ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 11 March 2022
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.722522
Public Policies for the Development
of a Sustainable Cattle Sector in
Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica:
A Comparative Analysis (2010–2020)
Leonardo Moreno Lerma 1, Manuel Francisco Díaz Baca 2 and Stefan Burkart 2*
1 Independent Researcher, Cali, Colombia, 2 Alliance Bioversity International and CIAT, Cali, Colombia
Projected food demand increases highlight the importance of Latin America as one of
the big global future food suppliers, due to its agricultural potential, in particular regarding
cattle farming. Despite the importance of the cattle sector for the region, its negative
environmental impacts are numerous and the shift toward sustainability is perceived as
slow and uncoordinated. This study aims at identifying successes and difficulties in the
implementation of public policies for a sustainable cattle sector in Colombia, Argentina,
Edited by:
and Costa Rica. Based on the review of scientific articles, government reports, and
Lars Otto Naess,
Institute of Development Studies (IDS), publications of international organizations, a qualitative comparative analysis was carried
United Kingdom out, documenting the political developments between 2010 and 2020. Our findings
Reviewed by: suggest that public policies mainly focus on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
Rosina Soler,
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones and the implementation of silvo-pastoral systems. Common successes exist among the
Científicas y Técnicas three countries, e.g., a large number of public policies for promoting sustainable cattle
(CONICET), Argentina farming or the inclusion of goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and implement
Chrystian Camilo Sosa Arango,
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana silvo-pastoral systems, but they also coincide in difficulties, e.g., disconnection between
Cali, Colombia policies and the lack of continuity of development programs. The efforts made with
*Correspondence: regional and national public policies, in addition to legislative advances, can be seen
Stefan Burkart
s.burkart@cgiar.org as initial steps in a long-term process toward sustainable cattle farming, and thus,
recommendations are provided for increasing their success at different stages, from
Specialty section: the identification of the problem to its evaluation, particularly in the face of financing
This article was submitted to
difficulties, disconnection among policies and initiatives, and participation of citizens and
Climate-Smart Food Systems,
a section of the journal livestock producers.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems
Keywords: public policies, sustainable intensification, cattle, silvo-pastoral systems, climate change
Received: 08 June 2021
Accepted: 11 February 2022
Published: 11 March 2022
INTRODUCTION
Citation:
Lerma LM, Díaz Baca MF and Framework of Reference
Burkart S (2022) Public Policies for the Latin America and the Caribbean plays an essential role in the global cattle industry since it
Development of a Sustainable Cattle contributes with more than 25% to the global beef and 10% to the global milk supply (CEPAL,
Sector in Colombia, Argentina, and
2017). The cattle sector generates both external and internal benefits, as it supports both the region’s
Costa Rica: A Comparative Analysis
(2010–2020). and global food security and contributes to the economy of the countries, highlighting the need to
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:722522. increase the efforts to preserve the growth of the sector (Núñez et al., 2015). Cattle production
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.722522 in the region not only goes back a long way, but also appears to be facing a promising future.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 722522
Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
The Inter-American Development Bank (BID, 2018) projects y Ministerio de Agricultura de la República Dominicana, 2016;
a growth in global meat production by 100% until 2050, Buitrago Guillen et al., 2018). Murgueitio et al. (2014) add that
considering the global population growth—a scenario that the presence of trees and shrubs contributes to mitigating climate
would favor Latin American cattle producers due to the change through mechanisms such as increased carbon deposits
region’s geographical position, experience, and human and in the soil and lower nitrogen losses. They also state that the use
natural resources. of silvo-pastoral systems can increase beef production levels by
Despite the importance of the sector for the region and 12 and 4.5 times, compared to extensive grazing and improved
its growth potential, the environmental effects of traditional pastures without trees, respectively, while methane emissions per
or conventional cattle production systems are multiple and unit beef product are 1.8 times lower.
include e.g., impacts on water sources, soil resources, a loss The implementation of such actions or innovations requires
of biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions (IDB, 2018). The the commitment of different actors along the beef and dairy
principal greenhouse gases generated by the cattle sector are value chains, service providers (e.g., for credit, extension), and,
methane (CH4), produced in the enteric fermentation process of above all, the support from the public sector. In this regard,
cattle, carbon dioxide (CO2), resulting from land-use and land- this study differentiates between governmental policies and public
use changes, and nitrous oxide (N2O), emitted during manure policies. Governmental policies are all the actions carried out by
and slurry management (Rao et al., 2015). The cattle sector a government at different levels (e.g., national, departmental, or
contributes significantly to global warming and climate change municipal) in response to social problems, without considering
because of deforestation for feed and forage crops, degradation citizen participation. Public policies, although part of the
of pastures and greenhouse gas emissions from cattle production previous ones, are more complex processes that involve a strong
(Abbasi et al., 2015). intervention of the communities and involve four stages: (i)
This has led to discussions about the transition from a identification of the problem, (ii) design of the policy, (iii)
conventional to a sustainable cattle sector. A sustainable implementation, and (iv) evaluation (Arias and Herrera, 2012).
cattle sector is characterized as economically viable for Yalmanov (2021) delves into this differentiation by pointing out
farmers, respectful of the environment, and socially accepted that public policies cannot be reduced to a technical function
(Varijakshapanicker et al., 2019). Related to this is the concept of governments, but rather are complex dynamics influenced
of sustainable intensification, understood as an approach that by socio-political forces that alter both processes and results.
uses innovations to strengthen agricultural productivity, while Likewise, it is necessary to consider the existence of individuals
reducing the environmental footprint (e.g., greenhouse gas and groups that try to shape public policies in search of their
emissions), promoting ecosystem services (e.g., soil quality particular interests, thus constituting a power struggle (Cochran
improvements, reduced erosion, increased biodiversity) and and Malone, 2014).
supporting social development of rural communities (Rao et al., To understand how governments support and manage such
2015).The challenge is to provide quality food for a growing processes, it is necessary to have an in-depth look at how they
human population, while managing to reduce the negative have responded to social demands in the past, i.e., through
environmental impacts caused by food production (Tedeschi the implementation of policies. This is precisely the objective
et al., 2015). In this regard, sustainable intensification is not of this article: to identify successes and difficulties in the
reduced to specific practices, but rather involves heterogeneous implementation of public policies for the development of a
processes and therefore, its implementation requires adjusting to sustainable cattle sector in Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica
the different agricultural systems and socioeconomic conditions between the years 2010–2020. The selection of these countries
of the target populations (Xie et al., 2019). takes into consideration that they present different social and
To achieve sustainable intensification, it is necessary to economic realities, which allows for a comparative analysis. The
implement a broad set of different actions and innovations, such countries were also selected because of the strong efforts they
as the use of environmentally responsible technologies, already made toward the transition to a sustainable cattle sector,
the implementation of silvo-pastoral systems, or good evidenced by the existence of e.g., multi-actor platforms for
animal husbandry practices, among others (Departamento sustainable cattle (in Colombia and Argentina) or the carbon-
Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, 2015). Silvo-pastoral neutrality objective set by the Costa Rican government. It is
systems are defined as the integrated use of grasses, legumes, worthwhile to answer the question why this study is justified.
forage shrubs and trees in livestock production systems. There Primarily, because it adjusts to the reality of a global climate
exist different types of them, which include e.g., trees in pastures crisis that requires concrete actions, such as public policies,
(living fences, scattered trees, and forest area), protein banks and for both adaptation and mitigation. Likewise, the study is
shrubs, or the integration of fruit and timber trees. The benefits justified to the extent that the evaluation of such policies
of silvo-pastoral systems are diverse and range from productivity generates knowledge that can allow their reformulation in the
increases (more forage biomass and higher nutritional quality), medium- and long-term, overcoming the difficulties identified
animal welfare (e.g., reduced heat stress, better diet), income in pursuit of sustainability objectives. The study thus serves as a
increases and diversification (e.g., more meat and milk, fruits reference document for various actors, such as national and local
or timber), to environmental benefits such as better rainwater governments, cattle producers, and value chain actors, and helps
capture, soil protection and recovery, biodiversity conservation, in the design, implementation, and evaluation of existing and
and greenhouse gas emissions reductions, among others (IICA future policies.
