)
Most dambos (84X of total dambo area) occur in land areas
with slopes of 4 or less. This derives from the fact that 60X
of land in Zimbabwe has average slopes of 4 or less (Table 1).
The 84X of total dambo area (1,076,980 ha) is land that has
807
potential for intensive pasture development. Cormack (1972) has
argued that the dambo water should be put to more productive use
in growing crops or improved pastures within dambos, providing
there is no damage to soils or stream flow, but to the contrary
Whitlow (1985) argued that some farmers in Zimbabwe have
undertaken maize production and introduction of legumes in dambos
with seemingly little effect on stream flow. The most extensive
dambos occur on the relatively flat terrain of the central
watershed areas above 1200 m above sea level.
They occur in a rather irregular arc varying in width from
about 20 to over 80 km and around 300 km long. Localised islands
of dambos occur on plateau remnants outside this main arc
(Whitlow, 1985). The distribution of dambos in Zimbabwe as
elsewhere in south-central Africa is influenced by factors such
as relative relief, regolith (bedrock) characteristics, and
climatic conditions (Mackel, 1974; Whitlow, 1984b). To date, no
detailed analysis of the relationships between dambos and these
environmental factors has been carried out. However, Whitlow
(1985) pointed out that low relief and gentle rivers with
increasing distance from central watershed results in dambos
becoming more localised. Eventually, in the lower reaches of the
main river systems below 900 m altitude, the dambos are unable to
persist. My view is that these dambos that are unable to persist
should be the areas with sufficient residual moisture for
sustenance of pasture legumes introduced into the dambo
vegetation after the rainy season has terminated. The more
complex a plant community in terms of species diversity, the more
likely that ecosystem stability is achieved.
DAMBO VEGETATION
Henkel (1931) was the first to describe and classify dambos in
Zimbabwe as valley grasslands, and Whitlow (1985) noted that
sedges and herbs are common and locally dominant constituents.
The absence of trees and shrubs in Zimbabwe dambos was attributed
to the inhibiting effects of seasonal waterlogging, periodic
frosts, and occasional but intensive fires (Rattray, 1957).
However, in many respects vegetation in Zimbabwe dambos is
comparable to that of dambos elsewhere in central Africa
808
(Fanshawe, 1969; Werger and Coetzee, 1978). The vegetation
generally comprises a mosaic of plant communities which changes
in character from the margins to the central portions of the
dambo dependant upon the degree and duration of waterlogging
(Whitlow, 1985). This pattern of vegetation as described above
has prompted my hypothesis that there must be different moisture
levels supporting the growth of the different communities forming
the mosaic, the moisture levels decreasing progressively away
from the centre of the dambo and in effect allowing plants of
different moisture requirements to grow within the limits of
their tolerance to waterlogging. For this reason, a screening
trial of forage legume species for selection of the best-bet
types has been proposed on seasonally waterlogged lands. This is
validated by the realisation by many researchers that these
seasonally waterlogged lands are key grazing resources for
livestock during the dry part of the year (June to October)
(Whitlow, 1983; Scoones, 1987; Rattray, 1957). It is the
availability of these key grazing resources (vleis browse, river
banks, and drainage lines) and the facility of flexible
utilisation that has sustained high livestock populations in the
communal areas for a long period (Scoones, 1987).
In view of the foregoing, it becomes apparent that research
aimed at improvement and development of dambo pasture is long
overdue. If the carrying capacity is to be increased the key
resources mentioned above are the components that research should
focuss on, as they directly determine carrying capacity levels.
Improvements in the extensive grazing land, although beneficial,
will have less direct effect on carrying capacity and, because
this is a far larger area than the key total land resource area,
any attempts at intervention will be financially and
operationally more difficult than a focussed approach (Scoones,
1987). With draught power provision being a primary objective
for communal area livestock, development oriented research on key
resource areas that provide dry season fodder is vital.
Selective use of the key resources opens up the possibilities for
selective feeding of priority stock (draught oxen; milking cows),
reserved dry season grazing and their development as fodder
banks.
