March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 0 

 

Sociotechnical 
innovations 
for low emissions 
food systems: a state 
of the art for the 
Amazon 
Neidy Lorena Clavijo Ponce 

School of Rural and Environmental Studies, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana 

March 2024 

  

 

 Low-Emission Food Systems Technical Report 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 1 

 

Contents 
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 3 

Sociotechnical innovations: Sustainable livestock systems............................... 5 

Agroforestry systems (AFS) ........................................................................................ 6 

Biodigesters ............................................................................................................... 10 

Sociotechnical innovations: Sustainable agricultural systems ........................ 14 

Agroforestry systems (AFS) ...................................................................................... 16 

Agroecological practices for crop management in the Amazon .......................... 20 

Agroecological Markets and Participatory Guarantee Systems ...................... 25 

Agroecological Markets............................................................................................ 26 

Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS)................................................................... 27 

Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 31 

References ......................................................................................................... 32 

 

 

Acknowledgement: The author expresses her gratitude to 

Thomas Gómez and Alexandra Mañunga for the translation of 

the original Spanish version of the document into English.  



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 2 

 

Sociotechnical 

innovations for low 

emissions food systems: 

a state of the art for the 

Amazon 
Neidy Lorena Clavijo Ponce  
Reducing deforestation in the Amazon and fostering the transition to low greenhouse gas emissions agricultural 
production would be an opportunity to support the adaptation of local food systems, as well as a potential global 
contribution to mitigating climate change. Achieving this requires a commitment to innovative processes that 
extend beyond solely relying on technological approaches generated by external sources, recognizing that there 
is not a one-size-fits-all solution for the territories. 

To carry out these innovation processes, it is essential to consider that innovation is a form of creation associated 
with improving individuals' and communities' capacity to solve present and future problems. Effective solutions 
must be identified according to their context, promoting initiatives that share knowledge and offer a scenario of 
concerted solutions to face problems collectively. Therefore, it is important to recognize that there are different 
sources of innovation, and some technologies originate from specific environments where local actors are crucial 
for their design, execution, and maintenance. This concept is known as sociotechnical innovations. 

Sociotechnical innovations designed and implemented within the Amazon aimed at mitigating GHG emissions in 

agri-food systems appear to concentrate their efforts on advocating for the utilization of local biophysical 

resources underscoring the pivotal role of farmers as architects of more resilient food systems. Among them, two 

major categories stand out: 1) Innovations aimed at mitigating GHG emissions in livestock production systems 

(e.g., silvopastoral systems and the installation of tubular digesters) and 2) innovations focused on mitigating GHG 

emissions in agricultural production systems (e.g., agroforestry systems and agroecological practices). Both are 

related to leveraging the diversity and biophysical conditions of the area through designs and processes that 

make them sustainable. While, in this report a distinction is made between the two activities, in practice, both 

livestock farming and agriculture are complementary in the region, as are the proposed alternatives for GHG 

mitigation. 

 

 Low-Emission Food Systems Technical Report 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 3 

 

Introduction 

Reducing deforestation in the Amazon and fostering the transition to low emission food 

systems would be an opportunity to support the adaptation of local food systems, as 

well as a potential global contribution to mitigating climate change. Achieving this 

requires a commitment to innovative processes that extend beyond solely relying on 

technological approaches generated by external sources, recognizing that there is not a 

one-size-fits-all solution for the territories. 

As ecological and social impacts of climate change become more evident at a global scale, there is an increasing 

need for innovations in agri-food systems that can foster adaptation and mitigation strategies in response to new 

climate conditions (Fanzo & Miachon, 2023). The discussion in these arenas has focused on low-carbon 

technologies and innovations designed to decrease or capture greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to avoid the 

consequences of global warming (Matos et al., 2023). However, a comprehensive perspective demands attention 

to ecosystemic, cultural, and social elements intrinsic to each specific context. This holistic approach is essential for 

the sustainability of adaptive and mitigation processes (Belda et al.,2016) This is of upmost importance in highly 

vulnerable ecosystems such as the Amazon rainforest, the habitat of one-third of the planet's species, often 

associated with a high level of endemism (Fearnside, 2012).  

The Amazon rainforest is one of the largest tropical forests in the world. However, deforestation in this region has 

caused concerning changes in carbon reserves, as they can easily be converted into CO2 emissions, significantly 

contributing to climate change (Saavedra, 2023). For instance, according to WWF, in 2020 Colombia lost 171,685 

hectares of forest, with 63% of this loss concentrated in the Amazon. Indeed, the departments of Caquetá, Meta, 

and Guaviare account for 47.3% of the highest net forest loss over the past 38 years (See Figure 1).  

Figure 1. Ranking of Colombian departments according to forest loss, 1985-2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: MapBiomass, Colombia. https://colombia.mapbiomas.org /  

The rising temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and an increase in extreme weather events, along with 

other drivers of change such as natural resource exploitation, has led to significant damages and economic 

https://colombia.mapbiomas.org/


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 4 

 

impacts, including biodiversity loss and species extinction in the region (OTCA, 2014). These changes have altered 

the timing of plant flowering and fruiting, while disruptions in the annual cycle of plants have a direct impact on 

animals and humans that consume their fruits, causing severe effects on the food and health of local populations 

(Espinosa, 2019). 

In Colombia, the Amazon region comprises about 40% of the national territory, covering the departments of 

Amazonas, Vaupés, Caquetá, Putumayo, Guainía, and Guaviare, as well as part of the departments of Cauca, Meta, 

Nariño, and Vichada. According to DANE (2022), the population of this region is condensed in the capital cities, 

like Florencia, Mocoa, Puerto Asís, San José del Guaviare, and Leticia. It is estimated that among the 335,260 

people residing in the first six departments, approximately 20% are indigenous. Currently, the Colombian Amazon 

region is inhabited by a population of “colonos”1 distributed in rural and urban settlements engaging in economic 

activities to generate income for a dignified life. However, 45.8% of households have unmet basic needs, 

significantly higher than the national average (27.7%). In the Colombian Amazon, the increased demand for agro-

industrial crops such as palm oil, soy, rubber, and biofuels, along with extensive livestock farming, crops for illicit 

uses, mining, and selective logging causes deforestation. Deforestation in the Amazon has directly contributed to 

the drastic reduction in forest coverage, consequently impacting the climate of the region and the planet (Phillips 

et al., 2009; Echeverri et al., 2011; Trujillo-Quintero, 2014).  

Additionally, the technological model promoted to increase agricultural productivity in the region since the end of 

the last century is based on the Green Revolution. This model involves the establishment of monocultures highly 

dependent on agricultural machinery and chemical inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and 

others. These practices have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions (González et al., 2005; López & 

Hernández, 2016) and directly contribute to soil erosion due to the elimination of natural vegetation, pollution, 

compaction, loss of organic matter, and a decrease in food agrobiodiversity (Sawyer, 2008; Landínez, 2017; Altieri 

& Nicholls, 2020). 

According to Wu et al. (2020), most climate change-oriented innovations tend to be technologically complex and 

are associated with a high degree of risks and uncertainties, especially for emerging economies and populations 

lacking the possibility of short- to medium-term access to state-of-the-art technological changes that enable an 

effective adaptative process (Tumelero et al., 2019, Nylund et al., 2022). However, innovation processes related to 

climate change adaptation and mitigation entail substantial social, economic, and political challenges that go 

beyond pure technical changes.  

Although the term "innovation" has been widely used since the early 21st century, its origins lie in the theory of 

social change presented by William Ogburn in 1922. Ogburn argued that social change takes place in the 

interactions between two cultures: material culture – artifacts and technological projects – and immaterial culture – 

rules and social practices. Therefore, “the concept of innovation suggests the creation or even recognition of rules 

and social practices, from which material goods are produced to address present and future problems in society" 

(Pérez & Clavijo, 2012:3). 

For decades, innovation trends emphasized perspectives that treat technology as a scientific input entirely 

separate from social aspects. This approach has upheld the disciplinary division between hard sciences—deemed 

objective and predictable—and soft sciences, considered subjective and unpredictable. In recent years, there has 

been a movement towards advocating for more inclusive and holistic innovation processes (Prins, 2005), based on 

the understanding that innovation is not only a result or a product but as a sociotechnical, structural, and 

evolutionary process. In other words, it is a form of creation linked to enhancing the ability of individuals and 

communities to address both present and future problems, identifying effective solutions that align with their 

realities. This new perspective entails environmental and social factors that foster discovery, in spaces where 

initiatives promoting knowledge-sharing are encouraged. It also involves providing a platform for collaboratively 

creating solutions to collectively tackle issues (Pérez & Clavijo, 2012). 

 

 

1 “Colono” is the nave given in Colombia to rural inhabitants that moved from the central regions of the countries to the 
peripheries in search of cultivable land because of the armed violence of the XX century and the unresolved agrarian problems 
related to land grabbing and concentration.  



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 5 

 

As stated by Berdegué (2005), innovations emerge from networks of social and economic agents that interact with 

one another, leading to the creation of new approaches to social or economic processes. Aligned with the 

perspectives of Smith (2017) and Klein (2014), it is recognized that innovation unfolds in contexts beyond purely 

technological realms as it involves unique combinations of individuals, resources, techniques, and technologies, 

each pursuing distinct objectives. Consequently, technology should be perceived not solely to interact with nature 

but also as a tool for shaping society and human relationships (Delgado & Escobar, 2009). In this framework, it is 

essential to consider the possibility and explicitly acknowledge that alternative sources of innovation exist. Certain 

technologies, originating from specific ecosystemic environments, rely significantly on local actors for their design, 

implementation, and maintenance (Delgado & Escobar, 2009). 

Upon examining information related to sociotechnical innovation processes aimed at mitigating the generation of 

GHG in agri-food systems within the Amazon region, we observed that these efforts appear to concentrate on 

advocating for the utilization of local biophysical resources underscoring the pivotal role of farmers as architects of 

more resilient food systems. Among them, two major categories stand out: 1) Innovations aimed at mitigating 

GHG in livestock production systems, and 2) Innovations focused on mitigating GHG in agricultural production 

systems. Both are related to leveraging the diversity and biophysical conditions of the area through designs and 

processes that make them comprehensive and sustainable. While, for the purpose of this document a distinction is 

made between the two activities, in practice, both livestock farming and agriculture are complementary in the 

region, as are the proposed alternatives for GHG mitigation. 