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
This article is structured as follows: Section Materials and deforestation hotspots), forests have almost disappeared in El
Methods explains the methodological approach used; Section Salvador (Sanhueza and Antonissen, 2014).
Results provides first insights into the successes and difficulties of Apart from the abovementioned implications of the cattle
implementing policies in the three countries of analysis, namely sector on climate change and environmental degradation, climate
Colombia, Argentina and Costa Rica; Section Comparative change itself is also affecting the cattle sector, resulting in a need
Analysis and Discussion deals with the comparative analysis for climate change adaptation strategies and policies. Changes
of the results among the three countries and a corresponding in the global climate affect the quality of water and animal
discussion; in Section Conclusions the conclusions of this study feed, influence the physiological conditions of cattle, and lead to
are presented; and Section Recommendations for Public Policy extreme climatic events (e.g., drought, flooding), among others,
provides useful recommendations for a broad set of stakeholders. all contributing to variations in productivity and a reduction
of areas suitable for cattle production. These ambivalent
The Latin American Cattle Sector interactions between cattle farming and climate change, in
The Latin American cattle sector currently faces a series of addition to environmental problems caused by other economic
circumstances that determine its development and, consequently, sectors, have led the Latin American countries to adhere to
the public policies that govern it. Among these, productivity environmental commitments, such as the Paris Agreement in
increases to meet the growing demand for animal-source food, 2015. In general terms, the treaty seeks to control the future
climate change and the search for environmental sustainability temperature increases, protect food production systems, and
stand out (CEPAL, 2015; FAO, 2019). promote sustainable agricultural production systems (FAO,
Regarding cattle production and productivity increases, beef 2019). The Latin American countries have also subscribed to
production in the western hemisphere had a recent displacement the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) promoted by the
toward South America, resulting from a reduction in cattle United Nations, which contain 17 goals that aim at guaranteeing
numbers and several years of droughts that affected both the prosperity at a global level. All goals set for the 2015–2030 period
United States and almost all of the Central American countries, include components related to the livestock sector, in particular
mainly El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, but also to a lesser sustainable cities and communities, responsible production and
extent Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. Between 2000 and consumption, climate action, and life in terrestrial ecosystems
2013, Latin America doubled its beef exports, with exemplary (ONU, 2021).
cases such as Uruguay and Paraguay that exported almost It should be noted that, beyond the aforementioned factors,
two-thirds of what was produced (CEPAL, 2015). However, the livestock sector in the region is complex and affected by
this contrasts with the situation on Argentina over the same multiple elements. These range from the economic liberalization
period, whose cattle sector was affected by the 2008 drought processes of the 1980s and 1990s that still lead to repercussions,
and the sale of cattle in 2009, which caused a 44% drop such as job insecurity and the excessive use of natural resources
in its beef exports (CEPAL, 2015), although with a notable (FAO, 2013; Rojas Villagra et al., 2015), to issues such as political
recovery since 2015 (Cano, 2019). Although the United States uncertainty, foreign investments, production technologies and
have managed to overcome the drought-related crisis and are animal diseases (CEPAL, 2017).
now again an important competitor at the global level, beef
production volumes are almost 70% higher in Latin America.
For their part and despite the signing of free trade agreements, MATERIALS AND METHODS
the competitiveness of countries in Central America are lagging
behind due to a negative perception of their animal health and To address the proposed objective, we decided to write a review
food safety systems (CEPAL, 2017). Brazil is the beef export article with a qualitative-descriptive approach. Literature review
leader in the region, contributing 19.3% of the global beef trade was used as the main data collection technique. In the analysis
(SAGARPA, 2018). The highlighted increases in beef production we related fragmented knowledge, contrasted different sources,
and exports in Latin American countries has also led to a greater and updated the existing literature, aiming at clarifying the state
co-responsibility for mitigating climate change. Regarding the of the art of public policies that have promoted the development
adverse effects of cattle production on the environment, the fact of a sustainable cattle sector. We selected three Latin American
that the region generates 30% of the greenhouse gas emissions of countries, namely Colombia, Argentina and Costa Rica and
the global cattle sector stands out (FAO, 2019). This is further focused on the analysis of policies implemented during the years
aggravated by the on-going deforestation, which, in addition 2010–2020. This selection corresponds to the efforts made by
to contributing to generating greenhouse gas emissions, causes the countries to develop a sustainable cattle sector: all of them
the extinction of hundreds of species of flora and fauna and have ratified the Paris Agreement and adopted the Sustainable
the destruction of ecosystems. In Central America the situation Development Goals (SDGs), and both Colombia and Argentina
is particularly worrying since the forest area had a reduction have implemented roundtables for sustainable cattle. For its part,
of 40% between 1960 and 2000 (FAO, 2010). Regarding Latin Costa Rica has set out the goal of achieving carbon neutrality,
America as a whole, the scenarios vary depending on the climatic, which stands out at the Latin American level. It is also noteworthy
historical, political, and economic conditions of each country. that, despite the efforts mentioned, in the three countries the
While in Brazil, for example, there still exist large forest areas agricultural sector is the main cause of GHG emissions (Banco
in the Amazon (which at the same time is one of the global Mundial, 2014), which shows the importance of investigating
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
their public policies to understand how they have faced both regions they are aimed at for respective national cattle sector of
this and other environmental problems. Brazil is excluded from each country were selected.
the study despite being the largest exporter of beef in the region
(SAGARPA, 2018), since it still has excessively high figures RESULTS
of deforestation and GHG emissions (Observatorio do Clima,
2020), which contrasts with the progress made by the three Colombia
selected countries, where, despite room for improvement, a Context
relatively favorable outlook is observed. This, however, does not Unliske many other Latin American countries and despite the
state that Brazil does not have laws or public policies oriented internal armed conflict that lasted for more than 60 years,
toward achieving sustainability of its cattle sector, but rather that Colombia has a relatively stable political and economic system.
the study prioritized slightly more successful experiences that The first neoliberal reforms were presented in the 1980s and
allow it to be a point of reference for other countries. consolidated in 1989 with the Washington Consensus, including
Data collection was carried out from January to May 2021 elements such as a reduction of the role of the State in
and prioritized three types of data sources: (A) Scientific articles, social intervention, privatizing public institutions and promoting
which were especially used for defining concepts and theoretical private ownership and enterprises (Tejedor Estupiñán, 2012).
principles regarding sustainable cattle, particularly but not With a more or less rigorous application of these principles,
exclusively in the introduction. (B) Government reports and all national governments have since then followed the same
other official documents, which include publications of national guideline, without making abrupt changes. It is within this
and local governments, ministries, secretaries, congresses, and framework that the various economic sectors have developed,
other public entities of the respective countries. National and including the agricultural and livestock sectors.
local public policies were searched in these documents (including Regarding the cattle sector, its contribution to the national
budget figures and intervened areas), and the legislation economy is highlighted by generating 1.1 million jobs, which is
promoted in each of the contexts addressed. They were used equivalent to 6% of the national employment (Fedegán, 2021).