809
SIGNIFICANCE OF DAMBOS IN PEASANT FARMING COMMUNITIES
The moist conditions which prevail in dambos for most of the
year provide a favourable environment for plant growth. However,
there appears to have been a preoccupation with the hazards of
soil erosion and drying out of dambos in Zimbabwe (Jennings,
1923; Rattray et al; 1953) such that legal restrictions have
prevented realization of the potential of these seasonally
waterlogged lands through various prohibitive measures enshrined
in the legislature.
The most common form of dambo utilisation is for livestock
grazing. In commercial farms the dambos are burned from late
August to October. The residual soil moisture is adequate to
support new growth of herbaceous cover, providing valuable
grazing at a time when other sources of feed are at a low level
(Whitlow, 1985). In peasant farming areas dambos are used as
part of the communal grazing lands. Dambo cultivation has
required drainage of excess water. A traditional method
developed by peasant farmers is to use ridges and furrows
trending down the slope. This system is ideally suited to small-
scale hoe cultivation but did not meet the needs of mechanical
farming on commercial scale (Whitlow, 1983).
The prevalence of dambo cultivation with rice and tsenza
(Cleus esculentus) being important crops amongst peasant farmers
was reported nearly a century ago (Bishop, 1975; Whitlow, 1985).
Remnants of ancient ridges and furrows occur in many dambos in
the wetter parts of Zimbabwe and may date back some 250 to 300
years (Whitlow, 1983). Dambo cultivation is a well established
tradition amongst peasant communities in Zimbabwe as elsewhere in
central Africa (Walker, 1966; Russell, 1971). Dambo gardens
provide a good regular supply of crops for home consumption and
for sale in urban centres. They are especially important during
drought years when dryland crops are poor, but wet conditions in
dambos are still adequate to yield reasonable harvests
(Mazambani, 1982). Only one detailed study on the importance of
dambos in the agrarian economics of the peasant farming sector of
Zimbabwe has been carried out (Thiessen, 1975). This confirmed
that there was a positive relationship between the area of dambo
810
cultivated by individual families and their socioeconomic well-
being.
The legislative restrictions on dambo cultivation have
retarded implementation of organisational reforms and have
contributed to the deterioration of man- land relationships in
these areas (Whitlow, 1979). Whitlow's (1985) view is that there
is a need to reassess the role of dambos in peasant farming
particularly since overgrazing and trampling by livestock have
probably caused more serious erosion than cultivation. I also
find it important that research into improvement of dambo
management, pasture development and utilisation has to be carried
out with the aim of improving and sustaining livestock condition
through the dry part of the year, and improvement of quality of
forage at that time.
Studies have been initiated aimed at quantifying grazing
management effects on dambo resources (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2. Seasonal changes in dry matter (DM) yields of vlei sites
compared to adjacent top land in Zimbabwe (1987/88).
Prel iminary Data.
Grazing schemes: Kowoyo A. Province: Mashonaland East (1987/88)
Rainfall: 800 mm /annum.
Pad. Sampling site kgDM/ha Change in DM
locations Dec '87 Feb '88 May '88 yield Dec-May
A Vlei margin 550 G
B Vlei stream bank 834 G
C Vlei stream bank 158 G
D Vlei topland 229 G
G = Grazed R= Rested at time of sampling
Source: Mupangwa and Nyathi, 1988.
466 R 1099 R 549
364 G 742 G -92
440 G 749 G 591
229 G 631 G 401
811
Observations:- There was a decline in DM yield in Pad A (15X) and
B (56X) from early to mid-season due to stock concentration in
these two paddocks during that period (records of stock
movement). The vlei stream bank sites had higher dry matter
yields than topland sites at the end of season (May) despite
having been continuously grazed throughout (December 1987 to May
1988), attributed to higher moisture levels in the former than
the latter. The vlei margins (Pad A) had a partial rest from mid
(Feb) to end of season (May) resulting in increased DM
production, almost twice as much as the vlei stream bank, and the
wooded topland site. Continuous grazing of the vlei stream bank
(Pad B) throughout the summer season seems to have negative
effects on grass growth and herbage production (-92 kg/ha by
May).
Table 3. Seasonal changes in dry matter (DM) yields of vlei sites
compared to adjacent top land in Zimbabwe (1987/88).