 

Sociotechnical innovations: 

Sustainable livestock systems 

 

Picture 1. Livestock Farm. By: Juliana Buitrago. Belén de los Andaquíes, Caquetá, Colombia. July 2023 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 6 

 

According to Gibbs et al. (2018), the annual gross emissions of carbon dioxide resulting from the loss of tree cover 

in tropical countries averaged 4.8 gigatons per year between 2015 and 2017.  As stated by FAO (2018), the 

clearance of forests for extensive livestock farming is a key contributor to the emission of GHG contributing with 

about 11% of global emissions. The impacts of deforestation in the Amazon manifest across three scales: at the 

local level, it leads to the loss of biodiversity, impacting ecological processes and nature's contribution to people; 

at the regional level, it disrupts the hydrological cycle; and, at the global level, it notably contributes to climate 

change through the emission of GHG (Berenguer et al., 2021).  

In the case of the Colombian Amazon, the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies 

(IDEAM, 2019) estimates that 66% of deforestation can be attributed to land grabbing and extensive livestock 

farming. Moreover, since the negotiation of the peace agreement, there has been evidence of extensive forest 

conversion to livestock farming occurring both beyond the agricultural frontier and within protected areas. 

Livestock farming, on the other hand, causes14.7% of Colombia's GHG, contributing significantly to the 59% of 

total emissions attributed to agriculture, livestock, and land-use changes (AFOLU) (IDEAM, 2022).  

In the Colombian Amazon, the focus of livestock farming is on milk production and the sale of live offspring, 

predominantly adhering to an extensive model, equivalent to two cattle per hectare. In municipalities like San 

Vicente del Caguán, Cartagena del Chairá, La Macarena, San José del Guaviare, El Retorno, Calamar, Miraflores, 

and Solano, located in the northern region of the Colombian Amazon, there has been a consistent rise in cattle 

numbers. While in 2016, the herd in the department was estimated at 1,078,084; by 2019, this number escalated 

reaching 2,021,829 cattle (Valenzuela, 2021). These findings are consistent with the research conducted by 

Sandoval et al. (2023), who examined land-use changes in the Amazon over the past 34 years. Their study revealed 

that deforestation for the establishment of livestock farming has increased by up to 3 million hectares. Specifically, 

between 2016 and 2019, following the signing of the peace agreement, the livestock area expanded by 800,000 

hectares beyond the agricultural frontier. If the current deforestation trend persists, forest losses could potentially 

reach 2.1 million hectares by 2040. Conversely, in the event of reducing livestock and adopting a sustainable 

model, at least 3.5 million hectares of forest could be preserved (Agudelo et al., 2023).  

In response to this scenario, sustainable livestock alternatives are a strategy to mitigate GHG emissions and aid in 

carbon sequestration. Simultaneously, these alternatives aim to preserve natural ecosystems and counteract soil 

and forest degradation. Besides the sociotechnical innovations oriented towards the development of agroforestry 

systems, other sociotechnical innovations are related to the implementation of biodigesters.  

Agroforestry systems (AFS) 

AFS are distinguished by the integration of a diverse array of plant species, prominently featuring a combination of 

grasses and legumes, alongside shrub and tree species. These systems not only provide sustenance and well-

being for both humans and livestock but also contribute significantly to the soil's organic content through the 

decomposition of harvest residues, leaves, and branches. This process of decomposition leads to humification and 

mineralization, as illustrated in Figure 2. Moreover, these systems play a role in retaining soil moisture and offer 

shade and shelter on sunny days, thereby mitigating the heat stress to animals resulting from temperature 

fluctuations (Murgueitio et al., 2011; Sarandón & Flores, 2014; Barragán et al., 2015). It has been documented that 

heat stress is associated with production losses and reduced reproductive efficiency in tropical cattle. When 

ambient temperature and relative humidity exceed a certain threshold in animals, there is a decrease in food 

consumption and reproductive efficiency, leading to physiological imbalances unsuitable for optimal production 

(Portilla et al., 2015). These systems also contribute to the conservation of biodiversity (Morales et al., 2021) 

showing a higher richness and abundance of birds and vegetation when compared to conventional systems 

(Chará-Serna, A & Chara, J., 2020). Additionally, AFS play a crucial role in soil recovery and the reduction of GHG 

emissions. This is attributed to their capacity to capture atmospheric carbon and sequester it in the soil (Contreras-

Santos et al., 2020). According to Mahecha (2003), the significance of silvopastoral systems lies in the impact that 

the arboreal component has on livestock activity and the environment, particularly in its significant contribution to 

the conservation of associated biodiversity (Morales, 2021). 

Agroforestry systems encompass diverse designs and layouts, including live fences, windbreak barriers, scattered 

trees, forage banks for browsing and/or cutting, corridor crops, among others. These configurations offer a range 

of products such as wood, fodder, fruits, firewood, honey, and mushrooms, in addition to those produced by the 

livestock. By enhancing the availability of food and resources for both humans and animals within a consolidated 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 7 

 

space, these systems contribute to the reduction of forest logging and its conversion into pasture (Sotelo et al., 

2017).  

Figure 2. Diagram of an agroforestry system (AFS)  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Focaut & Revollo (2012). Análisis económico-financiero de un sistema silvopastoril: estudios de caso en la reserva de la 
biósfera de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, México. https://www.biopasos.com/biblioteca/Silvopastoril%20Tuxtlas%20Veracruz.pdf  

 

Depending on its design and connectivity with the main ecological structure of the area and other similar 

productive systems, an AFS can serve as an integral part of a biological corridor, enhancing the mobility and 

shelter for birds, mammals, insects, microorganisms, and other living beings (Chará-Serna, a. & Chará, J.2020). 

Additionally, it may function as a patch or niche for agrobiodiversity (Gliessman, 2002). According to Murgueitio et 

al. (2003), agroforestry systems can influence the creation of a more favorable microclimate for both plants and 

animals. They also play a role in contributing to watershed protection, slope stabilization, and water regulation. 

Agroforestry systems are characterized by the incorporation of woody plants into pastures or paddocks which 

gives them potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through the annual carbon accumulation rate (ACAR) 

in aboveground live biomass (LAB) and other components such as soil organic carbon (SOC), roots, and litter 

(Mavisoy et al., 2023; Aryal et al., 2019). Multiple studies specifically link the presence of trees to the capture of 

carbon dioxide (CO2), which further improves capture when combined with sustainably managed pastures and 

polyculture systems (Pérez et al., 2013; Quiceno-Urbina et al., 2016; Contreras et al., 2019; Contreras-Santos et al., 

2020).  

In the specific context of the Colombian Amazon, there is evidence of different impacts arising from the 

implementation of silvopastoral systems (SPS to reduce GHG emissions. Notably, Mavisoy et al. (2023) examined 

the potential of silvopastoral systems to offset the carbon footprint within an integrated cattle and pig farm located 

in the municipality of Puerto Asís, Putumayo. These silvopastoral systems were designed in five distinct types: i) 

living fences incorporating forage trees and legumes like Erythrina poeppigiana, alongside timber species such as 

Miconia caudata, Piper aduncum, and Cecropia peltata; ii) dispersed trees, with guava (Psidium guajava) being 

prominent, along with timber species like Bellucia pentamera and Piptocoma discolor; iii) forage banks composed 

of regrown leaves from E. poeppigiana subjected to strict pruning; iv) shaded areas with timber trees like C. 

peltata and Vernonanthura patens, where livestock grazes for 2 or 3 days with a subsequent 45-day recovery 

period; and v) fallow plots where livestock occasionally enter to graze on the grass. From the research, the authors 

concluded that SPS have a greater potential to offset greenhouse gas emissions than the scenario based solely on 

pasture when considering the annual rate of carbon accumulation in aboveground biomass. 

Landholm et al. (2019) explored three SPS scenarios of progressive complexity in the Caquetá Department. Their 

findings show that even with moderate tree densities, the implementation of SPS could reduce GHG emissions by 

2.6 Mg CO2e/ha/ year compared to current extensive livestock practices. Concurrently, SPS enhances agricultural 

productivity and contributes to the restoration of severely degraded landscapes. The authors emphasize the 

significance of carbon sequestration in SPS, noting that it effectively offsets the increased GHG emissions resulting 

from the intensification of the system.  

https://www.biopasos.com/biblioteca/Silvopastoril%20Tuxtlas%20Veracruz.pdf


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 8 

 

Polanía-Hincapié et al. (2021) conducted an evaluation of changes in soil physical quality in areas undergoing the 

transition from traditional livestock management to SPS in two locations within the municipalities of La Montañita 

and El Doncello, in the northwest of the Colombian Amazon. The assessment covered three specific areas 

representing the typical land use changes in the region: i) native vegetation, ii) traditional pasture, and iii) 

silvopastoral system. Among the assessed soil properties, soil organic carbon is a notable focus. SPS were 

introduced 18 years ago into former pastures through a typical transition management approach involving the 

planting of Brachiaria humidicola and Arachis pintoi, in combination with trees such as Gmelina arborea, Erythrina 

poeppigiana, Tectona grandis, and Cariniana pyriformi. The study concluded that SPS contributed significantly to 

the restoration of soil physical quality, likely associated with an increased carbon content, attributed to enhanced 

biomass production both above and below ground.  