in both the results and analysis sections. (C) Publications by With ∼35 million hectares, the sector uses most of the available
international organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture land for agricultural purposes, most of it under extensive cattle
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Economic ranching systems (Banco Mundial, 2019). In relation to this
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL), figure, the Rural Agricultural Planning Unit (UPRA, 2015) has
and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture stated that the sector exceeds the maximum amount of land use
(IICA). Such sources were consulted to contrast the official by 15 million hectares, making it necessary to rethink the rural
figures and positions of the countries, specifically in the analysis land use. Colombia is the 17th largest beef producer in the world
section. Among the three categories, 115 sources were cited. and contributes with 1.2% of the global beef supply. Exports to
With the aim of presenting a picture as complete as possible countries from the Middle East, Russia, and Vietnam, however,
of each of the studied scenarios, the results considered five make up only 4% of the overall production volume while the
factors, namely (i) the context, (ii) National Development Plans, rest is consumed domestically (Venugopal et al., 2021). Despite
(iii) legislative advances, (iv) multi-sector initiatives, and (v) the occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the fear of its
regional policies. At the end of the section corresponding to implications on the sector, beef export figures showed a positive
each country, a table-summary of successes and difficulties in development at the end of 2020, with 3,247 tons of beef exported
the implementation of public policies is presented (Tables 2, 4, in September, exceeding the figures in the same months of 2019
6). These arise from the authors’ own interpretation, considering (1,681 tons) and 2018 (1,899 tons) (Fedegán, 2021).
the five elements previously exposed, while at the same time To this extent, the public policies addressed are located in
allowing the formulation of a set of recommendations for the a scenario where two characteristics stand out: (i) the stability
development of the different stages of the policies (Table 7). of the political-economic model for more than three decades,
Regarding the analysis, to evaluate the impact of the public and (ii) a cattle sector that, despite its limited international
policies described in each of the three scenarios, figures related to importance, is fundamental at the national level in terms of job
deforestation, GHG emissions and conservation of natural areas creation and food security.
were consulted.
Hernández et al. (2014) describe that in qualitative studies, National Development Plans
the research process is holistic, since it is not reduced to the During the last decade, the different national governments
analysis of the parts, but rather addresses the whole picture. of Colombia have indicated the importance of environmental
This was especially important for the present study, as it sought protection as the basis of their policies. In this regard, the
to understand how the set of policies have contributed to National Development Plan 2010–2014 stated that environmental
the transition toward a sustainable cattle sector. Despite the sustainability should be a priority and an essential practice for
qualitative focus of this research, the importance of quantitative the wellbeing and equity of future generations (DNP, 2011). For
information was not neglected. In turn, it is necessary to point out the 2014–2018 period, this premise continued, emphasizingmore
that, due to the breadth of identified policies and the complexity strongly the importance of protecting natural reserves, regulating
of exposing them in their entirety, those with the greatest impact land use and preventing socio-environmental conflicts (DNP,
in terms of budgets, intervened areas, and importance of the 2015). The current National Development Plan for the period
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
FIGURE 1 | Actors involved in the design and execution of public policies in Colombia.
2018–2022 adds to that a long-term project perspective, which Multi-Sector Initiatives
allows achieving the SDGs by 2030 (DNP, 2019). As a further effort to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate
change, multi-sector initiatives have emerged in Colombia, such
Legislative Advances as the National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change and the
Although the legislative framework for the cattle sector is Colombian Strategy for Low Carbon Development (ECDBC). In
very broad and involves elements such as animal welfare and the same sense, but focusing entirely on the cattle sector, the
marketing there are three regulations that stand out in the Colombian Roundtable for Sustainable Cattle (MGS-Col, made
period of analysis for their influence on the sector in terms up of one national and 12 regional roundtables, was established
of sustainability: in 2014 and is an inter-institutional space where the public
• Decree 870: Establishes the framework for payments for and private sectors, academy and NGOs converge with the aim
ecosystem services, in addition to other incentives for of being a benchmark in the design and implementation of
conservation (Presidencia de la República de Colombia, 2017). sustainable cattle programs and policies, capacity building in
• Law 1876: Creates the National Agricultural Innovation rural areas, inter-institutional exchange and link with global
System (SNIA) with the purpose of improving the productivity initiatives such as the Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef
and sustainability of the national agricultural sector (Congreso (GRSB) (Figure 1). Recently, the MGS-Col presented a technical
de la República de Colombia, 2017). proposal for the formulation of a national level sustainable
• Law 1931: Establishes guidelines for the management of cattle policy to the Ministry of Agriculture, which is now under
climate change in the decisions of public and private entities revision. Among the objectives of this proposal is the promotion
(Congreso de la República de Colombia, 2018). of the cattle sector from the green growth paradigm and the
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
TABLE 1 | Overview on the objectives and geographical reach of the Departmental Agricultural Extension Plans (PDEA) in Colombia.
Department Objectives related to sustainable cattle farming Source
Antioquia - Increase productivity, competitiveness, and sustainability in coordination with rural actors Gobernación de Antioquia, 2020
Boyacá - Promote the development of productive systems aimed at the conservation and proper management of Gobernación de Boyacá, 2020
natural resources
Casanare - Improve the competitiveness and sustainability of the sector Asamblea Departamental de
- Strengthen the contribution to food security and the development of the agricultural producer as an integral Casanare, 2020
human being
Cauca - Develop skills in producers to increase the knowledge base and support behavioral change with the aim of improving Gobernación del Cauca, 2020
competitiveness and sustainability
Cesar - Strengthen the capacities of producers to make decisions about their agricultural production systems, so that they Gobernación del Cesar, 2020
can develop processes that respect the ecosystem
Guainía - Improve cattle production facilities for associations in the department Gobernación del Guainía, 2019
- Complement and articulate actions through the project “Implementation of a comprehensive and fair rural extension
plan”
- Raise awareness about cattle regulations
Santander - Encourage producers to use water resources efficiently and develop soil conservation practices Secretaría de Agricultura de
Santander, 2020
Vichada - Increase the profitability of the cattle sector through genetic improvement, balanced nutrition and more and better Gobernación del Vichada, 2020
pastures
- Reduce the negative environmental impacts of traditional cattle farming through the development of low carbon
cattle systems and silvo-pastoral systems
conservation of the environment and natural resources (Mesa de and the foothills of Magdalena Medio and the Orinoco, where
Ganadería Sostenible Colombia, 2019). Likewise, it is pertinent pilots have been carried out on integrating live fences, forage
to refer to the zero deforestation value chains initiative for beef hedges and mixed forage banks into the traditional livestock
and dairy, which is part of the Zero Deforestation Agreements systems (Lozano, 2020; Colombia Sostenible, 2021).
contemplated in the National Development Plan for 2018– Finally, as one of the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
2022. The initiative, understood as a voluntary commitment Actions (NAMAs), the Colombian Sustainable Cattle NAMA
to collective action among the public and private sectors, is being developed among a broad group of stakeholders.
commits the involved entities to stopping cattle-farming-related This future policy will be focused on involving public-private
deforestation and, at the same time, developing processes of sector participation, addressing the mitigation of climate change
ecological restoration, such as the reestablishment of a degraded through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as well as
areas, among others (Alianza Colombia TFA, 2021). an increase of carbon sequestration (Ministerio de Ambiente
Another multi-sector initiative was the Sustainable Colombian y Desarrollo Sostenible, 2019). Its actions will impact 434
Cattle Project (GCS), executed from 2010 to 2019 and municipalities and 3.6 million hectares (Banco Mundial et al.,
financed by World Bank, the Global Environment Fund, 2021).