Preliminary data.
Grazing yields: Chikowore. Province: Mashonaland Central
Rainfall: 800mm /annum
Change in DM
Pad Number/location Dec '88 Feb '88 May '88 yield Dec-May
1 Topland-Mt slope
thick bush
2 Previously cult
ivated Mt slope
3 Vlei stream bank
4 Mountain foot
sparse tree
distribution
G = Grazed; R = Rested at sampling time
Source: Nyathi, 1987; 19«»
196 G 577 R 668 472
142 G 613 R 823 681
137 G 615 R 941 804
177 R 995 G 338, 161
812
Observation: In all sites change in DM yield is greater between
Dec-Feb than Feb-May due to vigorous grass growth and higher
rainfall in the early summer season period than the late season.
The vlei stream bank site seems to produce higher DM yields than
the previously cultivated Mt. slope and topland when all three
sites had mid-season rest while the mountain foot area was
grazed.
CONCLUSION
Dambo utilisation is seemingly hampered by waterlogged conditions
which prevent normal microbial activity, root development, and
organic matter degradation. This should not be so prohibitive
since indications from the literature alluded to in the text are
that dambos have gradations of moisture resulting the vegetation
zonation according to decreasing moisture levels away from the
eye of the dambo (wettest spot). Furthermore, the pattern of
organic matter accumulation and degradation follows the same
trend with higher levels of undecomposed organic matter in the
centre of the dambo (eye) than in the dambo margin (drier part).
Soil depth increases towards the dambo centre. At the dambo
margin, however, conditions appear to be ideal for crop
production and the peasant farmer has evolved ridges and furrows
over the years for production of rice and other crops.
An area of 1.2 million hectares occupied by dambos in
Zimbabwe is indeed large enough to warrant investigations into
its proper management, utilisation and development for sustained
livestock production. Preliminary results of comparisons of
dambo herbage production with topland sites seem to show that
dambos are consistent sources of forage. With the overwhelming
evidence that dambos are used for livestock grazing both by the
large-scale commercial farmer and the communal small-scale
farmer, it becomes imperative for agricultural scientists to
start development-oriented agricultural research programmes that
will help to reveal the productive potential of dambos.
813
REFERENCES
Bishop, J. W.S. 1975. The environment of the Rhodesian people.
Agriculture 4: M.0. Collins (Pvt) ltd., Salisbury, pp. 90-
117.
Bond, G. 1963. Pleistocene environments in Southern Africa - In:
F.C. Howell and F. Bourlieve (eds), African ecology and
human evolution. Aldine Press, Chicago, pp. 308-334.
Bond, G. 1967. River valley morphology, stratigraphy and
paleocl imatology in Southern Africa. In: W.W. Bishop and
J.D. Clark (eds), Background to evolution in Africa.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 303-312.
Brammer, H. 1973. Soils of Zambia. Soil Surv. Rep. II, Ministry
of Rural Development, Lusaka.
Brinkman, R. 1969. Ferrolysis, a hydromorphic soil forming
process. Geoderma 3:199-206.
Butzer, K.U. 1976. Geomorpholoav from the earth . Harper and
Row, New York.
Cormack, J.M. 1972. Efficient utilisation of water through land
management. Rho. Agric. J . 9(1):11-16.
Fanshawe, D.B. 1969. The vegetation of Zambia. For Res. Bull.
7. Ministry of Rural Development, Lusaka.
Goudie, A.S. 1983. Envi ronmental change. Clarendon Press,
Oxford.
Henkel, J.S. 1931. Types of vegetation in Southern Rhodesia. S.
Afr. jK Sci. 20:1-24.
Ivy, P. 1981. A guide to soil coding and land capability
classification for land use planners. Dept. of
Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
Jennings, A.C. 1923. Erosion, especially surface washing in
Southern Rhodesia. S^ Afr. J^. Sci. 20:204-207.
Mackel, R. 1974. Dambos: a study in morphodynamic activity on
the plateau regions of Zambia. Catena 1:327-365.
Mazambani, D. 1982. Peri-urban cultivation within Greater
Harare. Zimbabwe Science News 16(6) : 134- 138.