Similarly, Olaya-Montes et al. (2021) observed that the establishment of SPS in Doncello and La Montañita in 

Caquetá enhanced soil micronutrient content and increased organic matter, particularly in the top 30 cm of the 

soil. This led them to conclude that SPSs could play a significant role in creating a substantial carbon sink. Vargas-

Tierras et al. (2019) supports these findings in the same location as they assessed the carbon storage capacity in 

the tree component of five land use types, both in natural systems and livestock SPS. The different land uses 

included: a) traditional pastures with Axonopus compressus, Homolepsis aturiensis, Ischaemun indicum, Paspalum 

notatum, and scattered trees at low density (less than 50 trees/ha); b) improved pastures with Brachiaria sp and 

scattered trees at low density (50-110 trees/ha); c) high-density SPS (+110 trees/ha); d) forest; and e) natural 

regeneration. Their results revealed that improved pastures had the lowest carbon storage capacity, and SPSs 

exhibited the highest carbon capture. However, statistically, there were no significant differences compared to 

other pasture systems, possibly influenced by the type of species, tree density, and distribution. 

Considering these principles, AGROSAVIA2 has proposed the innovative alternative of implementing Multipurpose 

Silvopastoral Systems (MSS) in a project developed both in Colombia and Perú (AGROSAVIA, 2019). MSS are 

defined as SPS designed to generate diverse uses and functions for trees and/or shrubs, such as producing 

forage, seeds, fruits, as well as providing wood, improving soil, and offering shade for livestock. This initiative aims 

to address the challenge of balancing production and adaptation to climate variability as well as contributing to 

the reduction of GHG emissions. In Caquetá, AGROSAVIA intensified 10 existing SPS and introduced low-density 

systems (1200 trees managed as shrubs/ha). This approach results in reduced establishment and management 

costs, facilitating the adoption and assimilation of the technology on farms owned by new producers.  

On the other hand, as part of the Vision Amazonia project initiated by the Colombian Government to eliminate 

deforestation in the Colombian Amazon and achieve zero GHG emissions from livestock, SPSs were proposed as 

part of environmentally sustainable agricultural supply chain (Sotelo et al., 2017). The specific arrangements of SPS 

include two main components: a) living fences and b) scattered trees in pastures. It also provides crucial 

recommendations regarding plant species suitable for Amazonian SPS designs. Some of such species include: 

Pate vaca Bauhinia tarapotensis; Totumo Crescentia cujete; Carbón Zygia longifolia; Yarumo Cecropia ficifolia; 

Boca de indio Piptocoma discolor; Cordoncillo Piper bredemeyeri; Bijao Calathea lutea; Platanillo Heliconia rostrata 

Herbaceous. 

In this regard, the Sectoral Strategy for the Dual-Purpose Livestock Chain in Caquetá emphasizes an agro-

environmental approach with a commitment to zero deforestation. Led by the International Center for Tropical 

Agriculture (CIAT), this strategy aims to mitigate deforestation in the Amazon region while promoting a novel and 

sustainable model for productive development. During the project's implementation, GHG emission levels were 

quantified on dual-purpose cattle farms (milk and meat production) in the Caquetá department. Following a 

comprehensive analysis of the farm-level carbon footprint, emission reduction strategies were devised. These 

strategies included: a) advocating for the establishment of SPSs, b) reducing the impact of enteric fermentation 

through the addition of concentrates to animal feed, the use of highly digestible forages, diets with higher protein 

content, and the inclusion of grains in these diets, and c) enhancing feces management using urease inhibitors 

and nitrification control in pastures (CIAT., 2018). 

 

2 AGROSAVIA – the Colombian corporation of agricultural research – is a public institution that has the purpose to investigate, 
create knowledge and improve the technological development in the agricultural sector through scientific research, adaptation 
and transfer of technologies and technical assistance. See:  https://www.agrosavia.co/.  

https://www.agrosavia.co/


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 9 

 

Castañeda Álvarez et al. (2016) crafted a guide outlining various legume, grass, and other beneficial plant species 

suitable for incorporating into SPS in Caquetá. The goal is to enhance both environmental sustainability and dual-

purpose production. The authors highlighted an intensive silvopastoral system (ISS) located in the municipality of 

San José de la Fragua where forage species such as Brachiaria decumbens were strategically combined with 

kudzu, interspersed with timber strips, and complemented by shrubby golden buttonwood species. Additionally, 

pastures were interspersed with legumes (Figure 3). This arrangement is designed to maximize benefits as the 

combination of pasture and legumes contributes to animal nutrition, the golden buttonwood is cut to supplement 

cattle feed, and the trees enhance animal well-being through shade. It is important to note that this arrangement 

was co-designed together with cattle farmers, taking into account their knowledge on the species and the needs 

of their farms. 

Figure 3. Intensive silvopastoral system (ISS)   

 

Source: Castañeda Álvarez et al. (2016)  

In fact, the interest in incorporating SPS as a comprehensive option to enhance livestock feeding conditions and 

contribute to climate change mitigation is widespread. Various studies delve into analyzing different possible 

combinations of plant species that can bring about substantial changes in established livestock practices in the 

Amazon. A notable example is the work of Narváez-Herrera et al. (2023) who compiled and analyzed research 

results on the shrub and tree species Erythrina poeppigiana (Walp.) O.F. Cook, Clitoria fairchildiana R.A. Howard, 

Piptocoma discolor (Kunth) Pruski, and Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. These species were selected for their broad 

environmental adaptability to conditions of low fertility and high climatic variations, as well as their potential for 

carbon storage and the restoration of degraded areas. In addition, their contributions to soil quality such as 

nitrogen fixation (legumes) and nutrient input through leaf litter, are noteworthy. It is significant that the species 

under study demonstrated the ability to adapt to Amazon piedmont soils and have a high potential for carbon 

absorption. Consequently, they can be implemented in silvopastoral arrangements, serving as forage or silage 

supplements for direct consumption by cattle. This emphasizes their potential for carbon absorption, transforming 

Amazon piedmont livestock systems into effective sinks that efficiently mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate 

change. 

In the same vein, the research conducted by Ruíz et al. (2022) sought to estimate the carbon footprint of milk 

production across eight livestock systems in the San Martín region of the Peruvian Amazon. These farms featured 

the use of cultivated pastures, predominantly Brachiaria brizantha, and incorporated living fences (Guazuma 

ulmifolia Lam) as a prevalent silvopastoral arrangement. Notably, they maintained low levels of external inputs, 

such as feed additives or cereals, and refrained from using synthetic fertilizers on the grass. Significant variations in 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 10 

 

the carbon footprint were observed among the farms, with the lowest levels among those farms offering higher-

quality food characterized by a diet with increased digestibility and protein content, as well as higher productivity 

and a larger percentage of lactating animals. Furthermore, farms harnessing solar panels exhibited reduced CO2 

emissions in contrast to those relying on electric energy for milk production. The study concluded that dairy farms 

in the Peruvian Amazon can effectively curtail their emissions by enhancing current feeding practices, 

incorporating solar panels, and minimizing the use of chemical fertilizers. 

Rivera et al. (2020) investigated the impact of Tithonia diversifolia consumption on methane (CH4) production from 

enteric fermentation and milk production in dual-purpose cows in the municipality of Doncello, Caquetá, 

Colombia. Two diets were assessed on a farm: 1) a traditional system characterized by low tree presence, 

extensive grazing areas, and partially degraded Urochloa humidicola pastures, and 2) a SPS with Tithonia 

diversifolia shrubs at a density of approximately 2500 trees/ha, associated with U. humidicola and scattered trees 

in paddocks and living fences. The predominant tree species included Gmelina arborea, Erythrina poeppigiana, 

Tectona grandis, and Cariniana pyriformis (15% T. diversifolia and 85% U. humidicola). 

Both diets were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent 

fiber (ADF), gross energy (GE), ash, ether extract (EE), and in vitro dry matter degradability (IVDMD). Eight lactating 

cows typical of the area with varying degrees of crossbreeding (Bos taurus × Bos indicus) were selected. The study 

comprised two periods of 30 days each (one period during the rainy season and the other during moderate rainy 

season). The diets were individually offered to each animal, with forages being directly harvested from grazing 

systems and provided fresh without chopping (leaves and stems with diameters less than 5 mm); for Diet 2, B. 

humidicola and T. diversifolia were offered separately. The daily voluntary intake of each animal for each diet in 

both seasons was measured four times and calculated as the difference between the quantity of forage offered 

and rejected. Measurements of CH4 emissions were conducted using the tunnel technique (Lockyer, 1997; Murray 

et al., 2007). Two divided tunnel structures, each with two compartments of 36 m3, were used to house the 

animals individually. Environmental conditions inside and outside the tunnels were continuously monitored during 

the experimental period to ensure that temperature and humidity inside the structures did not induce thermal 

stress in the animals and thus ensure normal forage intake. Methane concentration was measured using a gas 

chromatograph. The study results showed that, consuming T. diversifolia led to an increase in milk production, and 

CH4 emissions decreased with its inclusion in the second system. The study concludes that integrating T. 

diversifolia consumption into SPS can serve as a tool for mitigating GHG emissions and enhancing animal 

productivity in the Amazon Piedmont.  

As we have observed, the integration of SPS as an alternative for sustainable livestock practices contributes to 

GHG mitigation in the Amazon, simultaneously enhancing the quality and well-being of bovine livestock. This 

results in increased productivity while improving both the internal and external environmental conditions of the 

farms.  

Biodigesters 

Unmanaged livestock excreta are a continuous emitter of GHG, notably methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in 

both direct and indirect forms. Additionally, they release other gaseous compounds such as ammonia (NH3), 

skatole, and hydrogen sulfide (Hristov et al., 2013). Methane is generated through enteric fermentation and 

inadequate manure management practices, posing significant risks of contaminating surface and groundwater 

when discharged without proper treatment (Arcosa et al., 2021). Livestock manure, primarily comprised of organic 

matter, undergoes anaerobic decomposition where methanogenic bacteria produce methane (CH4) (Guerra et al., 

2012). The environmental impact of manure lies in the presence of undigested nutrients, as no species fully utilizes 

all the nutrients consumed in their diet. 