the Government of the United Kingdom, which aimed at
strengthening the Colombian cattle production through the Sub-national Regional Level Public Policies
integration of environmentally friendly practices. Among the Parallel to the above-mentioned initiatives, there also exist
specific objectives of this project were e.g., the transformation various public policies implemented at the regional level. Among
of 35,500 hectares of traditional production systems into silvo- these, the Departmental Agricultural Extension Plans (PDEA)
pastoral systems, the preservation of 15 hectares of native stand out, which, although they are still in the initial phase of
forests, the development of payment schemes for ecosystem design and implementation, are macro level policies that define
services, the creation of forage nurseries, and technical assistance the provision of agricultural extension at departmental level
for 3,900 cattle farms to support sustainable intensification (Table 1). For the transition toward sustainable cattle systems,
efforts (Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible, 2018). The Integral credit is needed. The Colombian government launched a credit
Program for Productive and Environmental Reconversion of the line program for silvo-pastoral systems in 2020, which is being
Cattle Sector (PIRPAG), whose objective is to support the implemented at a regional level (mainly in 82 municipalities) and
transition of the national cattle sector toward sustainability seeks to promote sustainable practices, such as the conservation
over a period of 30 years, is another example of multi-actor of biodiversity and the protection of water and soil resources,
initiatives in Colombia. It focuses on the modification of in the different cattle regions of the country. The credits are
traditional cattle landscapes into more productive systems that directed to the purchase and planting of tree species and the
include environmental commitments, allowing for a reduction implementation of living fences, among others, and is the first
and capture of greenhouse gas emissions. The initiative works in initiative in this regard (Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo
several selected regions, such as the humid and dry Caribbean Rural, 2020).
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
National Level Public Policies TABLE 2 | Successes and difficulties in the implementation of public policies in
In 2019, the 2018–2022 Agricultural and Rural Development Colombia.
Policy: a field for equity was launched. This policy aims Successes Stability of the political-economic system for more than three
at promoting agricultural competitiveness and productive decades
transformation based on three pillars: (i) rural development, Continuity of the promotion of a sustainable cattle sector in the
(ii) productivity + profitability = competitiveness, and (iii) National Development Plans
modern and technical institutions. The sustainability component Existence of a national level Roundtable for Sustainable Cattle
is in the second pillar and has the objective of positioning Strong progress in the formulation of a national level public policy
the country as leading actor at international level, boosting on sustainable cattle
employment, diversifying the productive offer, and encouraging Promotion of silvo-pastoral systems through on regional and
environmentally responsible production practices. To achieve national policies
this, farm planning, the establishment of silvo-pastoral systems, Existence of a credit line for the establishment of silvo-pastoral
systems
the division of pasture areas and the use of aqueducts that
Difficulties The national public policy framework is still very young and at its
prevent contamination of water sources by animals, are the
early stages
most prominent approaches. The National Conversion Strategy
The Departmental Agricultural Extension Plans are still very young
focuses on three main objectives: (i) technology (access and and at their early stages, and they also do not exist for all
implementation), (ii) agricultural extension (in correspondence departments with relevance to the cattle sector
with Law 1876 of 2017), and (iii) financial instruments. In Insufficient coordination between national and regional level public
addition to these objectives, the policy aims at establishing a pilot policies
cattle farm in each of the country’s cattle regions (Antioquia, Lack of clear budgets to carry out some of the policies, particularly
Boyacá, Caquetá, Cauca, Humid Caribbean (Córdoba and from the National Development Plan and the Departmental
Agricultural Extension Plans
Sucre), Coffee Triangle and northern Valle del Cauca, Guajira,
Different levels of acceptance of public policies by producers,
Magdalena Medio, Nariño, Orinoquía (plains), Orinoquía
many of whom relate sustainable cattle farming with the need for
(flooded savannas), and Tolima-Huila), and at strengthening economic investment
the 12 regional roundtables. Once the initial network has
been completed, progress will be made so that in 2022, the
implementation of silvo-pastoral systems on 75,000 ha in
25,000 properties will be achieved (Ministerio de Agricultura y 2015, Argentina has had two governments with opposing
Desarrollo Rural, 2019). views, with clear tendencies toward the former development
models: between 2015 and 2019, liberal policies adjusted to
Successes and Difficulties in the Implementation of the requirements of the International Monetary Fund were
Public Policies prioritized (Morresi and Vicente, 2019), while in 2019, the path
From the reading and analysis of the aforementioned policies, that started in 2003 was resumed (Scaletta, 2020).
it is possible to identify a set of successes and difficulties Regarding the cattle sector, a reactivation was sought in 2015
in their implementation (Table 2). Successes and difficulties with the lifting of various obstacles, such as export controls
arise both from the political and economic context, as well as and interventions in the internal market (Patrouilleau et al.,
from the content of the policies and the relationship between 2017). According to recent figures, the Argentinian cattle herd
them. The existence of macro policies stands out, such as the counts approximately 53 million heads (Secretaría de Gobierno
National Development Plans and legislative advances, but also do de Agroindustria de la Nación, 2019). Despite the increase in beef
regional programs with specific objectives, facilitating short-term sales on the international market, particularly to China, and the
implementation, monitoring and evaluation. One of the main decline in domestic demand for beef due to high inflation and
successes is the promotion of silvo-pastoral systems, which is lower wages, domestic consumption continues to be the basis
strengthened by the creation of a specific credit line. Financial of the sector. Argentina has recovered its privileged position in
resources are precisely one of the main problems since some the global beef market, occupying the fifth place in production
policies show a lack of clarity on how to finance their objectives. and fourth in exports (Cano, 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic,
although having effects on the sector, did not slow the growth
Argentina rate significantly and by October 2020, 730,000 tons of beef had
Context been exported (Villamil, 2020). An additional aspect to highlight
In recent decades, the political, economic and social narratives is the expansion of the agricultural frontier, particularly resulting
for development pathways of Argentina have been determined from plantations of monocultures such as soy. Their growth has
by two clearly differentiable and opposed development models: displaced livestock, pushing it to less productive lands and into
the first, established between 1990 and 2002, gave a fundamental forests (Pincén et al., 2010).
role to foreign investment and was characterized by an outward- In summary, a context is revealed in which the changes in
oriented economy; the second, between 2003 and 2015, appealed the political model and economic instability are elements of great
to a state with greater regulation of markets, internal savings, influence on the cattle sector, despite the preservation of growth
food production with social inclusion and strengthening of and export levels making Argentina one of the global leaders
commercial ties at the regional level (Taraborrelli, 2017). Since for beef.
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National Development and Land-Use Management has more than 40 members committed to the development
Plans of specific goals, such as proposing innovations in inputs
The Participative Federal Agri-food and Agroindustry Strategic and services, anticipating the response to market trends, and
Plan for 2010–2016 presented some of the challenges the promoting the improvement of the beef value chain (MACS,
Argentinian cattle sector was facing, such as a water deficit and 2021). Another multi-sector initiative is Carne del Pastizal,
drought in 2008, which obliged cattle farmers to sell their animals which has the objective to stimulate cattle production based
earlier than planned (lack of feed and water) and led to lower calf on practices that respect biodiversity, in addition to generating
birth rates in 2009, among others. To counteract these problems, positive impacts in economic and social terms. One of its main
the plan proposed that by 2015 all national policies should achievements was the export of certified grass-fed beef to Europe
integrate the principles of sustainable development and thus (INTA, 2014). At this point, it is worth mentioning that there
reverse the loss of natural resources (Ministerio de Agricultura exists no policy for the cattle sector yet that properly responds
Ganadería y Pesca, 2010). For its part, the Territorial Strategic to the NAMA concept, although (see subchapters below) there
Plan (PET), launched in 2011, recognized the cattle sector as are various actions aimed at reducing the sector’s greenhouse
cause of desertification, particularly through pasture overgrazing. gas emissions according to the NDCs defined at the COP21 in
Although the plan did not delve into the cattle sector, it proposed Paris in 2015 (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y
that all citizens need to achieve environmental sustainability and Enseñanza, 2019).
included the promotion of a sustainable productive development
in the guidelines for territorial and land-use planning in rural Sub-national Regional Level Public Policies
areas (Ministerio de Planificación Federal Inversión Pública y Regarding the traditional cattle provinces in Argentina, it
Servicios, 2011). The National Policy and Strategy for Territorial is necessary to refer to four important policies (Table 3).