Mupanga, J.F. and Nyathi, P. 1988. End of season (1987/88) veld
trend monitoring report. Department of Agricultural
Technical and Extension services, Harare, Zimbabwe.
814
Nyathi, P. 1987. End of season (May-1987) veld trend monitoring
report on 7 grazing schemes. Department of Agricultural
Technical and Extension Services, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Nyathi, P. 1988. Mid-season veld trend monitoring report on
seven grazings scheme in 7 provinces. Department of
Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
Purves, W.D. 1976. A detailed investigation into the genesis of
granite derived soils. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Rhodesia.
Rattray, J.M. 1957. The grass and grass associations of Southern
Rhodesia. Rhod. Agric. jK 54(3) : 197-234.
Rattray, J.M., Cormack, R.M.M. and Staples, R.R. 1953. The vlei
areas of S. Rhodesia and their uses. Rhod. Agric. J.
50:465-483.
Russell, T.P.J. 1971. Dambo utilisation survey. Lilongwe Land
Development Programme, Lilongwe.
Scoones, I. 1987. Economic and ecological carrying capacity.
Implications for livestock development in the dryland
communal areas of Zimbabwe. Paper presented at a Seminar,
Dept. of Biological Science, University of Zimbabwe, 1987,
Harare.
Thiessen, R.J. 1975. Development in rural communities. Zambezi a
4(2):93-98.
Thompson, J.G. 1972. What is a Vlei? Rhod. Agric. J_j. Tech.
Bull. 15:153-154.
Walker, R.0. 1966. The dambo system of vegetable growing in the
Western Province. Farming in Zambia (July) pp. 22-23.
Waston, J. P. 1964. A soil catena on granite in Southern
Rhodesia. 1 - field observations II - analytical data J .
Soil Sci. 15:238-257.
Werger, M.J. A. and Coetzee, B.J. 1978. The Sudano - Zambezian
Region. In: M.J. A. Werger (ed.) Biogeography and ecology
of southern Africa - Dr. W. Junk, the Hague. pp. 301-462.
Whitlow, J.R. 1979. Bornhardt terrain on granitic rocks in
Zimbabwe: a preliminary assessment. Zam. Geog. J. 34:75-
94.
Whitlow, J.R. 1980. The morphology of two different vleis on the
highveld of Zimbabwe -Rhodesia. Zim-Rhodesia Agric. J .
(2):71-80.
815
Whitlow, J.R. 1983. Vlei cultivation in Zimbabwe - reflections
on the past. Zim. Agric. jK 80(3) : 123- 135.
Whitlow, J.R. 1984a. A survey of dambos in Zimbabwe. Zim. Agric.
jK 81(4):129-138.
Whitlow, J.R. 1984b. Some morphological characteristics of dambo
features in Zimbabwe. Trans. Zim. Sci. Assoc. 62(1): 1-15.
Whitlow, J.R. 1985. Dambos in Zimbabwe (a review): Z. Geomorph.
N.F. suppl. Bd. 52. Berlin-Stuttgart. pp. 115-146.
816
WORKSHOP SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The workshop was attended by nearly 90 delegates from twenty-two
countries of East, North, Southern, Central and West Africa with
52 papers presented in four sessions. The content of these
sessions was somewhat varied ranging from specifically forage to
specifically agricultural by-products but the majority of papers
addressed both forages and by-products together. This makes it
difficult to draw a line of distinction between the people and
subject matter with respect to their affiliation with either
PANESA or ARNAB networks.
In relation to by-products, there appeared from this meeting
that there was a move away from such treatments as
alkal i/ammonif ication as being very unrealistic from a
smallholder farmer's point of view to conserving to reduce
trampling spoilage and earlier harvesting of residues to reduce
spoilage by exposure. There is evidence of a growing realisation
that forage materials, particularly legumes, have a very
important supplementary role to play.