Nevertheless, despite the aforementioned challenges, animal manure stands out as "a valuable resource 

containing all essential micro and macro-elements required for plant growth. Its application in croplands not only 

increases soil organic matter but also enhances various properties such as structure, water retention capacity, 

oxygen content, and fertility. Furthermore, it plays a role in reducing soil erosion, restoring eroded farmlands, 

mitigating nutrient leaching, and improving crop yields" (Hristov et al., 2013: 92). Moreover, animal excreta can be 

viewed as a potential source of energy, with various processes available for harnessing this resource (Galindo-

Barboza et al., 2020). One such method involves biodigesters, which are hermetically sealed, and impermeable 

containers made of materials like concrete, polyethylene, metal, or even bags. Biodigesters efficiently produce 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 11 

 

biogas and natural fertilizer from organic waste, including animal manure and plant residues (Ávila Velázquez, 

2016). 

Biodigesters were created and put into practice during the 70s and 80s (Ni & Nyns, 1996) to operate with excreta 

from a few animals – e.g., a few pigs, 5-10 cows, 100 chickens, or a combination of these – in addition to the waste 

from the family home, characteristics that correspond to the structure and composition of small rural farms (Hristov 

et al., 2013). Experiences in India show that the production of biogas to provide a family of five members with two 

cooked meals a day is 1500 to 2400 liters (GTZ, 1999). According to Dhingra et al. (2011) biodigesters reduce 

GHG emissions between 23 and 53 percent compared to homes without biogas, depending on variables such as 

design, materials, and management of digesters.  

The composition of biogas and the efficiency of the process depend intricately on the processed raw material and 

operational conditions, including temperature, pH, biodigester design, inoculum addition, fed organic load, 

retention time, among others (Ferrer et al., 2011). Through a decomposition process, these residues are 

transformed into clean energy and organic fertilizer, serving as a technological innovation that brings about 

energy savings, particularly beneficial for rural areas. Biodigesters find frequent use in treating bovine and porcine 

manure due to their higher methane gas generation. They can be employed for both thermal and electrical energy 

production (Sayas et al., 2012 cited in Ávila, 2016). Biogas is commonly utilized for cooking, heating, lighting, or 

electricity generation (Bond & Templeton, 2011).  

As a by-product of the process, a sludge is obtained, which can be used as fertilizer due to its high nutritional 

content containing the nutrients present in the raw material (Cendales, 2011 cited in Pabuena & Pasqualino, 2014). 

The effluent discharged from the digester contains the majority of soluble nutrients crucial for plant growth, as well 

as organic materials with high resilience and difficult degradability. Typically, the effluent is directly applied to 

crops, while the sludge, composed of precipitated minerals and undigested organic matter, can be composted 

before field application. When biodigesters are properly managed, they serve as a source of renewable energy in 

the form of biogas, consisting of 60 to 80 percent CH4 (Hristov et al., 2013) and between 30 and 50 percent carbon 

dioxide, along with small amounts of other gases. It usually has a heating value of 21 to 24 MJ/m³ (Bond & 

Templeton, 2011). 

Among the technological innovations related to biodigesters in the Amazon, it is worth noting the production of 

biogas for heating and cooking purposes, particularly in rural areas. The primary drivers for this trend are the low 

investment costs and minimal maintenance required by these technologies. Consequently, this has led to the 

development of multiple successful biodigester designs and the widespread adoption of small-scale technologies 

(Silva-Martínez et al., 2020). Notable experiences from Ecuador and Peru involve the use of biodigesters as a 

solution to mitigate GHG emissions. For instance, Barrena Gurbillón et al., (2019a) developed a system to treat 

effluents from the livestock farm at the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza (UNTRM) in the Peruvian 

Amazon aiming to process cattle manure and generate environmentally friendly fuel, thereby reducing the 

environmental impact of livestock. The implemented solution is a Covered Lagoon Biodigester (BTLC) with a 

capacity of 170 m (Figure 4). For installation, it requires excavation in the ground and lining with a geomembrane 

to process manure within a working volume of 126 m, with a hydraulic retention time of 35 days. The mixture of 

manure and water enters the BTLC either by gravity or pumping, undergoing anaerobic processing for 

approximately 40 days. The methane-rich biogas is stored at the top (dome) of the biodigester and is distributed 

through pipelines for its ultimate use as fuel for heating or in a power generator.  

Figure 4. Covered Lagoon Biodigester (BTLC) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 12 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Ministry of Energy, Chile. Available at: https://autoconsumo.minenergia.cl/?page_id=524 

The excess biogas can be burned in a torch, producing carbon dioxide and water. This CO2, compared to 

methane, is practically harmless, as it has 21 times less greenhouse gas potency, thereby reducing the 

environmental impact of the production process (Moncayo, 2014, cited by Barrena et al., 2019). This biodigester 

will allow the processing of manure from 40 cows, which on average produce 600 kg of manure per day, 

converting the emitted methane into CO2 for use as fuel. 

In the Ecuadorian Amazon, Arcosa et al. (2021) characterized the operation of a tubular biodigester (Figure 5), 

installed at the Research and Postgraduate Center for Amazon Conservation (CIPCA) of the Amazon State 

University. It processes a substrate formed by pig manure and wastewater from corral washing to mitigate 

pollution. The obtained biogas is utilized as a fuel source to produce heat energy for various purposes, while the 

digestate3 is used as fertilizer for orange, cocoa, coffee, and banana cultivation. 

Figure 5. Covered Lagoon Biodigester (BTLC) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Lozano et al. (2020)  

 

Additionally, utilizing a tubular biodigester, Montenegro (2020) examined the biogas and biofertilizer production 

from bovine manure in the locality of Naranjos, situated in the district and province of Bagua within the Peruvian 

Amazon. Following the approach of Barrena Gurbillón et al. (2019b) the author enhanced the original tubular 

biodigester design by incorporating a shed measuring 15 meters in length and 4 meters in width. This shed, 

constructed with six 2-meter-high adobe walls, supports a wooden structure topped with a zinc roof. The main 

purpose of the shed is to shield the biogas and biofertilizer production system from direct solar radiation and rain 

(Figure 6). 

Subsequently, a biogas and biofertilizer production system was installed, consisting of a tubular PVC 

geomembrane biodigester with a thickness of 1 mm. The biodigester had a diameter of 1.27 m and a length of 

10.0 m, providing a total volume of 12 m³, of which 9 m³ were filled with a manure: water mixture in a 1:1 ratio. The 

remaining 3 m³ were occupied by the biogas produced through anaerobic digestion. Additionally, a 2 m³ 

 

3  It is a byproduct of biogas (methane) production from the anaerobic digestion process of plant products and animal manure. 
It has high nutritional value, making it suitable for use as a biofertilizer, promoting nutrient recirculation and considering the 
possibility of partially or completely replacing the use of synthetic fertilizers, reducing their use and thus avoiding 
concentration-related contamination issues (Montalvo-Aguilar et al., 2018).  

https://autoconsumo.minenergia.cl/?page_id=524


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 13 

 

gasometer was used to store biogas, ensuring a larger fuel supply for cooking. The biodigester had a hydraulic 

retention time of 20 days at an average ambient temperature of 21.9 ºC, generating sufficient biogas for daily 

cooking needs of a family. Moreover, the effluents from the biodigester, referred to as biol and biosolid, can be 

applied to crops in a 1:1 ratio with water.  

Figure 6. Installation of a biogas and biofertilizer system with a tubular biodigester. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Barrena Gurbillón et al. (2019b) 

As stated by Tavera-Ruíz et al. (2019), is the most commonly used in Colombia by small-scale farmers, serving as 

one of the primary innovations for utilizing biomass derived from crop residues and cattle and pig manure. 

However, in the Amazon region, the authors only reference the existence of one biodigester in the Caquetá 

Department that utilizes cow manure for its operation (Tavera et al., 2019). This type of digester is typically 

cylindrical and is constructed using materials such as polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene (the same plastic used in 

greenhouses), or geomembrane (Picture 2). The digesters are partially buried in a trench, with the biogas hood 

visible above ground. This design involves a sealed bag connected at each end to an overhead pipe. The input 

pipe allows material to enter, while the digestate exits through the other end and is deposited into a storage tank. 

A third pipe at the top of the cylindrical bag serves as the outlet for biogas. This household digester maintains a 

constant volume and operates at variable pressures to produce biogas.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Picture 2. Tubular biodigester installed in a rural dwelling in Colombia. Taken from Tavera-Ruíz et al. (2019).  



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 14 

 

Under the same system, at Cruz Lomas in the Providencia District of the Amazonas Department in Peru, Barrena et 

al. (2017) assessed the biogas yield from a tubular digester utilized as fuel for cooking and lighting. The produced 

biogas was stored and proved sufficient for the daily food preparation of a rural family. This innovation is 

noteworthy for its positive impact on the farmers' quality of life and its role in reducing atmospheric pollution 

resulting from manure, attributed to the use of methane as a fuel, ultimately converted to CO2. Small-scale 

digesters (6 to 10 m) demonstrated a reduction in GHG emissions ranging from 23% to 53% when compared to 

households without biogas. 

However, according to Silva-Martínez et al. (2020), the technical complexity of these innovations, coupled with 

insufficient research, high investment costs, and a lack of effective policies to encourage their adoption, have 

hindered their proper implementation in the region. The viability of large-scale biogas plants is yet to be 

demonstrated, reinforcing Bond & Templeton (2011) assertion that small-scale biodigesters are primarily utilized 

by small farmers, especially in the presence of government subsidies and economic incentives. Furthermore, the 

successful deployment and maintenance of this innovation for greenhouse gas mitigation require essential 

training and technical support for biodigester users, as ensuring proper operation can mitigate failure rates of up 

to 50% (Bond & Templeton, 2011; Jiang et al., 2011).  

 

Sociotechnical innovations: 

Sustainable agricultural systems 

 

Picture 2. Diverse Agricultural Farm. By: Juliana Buitrago. Belén de los Andaquíes, Caquetá, Colombia. July 2023. 