Development and Planning, launched in 2016, defined the In these, the importance of protecting grasslands, good
achievement of an environmentally sustainable society as the animal husbandry practices, and sustainable grazing stand out.
main objective, for which it proposed a series of strategies, such Likewise, the policies consider the quality of life of ranchers
as improving knowledge about natural resources and including and productivity, jointly exposing a sustainability project
the environmental dimension as a transversal axis in public in which economic benefits and environmental guarantees
territorial policies and actions at the federal, provincial and local are integrated.
levels (Ministerio de Planificación Federal Inversión Pública y
Servicios, 2016). National Level Public Policies
With the aim of finding solutions to make forests profitable for
Legislative Advances their owners and, at the same time, provide goods and services
Although there are several laws that directly and indirectly to the society, the National Management Plan for Forests with
influence the Argentinian cattle sector and its sustainable Integrated Cattle (MBGI) was launched in 2015, responding to
development, three stand out in this regard: Law 26.331 of 2007 and promoting the design and monitoring
of forests with integrated cattle, as well as the implementation
• Law 26.331, Minimum Budgets for Environmental Protection of of silvo-pastoral systems (Presidencia de la Nación Argentina,
Native Forests: promotes the sustainable management of forest 2018). As pointed out by Borrás et al. (2017), the plan is an
reserves, in addition to creating the National Fund for the agreement that seeks to articulate national, provincial, productive
Enrichment and Conservation of Native Forests (Congreso de and conservation public policies. The National Program on
la Nación Argentina, 2007). Natural Resources, Environmental Management and Eco-regions
• Law 27.066. Regime for the Promotion of Cattle Production (PNNAT), developed in 2015, aims at contributing to the
in Arid and Semi-arid Zones: aims at increasing the supply protection of the environment in the agricultural sector through
of bovine livestock (by-)products, which follow the principle a progressive improvement of sustainability in rural areas and
of environmental balance (Congreso de la Nación Argentina, production systems. Regarding cattle, two projects of the plan
2014). focus on the measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and
• Law 27.520. Law of Minimum Budgets for Adaptation to wastewater treatment, through which it is intended to contribute
and Mitigation of the Global Climate Change: establishes to both prevention and environmental remediation based on
strategies that allow guaranteeing human and environmental methodological tools for diagnosis and evaluation, technology
development. Article 24, in particular, refers to practices to development, among other measures (INTA, 2017). As one of
mitigate climate change linked to the agricultural and livestock the most important public policy instruments at the national
sector (Congreso de la Nación Argentina, 2019). level, Rural Change II, Innovation, and Investment (CRII) stands
out. The program emerged in 1993 but was relaunched in
Multi-Sector Initiatives 2013 with the objective to support the association of small
One of the principal multi-sector initiatives is the Argentine and medium-sized enterprises, agri-food, and agroindustry
Sustainable Beef Board (MACS), an association of public and to strengthen the sector. For smallholder cattle producers,
private entities, NGOs, academia, and other organizations (e.g., which are the main group of beneficiaries of the initiative,
input and service providers), with the aim of promoting an improvement plan instrument was developed that contains
sustainability policies for the cattle sector (Figure 2). It currently an environmental sustainability component, in which aspects
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
FIGURE 2 | Actors involved in the design and execution of public policies in Argentina.
TABLE 3 | Overview on the provincial cattle plans of Argentina.
Province Objectives related to sustainable cattle farming Source
Buenos Aires, Pastures and Savannas of the Southern Cone of South America: initiatives for their conservation in Miñarro and Marino, 2013
Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Argentina (2010):
and Santa Fe - To promote sustainable cattle ranching in grasslands by integrating environmental conservation practices
into agricultural production.
Santa Fé Santafesino Cattle Plan (2018): Ministerio de Producción Ciencia
- Launched with the purpose of generating suitable conditions for the growth of cattle production and the y Tecnología, 2018
adoption of good animal husbandry practices.
- Overarching purpose of guaranteeing the quality of life of the Santa Fé citizens and the sustainability of
the sector.
Entre Ríos Enterriano Cattle Plan (2020): Ministerio de Producción
- Beef differentiation and certification. Turismo y Desarrollo Económico,
- Implementation of good animal husbandry practices. 2020; Secretaría de Agricultura y
Ganadería, 2020
Neuquén Plan Ganadero Bovino Provincial (2021): Gobernación de Neuquén, 2021
- Implementation of technologies in the management of grasslands and water.
- Development and dissemination of sustainable grazing techniques.
- Improvement of the meadow productivity.
- Strengthening the adaptability to environmental changes.
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TABLE 4 | Successes and difficulties in the implementation of public policies in by low inflation and stable exchange rates, as well as an
Argentina. internationally competitive export sector. However, there are lags
in infrastructure, which affect the different productive sectors
Successes National Development Plan with an environmental sustainability
component and, particularly, green economy efforts (Gobierno de Costa Rica,
Existence of laws that promote forest protection, environmental 2019).
balance, and climate change mitigation strategies The Costa Rican cattle sector is present all over the country,
Development of multi-sector initiatives that promote sustainable with major concentration in the regions Huetar Norte (34%),
beef production Chorotega (22%) and Central (15%), while Brunca (12 %),
Existence of the Argentine Sustainable Beef Board the Caribbean (9%), and the Central Pacific (8%) regions are
National public policies articulated with the provinces less important (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019).
Regional policies that promote the adoption of silvo-pastoral The cattle sector generates annual profits of close to US$ 1.5
systems and good animal husbandry practices billion and involves 500,000 people, highlighting its social and
Difficulties Environmental conditions that affected and still affect the cattle economic importance (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería,
sector 2017). According to the National Institute of Statistics and
High political instability that has led to changes in the development Censuses (INEC, 2020), the country’s cattle herd counts with
model
∼1,600,000 animals, out of which 15.4% correspond to dairy
Increased inflation and unstable exchange rate
cattle, 62.7% to beef cattle, 21.7% to dual-purpose cattle and 0.2%
Decrease in wages and reduction in national beef consumption
to cattle used for farm work. In terms of beef exports, China and
Unequal implementation of the MGBI in the provinces
the United States are the most important buyers. In 2019, China
imported 14,014 tons of beef with a value of US$ 56.72 million,
representing 57% of Costa Rica’s beef export volume (Barquero,
such as the use of agrochemicals and good water management 2020). The United States bought 23% of the beef export volume
are included (Ministerio de Agricultura Ganadería y Pesca, in the same year for a value of US$ 26.5 million (Procomer,
2013). 2020). It is important tomention that the livestock sector remains
stable despite the crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic,
Successes and Difficulties in the Implementation of which is due to factors such as the productive system, local
Public Policies consumption, and the use of national productive inputs (Garza,
As highlighted in Table 4, the aforementioned policies present 2020).