It is apparent from the number of presentations and from the
field trip to visit a smallholder rural dairy project outside
Lilongwe city, that grass forages play a very significant role in
meeting the nutritional demands of upgraded livestock for milk
production. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) was perhaps the
most important resource in this respect though Rhodes grass
(Chloris gayana) was also widely used on fallow lands. The
questions of long-term maintenance of soil fertility was not
squarely addressed. However, there is the danger of running into
competition for the fertility inputs which come largely from
manure, between the demands of crops and forages. In many cases
this was not being considered, except in one paper on the
transfer of technology related to Rhizobium and legume-nitrogen
economy, to the likely detriment of productivity and longevity
of the fodder resource and possibly also crop production.
While grass forages clearly have a role to play in their
capacity to produce bulk, which is often in short supply during
817
the wet season because of the intensity of land use for crop
production, there is the need for an overall strategy of quality
forage production using legumes to help maintain soil fertility
and during the dry season to supplement the quality of the
otherwise low-quality crop residues and agro- industrial by
products.
Then there was the question of lack of or minimal adoption
of research results due to socio-economic and poor research-
extension-farmer linkage.
The resolutions derived from the four working group sessions
on the last day of the workshop were:-
1. Despite the long history of research in both pasture and
agricultural by-products there has been little impact to the
small-scale farming systems. There are two possible reasons
for this: some of this research might have been
inappropriate; where research has been appropriate the
resultant technology had not been transferred to the farmers,
mainly due to weak extension service.
2. There is a need for continued monitoring and evaluation of
the relevancy and effectiveness of research programmes if we
are to deliver the goods to the farmers.
3. The extension services need to be strengthened if progress is
to be made in farmer adoption of research results. This may
be done through inter aliar improved linkages between
researchers and extension worker (through joint research),
involvement of networks in training extension staff and
improved university training in extension.
4. Land tenure systems in most countries militate against
improved pasture and animal management. There is, therefore,
a need to involve and advise the policy makers. The workshop
also highlighted the need for studies on ecosystems, grazing
studies and degradation of the environment, and integration
of soil conservation and forage production if sustainable
land-use systems are to be designed.
818
5. The availability of pasture seed was identified as a
constraint. This problem could be alleviated by importation
of seed in the short term, but ideally efforts should be made
to produce seed locally and at affordable prices. It will be
necessary to train farmers in seed production.
6. The important role of networks in co-ordinating research
programmes within and between our countries was acknowledged.
This may be facilitated by increased publication of Network
Newsletters collaborative research and manpower development
programmes.
7. There is a need for the authorities to provide conducive
pricing policies and credit facilities in form of inputs in
order to facilitate adoption of improved technologies by
farmers.
8. It is imperative that the nutritive characteristics of
available crop residues, by-products and pasture forages are
measured and information placed in data banks for use by all
interested parties. An inventory of the products and their
accessibility is necessary. The need for standardization of
terminology in describing food resources was also
high l ighted.
9. There is a need to develop appropriate experimental
methodologies for on-farm research so that both the
scientific merit and application of research results can be
accommodated.
10. Economic appraisal should form an integral part of all
research programmes.
11. Studies on feed resource budgeting and allocation should be
encouraged in order to facilitate design bf correct feeding
strategies.
12. Reviews on topical subjects should be commissioned by the
Steering Committee of the two networks in order to improve
access to information which may be scattered in numerous
publ i cat ions.
819
13. Commercial feed manufacturers should be encouraged to produce
stockfeeds from crop residues and agricultural by-products at
prices which are affordable to the small-scale farmers. It
may, however, be necessary to first investigate the
suitability of machinery.
14. There is a need to training in oral presentation of research
results by scientists, for instance, this may be offered as
part of training programmes put by Networks or ILCA.
15. Recommendations from previous workshops should be referred to
as most remain topical.
820
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
BOTSWANA Berhane Kiflewahid
Animal Production Research Unit
Department of Agriculture Research,
P. Bag 0033,
Gaberone.
Wame Mahabi le,
Animal Production Research Unit,
Department of Agriculture Research,
P. Bag 0033,
Gaberone.
BURKINA FASO K. Yilala,
OAU/STRC/SAFGRAD,
B.P. 1783,
Ouagadougou.
ETHIOPIA Lemma Biru,
Institute of Agricultural Research,
Adanifulu Research Centre.
Daniel Keftasa Dako,
Institute of Agricultural Research,
Kulumsa Research Centre,
P. 0. Box 11,
Kulumsa.