 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 15 

 

Agriculture is a sector that contributes significantly to the emission of GHG. Activities associated with livestock, 

forestry, agriculture, and other land uses (AFOLU) release substantial amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere (FAO, 

2019). These emissions arise from processes like deforestation for monoculture establishment, which 

subsequently requires the continuous use of primarily nitrogen-based synthetic fertilizers. Additionally, these 

processes involve the consumption of significant amounts of water, fuel-intensive agricultural machinery, and the 

application of insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides (Pretty, 2005, Altieri & Nicholls, 2008). This sector 

encompasses both anthropogenic GHG emissions and absorptions occurring on managed lands including 

agriculture and animal husbandry. Managed land refers to land where human interventions and practices have 

been implemented for productive, ecological, or social purposes (IPCC, 2006, as cited by Tubiello et al., 2015). 

Simultaneously, as agriculture emerges as a key contributor to climate change, it also stands out as one of the 

most vulnerable sectors (Nelson et al., 2009; Ramírez Hernández et al., 2014). Notably, temperature variations in 

the land induced by climate change can lead to decrease in crop yields, the proliferation of weeds, pests, and 

diseases, disruptions in pollination cycles, and alterations in precipitation patterns, all posing a significant threat to 

global food security (IICA, 2012). Industrial agriculture is characterized as commercially driven agricultural 

production, environmentally marked by the artificialization of ecosystems, often surpassing the threshold of long-

term sustainability (Gliessman, 2002; León, 2007). Emissions from activities both before and after production, 

including fertilizer manufacturing, food transportation, processing, retailing, and waste disposal, compound the 

already substantial impacts (Tubiello et al., 2021).  

In the Colombian Amazon, agriculture is predominantly characterized by subsistence crops, with a focus on 

staples such as rice, cocoa, beans, corn, plantain, yucca, pineapple, arazá, and copoazú (González et al., 2015). 

Alongside subsistence farming, industrial crops like oil palm, soy, rubber, and sugar cane have gained 

prominence as lucrative options for the region's economy (DANE, 2014), in addition to the presence of coca leaf 

crops. In Colombia, within the Amazon region, the departments of Putumayo, Caquetá, and Guaviare have faced 

important deforestation processes linked to the establishment, processing, and commercialization of coca leaf 

crops for illicit purposes (Rodriguez & Rojas, 2019). In 2021, the region recorded 151 hectares allocated for this 

purpose, marking a 27% increase compared to 2020 (UNODC, 2022). 

According to MAPBIOMAS (2023), in the Colombian Amazon crop mosaics increased by 138.4% from 1985 to 

2022. Oil palm stands out as the most prominent monoculture. Specifically, in the Department of Caquetá, there is 

a recorded increase of 23.23% in agricultural land, with a total approximate area of crop and pasture mosaics 

reaching 2,155,604 hectares in the year 2022 (Figure 7). 

Figure 7. Land cover in the department of Caquetá, Colombia, year 2022.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: MAPBIOMAS (2023). Available at: https://colombia.mapbiomas.org/  

https://colombia.mapbiomas.org/


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 16 

 

Thus, there is a pressing need to introduce sociotechnical innovations not just to mitigate GHG emissions but also 

to significantly enhance the biophysical conditions of deforested areas. This can be accomplished through the 

implementation of production systems that emulate the characteristics of the Amazon rainforests, emphasizing 

stratification, diversity, collaboration, and homeostasis. This approach involves limiting the use of nitrogen-based 

fertilizers, reducing reliance on fossil fuel-powered machinery, minimizing pesticide applications, and avoiding the 

establishment of monocultures. Therefore, mitigation strategies for the Amazon based on critical points regarding 

carbon footprint include agroforestry systems and the use of organic fertilizers, combined with soil recovery 

practices (Börner & Wunder, 2012; Newton et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2022). 

In essence, the goal is to advocate for the cultivation of edible forests (Figure 8), achieved through the planning, 

establishment, management, and utilization of AFS. The implementation of these systems, in addition to 

complementing the silvopastoral methods discussed in the previous section, aims to supply diverse, locally 

sourced food for human populations. Likewise, a key component in the transition to sustainable agricultural 

systems is the adoption of agroecological and low emission practices. These practices encompass not only the use 

of organic inputs produced within the system but also the reinforcement of soil fertility and the effective 

management of pests and diseases. Simultaneously, there is an emphasis on promoting the application and 

integration of local knowledge. The details of these sociotechnical innovations are presented below. 

Figure 8. Illustration of a tropical edible forest.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Ecoremedi. Available at: https://ecoremedi.es/bosques-comestibles-sintropicos-o-analogos/  

Agroforestry systems (AFS) 

According to FAO (2009), agroforestry systems are production systems where the cultivation of crops and forestry 

species occurs sequentially and in tandem with the application of soil and water conservation practices, utilizing 

local inputs (Soler et al., 2018). These systems are intricately designed within the framework of a farm management 

plan, with the active participation of farmers (Muñoz Guerrero et al., 2018). Agroforestry techniques are applied in 

regions characterized by diverse ecological, economic, and social conditions as in areas with fertile soils, 

agroforestry systems can prove highly productive and sustainable. Moreover, these practices demonstrate 

considerable potential to sustain and enhance productivity in regions facing challenges such as low soil fertility 

and fluctuations in soil moisture levels (Figueroa, 2009). 

Agroforestry Systems involve the integration of perennial woody species, such as trees and shrubs, interacting with 

the typical components of a traditional productive system, including crops, forage herbs, and animals (Sánchez, 

1995). This integration is designed within a comprehensive framework (Guiracocha et al., 2001). The 

implementation of AFS is more prevalent in tropical regions, where the population heavily relies on the ecosystem 

products and services that they generate (Ávila et al., 2001).  

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March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 17 

 

Due to their unique design and diverse composition, AFS are recognized for their significant potential in 

mitigating GHG emissions, with a particular emphasis on carbon capture (Concha et al., 2002; Roncal-García et al., 

2008; Casanova-Lugo et al., 2011; Forero et al., 2018). For instance, Pardo-Rozo et al. (2021) studied carbon 

stored in forests, rubber plantations (Hevea brasiliensis), and scattered trees in pastures across 40 farms in the 

Colombian Amazon piedmont, located in the municipality of Belén de los Andaquíes in Caquetá. They conclude 

that the most effective hypothetical scenario for carbon storage involves transitioning from pastures to forests or 

even rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations, leading to increased carbon capture by 560 and 505 Mg CO2e/ha, 

respectively. The study also suggested diversification in AFS design, such as rubber with copoazú (Theobroma 

grandiflorum) and cocoa or with amazonian fruit trees could further enhance carbon sequestration and generate 

additional ecosystem services, providing an alternative means to strengthen carbon sinks. 

Similarly, Orjuela et al. (2014) assessed the carbon capture potential of rubber plantations in two production 

systems: monoculture and agroforestry systems with copoazú. The research was conducted on farms situated in 

the municipalities of Florencia, El Doncello, and Belén de los Andaquíes in the department of Caquetá. Similarly, 

Durán et al. (2011) estimated the amount of carbon stored in the above-ground biomass of rubber during the 

initial seven years of the plantation. Their study, conducted on six farms in the municipalities of El Doncello and 

Albania in Caquetá, revealed that these plantations – predominantly composed of rubber in association with arazá 

(Eugenia stipitata McVaugh), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), pineapple (Ananas comosus), and plantain (Musa 

paradisiaca) – possess a significant capacity to capture and store carbon. This underscores the potential for farmers 

in the Amazon region to access compensation mechanisms such as payment for environmental services. 

Solís et al (2020) delved into the Northeastern Peruvian Amazon, exploring carbon reserves and the use of shade 

trees in three representative small-scale coffee cultivation systems. These systems can be characterized as follows: 

(1) coffee with shade polyculture: a coffee system featuring a dense shade polyculture where the canopy mainly 

consists of various fruit and timber trees of different ages; (2) coffee with Inga shade, the most typical coffee 

system in the study area, associated with leguminous species (Inga edulis and Inga ruiziana); and (3) shadeless 

coffee. The findings indicate that the richness of tree species has a positive impact on both surface and subsurface 

carbon reserves. This influence results in a higher total carbon reserve in the coffee polyculture shade system 

compared to the Inga shade and shadeless coffee systems. As expected, the highest carbon reserve across all 

coffee systems was found in the soil.  

It is important to note that, beyond the tree combinations within an AFS, the system's level of development can 

also influence carbon sequestration. Cardozo et al. (2022) studied 88 farms in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon to 

assess carbon reserves on the surface and in the soil (0–20 cm) of AFS, secondary forests (SF), conserved and 

logged mature forests. The AFS were situated on family farms and comprised several common species, including 

açaí (Euterpe oleracea) found in 61% of AFS, mango (Mangifera indica) in 61%, plantain (Musa sp) in 52%, copoazú 

(Theobroma grandiflorum) in 48%, cocoa (Theobroma cacao) in 35%, and cashew (Anacardium occidentale) in 

35%. The carbon reserve of trees was notably higher in both young AFS (< 10 years) and advanced AFS (> 30 

years) when compared to same-aged secondary forests. Furthermore, after 30 years of land recovery from 

degradation, carbon recovery above the soil reached 46% in AFS and 35% in BS. These findings underscore the 

potential of AFS for carbon recovery, particularly in the tree reserves during the later stages of development. 

Evidently, structurally more intricate AFS present a viable option for reclaiming degraded lands and establishing 

synergies between climate change mitigation, adaptation, and the production of ecosystem services in the 

Amazon. 

Following a similar approach but with a different composition in the AFS, Goñas et al. (2022) estimated carbon 

sequestration in two components of 15 AFS cultivated with fine aroma cocoa, aboveground (cocoa trees, other 

tree species, and litter) and soil, in the Peruvian Amazon. They find that Theobroma cacao, Mussa sp., Cordia sp., 

and Persea sp. were the most prevalent species in all AFS. Both biomass and carbon content in Theobroma cacao 

and Cordia sp. exhibited a slight increase with age, while the fruit-bearing species Mussa sp. and Persea sp. 

demonstrated a decrease. In contrast to the previous scenario, the total carbon stored by aboveground and soil 

components in mature cocoa systems (between 30 and over 40 years) surpassed that in mid-aged cocoa systems 

(16 to 29 years) and young cocoa systems (between 8 and 15 years). However, no statistically significant 

differences were observed. Consequently, biomass and carbon sequestration in cocoa AFS demonstrate an 

upward trend with the system's age. Timber tree species such as Cordia sp. have the potential to capture over 10 

Mg/ha of carbon in systems older than 29 years. Conversely, for fruit species like Mussa sp. and Persea sp., carbon 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 18 

 

sequestration is lower and tends to decline with the system's age. Notably, in cocoa agroforestry systems older 

than 29 years, the soil exhibits a greater capacity for carbon sequestration than the aboveground component. 

Salazar Zavala et al. (2018) found analogous results in AFS primarily featuring coffee trees established in the soils 

of the Mariscal Benavides and Longar districts in the Rodriguez de Mendoza province of the Peruvian Amazon. The 

study aimed to assess the impact of age on carbon storage in AFS with coffee. Two specific systems were 

scrutinized: 1) AFS with coffee + guaba of 3-5 years in the Longar district and 2) AFS with coffee + guaba of 8-10 

years in the Mariscal Benavides district. The findings revealed that AFS 1, aged 3-5 years, stores a larger quantity 

of carbon (224.26 Tm of C/ha) compared to the AFS with coffee planting of 8-10 years (198.95 Tm C/ha). Notably, 

most of the carbon was found to be stored in the top 15 cm of the soil. The authors concluded that AFS with 

younger coffee plants exhibit a higher capacity for carbon storage, capable of capturing up to 822.28 tons of 

CO/ha1. However, under a potential compensation system for environmental services like carbon capture, an AFS 

with greater age presents a higher net present value. The potential of agroforestry systems for carbon capture was 

assessed in the Ecuadorian Amazon by Jadán et al. (2015) who explored the relationship between species 

diversity, carbon reserves, agricultural productivity, and potential uses of forest resources in three usage systems: 

agroforestry with a predominant focus on cocoa (AF cocoa), monoculture of cocoa, and primary forest (PF). Results 

indicated significantly higher diversity, species richness, and carbon reserves in PF and AF cocoa systems; 

however, cocoa production was 1.5 times higher in monoculture than in AF cocoa plots. Despite the short-term 

profitability of cocoa monoculture for farmers, a monetary incentive for avoided deforestation through carbon 

credits could serve as a viable strategy to encourage the adoption of AF cocoa systems and generate additional 

income for farming families. 

Unlike the immediate yet unsustainable economic returns anticipated in industrialized agriculture, often entailing a 

considerable ecological cost (Gliessman, 2002; León, 2014), the environmental advantages derived from 

implementing an AFS include key intangible assets linked to the uses and management resulting from socio-

ecological interactions that translates into socio-environmental and economic conditions of the territories (Ortiz et 

al., 2021). This distinction becomes particularly apparent in the Amazon, where tangible benefits manifest as 

substantial improvements in essential resources for maintenance, production, and conservation such as soil 

fertility, a pivotal factor in efficient carbon capture and GHG mitigation (Figure 9). 

Figure 9. Nutrient relationships in AFS compared to conventional agriculture.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

´ 

Source: Farrell & Altieri (1999)  



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 19 

 

In the Colombian Amazon, Rodríguez et al. (2021) conducted a comprehensive assessment of the potential of AFS 

to enhance the formation of soil macroaggregates through biological and/or physical processes, aiming to 

preserve organic carbon within these structures. The key finding emphasized that the implementation of AFS leads 

to an increased density of soil microorganisms. Consequently, there is a notable presence of biogenic 

macroaggregates—small and large fauna aggregates with high carbon content—responding to improved 

environmental conditions. Therefore, certain AFS, such as silvopastoral systems, family orchards, and natural 

regeneration, emerge as promising management practices to augment the storage of organic carbon in 

Colombian Amazon soil, driven by enhanced biological activity.  

Similarly, Rodríguez et al. (2021) delved into an analysis of soil quality within different cacao agroforestry systems 

(CAF) in the Colombian Amazon. They compared the soil quality of four CAF at the Macagual Amazon Research 

Center against that of two control systems: pasture and a secondary forest. The four agroforestry systems were 

established with some differences such as planting density and combinations: 1) four species of remaining trees 

and four introduced ones, with 15 years of previous plant succession; 2) three remaining tree species and four 

introduced ones with 15 years of previous plant succession; 3) four introduced tree species with 8 years of 

previous rotational grazing; 4) four introduced tree species with 8 years of previous rotational grazing and then 7 

years with plant succession. It is noteworthy that the organic carbon content in the soil was significantly higher in 

CAFs than in forest and pasture plots, and it was slightly higher in (3) and (4). The study also highlights that CAFs 

stimulate the biological formation of soil macroaggregates resulting from the activity of soil microorganisms and 

can, over time, become organic carbon sinks by protecting organic matter from degradation. 

The findings from the literature review of Pinho et al. (2012) for the Brazilian Amazon reveal similar results 

concerning the impact of trees on the physical and chemical properties of soil in agroecosystems. The authors 

conducted a comprehensive analysis within agricultural systems in the Amazon, focusing particularly on 

indigenous agroforestry systems and carbon storage in the form of organic matter. Following a thorough review of 

various articles, they conclude that the enhancement of soil quality under trees and agroforestry systems is closely 

linked to notable increases in organic matter. This can manifest in the form of surface litter or soil carbon, 

suggesting a substantial potential for carbon sequestration both on the surface and within the soil. Consequently, 

these systems deserve consideration in mechanisms advocating for payments to mitigate GHG emissions and 

address climate change. 

Celentano et al. (2020) support the results that AFS are promising in carbon sequestration, both in surface soil and 

in restoring nutrient cycles within the context of small-scale agriculture and soil recovery processes. In this regard, 

the authors evaluated the increase in carbon reserves in the aerial biomass, necromass, soil, and leaf litter nutrients 

in AFS, comparing them to natural succession plots. The study was conducted in the Brazilian Amazon, specifically 

at the University Farm of the State University of Maranhão, Amazonas. The SAF comprised 17 tree species with 

local importance, serving various purposes such as fruit production, wood, medicinal uses, and nitrogen fixation. 

These trees were associated with agricultural species and fertilized according to local standards. Carbon reserves 

were measured in 2012 before the experiment setup and repeated six years later in 2018. The results highlighted 

that the increase in aerial carbon was higher in SAF than in natural succession, mainly due to the presence of trees 

and shrubs, with the choice of species playing a crucial role. Some notable species used in the study include 

Anacardium occidentale L; Azadirachta indica A. Juss; Bixa orellana L; Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth; Ceiba 

pentandra (L.) Gaertn; Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud; Handroanthus sp; Mangifera indica L; Mimosa 

caesalpiniifolia Benth; Moringa oleifera Lam; Schizolobium amazonicum Herb, as well as crops like Manihot 

esculenta Crantz; Zea mays L; Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC; Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp, along with Tithonia diversifolia 

(Hemsl) and Cocos nucifera L. 

In the same vein, Epquin Rojas (2022) assessed the environmental impacts on five cocoa farms in the Utcubamba 

and Bagua provinces in the Amazonas region of Peru by analyzing the carbon and soil nutrient balance. The farms 

were AFS featuring fruit and timber trees such as mahogany, shaina, bolaina, capirona, cedar, among others. The 

study revealed that AFS have a positive impact on the overall carbon emissions balance, showing a carbon fixation 

flow of 1.48 t C/ha/year. Additionally, controlled composting of cocoa husks and the application of organic 

fertilizer also reduce emissions in these two key processes in cocoa production. 

Certainly, as emphasized in this section, the establishment of AFS is a key strategy for mitigating greenhouse 

gases in the Amazon Region. However, it is not a standalone solution; its effectiveness is significantly enhanced 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 20 

 

when complemented with the use of organic fertilizers and agroecological cutting-hand practices. The following 

studies provide further support for this concept. 

Agroecological practices for crop management in the Amazon 

Developing innovations to transition towards agricultural systems with low GHG emissions, while simultaneously 

fostering comprehensive processes of biodiversity conservation, soil recovery, and the production of local and 

diverse foods, necessitates a medium and long-term perspective with holistic approaches in line with 

agroecological principles. Indeed, the silvopastoral systems, energy cycling through biodigesters, and 

agroforestry systems outlined in this document are aligned with the principles of the agroecological approach.  

In its practical application, agroecology critically assesses and proposes enhancements to agricultural systems by 

considering natural processes, fostering beneficial biological interactions, and cultivating synergies among the 

various components of agroecosystems (Altieri & Nicholls, 2008). This approach minimizes reliance on externally 

synthesized chemical inputs, opting instead for ecological processes and ecosystem services in the development 

and implementation of agricultural practices (Gliessman, 2002; Wezel et al., 2014). In line with this perspective, 

FAO (2018) identified 10 key elements of agroecology, all interconnected to encourage sustainable agri-food 

systems across ecological, social, economic, and cultural dimensions (Figure 10). These pivotal elements 

encompass diversity, synergies, efficiency, resilience, recycling, collaborative knowledge creation and exchange, 

human and social values, cultural and food traditions, circular and solidarity-based economy, and responsible 

governance. 

Figure 10. Ten key elements of agroecology. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: FAO (2018). https://www.fao.org/3/i9037es/I9037ES.pdf  

 

In the shift from agro-industrial systems to more sustainable and low emission food systems, agroecology 

commonly starts by enhancing resource efficiency through practices that minimize or eliminate the use of external 

inputs which have negative effects, while simultaneously advocating for recycling and soil fertility improvement as 

pivotal starting points in this transition (Wezel et al., 2020). At the second level of transition, there is an envisaged 

shift from inputs of chemical synthesis to those of organic synthesis, preferably produced using resources within 

the productive system. This transition involves combining various integrated crop management (ICM) practices, 

including the calculation of economic damage thresholds, localized pest management, and crop rotation over 

time and space. The subsequent and final level is centered on redesigning agricultural systems to increase 

diversity and promote a form of homeostasis, mimicking a natural ecosystem (such as an edible forest, as seen in 

the previous section). This level restricts the use of inputs for pest and disease management, even if they are of 

organic origin. Ideally, this level anticipates self-regulation through a significant increase in planned diversity, 

https://www.fao.org/3/i9037es/I9037ES.pdf


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 21 

 

facilitating the enhancement of beneficial biota, including population regulators (natural enemies), organic matter 

decomposers, pollinators, among others (Clavijo, 2013). 

For the case of the Amazon, agroecological practices outlined in the literature, as part of innovation processes 

aimed at reducing GHG emissions, have focused on stages one and two of the agroecological transition 

processes. These stages aim to enhance soil fertility through crop rotation and diversification, zero tillage 

practices, and the incorporation of organic fertilizers. 

Concerning the first practice, crop diversification is an inherent activity in traditional farming systems in the 

Amazon. Mixed or polyculture farming has been practiced by indigenous communities in the region through the 

management of biodiversity within the chagras or conucos system (Vélez, 1998; Viatela & Romero, 2000; Cabrera, 

2015). Chagras are the most widely used cultivation system among indigenous cultures in the Amazon (Fajardo-

Cano et al., 2023) and result from a process known as slash-and-burn. They represent itinerant, transient, and 

primarily subsistence polyculture systems (Figure 11). To be sustainable, cultivated areas need a sufficiently long 

fallow period to allow for the natural recovery of soil fertility.   

Figure 11. Indigenous chagra in the Amazon.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Rodríguez (2013)  

 

The Amazonian Chagras represent a form of polyculture around which other productive activities of the 

population revolve. However, it involves a management of time, space, and cultural identity that adds complexity 

to the system (Triana et al., 2006). Several authors classify chagras as agroforestry production systems as they have 

observed that, due to the transmission of forest management knowledge within indigenous communities, a 

productive practice has emerged, ensuring the recovery and reuse of floristic and faunistic resources after the 

extraction of cultivated products (Van der Hammen & Rodríguez, 1996; Román, 2005; Muñoz et al., 2011). 

Due to their design and management practices, which not only involve diversification but also limit the use of 

agrochemicals and agricultural machinery, various studies acknowledge their positive impacts on soil health, water 

resources, food production, and biodiversity (Escobar, 2012; Naranjo, 2017; Agreda Sigindioy, 2022), as well as 

their potential to mitigate GHG emissions (Magallón González, 2000; Villagaray & Bautista Inga 2011; Suárez 

Polanía, 2018; Agreda Sigindioy, 2022). However, as seen in the previous section, these do not represent the only 

model for establishing polyculture systems capable of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions due to their specific 

design and management. Beyond AFS, other potential combinations, under a diversification approach, may yield 

favorable outcomes for carbon sequestration.  

For example, Petter et al (2017) unveils the initial effects of various agricultural management systems on carbon 

reserves in oxisols on a farm in the southern Brazilian Amazon, comparing it with the adjacent native forest, which 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 22 

 

retained the original soil conditions. The study assessed four management systems in a commercial grain 

production area: monoculture soybean, summer soybean with corn and Panicum milaceum as a second crop, 

summer soybean with corn and Urochloa brizantha as a second crop, and summer soybean with U. brizantha + 

Crotalaria juncea. The key finding indicates the possibility of maintaining carbon reserves at levels comparable to 

those of native vegetation through the cultivation of summer soybean and cover crops U. brizantha + C. juncea as 

a second crop. These two species contribute more organic residues through leaf litter production and 

decomposition, as well as biomass production, compared to other management systems. Thus, to achieve low 

GHG emissions in the Amazon, alternative strategies like pasture rotation must be embraced to preserve and/or 

increase carbon reserves, consequently reducing the impact of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. 

These polyculture practices are intricately linked to the principles of no-till farming, a technique that involves 

directly placing crop seeds onto the soil without disturbing residues from the previous crop. It serves as a central 

tenet in conservation agriculture, addressing the imperative to maintain and enhance the quality of renewable 

natural resources in the agricultural production process. This approach minimizes or completely avoids soil 

disturbance, preserving crop residues on the soil surface (Acevedo Hinojosa & Silva Candia, 2003). Applicable to a 

range of crops, including annuals, vegetables, fruits, and forestry, no-till farming reduces the soil's contribution to 

atmospheric CO2 emissions associated with conventional plowing as it facilitates carbon sequestration in the soil 

(Baker et al., 2008). This practice results in a lowered rate of organic matter mineralization and a decrease in water 

erosion (Castiglioni et al., 2006). Typically, no-till farming is complemented by the planting of grasses and 

legumes, whose characteristics contribute to increased carbon capture and improved physical and chemical soil 

properties (Salazar-Sosa et al., 2003). 

In this regard, Ferreira et al (2017) examined the CO2 efflux in four systems: secondary forest, degraded pasture, 

active pasture, and two soybean fields, one with conventional tillage (CT) and another with no-till (NT), in the 

western state of Pará in the Brazilian Amazon. The results demonstrated that the no-till system has the potential to 

mitigate 37.7% of the CO2 efflux from soybean cultivation compared to conventional tillage. Similarly, Capa et al. 

(2020) argued that integrated agricultural systems avoid mechanical soil disturbance, promoting soil physical 

quality. These systems generate continuous biomass inputs to ensure the accumulation of soil organic carbon, 

provide consistent soil coverage to combat erosion, and replenish soil nutrients to maintain nutrient balance. They 

also increase the supply of firewood, forage, and food by introducing vegetation heterogeneity within the farm, 

which, in turn, serves as a significant driver of soil microbial communities in response to environmental changes. 

This approach thus becomes a means to enhance the sustainability of tropical agroecosystems. 

In addition to no-till practices, soil conservation involves incorporating organic fertilizers, preferably produced 

within the same production system. Here, biochar or bio-carbon emerges as an alternative that has gained 

significance for soil recovery in the Amazon (Bezerra et al., 2019; González et al., 2022). Biochar is defined as "a 

fine-grain carbonization product obtained through the pyrolysis of biomass and biodegradable waste, 

characterized by a high content of organic carbon and low susceptibility to degradation" (Saletnik et al., 2019). 

The pyrolysis process, along with carbon sequestration in soils through the application of biochar, may serve as a 

collaborative strategy to mitigate the impacts of climate change (García Montero et al., 2021; Paz-Ferreiro et al., 

2018). 

The use of biochar is not recent; although the interest in its study has intensified in recent years (Diatta et al., 2020; 

Ye et al., 2020). Its production and use date back to the pre-Columbian era in the formation of the so-called "terras 

pretas do índio" or dark soils of the Amazon (Glaser et al., 2011). These soils, known as dark lands, are prevalent in 

the Amazon and stand out for having characteristics completely different from the surrounding soils, containing a 

substantial storage of organic matter and high nutrient levels (Reyes, 2018). Amazonian dark lands are subdivided 

into terra preta and terra mulata (black lands and brown lands respectively) and it is now generally accepted that 

they are the product of human actions and practices (Lehman et al., 2003; Barrow, 2012). According to Kern et al. 

(2017), dark lands mostly originate from domestic charcoal, mainly from kitchens and/or fires, and remnants of 

intentional fires or forest burns. These anthropogenic dark soil matrices are highly fertile and exhibit high levels of 

organic carbon, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and manganese. Their elevated nutrient levels result from 

decomposed organic matter, including remnants of fish, shellfish, hunting, and other waste. Their dark color has 

been associated with residual charcoal from intentional fires linked to daily activities and landscape management. 

These soils not only boast higher concentrations of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium 

but also feature increased levels of stable soil organic matter. The frequent presence of charcoal and highly 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 23 

 

aromatic humic substances suggests that residues from incomplete combustion of organic matter (black carbon) 

play a pivotal role in sustaining the persistence of soil organic matter in these soils (Glaser et al., 2001). There is an 

argument that pre-conquest South American farmers, particularly those in the Peruvian, Colombian, Brazilian, and 

Ecuadorian Amazon regions, intentionally and swiftly created these dark lands to support semi-intensive 

agriculture, which endured for many centuries in less fertile soils (Skjemstad et al., 2002).  

Barrow (2012) suggests that biochar could currently offer an environmentally friendly solution for disposing of 

agricultural waste, human wastewater, livestock manure, industrial waste, and more, with reduced GHG emissions. 

When applied to the soil, it might even contribute to a decrease in groundwater and pre-existing stream pollution. 

Additionally, biochar could serve as a valuable soil amendment to rehabilitate degraded lands and bring poor 

soils into production, thereby contributing to the reduction of logging in natural forests. As highlighted by 

Amonette et al. (2009, cited by Reyes, 2018), biochar exhibits a high organic carbon content, displaying strong 

resistance to decomposition and extended residence times in soils, preventing rapid transformation and the 

release of CO2 into the atmosphere. According to FAO (2004), biochar creates a recalcitrant carbon pool (carbon-

negative), acting as a network for carbon capture. Moreover, these soil amendment materials can improve soil 

physical condition, facilitate better nutrient absorption, enhance cationic retention, and decrease N2O emissions 

(Lehmann et al., 2005; Lehmann, 2007). 

Biochar, like many organic fertilizers, enhances nutrient availability in the soil by improving the cation exchange 

capacity and porosity of the soil structure. This promotes air circulation and provides a conducive habitat for 

various organisms in the meso and microfauna of the soil, thereby increasing biological activity (Glaser et al., 2001; 

Lehmann & Joseph, 2009). Additionally, it contributes to an increase in available water for plants, reducing 

leaching losses (García Montero et al., 2021). Collectively, these effects (Figure 12) foster cumulative 

improvements in soil fertility and long-term agricultural productivity, at least based on experimental field trials 

(Miltner & Coomes, 2015). 

Figure 12. Benefits of biochar.   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Tortosa (2015) -http://www.compostandociencia.com/2015/01/que-es-el-biochar/  

 

http://www.compostandociencia.com/2015/01/que-es-el-biochar/


March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 24 

 

Nevertheless, the crucial chemical and physical properties of biochar are heavily influenced by factors such as the 

selection of raw materials (crop residues, energy crops, wood chips, municipal waste, manure, etc.) and the 

conditions during the pyrolysis process, primarily involving temperature and duration. These properties play a 

significant role in shaping how biochar interacts within its application environment and determining its fate (Sohi et 

al., 2009). 