both individually and collectively a diversity of successes. Consequently, the sector operates in a stable political and
The presence of a sustainable beef board, as well as the economic situation, which has allowed its development and
inclusion of an environmental component in the National the opening of important international markets. However,
Development Plan and legislative advances, configure a context Costa Rica has not yet established itself as a fundamental
for the development of the cattle sector in accordance with actor on the global beef market, generating contributions
international treaties. The policies implemented at the regional mainly at the national level in terms of employment and
level are contributing significantly to achieving sustainability food security.
of the sector, since they set specific objectives and focus on
results. Nevertheless, there also exist some difficulties, which
mainly respond to conjunctural factors, such as inflation, National Development Plans
unemployment, and the reduction of consumption, which are The 2011–2014 National Development Plan sets out
largely dependent on the national government in power and environmental protection as one of its main objectives.
can vary positively or negatively in the medium- and long-term, It suggests the incorporation of fundamental elements of
making it difficult to determine how they will affect the cattle sustainable development into the national policies and the
sector. Faced with this uncertain panorama, the international reversion of natural resource degradation, while promoting an
treaties signed, and the legislation developed to date become economy with minimum levels of greenhouse gas emissions in
more relevant, guaranteeing that the sustainability of the sector search of carbon neutrality by 2021 (Ministerio de Planificación
can be preserved. Nacional y Política Económica, 2010). This last goal is reiterated
in the 2015–2018 National Development Plan, as well as the
Costa Rica need for climate change mitigation and adaptation actions of
Context the agricultural sector (Ministerio de Planificación Nacional y
Costa Rica has shown continuous economic progress over the Política Económica, 2014). For the period of 2019–2022, these
last 25 years because of opening up to foreign investments precepts are continued by proposing specific measures, such
and trade liberalization. The balance between political stability as interventions on cattle farms applying the NAMA model
and sustained growth is reflected in human development and the strengthening of the capacities of micro-producers
indicators and one of the lowest poverty rates in Latin America through silvo-pastoral system and agroforestry models
(Banco Mundial, 2021). Costa Rica’s economy has focused (Ministerio de Planificación Nacional y Política Económica,
on the export of goods and services and is characterized 2019).
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
FIGURE 3 | Actors involved in the design and execution of public policies in Costa Rica.
Legislative Advances Multi-Sector Initiatives
The regulations regarding environmental sustainability are very In connection with the previously described policies, the Costa
broad in Costa Rica, but there exist two important decrees with Rican Cattle NAMA stands out as an example for multi-
direct effects on the cattle sector1: sector initiatives (Figure 3). The strategy was developed in 2013
and aims at transitioning the cattle sector toward productive
• Executive Decree 37.017: authorizes the use of cattle slurry
efficiency, adaptation to climate change and greenhouse gas
to improve the chemical, physical and microbiological
emission reductions. The mitigation potential of the NAMA is
characteristics of the soil (Presidencia de la República de Costa
understood from the promoted practices, being mainly increased
Rica, 2012).
forest cover, rational grazing, living fences and improvement of
• Executive Decree 39,482: declares theNational Strategy for Low
pastures and fertilization (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería,
Carbon Cattle (ENGBC) 2015-2034 as of public interest, taking
2019). In turn, the NAMA is expected to improve the quality of
into consideration the objective of becoming a carbon-neutral
life and income of ranchers, while raising consumer awareness
country (Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica, 2012).
of the need to reduce GHG emissions from the cattle sector
(UNFCCC, 2014).
1Although there exist other regulations that stimulate sustainable cattle farming Sub-national Regional Level Public Policies
in the country, they are not cited because they were launched prior to 2010. The
In 2015, the design of Regional Livestock Development Plans
present study covers developments between 2010 and 2020. Law 7837 of 1998 (Law
for the Creation of the Cattle Corporation), Law 8408 of 2004 (Program for the started, which respond to local problems, but conform to the
Promotion of Sustainable Agricultural Production), among others, stand out. national purpose of carbon neutral cattle production. These plans
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
TABLE 5 | Regional level development objectives for a sustainable Costa Rican cattle sector.
Region Objectives Source
Central Oriental - Development of sustainable cattle practices for the conservation of natural resources Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019
Central Sur - Implementation of technical assistance programs Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019
- Promotion of climate change mitigation and adaptation practices on cattle farms
Central Occidental - Consolidation of the payments for ecosystem services program for individuals or entities that Dirección Regional Central Occidental, 2015
promote silvo-pastoral systems
Huetar Norte - Promotion of ecosystem service programs Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019
- Establishment of silvo-pastoral systems and agroforestry for adaptation to climate change
- Enabling the access to environmentally friendly technologies at primary producer level
Brunca - Promotion of actions to adapt production processes to climate change Comité Sectorial Regional Agropecuario, 2015
are being carried out in Central Oriental, Central Sur, Central TABLE 6 | Successes and difficulties in the implementation of public policies in
Occidental, Brunca and Huetar Norte, while Chorotega, as well Costa Rica.
as the Central Pacific and the Caribbean regions show delays Successes Political stability for several decades
(Table 5). Low inflation and stable exchange rates
National Development Plans include sustainable production
components
National Level Public Policies Diversity of national and regional public policies framed in the
In addition to the aforementioned initiatives, Costa Rica started objective of carbon neutrality
the National Strategy for Low Carbon Cattle 2015–2034, which, Regional Livestock Development Plans with focus on
environmental sustainability
among others, proposes the promotion of cattle production in
Promotion of silvo-pastoral systems through both national and
areas with less exposure to climate vulnerability, an increase
regional policies
the establishment of silvo-pastoral systems, and a set of low-
Existence of payment schemes for ecosystem services and
carbon technologies, which e.g., includes living fences, improved agroforestry programs
pastures, forage banks, rational grazing and the moderate use Difficulties Absence of a sustainable cattle roundtable or any similar initiative
of slurry (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019). These Postponement of the carbon neutrality objective
purposes continue with theNational Decarbonization Plan 2018–
2050, whose ninth axis2 exposes the importance of consolidating
the eco-competitive cattle productionmodel based on productive
efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions Successes and Difficulties in the Implementation of
(Gobierno de Costa Rica, 2018). The Costa Rican Policy for the Public Policies
Agri-Food Sector and Rural Development 2010–2021 incorporates As shown in Table 6, the political and economic stability of
climate change and agri-environmental management as one of Costa Rica, in addition to the commitments acquired through
its four pillars. It also refers to the need of promoting sustainable the Paris Agreement and the 2015–2030 SDGs, has allowed
production systems through an ecosystem approach, for which continuity to a set of governmental initiatives focused on
payment schemes for ecosystem services were adopted as an sustainable production models. The commitment to achieve
instrument (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2011). The carbon neutrality is also reiterative, which is promoted at both
Policy for the Agricultural Sector and the Development of Rural the national and regional levels. However, the absence of a
Territories 2015–2018 emphasizes on some mitigation strategies, sustainable cattle roundtable or any similar initiative stands out
such as economic incentives for producers that contribute to the as an important bottleneck, despite its potential to contribute
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions or the promotion of silvo- to the articulation of public policies, information exchange and
pastoral systems (Secretaría Ejecutiva de Planificación Sectorial validation, and the promotion of new practices and technologies.
Agropecuaria, 2015).
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND
DISCUSSION
2The 10 axes of the National Decarbonization Plan 2018–2015 are: (1)
Development of an efficient and renewable mobility system. (2) Conversion From the elements raised, it is possible to identify relationships
of the vehicle fleet to zero emissions. (3) Boosting cargo transportation with between the studied countries Colombia, Argentina, and Costa
zero emissions. (4) Consolidation of a national electricity system of renewable Rica. To this extent, macro and micro aspects are highlighted
energy. (5) Promotion of buildings with low emissions. (6) Modernization of that allow understanding the public policies developed, while
the industry. (7) Promotion of a waste management system. (8) Development of
evaluating their impacts through e.g., figures on deforestation
efficient agri-food systems. (9) Promotion of an eco-competitive livestock model.
(10). Promotion of a territorial management model that allows the protection or greenhouse gas emissions, among other indicators, taking
of biodiversity. into consideration an international scenario from which
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
environmental sustainability strategies are formulated and results The situation in Colombia, however, has not been so favorable,
from the individual governments are demanded. since for many years, there was no public policy that coordinated
local sustainability efforts, and thus, they rather developed
Explanatory Factors of Public Policies independently and in a disorderly manner.
As has been outlined, public policies involve a set of stages These macro-level factors, which are related to the actions of
that go from the identification of the problem to the evaluation governments and institutions, converge with the way in which
of the implemented actions. Macro-level factors intervene in producers perceive the public policies that seek to integrate them.
this process, such as the political will of the state institutions, In relation to silvo-pastoral systems, Braun et al. (2016) describe
understood as an ideological commitment to respond to the their numerous advantages, but also warn of their disadvantages
demands of citizens (Goldfrank, 2006), the articulation among and, consequently, occurring preventions of producers toward
the involved actors or the continuity and linkage of the programs. the implementation of related policies. Some of these difficulties
At the same time, micro-level factors related to the perception refer to the lack of familiarity with the new strategies, in addition
of the unions, associations and producers about sustainability to the need for higher initial investments and a certain level of
strategies become relevant. To understand the policies outlined complexity compared to traditional cattle farming systems. The
in this document, it is necessary to delve into both aspects. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of Costa Rica (Ministerio
At the macro-level, the National Development Plans and de Agricultura y Ganadería, 2019) reaffirms these arguments,
legislative advances of the three countries show a willingness adding that new technologies including silvo-pastoral systems,
of state institutions to promote a sustainable cattle sector. This face a conservative attitude by the producers, which is due
circumstance is expressed in their National Development Plans to risk aversion, minimal interest in on-farm investments, and
and legislative advances. The strategies proposed by all are quite a lack of available information. In the studied scenarios and
similar, focusing on the need to reverse the loss of natural countries, micro-factors are present to a stronger or lesser extent,
resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, stop deforestation, with the common denominator of difficulties in financing and
and promote the use of silvo-pastoral systems. Although these training for change, which leads producers to perpetuate their
documents usually contain general lines regarding the problems, traditional practices. The continuation of the public policies
often without being expressed in tangible indicators or results, developed in Costa Rica and Argentina, however, suggests a
it is necessary to recognize that they have also been the gradual overcoming of these barriers, while they are still more
starting point for large-scale initiatives. In relation to this, the present in Colombia.
carbon-neutrality objective proposed by Costa Rica stands out, The convergence of macro- and micro-level factors has
a commitment that has made the country an international made the implementation of public policies a complex process
benchmark for sustainability. The political will of the three in different regards, which highlights the importance of
countries is also expressed by the existence of national and strengthening collaborative actions among state institutions,
regional multi-sector initiatives. In this regard, the capacity for private sector, and other organizations, since this helps
articulation among the actors stands out, linking public, private, overcoming the fears producers have regarding sustainability-
academic, and various other entities to achieve a common goal— related policies.
the sustainability of the cattle sector and value chains. This aspect
is fundamental since it responds to the very concept of public From International Requirements to
policy where decisions are not made by a top-down decision National Results
but are the result of collaborative efforts. It should be noted
There exist various high-level environmental commitments that
that the Roundtable for Sustainable Cattle in Colombia and the
involve Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica, such as the Paris
Argentine Sustainable Beef Board have had a preponderant role
Agreement and the SDGs 2015–2030. These agreements are
in the processes, since they are considered as important pools
mechanisms of the international community to put pressure
of national and international actors with different institutional
on national governments to regulate their production systems,
backgrounds. Both institutions support the sharing of feedback
beyond political or economic interests. This is how the adhesion
and experiences made by their members with sustainable cattle
of the countries to these initiatives, although voluntary, is not
practices. In the case of Colombia, its main contribution has
precisely due to a genuine interest, but to an imperative to which
been the creation of a base document for the formulation of a
it is necessary to respond. To understand how the analyzed
National Public Policy on Sustainable Cattle, which is currently
countries have acted in the face of such international demands
under review by the Ministry of Agriculture and would not have
by developing and adjusting their public policies and, at the
been developed without the initiative of the Roundtable.
same time, analyze their impact, it is important to consider
Regarding the continuity and association of the programs,
some figures. In this regard, reference is made to factors such
disparate circumstances are evident. In the case of Costa Rica, the
as forest cover, deforestation, and GHG emissions, which offers
carbon-neutrality objective has been preserved by the different
an overview of the current situation in terms of sustainability
governments and National Development Plans, as well as in
advances.3
the multi-sector and regional initiatives, such as the Cattle
NAMA. In Argentina, although not as well as defined as in 3It should be noted that comparisons between countries are not exact due to
Costa Rica, national policies have managed to articulate with the the availability of data, which may vary over time or by the way in which they
provinces, i.e., regarding the adoption of silvo-pastoral systems. are disaggregated.
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Argentina currently counts with 53,654,545 hectares of native and 2016, however, the country’s forest cover has increased
forest (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible de permanently, going from 46.53 to 54.56% in this period (OCDE,
Colombia, 2021). As indicated by the Dirección Nacional de 2020). There are also notable advances related to the payment
Bosques (2021), however, the loss of forest land for 2020 was of ecosystem services, which between 2010 and 2020 supported
333,222 hectares, a rather worrying figure, and 27.8% of this the protection of 585,945 hectares of forest land (FONAFIFO,
deforestation corresponds to agriculture and livestock sector 2021).
(only surpassed by fires, with 57.3%). According to the latest Consequently, the elements exposed for the three countries
National Inventory of Greenhouse Gases, the country’s total configure a mixture of successes, difficulties, and contrasts. In
emissions for 2016 were 364 million tons of CO2, of which 21.6% the first place, it should be noted that external demands must be
correspond to the livestock sector (Secretaría de Ambiente y understood in positive terms, since they allow the development
Desarrollo Sustentable, 2019). of strategies that would not be carried out spontaneously.
In Colombia, the achievements in terms of environmental In other words, the importance of international organizations
sustainability are mixed. For the 2018–2022 period, the national and treaties is recognized in a role of oversight of national
government intends to implement 150,000 hectares of silvo- governments so that they respond, through public policies and
pastoral systems, agroforestry systems, productive reconversion, legislative advances, to the demands and problems of their
and fish farming (DNP, 2019), a low figure when compared citizens. Likewise, it is important to recognize that international
to other countries. It has also set the goal of planting 180 organizations not only exercise a controlling role over national
million trees by the end of the period, an initiative to which governments, but also promote financing mechanisms for
the departmental governments have adhered (Ministerio de the benefit of developing countries. Deforestation and GHG
Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible de Argentina, 2021). Beyond emissions continue to be a common problem in the three
these objectives, which will have to be evaluated in due course, countries, although with more worrying figures in Colombia and
recent figures are worrying: By 2020, according to official figures, Argentina. This highlights that those public policies that aremore
the country generated approximately 298 million tons of CO2 closely coordinated with each other and implemented over a
across all economic sectors (Gobierno de Colombia, 2021). long-term period are reflected in more encouraging processes
Likewise, deforestation affected 2.8 million and 159,000 hectares and impacts, such as in Costa Rica.
of forest land from 2000 to 2019 and in 2020, respectively
(CONPES, 2020). Although the causes of this phenomenon are
multiple, including the exploitation of timber, the construction CONCLUSIONS
of roads, illicit crops, among others, extensive cattle farming has
a share of this responsibility, and as Kaimowitz (2019) points out, The sustainable development of the cattle sector is an
largely explains the destruction of ecosystems both in Colombia unquestionable need. International demands, in addition to
and in the rest of Latin America. The author also states that the role of different actors, deny any possibility of continuing
cattle farming is a placeholder for guaranteeing land possession, with traditional production practices. This scenario commits
which is much more lucrative than the production of beef or the national governments to take forceful actions, which are
milk. This scenario is worrisome, since if sustainability initiatives not always reflected in the same ways, since each country has
in many cases have little effects on real cattle farmers, much particularities that determine the processes and, therefore, the
less will they have effects if cattle farming is not the main results. Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica demonstrate such
activity. Another factor that needs to be taken into consideration contrasts, and understanding their public policies implies going
is the Peace Agreement signed between the Colombian State beyond the figures, taking into consideration their social and
and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) economic conditions.
in 2016, with the aim of ending the internal armed conflict To this extent and although the three countries express a
that lasted for over 60 years. Contrary to what might be political will to promote sustainable cattle practices, they are at
expected, the Peace Agreement intensified the already existing different stages. This does not mean, however, that the realities
environmental problems, including deforestation, since the State are completely opposite to each other. On the contrary, the
has not taken control of the territories abandoned by the general perception is relatively similar insofar as they are all in
guerrilla, and reconfigured the relationships between the actors a process of evolution and still have many objectives to achieve
who dispute the land (e.g., landowners, peasants, illegal armed in the framework of the commitments made at the COP21 in
groups) (Armenteras, 2019). Paris in 2015 and with the SDGs 2015–2030. Even though the
Costa Rica exhibits both a stable political system and results achieved so far are not fully satisfactory, the implemented
significant progress in terms of sustainability: Between 2011 policies should not be abandoned, but rather persist and be
and 2016, CO2 emissions were ∼7 million tons per year expressed in tangible effects. It is necessary to strengthen both
(Gobierno de Costa Rica, 2020) and in 2018 11.7 million the articulation between the initiatives and their actors, while
tons (RAND Corporation, 2020), very low figures compared overcoming the fears producers to adhere to the transition
to Colombia and Argentina. For its part, it should be noted process toward sustainability.
that deforestation continues to be a major problem, mainly It is important to point out that the public policies analyzed
linked to the cattle sector, an activity that occupies a large in this document have positive impacts in at least two senses.
part of the affected areas (MINAE et al., 2018). Between 2000 In the first place, their contributions to the environment
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Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
TABLE 7 | Recommendations for the design and implementation of public RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PUBLIC
policies. POLICY
Stage Recommendations
We recommend that for all the evaluated countries, public
(1) Financing - Promote taxes for the responsible entities/individuals of GHG policies should be developed that contain clear objectives
emissions or deforestation and budgets, facilitating their development, application, and
- Strengthen payment systems for ecosystem services evaluation. The national extension systems and technical
- Involve the private sector in public initiatives and projects assistance programs need to be strengthened to provide
(2) Identification of - Update the figures on deforestation, GHG emissions, and the involved actors (i.e., cattle producers) with required
the problem other environmental indicators to identify the most affected
information and knowledge and stimulate the transition toward
territories
sustainable cattle farming. For Argentina, we recommend
- Develop spaces for dialogue with communities and
producers to hear their opinions the state institutions to increase their efforts regarding
- Evaluate previous public policies to identify successes and deforestation policies, mainly for the Gran Chaco region.
difficulties and thus determine aspects for continuance or Colombia should formulate more ambitious objectives in
reformulation terms of the implementation of silvo-pastoral systems, and in
(3) Design - Articulate local public policies with regional and national Costa Rica actions of national and international institutions
policies should be articulated with the objective of establishing a multi-
- Socialize the policies with the different actors (producers, sector platform for sustainable cattle (like the Roundtable for
communities, and others)
Sustainable Cattle in Colombia or the Argentine Sustainable
- Prioritize sustainability goals over private interests
Beef Board). Such platforms stimulate sharing the different
(4) Implementation - Involve communities in projects
experiences made within the sector and thus help in both their
- Strengthen technical training plans for producers
achievement and in coordinating common objectives at the
- Support producers in the development of infrastructure
national level. Likewise, we recommend that in Colombia,
(5) Evaluation - Create digital platforms where citizens know budgets,
objectives, and other characteristics of the initiatives the advances made with the Colombian Roundtable for
- Periodically evaluate the set objectives (promoted by the Sustainable Cattle should continue, since they allow for the
governments, but with citizen participation) consolidation of efforts and, in the future, the monitoring of the
- Publish final reports comparing objectives and results National Public Policy of Sustainable Cattle. For all countries,
we recommend the consolidation of using technological
innovations that contribute to the monitoring of deforestation.
stand out, fostering the protection of natural resources for Finally, communication channels should be established between
present and future generations. These include, for example, the the studied (and other Latin American) countries that support
implementation of a significant number of silvo-pastoral and knowledge exchange, mutual learning and the sharing of
agroforestry systems in Colombia, the conservation of forests successes and difficulties in the implementation of public
in Argentina, or the advances in carbon neutrality in Costa policies related to the sustainable intensification of the cattle
Rica. Second, they lead to the benefits for the cattle sector, sector. Table 7 proposes more specific recommendations for
making it essential that producers understand that they favor the three countries, considering the difficulties identified
themselves when implementing the strategies. This is because (Tables 2, 4, 6) in our study. Common problems are highlighted,
environmentally responsible measures prevent problems such as such as the lack of economic resources to develop public
climate change and land degradation, phenomena with direct policies and enforce laws, for which some financing options
impacts on cattle production. In the short term, the attitude are proposed. Likewise, the importance of promoting citizen
of certain international markets reluctant to buy beef and participation in each of the stages of the policies is highlighted,
dairy products from deforestation areas stands out: sustainable achieving not only that the objectives are consistent with
practices can capture new buyers and contribute to the economic the needs of the territories and communities, but also that
profitability of the sector at a time when socially responsible the processes carry out an adequate management of public
consumption is gaining strength worldwide, meaning that resources. It should be noted that, while the differences between
consumer choices are being made increasingly by considering the three countries are recognized, such recommendations
environmental and social repercussions products and services fit all of them, whether in the national context or in local
might involve (Izquierdo et al., 2018). settings. In turn, due to the economic, cultural, and political
Finally, it is emphasized that although the policies achieved similarities in Latin America, the points made are relevant at the
so far provide valuable contributions, it is necessary to assume regional level.
them as a first stage in a long-term process. As such, it is
critical to support their continuity and increase their scalability,
to achieve the goal of a wider adoption of sustainable production DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
alternatives, such as silvo-pastoral systems. This process implies
the contribution of all actors, from international organizations The original contributions presented in the study are included
to public entities, cattle producers, unions and associations, the in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be
private sector, academia, and society. directed to the corresponding author.
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 15 March 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 722522
Lerma et al. Public Policies and Sustainable Cattle
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing
of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
LL, MD, and SB: conceptualization, methodology, writing the
original draft and review and editing, and resources. LL and MD: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
formal analysis. SB andMD: supervision. SB: funding acquisition
and project administration. All authors contributed to the article We thank all donors who globally support our work through
and approved the submitted version. their contributions to the CGIAR System. The views expressed
in this document may not be taken as the official views of
FUNDING these organizations. CGIAR is a global research partnership for
a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 Research
This work was funded by the CGIAR Research Program on Centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners across
Livestock. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the globe.
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Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 18 March 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 722522