Alemu Tadesse,
Institute of Agricultural Research,
c/o P. 0. Box 2003,
Addis Ababa.
Asrat Wendem-Agehnehu,
International Livestock Centre for Africa,
(ILCA)
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
821
ETHIOPIA (Cont'd)
T.J. Ruredzo,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
J. Kahurananga,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
J.R. Lazier,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
A.N. Said,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
Eb Abiodum Olaloku,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
Getachew Gebru,
Department of Animal Science,
Alemaya University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 138,
Dire Dawa.
Beyene Chichaibelu,
Department of Animal Science,
Alemaya University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 138,
Dire Dawa.
822
ETHIOPIA (Cont'd)
J.C. Tothill,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
Zinash Sileshi,
Institute of Agricultural Research,
Holetta Research Centre,
B.S. Capper,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 5689,
Addis Ababa.
KENYA J. A. Kategile,
International Development Research Centre,
(IDRC),
P. 0. Box 62084,
Nai robi .
B.H. Dzowela,
PANESA Coordinating Unit,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 46847,
Nairobi .
J.G. N Juki ,
PANESA Coordinating Unit,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 46847,
Nai robi .
P.N. de Leeuw,
ILCA,
P. 0. Box 46847,
Nai robi .
823
KENYA (Cont'd)
A.B. Orodho,
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
Western Agricultural Research Station,
P. 0. Box 169,
Kakamega.
E.K. Maranga,
Egerton University,
P. 0. Box 536,
Njoro.
K. Otieno,
SR-CRSP,
P. 0. Box 252,
Maseno.
C.W. Mwendia,
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
National Agricultural Research Station,
Kitale,
P. 0. Box 450,
Kitale.
D.M.G. Njarui,
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
National Dryland Farming Research Station,
Katumani,
P. 0. Box 340,
Katumani .
F.P. Wandera,
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute,
National Dryland Farming Research Station,
Katumani ,
P. 0. Box 340,
Katumani .
824
KENYA (Cont'd)
M. Karachi,
ICRAF,
P. 0. Box 30655,
Nairobi .
A. Abate,
Department of Animal Production,
University of Nairobi,
P. 0. Box 29053,
Nai robi .
K.0. Adeneji,
OAU/IBAR,
P. 0. Box 30786,
Nairobi .
C.L. Amunyunzu,
P. 0. Box 340,
Lodwar.
C.A. Onyango,
Egerton University,
P. 0. Box 536,
Njoro.
GAMBIA Matarr Njie,
Department of Livestock Services,
Abuko.
GHANA A.K. Tuah,
Dept. of Animal Science,
University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi .
825
CAMEROON R.M. Njwe,
University Centre of Dschang,
B.P. 961,
Dschang.
R.B. Fombad,
IRZ-Mankon,
P. 0. Box 125,
Bamenda.
CONGO Jean Di amouangana,
DGRST,
B.P. 2499,
Brazzavi l le.
MALI A.K. Dial lo,
ILCA-MALI,
B.P. 60,
Bamako.
MALAWI M.S.L. Kumwenda,
Department of Agriculture Research,
Lunyangwa Research Station,
P. 0. Box 59,
Mzuzu.
D.J. Khonje,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Chitedze Research Station,
P. 0. Box 158,
Li long we.
A.W. Zimba,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Chitedze Research Station,
P. 0. Box 158,
Li longwe.
826
MALAWI (Cont'd)
J.T. Munthali,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Chitedze Research Station,
P. 0. Box 158,
Li long we.
H.D.C. Ms i ska,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Chitedze Research Station,
P. 0. Box 158,
Li long we.
D.R.B. Manda,
Department of Agricultural Research,
Ministry of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 30134,
Capital City,
Li longwe 3.
L.P. Nkhonjera,
Department of Animal Health and Industries,
P. 0. Box 30372,
Li longwe 3.
T.P.E. Makhambera,
University of Malawi,
Bunda College of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 219,
Li longwe.
L.A. Kamwanja,
University of Malawi,
Bunda College of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 219,
Li longwe.