In the Ecuadorian Amazon, Heredia Salgado et al. (2021) investigated the integration of pyrolysis processes to 

transform agricultural residues from coffee cultivation into biochar, aiming to implement bioeconomy practices 

within farmers' cooperatives. Given the similarity in post-harvest processes and the potential use of coffee husks as 

raw material, the study suggests producing biochar in local processing centers to effectively utilize coffee 

processing waste. The primary finding indicates that biochar can enhance soil carbon sequestration by 

reintroducing crucial nutrients and minerals to the soil. Furthermore, the heat generated during the carbonization 

of agricultural residues can be harnessed to replace fossil fuels, thereby reducing emissions associated with their 

use. Currently, these residues are employed in farmers' cooperatives for mechanical drying processes. 

In Brazil, Sato et al. (2020) explored the potential use of biochar as a soil conditioner by using the raw material 

utilized for biochar production in manually crafted kilns comprised residues from açaí seeds (Euterpe oleracea) 

obtained from fruit processing. These residues were sourced from establishments in the metropolitan region of 

Belém, Pará state, in northern Brazil. The results revealed that biochar enhanced the soil's chemical quality, with 

the high lignin content in açaí seeds contributing to their substantial carbon sequestration potential.  

Additional support for the utilization of biochar to enhance soil conditions in the Amazon Region is found in a 

study conducted by Ríos Guayasamín (2024). The study determined that the use of biochar leads to an increase in 

biomass in forest plantations, particularly in soils with limited nutrients. Conducted in the Ecuadorian Amazon, the 

research utilized biochar derived from Piptocoma discolor (Kunth) Pruski, a native species of neotropical rainforests 

commonly employed for constructing pallets and fruit boxes in the region. Furthermore, the study suggests that 

the positive effects of biochar are heightened when combined with the cultivation of leguminous plants, thanks to 

their nutrient-fixing properties. 

This leads us to the final agroecological practice summarized concerning the use of legumes in productive 

systems in the Amazon region. This practice serves as an option to improve yields while simultaneously mitigating 

GHG emissions. Notably, Vargas et al. (2021) investigated how legume species within an agroforestry system 

impact the yield of yellow pitaya (dragon fruit), carbon sequestration, and nutritional contributions. The 

experiment was conducted at the Palora Experimental Farm of the Central Amazon Experimental Station (EECA) of 

the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIAP) in Palora canton. The study was organized in a randomized 

complete block design with three replications, featuring two agroforestry arrangements and monoculture as the 

control treatment. In the agroforestry setups, Erythrina poeppigiana, Gliricidia sepium, and Flemingia macrophylla 

were employed to contribute biomass. The results revealed that, over the five-year study period, the pitaya yield 

was influenced by the quality of the incorporated leaf litter (biomass) into the fruit cultivation. The biomass from E. 

poeppigiana and F. macrophylla as companion crops contributed to higher levels of Ca and Mg, increased carbon 

sequestration, and enhanced crop yield. These findings suggest that the utilization of legume species in 

agroforestry systems positively impacts pitaya productivity and carbon storage.  

It is important to note that the agroecological practices reviewed d in this document for reducing GHG emissions 

in the Amazon do not constitute a one-size-fits-all toolbox that can be transferred from one locality to another. 

Each of these practices responds to different conditions and should be designed, adjusted, and improved based 

on specific circumstances. Moreover, not just considering inputs and techniques, these practices crucially require 

the participation of farming families due to their complexity and the use of materials and resources specific to the 

area. In addition to contributing their labor, these families provide their knowledge and previous experience, as 

well as the willingness to engage in new learning, knowledge exchange, and experimentation. 

In the diversification of crops through SAFs, chagras, and the utilization of biochar, traditional knowledge becomes 

essential for implementing innovations that harmoniously blend new findings, techniques, and suggestions with 

the unique resources of the Amazon and the wisdom of local communities. As Prins (2005) suggests, this process 

embodies the sought-after metaphor of grafting, seamlessly integrating the new elements with local processes, 

knowledge, and resources. 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 25 

 

Agroecological Markets and 

Participatory Guarantee Systems 
As a contribution to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions in agri-food systems of the Amazon, this document 

proposes the development of agroforestry systems, silvopastoral systems, crop diversification, the use of 

biodigesters, and agroecological production practices. However, while the focus is on enhancing the conditions of 

agroecosystems in the area to make them more diverse and resilient to climate change, it is crucial to consider the 

farmer's community matrix in socio-technical innovation processes—namely, their network of social relationships 

and various forms of exchange (Sevilla, 2000). Therefore, the viability and permanence of agri-food systems 

implementing low greenhouse gas emission sociotechnical innovations in the Amazon will depend, among other 

factors, on their articulation with the different components of their territory, particularly on the possibility of 

integrating their production into the sphere of consumption, as the sale of their products in the market is a 

determining factor for the sustainability of their entire system (Chaparro, 2014). 

 

Nevertheless, it is important to note that in the realm of food globalization, where homogeneity and consistent 

high-volume supply are prioritized in conventional markets, agrobiodiverse production systems often struggle to 

integrate. This is primarily due to the specific types of products they cultivate, the practices they employ, the 

staggered nature of their harvests, and the imperative need for stable incomes to cover the daily expenses of 

farming families. Within this framework, when discussing markets for local products, diverse and managed from an 

agroecological standpoint, we refer to marketing channels that prioritize the origin of their products, the diversity 

of these products in terms of both sustenance and alternative uses, the sustainable methods of production, and 

the positive environmental externalities they generate (Pengue, 2005; Toledo et al., 2014). 

 

The statement leads us to consider the foundations of another type of economy, particularly the solidarity 

economy, from which local and regional markets can be revitalized around low greenhouse gas emissions Agri-

Food Systems, in response to their ecosystemic, social, and cultural context, without contravening local logics of 

monetary and non-monetary exchange. 

 

"The solidarity economy represents an attempt to reconsider economic relationships from different perspectives. 

Unlike the logic of capital, which promotes increasing commodification of both public and private spheres and the 

pursuit of maximum profit, the solidarity economy aims to establish production, distribution, consumption, and 

financing relationships grounded in principles of justice, cooperation, reciprocity, and mutual aid. Instead of 

prioritizing capital accumulation, the solidarity economy places people and their labor at the core of the economic 

system, assigning markets an instrumental role in serving the well-being of all individuals and the sustainability of 

life on the planet" (Pérez et al., 2008:8). 

 

Thus, within the framework of the solidarity economy, both relational and physical connections between 

consumers and farmers can be efficiently and effectively expressed at local and regional levels. For example, 

direct interaction can occur on the farm or through sales to consumers via closed baskets or door-to-door 

deliveries to nearby neighbors or other residents of the area. Additionally, monetary transactions take place at 

local producer markets on market days or through direct deliveries to regional food outlets (Bustamante et al., 

2020 and Rodrigues et al., 2021). 

 

 



March 24 | Sociotechnical innovations for low emissions food systems: a state of the art for the Amazon 26 

 

Agroecological Markets 

Agroecological markets represent a concrete manifestation of the principles outlined above. According to 

Hernández et al. (2022), these markets are organizational initiatives that transcend mere product transactions and 

monetary value. They foster various relationships and agreements that enable their existence, going beyond 

conventional market practices. The social construction of these markets involves collective action, relationships, 

practices, and principles of economic and social solidarity or reciprocity. These elements facilitate access to or the 

maintenance of markets, shaping an alternative for local production and consumption. This model promotes direct 

interaction between producers and consumers, fostering new networks of social interaction and solidarity 

economy (Hernández et al., 2022). 

The research led by Bustamante et al. (2021) corroborates these findings through an analysis of five 

agroecological market experiences in Mexico. Each of these markets exhibits unique characteristics in terms of 

activities, products offered, participant types, meeting frequencies, and specific dynamics. These experiences 

illustrate that the organization and sustainability of agroecological markets depend on the specific conditions and 

characteristics of the territories in which they operate. For instance, the Organic Market of Chapingo (TOCh) offers 

food twice a week along with free workshops on health, cooking, and agroecological production methods, as well 

as cultural and musical activities. The Alternative Market of Puebla (TAP) operates as a regional system for buying 

and selling local and ecological products. Similarly, the Mercado Maculli Teotzin is an initiative led by professors 

and students of agroecology aiming to promote the productive processes of small peasant and indigenous 

producers in the region. The Tianguis del Mayab, initiated by the academic community, consists of Maya 

producers offering traditional products. Lastly, the agroecological market of José María Morelos represents a 

marketing process aimed at strengthening food sovereignty within participating communities. 

The Mexican case aligns with Chaparro's (2019) description of agroecological markets as organizations 

characterized by diversity among participants and connections. These markets operate with an alternative 

rationale in social, environmental, and economic matters compared to conventional markets. They seek to adapt 

to changing environmental conditions. 

These aspects also resonate with the experience of the Agroecological Farmers' Markets Network of Valle del 

Cauca (REDMAC), as described by Aristizabal and REDMAC (2019). This network comprises approximately 300 

peasant, indigenous, and Afro-Colombian families. The markets, known as fair-type markets, aim to establish short 

marketing circuits, involving physical and commercial proximity. REDMAC, driven by the will of peasants, has 

maintained its independence from various actors and institutions, despite facing numerous challenges, mainly 

from official institutions. 

These aspects also align with the Agroecological Peasant Markets Network of Valle del Cauca (REDMAC), whose 

processes and learnings, social, economic, political, and cultural dynamics that emerged during its formation, are 

extensively described by Aristizabal and REDMAC (2019). The network is composed of approximately 300 

peasant, indigenous, and Afro-Colombian families, and the markets, known as fair-type markets, seek to establish 

short marketing circuits through consumption involving physical and commercial proximity. REDMAC is the 

autonomous result of the will of peasants who have developed a close relationship with cons