827
MALAWI (Cont'd)
S.K. Kama,
University of Malawi,
Bunda College of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 219,
Li longwe.
L. Zawanda,
Malawi News Agency,
Li longwe.
V.E.K. Munthali,
Department of Information,
P. 0. Box 179,
Li longwe.
R. Chide,
Malawi Broadcasting Corporation,
P. 0. Box 162,
Li longwe.
C.C. Mkambeni,
Department of Information,
P. 0. Box 179,
Li longwe.
MADAGASCAR J.H. Rasambainari vo,
DRZV,
B.P. 4,
Antananarivo 101.
EGYPT M.A. Naga,
Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Alexandria,
Alexandria.
828
NIGERIA 0.B. Smith,
Department of Animal Science,
University of Ife,
Ife.
N. Egbunike,
Department of Animal Science,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.
A. A. Agdebola,
Department of Animal Science,
Abafemi Awolowo University,
Ife.
0.S. Onifade,
National Animal Production Research Institute,
Amadu Bel lo University,
P.M.B. 1096,
Zaria.
SENEGAL Safietou Fall,
ISRA-LNERN,
P. 0. Box 2057,
Dakar.
SOMALIA Nuh H. Sheikh,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Dept. of Animal Science,
P. 0. Box 801,
Mogadisho.
SWAZILAND B.H. Ogwang,
University of Swaziland,
P. 0. Luyengo.
SUDAN Ahmed El Wakeel,
West Sudan Agricultural Research Project,
P. 0. Box 125,
Khartoum.
829
SUDAM (Cont'd)
I.M. Hashim,
West Sudan Agricultural Research Project,
P. 0. Box 10,
Kadugl i .
T.A. Mohammed,
Dept. of Animal Science,
University of Khartoum,
P. 0. Box 32,
Khartoum North.
TANZANIA N.A. Urio,
Dept. of Animal Science,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
Martin Shem,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
Ntegua Mdoe,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
A . E . K i mambo ,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
R. S. Kidunda,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
830
TANZANIA (Cont'd)
E.J. Mtengeti,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
S.V. Sarwatt,
Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P. 0. Box 3004,
Morogoro.
M.L. Kusekwa,
Livestock Production Research Institute,
P/Bag Mpwapwa.
M.D. Mgowi,
Livestock Production Research Institute,
P/Bag Mpwapwa.
S.N. Bitende,
Livestock Research Centre,
P. 0. Box 5016,
Tanga.
P.E. Kapinga,
Livestock Research Centre,
P. 0. Box 5016,
Tanga.
K.M. Biwi,
Livestock Development,
P. 0. Box 159,
Zanzibar.
UGANDA F.B. Bareeba,
Dept. of Animal Science,
Makerere University,
P. 0. Box 7062,
Kampala.
831
UGANDA (Cont'd)
E.N. Sabiiti,
Crop Science Department,
Makerere University,
P. 0. Box 7062,
Kampala.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Sandra L. Russo,
Nutrition Laboratory - Building 477,
University of Florida,
Gainesville FL 32606.
ZAMBIA C.K. Kaonga,
Dept. of Agriculture,
National Irrigation Research Station,
P/Bag S-3,
Mazabuka.
ZIMBABWE Petrus Nyathi,
Dept. of Research and Specialist Services,
Makoholi Research Station,
P/Bag 9182,
Masvingo.
P. A. York,
Grasslands Research Station,
P. 0. Box 3701,
Marondera.
B. Manyuchi,
Grasslands Research Station,
P. 0. Box 3701,
Marondera.
Tim Smith,
Grasslands Research Station,
P. 0. Box 3701,
Marondera.
832
ZIMBABWE (Cont'd)
E. Nyamadzawo,
Henderson Research Station,
P/Bag 2004,
Mazowe.
S.C. Gupta,
ICRISAT/SADCC Centre,
P. 0. Box 776,
Bulawayo.
S. Sibanda,
Dept. of Animal Science,
University of Zimbabwe,
P. 0. Box MP 167,
Harare.
L.R. Ndlovu,
Dept. of Animal Science,
University of Zimbabwe,
P. 0. Box MP 167,
Harare.
833


 Printed at ILCA, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia