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“To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local Perceptions
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Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review
Maiko Nishi
Suneetha M. Subramanian
Himangana Gupta Editors
Biodiversity-
Health-Sustainability
Nexus in Socio-
Ecological Production
Landscapes and
Seascapes (SEPLS)
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review
Series Editor
Tsunao Watanabe, United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Tokyo, Japan
This Open Access book series aims to make timely and targeted contributions for
decision-makers and on-the-ground practitioners by producing knowledge
concerning “socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes” (SEPLS) –
areas where production activities help maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services
in various forms while sustainably supporting the livelihoods and well-being of local
communities. Each volume will be designed as a compilation of case studies
providing useful knowledge and lessons focusing on a specific theme that is impor-
tant for SEPLS, accompanied by a synthesis chapter that extracts lessons learned
through the case studies to present them for policy-relevant academic discussions.
The series is also intended to contribute to efforts being made by researchers and
scientists to strengthen the evidence base on social-ecological dynamics and resil-
ience, including those under the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD).
The promotion and conservation of SEPLS have been the focus of the Satoyama
Initiative, a global effort to realise societies in harmony with nature. In 2010, the
International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI) was established to
implement the concept of the Satoyama Initiative and promote various activities
by enhancing awareness and creating synergies among those working with SEPLS.
As a unique platform joined by governmental, intergovernmental, nongovernmental,
private-sector, academic, and indigenous peoples’ organisations, IPSI has been
collecting and sharing the information, lessons, and experiences on SEPLS to
accumulate a diverse range of knowledge. Case studies to be published in this series
will be solicited from practitioners, researchers, and others working on the ground,
who are affiliated with IPSI member organisations and closely involved and familiar
with the activities related to SEPLS management.
Maiko Nishi • Suneetha M. Subramanian •
Himangana Gupta
Editors
Biodiversity-Health-
Sustainability Nexus
in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes
and Seascapes (SEPLS)
Editors
Maiko Nishi Suneetha M. Subramanian
Biodiversity & Society Biodiversity & Society
United Nations University Institute for the United Nations University Institute for the
Advanced Study of Sustainability Advanced Study of Sustainability
Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Himangana Gupta
Biodiversity & Society
United Nations University Institute for the
Advanced Study of Sustainability
Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
ISSN 2731-5169 ISSN 2731-5177 (electronic)
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review
ISBN 978-981-16-9892-7 ISBN 978-981-16-9893-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4
Funding Information: United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability (UNU-IAS)
© UNU-IAS 2022. This book is an open access publication.
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors/editors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of UNU-IAS, its Board of Directors, or the countries they represent.
Open Access This book is licenced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO Licence
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and
reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to UNU-IAS, provide a link
to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.
The use of the UNU-IAS name and logo, shall be subject to a separate written licence agreement between
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Review Committee
Nadia Bergamini
Jung-Tai Chao
William Olupot
Fausto O. Sarmiento
Editorial Support
Madoka Yoshino
Kanako Yoshino
Yoshino Nakahara
Vision Bridge, LLC
Evan Namkung
Jennifer Rowton
Ruchika Vemuri
English Proofreading
Susan Yoshimura
Foreword 1
In the context of a global pandemic and climate crisis, the relationship between
humans and nature has come under renewed scrutiny. We are currently in the sixth
phase of global biodiversity extinction, primarily driven by anthropogenic activities
and unsustainable development. This unprecedented biodiversity loss is placing
increasing pressures on the planet, and research shows that it is increasing the risk
of future pandemics.
As part of our mission to advance global efforts towards sustainability, UNU-IAS
has been contributing to the sustainable use of biodiversity at all levels through
research, policy engagement, and capacity development initiatives. We have focused
on promoting sustainable resource management approaches and positive human-
nature interactions in various geographically distinct socio-ecological production
landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS). Integrated approaches for SEPLS management
have the potential to solve various local and regional problems while contributing
towards achieving global goals for sustainable development and biodiversity.
This seventh book in the Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review (SITR) series
presents a set of case studies that demonstrate critical dynamics in the biodiversity,
health, and sustainability nexus in the context of SEPLS. The case studies were
selected in light of linkages between biodiversity and health on which understanding
is beginning to develop. The studies show how SEPLS management has helped to
improve the quality of environments and human lives, with multiple other benefits,
making it a valuable tool for enhancing both human and ecosystem health.
The compilation of case studies was produced through the Satoyama Initiative, a
global effort to realise societies in harmony with nature. UNU-IAS has worked
closely with the Ministry of the Environment of Japan to develop this initiative. We
have hosted the Secretariat of the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initia-
tive (IPSI) since its establishment in 2010 at the Tenth Meeting of the Conference of
the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP 10) in Aichi,
Nagoya, Japan. In this role, we coordinate the efforts of partners across the globe
towards biodiversity conservation through integrated and holistic landscape and
seascape management approaches. IPSI has so far accumulated a diverse range of
vii
viii Foreword 1
knowledge and experiences, including a database of 260 case studies submitted by
the 283 IPSI member organisations. They include governmental, non-governmental,
research, and indigenous peoples’ organisations, working collaboratively for better
management of SEPLS in various settings around the world.
The SITR publication series was launched in 2015 to share the knowledge of IPSI
members and showcase their diverse work across major policy-relevant themes. The
previous six volumes each explored a specific set of concerns related to biodiversity
in the context of SEPLS. This latest book focuses on the biodiversity-health-sus-
tainability nexus, exploring approaches to build back better from the COVID-19
pandemic.
The volume seeks to provide inspiration and useful knowledge for practitioners,
policymakers, and scientists to deepen the understanding of this nexus and advance
local solutions to achieve global goals for health, biodiversity, and sustainable
development, using traditional and local knowledge. It will also provide a broader
contribution to the knowledge base informing key policy processes, including those
of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) and CBD. In particular, the case studies presented here provide
relevant and on-the-ground knowledge that will contribute to the ongoing IPBES
Nexus Assessment. The volume will help to inform and support the action that is
urgently needed to conserve biodiversity and achieve sustainability.
United Nations University S. Yume Yamaguchi
Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability
Tokyo, Japan
Foreword 2
The Satoyama Initiative seeks to advance the concept of humans living in harmony
with nature. This has been the principle on which numerous communities across the
globe have traditionally lived, viewing and managing social-ecological systems for
their well-being. Recognising the interdependence and reciprocal relationship of
nature and societies, human activities in such systems were attuned to ensuring
resilience from various disturbances. The intention of the Satoyama Initiative,
through the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI), is to go
back to the basics and support the rejuvenation and strengthening of such systems
(termed socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes, SEPLS) that involve
a mosaic of ecosystems that are managed in diverse ways to provide multiple
benefits to people. Promoting such integrated landscape and seascape management
has been identified as a key solution to environmental issues ranging from biodi-
versity loss and ecosystem degradation to climate regulation by policy forums
including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES).
In this context, the Initiative in collaboration with IPSI partners has been engaged
in identifying key lessons from such on-the-ground activities to inform various
sustainability-related policy priorities. Each volume of the Satoyama Initiative
Thematic Review (SITR) focuses on a specific area of policy interest and invites
manuscripts detailing the experience of IPSI partners in addressing the theme. Since
the sixth edition of SITR, we have collaborated with Springer in publishing.
The manuscripts are peer reviewed and written in a form that can be easily
understood by practitioners, policymakers, and of course academics. This volume
focuses on an important topic that has come to the forefront of all our lives since
ix
x Foreword 2
2020: the nexus between biodiversity, health, and sustainable development. I hope
that you find reading the different case studies and the analysis in the synthesis
chapter interesting and useful.
United Nations University Tsunao Watanabe
Institute for the Advanced Study of
Sustainability
Tokyo, Japan
International Partnership for the
Satoyama Initiative, Tokyo, Japan
Preface
The Satoyama Initiative is “a global effort to realise societies in harmony with
nature”, started through a joint collaboration between the United Nations University
(UNU) and the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. The initiative focuses on the
revitalisation and sustainable management of “socio-ecological production land-
scapes and seascapes” (SEPLS), areas where production activities help maintain
biodiversity and ecosystem services in various forms while sustainably supporting
the livelihoods and well-being of local communities. In 2010, the International
Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI) was established to implement the
concept of the Satoyama Initiative and promote various activities by enhancing
awareness and creating synergies among those working with SEPLS. IPSI provides
a unique platform for organisations to exchange views and experiences and to find
partners for collaboration. As of April 2022, 283 members have joined the partner-
ship, including governmental, intergovernmental, non-governmental, private-sector,
academic, and indigenous peoples’ organisations.
The Satoyama Initiative promotes the concept of SEPLS through a threefold
approach that argues for connection of land- and seascapes holistically for the
management of SEPLS (see Fig. 1). This often means involvement of several sectors
at the landscape scale, under which it seeks to (1) consolidate wisdom in securing
diverse ecosystem services and values, (2) integrate traditional ecosystem knowl-
edge and modern science, and (3) explore new forms of co-management systems.
Furthermore, activities for SEPLS management cover multiple dimensions, such as
equity, addressing poverty and deforestation, and incorporation of traditional knowl-
edge for sustainable management practices in primary production processes such as
agriculture, fisheries, and forestry (UNU-IAS & IGES 2015).
As one of its core functions, IPSI serves as a knowledge-sharing platform through
the collection and sharing of information and experiences on SEPLS, providing a
place for discussion among members and beyond. So far 260 case studies have been
collected and are shared on the IPSI website, providing a wide range of knowledge
covering diverse issues related to SEPLS. Discussions have also been held to further
strengthen IPSI’s knowledge facilitation functions, with members suggesting that
xi
xii Preface
Fig. 1 The conceptual framework of the Satoyama Initiative (source: IPSI Secretariat, 2015)
efforts should be made to produce knowledge on specific issues in SEPLS in order to
make more targeted contributions to decision makers and on-the-ground
practitioners.
It is in this context that a project to create a publication series titled the “Satoyama
Initiative Thematic Review (SITR)1” was initiated in 2015. The Thematic Review
was developed as a compilation of case studies providing useful knowledge and
lessons focusing on a specific theme that is important for SEPLS. The overall aim of
the Thematic Review is to collect experiences and relevant knowledge, especially
from practitioners working on the ground, considering their usefulness in providing
concrete and practical knowledge and information as well as their potential to
contribute to policy recommendations. Each volume is also accompanied by a
synthesis chapter, which extracts lessons learned through the case studies, presenting
them for policy-relevant academic discussions. This series also contributes to efforts
being made by researchers to strengthen the evidence base for policymaking
concerning social-ecological dynamics and resilience, including those under the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
1The previous volumes of the SITR series are available at https://satoyama-initiative.org/featured_
activities/sitr/.
Preface xiii
Six volumes of the SITR series have been published on an annual basis since
2015. The first volume with the theme “Enhancing knowledge for better manage-
ment of SEPLS” focused on ways to collect, exchange, refine, and make use of
information and knowledge for better management of SEPLS. The second volume’s
theme was “Mainstreaming concepts and approaches of SEPLS into policy and
decision-making”, covering topics including advocacy, multi-stakeholder engage-
ment, institutional coordination, tools, and information useful for policymakers and
stakeholders. The third volume, titled “Sustainable livelihoods in SEPLS”, identified
drivers linked to sustainable livelihoods that are crucial to ensure human well-being
and foster sustainable natural resource use. The fourth volume, “Sustainable use of
biodiversity in SEPLS and its contribution to effective area-based conservation”,
looked at how effective management of SEPLS, including areas inside and outside
of designated protected areas, can achieve benefits for both biodiversity conservation
and human livelihoods. The fifth volume, “Understanding the multiple values
associated with sustainable use in SEPLS”, examined intrinsic, instrumental, and
relational values provided and maintained through SEPLS management. The sixth
volume, titled “Fostering transformative change for sustainability in the context
SEPLS”, explored how SEPLS management relates to the idea of transformative
change to further the discussion on sustainable transitions. It was the first in the
series published by Springer to reach out to a broader range of readers, while the
earlier volumes were in-house publications of UNU-IAS.
Building on the past series, SITR has become a Springer book series from this
volume in an aim to enhance consistent and coherent contributions to science-policy-
practice interfaces while maintaining the publications’ impact and reach to a wide
audience. Furthermore, the review committee is the first established for this volume
to engage in the review process for publication. By inviting experienced and
knowledgeable experts in SEPLS management from the IPSI community, this expert
group has helped to ensure credibility and reinforce the quality of the contents and at
the same time to facilitate sharing of expertise and collaboration among IPSI
members.
This publication was developed through a multistage process, including both peer
review and discussion among the authors and reviewers at a workshop. Authors had
several opportunities to receive feedback, which helped them to improve their
manuscripts in substance, quality, and relevance. First, each manuscript received
comments from the editorial team and the review committee relating primarily to its
contributions to the theme of the volume. Peer review was then conducted by authors
of other chapters. Each author received feedback from two other authors who were
requested to comment on whether the manuscript was easy to understand and
informative, addressed key questions of the volume’s focus, and provided useful
lessons. The aforementioned workshop was then held virtually on 28–30 June 2021
to enable the exchange of feedback between authors and reviewers. The basic ideas
contained in the synthesis of the concluding chapter were developed from presenta-
tions and discussions during the workshop, and the chapter was made available for
review by authors and reviewers before finalisation.
xiv Preface
The above process offers an opportunity for authors from both academic and
non-academic organisations to contribute to generating knowledge in an accessible
and interactive way, as well as to provide high-quality papers written in simple
language for academics and a broader audience alike. It is our hope that this
publication will be useful in providing information and insights to practitioners,
researchers, and policymakers on the importance of long-term collaborative man-
agement of SEPLS for minimising negative trade-offs and creating and enhancing
positive synergies between health, biodiversity, and sustainable development to
facilitate transformative change towards a sustainable world. This, we hope, will
prompt policymaking that strengthens such integrated and holistic management
approaches.
We would like to thank all the authors who contributed their case studies. We also
appreciate the continued commitment and support for the thorough review process
by the four experts in the review committee: Nadia Bergamini, Jung-Tai Chao,
William Olupot, and Fausto O. Sarmiento. We are also grateful to the other partic-
ipants in the case study workshop who provided insightful remarks and valuable
inputs into the discussions. These individuals include Alexandros Gasparatos, Hana
Matsuzaki, and Eiji Tanaka. We also thank the colleagues of the UNU-IAS and
Vision Bridge who were supportive and instrumental in organising the workshop
and facilitating the publication process: William Dunbar, Michiko Hashimoto, Yuki
Kakuta, Mariko Kinoshita, Michael Lin, Vandana Nagaraji, Yoshino Nakahara,
Evan Namkung, Jennifer Rowton, Rizen Tamrakar, Nicholas Turner, Ruchika
Vemuri, Makiko Yanagiya, Tomoyo Yanase, Kanako Yoshino, and Madoka
Yoshino. Our gratitude extends to the UNU administration, especially Francesco
Foghetti and Florence Lo, and to colleagues from the UN Geospatial Information
Section for all the instrumental support through the publication process. Further-
more, we acknowledge Susan Yoshimura who skilfully proofread the manuscripts.
Publication of this volume as a new Springer book would not have been possible
without the helpful guidance of Mei Hann Lee and Momoko Asawa from Springer
and the institutional support and leadership of Shinobu Yume Yamaguchi and
Tsunao Watanabe from the UNU-IAS. Our grateful thanks are also due to the
Ministry of the Environment, Japan, for supporting the activities of IPSI and its
secretariat hosted by the UNU-IAS.
Tokyo, Japan Maiko Nishi
Suneetha M. Subramanian
Himangana Gupta
References
IPSI Secretariat. (2015). IPSI: The International Partnership for the Satoyama
Initiative, viewed 31 October 2021. Retrieved from https://satoyama-initiative.
org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/20151007_ID-PDF_UNU-DL-flyer-EN-with-
new-diargam.pdf.
Preface xv
UNU-IAS & IGES (Eds.) (2015). Enhancing knowledge for better management of
socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS). Satoyama ini-
tiative thematic review, vol. 1. United Nations University Institute for the
Advanced Study of Sustainability.
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Maiko Nishi, Suneetha M. Subramanian, and Himangana Gupta
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community
Understanding on One Health Approach in the COVID-19 Era
in the Sundarbans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir and Md. Shah Paran
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human
Well-Being in Indigenous Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes in
the Colombian Pacific Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Andrés Quintero-Angel, Andrés López-Rosada, Mauricio Quintero-
Angel, David Quintero-Angel, Diana Mendoza-Salazar, Sara Catalina
Rodríguez-Díaz, and Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity,
Connectivity, and Adaptive Capacity in Xinshe Village, Hualien
County, Chinese Taipei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Paulina G. Karimova, Shao-Yu Yan, and Kuang-Chung Lee
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”:
Local Perceptions on Human and Environmental Health in a High
Agro-Biodiversity Landscape in the Yucatan Peninsula . . . . . . . . . 89
María Elena Méndez-López, María Fernanda Cepeda-González,
Karla Juliana Rodríguez-Robayo, Lilian Juárez-Téllez,
Mariana Rivera-De Velasco, Rosa Martha Peralta-Blanco,
Nicolás Chan-Chuc, Andrea A. Serrano-Ysunza,
R. Antonio Riveros-Cañas, Oscar G. Sánchez-Siordia,
and Sebastien Proust
xvii
xviii Contents
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate
Resilience of a Socio-Ecological Production Landscape
in Peri-urban Ramsar Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Dipayan Dey and Priyani H. Amerasinghe
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management
in the Siem Reap Catchment, Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chris Jacobson, Jady Smith, Socheath Sou, Christian Nielsen,
and Peou Hang
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation
of Alpine Landscapes Threatening Human Health and Ecosystem
Diversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Andrea Fischer, Henriette Adolf, and Oliver Bender
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets:
A Case Study from a Biocultural Hotspot of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
N. Anil Kumar, V. V. Sivan, and P. Vipindas
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways
in Traditionally Managed Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes
in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Patrick Maundu and Yasuyuki Morimoto
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural
Biodiversity and Enhancing Food Security and Community
Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Kampong Cham,
Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Mari Arimitsu, and Machito Mihara
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of
Pesticide Use and Impacts on Socio-Ecological Production
Landscapes (SEPLs) in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Yaw Osei-Owusu, Raymond Owusu-Achiaw, Paa Kofi Osei-Owusu,
and Julia Atayi
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the
Nexus in SEPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Maiko Nishi, Suneetha M. Subramanian, and Himangana Gupta
Editors and Authors
About the Editors
Maiko Nishi Research Fellow at the United Nations University Institute for the
Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research interests include social-ecological
system governance, regional planning, and agricultural land policy. PhD in Urban
Planning from Columbia University.
Suneetha M. Subramanian Visiting Fellow at the United Nations University
Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research interests include
biodiversity and human well-being with a focus on equity, traditional knowledge,
community well-being, and socio-ecological resilience.
Himangana Gupta Visiting Research Fellow at the United Nations University
Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), and former JSPS-
UNU Postdoctoral Fellow at UNU-IAS and the University of Tokyo. She has
worked on climate policy, forestry, biodiversity, and women.
About the Authors
Hennriette Adolf She completed a 6-month internship at the Institute of Interdis-
ciplinary Mountain Research of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Innsbruck as
part of her master’s thesis on anthropogenic vegetational changes in the Alps.
Priyanie H. Amerasinghe Scientist Emeritus at the International Water Manage-
ment Institute, Sri Lanka. She is an eminent zoologist and public health specialist by
training with 35 years of experience in environmental research and community
health.
xix
xx Editors and Authors
Mari Arimitsu Works for the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
focusing on gender equality and gender-based violence. From 2017 to 2021, she
worked with government officials and local farmers in Kampong Cham Province,
Cambodia, promoting sustainable agriculture.
Julia Atayi Associate Scientist and Project Manager at Conservation Alliance
International, Ghana. She is currently coordinating the implementation of a project
that aims to enhance communities’ adaptive capacity within forest production
landscapes.
Oliver Bender Head of the working group “Man and Environment, Settlements” at
the Institute of Interdisciplinary Mountain Research of the Austrian Academy of
Sciences in Innsbruck.
María Fernanda Cepeda-González Works as a consultant for national and inter-
national NGOs and research centres. For 25 years she has focused her career on
natural resource management and conservation.
Nicolás Chan-Chuc BSc in Linguistics and Mayan Culture from Eastern Univer-
sity in Yucatán. He is a Mayan-Spanish translator and interpreter and works as a
Research Assistant at the Research Center in Geospatial Information Sciences
(CentroGeo).
Dipayan Dey Chair of the South Asian Forum for Environment. He is an environ-
mental biotechnologist with expertise in restoration ecology as well as 25 years of
comprehensive experience in community-based initiatives in South Asia.
Andrea Fischer Head of the working group “Man and Environment, High Moun-
tains” at the Institute of Interdisciplinary Mountain Research of the Austrian Acad-
emy of Sciences in Innsbruck.
Peou Hang Director General of APSARA. He has a PhD in Hydrology and is
passionate about rehabilitation of the extensive hydraulic system network within
Angkor Park and Khmer ancestors’ technology in water management.
Chris Jacobson Adjunct Associate Professor at the University of Queensland. She
works as a consultant specialising in adaptation, resilience, and agricultural devel-
opment in the Asia-Pacific region. She has published more than 40 peer-reviewed
articles, book chapters, and books.
Lilian Juárez-Téllez PhD in Ecology and Natural Resource Management from
INECOL. She is currently collaborating in CentroGeo Yucatán in territorial studies
of complex socioecological systems such as Mayan milpa.
Editors and Authors xxi
Paulina G. Karimova Master’s in Environmental Science, PhD candidate and
Research Assistant at the Landscape Conservation and Community Participation
Laboratory, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan. Her research interests include
integrated landscape and seascape approaches, adaptive co-management, and com-
munity development.
N. Anil Kumar Senior Director at M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Kerala,
India. He has over three decades’ professional experience in conservation and
sustainable management of genetic resources.
Kuang-Chung Lee PhD in Geography, Professor and Supervisor of the Landscape
Conservation and Community Participation Laboratory, National Dong Hwa Uni-
versity, Taiwan. His research focuses on community participation, natural and
cultural heritage conservation, collaborative governance of protected areas, and
SEPLS.
Andrés López-Rosada Agricultural engineer who majored in sustainable develop-
ment, ethnodevelopment, and traditional production of indigenous communities.
Project Coordinator in the Association of Indigenous Councils of Valle del Cauca-
Pacific Region (ACIVA-RP).
Patrick Maundu Ethnobotanist at the National Museums of Kenya and an Honor-
ary Research Fellow at the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT. His
interest lies in the use of biodiversity by local communities.
María Elena Méndez-López PhD in Environmental Science from the Autono-
mous University of Barcelona. Her current research interests are traditional agricul-
ture and participation in conservation strategies in rural areas.
Diana M. Mendoza-Salazar Bachelor’s in History, MSc in Anthropology. Profes-
sor and Researcher at Universidad del Valle. Her lines of research are ethnohistory,
anthropology, environmental history, and cultural studies.
Machito Mihara Founder and President of the Institute of Environmental Rehabil-
itation and Conservation, Japan. He has initiated several projects to promote sus-
tainable agriculture and environmental conservation in Southeast Asian countries.
Yasuyuki Morimoto Associate Scientist at the Alliance of Bioversity International
and CIAT in Kenya. He works on projects focused on supporting local communities
to adapt to change and create new opportunities for development using crop
diversity.
Christian Nielsen Executive Director of the Live & Learn Network with 25 years’
experience in international climate change leadership and resilience development.
xxii Editors and Authors
Paa Kofi Osei-Owusu Social Scientist and Researcher at Conservation Alliance
International, Ghana. He is conducting a number of studies to establish factors that
influence rural communities’ adoption of production technologies within different
ecosystem types.
Yaw Osei-Owusu Senior Director and Lead Scientist at Conservation Alliance
International, Ghana. He supports the design and development of research-related
activities within the organisation.
Raymond Owusu-Achiaw Scientist and Researcher at Conservation Alliance
International, Ghana. He is currently conducting a number of studies on the effects
of pesticides on the resilience and productive capacity of different ecosystem types.
Md. Shah Paran Researcher at the Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Bachelor’s in Development Studies and Master’s (major in development economics)
from the University of Dhaka.
Rosa Martha Peralta-Blanco Master’s degree in Geography from the National
Autonomous University of Mexico. She is working as a GIS Expert in the National
Geointelligence Laboratory of CentroGeo in Yucatán, Mexico.
Sébastien Proust National Coordinator for the Small Grant Programme in Mexico
and works with UNDP. Previously, he dedicated 12 years to working in local and
international NGOs on local solutions to address deforestation, clean energy, and
climate change adaptation.
Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar Executive Director of Corporación Ambiental y For-
estal del Pacifico (CORFOPAL), who majored in planning and declaration of
protected areas.
Andrés Quintero-Ángel PhD candidate in Environmental Sciences and Scientific
and Research Director of Corporación Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico
(CORFOPAL), who majored in conservation and use of biodiversity with ethnic
communities.
David Quintero-Ángel PhD candidate in Agroecology. Bachelor’s in Sociology,
MBA. Researcher at Corporación Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico (CORFOPAL).
His lines of research are food systems, food diversity, and agroecology.
Mauricio Quintero-Ángel PhD in Environmental Sciences and Associate Profes-
sor at Universidad del Valle. Interested in research on social-ecological systems,
landscape planning, and rural development.
Editors and Authors xxiii
R. Antonio Riveros-Cañas MSc in Rural Agro-industry, Territorial Development
and Tourism from the Autonomous University of Mexico State (UAEMex). Works
as a consultant specialist in Rural Agro-industry and Territory at the Inter-American
Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA-Mexico).
Sara Catalina Rodríguez-Díaz Researcher at Corporación Ambiental y Forestal
del Pacifico (CORFOPAL) with a Bachelor’s in Biology.
Karla Juliana Rodríguez-Robayo PhD in Natural Resource Economics and Sus-
tainable Development from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. In
recent years, her research has been focused on the analysis of socioecological
systems and socio-environmental conflict.
Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang Works as a Program Manager at the Institute of
Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation to promote sustainable agriculture
and reforestation in Cambodia. Currently involved in preparing the national REDD+
strategy for Thailand.
Oscar G. Sánchez-Siordia Director of CentroGeo, Yucatán, and has a PhD in
Information Technologies and Computer Systems. His research focuses on
Geospatial Data Science.
Andrea A. Serrano-Ysunza Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist at the Small
Grant Programme in Mexico. She studied biology and holds a Master’s degree in
Natural Resources and Rural Development.
V. V. Sivan Senior Scientist at the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Kerala,
India. He is interested in promoting biodiversity conservation and sustainable
utilisation in partnership with local communities.
Jady Smith Landscape Director for Live & Learn Environmental Education. He
uses his understanding of environment and communication to strategically support
stakeholders by promoting resilience-related initiatives such as socioecological
production landscapes.
Socheath Sou Director of Live & Learn Environmental Education, Cambodia. He
is passionate about pro-poor innovations in energy, environmental education, natural
resource management, climate change, sanitation, and agriculture.
Mariana Rivera-de Velasco BSc in Biology from the Metropolitan Autonomous
University (2018). She is a Research Assistant in the Socioecological Systems Area
of the Research Center in Geospatial Information Sciences (CentroGeo).
xxiv Editors and Authors
P. Vipindas Development Associate at M S Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Kerala, India. He works on projects focused to improve food and nutrition security
of Adivasi (Indigenous) communities.
Shao-Yu Yan Master’s in Environmental Education, works as a Research Assistant
at the Landscape Conservation and Community Participation Laboratory, National
Dong Hwa University, Taiwan.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Maiko Nishi, Suneetha M. Subramanian, and Himangana Gupta
Abstract This chapter provides a context for discussing the relevance of socio-
ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) to the nexus between
biodiversity, health, and sustainable development. It begins with an introduction to
the idea of a nexus approach to landscape and seascape management, which can help
minimise trade-offs and create synergies among different sectors and various global
goals for sustainability. With a view to the multiple benefits derived from SEPLS,
which extend beyond biodiversity conservation to human and ecosystem health, the
chapter then explores how SEPLS management on the ground can contribute to
more sustainable management of natural resources, achievement of global targets for
biodiversity and sustainable development, and good health for all. Finally, it
describes the scope, objectives, and structure of the book, including an overview
of the case studies compiled in the subsequent chapters.
Keywords Socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes · Nexus ·
Interlinkages · Biodiversity · Health · Sustainability · One Health approach · Case
studies · Science-policy-practice interface
1 Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus
The COVID-19 outbreak, officially declared as a global pandemic on 11 March
2020, has demonstrated the cascading effects of complex human-nature interactions
on human health and well-being. Anthropogenic ecosystem changes, including
deforestation, agricultural intensification, wildlife exploitation, mining, and infra-
structure development, have created a “perfect storm” for the spillover of zoonotic
diseases like COVID-19 (Settele et al., 2020). The continued expansion of human
activities—including human encroachment into biodiverse habitats, international
M. Nishi (*) · S. M. Subramanian · H. Gupta
United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS),
Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: nishi@unu.edu
© The Author(s) 2022 1
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_1
2 M. Nishi et al.
movement of people and goods, and unregulated rise in wildlife trade—has signif-
icantly increased the risk of zoonotic infections, impacting human lives, economies,
and well-being. Pandemics are rather rare compared to small-scale outbreaks but are
becoming more frequent due to a ceaseless progress in these underlying events
(IPBES, 2020). This will likely lead to an exponential increase in the total cost
associated with pandemics, including disease treatments, deaths, and socio-
economic impacts (Allen et al., 2017; Berry et al., 2018).
At the same time, nature supports human life and contributes to good health and
well-being in numerous ways. “Health” is attributed to not only pathogenic
(i.e. disease causing) factors but also factors promoting overall well-being, and is
defined as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 2020; Marselle et al., 2021).
Human well-being consists of tangible and intangible elements, including physical
well-being (i.e. the quality and performance of bodily functioning), mental well-
being (i.e. the psychological, cognitive, and emotional quality of a person’s life), and
social well-being (i.e. being well connected to others in a local and wider social
community) (Linton et al., 2016). Nature offers a wide range of contributions to
people, fundamentally securing basic human needs and generally serving as a basis
for attaining good quality of life and ensuring human health and well-being. These
contributions include food and energy security, access to clean air and water,
opportunities for recreation and relaxation, and sense of place (IPBES, 2019b).
Biodiversity, comprising the variability among living organisms from all sources
and the ecological complexes, underpins these contributions that are essential for
human health and well-being (Marselle et al., 2021).
Nature’s contributions to people, however, are not always distributed equally to
benefit all segments of society, while the costs and burdens associated with their
production and use are often borne disproportionally by different groups of people
(IPBES, 2019b). Ecosystem changes may benefit some populations but at the
expense of others, especially the most vulnerable, signalling crucial trade-offs that
need to be managed to pursue sustainable development. The COVID-19 pandemic
has exposed this complicated challenge in our society. While all citizens are affected
by infectious risks, some evidence shows that vulnerable groups—including not
only the elderly and those with ill health and comorbidities, but also people of lower
socio-economic status and ethnic minority—are hit harder by the environmental and
other related stressors caused by the pandemic (Gaynor & Wilson, 2020; Tavares &
Betti, 2021). A subset of factors (e.g. overcrowded accommodation, unstable work
conditions and incomes, limited access to healthcare services, non-communicable
diseases arising from poverty) conjointly makes those socially deprived and eco-
nomically disadvantaged more vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic, often exac-
erbating existing inequalities (Amerio et al., 2020; EEA, 2020; Patel et al., 2020).
Rather than negative trade-offs, positive synergies for human health and well-
being also exist as we can see, for instance, in sustainable farming practices that
improve soil quality, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem functions such as
carbon sequestration. Yet, sustainability cannot be achieved without carefully
1 Introduction 3
handling trade-offs. This is even clearer today given that many of nature’s contri-
butions are declining and cannot be replaced by any current alternatives (IPBES,
2019b).
To better manage trade-offs and create and strengthen positive synergies, the idea
of “nexus” has evolved. The term “nexus”, originated in the Latin verb nectare
(meaning “to connect”), has been used in the published literature since the early
nineteenth century in various disciplines (e.g. philosophy, governance, cell biology,
economics) to trace, describe, and characterise complex interlinkages between
multiple objects (Scott et al., 2015; De Laurentiis et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2018).
This term was first used in the realm of natural resource use under the Food-Energy
Nexus Programme of the United Nations University (UNU) (1983–1988), which
aimed to develop an analytical framework and planning methodology for integrated
solutions to food and energy scarcity through promoting South-South cooperation in
the fields studied (Sachs & Silk, 1990; Scott et al., 2015). Concurrently, the water-
resource dimension of the nexus between energy and agriculture started to gain
recognition in the western United States in the mid-1980s, considering energy and
environmental needs for water, agricultural-irrigation, and urban-industrial demands
(Scott et al., 2015). Finally, nexus thinking has been increasingly applied to the study
of interconnections between food, water, and energy, often called WEF or FEW
nexus, mostly in the climate change context, but sometimes additionally with
biodiversity conservation and human health (Albrecht et al., 2018; IPBES, 2019a).
The Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) defines the concept of nexus as “a
perspective which emphasizes the inter-relatedness and interdependencies of eco-
system components and human uses, and their dynamics and fluxes across spatial
scales and between compartments,” adapting the definition posed by UNU Institute
for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES)
(IPBES, 2019a, p. 1047). This definition implies both a phenomenological perspec-
tive to capture the interactions among different subsystems (or sectors) within the
nexus system and an analytic perspective to examine the links between the nexus
nodes (e.g. water and energy), into either of which many varying definitions can be
categorised (Zhang et al., 2018). The nexus perspective allows for better under-
standing of the functioning, productivity, and management of a complex system
which involves trade-offs, and facilitation and amplification between the different
components (IPBES, 2019a). This approach can thus help detect and minimise
negative trade-offs, uncover positive synergies, and unveil unexpected conse-
quences arising from these combined effects (Liu et al., 2018). This effort finally
helps enhance integrated planning, governance, and management, and in particular
helps identify and pursue pathways to achieve global goals and targets for sustain-
able development, many of which are interconnected (Nilsson et al., 2016; Weitz
et al., 2018).
With this understanding, IPBES (2019a) drew on a nexus approach to analyse
interactions between multiple sectors and objectives and identify key elements of
sustainable pathways. For the sake of feasibility and comprehensibility for the
analysis in the complex context, it applied the approach via six complementary
4 M. Nishi et al.
Fig. 1.1 The six interconnected foci of the nexus analysis in the IPBES Global Assessment
(source: Chan et al., 2019). The six foci for the nexus analysis reflect key challenges in conserving
nature and nature’s contributions to people while achieving the SDGs given both trade-offs and
synergies. These foci include (1) feeding humanity without degrading terrestrial natural resources;
(2) meeting climate goals without incurring massive land-use change and biodiversity loss; (3) con-
serving and restoring nature on land while contributing positively to human well-being;
(4) maintaining freshwater for nature and humanity; (5) balancing food provision from oceans
and coasts with biodiversity protection; and (6) resourcing growing cities while maintaining the
ecosystems and biodiversity that underpin them
foci (or lenses) to examine specific links between terrestrial, marine, and freshwater
social-ecological systems in consideration of linkages to other entities (Fig. 1.1).
This analysis revealed trade-offs and synergies in each of the foci as well as common
threads in achieving a subset of sustainable development goals (SDGs) simulta-
neously. Pointing to significantly varying pathways across geographic contexts, the
cross-scale nexus analysis highlighted the significance in integrating local and
regional perspectives in global pathways towards sustainability. Despite the diver-
sity of the pathways with different changes needed to achieve global goals at all
scales, the analysis also suggested the following common constituents of sustainable
pathways associated with seven SDGs relevant to nature (i.e. SDGs 2, 3, 6, 11,
13, 14, and 15): (1) safeguarding remaining natural habitats on land and sea,
1 Introduction 5
(2) undertaking large-scale restoration of degraded habitats, and (3) integrating these
activities with development through sustainable planning and management of land-
scapes and seascapes.
Cross-sectoral cooperation and planning have been increasingly called for to
attain global environmental and societal goals, but effective policy integration, for
instance across multilateral environmental agreements, is yet to be achieved (Azizi
et al., 2019; IPBES, 2019a; van den Heuvel et al., 2020). Also, the nexus approach is
still in its infancy for application and implementation, despite its great potential to
promote cooperation, coordination, and policy coherence among different sectors
(Liu et al., 2018). In this context, IPBES launched a new 3-year thematic assessment
of “the interlinkages among biodiversity, water, food, and health” (the so-called
nexus assessment) at its eighth plenary session in 2021 to be conducted between
2022 and 2024.1 This assessment aims to advance understanding on the
interlinkages among biodiversity, climate change, adaptation, and mitigation,
including relevant aspects of energy, water, food, and health. It will also consider
holistic approaches based on different knowledge systems to achieve global goals
such as the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, including those to attain good health for all.
In addition, IPBES organised a virtual workshop on the links between biodiver-
sity and pandemics on 27–31 July 2020 to strengthen the knowledge base on links
between biodiversity and current and future pandemics in response to the extraordi-
nary situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The report from this workshop
(IPBES, 2020) warns of a daunting future, where without preventive measures,
pandemics will emerge more frequently and spread more rapidly, resulting in more
human deaths and more devastating socio-economic impacts. Pointing to human
activities as the fundamental driver of the emergence of pandemics, the report also
highlights the interconnectedness of the world community and the increasing threats
to health and well-being arising from global inequality. The report, however, also
says that escaping the era of pandemics is still possible, but requires transformative
change to shift from the current reactive approach to a preventive one to prepare for
future pandemics. Finally, it offers several policy options to foster transformative
change and move towards preventing pandemics based on a “One Health” approach
(i.e. an approach that integrates human health, animal health, and environmental
sectors).
The One Health approach builds on the idea that human health, ecosystem health,
and animal health are all interrelated, and that it is imperative to encourage mech-
anisms that ensure coordination and collaboration among the relevant sectors to
strengthen the links between them (WHO, FAO,, & OIE, 2019). From a heuristic
view, we understand that the One Health approach is highly compatible with the
1The IPBES Plenary at its eighth session in June 2021 approved the undertaking of the nexus
assessment as outlined in the scoping report set out in annex 1 to its decision IPBES-8/1 for
consideration by the Plenary at its eleventh session. The scoping report is available at: https://ipbes.
net/sites/default/files/2021-07/20210719_scoping_report_for_the_nexus_assessment.pdf.
6 M. Nishi et al.
approach to managing socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes
(SEPLS). As discussed in the following section, SEPLS have been shaped and
managed through strongly interlinked sets of traditional practices and production
activities that have been adapted and transformed to maintain and improve the well-
being of communities while absorbing shocks to the system, suggesting higher
levels of resilience (Bergamini et al., 2013). To evade the pandemic era and achieve
global goals for biodiversity and sustainability, strategies to build and strengthen
resilience against systemic threats will be increasingly important and relevant in the
coming decades. In this regard, the nexus analysis of SEPLS management should
offer ideas and available means to devise such strategies.
2 Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes
and Nexus Approaches
SEPLS are multifunctional and utilitarian conceptualisations of landscape and sea-
scape use. Here the proximate population has recognised its reliance on the SEPLS
for various material and intangible benefits and clearly acknowledged the
interdependence of social and ecological components of a social-ecological system
that is consequently factored into related decisions on the management of the
SEPLS. Furthermore, the well-being of the population dependent on a SEPLS is
entrenched in ensuring that multiple needs, such as securities of food, health,
and energy, identity, culture, and ecological integrity, are met at the same time
(Bergamini et al., 2013). This indicates that nexus approaches across different
“sectoral priorities” need to be practiced in SEPLS contexts to simultaneously
guarantee that these different needs are realised and are aligned during the imple-
mentation of relevant activities (Sarmiento & Frolich, 2020). It therefore is a natural
extension in the reasoning that concepts such as “Community Health 2”
(Unnikrishnan & Suneetha, 2012) or “One Health” are understood and practiced
de facto in local communities as the concept of health encompasses multiple
dimensions from access to resources, and well-functioning ecosystems, to food
and nutritional security, access to medical resources, and cultural practices, among
others.
That said, contexts in which SEPLS operate have changed over time due to
changing sociopolitical priorities and other factors. Consequently, decisions related
to multiple activities in a SEPLS could be said to have become more sectoral or
compartmentalised. This has brought on challenges to ensure the sustenance of
endogenous nexus approaches that once were widely practiced—often requiring
2Community Health builds on the concept of health held by local and indigenous communities that
relates not just to medical services, but involves access to food and nutritional security, access to
cultural resources, medicinal resources, access to areas of cultural importance, rights to use and
practice, and livelihood security.
1 Introduction 7
purposive rejuvenation efforts, as the case studies in this volume will highlight.
Drivers of these changes range from policy pressures (e.g. mono or simple cropping
patterns, land-use changes for other development purposes) to changes in demo-
graphic profiles and priorities (e.g. in- and outmigration) and natural vulnerabilities
(e.g. to floods or other natural calamities) (IPBES, 2019a).
As mentioned above, several global assessments are finding increasing evidence
that tackling biodiversity loss and ensuring human well-being thereof are linked
closely to effective and integrated management of landscapes and seascapes and
strengthening the capacities and resources available to the local communities man-
aging them. The increasingly robust emphasis by policy bodies to ensure biodiver-
sity conservation, health, and sustainable development through calls for adopting
coherent policies (such as the draft Global Biodiversity Framework or the One
Health implementation mechanisms being set up in different countries) serves as a
timely opportunity to refocus on the principles underlying SEPLS management—as
context-dependent, multi-stakeholder, and multisectoral approaches that are
designed to derive multiple benefits. Proof of this concept can be found in the
experiences of the members of the International Partnership for the Satoyama
Initiative (IPSI). Experiential knowledge and practical lessons in dealing with the
nexus between the sectors can be found in the case studies, which can be taken
advantage of as approaches to landscape and seascape management.
3 Objectives and Structure of the Book
This book focuses on the biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus in the context of
the management and multiple benefits of SEPLS. The primary aim is to provide
insights on how SEPLS management on the ground can contribute to enhanced
ecosystem and human health, sustainable management of natural resources, and
achievement of global targets for biodiversity and sustainable development.
To explicitly showcase the dynamics of the biodiversity-health-sustainability
nexus in SEPLS, this volume brings together case studies on SEPLS management
from different regions around the world, which delve into the relevance of SEPLS to
various aspects of sustainability in the context of ecosystem and human health. The
case studies highlight the roles, attitudes, and actions of those responsible for
management, including smallholders, indigenous peoples, local communities, and
other stakeholders, in conserving biodiversity—including agro-biodiversity—while
ensuring the health of SEPLS and dependent communities. For example, they
pertain to efforts that enhance ecosystem and human health, such as pesticide-free
food production, high nutrition, good water quality, and sustainable tourism. Addi-
tionally, most case studies touch upon the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the
livelihoods of ecosystem-dependent local communities and related changes in eco-
system health. In particular, the case studies address the following questions:
8 M. Nishi et al.
• What multiple benefits derived from SEPLS management have helped to ensure
and enhance aspects of human health, and how?
• What are the trade-offs and synergies between efforts to attain ecosystem health,
human health, and sustainability in managing SEPLS?
• How can we measure the effectiveness of SEPLS management in securing and
improving ecosystem and human health, as well as sustainability?
• What are the challenges and opportunities in managing SEPLS to achieve
biocultural diversity conservation and sustainable development while ensuring
and enhancing ecosystem and human health?
The case studies commonly address the above key questions to elucidate the
relevance of SEPLS management for long-term sustainability, ecosystem health, and
human well-being. Chapters 2–12 present 11 case studies encompassing different
types of ecosystems around the world, including six from Asia, two from Latin
America, two from Africa, and one from Europe (Fig. 1.2). The case studies are
divided into four broad thematic areas: (1) local and indigenous conceptualisation of
health and well-being; (2) wider landscapes and seascapes and resilience; (3) water,
tourism, and recreation; and (4) food and farming. Table 1.1 shows specific SEPLS
types and key challenges faced by them in the case studies under each of the thematic
areas.
Most of the cases primarily focus on the nexus at the local level, involving local
communities and their health (Chaps. 2–5, 9–12) or ecosystem health and related
human well-being in the context of recreation and tourism (Chaps. 6–8). To repre-
sent the nexus dynamics, each case study illustrates a unique linkage type (e.g. food–
health, water management–well-being, rights–well-being, conservation–human
well-being) in their SEPLS. The various interconnected challenges (e.g. pollution,
climate change, deforestation, biodiversity loss, degradation, COVID-19 pandemic)
are addressed using a combination of environmental (e.g. sustainable agricultural
practices, enhanced water and ecosystem management), economic (e.g. economic
diversification and opportunities, livelihood improvement), and community-oriented
(e.g. promotion of traditional knowledge, capacity development, local documenta-
tion, improvement in health and well-being of local people) solutions. Importantly,
many of the cases exemplify initiatives not only to address immediate problems, but
also to collectively identify long-term solutions and ensure continuous delivery of
multiple benefits from SEPLS, while maintaining and enhancing ecosystem and
human health.
To conclude with the key findings from these case studies, Chap. 13 distils the
relevant messages to offer implications for science, policy, and practice as well as
their interfaces in better managing the biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus in the
context of SEPLS. The synthesis of the case studies’ findings offers relevant insights
into the local-level implementation of nexus approaches and methodologies for
monitoring and evaluation, using localised tools and indicators compatible with
global ones, and involving multiple disciplines and sectors relevant to nexus
approaches.
1 Introduction 9
AUSTRIA
MEXICO BANGLADESH* INDIA 1 Taiwan
CAMBODIA 1
INDIA 2 CAMBODIA 2
 Mountain Landscapes COLOMBIA GHANA **
 Forest Landscapes KENYA
Agricultural Landscapes
Wetlands and/or Watershed Landscapes
Coastal Landscapes or Seascapes
INDIA 1: Chapter 6
INDIA 2: Chapter 9
CAMBODIA 1: Chapter 11
CAMBODIA 2: Chapter 7
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
* Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and
Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu 
and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the Parties.
** Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South 
Sudan has not yet been determined.
Fig. 1.2 Locations of the case studies (regions, landscapes, and/or seascapes) (map template: Geospatial Information Section, United Nations). Note: Details of
the case study locations, including geographic coordinates, are described in each chapter
10 M. Nishi et al.Table 1.1 Overview of the case studies
Focused thematic
areas Chapter (Country) SEPLS types Key interlinkages Problems and Challenges Objectives
Local and indige- Chapter 2 Forest, inland Rights, conservation, Mangrove degradation, liveli- Conceptualise one health
nous (Bangladesh) water, coastal and well-being, health hood insecurity, COVID-19 approach, enhance livelihood
conceptualisation marine, wetland outbreak security, and promote custom-
of health and well- ary sustainable practices and
being traditional knowledge
Chapter 3 Forest, traditional Biocultural memory, Loss of biodiversity, loss of Recover traditional knowledge
(Colombia) agriculture conservation, human cultural identity, armed con- and cultural conservation
well-being, securing flict, poverty values to enhance quality of
territorial rights health
Wider landscapes Chapter 4 Mountain, forest, Eco-agriculture, SEPLS Dams and river dredging, Promote eco-agriculture,
and seascapes and (Chinese Taipei) agriculture, well-being, landscape- tourism, loss of native varie- weaving of traditional and
resilience watershed, seascape connectivity ties, outmigration modern knowledge, and coop-
coastal, eration between multiple
mountains stakeholders across different
ecosystems at a landscape-
seascape scale
Chapter 5 Forest, traditional Agrochemicals, sustain- Pollution, recurrent diseases Promote sustainable manage-
(Mexico) agriculture able landscape manage- ment of ecosystems, enhance
ment, health, cultural landscape resilience, and raise
heritage awareness on traditional food
production
Water, tourism, and Chapter 6 Peri-urban, Bio-rights, health, Pollution, lack of awareness Create economic opportunities,
recreation (India—peri- wetlands climate enrich biodiversity, and
urban wetlands) improve human health and
well-being
Chapter 7 Forest, watershed, Water management, Climate change, deforestation, Enhance water management,
(Cambodia— agriculture, peri- forest management, declined groundwater promote economic diversifica-
Angkorian urban, urban tourism, human well- recharge, increased demand for tion, preserve cultural heritage,
landscape) being food and water and improve human health and
well-being
Chapter 8 Mountain, forest Human health, Climate change, tourism Revitalise mountain liveli-
(Austria) biodiversity hoods, and improve lifestyle
1 Introduction 11
Food and farming Chapter 9 Agriculture, Food, health Degradation of SEPLS, loss of Promote local health traditions
(India—a mountain, forest biodiversity, climate change, and local health baskets, and
biocultural food and nutritional insecurity enhance human immunity to
hotspot) infectious diseases
Chapter 10 Forest, agricul- Food, nutrition, biodi- Underutilised local foods, Preserve traditional knowledge
(Kenya) ture, semi-arid versity, local and tradi- stigma, loss of cultural heri- and cultural practices, create
land tional knowledge, tage, obesity, biased nutrition economic and livelihood
human health opportunities, enhance human
health and well-being, and
ensure biological and cultural
diversity
Chapter 11 Agriculture Food security, human COVID-19 pandemic, food Promote sustainable agricul-
(Cambodia— health and health insecurity ture, facilitate capacity build-
agro-biodiverse ing, promote organic
landscapes) fertilisers, and enhance agri-
cultural biodiversity
Chapter 12 Forest, agriculture Pesticides, agriculture, Highly hazardous pesticides, Phase out highly hazardous
(Ghana) human and ecosystem pollution, and health impacts pesticides, promote integrated
health on humans and ecosystems pest management, improve
human and ecosystem health,
and enhance agricultural cocoa
production landscape
12 M. Nishi et al.
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Chapter 2
Human-Nature Cooperation
for Well-Being: Community Understanding
on One Health Approach in the COVID-19
Era in the Sundarbans
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir and Md. Shah Paran
Abstract This study attempts to explore the interdependent relationship between
humans and nature, and to comprehend the community understanding of the “One
Health” approach in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Sundarbans in
Bangladesh. It explores challenges in socio-ecological production landscapes and
seascapes (SEPLS) management, response of indigenous peoples and local commu-
nities (IPLCs), and corresponding outcomes, and also examines factors affecting the
ecosystem’s balance. It particularly draws on the insights of traditional resource
users (TRUs) in a part of the Sundarbans who are wood collectors (Bawali),
fishermen (Jele), honey and wax collectors (Mouali), and crab collectors. The
study adopts a multiple evidence base (MEB) approach in order to bring in the
participatory insights of IPLCs, coupled with scientific knowledge and interdisci-
plinary heterodox perspectives. Based on the community conceptualisation of the
One Health approach, this study demonstrates that the appropriation of nature
(conservation, restoration, sustainable use, access, and benefit sharing) instead of
expropriation (anthropogenic pressures) can serve as a yardstick to ensure a virtuous
cycle in the ecosystem and a harmonious relationship between humans and nature.
The study presents a modified One Health framework for the post-2020 period that
calls for ensuring rights-oriented universal social entitlements, provision of liveli-
hood security, and promotion of human-nature cooperation underwritten by custom-
ary sustainable practices and traditional knowledge in SEPLS management.
Keywords Human-nature cooperation · Well-being · One Health approach ·
COVID-19 · SEPLS · Sundarbans · Bangladesh
R. A. M. Titumir (*)
Department of Development Studies, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
The Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh
e-mail: rtitumir@unnayan.org; rt@du.ac.bd
Md. S. Paran
The Unnayan Onneshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh
© The Author(s) 2022 15
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_2
16 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
1 Introduction
The study explores the interrelationship between human beings and nature that
directly and indirectly affects both, and conjoins participatory research approaches
to ascertain community understanding on the “One Health” approach that encom-
passes human, animal, and ecosystem health together in the COVID-19 era in the
Sundarbans. It explores the challenges in socio-ecological production landscapes
and seascapes (SEPLS) management and the responses of the traditional resource
users (TRUs) and corresponding outcomes. Factors affecting the ecosystem’s bal-
ance, and thus the well-being of the forest and its people, are also examined. It
further examines the state of health and well-being of indigenous peoples and local
communities (IPLCs) and TRUs in terms of universal access to health and social
security programmes, as well as the state of ecosystem health in terms of biodiver-
sity, anthropogenic pressures, resource management, and sustainable production and
consumption in the face of COVID-19. Accordingly, the study categorises the
human contribution to nature (biodiverse adaptation to climate change, nature-
based community solutions for livelihood diversification, customary sustainable
practices based on traditional knowledge) and nature’s contribution to human beings
in promoting One Health in the Sundarbans.
The Sundarbans, situated at the edge of the Bay of Bengal, is the largest
neighbouring single-tract contiguous mangrove ecosystem in the world. It is a
unique SEPLS with a composite ecosystem combining forest, marine, coastal, and
wetland environments, located in the southwest corner of Bangladesh, between
21
300 and 21
390 N, 89
010 and 89
520 E (Fig. 2.1 and Table 2.1). It supports
viviparous plant species with 334 species of trees, shrubs, herbs, and epiphytes and
around 400 species of wild animals (Behera & Haider, 2012).
A significant number of people maintain their livelihoods by utilising the
resources of the forest, and thus the area is a unique hotspot for biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use and is identified as a SEPLS. The benefits from
the Sundarbans appear in the form of multiple goods and services, which “contribute
Fig. 2.1 (a) Map of the study site (source: Wikimedia Commons Contributor Nirvik12, 2015); (b)
land cover map of case study site (source: Map data (c) Google, 2021)
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 17
Table 2.1 Basic Information of the study area
Country Bangladesh
Province n.a.
District Khulna, Satkhira, and Bagerhat
Size of geographical area (hectare) 607,100
Number of direct beneficiaries (persons) 1300
Number of indirect beneficiaries (persons) 3.5 million
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if appropriate Bangalee
Size of the case study/project area (hectare) 177,500
Geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) 21
300 and 21
390 N, 89
010 and 89
520 E
to making human life both possible and worth living” (Díaz et al., 2006; Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Layke et al., 2012; van Oudenhoven et al., 2012).
However, the Sundarbans at present is an ecologically vulnerable area due to
degradation of biodiversity resources. Over the years, it has experienced major
ecological and physiographical changes and is losing its resources due to both
human interventions and climatic changes (Titumir & Afrin, 2017). The area of
the Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans was 17,000 km2 in 1776, which has subse-
quently been reduced to almost half the size (Islam & Gnauck, 2009).
Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has posed unprecedented challenges to
people’s lives and livelihoods in the Sundarbans. For example, around 95% of
TRUs in the Sundarbans lost the massive share of their income during the nation-
wide lockdown (Unnayan Onneshan, 2020c). On top of this, the coast of Bangladesh
was struck by supercyclone Amphan on 16 May 2020, leaving crops, infrastructure,
and coastal protection embankments damaged in 26 coastal districts, which further
negatively affected the livelihood options of IPLCs in the Sundarbans (New Age,
2020). Moreover, due to the absence of universal social security programmes in the
country, the economic fallout of the majority of the people was exacerbated
(Unnayan Onneshan, 2020b). The ongoing health crisis and livelihood insecurity
resulting from COVID-19 are marginalising the forest people and also creating a
metabolic rift—a disruption in the ecosystem balance caused by a break in the
producer, consumer, and decomposer cycle in the ecosystem. This imbalance in
the ecosystem cycle has led to the increased ill-being of the forest and its people.
2 Methodology
The case study was conducted adopting a multiple evidence base (MEB) approach. It
draws on indigenous and ecosystem-based solutions in SEPLS management,
utilising the indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) collected from two coopera-
tives—Koyra Bonojibi Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity and Munda Adivasi Bonojibi
Bohumukhi Unnayan Samity—in the Koyra Upazila of Khulna District in the
southwestern region of Bangladesh, a part of the Sundarbans SEPLS.
18 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
Table 2.2 Data collection methods (targeting a total of 200 cooperative member households)
Name
of Study
study dates No. of studies No. of respondents
FGDs 24/02/ 4 (one in each category of IPLCs: 6 in each FGD
2020–12/ Bawali, Mouali, Jele, and crab
03/2020 collectors)
Survey 25/04/ 1 135 households (30 Bawali,
2021–05/ 40 Mouali, 35 Jele, and 30 crab
05/2021 collectors)
PPGIS 25/08/ 1 6 from each category
2020–29/
08/2020
Data was collected through participatory observations, focus group discussions
(FGDs), a survey with a semi-structured questionnaire, and a public participation
geographic information system (PPGIS) activity in two cooperatives. FGDs were
conducted between 24 February and 12 March 2020 before the beginning of
COVID-19 in Bangladesh. The PPGIS study was performed on 25–29 August
2020. Furthermore, the survey was conducted from 25 April to 5 May 2021
(Table 2.2). Data from the Unnayan Onneshan (UO), a Dhaka-based
multidisciplinary think tank that has several biodiversity restoration and conserva-
tion programmes and has been carrying out research on the Sundarbans since 2010,
was also utilised. The study therefore links numerous sources of scientific knowl-
edge to bring forth a comprehensive and scientific understanding of ecosystem
health, human health, and SEPLS management in the Sundarbans.
Members of the two cooperatives pursue their livelihoods as wood collectors
(Bawali), fishermen (Jele), honey and wax collectors (Mouali), and crab collectors.
The total number of households in the two cooperatives is 200, comprised of
approximately 1500 household members. For FGDs and the survey, the households
were categorised as wood collectors (Bawali), fishermen (Jele), crab collectors, and
honey and wax collectors (Mouali). A total of four FGDs were conducted (one in
each category) with six respondents in each of the FGDs. The number of households
surveyed was 135 for the two cooperatives, with each participating household made
up of TRUs registered as cooperative members who actively participate in SEPLS
management (Table 2.2).
An area of 40 km in length and 30 km in width was selected for the PPGIS study.
The region is located between 22
2803000N and 22
10000N and 89
1303000E to
89
300000E. This region is the part of the Khulna Range—one of the four adminis-
trative areas of the Sundarbans. Results from FGDs, the survey, and PPGIS activities
have been cross-checked against supporting literature.
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 19
3 SEPLS Management: Challenges, Community Response,
and Health Outcomes
The two cooperatives have been sustainably utilising and conserving the resources
of the SEPLS, maintaining the well-being of both the Sundarbans and themselves.
However, they have faced a plethora of challenges in managing the Sundarbans’
SEPLS. In response, IPLCs have taken various actions to adapt to and mitigate these
challenges (Fig. 2.1). These actions have led to (1) increased regenerative capacity of
the Sundarbans and well-being of ecosystems and (2) increased income and standard
of living, low-impact lifestyles, and sustainable production and consumption by
IPLCs, which has contributed to positive health outcomes. On the one hand, the
SEPLS remains healthy providing numerous services to the IPLCs, and on the other,
IPLCs find natural solutions to the problems faced, i.e. disease and livelihood
insecurity, and enjoy increased income and therefore increased expenditure on
health (Fig. 2.2).
The challenges faced in SEPLS management include (a) siltation in the canals and
rivers of the Sundarbans due to low flow of upstream water; (b) tidal management,
water engineering, and embankments in upstream transborder waterbodies;
(c) spread of invasive species; (d) climate change and salinity intrusion;
(e) industrialisation and development projects near (or around) the SEPLS;
(f) extracting of resources using harmful and unsustainable techniques (e.g. setting
fire, poisoning water); (g) increasing habitation and illegal encroachment; (h) land
shortage, land reclamation, and shrimp cultivation; (i) rent-seeking tendencies and
extralegal management; (j) marginalisation of local and indigenous people and
existence of poverty; (k) biodiversity degradation, frequent natural disasters,
resource vulnerability, and livelihood insecurity; and (l) COVID-19.
Composite Challenges and 
IPLCs Response: Major Acon by the IPLCs/TRUs
ecosystem issues in managing 
Managing the SEPLS 
Sundarbans SEPLS to deal with the Conservaon of the Sundarbans (Forest, Coastal, challenges based on TK
Marine and 
Wetlands) Community-based Monitoring 
Migaon and and Informaon System (CBMIS)
adaptaon to 
TRUs/IPLCs Increased regenerave challenges Innovave biodiverse adaptaon 
• Bawali (Wood capacity of the and nature-based soluons 
collectors) Sundarbans and well-
• Jele being of ecosystem Livelihood diversificaon
(Fishermen) Increased income & 
• Crab collectors Healthy SEPLS, 
• Mouali standard of living, low-(Honey Natural soluon to Creang pressure, negoang 
and wax disease, Increased impact life style and with local authority and claiming 
collectors) health expenditure sustainable producon rights  
and consumpon 
Sundarbans- a Challenges & 
unique SEPLS  outcome Response and outcome Acons by TRUs
Fig. 2.2 SEPLS management: challenges, community responses, and health outcomes (source:
prepared by authors)
Human Nature 
20 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
IPLCs have adopted various innovative and participatory local approaches and
actions to manage the SEPLS sustainably for ecosystem health, animal health,
human health, and livelihood security. These are (a) mobilising themselves for
claiming rights and protecting the SEPLS; (b) securing land through struggle;
(c) negotiation with local government; (d) conservation practices based on TK;
(e) community-based monitoring and information system (CBMIS); (f) community
plantation; (g) homestead plantation; (h) innovative biodiverse adaptation and
nature-based production, i.e. sustainable aquaculture (fish and crab culture) and
sustainable forest product culture (golpata culture, honey and wax culture); and
(i) working with local government and the forest department as a watchdog to stop
illegal hunting and harvesting, cutting of trees, and usage of poison and harmful nets
to catch fish. For example, the Munda Indigenous Forest People Multipurpose
Development Cooperative, one of the two cooperatives, has been able to regain
and restore some of its lost land amounting to 42 bighas (29 acres), from the
powerful encroachers. The reclaimed land is located at 22
180000N and 89
1801000
E (Fig. 2.3). On the other hand, the other cooperative targeted in this study, the
Koyra Forest People Multipurpose Development Cooperative, has conducted com-
munity afforestation on 42.10% of 494 hectares of land along the embankment of the
Shakhbaria River (Rai River) in Koyra Upazila. The area of this afforestation along
the embankment is 206 hectares (Fig. 2.3). These activities enhance ecosystem
health, animal health, and human health, forming a virtuous cycle. The healthy
ecosystem provides more services to human beings, and thus helps promote and
maintain human health.
The survey and FGDs revealed that before the onslaught of the COVID-19
pandemic, the IPLCs in these two cooperatives had been able to lead somewhat
decent lives by their standards through utilising the resources of the SEPLS. They
had been achieving positive outcomes from all of their actions in SEPLS manage-
ment. However, the pandemic posed severe stresses on their lives and livelihoods,
resulting in poor health. Cooperative members suffered a 26.16% income loss due to
COVID-19 (Table 2.4). They argued that this loss of income and resulting distress in
livelihoods and health were triggered by closure of economic activities and restric-
tion of movement when the government imposed a nationwide lockdown from
23 March to 30 May 2020 due to the first wave of the pandemic. The second
wave—which was supposedly deadlier—started in March 2021. All respondents
argued that they were not able to go to markets to sell the resources collected from
the Sundarbans. They also faced falling prices of the resources due to the pandemic.
As a result, they incurred income loss. Nevertheless, they reported that during the
lockdown they consumed mostly resources collected from the forest in order to cope
with their livelihood hardships. The outcomes from SEPLS management have
played a major role in saving lives and securing the health and livelihoods of the
IPLCs in the two cooperatives. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has created new
poverty, polarisation, and inequality in the society, though it has had no direct impact
on the Sundarbans. The indirect impacts, however, have been significant (e.g. more
harvesting to make up for loss of income).
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 21
Fig. 2.3 Securing of land by Munda Cooperative and community plantation by Koyra Cooperative
(source: Unnayan Onneshan, 2020a)
22 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
4 State of the Forest and Impacts of COVID-19 on TRUs
This globally acclaimed heritage site, including its sanctuaries and ecologically
critical areas, which also acts as a natural wall to climatic variabilities
(e.g. cyclones), is now ecologically vulnerable due to overexploitation of resources
and ineffective institutions. The ill-being of the forest also negatively affects the
lives and livelihoods of its people, who have suffered further hardships due to the
impacts of COVID-19.
4.1 State of the Forest
Some studies have argued that even though the forest’s boundary is almost unaf-
fected, the quality of the woods is deteriorating (Hussain & Karim, 1994; Siddiqi,
2001; Iftekhar & Islam, 2004). The decadal changes in forest coverage in the part of
the forest in the Khulna administrative range, drawn by PPGIS, indicate that the
amount of trees is declining drastically (Fig. 2.4). As a result, the amount of fallow
land is increasing. In two decades, the total area of dense forests in the case study site
has halved. The coverage and density of the Sundarbans are declining.
The dark green parts in Fig. 2.4 correspond to areas of dense forest, light green
parts correspond to areas of moderately dense forests, and areas where the forest is
very thin are shown in white, indicating that these areas have become empty fallow
lands. The white areas of fallow land have doubled in the last two decades from 4546
hectares in 2000 to 5678 hectares in 2010, and 10,501 hectares in 2020. In contrast,
Fig. 2.4 Decadal changes of forest coverage (source: Unnayan Onneshan, 2020a)
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 23
the region of dense forests has declined sharply from 35,520 hectares in 2000 to
17,560 hectares in 2020. Similarly, there has also been a marked change in the area
of moderately dense forest, increasing from 7240 hectares in 2000 to 22,380 hectares
in 2010 (Fig. 2.4).
The main reasons behind the forest coverage and biodiversity loss are man-made
pressures, climate change, and natural disasters (Titumir, 2021). First, illegal
encroachment of forest land by powerful groups is increasing. There has been a
gradual increase of human settlements around the forest. Though cutting of trees is
banned, illegal tree felling is accelerating deforestation. Second, many development
projects and commercial activities are being carried out, even around the ecologi-
cally critical area, therefore causing harm to the ecosystem (Titumir et al., 2020).
Third, biodiversity and forest resources are being degraded as a result of over-
extraction. Harmful methods of resource collection are one of the main culprits
behind this loss. For example, people often use poison and harmful nets for catching
fish (Titumir et al., 2019). Fourth, the frequent occurrence of catastrophic natural
disasters is damaging the ecosystem and biodiversity. Fifth, climate change is
negatively affecting many organic as well as inorganic components (e.g. salinity,
rainfall, soil pH, mineral ingredients) of the forest (Titumir et al., 2022). Finally,
existing forest law and management approaches do not recognise the traditional
rights and traditional knowledge of the IPLCs. For example, TRUs need to collect a
clearance certificate from the forest department to go to the forest for resource
collection amounting to a certain amount of money. This system has often been
accused of irregularities and corruption. These irregularities have forced TRUs to
collect more resources than required to survive in order to meet extra costs (Titumir,
2021).
4.2 Impact of COVID-19 and Supercyclone Amphan
on Traditional Resource Users (TRUs)
Members of the two cooperatives who depend on the forest for their livelihoods as
traditional resource users have historically faced multiple pressures due to clientelist
systems in forest use and management. In this context of existing hardships, the
COVID-19 pandemic, nationwide lockdown, and the supercyclone Amphan wielded
catastrophic impacts on the lives and livelihoods of many forest people. Survey
results revealed that the number of households in two cooperatives suffering income
loss was 103, or 76.3% of total households surveyed. The average monthly income
loss was 48.98 USD (Table 2.3).
Khalil Dhali, a 53-year-old TRU and also the president of Koyra Forest People
Cooperative, has been collecting resources from the forest for years. The
supercyclone Amphan devastated the livelihoods of millions like Dhali, leaving
wreckage in the forest:
Amphan destroyed the resources of the forest. It has swept away our home, damaged the
embankments, inundated farmlands with salt water making them unfit for further cultivation.
24 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
Table 2.3 Impacts on household income during the pandemic (source: author’s survey)
No. of Average Average Average
households Average monthly monthly monthly
Average facing monthly income income income
Total no. of income loss expenditure before during loss due to
no. of household during the of COVID- COVID- COVID-
households members pandemic households 19 19 19
135 6.5 103 17,700 BDT 15,575 11,500 4075 BDT
(212.74 BDT BDT (48.98
USD) (187.2 (138.22 USD)
USD) USD)
Table 2.4 Different impacts of COVID-19 on households
No. of
Impact/item households Percentage
Reduction in food expenditure 15 11.1
Reduction in health expenditure 4 3.0
Reduction in clothing and shelter expenditure 18 13.3
Income loss 35 26.0
Unemployed household members 35 26.0
Households supported under government’s social safety net 50 37.0
programmes
Households receiving immediate relief/cash assistance from the 72 53.3
government during pandemic
Households facing income loss 103 76.3
Households taking loans to bear living expenses during COVID 132 98.0
Households bearing expense by using their savings 77 57.0
Water of ponds and tube wells has become saline too. We have nothing left. We cannot even
collect resources as before. Many of us are starving. There is no option left for switching the
occupation currently due to coronavirus. —Khalil Dhali
The nationwide lockdown caused a severe fall in demand for the resources
collected by TRUs in the Sundarbans. Accordingly, they got lower prices for their
resources in the market. They could not even go to the markets for several months
due to the lockdown and social distancing measures, which left most of them with no
income at all. Amori Begum, a female TRU who usually goes to the forest to collect
resources to contribute to her family, echoes her male counterpart:
We had to sit idle during the lockdown. We were not allowed to go to the forest and to the
markets. We had no income for several months. Amphan caused another catastrophic blow
on our livelihoods at the time. Even after the lockdown was relaxed, we are not getting
proper prices for the resources in the market. People are less willing to buy than before.—
Amori Begun
The pandemic has resulted in reduced expenditure to meet the basic needs of
households (Table 2.4). Reductions in food expenditure, health expenditure, and
clothing and shelter expenditure were 11.35%, 3.0%, and 13.0%, respectively.
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 25
About 26% of household members are unemployed, while 98% of households have
taken loans from multiple sources such as relatives, NGOs, or informal lenders
during the COVID era. About 57% of households have used their savings to bear the
family expenditure (Table 2.4).
4.3 Disruption in the Ecosystem
According to the TRUs, the expropriation of resources through over-harvesting and
due to numerous anthropogenic pressures is creating disruptions in the ecosystem
balance, resulting in massive biodiversity degradation in the forest (Fig. 2.5) (see
causes in Sect. 4.1). As a consequence, there are emergences of new diseases, and
the amount and quality of ecosystem services fall, leading to livelihood distress and
ill-being for the TRUs in the forest. Furthermore, according to the TRUs, the policy
regime is failing to secure the jobs, food, and social security of the people ade-
quately. Hence, the existing socio-economic distress has become dire suffering for
them, which also negatively affects the ecosystem posing further pressures
(Fig. 2.5).
The expropriation of the forest continues, according to TRUs, when people
extract resources unsustainably to get more money in the market. It can be said,
therefore, that the commodification of resources—profit-making by selling in mar-
kets—is derived from the alienation of human beings from nature. Alienation from
Anthropogenic 
pressures 
Disruption in the 
ecosystem 
Commodity fetishism & 
Over extraction 
Socio- Biodiversity 
economic loss
distress
Emergences 
Job insecurity of new 
Food insecurity Livelihood distress diseases   
Social insecurity and  ill-being
Poor health Less 
Policy ecosystem 
level services 
conditions 
Fig. 2.5 State of the forest and its people: biodiversity loss and livelihood distress (source:
prepared by authors)
Alienation 
from nature 
26 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
nature heightens when people do not consider the true intrinsic value of nature, only
monetary valuation (Titumir et al., 2019).
4.4 Policy Regime and Response to COVID Impacts
The current policy response in Bangladesh has been found inadequate to the needs of
the majority of the people—informal sector workers, the poor, vulnerable, lower
middle class, middle class, and other disadvantaged portions of society in face of the
COVID-19. Overall, healthcare structures have been drowning in the burden of
disease for months. Still now, the health sector comprises only 0.9% of GDP
(Unnayan Onneshan, 2020b).
There is no provision of universal social security programmes in the country. The
ongoing targeted approach—social safety net programmes—has not been able to
curb the fallout from shocks, particularly for COVID-19. Existing social protection
programmes are inadequate and fragmented. The selection of beneficiaries is also
mired by exclusion and inclusion errors (Unnayan Onneshan, 2020b). The stimulus
package announced as an immediate response to the COVID-19 pandemic has also
been found ineffective for the majority of the people. The powerful and clientelist
syndicate is grabbing the opportunities, while poor, vulnerable, and disadvantaged
people are marginalised. The lack of an adequate and effective response from the
government has heightened the suffering of IPLCs in the Sundarbans as well. Only
37% of households in the two cooperatives are covered under social safety net
programmes (Table 2.4). On the other hand, only 53% of households have received
immediate relief/cash assistance from the government during the pandemic
(Table 2.4). Livelihood insecurity has plunged the forest people into unprecedented
precarity.
5 Community Conceptualisation of the “One Health”
Approach in the Sundarbans
The TRUs consider the Sundarbans to be their mind, which means they equate their
lives and well-being with the life and well-being of the forest. Their thinking
processes and ways of life, as well, revolve around the life and spirit of the forest.
The forest contributes to the people’s existence, livelihoods, breeding of their
offspring, safety and security, and well-being. The IPLCs in the Sundarbans count
on it. Their lives are influenced by the plethora of amenities offered by this forest,
which combines numerous types of value and contributes to well-being. Well-being,
as they understand it, is the health and security of both the forest and themselves,
maintaining ecosystem balance. Therefore, the TRUs depend on both the biotic and
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 27
Humans’ Contribution 
to Nature Appropriation 
(Conservation, of nature
preservation & 
restoration)
One Health Living in Harmony 
Mind (Human health, with Nature 
The Sundarbans Animal health (Human and nature 
& Ecosystem 
well-being) 
health)
Nature’s Contribution to 
Multiple values of Human Beings 
nature  (Ecosystem services)
Fig. 2.6 Community conceptualisation of the “One Health” approach (source: prepared by
authors)
abiotic features of the ecosystem to realise a good quality of life. Securing healthy
lives for humans, animals, and the ecosystem simultaneously, as they signify, is the
mainstay to realising well-being in the ecosystem. This understanding leads them to
contribute to conservation, preservation, and restoration of nature, which leads to the
well-being of the ecosystem (Fig. 2.6).
Therefore, the interdependent relationship between IPLCs and the Sundarbans
amounts to living in harmony with nature (Fig. 2.6). In contrast, according to them, if
alienation of human beings from nature prevails, commodification and thus massive
extraction of resources result, leading to disruption of the ecosystem and biodiversity
loss (Fig. 2.7). While IPLCs consider the Sundarbans as their life and count on the
true intrinsic value of the nature, outsiders are alienated from the nature. Hence,
outsiders (illegal encroachers and politically powerful business syndicates) seldom
care about conserving nature.
The TRUs say that human beings often consider themselves to be “independent”
or the “masters” of nature, in spite of being a part of the ecosystem. They argue that
alienation from nature and treating nature as “mere matter” or as an “asset class”
leads to over-extraction and destruction of nature in various ways. Therefore, human
beings become separated from nature when they fail to understand the true value of
it. They become unable to see themselves as part of the ecosystem and to recognise
the association between humans and nature (Titumir et al., 2019). This alienation, as
they suggest, results in the commodification of nature based on market-centric
prices. In other words, valuation of nature becomes equal to market prices, which
causes over-extraction, and thus destruction, of the natural resources (Fig. 2.7).
28 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
Expropriation 
Anthropogenic pressures of nature 
Disruption in the 
Alienation from Ecosystem 
nature (Ill-being of human, 
animal and nature) 
Biodiversity loss  
Commodity fetishism & 
( Less ecosystem services)
over-extraction 
Fig. 2.7 Alienation from nature and biodiversity loss leading to ill-being (source: prepared by
authors)
6 Human Contribution to Nature
In response to the continuous biodiversity loss that negatively affects the well-being
and health of both the forest and its people, members of the cooperatives have
adopted several innovative practices for biodiversity restoration and conservation.
These practices enhance the ecosystem and animal health, which in turn promotes
human health and well-being through the provision of multiple ecosystem services
(Fig. 2.8).
6.1 Promotion of Customary Sustainable Practices
and Traditional Knowledge
The members of the cooperatives have developed specific sustainable practices
following traditional and customary knowledge. These practices are resilient and
adaptive to climate change and can be promoted as innovative models for sustainable
solutions for withstanding any shocks in the coastal, marine, and forest ecosystems.
The communities have also developed course materials on each of the practices for
training purposes and compiled an inventory on traditional knowledge (TK) with the
help of UO. They apply their traditional knowledge and sustainable and customary
practices for the conservation of biodiversity and nature. Further, they maintain a
few specific rules and practices while harvesting resources, which are also based on
traditional knowledge. They follow traditional customs and beliefs which are also
consistent with resource conservation (Titumir et al., 2019). Moreover, they apply
their knowledge to innovate newer techniques and methods.
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 29
Appropriation of 
nature 
Biodiverse adaptation to 
climate change
Nature-based community 
Humans Well-being of solutions for livelihood Conservation, 
contribution to Preservation & nature diversification
nature Restoration (Enhanced ecosystem and 
animal health)  
Customary sustainable 
practices based on 
traditional knowledge
Multiple ecosystem 
Human health 
services  
Fig. 2.8 Human contribution to nature (source: prepared by authors)
6.2 Innovations in Livelihood Options and Biodiverse
Adaptation
The TRUs have diversified their livelihood choices by utilising their traditional
knowledge and experiences. These practices reduce their dependence on the forest,
and thus help conserve the biodiversity. Likewise, livelihood security results in good
health. As alternative sources of livelihoods, they invented joint cultivation of crabs
and ducks in one farmland. This practice has been found to be very profitable for the
cultivators. They also developed an integrated cultivation practice for some man-
grove faunal species like crabs, oyster, or fishes (e.g. shrimps, bhetki [Latescal
carifer]) and floral species like golpata (Nypa fruticans), keora (Sonneratia apetala),
and goran (Ceriops decandra) together in brackish water. This practice is known as
community-based mangrove agro-aqua-silviculture (CMAAS) (Titumir et al., 2020).
It serves as a substitute to commercial shrimp (CS) culture, and poses little or no
negative impacts on the ecosystem (Titumir et al., 2020).
7 Modified “One Health” Approach: A Policy Perspective
for the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework
The society-wide approach to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
through SEPLS management in the Sundarbans can ensure and enhance the “One
Health” that encompasses human, animal, and ecosystem health. Promoting One
Health, however, requires concerted actions. Firstly, ensuring rights-oriented social
30 R. A. M. Titumir and Md. S. Paran
Biodiverse adaptation 
to climate change
Policy level, production 
level and ecological 
Livelihood security conditions 
Ensuring rightful 
social entitlements 
Human-nature 
cooperation 
(Human’s One health Living in 
contribution to nature (Human, animal Harmony with 
& Nature’s and ecosystem Nature 
contribution to health)
human) Ecosystem based 
approach 
Customary sustainable 
practices based on TK
Policy level, 
Multiple ecosystem production level and 
services and values ecological conditions 
Fig. 2.9 Living in harmony with nature: modified One Health approach for post-2020 period
(source: prepared by authors)
entitlement is required for everyone, such as universal access to education,
healthcare, and social security programmes. Secondly, livelihood security that
includes food security, job security, and social security is also essential. Thirdly, it
is important to promote human-nature cooperation through green production sys-
tems such as clean and green energy, sustainable and ecosystem-based approaches to
production and consumption, and biodiverse adaptation to climate change. Lastly,
promotion of customary sustainable practices and traditional knowledge in SEPLS
management are also required (Fig. 2.9).
These activities, however, depend on regional and global partnerships, and are
also influenced at the policy level and production level and by ecological conditions.
Policy-level conditions are indirect drivers of change in the ecosystem and include
institutional and governance systems, power and class structures, property rights,
and legal arrangements. The production level and ecological conditions are the direct
drivers of change in the ecosystem. The production-level conditions include carbon
emissions, pollution, over-extraction, degradation and exclusion, harvesting and
fishing, reforestation, and innovative use, while the ecological factors are climate
change, weather patterns, natural disasters, and other hazards. When the drivers of
change (production, ecological, and political conditions) affect the ecosystem pos-
itively, the multiple services of the ecosystem contribute to human well-being. If the
drivers negatively affect the ecosystem, the well-being of both humans and nature is
disrupted. The appropriation of nature (conservation, restoration, sustainable use,
access, and benefit sharing) ensures a harmonious relationship between humans and
nature, transforming the quality of life of both. Human-nature cooperation encom-
passes both the human contribution to nature and nature’s contribution to human
beings, and contributes to maintaining a healthy ecosystem—“One Health”—lead-
ing to living in a harmony with nature (Fig. 2.9).
2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 31
8 Conclusions
Exploring the interdependent relationship between humans and nature in the
COVID-19 era in the Sundarbans, this case study revealed that the ecosystem in
the Sundarbans is in disruption due to expropriation of nature. As a result, there has
been massive degradation of biodiversity resources, which is also negatively affect-
ing the lives and livelihoods of IPLCs. Forest coverage is decreasing, therefore
negatively affecting the amount and quality of ecosystem services. The ongoing
pandemic has further exacerbated the socio-economic distress of the forest people.
The ill-being status of any feature in the ecosystem—biotic or abiotic—causes a
metabolic rift in the ecosystem and therefore entraps the ecosystem health in a
vicious cycle. The study also found that the policy response to curb the economic
fallout from COVID-19 was inadequate. The absence of universal social security
programmes in the midst of livelihood insecurity has heightened the suffering of the
TRUs. The study also outlined that nature contributes to human well-being in
multiple ways, and likewise, humans also contribute significantly to nature’s
well-being. Analysing the community understanding on the One Health approach
demonstrated that humans and nature are dependent on each other and form a
human-nature sociality in the ecosystem where they coexist. Therefore, the appro-
priation of nature (conservation, restoration, sustainable use, access, and benefit
sharing) instead of expropriation (anthropogenic pressures) serves as a yardstick to
ensure a virtuous cycle (good quality of life) in the ecosystem and the harmonious
relationship between humans and nature. In this regard, a modified One Health
framework for the post-2020 period was presented, which can promote a human
transition to living in harmony with nature. The framework calls for ensuring rights-
oriented universal social entitlements, provision of livelihood security, and promo-
tion of human-nature cooperation through green production, ecosystem-based
approaches, and biodiverse adaptation to climate change, underwritten by customary
sustainable practices and traditional knowledge in SEPLS management.
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2 Human-Nature Cooperation for Well-Being: Community Understanding on One. . . 33
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Chapter 3
Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation
and Human Well-Being in Indigenous
Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes
in the Colombian Pacific Region
Andrés Quintero-Angel, Andrés López-Rosada, Mauricio Quintero-Angel,
David Quintero-Angel, Diana Mendoza-Salazar,
Sara Catalina Rodríguez-Díaz, and Sebastian Orjuela-Salazar
Abstract The Colombian Pacific region is one of the most biodiverse areas in the
world; however, it is severely threatened by anthropogenic pressures. In addition,
armed conflict and poverty are compounding factors causing the loss of biodiversity
and cultural identity. In response to this situation, the Wounaan-Nonam original
people of Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de Guayacán declared five Indigenous
Protected Areas (IPA) in 2008. We conducted a study to highlight the link between
the conservation of biocultural memory and contributions to human well-being,
particularly to human health, in indigenous socio-ecological production landscapes
and seascapes (SEPLS). Since 2013, the research-action-participation methodology
has been applied to recover ecological traditional knowledge on how ancestors
managed nature and elements associated with their cosmovision. Following the
TNC conservation of areas methodology, eight biological and cultural conservation
values were identified for the IPAs and 5-year management plans for conservation
were formulated. As a result of this process, we created a tool that involves
traditional knowledge to administer the total 1850 hectares covered by the five
A. Quintero-Angel (*)
Corporación Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico—CORFOPAL, Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
Asociación de Cabildos Indígenas del Valle del Cauca ACIVA-RP., Buenaventura, Valle del
Cauca, Colombia
e-mail: direccioncientifica@corfopal.org
A. López-Rosada
Asociación de Cabildos Indígenas del Valle del Cauca ACIVA-RP., Buenaventura, Valle del
Cauca, Colombia
M. Quintero-Angel · D. Mendoza-Salazar
Universidad del Valle, sede Palmira, Palmira, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
D. Quintero-Angel · S. C. Rodríguez-Díaz · S. Orjuela-Salazar
Corporación Ambiental y Forestal del Pacifico—CORFOPAL, Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
© The Author(s) 2022 35
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_3
36 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
IPAs. We also found that the main challenges faced by indigenous communities in
the management of IPAs as an integral part of the indigenous SEPLS are associated
with weak organisational and governance processes. Additionally, we identified the
main opportunities ecosystem services offer in the IPAs, which enhance the quality
of life and health of the original peoples and ecosystems at a regional level. Finally,
the making of handicrafts is identified as an opportunity in these SELPS, as it
represents an alternative for generating income through sustainable productive
chains in biotrade strategies.
Keywords Biocultural memory · Human health · Indigenous Protected Areas ·
SEPLS · Heritage conservation
1 Introduction
When considering that humans are just one species among the vast natural diversity
of the planet, Toledo and Barrera (2008) state that the success of human survival lies
in ecological factors such as population size, evolutionary processes, brain capacity,
and, with it, memory. These elements have made it possible to achieve different
cultural processes of “biological, genetic, linguistic, cognitive, agricultural, and
landscape” diversification (Toledo & Barrera, 2008, p. 25), based on a necessary
recognition and appropriation of nature. Thanks to human capability and as a socio-
historical process, communities around the world have taken advantage of the
particularities of varying landscapes in their local environments according to their
material and spiritual needs (Lindholm & Ekblom, 2019; Ekblom et al., 2019;
Toledo et al., 2019).
In this context, Toledo and Barrera (2008) point out that indigenous peoples1
maintain and/or possess at least 80% of the planet’s cultural diversity. They also
posit that the presence, permanence, and resistance of these communities in ancestral
territories have been fundamental for the conservation of ecosystems. These indig-
enous territories can be considered socio-ecological production landscapes and
seascapes (SEPLS) as they allow for a socio-ecological balance in the productive
use of landscapes based on biocultural memory.2 These types of SEPLS are present
1Indigenous people are composed of communities which “. . . having a historical continuity with
pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves
distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them.
They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and
transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their
continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions
and legal system” (United Nations, 2004: 2). However, by their own identification, they are now
referred to in Latin America as “original people” (pueblos originarios).
2
“The concept of biocultural memory has been used as a synonym of accumulated ecological
knowledge or social-ecological memory, referring to ecological knowledge and practices that are
regenerated, retained, and revived through collective memory by communities of users” (Garavito-
Bermúdez, 2020, p. 4–5).
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 37
in the Pacific region of Western Colombia, where numerous ethnic groups live
(Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), 2019) in one of
the most biodiverse areas in the world (Losos & Leigh, 2004; Plotkin et al., 2000;
Rangel et al., 2004).
As a product of biocultural memory, the original people of the Colombian Pacific
region, such as the Wounaan-Nonam, maintain a holistic vision of their territorial
heritage, whereby any environmental problem or conflict is considered as an imbal-
ance and illness of Mother Earth (or Pachamama). In this regard, the concept of
health extends to animal, plant, and human health. Hence, various sustainable
practices associated with local ancestral knowledge for healthcare and well-being
endure, for example, the implementation of harmonisation rites for the use of natural
resources to maintain the ecosystem balance, spiritual cleansing with sacred plants,
and healing rituals. For these original people, well-being is synonymous with health;
for this reason, well-being (or Sumak Kawsay as it is called in other Andean
indigenous communities) is sought in all aspects of life, and maintaining a commu-
nal state of well-being means enjoying harmony and health.
Despite its great biological and cultural diversity, the Colombian Pacific region is
threatened by a trend towards agro-industrial modernisation (Quintero-Angel et al.,
2020) and pressures from illegal armed groups and drug trafficking, which have put
the survival of different ethnic groups at risk (Vélez et al., 2020; Defensoría del
Pueblo, 2018; Ministerio de Justicia & UNDOC, 2013). Particularly, the Wounaan-
Nonam of Puerto Pizario’s reservations, located on the banks of the San Juan River,
and of Santa Rosa de Guayacán on the Calima River Basin, face these tensions and
are trying to conserve the biocultural memory of their territories. One of the
strategies employed for the conservation of Wounaan-Nonam territories, which are
traditionally managed as SEPLS, has been the declaration of Indigenous Protected
Areas (IPAs). In this context, the present case study aims to demonstrate the link
between conservation of biocultural memory and its contributions to human well-
being and health, taking as an example the Wounaan-Nonam SEPLS. In this sense,
we claim that this case study is a joint construction with the indigenous authorities of
these reservations. All information presented has been reviewed and endorsed by
them with their prior, informed consent, and more detailed quantitative data on these
SEPLS, as well as their properties and uses, remains the confidential information of
the indigenous communities.
1.1 Current Situation of the Original People of Colombia
and the Wounaan-Nonam Indigenous Communities
Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, Colombia has recognised the
historical exclusion and vulnerability in which original people have lived, to the
extent that today they are at risk of physical and cultural extermination (Decision
38 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
T-025 of 2004). In Colombia there are 115 original peoples with an approximate
population of 1,905,617, grouped in 710 reservations3 in the national territory,
where 65 native languages are spoken (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de
Estadística (DANE), 2019). Original people in Colombia live in extreme conditions
of human right violations due to armed conflict, which has generated forced dis-
placement migrations, along with the deterioration of natural resources and severe
social exclusion (Mamo, 2020); these reasons explain why diverse ethnic groups are
currently dispersed in areas far from their original settings.
These difficult living conditions of original people in Colombia, and around the
world, are directly related to environmental conflicts with the state, individuals,
multinational corporations, and megaprojects that intervene in their territories by
means of using their soil for illicit crops and subsoil for mining activities, dam
construction, or agro-industrial activities (Semana Sostenible, 2019). In the Colom-
bian context, illicit crops and drug trafficking are additional factors that come into
play. Consequently, these communities have called for the joint design of strategies
originated within indigenous communities (Ministerio de Cultura, 2009), to docu-
ment and execute their Life Plans4 and Safeguard Plan5 and to generate studies and
research to recover and strengthen the ancestral traditional ecological knowledge
(TEK) of each indigenous community.
The Wounaan-Nonam community is composed of approximately 14,825 people
(Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), 2019). Its original
territory was located next to the San Juan River, between the Chocó and Valle del
Cauca departments, a forested piedmont they share with the Embera and Kuna
ethnic groups. Unfortunately, theWounaan-Nonam people are one of the 34 original
peoples at risk of disappearing due to forced displacement caused by armed conflict
in Colombia. A decision of the Constitutional Court, Auto 004 of 2009, recognised
this reason for the dispersal across the country far from their ancestral territories
(Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia, 2018). The fundamental individual
and collective rights of the people have been taken away, affecting their
cultural autonomy and identity, and putting them at risk of physical and cultural
extinction.
3
“Reservations are legal institutions of sociopolitical special character, composed of one or more
indigenous communities which have a collective property title with the same guarantees of private
property, they have their territory, and they manage it and their internal life by an autonomous
organisation covered by the indigenous status and their own normative system” (Decree 2164 of
1995, art. 21).
4Planning instrument which involves a document with diagnostic information to deal with the
necessities and challenges of each indigenous community from their own cosmovision, facilitating
dialogue with local and national governments to address inclusion and governance processes.
5The Safeguard Plan is defined as a social and administrative agreement that establishes directions,
recommendations, and actions to guarantee and safeguard the intangible cultural heritage and
national patrimony (Ministerio de Cultura, 2009).
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 39
1.2 Study Area: Indigenous Reservations of Puerto Pizario
and Santa Rosa de Guayacán
The indigenous reservations of Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de Guayacán are
located in the Pacific region of Colombia, in the basins of two large rivers, the San
Juan (Valle del Cauca and Choco departments) and Calima (Valle del Cauca
department), respectively (Fig. 3.1, Table 3.1).
Fig. 3.1 Location of (1) Puerto Pizario and (2) Santa Rosa de Guayacán indigenous reservations.
Photo credits and map by López-Rosada
Table 3.1 Basic information on the study area
Puerto pizario indigenous Santa Rosa de Guayacán
Study site reservation indigenous reservation
Country Colombia
Province Chocó/Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca
Municipality Litoral del San Juan/Special Dis- Special District of
trict of Buenaventura Buenaventura
Dominant ethnicity, if Indigenous and Afro-Colombian communities
appropriate
Case study/project area size 2920 236
(hectare)
Number of direct 789 155
beneficiaries
Dominant ethnicity in the Wounaan-Nonam indigenous ethnicity
project area
Geographic coordinates 4
13031.1600 N 77
15018.7800 W 4
6055.7900 N 77
8036.5000 W
(latitude, longitude)
40 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
Indigenous Reservation of Puerto Pizario
The settlement was founded in 1975 and declared an Indigenous Reservation with
Resolution No. 013 of 1983 from the Instituto Colombiano de Reforma Agraria
(INCORA). It is located on both banks of the San Juan River and covers 2920 ha, of
which the largest part is in the Chocó department. It is a terrain dominated by hills
and dense humid rainforest, and home to 789 Wounaan-Nonam inhabitants, who
have declared three IPAs since 2008 (Fig. 3.2a, Table 3.2).
Humanitarian and Biodiverse Indigenous Reservation of Santa Rosa de
Guayacán
The settlement was established in 1979. It became a reservation through the
INCORA Resolution No. 054 of 1989 a decade later. It extends for 236 ha, is
inhabited by 155 Wounaan-Nonam, and contains two IPAs, declared in 2008. It
acquired its humanitarian and biodiverse reservation status when the territory was
returned to the original people on 14 August 2010, prior to which they had become
victims of forced displacement. This should be highlighted as a form of resistance to
the threats of armed conflict and the struggle to maintain their lifestyle and ancestral
customs (Fig. 3.2B, Table 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 (a) Location of the Indigenous Protected Areas of Puerto Pizario and (b) Santa Rosa de
Guayacán reservations. Maps by López-Rosada based on Quintero-Ángel et al., 2015
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 41
Table 3.2 Description of the Indigenous Protected Areas of Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de
Guayacán reservations
Indigenous Area
IPA name reservation (ha) Location Description
Nueva Floresta Puerto 212 Valle Flat zone, occasionally flooded
Pizario del by the San Juan River, with some
Cauca human interventions such as
selective wood extraction. Some
big native trees remain, and some
species of fauna are used by
communities as protein sources
Pizabarra Puerto 103 Chocó Covers the Pizabarra watershed,
Pizario from its source to the San Juan
River outlet. There is slight inter-
vention in the lower part by log-
ging and extraction of handicraft
materials. The conservation status
of the rest of the watershed is
considered good
Beermia Puerto 1446 Chocó Equivalent to 32% of the reser-
Native language mean- Pizario vation, it covers the higher part of
ing: “white-collared pec- the area and is the source of the
cary spirit (Pecari Cuellar, Medio, Llano, and
tajacu)” Dupurma streams. It is in very
good conservation status. It has a
high quantity of flora and fauna
highlighted by the presence of
white-collared peccaries (Pecari
tajacu), jaguars (Panthera onca),
and deer (Mazama americana), as
well as timber species that are less
common in other areas
Dibeeudu Santa Rosa 23.4 Valle Corresponds to the Micurero
Native language mean- de del watershed. It is characterised by
ing: “place of many Guayacán Cauca steep slopes and forests in good
chonta palms” conservation status. It borders
family productive areas in the
lower part
Thumaan Kuun Khirjug Santa Rosa 57 Valle Located in the upper part of the
Native language mean- de del Cienaga and Cienaguita water-
ing: “collective thinking” Guayacán Cauca sheds. The area is covered by
well-preserved forests, except for
the area adjacent to the road that
goes to the Bahía Málaga Naval
Base, where foreigners have been
logging and poaching
42 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
2 Methodology
The methodology was developed in five phases (Fig. 3.3) throughout 2013 by
implementing specific actions in Spanish and the native language, including
(1) key informant interviews (Geilfus, 2002); (2) participant observation (Kawulich,
2005); (3) focus groups of men, women, youth, and children (Geilfus, 2002);
(4) social cartography (Geilfus, 2002); and (5) exchange of knowledge (PRATEC,
2012) (Fig. 3.4). These actions were developed during several meetings and work-
shops with the communities, where they shared their ancestral knowledge, recover-
ing and documenting wisdom on how their ancestors managed nature, agricultural
practices, and innovations to improve food security, heirloom practices of traditional
medicine, health status of the community and the environment, handicraft fabrica-
tion, and elements associated with indigenous spirituality6 and cosmovision.
Finally, through the research-action-participation methodology, exchange of
knowledge (PRATEC, 2012) and analytical triangulation (Rodríguez-Sabiote
et al., 2006) were carried out to establish the planning of Indigenous Protected
Areas in each reservation. In order to do this, the planning for conservation of
areas methodology was also followed (Granizo et al., 2006), and biological and
cultural objects of conservation were identified and prioritised. A viability analysis
was conducted, and management plans for conservation were formulated, which
include monitoring and follow-up indicators for 5 years in each of the areas with
each indigenous community.
Fig. 3.3 Visual presentation of methods and activities (prepared by authors)
6Indigenous spiritual practices are the belief in something beyond an individual connection to
others and to the world and their close relationship with a higher power. They are part of the
resistance to the effects of colonialism (Consejo Regional Indígena del Cauca (CRIC), n.d.).
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 43
Fig. 3.4 (a) A team member working with a focus group of kids on the fauna present in Santa Rosa
de Guayacán; (b) original people from Puerto Pizario explaining the results of social cartography;
(c) knowledge exchange exercise in Santa Rosa de Guayacán; (d) socialisation of knowledge
exchange exercise in Puerto Pizario (photo credits: A. Quintero-Angel 2014)
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Cosmovision and Relationship with Nature
of Wounaan-Nonam Indigenous Communities
Inside of the Wounaan-Nonam cosmovision, natural elements such as water, move-
ment, and earth are the principles of the Origin Law7 that give life to “Maach Aai”
(elderly father-God) and to all the spiritual elements, gods, male and female princi-
ples,8 sacred sites, material goods, and natural richness. Initiation and life rituals
revolve around traditional elements such as body paintings with organic dyes,
7Origin Law are the laws for cultural identity of indigenous peoples, ancestral laws, and funda-
mentals (Consejo Superior de la Judicatura (ONIC), 2011, pp. 256–259).
8Inside this culture women are highlighted and have an important role as they are in charge of oral
passing on of custom, stories, fabrics, spirituality, and socialisation of children in the communities.
44 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
Fig. 3.5 Wounaan-Nonam handicraft sample made from Mocora palm (Astrocaryum
standleyanum) and natural dyes (photo credits: López-Rosada, 2016)
fabrics made from natural materials, dances, and songs. These express the
cosmovision and religion of this ethnic group and its close relation with nature
(Ministerio de Cultura, 2010; Ministerio del Interior, 2012).
In Wounaan-Nonam cosmogony, the whole ecosystem relates to the spiritual
component through “Chimias” (a spirit present in all living and nonliving things)
and consequently, all the territory is related to spirituality, health, and human well-
being. The ancestral link between the community and natural resources makes many
species an important part of the traditional knowledge of the Wounaan-Nonam
biocultural diversity because the diversity of medicinal plants and animals used
can strengthen the spirits of human beings. Therefore, it is important to maintain the
spirits (Chimias) of all the different species who live inside the territory. Moreover,
these fauna and flora are also used in cultural practices that benefit the community
(e.g. natural dye is used both in textile handicrafts and in body painting).
Wounaan-Nonam original people have maintained a harmonious relationship
with nature due to their small population size and level of understanding of their
natural surroundings, including the forest (e.g. meat, fruits, materials), river
(e.g. fishing, transport, water), and small swidden agriculture. Although these
communities live off a subsistence economy based on crops and small-scale pro-
duction, unlike other ethnic groups, handicrafts with “werregue” Mocora palm
(Astrocaryum standleyanum) (Fig. 3.5) and use of natural dyes such as “achiote”
(Bixa orellana) have developed more at the productive level due to high commercial
acceptance, which could become an alternative to generate income (Reyes-Ardila,
2019). However, the production and commercialisation of such goods must be done
through sustainable production chains based on fair biotrade strategies. In addition to
being a potential income source, these practices contribute to the conservation of
biocultural memory, given that stories of mythical characters, animals, and situations
of daily life are captured in them.
The use of a broad list of species implies an ancestral knowledge of land use that
ranges from crop rotation to leaving land fallow, and land-clearing practices that
leave a good number of trees standing, where the planting of banana (Musa
acuminata), maize (Zea mays), manioc (Manihot esculenta), and sugar cane
(Saccharum officinarum) stands out. Hunting is restricted to what is necessary,
without overexploiting resources; however, population growth within the
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 45
reservations and foreign intrusion threaten the permanence of some species used by
the communities in the reservations. In general, the records of fauna and flora species
provided by the communities are biased towards the species that are used or have a
direct relationship with the communities. For example, the species recorded, such as
Baudo guan (Penelope ortoni), yellow-throated toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii),
collared aracari (Pteroglossus sanguineus), and great curassow (Crax rubra) for
birds, and white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), red brocket deer (Mazama amer-
icana), paca (Cuniculus paca), and white-collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) for
mammals, correspond to those that could be used as food sources or that are common
in settlements, along the riverbanks, or in crop areas. Species that are either less often
seen or very small, such as amphibians and reptiles, are not given special names,
which makes identification difficult.
In these original people communities, the health of inhabitants has customarily
been the result of harmonious relationships established in the use of natural resources
by their medical authorities to provide solutions for deficiencies of body and spirit.
For example, there are diseases caused by imbalance in the spiritual world due to the
absence or presence of bad or good Chimias, which must be treated through spiritual
practices such as prayers, songs, and rituals. Likewise, physical diseases caused by
the environment, such as stomach problems caused by parasites, are treated with
medicinal plants. Therefore, the Wounaan-Nonam people contemplate environmen-
tal health under the principle of harmony of individuals and communities with
Mother Earth (Pachamama). Certain unbalances with regard to this harmony are
treated by doctors or wise persons possessing the knowledge of traditional medicines
that heal both soul and body. Biodiversity and well-being interconnect with the
multiple dimensions of health (e.g. physical, mental, and spiritual) through wisdom,
knowledge, ancestral memory, spirituality, and relationship with Mother Earth.
These elements represent the use of interculturality as a tool for the management
of indigenous SEPLS and converge in indigenous thinking through the concepts of
Origin Law, self-government,9 and Greater Right10 (Walsh, 2008). This is evidenced
in the particularities of the different roles of each of the traditional spiritual author-
ities (Table 3.3), which transcend the established Western rationality and blur gender
lines, but are fundamental for the better understanding of their world view and
cosmogony.
9The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations, 2007)
stipulates their right to autonomy or self-government in matters relating to their internal and local
affairs, as well as to provide the necessary means for financing their autonomous functions (Art. 4).
Therefore, the concept of autonomy also includes the relationship with the state, and how to obtain
economic resources through revenue sharing.
10The Greater Right or Derecho mayor (in Spanish) is a right associated with the heritage of
ancestors who lived in certain territories centuries ago. Therefore, it is important to describe this
notion keeping in mind that it is essentially the right to a territory and its management by a people’s
own laws (Flórez-Vargas, 2016).
46 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
Table 3.3 Medical and spiritual authorities that stand out in the Wounaan-Nonam communities
(source: prepared by author)
Traditional spiritual authorities
(spiritual medics or shamans) Description
Benkhuum The highest medical and spiritual authority, his knowledge of
their territory and resources (animals and plants) allows him to
make corporal treatments, and his knowledge of the spiritual
world and the handling of Chimias allows spiritual treatments
Pildecero or Tonguero He diagnoses illnesses of the body and spirit by consuming
plants such as Pildé (Banisteriopsis caapi) whose properties
give him the power to transcend materiality and know the
patient’s condition
Yerbatero Has the features of a botanist, i.e. specialises in the knowledge
of plants’ potentialities and the treatments that should be carried
out using them
Sobandero Has knowledge about the functioning of bones and muscles in
the human body, and thus the ability to treat and rehabilitate
traumas
3.2 Latent Threats to the Biocultural Memory
of Wounaan-Nonam Original People
Wounaan-Nonam territories constitute strategic corridors for illegal armed groups as
well as for planting, processing, and transportation of illicit crops. These illegal
armed groups have inflicted harm on the health of the environment by imposing
certain limits to the indigenous territory and preventing the free movement of people
and within it, by limiting the access to certain foodstuff, and through the implemen-
tation of some foreign agricultural practices. The productive activities are restricted
by the presence of dangerous anti-personnel mines in the soils for crops, hunting,
and fishing areas (Defensoría del Pueblo, 2018; Ministerio de Justicia & UNDOC,
2013). Additionally, several environmental changes are associated with the El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO), as well as with the effects of mining, logging, and
river pollution. Moreover, glyphosate spraying in the eradication programmes of
illicit crops affects the soil and water and threatens their food and access to a
balanced diet, as they are restricted mainly to rice and plantains. As a result, the
original people have lost food autonomy11 and they now depend on imported rice, a
staple they do not produce in their territory. Consequently, in recent years food
insecurity has been a critical factor for theWounaan-Nonam people, with 93% of the
inhabitants considering their diet as fair or poor. This is oxymoronic in the context of
great biodiversity, and therefore, agrodiversity could contribute to food security and
sovereignty (Burlingame et al., 2012), as well as good health.
11Food autonomy is defined by Morales (2012, p. 3) as the “right that assists each community,
people or human collective, member of a nation, to autonomously control their own food process
according to their traditions, uses, customs, needs and strategic perspectives, and in harmony with
other human groups, the environment and future generations”.
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 47
These latent threats in the territory also affect their survival as an ancient culture,
their traditional medicine, customary practices, human rights guarantees (Ministerio
del Interior, 2012), and biocultural memory. According to Ministerio del Interior
(2012), at least 79% of inhabitants of the Wounaan-Nonam communities consider
that their traditional medicine has been affected by threats to the lives of traditional
doctors and the restrictions within the territories that prevent access to medicinal and
sacred plants (Ministerio del Interior, 2012). In this sense, it is important to promote
practices and incentives to support the conservation of biocultural memory in these
communities, given that the loss of cultural values is linked to the degradation of
natural resources (Lopez-Maldonado & Berkes, 2017; Toledo & Barrera, 2008).
Another important element to the conservation of biocultural memory is lan-
guage. The majority of the Wounaan-Nonam are multilingual, using the native
language “Woun meu” (belonging to the lingual family of Chocó) and Spanish.
The absence of an indigenous educational system (SEIP) after primary school,
generational change, and outmigration are aspects that have slowly influenced the
loss of their language; in Colombia alone, indigenous language loss is higher than
50% (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), 2019).
Despite this trend, since 2009, in the frame of the Wounaan-Nonam People
Congress, language has been highlighted as an identity element that allows the
development of resistance and community cohesion strategies and has been deemed
as a priority for these people (Ministerio de Cultura, 2011). The Wounaan-Nonam
people, like other original people in the country that preserve their native language,
consider language as an essential element in terms of culture, representation, and
identity, as it enables the intergenerational passing of their ancestral knowledge on
environmental health as biocultural memory.12
Overall, armed conflict and contact with other populations have generated a
cultural fragmentation process, which gravely endangers traditional management
of natural resources. Additionally, lack of intergenerational communication and
transmission of traditional knowledge for risk management of the SEPLS has
hindered effective conservation processes in these territories. Therefore, several
urgent actions are required from the Colombian Government to conserve the
biocultural memory of these original people and to promote actions in accordance
with their precarious conditions, cultural expectations, and survival needs. Further-
more, an improvement in equity, empowerment, and good governance of these
communities and their traditional authorities (self-government and indigenous
guard13) are fundamental in these SEPLS, given the importance of these factors
12Since the 1950s, there have been studies conducted on the Woun meu language that allowed the
Wounaan-Nonam to go from oral language to a writing system. See Mejía, 2000.
13The Indigenous Guard is conceived as an ancestral organism and an instrument of resistance,
unity, and autonomy to defend the territory and way of life for indigenous communities. It is not a
police force, but a humanitarian and civil resistance mechanism. It aims to protect and disseminate
ancestral culture and exercise their own rights. Its mandate is derived from their own meetings;
therefore, it depends directly on indigenous authorities. Members of the Indigenous Guard rise to
defend the communities from other stakeholders who may attack their people, but their only defense
48 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
for biocultural heritage conservation (Oldekop et al., 2016; Sarmiento & Viteri,
2015; Speelman et al., 2014).
3.3 Implemented Actions for the Conservation of Biocultural
Memory in Indigenous Protected Areas
of the Wounaan-Nonam
Despite the great threats to the biocultural memory of theWounaan-Nonam, multiple
cultural practices associated with ancestral knowledge (e.g. personal health, handi-
crafts, body painting, language, and clothes, among others) are found throughout
their territory thanks to the management of the SEPLS, which has been developed in
the search for harmony with nature. Therefore, the IPAs in their territory are key
elements for biocultural memory conservation and a framework for improving
human well-being through ecosystem-based management. They serve as reservoirs
of important ecological and cultural services such as medicinal and/or spiritual
plants, raw materials for handicrafts, construction materials for housing, firewood
(for domestic consumption), animal species (i.e. protein sources), and fish, a central
element of these communities’ diet which is sometimes associated with sacred
sites.14 These sites increase protection and offer conservation opportunities (eds.
Sarmiento & Hitchner, 2019; Dudley et al., 2009), as evidenced inside the Pizabarra
IPA where the community cemetery is considered a sacred site as the resting place of
their ancestors.
Considering the tight-knit relationship these communities share with nature due
to their cosmogony, and the importance of their native language, during workshops
and knowledge exchange sessions, emphasis was placed on recovering the vernac-
ular names of fauna and flora species and the cultural elements present in both
communities. In all, we were able to recover traditional knowledge on 122 species of
fauna, 144 flora species, and 40 cultural elements, all associated with customary
ways of life and ancestral use of these indigenous SEPLS. In order to disseminate
this knowledge to the youth of the Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de Guayacán
communities, a pedagogical tool was developed, which through a simple game
allows the exchange of knowledge and contributes to the conservation of the
Indigenous Protected Areas declared in these territories.15
is their baton, or “chonta” (maximum symbol of indigenous leadership), which gives a symbolic
value to the guard (Consejo Regional Indígena del Cauca (CRIC), n.d.).
14Sacred sites are areas of land or water that have a special spiritual meaning for indigenous
communities. They can include mountains, hills, forests, woods, rivers, lakes, islands, mangroves,
streams, and caves (Oviedo & Jeanrenaud, 2007; Wild & McLeod, 2008).
15For detailed information about the species of fauna and flora and cultural elements recovered and
used in the pedagogic tool, please see Quintero-Ángel et al. (2015).
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 49
Additionally, together with the indigenous communities, the conservation objec-
tives of the IPAs were prioritised based on the system of protected areas in depart-
mental planning (Corporación Autónoma Regional del Valle del Cauca (CVC),
2007). Then, we proceeded to select the tangible and intangible values of conserva-
tion objects, although due to the high biological and cultural diversity in these
territories, a wide-ranging list of the possible values of conservation objects was
identified (73 biological and 16 cultural). Hence, a prioritisation analysis was carried
out following Granizo et al.’s (2006) approach, resulting in the selection of eight
cultural and biological conservation objects for the IPAs (Table 3.4, Fig. 3.6).
Based on the selection of these values of conservation objects and following the
guidelines set forth by Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2004), a management plan for
these areas was developed in a technical document with six interrelated components:
(1) characterisation of the communities of Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de
Guayacán, including their socio-economic activities; (2) participatory diagnostic of
the territory (biophysical aspects); (3) administrative structure of self-government;
(4) rules and safeguards of ancestral territory; (5) indicators for follow-up and
monitoring; and (6) strategic planning and monitoring establishing goals to be
achieved between 2014 and 2019. These goals address the following issues: con-
servation and restoration, ancestral use and management of biodiversity with its
ecosystem services, traditional knowledge, scientific research articulated with
knowledge exchanges, and empowerment. The components are articulated within
a legal and conceptual framework protected by the Law of Origin, the Major
Indigenous Law, and the Law 21 of 1991 which ratified for Colombia the Interna-
tional Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention 169 of 1989 concerning indigenous
and tribal peoples in independent countries.
The establishment of IPAs administered under management plans not only is
beneficial for biodiversity conservation, but can also have positive effects on various
aspects of human well-being, including physical and mental health benefits associ-
ated with the relationship indigenous communities have with nature. IPAs also
provide important ecosystem services such as food provisioning or medicinal
resources, regulation services (e.g. pest and disease control), and aesthetic and
spiritual services that favour the well-being of these communities.
4 Key Aspects of Biocultural Memory Conservation
and Relationship with Health and Human Welfare
The concept of biocultural memory refers to the collective construction of knowl-
edge associated with nature, its conservation, and intergenerational transmission,
whose axis is the cosmovision and cultural representation present in each original
people. In southwestern Colombia, the Wounaan-Nonam original people seek to
maintain a balanced relationship with nature, and this is represented in spiritual and
physical harmony; any imbalance is considered a disease in human beings,
50 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
Table 3.4 Conservation object values prioritised in environmental management plan
Conservation Specific Type of Values of conservation 
Justification
objectives objectives object objects
“Preserve and 
restore the natural 
This ecosystem has zero representation in protected areas 
condition of 
in the Valle del Cauca department. Its extension is 
spaces that 
10,838.5 ha, which represents 0.5% of the total area of 
represent Ecosystems (warm pluvial 
Valle del Cauca, making it an important value of 
Colombian forest in fluvial-marine plain 
conservation object (Corporación Autónoma Regional 
ecosystems or (BOCPLRY))
del Valle del Cauca (CVC) and Fundación Agua Viva 
characteristic 
(FUNAGUA), 2010)
combinations of 
them”
Fine timber: Carrá 
Selected due to the high pressure these species are under 
(Huberodendrom patinoi), 
in IPAs and in general in the Colombian Pacific due to 
Chachajo (Aniba perutilis), 
their high commercial value (eds. Cárdenas & Salinas, 
Chanul (Humiriastrum 
2007)
procerum)
Group of a large number of species of high ecological 
Large mammals: White-
“Ensure the importance for the ecosystems and for the community, 
lipped peccary (Tayassu 
continuity of due to the protein contribution that these species provide 
“Preserve pecari), red brocket deer 
ecological and in the diet of the indigenous communities. Large 
populations and 
(Mazama americana), paca 
evolutionary mammals are defined as all species with a body weight 
habitats necessary Biological (Cuniculus paca), white-
processes to greater than 10 kg (Emmons, 1997). The jaguar is 
for the survival of 
collared peccary (Pecari 
maintain included due to its ecological and spiritual importance as 
wild species or tajacu), and jaguar (Panthera 
biological it is one of the strongest Chimias necessary for natural 
sets of species onca)
diversity” and spiritual balance
that present 
particular Selected for two main reasons: (1) They populate a given 
conditions of Large frugivorous birds: area and perform fundamental ecological functions 
special interest Baudo guan (Penelope (Montaldo, 2005). These species maintain ecological 
for the ortoni), yellow-throated interactions of mutualism with plants, as they feed on 
conservation of toucan (Ramphastos their fruits and disperse their seeds, thus guaranteeing the 
biodiversity, with swainsonii), collared aracari natural regeneration of the forest. With the 
emphasis on (Pteroglossus sanguineus), disappearance of this group, these ecological interactions 
those of restricted great curassow (Crax rubra) also disappear (Montaldo, 2005). (2) These are species 
distribution” of interest for the communities as food and pets
Raw material for handicrafts: 
Selected as a set of promising species that make the 
Mocora palm (Guerregue, 
Astrocaryum standleyanum forest provide non-timber economic alternatives and ), 
provide income to indigenous communities. They are 
orange beads (Tetera, 
Stromanthe lutea also closely related to ethnic cultural aspects of the ), 
Ischnosiphon Wounaan-Nonam ethnic group, and thus are under high Chocolatillo (
arouma pressure due to use), 
Puchama/Puchicama 
(Arrabidaea chica), Quitasol 
(Mauritiella pacifica)
(continued)
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 51
Table 3.4 (continued)
Selected for two fundamental factors: (1) the close 
relationship between spirituality (cosmogony and 
cosmovision) of this culture and nature, and (2) they 
seek to rescue traditional elements of the culture that can 
Spiritual elements: Chimias, show the road to reconnecting as an original people with 
Dichardi,a traditional nature and developing a new identity in accordance with 
medicine the current needs and expectations of the communities, 
and thus generating guidelines to live harmoniously in 
“Guarantee the 
the territory in an autonomous and environmentally 
permanence of 
sustainable manner
the natural 
environment or Selected because there are a series of artistic practices 
of some of its “Conserve natural such as the production of handicrafts, songs, dances, and 
components, as spaces associated body painting strongly associated with natural elements 
a base for the with material or Artistic elements: handicrafts, (flora and fauna species) that are part of the cultural 
Cultural
maintenance of immaterial dances, corporal painting identity of the Wounaan-Nonam ethnic group and are 
the cultural cultural elements therefore the ancestral link between the community and 
diversity of the of ethnic groups” natural resources
country and the 
Selected due to the close relationship between biological 
social 
and linguistic diversity that undoubtedly allows 
appreciation of 
understanding of the historical relationship that man has 
nature”
had with nature, given the domestication and use of 
diverse plants and animals present in these areas, which 
Mother language “Woun made it necessary to create new terms to explain nature. 
meu” This allowed the construction of a directly proportional 
relationship between natural and linguistic diversity 
through generations. The loss of either of these 
components would result in the disappearance of the 
other (Toledo & Barrera, 2008)
a Dichardi is a sacred building where everyone meets and has the power of spirituality, in which
knowledge is transmitted and the community is woven
non-human beings, and abiotic elements present in the environment. In this way,
there is a systemic and integral vision regarding the relationship between wellness,
health, and the environment. The wisdom of spiritual medics or shamans is called
upon, who through their ancestral knowledge about nature and natural practices and
rituals manage to heal diseases to restore a state of balance and harmony.
In this context, the territory is the space where culture, traditions, beliefs, feasts,
and language can develop. Consequently, the environmental equilibrium of their
territories is directly related to physical and mental health and to the development of
their life plans. However, it is necessary to generate a correct articulation of the
ancestral forms of traditional authority and the state, represented in the territorial
entities (municipalities and governorate) and institutions, to consolidate a
co-management strategy for the territory that eliminates or restricts the threats related
to the presence of illegal armed groups and illicit activities.
52 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
Fig. 3.6 Examples of the biological and cultural values of conservation objects selected for the
IPAs. (a) Large frugivorous birds: great curassow (Crax rubra); (b) large mammals: jaguar
(Panthera onca); (c) fine timber: Chanul (Humiriastrum procerum); (d) raw material for handicrafts
(Mocora palm (Astrocaryum standleyanum); (e) spiritual elements:Dichardi seen from the inside in
a meeting with the community of Puerto Pizario; (f) artistic elements: Mocora palm handicrafts.
(Photo credits: a, b, d by A. Quintero-Angel, 2016; c by A. Giraldo, 2017; and e, f by A. López-
Rosada, 2016)
It is also important that the communities and the state ensure the implementation
of ethno-development models in the Wounaan-Nonam territories, which would
contribute to the survival of the people and, with them, the ancestral management
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 53
and heirloom conservation practices. These practices have positive impacts on the
health of the populations, from their intimate spiritual relationship with their envi-
ronment to the use of biodiversity for the making of medicines, rituals, foodstuffs,
and handicrafts, among others.
The ancestral link between the community and natural resources makes many
species an important part of the traditional knowledge of the Wounaan-Nonam
culture. Examples include medicinal plants and animal species used to strengthen
human energy and maintain the spirits (Chimias) within the territory. Other exam-
ples are cultural practices such as handicrafts and body painting, which use natural
inks. These communities recognise a decrease in the number of these species used in
health and cultural practices. This favours the establishment of joint actions between
the environmental authorities and the indigenous communities for biodiversity
conservation. Consequently, it is essential to encourage the sustainable use of
elements and raw materials associated with biodiversity, complemented by the
implementation of enrichment programmes for species under greater pressure in
the communities.
For the Wounaan-Nonam culture, all plants in nature are medicinal. The specific
use of each plant and its information is handled exclusively by the traditional
authority (i.e. spiritual medics or shamans). For this reason, this information could
not be documented. Nonetheless, these communities recognise and use with fre-
quency about 146 species of plants belonging to 47 families. Some examples of
plants used to cure minor spiritual ailments, ward off evil Chimias, and attract good
luck are palo de agua o nacedero (Trichanthera gigantea), Canilla de Venado (Piper
tricuspe), Venezuelan pokeweed (Phytolacca rivinoides), neotropical snakefern
(Microgramma reptans), and mouse tail (Peperomia sp.).
Even though the number of species used by the indigenous people is ample, it
leaves out numerous species present in the region, catalogued as one of the richest
and most diverse areas on the planet in terms of flora (Rangel et al., 2004). In
addition, it is important to highlight that this knowledge of traditional plants is being
lost due to the fact that new generations suffer from a loss of cultural identity,
making it more difficult to pass on ancestral traditions. It is crucial to recover this
ancestral medicinal knowledge as it has sociocultural implications and impacts the
health of these communities, which in most cases only have traditional doctors for
healthcare. Conventional health centres (i.e. Western medicine) are usually located
several hours away by boat in towns or cities far away from the communities, and are
too expensive to turn to.
The foodscape of the original people is also linked to the environment, and
strengthened management of the territory, such as IPAs, contributes directly to the
enhancement of their food hubs and nutritional security, along with improvement in
health indicators. Although the dynamics of armed conflict hamper the free move-
ment of community members through the environment, limiting food diversity, the
sustainable use of the territory can be promoted so that internal regulations are
established for use and exploitation of species associated with food security. Nev-
ertheless, it is necessary to implement programmes to reinforce ancestral crops and
54 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
cultural practices that contribute to the food sovereignty of these populations and to
control the invasiveness of exotic species.
A key element for the conservation of the biocultural memory of the Wounaan-
Nonam people is the conservation of the native language and ancestral cultural
practices, which are also at risk of disappearing. Many of the words and names
that the Wounaan-Nonam language uses to refer to elements associated with biodi-
versity could be at risk of disappearing or falling into disuse, due to factors such as
isolation and state neglect that have undermined their cultural identity (Agencia de
Noticias U. Nacional, 2014). Elements of their language are also used in practices
associated with spiritual health in healing rituals. Likewise, these communities in
recent years have experienced an accelerated process of acculturation, given the
permanent interaction with other populations such as Afro-descendants and mesti-
zos. Therefore, as stated in Sect. 3.2, the survival of ancestral cultural practices such
as dance, handicrafts, or body painting is increasingly at risk. This highlights the
urgent need for support of the indigenous education model so that the new gener-
ations perpetuate the use of the language in their daily life and appreciate and
maintain cultural practices. In addition, the use of these artistic elements in spiritual
and healing rituals contributes to the mental and spiritual well-being of these
communities.
Given the increasing presence of illegal armed groups and forced interactions
with the dominant society that accelerates the acculturation processes, a major effort
to maintain the culture of the Wounaan-Nonam people is imperative. The fading of
their biocultural memory has implications not only for the health and well-being of
the indigenous population, but also for the degradation of ecosystems, which are in a
good state of conservation within the IPAs, including the presence of highly
threatened species of fauna and flora in the biogeographic Chocó region.
The survival of beliefs such as the Chimias has benefited conservation efforts as
original people see nature as part of their spiritual world. This is evident in the case
of timber species, which are conserved in indigenous territories because of their
importance in spiritual terms, but are overexploited outside their territories because
other communities (non-believers) only consider their commercial value
(e.g. Toxicodendron striatum, or “aluvillo”, and Ceiba pentandra, or “balsa”). The
cosmovision of original peoples has, therefore, important and visible benefits for
environmental health. However, a more decisive role on the part of the state and
Colombian society is imperative, so that the processes of self-education and the
conservation of biocultural memory may be favoured.
5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned
Historically, indigenous communities have had a mythological and spiritual rela-
tionship with natural resources, interacting with them not only as living beings, but
also as spiritual entities, important for their survival and physical, mental, and
spiritual well-being. Therefore, well-being is an integral part of the health of these
3 Linking Biocultural Memory Conservation and Human Well-Being in. . . 55
original people. Accordingly, in situ conservation strategies, such as the IPAs,
directly contribute to the livelihoods of these communities, improve management
in their SEPLS, and promote conservation of their biocultural memory. IPAs have
become a strategy to enrich the supply of indigenous families, because its biodiver-
sity is directly related to the diets and eating habits, ancestral practices of traditional
medicine, fashioning of handicrafts, and elements associated with spirituality and
indigenous cosmogony.
The benefits of the efforts associated with biocultural memory conservation and
the management of indigenous SEPLS that are shown in this case study have the
potential to be replicated in the 115 original people communities in Colombia and in
other ethnic communities around the world. The implemented actions of sustainable
use of biodiversity and natural resources are reflected in the improvement of the
fauna and flora populations (quality and quantity) inhabiting these areas, thus
contributing to the nearby communities’ quality of life (not only indigenous but
also peasants, Afro-descendants, and recent mestizo settlers).
Consequently, IPAs serve as a conservation and resistance strategy, especially in
ensuring the autonomy of the food hubs of the communities and a decrease in
dependence on external inputs (i.e. food, supplies, goods), whose circulation is not
allowed on many occasions due to the dynamics of the armed conflict. Likewise, by
developing participatory inventories and exchanging knowledge on fauna and flora,
traditional knowledge on foodstuff diversity is maintained.
In biocultural diversity conservation processes with indigenous communities, it is
essential to assimilate the concepts of memory, symbolism, and myth, as they
facilitate our understanding of their own knowledge by decoding their way of
relating to natural resources. Only through the understanding of the relationship
that indigenous women and men (i.e. gender perspective) have with their environ-
ment is any proposal for joint action for conservation of biocultural memory viable.
These issues, identified through this experience, are only the visible environmen-
tal phenomenon; they are the product of a nuanced matrix, or a set of interconnected
cycling social problems such as forced displacement, cultural fragmentation, armed
conflict, and poverty, among others. Only by reading the complexity of the context
in the indigenous communities, or historicity, would it be possible to build effective
participatory strategies to mitigate and/or solve specific conflicts associated with
environmental health.
Although there is a legal framework recognising Colombia as a multiethnic and
multicultural country, it is necessary to promote public practices of multiculturality,
especially when they relate to indigenous SEPLS. Similarly, joint efforts for under-
standing state functioning and the logic of original people are needed in order to
potentiate conservation strategies of biocultural memory and community
governance.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the communities in Puerto Pizario and Santa Rosa de
Guayacán for their kindness and for allowing us to learn about their culture. Special thanks to their
traditional authorities (Cabildos) who facilitated the logistics for our stay in these communities.
This study was carried out within the framework of the agreement 011 CVC–ACIVA RP of 2013,
56 A. Quintero-Angel et al.
entitled “Aunar esfuerzos técnicos económicos y humanos para adelantar las acciones necesarias
orientadas a declarar áreas de interés ambiental en comunidades indígenas aliadas a la ACIVA-RP”.
The authors are also grateful to ACIVA-RP and CVC institutions for providing the funds for this
study, to A. Giraldo for the donation to the indigenous community of the photograph of Chanul
(Humiriastrum procerum) and the authorization for its use, and to the SITR vol. 7 Editorial Team
for reviewing this manuscript.
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Chapter 4
SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision:
Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,
and Adaptive Capacity in Xinshe Village,
Hualien County, Chinese Taipei
Paulina G. Karimova, Shao-Yu Yan, and Kuang-Chung Lee
Abstract Since 2016, a 600 hectare “ridge-to-reef” watershed of the Jialang River
in Xinshe Village, Hualien County, Chinese Taipei, has been adaptively co-managed
by a multi-stakeholder platform uniting two indigenous tribes (Fuxing and Xinshe)
and four regional government agencies subordinate to the Council of Agriculture.
The Five Perspectives of the Satoyama Initiative formed the core of the Xinshe
SEPLS adaptive co-management model. The year 2020 marked the end of the short-
term phase (2016–2019) and a transition period to the midterm phase (2021–2026)
of the Xinshe “Forest-River-Village-Ocean” Eco-Agriculture Initiative (the Xinshe
Initiative). How could the midterm management of the Xinshe Initiative most
effectively enhance the Xinshe SEPLS well-being by 2026? To answer this question,
we developed a set of 20 Localised Indicators of Resilience in the Xinshe SEPLS,
analysed the concept of SEPLS well-being on the basis of the 5R conceptual
framework (“ridge-to-reef”, risks, resources, and resilience), and contributed the
results of our study to the midterm action plan of the Xinshe Initiative.
Keywords SEPLS well-being · Adaptive co-management · 5R (“ridge-to-reef”,
risks, resources, and resilience) · Diversity · Connectivity · Adaptive capacity ·
Chinese Taipei
1 Introduction
1.1 Defining SEPLS Well-Being
“Societies in harmony with nature” is the overarching goal of the Satoyama Initiative
and the 2050 vision reiterated in the zero draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity
P. G. Karimova · S.-Y. Yan · K.-C. Lee (*)
National Dong Hwa University, College of Environmental Studies, Hualien, Taiwan
e-mail: kclee@gms.ndhu.edu.tw
© The Author(s) 2022 61
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_4
62 P. G. Karimova et al.
Framework (Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 2020). The upcoming
decades are expected to showcase diverse pathways towards achieving this vision
at multiple scales, in different ecosystems and with a variety of stakeholders
involved. Socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) have a
high potential to provide invaluable and local-scale insights of their own (Nishi &
Yamazaki, 2020).
One may wonder, however, what does harmony between societies and nature in
SEPLS actually mean? Is it a win-win relationship, a balance, or the most desired
state in SEPLS? Can it be put in concrete terms, observed, or even measured? To
answer these questions, we propose the concept of SEPLS well-being.
The term “well-being” mainly derives from psychology and sociology studies
where it is referred to as human well-being (Forgeard et al., 2011). It is generally
defined as “the state of being or doing well in life; happy, healthy, or prosperous
condition; moral or physical welfare (of a person or community)” (Oxford English
Dictionary, 2021). Importantly, Dodge et al. (2012, p. 230) emphasise the non-static
nature of well-being by calling it a “balance point between an individual’s resource
pool and challenges faced”.
In a coupled socio-ecological system, like a SEPLS, we determine well-being to
be a dynamic balance between the socio-economic and environmental resources
available to a SEPLS and the socio-economic and environmental risks faced by it at a
given point in time. As a SEPLS is subject to natural and human-induced, internal
and external uncertainties, its good management should be capable of balancing out
risks and resources in the most efficient way to realise, maintain, and enhance
SEPLS well-being.
If the concept of SEPLS well-being can bring us one step closer to the vision of
“societies in harmony with nature”, it might be well worth to explore its practical on-
the-ground application within a landscape approach. For this purpose, we examine
Chinese Taipei’s first ever experience with a multi-stakeholder platform for SEPLS
revitalisation—the Xinshe “Forest-River-Village-Ocean” Eco-Agriculture Initiative
(Xinshe Initiative).
1.2 Background: Xinshe Eco-Agriculture Initiative
The Xinshe SEPLS is a subtropical “ridge-to-reef” watershed of the Jialang River
located in Xinshe Village, Fengbin Township, Hualien County, Chinese Taipei
(Fig. 4.1a and Table 4.1). It covers an area of 600 hectares spanning from protected
national forests of the Coastal Mountain Range, through production farmlands of
two indigenous settlements (Amis Fuxing tribe (about 70 residents) and Kavalan
Xinshe tribe (about 350 residents)) to the coral reef ecosystem of the Pacific Ocean
(Lee et al., 2019, 2020) (Fig. 4.1b and Table 4.1). The landscape approach in the
form of the Xinshe Initiative was introduced to the Xinshe SEPLS in October 2016
as a response to a number of socio-ecological challenges faced by the area over the
years.
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 63
Fig. 4.1 Location (a), land-use map (b), and landscape-seascape (c) of the Xinshe SEPLS: Xinshe
Village, Hualien County, Chinese Taipei (source: (a) and (b) Map data©Google, 2021, (c) photo
taken by authors)
Table 4.1 Basic information of the study area
Country Chinese Taipei
Province Hualien County
District Fengbin Township
Municipality Xinshe Village
Size of geographical area (hectare) 1460
Number of direct beneficiaries (persons) 200
Number of indirect beneficiaries (persons) 665
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if appropriate Indigenous Amis and Kavalan
Size of the case study/project area (hectare) 600
Geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) 23
39020.800N, 121
32021.800E
Amis and Kavalan communities are widely known for their versatile skills as
farmers, hunters, fishers, and gatherers who follow seasonal patterns and sustainably
utilise the abundant resources of their surrounding environment all year round
(Fig. 4.1c). Traditionally, the youth and the elderly, both men and women, all play
indispensable roles in managing the SEPLS. Chinese Taipei’s rapid industrial
development in the 1970–1980s, however, brought with it the convenience of
modern agriculture (including the introduction of chemical fertilisers, pesticides,
64 P. G. Karimova et al.
and herbicides) and new socio-economic opportunities resulting in outmigration of
youth to the cities. By the 2010s, depopulated and ageing, the Xinshe SEPLS was
faced with deterioration of production farmlands, degradation of natural resources,
loss of indigenous language and culture, and lack of incentives for the young people
to return home.
The Xinshe Initiative (2016) became an effort to envision Xinshe SEPLS well-
being by the means of SEPLS-wide promotion of eco-agriculture and uniting the
sectoral efforts of three government agencies subordinate to the Council of Agricul-
ture (COA) engaged in the area since 2010: Hualien Forest District Office
(HFDOFB, since 2010), Hualien Branch of Soil and Water Conservation Bureau
(HBSWC, since 2011), and Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension
Station (HDARES, since 2014).
Eco-agriculture in the context of the Xinshe Initiative is defined as “a fully
integrated approach to agriculture, conservation and rural livelihoods” (Scherr &
McNeely, 2008, p. 480) at the Xinshe landscape-seascape scale (Lee, 2016). The
initial sectoral expertise of the three COA agencies working in the Xinshe SEPLS
provided an opportunity to thoroughly address each of the three pillars of
eco-agriculture: biodiversity (HFDOFB), production (HDARES), and livelihoods
(HBSWC). For more information, please see Lee et al. (2019) in Volume 5 of the
Satoyama Initiative Thematic Review.
The Xinshe Initiative further aligned the ecological, social, and economic aspects
of eco-agriculture with the Five Perspectives of the Satoyama Initiative1:
(a) ecosystem health and connectivity, (b) sustainable resource use, (c) traditions
and innovation, (d) multi-stakeholder governance, and (e) sustainable livelihoods.
These five eco-agricultural perspectives formed the thematic building blocks of the
management cycle (“planning-implementation-evaluation-adjustment” stages) and
the short-term action plan of the Xinshe Initiative (Fig. 4.2).
The Xinshe multi-stakeholder platform was established as a core mechanism for
operationalising the Xinshe Initiative (Fig. 4.2). The main actors within the platform
included primary stakeholders (representatives from the Fuxing and Xinshe tribes),
secondary stakeholders (the four COA regional agencies) (the Eastern Region
Branch of Agriculture and Food Agency (EBAFA) joined the above three in 2018
to support the “marketing” pillar), and the facilitator (National Dong Hwa University
(NDHU—the authors)). Other relevant government agencies and tertiary stake-
holders (non-governmental organisations, community organisations, and private
enterprises) also partook in multi-stakeholder platform meetings when necessary
(Lee et al., 2019).
From the very beginning, the Xinshe Initiative was projected as a decade-long
revitalisation effort to be carried out in short-term (3 years) and midterm (7 years)
1For the Xinshe Initiative, the initial Five Perspectives of the Three-Fold Approach for the
Satoyama Initiative were slightly modified from their original version (IPSI Secretariat, 2014,
p. 9): (a) resource use within the carrying capacity and resilience of the environment, (b) cyclic
use of natural resources, (c) recognition of the value and importance of local traditions and cultures,
(d) multi-stakeholder participation and collaboration, and (e) contributions to socio-economies.
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 65
Fig. 4.2 The Xinshe “Forest-River-Village-Ocean” Eco-Agriculture Initiative and its adaptive
co-management model based on the Five Perspectives of the Satoyama Initiative (source: prepared
by authors). HDARES Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station, HFDOFB
Hualien Forest District Office, HBSWC Hualien Branch of Soil and Water Conservation Bureau,
EBAFA Eastern Region Branch of Agriculture and Food Agency, NDHU National Dong Hwa
University, RAWs resilience assessment workshops
phases. Ten years were deemed as a realistic enough period of time to allow the local
elderly to observe the positive trends towards enhancement of Xinshe SEPLS well-
being, and for the youth to return home to new opportunities and to take over the
SEPLS’ management in the long term.
1.3 Rationale: The Xinshe SEPLS Well-Being as a Midterm
Vision
During the initial 3 years of the Xinshe Initiative, the multi-stakeholder partnership
was characterised by several notable features. Firstly, it was a time of learning to
66 P. G. Karimova et al.
work together in the cross-sectoral (between government agencies), cross-settlement
(between Fuxing and Xinshe tribes), and cross-knowledge (expert and local) dimen-
sions (Lee et al., 2019). Secondly, it allowed for “harvesting the low-hanging
fruit”—accomplishing the most urgent action tasks based on the immediate chal-
lenges faced by the communities. Thirdly, the short-term phase laid out the “stepping
stones” for issues to be addressed in the midterm phase (Karimova, 2021). In sum,
these were the foundation years towards achieving Xinshe SEPLS well-being.
The year 2020 marked the end of the short-term phase (2016–2019) and served as
a transition period between the phases. Evaluation of the short-term phase and
planning for the midterm phase (2021–2026) were carried out at this time. At this
pivotal stage of the Xinshe Initiative, multiple stakeholders pondered on a question:
How can the midterm management of the Xinshe Initiative most effectively enhance
Xinshe SEPLS well-being by 2026? Our research team saw this as an opportunity to
give a practical application to the concept of SEPLS well-being and to contribute the
results of our study to the midterm action plan.
2 Methods
2.1 The 5R Conceptual Framework
Our analysis of the Xinshe SEPLS well-being integrated the familiar concepts of
“ridge-to-reef” (R-to-R), risks and resources (2R), and resilience into a 5R concep-
tual framework (Fig. 4.3).
We adapted Dodge et al.’s (2012, p. 230) model where well-being is positioned at
the centre of a see-saw as “the balance point between an individual’s resource pool
and the challenges faced”. Internal and external socio-economic and environmental
threats, pressures, and challenges of SEPLS are placed into the Risks box, while the
strengths, opportunities, and skills of all SEPLS elements (human and natural) are
put into the Resources box.
The see-saw itself is envisioned as Resilience—a dynamic process in which a
SEPLS utilises its available resources in order to adapt and grow in the face of risks,
Fig. 4.3 The 5R conceptual
framework (adapted from
Dodge et al., 2012)
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 67
yet retaining its essential structure and functions (Brown, 2016; Ford et al., 2020;
Carpenter et al., 2001). Having identified this fifth “R” in our conceptual framework,
we employed community-based resilience assessment workshops (RAWs) as a tool
(Lee et al., 2020; Fig. 4.2). Also, pictured as a supporting frame of the see-saw
(lower pyramid structure in Fig. 4.3), our conceptual framework supposes that
certain supporting elements are required in order to fulfil the 5Rs.
Therefore, we outlined the following objectives for our analysis: to elicit the
socio-economic and environmental risks and resources of the Xinshe SEPLS at the
end of the short-term phase, and to identify the supporting elements for propelling
Xinshe SEPLS well-being in the midterm phase.
2.2 Resilience Assessment Workshops
We define resilience assessment workshops (RAWs) as a series of community-based
activities aimed at the evaluation of socio-ecological resilience in a SEPLS,
organised for the purpose of providing a problem-oriented feedback to the “adjust-
ment” or “planning” stages of its adaptive co-management cycle (Lee et al., 2020;
Fig. 4.2).
RAWs were first carried out in the Xinshe SEPLS in 2017–2018 during the
“evaluation-adjustment” stages of the short-term phase. At the time, the original set
of 20 Indicators of Resilience in SEPLS (Bergamini et al., 2014) was directly
translated into the Chinese language and applied in RAWs (Lee et al., 2020).
Mirroring the Five Perspectives of the Satoyama Initiative, the 2017–2018 RAWs
played a crucial role in yielding community-based adjustments to the short-term
action plan and received positive acclaim from both the Fuxing and Xinshe com-
munities and the government agencies. This experience resulted in RAWs becoming
the official “evaluation-adjustment-planning” tool of the Xinshe Initiative.
In 2020, however, RAWs were entrusted with the more complex task of evalu-
ation and planning for the midterm phase (Fig. 4.2). It meant that at this stage the
indicators for measuring resilience had to be comprehensive enough to reflect the
multitude of challenges and opportunities in the Xinshe SEPLS, relevant enough to
the local context and the action tasks of the Xinshe Initiative, and comprehensible
enough to be easily understood by the local communities.
For this reason, the process of conducting the 2020 RAWs consisted of three
consecutive stages: pre-RAWs (developing a set of 20 Localised Indicators of
Resilience in the Xinshe SEPLS—Appendix A), core RAWs (conducting a series
of 12 RAWs in the Fuxing and Xinshe communities), and post-RAWs (communi-
cating assessment results to the multiple stakeholders and producing a bottom-up
midterm action plan for the Xinshe Initiative). A detailed description of activities
during each stage is presented in Appendix B and an evaluation sheet sample of
Perspective A (Indicators A1–A4) in Appendix C. Please see Sun et al. (2020) for the
photographs of the 2020 RAWs.
68 P. G. Karimova et al.
2.3 Resilience Assessment as the Xinshe SEPLS Health
Check
As RAWs are a community-based tool for assessing resilience in SEPLS, it is
imperative that the local people fully understand the purpose of this exercise, its
benefits for the community, and, first and foremost, the meaning of what is being
measured—resilience itself. The feedback from the Fuxing and Xinshe communities
after a series of initial RAWs in 2017–2018 (Lee et al., 2020) and opinions voiced by
government representatives during the 2020 pre-RAWs’ preparatory workshop
(Appendix B) warned us that comprehensibility was key. While the purpose and
the benefits of RAWs were clear, the concept of resilience remained rather vague and
was deemed “too academic” for both the local people and the government officials.
How could we explain it better?
For the 2020 RAWs, we found a solution by not only providing a definition of
resilience in “risks-resources” terms but also using the analogy of a human body and
human health—something that all participants were most familiar with (Fig. 4.4).
We started by referring to a healthy human as one who does not get sick easily and
who recovers quickly even when some ailment occurs. We noted that the same could
be said about a resilient SEPLS—it is less vulnerable to risks and has a strong
capacity to adapt (find resources to cope with risks). Then we explained that similar
to a human body being comprised of multiple organs which form its ten main
systems, SEPLS is also home to numerous multifunctional natural and man-made
elements.
In the same way that a doctor performs a health check (e.g. blood pressure, blood
tests, temperature check) to find out the functionality of systems and organs within a
Fig. 4.4 Resilience assessment as the Xinshe SEPLS health check analogy (source: prepared by
authors, with the human body image elements adapted from www.freepik.com (2021))
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 69
human body, a resilience assessment measures risks and resources within the Five
Perspectives of a SEPLS with the help of the 20 Localised Indicators of Resilience as
a measurement tool. We further emphasised that resembling the interconnectedness
between the main systems in a human body, SEPLS elements also form a nexus
pattern of their own. Thus, we encouraged participants in RAWs to be mindful of
how risks and resources within one perspective could be linked to risks and
resources within another.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Risks and Resources of the Xinshe SEPLS
Design of each perspective-related evaluation sheet (Appendix C) implied two types
of assessment results: quantitative (scoring of indicators based on 1 star “very low”
to 5 stars “very high” (Fig. 4.5)) and qualitative (discussion of risks and resources
based on the participants’ scoring decisions and priority ranking of indicator-
relevant local examples of specific action tasks (Fig. 4.6)).
In the following Sects. 3.1 and 3.2, we make a particular use of the qualitative
assessment results to discuss the socio-economic and environmental risks and
resources within each of the five perspectives (Fig. 4.6, upper part) and elicit the
supporting elements for the Xinshe SEPLS well-being (Fig. 4.6, bottom part). In
Sect. 3.3, we come back to Fig. 4.5 by showing how the scoring results for the
20 Localised Indicators guided the choice of ten thematic priority areas for the
midterm action plan of the Xinshe Initiative.
Fig. 4.5 Scoring results for 20 Localised Indicators of Resilience in the Xinshe SEPLS: (a) Fuxing
tribe, (b) Xinshe tribe. Marked in green—indicators with (relatively) highest scores (3.42–4.25), in
red—indicators with (relatively) lowest scores (2–2.85) (source: prepared by authors)
70 P. G. Karimova et al.
Fig. 4.6 The 5R of the Xinshe SEPLS well-being (source: prepared by authors)
Ecosystem Health and Connectivity
The “ridge-to-reef” natural environment of the Xinshe SEPLS is subject to a number
of environmental and human-induced stressors. Heavy rains brought by seasonal
monsoons (January–March and May–June) and typhoons (July–September) create a
risk of floods and landslides (in the Fuxing area in particular). In the 1990s, in order
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 71
to minimise the risk of natural disasters to community livelihoods (Perspective E),2 a
series of dams were constructed on the Jialang River. Together with excavator
dredging of the river basin, these engineering constructions have become a serious
obstacle for the spawning migration of fish and shrimp (21 rare varieties).
To date, conventional agricultural practices (Perspective B) are among the main
human-induced risks to Xinshe ecosystem health. Given the undoubtable conve-
nience of synthetic fertilisers and herbicides, physical constraints of the aged
population, and a lack of young labour force, promotion of eco-agricultural produc-
tion in the Xinshe SEPLS is a complex task. High nutrient concentration rates (N and
P) from fertiliser overuse (mainly in the Xinshe community) can adversely impact
the quality of drinking and irrigation water, which in turn can put stress on the coral
reef ecosystem downstream.
In addition to the socio-economic risks, the scenic beauty of the Xinshe
landscape-seascape has become a strong attractor to a growing number of tourists
driving along the Coastal Highway #11. In early to mid-2020, following the inter-
national travel restrictions imposed by the Chinese Taipei Government in response
to COVID-19 (19 March 2020), domestic tourism rose substantially (Karimova &
Lee, 2021). As a result, littering, trampling on the paddy fields, and noise pollution
became common phenomena in the Xinshe SEPLS. The residents also expressed
their concerns about the risks of landscape fragmentation and threats to
eco-agricultural production caused by such recent “construction invasions” as utility
poles, high-voltage streetlights, and solar panels.
Having listed the above threats to SEPLS ecosystem health, the Fuxing and
Xinshe communities, however, noted the intrinsic diversity of SEPLS elements
and their functions as an invaluable resource. To them, floral and faunal diversity
of the surrounding forests, aquatic and biotic resources of the Jialang River, agro-
biodiversity of eco-friendly farmlands, and marine resources of the Pacific coastal
zone can provide a strong buffer to natural and man-made threats. Also, participants
in RAWs highlighted the imperative role of SEPLS-wide promotion of
eco-agriculture during the short-term phase of the Xinshe Initiative in fostering the
“forest-river-village-ocean” connectivity across the SEPLS. In their opinion, posi-
tive changes are already visible.
Sustainable Resource Use
Discussion of sustainable resource use in the Xinshe SEPLS was focused on
common natural resources (forest, river, and ocean) and agricultural farmlands.
Due to the legally protected status of the national forests, their risks seemed to be
of the least concern. Meanwhile, both communities pointed out unsustainable fishing
2In many cases, a risk or a resource within one Perspective was closely correlated to a risk or a
resource within another Perspective. We demonstrate these nexus relationships by listing other
relevant Perspectives in parentheses (here: Perspective E).
72 P. G. Karimova et al.
practices, including overfishing and intrusions from outsiders, as the highest-ranking
resource-related risk in the Xinshe SEPLS. Electric fishing in the Jialang River and
the trawl nets of commercial vessels in the nearby Pacific coastal zone have made
Fuxing and Xinshe residents not only concerned about the fish stocks and ecosystem
health (Perspective A), but also question traditional land rights of the communities
(Perspective D).
In addition to looming threats from conventional agriculture, eco-agricultural
production in Xinshe SEPLS is at risk from disturbances caused by wildlife (For-
mosan macaques, wild boar, wild hare, and barking deer). In the Fuxing community,
for instance, where wildlife can easily roam into the production farmlands, the
farmers’ crop diversity is substantially limited. They have given up on growing
any sweet vegetables (sweet potato, corn, or beetroot) as those are particularly
targeted by the wildlife. Moreover, disappearance of native plant and animal varie-
ties is also a big concern especially in the face of an increased risk of alien species’
encroachment.
A well-established community-based monitoring of local resources (forest patrol,
river brigades, and coral reef check-up teams) was listed by the RAWs’ participants
as the most immediate counterweight to the resource-use risks in the SEPLS. The
traditionally diverse and sustainable ecosystem-based production activities of the
indigenous communities (farming, hunting, fishing, arts and crafts, weaving, and
culinary art) were highlighted as well (Perspective C). Improvement of
eco-agricultural farming practices with the help of extension services and training
provided by government agencies (HDARES and HFDOFB) was noted to be a
valuable resource to tackle risks in production farmlands.
Traditions and Innovation
Outmigration, ageing, lack of young people, and, as a result, limited human and
temporal capacities for documentation and transfer of traditional culture and knowl-
edge pose by far one of the biggest risks for the Xinshe SEPLS. Disappearance of the
indigenous Amis and Kavalan languages and loss of knowledge and practical skills
of the elders are greatly feared by the locals. Return of out-migrated local youth to
their homeland was the main hope voiced by almost everyone throughout RAWs
(in this context as well as for all other perspectives).
In the meanwhile, since the introduction of the Xinshe Initiative, the locals have
gained more hope in the future of their traditions and culture. They noted, for
example, the important role that the weaving of traditional and modern knowledge
plays in addressing such SEPLS issues as pest and wildlife management,
reintroduction of native species and local seed varieties, and improvement of
planting technologies (Perspective B). Diversity of knowledge, skills, and
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 73
experiences of the elderly and youth, men and women, Kavalan, Amis, and Bunun3
indigenous community members within the SEPLS is also highly valued by the
locals. Particularly worth noting is the influential role of the Xinshe Primary
School—the only educational institution in the Xinshe Village—as the centre of
cultural and community cohesion.
Though local resources for cultural documentation and transmission are rather
limited, there is a growing interest from research and media communities attracted to
the Xinshe SEPLS either by the uniqueness of its indigenous culture and its scenic
beauty or by the Xinshe Initiative itself—Chinese Taipei’s one-of-a-kind multi-
stakeholder initiative. Remarkably, this interest is both a risk and a resource for
the SEPLS. On the one hand, if ethical considerations are not properly addressed,
intellectual property rights to folklore and language resources end up lost to out-
siders and the communities receive no benefit. On the other hand, it can be seen as an
advantage: trained professionals can assist in documentation and promotion of
traditional culture and knowledge as well as spur public interest and support towards
the Xinshe SEPLS.
Multi-stakeholder Governance
In the Xinshe SEPLS, we view multi-stakeholder governance as a “double-layered”
phenomenon, which includes the social capital of the Fuxing and Xinshe commu-
nities (the “inner layer”) and the cooperation of multiple stakeholders across the
platform (the “outer layer”).
On the “inner layer”, RAWs’ participants have mentioned a limited participation
of community members in SEPLS revitalisation activities (including the Xinshe
multi-stakeholder platform itself) which stems from their unawareness, lack or
interest, or distrust. Participation in community development projects (even those
related to the Xinshe Initiative) is often at risk of benefit-sharing disputes within the
communities. Also, despite the urge for young people to return to the SEPLS, they
are often faced with the difficulties of cultural (language, local traditions, and
customs), social (participation in local institutions), and economic (search for jobs)
adaptation. This can lead to further misunderstandings and conflicts. In recent years,
the threat of selling land and property to outsiders is a direct result of lack of prior
communication among community members.
The “outer” layer of Xinshe multi-stakeholder governance is mainly at risk of
water-related disputes between the Fuxing and Xinshe tribes related to the upstream-
downstream management of the Jialang River’s water quantity and quality (Per-
spective B). Until now, most concerns have been addressed on a person-to-person
rather than a community-to-community basis, while many participants from the
Xinshe community voiced the need for the latter.
3The third, less populous, indigenous group in the Xinshe SEPLS.
74 P. G. Karimova et al.
One of the strongest social capital resources in the Fuxing and Xinshe tribes is
Mipaliw—a traditional tribal co-working and cooperation mechanism of “neighbour
helping neighbour”. The tribal age-grade system (in the Xinshe community) is
another source of cohesion. Diversity of knowledge, skills, and experiences of
community members within and outside of the SEPLS (including the youth residing
in the cities) ensures a human resource pool.
Diversity of organisations within the communities (tribal councils, community
development committees, indigenous language promotion centres, art workshops,
etc.) and community projects supported by government agencies, private enterprises,
and NGOs are resources for enhanced social inclusiveness, skill-building, and
employment opportunities (Perspective E). Also, over the short-term years, the
Xinshe multi-stakeholder platform has encouraged dialogue between young leaders
from the Fuxing and Xinshe tribes and an enthusiastic collaboration across the
platform on a number of SEPLS issues.
Sustainable Livelihoods
As mentioned in Perspective A, the proneness of the Xinshe SEPLS to natural
disasters (typhoons, landslides, and floods) endangers community safety with a
particular vulnerability of the elderly. Road conditions and traffic safety are also a
matter of concern. Frequency of traffic accidents significantly increases during the
rainy seasons due to the steep slippery road conditions in the Fuxing community, and
during the holiday seasons on the busy Coastal Highway #11 passing through the
Xinshe community.
Other livelihood risks are related to a lack of employment opportunities that
prevents young people from returning to the SEPLS (Perspective D). A long-term
pursuit of eco-agricultural production (Perspective B) as an income-generating
activity may be hampered by marketing obstacles such as limited access to
processing technology and equipment, as well as difficulties with organic and
environmentally friendly certification, and a lack of marketing channels and skills.
A cross-generational adaptive capacity (past experiences of the local elders,
Perspective C) to natural and socio-economic calamities is surely one of the most
valuable livelihood resources in the SEPLS. Potential diversity of ecosystem-based
income-generating activities (Perspective B) such as eco-agriculture, fishing, farm-
ing, eco- (marine) tourism, environmental interpretation, and arts and crafts can also
generate a pool of employment opportunities. In the meanwhile, the good reputation
of the Xinshe Primary School as one of Chinese Taipei’s exemplary rural schools
creates a strong incentive for the young people and their families to return to the
Xinshe SEPLS.
An already evident connectivity between eco-agricultural production and human
(physical, mental, spiritual) and ecosystem health creates a strong stimulus for
proceeding with environmentally friendly production activities. Also, a gradual
emergence of community-based local product brands (rice, tea, and natural dye)
and experimenting with various marketing channels (weekend markets, indigenous
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 75
product exhibitions, and online platforms)—especially at times of COVID-19—all
contribute to fostering the marketing capacity of the Xinshe SEPLS.
3.2 Resilience: Supporting Elements for the Xinshe SEPLS
Well-Being
With the risks and resources of the Xinshe SEPLS identified, we return to the 5R
conceptual framework (Fig. 4.3) to take a closer look at the supporting elements of
the see-saw structure of SEPLS well-being. Our analysis revealed three of them:
diversity, connectivity, and adaptive capacity (Fig. 4.6, bottom).
Diversity is the basic supporting element. It represents diversity of all kinds and
across all socio-economic and ecological risks and resources of the Xinshe SEPLS:
of ecosystems and their functions (forest, freshwater, farmland, and marine), of wild
and cultivated floral and faunal varieties (biodiversity, including agro-biodiversity),
of soil micro- and macro-organisms (soil biodiversity), of resource use and produc-
tion activities of the local people (farming, hunting, fishing, gathering, ecotourism,
arts and crafts, and culinary art), of knowledge types (traditional and modern) and
knowledge holders (the elderly and the young, men and women), of skills and
expertise within and outside the SEPLS (including the youth residing in the cities),
of capacity-building and partnership opportunities, of ecosystem-based income-
generating activities, of diverse marketing channels (weekend markets, indigenous
product exhibitions, and online marketing), and of past adaptation experiences and
coping strategies (cross-generational adaptive knowledge).
Connectivity is the second supporting element that links the “many diversities” of
SEPLS in a way that keeps them functional. Connectivity implies the nexus patterns
within risks and resources (i.e. how occurrence of one risk may lead to another or
how mobilisation of one resource may encourage mobilisation of another) and also
between them (addressing risks with resources and the “spillover effect” on other
risk-resource interactions). It ensures a reciprocal relationship and consideration of a
“cause-effect” interdependence between all elements in the SEPLS in multiple
dimensions: natural-to-natural (“ridge-to-reef”) (forest-river-farmlands (as an
ecosystem)-ocean), human-to-human (within the settlements, between the settle-
ments, and across the multi-stakeholder platform), and human-to-natural (all aspects
of sustainable resource use). With connectivity in mind, for instance, the link
between fertiliser overuse, coral reef bleaching, diminishing fish stocks, and
restrained fish spawning migration becomes evident. This should naturally lead to
more sustainable production methods such as a shift to eco-agriculture.
Adaptive capacity is the third supporting element of Xinshe SEPLS well-being.
We see it as the ability to mobilise diverse socio-economic and ecological resources
and connect them in the most suitable way in order to face socio-economic and
ecological risks. Adaptive capacity is the dynamic element that propels the see-saw
of Xinshe SEPLS well-being forward and enables it to change and grow over time
76 P. G. Karimova et al.
while maintaining its essential structure and functions. We note that along with
diversity and connectivity, it is adaptive capacity that supports the resilience of the
Xinshe SEPLS.
3.3 Adaptive Co-management for the Xinshe SEPLS
Well-Being in the Midterm Phase (2021–2026)
Now we come back to the question asked by the multiple stakeholders in early 2020:
How can the midterm management of the Xinshe Initiative most effectively enhance
Xinshe SEPLS well-being by 2026? Answering this question was an essential part of
the post-RAWs’ analysis and planning process (Appendix B).
Indicators with the lowest scores (marked in red in Fig. 4.5) pointed out the
aspects of SEPLS management that were of the highest concern to the local
communities and required further improvement. These included B4 and D1—sus-
tainable use and traditional rights in relation to common resources (river and ocean);
B1, B2, and C3—self-sufficiency and appropriate technology in eco-agricultural
production, and conservation and reintroduction of native species; C1 and C2—
transfer and documentation of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and return of
migrant youth; and E1 and E3—traffic safety, elderly-friendly infrastructure, and
marketing capacity. Multi-stakeholder governance (Perspective D) was emphasised
by almost all RAWs’ participants as an important mechanism to maintain and
enhance partnership for common objectives.
Thus, based on the scoring results (Fig. 4.5) and an in-depth discussion of
environmental and socio-economic risks and resources in the Xinshe SEPLS
(Fig. 4.6), we were able to outline ten thematic priority areas for the midterm
phase of the Xinshe Initiative—two problem-oriented themes for each of the five
perspectives (Fig. 4.7). To stipulate division of responsibilities among the multiple
stakeholders in relation to the previously existing and newly emerged action tasks,
we further combined the ten themes into the “4 + 2 + 1 Model” (three colours in
Fig. 4.7: “4” red, “2” blue, and “1” green).
Four thematic areas in red colour (“4”) are to be guided by the four regional
government agencies within the COA system (HDARES, HFDOFB, HBSWC, and
EBAFA) with each agency being primarily responsible for one of the themes. These
priority areas include protection and sustainable use of aquatic and biotic resources
of the Jialang River system (HFDOFB), the entire Perspective B—promotion of
eco-agriculture and reintroduction of native agricultural varieties (HDARES), build-
ing up marketing channels and skills (EBAFA), and disaster risk prevention and safe
and eco-friendly infrastructure (HBSWC).
Two themes in blue colour (“2”) are the topics outside of the area of expertise of
the COA and its subordinate agencies. They, therefore, require efforts from other
relevant government agencies, NGOs, and/or private enterprises. One of the topics is
related to protection and sustainable use of marine resources, where assistance from
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 77
Fig. 4.7 The “4 + 2 + 1 Model” and ten thematic priority areas for midterm adaptive
co-management in the Xinshe SEPLS (source: prepared by authors)
Hualien County Government, Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, and ecological
NGOs would be particularly valuable. The other is focused fully on Perspective C:
the documentation and transfer of TEK and the return of migrant youth to the Xinshe
SEPLS. Potentially, a number of government projects (by HFDOFB, HBSWC, and
Taiwan Council of Indigenous People) could support the Fuxing and Xinshe com-
munities and the Xinshe Primary School in addressing this theme.
The green box (“1”) is comprised of the “inner” and “outer” layers of Xinshe
multi-stakeholder governance. It is a cooperation and partnership mechanism of the
midterm phase that can enable realisation of the “4 + 2” themes by the means of
enhanced social capital within the communities and cooperation across the multi-
stakeholder platform for the Xinshe Initiative.
Importantly, the interconnectedness of risks and resources within and between the
Five Perspectives of the Xinshe SEPLS (see Sect. 3.1) is evident in the nexus
patterns between the ten thematic priority areas of the “4 + 2 + 1 Model” as well.
For instance, promotion of eco-agriculture and reintroduction of native agricultural
varieties (B) will largely depend on the inclusion of TEK (C). In turn,
eco-agricultural benefits are likely to have a far-reaching effect not only on ecosys-
tem health (the Jialang River water quality upstream and downstream, restored coral
reef ecosystem of the Pacific coast (A)) but also on human physical and mental
health (E). Good environment and availability of income-generating opportunities
(E) created by eco-agricultural production (B) can act as a strong incentive for the
migrant youth to return to the Xinshe SEPLS (C). Diversity of skills, knowledge, and
backgrounds of local and newly returned community members can enhance social
capital (D) and provide new solutions to some urgent issues (e.g. open up a variety of
marketing channels (E)).
78 P. G. Karimova et al.
Adaptive by design and in pursuit of Xinshe SEPLS well-being, the midterm
action plan for the Xinshe Initiative (Appendix D) recommends the “4 + 2 + 1
Model” and ten thematic priority areas to remain at focus throughout the entire
midterm phase (up to 2026). The action plan also provides a checklist of 44 specific
action tasks—the bottom-up concerns and suggestions of the 2020 RAWs’ partici-
pants. The checklist is meant to serve as a helpful action guidance to all multiple
stakeholders during the 3-year (2021–2023) period and is to be adjusted at the end of
each year. A comprehensive reassessment of the action tasks is scheduled to be
performed in “evaluation-adjustment” follow-up RAWs in 2023.
4 Lessons Learned and Conclusions
Stretching from ridge to reef, both a landscape and a seascape, blessed with natural
beauty and the wisdom of its indigenous inhabitants, the Xinshe SEPLS is truly a
gem of Chinese Taipei’s east coast. Well known across the island as an attractive
tourist destination, in recent years, Xinshe has been gaining increasing attention for
its revitalisation efforts inspired by the Satoyama Initiative. The Xinshe Initiative
and its multi-stakeholder platform have already become a knowledge-sharing base
for Satoyama practitioners across Chinese Taipei. The findings presented in this
study add to this experience exchange from the perspective of SEPLS well-being.
Since 2016, promotion of eco-agriculture has played a major role in enhancing
various aspects of human health: physical (green and nutritious produce from clean
soil and water, reduced proneness to seasonal diseases, enhanced self-sufficiency at
times of COVID-19), psychological and mental health (sense of place, sense of unity
with natural surroundings), cultural and spiritual health (revival of TEK such as
shaman rituals, harvest, and ocean festivals), and community health (cohesion, sense
of comradeship, and return of migrant youth).
A number of synergies and trade-offs have also been observed. For example,
4 years (2016–2020) of eco-agricultural practices on land have already led to the
improved health of the coral reef ecosystem (more fish, more coral diversity, and less
coral bleaching)—a type of landscape-seascape “ridge-to-reef” synergy. On the
other hand, the midterm management should be particularly mindful of the socio-
economic trade-offs in Xinshe SEPLS dynamics. For instance, the much-anticipated
return of the migrant youth (an actively ongoing process during COVID-19) can
have a positive effect on the diversity of community organisations and projects but
can also result in adaptation difficulties, conflicting objectives, and profit-sharing
disputes between old and new community members.
We found the 20 Localised Indicators of Resilience to be a useful tool in
measuring the effectiveness of Xinshe SEPLS management. By being comprehen-
sive, they addressed a wide spectrum of socio-economic and environmental risks and
resources in the SEPLS. Likewise, they were relevant and thereby enabled alignment
of short-term and midterm action plans through concrete on-the-ground examples
relevant to the Xinshe SEPLS. Finally, being comprehensible, they employed the
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 79
“health check” and “SEPLS well-being” concepts as helpful terms to communicate
the monitoring and evaluation processes to all multiple stakeholders.
The challenges that the Xinshe Initiative would need to address in the upcoming
years include keeping up the momentum and ensuring the long-term engagement of
all multiple stakeholders, staying flexible in the face of uncertainties (such as
COVID-19), and communicating the values of the Xinshe Initiative to newly
returned migrant youth and outsiders (e.g. avoiding the use of pesticides and
herbicides, adopting eco-friendly waste management habits, learning to work with
the government agencies).
The opportunities largely stem from the solution-oriented, positive-thinking
approach of the local people and other stakeholders. Ways forward include
conducting follow-up RAWs (in 2023) to observe the emergence of new synergy
patterns and to readjust the action tasks; engagement of new stakeholders from
outside of the COA system (e.g. Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute, Hualien
County Government, Hualien Tourism Department, Fengbin Township Office) to
address the newly emerged risks and resources; and building upon the social capital
within and the partnership between the Fuxing and Xinshe communities
(e.g. fostering the Jialang River dialogue).
Acknowledgements This case study would not have been possible without the kind support and
help of many individuals and organisations. We would like to express our appreciation to the
Council of Agriculture Executive Yuan who provided the funding to carry out this research. Our
thanks and gratitude also go to the local people of Xinshe Village, Hualien County, who kindly
welcomed and assisted us throughout our fieldwork.
Appendix A
A set of 20 localised indicators of resilience in Xinshe SEPLS (translated from the Chinese
language)
Five perspectives of the
Satoyama Initiative Localised indicators of resilience in Xinshe SEPLSa
A. Ecosystem health and A1. Diversity and multifunctionality of Xinshe SEPLS
connectivity elements
A2. Connectivity between Xinshe SEPLS elements
A3. Xinshe SEPLS recovery and regeneration from natural
hazards
A4. Xinshe SEPLS protection and restoration from socio-
economic threats
B. Sustainable resource use B1. Diversity and consumption of locally grown food
B2. Conservation and breeding of local crops and native
species
B3. Environmentally friendly farming practices with a circular
resource use
B4. Sustainable use of common resources (forest, river, and
ocean)
(continued)
80 P. G. Karimova et al.
Five perspectives of the
Satoyama Initiative Localised indicators of resilience in Xinshe SEPLSa
C. Traditions and C1. Transfer of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
innovation C2. Documentation of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
C3. Innovations and appropriate technology for agriculture and
conservation
C4. Recognition and respect for traditional ecological knowl-
edge (TEK) of men and women
D. Multi-stakeholder D1. Rights in relation to the management of Xinshe SEPLS
governance natural resources
D2. Multi-stakeholder governance mechanism in Xinshe
SEPLS
D3. Social capital of Fuxing/Xinshe communities
D4. Community participation and benefit sharing in Fuxing/
Xinshe communities
E. Sustainable livelihoods E1. Local infrastructure
E2. Human health and environmental conditions
E3. Xinshe SEPLS ecosystem-based income diversity and
marketing ability
E4. Community spatial and temporal resource-use adaptive
capacity
aComprehensive: the “explanation-evaluation-discussion” model of conducting RAWs encouraged
the participants to think of both risks and resources within each of the five perspectives; Relevant:
local examples from the short-term action plan and the locals’ insights from semi-structured
interviews were added under each Localised Indicator; Comprehensible: pictorial explanation and
clarifying question(s) were added under each indicator (see Appendix C for more details)
Appendix B
Three stages of the 2020 Resilience Assessment Workshops (RAWs) process
RAWs
stage Time Description of activities
Pre- April–June 2020 • Analysis of short-term action plan (2016–2019) of Xinshe
RAWs Eco-Agriculture Initiative against the original set of 20 Indicators
of Resilience in SEPLS (Bergamini et al., 2014) and development
of first draft of 20 Localised Indicators of Resilience (the
Localised Indicators) in Xinshe SEPLS (Sun et al., 2020)
• Preparatory workshop with regional government agency
members of multi-stakeholder platform (HDARES, HFDOFB,
HBSWC, and EBAFA): matching action tasks of short-term
action plan against first draft, collective development of second
draft of localised indicators
• 14 one-on-one semi-structured interviews with local residents
from Fuxing and Xinshe tribes: test running and editing of second
draft on “comprehensive-relevant-comprehensible” basis
(continued)
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 81
RAWs
stage Time Description of activities
• Completion of third (final) draft of localised indicators based
on the analysis of previous steps
Result: A finalised set of 20 localised indicators of resilience in the Xinshe SEPLS
Core June–September • 5 + 1 community-based consecutive RAWs in Fuxing and
RAWs 2020 Xinshe communities (12 RAWs in total): five (5) workshops in
each community were RAWs based on the five perspectives (one
for each perspective), one (1) was a summary workshop in each
community for discussion of assessment results
• Set of 20 localised indicators and perspective-related evalua-
tion sheets (five in total) used during all five RAWs (see
Appendix C)
• Same group of participants from each tribe completed RAWs:
12 community members from Fuxing tribe and 8 from Xinshe
tribe
• Procedure of each RAW based on “explanation-scoring-dis-
cussion” model (Lee et al., 2020) with a particular emphasis on
risks and resources within each perspective
• Follow-up analysis carried out upon completion of each
RAW and reported at the beginning of the following RAW in
order to collect additional suggestions and opinions from com-
munity members
Result: A community-based perception of risks and resources in the Xinshe SEPLS
Post- September– • Drafting of first version of midterm action plan (2021–2026)
RAWs December 2020 for the Xinshe initiative based on RAWs’ results
• Preparatory workshop with regional government agency
members of multi-stakeholder platform (HDARES, HFDOFB,
HBSWC, and EBAFA): communication of results of RAWs,
division of responsibilities for action tasks in first draft of mid-
term action plan
• Joint workshop open to all community members from Fuxing
and Xinshe tribes with invited heads of the regional government
agency members of the multi-stakeholder platform (HDARES,
HFDOFB, HBSWC, and EBAFA), Xinshe Primary School (local
school), and Fengbin Township Office (local government):
communicating results of RAWs with a special emphasis on risks
and resources of Xinshe SEPLS, collective development of sec-
ond draft of midterm action plan via a Q&A session between
local community members and government officials
• Two task force meetings and a semi-annual multi-stakeholder
platform meeting: adding final edits to the division of responsi-
bilities for action tasks and adoption of third (final) version of
midterm action plan
Result: A bottom-up midterm action plan (2021–2026) for the Xinshe “Forest-River-Village-
Ocean” Eco-Agriculture Initiative
82 P. G. Karimova et al.
Appendix C
Sample of the Resilience Assessment Workshops (RAWs) Evaluation Sheet, Per-
spective A (Translated from the Chinese Language) (Source: Prepared by Authors)
Participant’s name:______________
A4. The Xinshe
SEPLS
protection and
A2. A3. The Xinshe restoration from
A1. Diversity and Connectivity SEPLS recovery man-made
multifunctionality between the and regeneration (socio-
Localised of the Xinshe Xinshe SEPLS from natural economic)
Indicators SEPLS elements elements hazards threats
Explanatory
pictures
Evaluation Does the Xinshe Are the forest, Does the Xinshe Does the Xinshe
questions SEPLS contain river, farmlands, SEPLS recover SEPLS possess
diverse natural and ocean well and regenerate effective protec-
and man-made connected? Are quickly from tion and restora-
ecosystem ele- there any con- natural hazards? tion measures
ments? Are these straints to the from man-made
elements healthy Xinshe SEPLS (socio-eco-
and well connectivity? nomic) threats?
functioning?
Scores     
Relevant action A1. Investigate A2. Investigate A3. Assess the A4. Protect and
tasks of the and enhance and enhance susceptibility of restore the
Xinshe diversity and connectivity the Xinshe Xinshe SEPLS
initiative multifunctionality between the SEPLS to natu- from man-made
of the Xinshe Xinshe SEPLS ral hazards and (socio-eco-
SEPLS elements elements enhance its nomic) threats
recovery and
regeneration
capacity
Indicator-rele- □ Conduct reg- □ Investigate □ Improve □ Develop
vant local ular biodiversity and communi- monitoring and community-
examples of checks and share cate the role of disaster response based river pro-
specific action results with the eco-agriculture to coastal ero- tection mecha-
tasks (please local people for the SEPLS sion (including nism to prevent
score in order □ Improve pro- health and for- eco-friendly non-locals from
of priority) tection of water est-river-village- engineering pro- fishing in the
quality and quan- ocean connectiv- jects) Jialang River
tity of the Jialang ity (e.g. via coral □ Strengthen □ Prevent
River reef checks and forest and stream “construction
□ Enhance wetland buffer (the Jialang invasions” that
man-made land- zone construc- River) patrol to negatively
scape diversity tion) monitor the risks impact local
(continued)
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 83
A4. The Xinshe
SEPLS
protection and
A2. A3. The Xinshe restoration from
A1. Diversity and Connectivity SEPLS recovery man-made
multifunctionality between the and regeneration (socio-
Localised of the Xinshe Xinshe SEPLS from natural economic)
Indicators SEPLS elements elements hazards threats
(e.g. home gar- □ Improve of erosion, land- ecology/scenery
dens, rice paddies, protection of slides, and (e.g. utility
green buffers, water quality floods poles, high-
hedgerow plants) and quantity of □ Set up a voltage street-
□ Learn about the Jialang River “crisis team” in lights, and solar
the Xinshe SEPLS □ Carry out response to panels)
values from tribal eco-friendly res- typhoons □ Educate the
history and culture toration projects □ Remove local farmers to
(e.g. farming, (e.g. terraced weeds that abstain from the
fishing, hunting, irrigation, drain- obstruct the use of pesticides
gathering, arts and age systems and water flow of the and herbicides
crafts) and apply ponds, repairing Jialang River □ Strengthen
them to everyday terraces, dams, (flood preven- tourist environ-
life and agricultural tion) mental education
roads) □ Develop to prevent
□ Conduct affordable and destructive
reforestation and maintainable behaviour
restoration of methods to deal (e.g. littering,
degraded forest with crop- trampling, use of
land raiding species DEET mosquito
□ Develop (e.g. Formosan sprays, and SPF
measures to macaques, wild lotions)
recover the boar, wild hare, □ Strengthen
spawning migra- and barking environmental
tion of fish and deer) protection
shrimp □ Prevent and awareness of the
control invasive local residents
animal and plant (e.g. household
species waste sorting,
(e.g. Mikania prohibiting
micrantha) burning of gar-
bage, reducing
single-use plas-
tic)
□ Prevent
destructive fish-
ing methods
(e.g. trawling,
drift nets)
□ Strengthen
forest patrol to
prevent illegal
logging
84 P. G. Karimova et al.
Appendix D
The midterm action plan for the Xinshe “Forest-River-Village-Ocean”
Eco-Agriculture Initiative (translated from the Chinese language) (source: prepared
by authors)
Other
Hualien Tourism 
Department
NDHU
Irrigation Agency
EBAFA
HBSWC
HFDOFB
HDARES
Hualien County 
Government
Fengbin 
Township Office
Xinshe Primary 
School
Kavalan Xinshe 
Tribe
Amis Fuxing
Tribe
Division of responsibilities between the multiple stakeholders ( leading role; supporting 
role)
Five 10 Thematic 
Action priority Checklist of 44 specific action tasks (2021-2023) (to be adjusted at the end of each year, to be re-assessed by the 
Perspectiv areas (2021-
es 2026) follow-up RAWs in 2023)
Maintain drinking and irrigation water quality 
(including sewage discharge management) and quantity
(including adequate supply of drinking water for each 
“River”: household), protect the Jialang River’s water source
Protect the Improve the spawning migration passage for
Jialang River fish and shrimp (“river-sea” connectivity)
resources and 
set up a Sustainably use local fish and shrimp resources, 
community- set up a community-based river protection mechanism and 
based river erect notice boards
A: Protect protection Organise de-weeding of the riverbed when 
health and mechanism needed based on consensus between the local residents
connectivi (preferably no dredging)
ty of the Strengthen local residents' knowledge about
Xinshe river protection laws, regulations and competent authorities
SEPLS Monitor coastal erosion, consider eco-friendly 
“Ocean”: coastal engineering projects
Protect the Prevent destructive fishing or collection 
ocean methods
resources and Strengthen community-based sustainable use of 
set up a marine resources in traditional territories
community- Monitor the health of marine ecosystem 
based ocean (including coral reef and fish checks)
protection Strengthen local residents' knowledge about 
mechanism ocean protection laws, regulations and competent 
authorities
B: “Eco- Promote expansion of organically-farmed 
Sustainabl agricultural zones, assist farmers with installation of small processing 
y use production”: units (upon request)
natural promote Provide extension and training services on 
resources organic, organic, environmentally-friendly and circular farming 
of the environmenta techniques
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 85
Xinshe lly-friendly Discourage the use of pesticides and herbicides, 
SEPLS and circular set up a de-weeding team (funded on a cash rebate basis)
agriculture Prevent and control crop-raiding species (e.g. 
Formosan macaques, wild boar, wild hare, and barking 
deer) 
Prevent “construction invasions” (streetlights, 
solar panels) from harming crops
Provide extension and training services on
edible wild plants and agri-food education
Sustainably use and consume local agro-forestry
products
“Native Combine TEK and modern science to preserve 
species”: and reintroduce local native species of plants and animals
preserve and Study and promote crops that are ecologically 
reintroduce friendly and suitable for local terrain, climate, and 
native plant hydrology
and animal Establish tribal seed banks and conservation 
varieties gardens
Transfer TEK and practical skills of the local 
elderly (men and women)
“Traditional Educate local youths with the help of Xinshe 
knowledge”: Primary School’s place-based curriculum
transfer and Encourage local residents and experts to 
document document TEK (based on the principle of maintaining 
TEK and 
C: tribal intellectual property)
Weaving culture Establish local TEK Library and set up a digital
TEK and data storage platform to make documented TEK accessible
modern to all local users
science “Return of Conduct vocational training on Indigenous
migrant languages (Amis, Kavalan and Bunun) and tribal culture
youth”: Create local job opportunities based on specific
abilities of the returned migrant youth (including relevant 
create
capacity-building activities)
supporting 
Take advantage of the good reputation of 
conditions for 
Xinshe Primary School to entice the migrant youth to return 
adaptation
with their families
D: “Social Establish digital database/inventory of various 
Enhance capital” skills, talents, experiences, and knowledge of tribal : 
communit members (including both current residents and out-enhance 
y-based migrated youth)participation, 
collaborati Integrate various groups and organisations leadership 
ve within the tribes to collectively discuss and solve problemsand benefit 
governanc Strengthen communication and partnershipsharing within 
e with out-migrated youth and other tribal members residing the tribes
elsewhere
86 P. G. Karimova et al.
Strengthen local residents’ understanding and 
recognition of the operational mechanism and the mid-term
action plan of the Xinshe Initiative
“Multi- Develop an interactive and diversified 
stakeholder operation of the multi-stakeholder platform for the Xinshe 
platform” Initiative: 
Strengthen communication, problem solving 
enhance 
and partnership for common objectives between Fuxing 
partnership 
and Xinshe Tribes
among all 
Strengthen communication, problem solving 
SEPLS actors
and partnership for common objectives between the tribes 
and the government agencies
Encourage proactive involvement of Fengbin 
Township Office
Develop value-added products based on their
unique satoyama characteristics (including agriculture, 
crafts, culinary art, tourism, etc.) and improve access to 
“Marketing” various marketing channels
: promote Assist the tribes with the acquisition of 
marketing of processing equipment and learning about processing 
local eco- technologies
agricultural Assist the tribes with registration for relevant 
produce organic and environmentally-friendly certification 
schemes/labels
E: 
Enhance Provide extension and training services to 
local enhance the marketing skills of the local residents
livelihoods Improve road safety (including road lighting, 
and well- installation of grille gutter covers, speed limit signs, and “Safety”: 
being traffic lights) and convenience (including potential roadstrengthen diversion to avoid local cemetery)
disaster 
Improve transportation services and day care 
prevention 
for the elderly
measures, 
Improve elderly-friendly emergency shelter 
improve
infrastructure
safety and 
Strengthen environmental education for tourists 
elderly-
to reduce damage to the Xinshe SEPLS environment
friendly 
infrastructure Conduct disaster risk assessment, monitoring 
and prevention (including forest, stream, coastal, and post-
typhoon patrol)
4 SEPLS Well-Being as a Vision: Co-managing for Diversity, Connectivity,. . . 87
HDARES Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station,
HFDOFB Hualien Forest District Office, HBSWC Hualien Branch of Soil and
Water Conservation Bureau, EBAFA Eastern Region Branch of Agriculture and
Food Agency, NDHU National Dong Hwa University, RAWs resilience assessment
workshops, SEPLS socio-ecological production landscape and seascape, TEK tradi-
tional ecological knowledge
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Chapter 5
“To Take Care of the Land Means Taking
Care of Ourselves”: Local Perceptions
on Human and Environmental Health
in a High Agro-Biodiversity Landscape
in the Yucatan Peninsula
María Elena Méndez-López, María Fernanda Cepeda-González,
Karla Juliana Rodríguez-Robayo, Lilian Juárez-Téllez,
Mariana Rivera-De Velasco, Rosa Martha Peralta-Blanco,
Nicolás Chan-Chuc, Andrea A. Serrano-Ysunza, R. Antonio Riveros-Cañas,
Oscar G. Sánchez-Siordia, and Sebastien Proust
Abstract The Forest and Milpa Landscape (FML) is a territory comprising
64 municipalities in the Yucatan Peninsula where the rainforest and themilpa system
coexist. The ecosystems that predominate in the FML are sub-deciduous and
subtropical evergreen forests, which represent an essential carbon reservoir world-
wide. The use of natural resources for food security of FML families is associated
with the milpa, which is a system that depends on the rainfall and the soil’s ability to
retain water. Within the framework of the 2020–2030 Country Strategy of the GEF
M. E. Méndez-López (*) · L. Juárez-Téllez
CONACYT—Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de Información Geoespacial, Mérida,
Yucatán, Mexico
e-mail: emendez@centrogeo.edu.mx
M. F. Cepeda-González
Capacitación y Asesorías Ambientales, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
K. J. Rodríguez-Robayo
CONACYT—Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de Información Geoespacial, Mérida,
Yucatán, Mexico
Centro de Investigación Tibaitatá AGROSAVIA, Mosquera, Colombia
M. Rivera-De Velasco · R. M. Peralta-Blanco · N. Chan-Chuc · O. G. Sánchez-Siordia
Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de Información Geoespacial, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
A. A. Serrano-Ysunza · S. Proust
The GEF Small Grants Programme, United Nations Development Programme, Mérida,
Yucatán, Mexico
R. A. Riveros-Cañas
Independent Consultant, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
© The Author(s) 2022 89
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_5
90 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
Small Grants Programme (SGP), 20 indicators associated with the FML’s resilience
were evaluated through a participatory approach. The methodological route
consisted of adapting the Toolkit for the Indicators of Resilience in Socio-ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS). A topic that generated much
concern among participants was human health. The reflection generated around
this indicator recognised problems associated with water contamination by agro-
chemicals and changes in diet, resulting in recurrent diseases, such as diabetes,
hypertension, and obesity. The solutions proposed by the small producers are linked
to the sustainable management of ecosystems and education on values towards
traditional and agroecological food production.
Keywords Forest and milpa landscape · Resilience · SEPLS · Milpa · Yucatan
Peninsula
1 Introduction
The Forest and Milpa Landscape (FML) is a territory comprising 64 municipalities
distributed across the three states of the Yucatan Peninsula (YP) in Mexico: Cam-
peche, Quintana Roo, and Yucatan. The FML is a region where the rainforest and the
milpa system coexist (Fig. 5.1 and Table 5.1), and is one of the five landscapes where
the GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP) operates in Mexico. The names given to
each landscape aim to describe the ecosystems and traditional production activities
of the region, creating an identity among communities. The FML is part of the
participatory creation of the 2020–2030 Country Strategy of the SGP.
The SGP adopted a community-based landscape approach during its sixth oper-
ational phase (OP6), which recognises that community-based organisations are the
driving force in rural development strategies and must take the lead in project
planning, landscape governance, project execution, and monitoring. This approach
is part of a strategic initiative to promote conservation and sustainable use of natural
resources and ecosystems.
About one million people inhabit the FML, of which 48% is considered an
economically active population (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía
(INEGI), 2015a). More than three-quarters of the municipalities have upwards of
10% of residents engaged in subsistence agriculture. On average, 29% of the
economically active and occupied population is engaged in natural resource-use
activities (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), 2015a). In the
FML, 45% of the population speaks an indigenous language, mainly Maya (Instituto
Nacional de Pueblos Indígenas, 2015). The agro-biodiversity of milpas is an essen-
tial element for food security of indigenous families in the FML (Salazar Barrientos
& Magaña Magaña, 2016).
The milpa is an agroecosystem based on rotational cultivation under the slash-
and-burn technique, which depends on the seasonal rainfall and the soil’s ability to
retain water (Martínez et al., 2017; Salazar Barrientos et al., 2016). It makes up a
matrix of polycultures, family gardens, and fragments of natural vegetation
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 91
Fig. 5.1 Regionalisation of the forest and milpa landscape (source: prepared by Rosa Martha
Peralta, Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), 2015b; Instituto Nacional de
Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), 2016; Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la
Biodiversidad (CONABIO), 2015)
Table 5.1 Basic information of the study area
Country Mexico
Province Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Yucatan
District n.a.
Size of geographical area (hectare) 5,268,000
Number of direct beneficiaries (persons) n.a.
Number of indirect beneficiaries (persons)2 139,200
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if appropriate Maya
Size of the case study/project area (hectare) n.a.
Geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) 20
12018.000N, 88
43048.000W
(Zizumbo-Villarreal & Colunga-García, 2017; Mariaca, 2015). The agro-
biodiversity of the milpa is based on the so-called three sisters, corn, beans, and
squash (Odum & Sarmiento, 1998), but comprises more than 30 species of other
edible and medicinal plants (Toledo et al., 2003; Salazar Barrientos et al., 2016)
along with other forbs and grasses known in Spanish as arvenses. The milpa in the
FML has led to increased landscape diversity due to multistage and successional
pathways of native secondary growth vegetation (Terán, 2010).
92 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
The ecosystems that predominate in the FML are sub-deciduous and subtropical
evergreen forests, which represent an essential carbon sink worldwide. Yet, they are
in a highly vulnerable status mainly due to the increase in mechanised agriculture
and cattle ranching caused by the high demand for food (Aide et al., 2013; Comisión
Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas, 2020).
Regarding water, the FML has a peculiar characteristic: surface streams are
almost inexistent. Water runs underground, and openings to the exterior are sink-
holes or dolines called cenotes. The terrestrial surface consists of porous limestone
rock with high permeability and transmissibility that allows rain to pass easily to the
underground; in addition, rock fractures facilitate water flow, and other liquids
poured onto their surfaces flow through the fissures. Thus, the FML aquifer is highly
vulnerable to pollutants (Hernández & Ortega, 2017).
The FML is a region with shallow stony soils, rainfall patterns with 6 months of
low rain, and a high incidence of hurricanes. Nevertheless, Mayan communities in
the Yucatan Peninsula have adapted the milpa system to these adverse conditions
(Toledo et al., 2008). This socio-environmental resilience is associated with the
Yucatan’s Mayan communities’ multi-use strategies of nature that allow for the use
of a variety of natural resources, at domestic units, both for subsistence purposes and
for local and regional economic exchanges (Barrera-Bassols & Toledo, 2005;
García-Frapolli et al., 2008; Toledo & Barrera-Bassols, 2011; Pinto & Barrios,
2015).
Today, the FML faces various threats that have diminished its resilience capacity.
In the cultural sphere, a pattern of migration of young people to the Mayan Riviera
has blocked the heritage of local knowledge associated with the milpa and their
sustainable management (Rodríguez-Robayo et al., 2020). On the other hand, public
policies have been implemented to make the milpa more profitable by promoting
technology packages with genetically enhanced seeds and agrochemicals (Gutiérrez
Núñez, 2020). Most of these chemicals are organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs) that
mimic the functions of natural human hormones once they enter the body through
water taken from contaminated wells and cenotes, and milpa foods consumed, by
skin exposure or by inhalation (Polanco, Araujo, et al., 2018a). Pesticide-
contaminated water in the FML is also linked to breast and uterine cancer and the
presence of organochlorine substances in the breast milk of Mayan women (Polanco
et al., 2017; Polanco, López, et al., 2018b).
The FML, as we have seen, is a landscape with multiple vulnerabilities. In this
chapter, we want to share the vision of the FML inhabitants—their concerns over
problems related to human health that they are facing today, and the strategies with
which they aspire to overcome them.
We share reflections on the resilience of the FML from the perspective of the
community members that inhabit it, namely, the peasants. A deliberation exercise
was carried out by adapting the Toolkit for the Indicators of Resilience in Socio-
ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS) (Bergamini et al., 2014).
These indicators seek to enhance local communities’ sense of proprietorship over
landscape management processes and encourage them to think about how the
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 93
landscape’s resilience can be improved. While indicators address different aspects of
resilience, this study focuses on the issue of human and environmental health.
2 Methods
Within the framework of the 2020–2030 Country Strategy of the Small Grants
Programme (SGP), two workshops were held in 2019, attended by a total of
40 peasants (18 women/22 men) living in the FML. The objective of the Country
Strategy is to conduct a collective reflection on the status of production landscapes in
Mexico, and propose plans based on local knowledge to improve those aspects
where problems exist.
It was first necessary to identify stakeholders from the three states of the Yucatan
Peninsula to invite to participate. We made a list of community leaders who have
developed conservation and sustainability projects within the FML, and then we
contacted these leaders and asked them to extend invitations to those interested in
attending. Young people, women, and men were invited to these workshops to
ensure that the exercise represented the various generations and genders in society.
The objective of the workshops was to evaluate 20 indicators that were adapted
from the SEPLS Toolkit (Bergamini et al., 2014). This toolkit was used to generate
resilience indicators from the perspective of the peasants who use and inhabit this
socio-ecological production landscape.
Because participants came from different FML regions, sub-landscapes were
defined using a participatory mapping technique, where producers themselves deter-
mined the extent of the territory on which they could make the assessment. Six
sub-landscapes of the FML were evaluated utilising the indicators (Fig. 5.2).
Each sub-landscape was represented by a team of between five and six partici-
pants, who evaluated the set of indicators. The help of three Mayan-Spanish trans-
lators was engaged to ensure an inclusive process.
The Metaplan technique was used to evaluate the indicators. The process
consisted of developing key questions to achieve a brainstorming process, followed
by collective reflection and, finally, reaching a consensus on the score of each
indicator using the Likert scale, with scores ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 is very
low and 5 is very high. To ensure an accurate numerical value for each indicator,
each participant was given a template with the five ranges (Fig. 5.3), and participants
were asked to vote for the ranking category in which they considered each indicator
to be, based on the discussion in the previous collective reflection. The values were
averaged within the team and then between groups to get each indicator’s overall
value. Participants assessed five groups of indicators: (a) heterogeneity and land-
scape protection, (b) agrodiversity and shared natural resources, (c) traditional
knowledge and innovation, (d) governance and social equity, and (e) livelihoods.
Each workshop lasted 2 days. During the first day, each team devoted an hour and
a half to each group of indicators, with recess and recreation spaces to avoid fatigue.
94 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
Fig. 5.2 Sub-landscapes of the FML as defined by six groups of participants from different regions
(prepared by Rosa Martha Peralta)
Fig. 5.3 Ranges used to
evaluate indicators of
resilience (source: prepared
by authors)
On the second day, the results were discussed for each sub-landscape, and some
strategies were developed to address indicators that obtained low ratings.
3 Results
3.1 Indicators of Resilience
The results are shown in Table 5.2. As noted, only 4 out of 20 indicators received a
“high” rating, with most of them (13) evaluated as “regular,” and only 3 put into the
“low” category. In the first group, landscape heterogeneity and ecosystem
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 95
Table 5.2 Results of indicators of resilience (adapted from SEPLS Toolkit) for FML (source:
prepared by authors)
Indicator Evaluation
Heterogeneity and landscape protection
1) Heterogeneity of the terrestrial/marine landscape High
2) Ecosystem protection Regular
3) Ecological interactions between different components of the 
Regular
marine/terrestrial landscape
4) Recovery and regeneration of the marine/terrestrial landscape Regular
Agrodiversity and shared natural resources
5) Diversity of local production systems Regular
6) Maintenance and use of native varieties and species Regular
7) Sustainable management of shared resources Regular
              Traditional knowledge and innovation
8) Innovation in production practices and conservation Low
9) Traditional biodiversity-related knowledge Regular
10) Systematisation of biodiversity-associated knowledge Regular
11) Women's knowledge High
Governance and social equity
12) Land/water rights and the management of other natural 
Regular
resources
13) Community governance of the marine/terrestrial landscape Low
14) Synergy of social capital in the marine/terrestrial landscape Regular
15) Social equity (includes gender equity) Regular
Livelihoods
16) Socioeconomic infrastructure Regular
17) Human health and environmental conditions Low
18) Productive diversification High 
19) Biodiversity-based livelihoods High 
20) Socio-ecological mobility Regular
96 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
protection, one indicator was evaluated as high, and three were regular. In the second
group, agrodiversity and shared natural resources, all three indicators were deemed
to be regular. In the group of traditional knowledge and innovation indicators, one
indicator was low, two regular, and one high. Three indicators were regular and one
low in governance and equity. Finally, in the livelihoods group, two indicators were
scored high, two regular, and one low (Table 5.2).
To address the issue of human and environmental health, we delved into the
indicator that obtained the lowest value in both workshops: human health and
environmental conditions (livelihoods group). Reasons for this focus include this
indicator being an issue to which participants gave much weight in collective
reflections, and also one that is associated with other indicators whose values were
regular or low: socioeconomic infrastructure, traditional knowledge, community
governance, and local production diversity.
The questions that were asked to participants in reflecting on human health and
environmental conditions were the following: (a) Are our communities healthy?
(b) Is there any link between the diseases we have in the community and the
environmental conditions (soil, cenotes, forests)?
For the first question, answers were negative for all teams. The most mentioned
diseases in the FML communities were stomach infections, diabetes, cancer, kidney
problems, and hypertension. Other isolated mentions were infertility, anaemia, and
headaches, among others (Table 5.3).
Answers to the second question were all positive regarding the relationship
between disease and environmental health. Participants linked diseases such as
stomach infections and cancer to water and air pollution caused by the lack of
landfills and consequent burning of litter. Causes of diarrhoea mentioned included
the increasing hot weather in recent years and water contamination due to the
establishment of pig farms. Likewise, cancer was linked to water contamination by
toxic residues from mechanised agriculture and excess of hormones in food.
Participants explained that diabetes is related to switching from a milpa-based
diet (corn, bean, squash, bush meat, and honey, among other products) to an
industrialised diet. Participants noted that the consumption of junk food and high-
sugar carbonated beverages has increased in the last years in their communities.
Participants associate this phenomenon with the indicator for traditional knowledge
related to biodiversity, concerning which reflection focused on young people in
communities losing interest in the milpa and its rituals: “They see traditional
knowledge as backwardness”. This trend is strengthened by cultural uprooting due
to migration, resulting in the milpa foodscape and other local production systems not
being valued and a rising preference for industrialised products from the global
market.
Other environmental health issues associated with the aetiology of diseases
included water in communities containing a lot of chlorine; high deforestation rate
of remnant forest patches; increment of disease vectors due to increased heat; and
planting of GMOs.
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 97
Table 5.3 Responses to reflection questions for human health and environmental conditions
indicator, shown for each of the groups formed in the workshops
Reflection questions
(c) Is there any link between
(a) Are our communities the diseases in the community
healthy? (b) What are the and the environmental
main diseases that you have? conditions (soil, cenotes,
(When the number of mentions forests)? (When the number of
Name of group and is >1, it is indicated in mentions is >1, it is indicated
sub-landscape (see Fig. 5.2) parentheses) in the parenthesis)
Group 1. Venados amarillos (a) No – Kidney stones are caused
Sub-landscape: East of (b) by drinking dirty water (2)
Yucatan state – Diarrhoea – Water and air pollution
– Fever (no municipal dump, the trash
– Cough is burned and smells bad)
– Stomach infections – Food with chemicals gets
– Influenza us sick
– Pneumonia – The chemicals get into the
– Diabetes hens (2)
– Kidney stones – Climate change causes
– Rheumatism (2) coughing and flu
– Climate is hotter causing
fevers and diarrhoea
Group 2. Loros verdes (a) No – Bad food [a long time ago
Sub-landscape: South of (b) meals came from the milpa]
Quintana Roo state – Diabetes (4) (4)
– High cholesterol – Diseases from the con-
– High triglycerides sumption of junk food
– Diarrhoea – Sudden changes in tem-
– Anaemia perature [flu] (2)
– Fever – Chlorinated water
– Cancer (3) – Pig farms produce water
– Depression pollution
– High temperatures
– Food with toxic fumiga-
tion residues (2)
Group 3: Jabalíes verdes (a) No – Plastic burning
Sub-landscape: East and (b) – The sun is stronger (2)
centre of Yucatan state – Fever (3) – Junk meals
– Diabetes – Agrochemicals
– Cough – Because we eat foods that
– Headache have chemicals
– Cancer – A lot of Coca-Cola
consumption
Group 4: Xunan Kab (a) No – Food (vegetables and ani-
Sub-landscape: South of (b) mals contaminated with
Campeche state – Gastrointestinal prob- chemicals and hormones (7)
lems (7) – Exposure to pesticides (3)
– Hypertension (4) – Deforestation (5)
– Increased infertility (2) – Environmental/water/air
– Diabetes (5) pollution (5)
(continued)
98 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
Table 5.3 (continued)
Reflection questions
(c) Is there any link between
(a) Are our communities the diseases in the community
healthy? (b) What are the and the environmental
main diseases that you have? conditions (soil, cenotes,
(When the number of mentions forests)? (When the number of
Name of group and is >1, it is indicated in mentions is >1, it is indicated
sub-landscape (see Fig. 5.2) parentheses) in the parenthesis)
– Skin poisoning (3) – Factories (2)
– Different types of cancer – Climate change (5)
(4)
– Increased children with
learning disabilities
– Kidney problems (2)
– Increased fever cases (5)
– Headaches
– Increased cases of obesity
– Early onset of puberty
Group 5: Che’el Azul (a) No – The chemicals used for
Sub-landscape: North and (b) agriculture
south of Campeche state – Diabetes – The climate is very unsta-
(coinciding in the south with – Diarrhoea (2) ble (2)
group 4) – Hypertension – Outdoor garbage burning
– Respiratory infections (2) (2)
– Salmonellosis – Chlorinated water (excess
– Kidney problems (2) chlorine)
– Embolism – Street food consumption
– Paralysis – Formerly there was a sea-
son of mosquitoes, now there
are mosquitoes all the time
Group 6: Chaak naal téel (a) No – Temperature changes (3)
Sub-landscape: Centre of (b) – Bad food (2)
Yucatan state – Diabetes (2) – Use of agrochemicals (2)
– Rheumatism – Lots of chlorine in the
– Cancer (2) water
– Anaemia – Environmental pollution
– Chronic cough by mega projects/farms
– Cirrhosis – Transgenic planting
– Hypertension
– Obesity
In addition to the health problems faced by FML communities, the socio-
economic infrastructure indicator showed a lack of medical services (hospitals,
ambulances, and access to medicines).
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 99
3.2 Local Strategies for Resilience
On the second day of the workshops, a reflection was made on the FML’s priority
aspects, based on the work done on the first day. As mentioned earlier, the human
health indicator was chosen as a priority. Although many of the factors that cause
health problems are outside the communities, proposals were made for strategies
with the potential to address issues at the local level to increase the resilience of
the FML.
Regarding the problem of diabetes, education is a crucial element; as one
participant mentioned:
Children do not know the food from the milpas, we have to work with them, tell them that
corn, sweet potato and beans are the best food, and share with them what we know about the
value of milpa.
The same person mentioned a project that he develops in schools to build organic
gardens:
Students learn the whole process and thus they value food because they know what it costs to
get it.
The participant concludes by saying that the best thing people can do to avoid
getting sick is “to take care of the land, that means taking care of ourselves, but it is
something we have not understood”.
A proposed strategy to prevent pesticide contamination in water and food was to
implement innovations in production activities, as one participant suggested:
We can take advantage of the excrements of animals from our yards to make fertiliser, and
we also can use microorganisms; we can mix these techniques with the old practices ofmilpa
to make agroecology.
The problem of pesticides from extensive agriculture is more complex, as it is
caused by public policies that have promoted agrochemicals since the 1940s, when
the federal government supported national projects on “agricultural modernisation”
that were derived from agreements with the Ford and Rockefeller foundations, the
main campaigners of the Green Revolution. A strategy proposed by the workshop
participants is associated with community governance:
Here we realise the problems, we are talking about it, and they are problems that we have in
common, even if we come from different places. We have to go now to talk to the people in
our communities, we must understand that transgenic maize and pesticides are not the best
options. We need a lot of organisation and communication to change those beliefs.
Regarding soil and water contamination, it was mentioned that the problem was
not only the application of chemicals in milpas, but also the mismanagement of
pesticide containers. One suggested strategy to address this problem is again related
to community governance:
In my community, we are making citizen complaints at all three levels of government
(municipal, state and federal). We also have been able to make alliances with other
organisations and universities . . . we cannot continue to think that this is God’s work—
this is because there is bad ecosystem management.
100 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
Another proposal from participants involved innovation. They noted that it is
essential for each community to find a way to get water filters, and also to get
technologies for rain capture.
A proposal on addressing the shortcomings of health services in communities
involved the creation of medicine hospitals:
Young people could learn traditional medicine and train others so that we will no longer have
to go looking for hospitals that are far away. We have to look for alternatives together.
Another of the strategies mentioned was to seek advice on how to know their
rights with regard to human health in order to be able to demand them.
4 Discussion
The livelihoods and health of FML inhabitants are closely related to the proper
functioning of ecosystems. The rainforest is essential to maintain the hydrological
cycle in the FML, which means that rains preserve milpas and provide water for
human consumption. Water is also used for irrigation of home gardens, to feed
animals, and to maintain apiaries. In turn, all production activities conducted in the
soil of the FML have a substantial impact on water quality due to the soil’s high
permeability. According to Batllori (2017), the main sources of water pollution
include all those mentioned by the participants, including pig farms, agricultural
activities, and garbage dumps, but also wastewater from tourist areas and urban areas
that, although seem to be non-rural issues, have a significant impact on FML water
quality.
The recognition of the close relationship between human health and ecosystem
health has been lost over time. Older people continue to perform rituals of respect
and appreciation for what nature provides to them (e.g. food, medicine, beauty), but
younger generations have left these customs behind. The devalorisation of cultural
ecosystem services in SEPLS has been identified as one of the main fronts of
scholarly enquiry in the new geographies of conservation (Sarmiento & Cotacachi,
2019). Duarte (2017) reflected on the change in perceptions of resources, such as
water or maize, noting that perceptions define how resources are valued and handled.
She also recounts how on a visit to a J’men (a man specialising in the rituals of the
Mayan milpa), she heard him say, “the holy water is a blessing to all human beings
living on earth” (Duarte, 2017, p. 137). In this sense, the proposals made during the
workshops on recovering and revaluing local knowledge by creating traditional
medicine hospitals are very relevant, not only to redevelop and strengthen the
meaning of the “human health-nature” relationship, but also to address a violation
of a fundamental human right—access to public health systems.
Food production is another relevant issue for FML health. Some studies have
analysed the relationship of pesticides with diseases, such as cancer, showing that
they inhibit humans’ hormonal functions (Polanco, López, et al., 2018b). Pesticides
enter the FML’s food chains from various sources, including honey, milpa products,
5 “To Take Care of the Land Means Taking Care of Ourselves”: Local. . . 101
bush meat, and water. Participants’ proposals to develop sustainable innovations for
production practices and access to less contaminated water may fail to eliminate
many pollution sources; however, these proposals are essential to ensure that
production activities for self-consumption, like beekeeping and the milpa system,
remain healthy systems for food security, and no longer function as another vehicle
for pollutants to enter the human body.
Although our study is based on an analysis of the perceptions of FML inhabitants,
it is interesting that their perceptions are closely associated with information from the
scientific literature. For example, the concern they expressed in the workshops about
water pollution associated with pig farms and pesticides has been documented in
various studies previously mentioned in this chapter (Batllori, 2017; Hernández &
Ortega, 2017; Metcalfe et al., 2011; Polanco et al., 2017; Polanco, Araujo, et al.,
2018a). The problem of diabetes being associated with changes in diet has also been
widely documented, and is relevant for these communities whose diet was previ-
ously based on the consumption of milpa products. For example, Narvaez and
Segura (2020) analyse the recent increase of diabetes in indigenous Mayan regions;
they also explain the antidiabetic potential of foodstuff from the milpa. Some studies
have documented evidence showing that the introduction of industrialised foods into
the diet of Mayan communities a decade ago, which meant a less nutritious diet, rich
in sugars, saturated fats, salt, and colour and flavour additives, implied an increased
risk of obesity and diabetes (Pérez Izquierdo et al., 2012; Leatherman & Goodman,
2005). In recent studies this problem prevails (Frank & Durden, 2017; Leatherman
et al., 2020; Otero Prevost et al., 2017). Although the subject of dietary change
related to gender did not arise in the workshops, it is relevant. For instance, obesity is
a problem that affects women more in Mayan communities than elsewhere (Marín
Cárdenas et al., 2014).
The generation of resilience indicators revealed the many vulnerabilities of the
FML. However, it also allowed reflection on potential options to seek to enhance the
landscape’s resilience from the local point of view, accepting that the cause of
vulnerabilities often comes from decisions made outside the FML communities.
One of the most important lessons of this exercise is that assessing trends, reflecting
collectively, and designing strategies from a bottom-up perspective have the poten-
tial to empower local people to begin to recognise themselves as managers of their
territories.
5 Conclusion
One main lesson learned is that the landscape approach methodology is much more
aligned with the peasants’ view of their ecosystem than a sectoral approach. During
the feedback sessions with participants, they mentioned that the integrated approach,
for example including medicine produced within the ecosystem, allowed them to
relate their experiences to the future SGP strategy. In rich biocultural diverse
contexts, this approach is even more relevant.
102 M. E. Méndez-López et al.
The resilience indicators, co-created by the participants, focused on the percep-
tion of trends. In the development context, data is the main source of information to
define a baseline. By asking participants how they visualise those trends, we
recognise that they own the key knowledge. The methodology also allows for the
detection of threats that are not monitored by governmental bodies, such as the use of
pesticide in the rural sector in Mexico.
In 2019, during the workshops, the human health indicator was chosen as a
priority by the participants. Because the strategies proposed are not GEF-eligible
activities, adoption by the SGP of a specific strategy was considered as a challenge
by the country’s programme team. However, one year later, and after 14 months of
the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the GEF is now holding discussions within its Scien-
tific and Technical Advisory Panel on the link between ecosystem and human health
(Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP), 2020). To add to these discus-
sions, new theoretical proposals on the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 on the planet
should be a priority. Alcántara-Ayala (2021) proposes the typification of this type of
phenomenon as “syndemic pan-disaster”. This approach recognises that society’s
vulnerability and exposure to COVID-19 have presented the great challenge of
solving countless pre-existing problems, such as those detected in the exercise
documented in this chapter. Thus, the communities detected local threats that are
now fully part of the global environmental agenda, and action may be taken during
the next 10 years in SGP Mexico to support those initiatives in the framework of the
United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.
Finally, it is essential to mention that almost half of the participants in the
workshops were women, highlighting the importance of the gender perspective
during these workshops. This topic becomes highly relevant when scientific data
show that environmental health affects men and women differently, for example, the
relationship between uterine and breast cancer, and contaminated breast milk and
pesticide contamination in water (Polanco et al., 2017; Polanco, López, et al.,
2018b). The gender perspective makes it possible to generate strategies that better
address the problems faced by SEPLS.
Acknowledgements This project was funded by SGP-GEF. We want to thank the Mayan men and
women who shared with us their reflections and their knowledge.
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Chapter 6
Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting
Health and Climate Resilience of a
Socio-Ecological Production Landscape
in Peri-urban Ramsar Wetlands
Dipayan Dey and Priyani H. Amerasinghe
Abstract In the climate milieu, peri-urban wetlands are facing the serious threats of
habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, and deteriorating ecosystem services owing to
anthropogenic pressure and rapidly changing microclimates. Although some of these
wetlands are unique socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS)
that ensure the food, water, and livelihood security of urban poor, they remain
excluded from mainstream conservation. Ecosystem-based adaptive conservation
and wise use by communities are sustainable solutions to protect these SEPLS,
wherein the opportunity costs of wetland conservation to the ultra-poor are com-
pensated with payments for ecosystem services. This chapter documents the success
of a rights-based, neo-economic conservation model, entitled “‘Bio-rights of com-
mons”, in two such peri-urban Ramsar wetlands, the East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW)
and the Deepor Beel Wetland (DBW), both on the brink of extinction. The bio-rights
model was developed by the South Asian Forum for Environment (SAFE) under the
aegis of the Ramsar Secretariat in 2010 and implemented in the East Kolkata Ramsar
wetlands. Perusal of results revealed that in both SEPLS, a rights-based conservation
approach could ensure livelihood security as well as health and well-being during
post-pandemic stress. A circular economic intervention was enabled at the
community-ecosystem interface, through capacity-building in wastewater-fed cap-
tive fisheries, ecotourism in wetlands, and organic waste recycling as alternative
livelihood opportunities. This compensated for the opportunity costs incurred by the
wetland communities in conserving the SEPLS and also ensured community “bio-
rights” to the wetlands’ ecosystem services. While these efforts steadied biodiversity
indices and waterbody permanence of these Ramsar wetlands, they also provided
fresh air for the pollution-wracked cities of Kolkata and Guwahati during the
D. Dey (*)
South Asian Forum for Environment, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
e-mail: chair@safeinch.org
P. H. Amerasinghe
International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka
© The Author(s) 2022 107
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_6
108 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
COVID-19 pandemic, and augmented economic opportunities in fisheries for land-
less casual labourers migrating back home during the countrywide lockdown. The
intervention recommended an operational guideline for policy frameworks in sus-
tainably conserving these wetland SEPLS for enriching biodiversity, human health,
and well-being.
Keywords Bio-rights · Peri-urban wetlands · Ecosystem-based conservation ·
Ecosystem services
1 Introduction
Wetlands provide a plethora of nature’s goods and services, constituting unique
socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) that ensure food,
water, and livelihood security, especially for the poor. However, Osinuga and
Oyegoke (2019) observed that these SEPLS are still excluded from mainstream
conservation and are facing serious threats owing to anthropogenic pressure in the
milieu of climate change. This has led to habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, and
deterioration of ecosystem services, widening the poverty trap. Bassi et al. (2014)
acknowledge that Indian peri-urban wetlands are degrading faster due to both biotic
and abiotic threats like drainage and landfill, over-exploitation of fish resources,
discharge of industrial effluents, uncontrolled siltation, and weed infestation, and the
ill-effects of fertilisers, pesticides, and detergents. Reports in the India Water Portal
reveal that the South Asian ecoregion is losing 25 km2 wetlands per square kilometre
of urban encroachment (Bansal, 2020), a rate even faster than the loss of forest cover
(Reddy et al., 2018). One-third of wetlands in the Indian subcontinent have already
been severely degraded, warranting policies for the management of this critical
ecosystem. In the context of climate change, the mitigation potentials of wetlands
are very high, though urban planning for the conservation of wetlands in smart cities
is meagrely addressed (Mcinnes, 2014).
This chapter documents the success of a rights-based, neo-economic conservation
model, entitled “Bio-rights of Commons” in two such peri-urban Ramsar wetlands of
eastern India, the East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) and the Deepor Beel Wetland
(DBW). These wetlands were on the brink of being removed from the Ramsar list
owing to deteriorating habitat health and biodiversity loss (Ghosh & Das, 2020;
Saikia, 2019). After successful implementation of the bio-rights project, both wet-
lands are able to better support the livelihoods of the communities dependent on
them for ecosystem services (ESs). The project has contributed to wetland habitat
restoration and prevention of biodiversity loss, and simultaneously, sustainable
intensification of ESs has substantially contributed to health benefits for the com-
munities during the present pandemic.
EKW is a multifunctional sewage-fed wetland complex, spanning a 12,741-
hectare area in the Bhagirathi-Ganga riverine floodplain that naturally recycles
nearly 250 million gallons of sewer water and removes around 237 kg of biological
oxygen demand (BOD) per day (Bhattacharyya et al., 2012). It was recognised as the
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 109
world’s largest natural resource recovery ecosystem in the fringe of Kolkata Metrop-
olis by the Ramsar Secretariat in 2002. Until 1830, tidal flow from the Bay of Bengal
through rivers and rivulets drenched this area with saline water; but in the latter half
of the nineteenth century, as the rivers dried out due to siltation, the area started
receiving urban wastewater and local communities began wastewater fish farming
(Ghosh & Sen, 1987). Since then, local indigenous communities have been tradi-
tionally managing the sewer flow to regulate the nutrient load, thereby leveraging the
natural resource recovery system of EKW for intensive fisheries and organic farming
(Ghosh, 2005). EKW provides an array of ecosystem services to support livelihoods
and the wetland environment relating to provisioning of wastewater recycling, food
and fish production, flood protection, and more. It also harbours a rich biodiversity
of fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and plants (Ghosh, 1990).
DBW is an oxbow lake of the Brahmaputra River, situated in close proximity to
the city of Guwahati. It is a typical wetland ecosystem within the Burma Monsoon
Forest Biogeography region that provides various goods and services to the local
community and animal population of the Rani-Garbhanga reserved forests, which
are adjacent to the wetlands and house nearly 120 Asiatic elephants (Mitra &
Bezbaruah, 2014). DBW is traditionally managed as a major fish breeding and
nursery ground by three indigenous fishing communities for supplying fish stocks
to other nearby waterbodies while conserving the local fish biodiversity. Almost
750 households in 14 fringe villages are directly dependent on the wetland for
fishing and collection of herbaceous plants (Mahadevia et al., 2017).
Both of these wetlands are declared Ramsar sites. Biophysical and socio-
economic studies have been carried out, and management plans for the wetlands
have been proposed. Yet, the current approach to management appears fragmented,
and innovative ways are needed to conserve and protect the ecosystem services of
the wetlands (Mukherjee, 2011). A thorough institutional analysis and responses to
demands arising from impacts on wetland ecosystem services due to urban expan-
sion are needed. Moreover, a large number of poor who depend on the ecosystem
services of the wetlands are still excluded from the decision-making processes of
these SEPLS (Dey, 2008).
This chapter explores a rights-based approach to poverty alleviation and SEPLS
conservation. It reviews bio-rights as a community-based neo-fiscal conservation
paradigm for protecting ecosystems of global ecological importance by compensat-
ing the opportunity cost incurred by the communities living in the vicinity and
dependent on the environmental goods and services of the ecosystem. The global
average compensation cost would not be difficult to accomplish if technological
cooperation and developmental resources were equitably extended to such commu-
nities. Bio-rights is therefore a sustainable neo-financing mechanism where the poor
can be empowered to protect the ecosystem services that they depend upon. It is
envisaged that a better institutional management framework that includes bio-rights
can be developed to safeguard the ecosystem services of the wetlands, facing the
menace of urbanisation.
110 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
2 Methodology
2.1 Intervention Area
The major study was conducted in 2019 in two wetland areas, namely the East
Kolkata Wetlands (22.55
N 88.45
E) and the Deepor Beel Wetland (26.13
N
91.66
E) (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 and Table 6.1). The EKW is a complex of natural and
man-made wetlands lying east of the city of Kolkata, spreading over the districts of
North and South 24 Parganas in the state of West Bengal, India. The wetlands cover
12,741 hectares at an elevation of 12 m above sea level and constitute one of the
largest assemblages of sewage-fed fish ponds including salt marshes, agricultural
fields, and settling ponds. The wetlands naturally treat the city’s sewage, with a
detention period of 35 days, and the nutrients contained in the wastewater sustain
fish farms and agriculture in 264 fishery cooperatives.
Deepor Beel is located at an elevation of 53 m above sea level to the southwest of
Guwahati city, in the Kamrup district in the state of Assam, India. It is a permanent
freshwater oxbow lake, covering 4014 hectares with an average depth of 1.5 ft., that
originated from a former channel to the south of the Brahmaputra River. The wetland
complex is within close vicinity of Guwahati and fragmented by highways and
railroads. It was recognised as a Ramsar site owing to its vast biodiversity and
Fig. 6.1 Classified map of East Kolkata Wetlands (source: prepared by author)
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 111
Fig. 6.2 Location map of Deepor Beel Wetland (source: prepared by author)
Table 6.1 Basic information of the study area
Country India India
Province West Bengal Assam
District Kolkata Kamrup Urban
Size of geographical area (hectare) 12,500 4014
Number of direct beneficiaries 1600 1400
(persons)
Number of indirect beneficiaries 145,000 45,000
(persons)
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if Indigenous fishers (Sardar, Indigenous fishers (Karbi,
appropriate Koiri) Koiborto)
Size of the case study/project area 125 500
(hectare)
Geographic coordinates (latitude, 22.5528
N, 88.4501
E 26.13
N 91.66
E
longitude)
ecosystem services that sustain the livelihoods of nearly 1200 households of indig-
enous communities.
2.2 Geospatial Mapping
Three land-use pattern and land cover (LUP-LC) maps of both peri-urban wetlands
were prepared using Q-GIS open-access mapping software and based on satellite
images of the base year 2000 and years 2009 and 2019. Maps were analysed and
compared to identify both major and minor land-use areas for change detection
studies. Following this, random physical surveys and GPS ground truthing were
conducted in these areas to validate the GIS maps as well as the ecosystem services
of the wetlands. Areas having wetlands that serve agriculture were identified and
112 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
overlayed on land-use change detection maps. Inferences were drawn on changes in
LUP-LC and subsequent changes in the ESs based on the study results.
2.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service Assessments
The Trophic State Index (TSI), a frequently used biomass-related index (Carlson,
1977) that ranges between 60 and 100 on average, was used to estimate the water
condition and biodiversity of the waterbodies. The TSI of phosphorus, TSI of Secchi
disc depth, and TSI of chlorophyll-a were averaged to arrive at a single index ranging
between 60 and 100. Water samples for the analysis of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a
were collected from the waterbodies using subsampling methods to form one
composite sample from each site (Davies & Tsomides, 2014). Four subsamples of
500 mL each were transferred to a churn spitter and the composite sample was
transferred to a 2 L sampling bottle. The bottles were previously cleaned with a
detergent devoid of phosphorus, washed with acid, and rinsed vigorously thrice with
distilled water (American Public Health Association (APHA), 1995; U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS), 2006). For phosphorus sampling the water sample was subjected to
perforated digestion followed by ascorbic acid method, 4500E (American Public
Health Association (APHA), 1995). Chlorophyll-a was estimated by acetone
method. A spectrophotometer was used for analysis. Absorbance was marked at
630 nm (APHA 1995). The units for both chlorophyll-a and phosphorus are micro-
gram/litre. Equations for TSI are as follows:
TSI(SD) ¼ 60  14.41 ln (SD).
TSI(CHL) ¼ 9.81 ln (CHL) + 30.6.
TSI(TP) ¼ 14.42 ln (TP) + 4.15.
Note: TSI is Carlson Trophic State Index, SD is Secchi disc, CHL is chlorophyll,
and TP is total phosphorus
Ecosystem services (ESs) were classified into four major categories, namely,
(1) provisioning services, (2) regulating services, (3) habitat and supporting services,
and (4) cultural services, and were assessed following the TEEB list (de Groot et al.,
2010). One of the major objectives was to identify the existing ESs of the peri-urban
wetlands, as well as the degree of livelihood dependency on these wetland ESs, with
special weightage given to the use of wetlands for agriculture. Surveys of the ESs of
the peri-urban wetlands were conducted on 104 waterbodies throughout EKW and
DBW, of which 43 support agricultural practices like aquafarming and horticulture.
The survey was done by stratified sampling of users of ESs, based on gender, age
groups, and livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) scores with a preset questionnaire.
Focus group discussions and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) for valuation of ESs were
also conducted following standard protocols. Likewise, to identify the livelihood
dependency of the peri-urban communities, gender-balanced focus group discus-
sions with 12–15 members were conducted for both the EKW and DBW wetland
areas.
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 113
2.4 Production Analysis
To estimate and analyse the commercial productivity of the wetlands, spatio-
temporal measurements of fish yield were taken in metric tons per hectare every
month for both intensive and non-intensive farming practices. Yield data on fish
production were collected pre-monsoon, during monsoon, and post-monsoon from
six different locations in both the EKW and DBW, and used to determine the mean
value and provide trend analysis. Differential data on self-consumption and sale was
also collected.
2.5 Sociometric Indexing
The sociometric study is based on primary questionnaire surveys in the peri-urban
agricultural areas of Kolkata for EKW and Guwahati for DBW. The target group was
families who depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The LVI scores were based
on eight major components: socio-demographic profile, livelihood strategy, health,
natural capital, social network, food, water, and natural hazards and climate vulner-
ability (Hahn et al., 2009). Each is comprised of various subcomponents. The LVI
uses a balanced weighted average approach where each subcomponent contributes
equally to the overall index, even though each major component is comprised of a
different number of subcomponents. Because each of the subcomponents is mea-
sured on a different scale, each component is indexed first. The steps for calculation
included the following:
(a) Balanced weighted average approach where each subcomponent contributes
equally to the overall index. As each of the subcomponents is measured on a
different scale, it is necessary to standardise each as an index. For this, the
following equation is used:
Indexsd ¼ Sd  Smin/Smax  Smin, where Sd is the original value of the
subcomponent and Smin and Smax are the minimum and maximum values in
the study area.
(b) After standardising each subcomponent, the subcomponents are averaged using
the following equation:
Md¼ ∑ Indexsd/n, where Md¼ one of the eight major components and Indexsd/n
represents the subcomponents that make up each major component.
(c) Once the values of each of the eight major components are calculated, they are
averaged to obtain LVI using the following equation: LVI ¼ ∑WM.Md/∑WM,
where WM is the number of subcomponents in each major component, and LVI
equals the weighted average of the eight major components. The range of LVI
data is always between 0 and 1.
114 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
2.6 Attitude Scaling
In order to quantify perceptions and levels of awareness on nature’s goods and
services, as well as their significance for sustainable development and livelihood
security among the beneficiaries, changes in attitude towards conservation priorities,
wise use of wetlands, and overall vulnerability were measured using a five-point
Likert scale.
3 Results and Outputs
3.1 Urban Encroachments and LUP-LC Changes
The land-use maps show that there has been significant loss of peri-urban wetland
area in both sites impacting the livelihood patterns of the local communities. The
results in EKW show an alarming loss amounting to 53.28% of the total wetland area
over two decades of time, mainly due to shrinking of wetland boundaries as well as
conversion of agricultural land (paddy fields) to forest-like cover (orchards and trees)
by 27.44%. However, there has been a nominal increase of 2.7% in built-up areas
and fallows compared to the base year 2000. In the DBW complex, wetland loss was
47%, with a 32% increase in built-up areas and waste dumping areas. Field obser-
vations showed that owing to loss of wetlands, there has been a shortage in water
supply, as ponds and drainage were clogged leading to conversion of agricultural
lands to small fragments of horticultural plots. Intensive horticulture was promoted
in the fertile land residues as fisheries and paddy production declined. This was
furthered by intensive chemical farming for yield enhancement, and later these plots
were ultimately converted into orchards and plantations. This land-use change has
been more drastic on the urban fringes in both EKW (Fig. 6.3) and DBW.
3.2 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
The difference between monsoon and post-monsoon TSI (chlorophyll) was remark-
able in EKW, with the eutrophication level during the post-monsoon period sur-
passing that of monsoon period. In DBW, this phenomenon is reversed, and the
monsoon TSI is higher than the post-monsoon TSI. Thus, even during the monsoon
when the volume of water flow is higher, the waterbodies stay eutrophicated. This
feature in DBW can be explained by the clogged canal system, which serves as both
outlet and inlet for this particular SEPLS. The inflow and outflow of water from the
waterbody are staggered due to habitat fragmentations. This in turn increases algal
mass and phytoplankton growth at a rate not discerned in EKW, wherein sewer water
drainage (both inlet and outlet) is traditionally controlled and regulated by the
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 115
Fig. 6.3 LUP-LC changes in the peri-urban East Kolkata Wetlands (source: Amerasinghe & Dey,
2018)
communities. The post-monsoon TSI levels in EKW are higher than the monsoon
TSI levels, showing betterment in the health of the trophic status of the waterbodies
in the monsoon period. This is attributed to the diluted nutrients as well as the free
flow of excess water during the monsoon period reducing biomass productivity and
leading to lower levels of algal bloom and phytoplankton growth.
The average TSI levels of all the waterbodies, in general, are quite high (>80) in
both the monsoon and post-monsoon period. This leads to the inference that all the
waterbodies are hypereutrophic, which suggests a high production capacity as a
result of excessive nutrients with visibility less than 15 cm on a Secchi disc. This
leads to excessive growth of algal scum and dominance of bottom-dwelling preda-
tory fish species, and prevents aquatic life from functioning at lower depths, creating
dead zones in the subsurfaces, resulting in loss of biodiversity and shortening of
trophic levels. Waterbodies in the area in EKW, managed by communities under the
bio-rights conservation programme, show borderline eutrophication and a relatively
low post-monsoon TSI and a lower nutrient level compared to the other waterbodies,
wherein there is a low chance of fish death and hyper-eutrophication as well.
Table 6.2 shows some TSI data for substantiating the findings.
The study showed that both wetland SEPLS provide regulating services such as
maintenance of local climate and air quality, carbon sequestration, moderation of
extreme events such as floods and drought, erosion prevention, maintenance of soil
quality, and pollination. Home to a huge number of species, these wetlands help to
maintain genetic diversity, and thus also provide habitat and supporting services. Of
the four categories of ESs, provisioning services are the most prominent as they
directly serve the basic needs of the local community, as well as provide livelihood
support to a large population. Major provisioning services include providing space
116 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
Table 6.2 Seasonal TSI (chlorophyll and Secchi disc) in EKW and DBW
Monsoon Post-monsoon
Location Site no. TSI (Chl) TSI (SD) TSI (Av) TSI (Chl) TSI (SD) TSI (Av)
EKW EK1 71.351882 81.552998 80.3618978 88.5646825 93.18025 82.5570143
EK2 74.30124 84.552998 81.887169 85.9789184 89.39958 83.083291
DBW DB1 81.033981 91.806832 85.9066857 80.1892666 89.39958 84.4527717
DB2 83.274913 88.331686 86.6699869 82.3475607 87.33752 87.6235635
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 117
Major Ecosystem Services in Peri-urban Wetlands
Spiritual experience 1
Aesthetic aspiration 1
Tourism 1
Recreational activities 20
Hosting genetic diversity 100
Habitat for species 100
Biological control 100
Pollination 100
Erosion prevention 100
Moderating extreme events 100
Carbon sequestration 100
Controlling local climate 100
Medicinal herbs 50
Water for washing 5
Water for livestock 40
Irrigation water 65
Water (domestic use) 50
Drinking water 0
Crafting material 5
Construction material 75
Fire wood 60
Hunting 30
Livestock grazing 60
Aquaculture 80
Agriculture 100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Fig. 6.4 Major ecosystem services of the peri-urban waterbodies (source: prepared by authors)
for agriculture, aquaculture, livestock grazing, and hunting; providing raw materials
for firewood, construction, and crafts; providing fresh water for domestic use,
irrigation, washing livestock, drinking water for livestock, and commercial washing;
and providing medicinal herbs. Land for agriculture and aquaculture are the two
most important ecosystem services, followed by water for irrigation, land for
livestock grazing, and water for domestic usage. Although cultural services very
much exist in the peri-urban wetlands, they are not clearly conceived by the local
community (Fig. 6.4).
The results from sociometric studies and FGDs showed that the ESs of the peri-
urban wetlands are of huge importance to the peri-urban community. They fulfil the
basic needs of the local community as well as serve as a major source of income
generation and livelihood. Services such as land for agriculture, aquaculture, and
livestock grazing; collection of materials for crafts; and extraction of water for
irrigation, livestock washing, and commercial washing provide support for income
generation. On the other hand, collection of firewood, construction material, extrac-
tion of fresh water for domestic use, collection of medicinal herbs, and collection of
food through hunting and gathering fulfil the basic needs of the local people.
Aquaculture is the most important livelihood supporting ecosystem service of the
peri-urban wetlands in Kolkata, availed by 75% of households, followed by 48.75%
118 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
Dependency on Major Ecosystem Services in Peri-urban Wetlands
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Material for construcon Religious acvies Recreaonal acvies
Land for agriculture Tradional medicine Drinking water for livestock
Water for domesc use Commercial washing Water for irrigaon
Material for cra Fire wood Livestock fodder
Livestock grazing Hunng Aquaculture
Drinking Water
Fig. 6.5 Dependency on ecosystem services of the peri-urban waterbodies (source: prepared by
authors)
of households who utilise the wetlands as agricultural space or its water for irriga-
tion, and 43.75% who use the land for livestock grazing. The share of peri-urban
households using waterbodies for domestic washing and bathing was found to be
88.75%, and that of households collecting traditional medicines and food from the
wetland areas was 81.25%. Likewise, 63.75% of households were collecting fire-
wood, and 43% were collecting construction materials from the wetland areas
(Fig. 6.5).
The assessment found that gender equity in accessing the ESs of the wetlands
depends on the nature of the service. Females are the predominant users of those
waterbodies which are mainly used for domestic purposes and small-scale fish
farming at the household level. On the other hand, farming activities in waterbodies
that are used for commercial fisheries are mostly dominated by males. When asked
to rank the importance of the waterbodies, 73.75% of respondents reported that the
waterbodies are of prime importance in their day-to-day lives, as they support their
livelihoods and fulfil basic needs as well. Again 68.75% of respondents reported that
degradation of the wetlands has affected their livelihoods. Thus, the study revealed
that the peri-urban wetland SEPLS are still of prime importance to the peri-urban
community. They can be termed the “lifeline” of the peri-urban population.
% of Dependents
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 119
3.3 Vulnerability and Sustainability Factors
The sociometric study, conducted pre-, post-, and during monsoon periods in
2018–2019, revealed that LVI is the highest in the urban fringes of both wetland
SEPLS. Overall, in EKW it was 0.526, and in DBW it was 0.545. In EKW,
vulnerability was the lowest for the food security component and also very low for
the social network component. This is due to intensive culture fisheries and paddy
cultivation in EKW, which causes habitat damage due to overusage of chemical
fertilisers and feed, loss of local agro-biodiversity, as well as deterioration of
ecosystem services. However, in Deepor Beel, only catch fisheries and livestock
rearing support livelihoods. The literacy rate in households near the urban fringe is
higher than literacy rates in far-off households. Thus, beneficiaries staying near
urban settings have more access to societal networking and feel less vulnerable
than those who are settled far from the urban areas, as they do not have at-hand
access to urban facilities. For example, residing near urban settlements assures better
access to water supply and health services, thereby reducing vulnerability. However,
affordability is also an issue for the marginal communities to access these. Unfortu-
nately, this has prompted a trend among marginal households to clutter near urban
areas apparently for better access to crucial amenities like health services and water
supply. As a spin-off effect, this has led to anthropogenic encroachments and
deterioration of the wetland ecosystem services on which these marginal communi-
ties usually depend for their livelihood sustainability. Therefore, these chains of
events further augment their vulnerability, though they are in close proximity to
urban areas. This trend also suggests that due to overcrowding, urban fringes get
more polluted and face greater water scarcity and finally access to basic amenities is
diminished for the urban poor. Detailed analyses have suggested that when depen-
dency on nature’s services is high, socioeconomic vulnerability is also high in areas
near to urban settlements. Vulnerability was also found to be high when heads of the
household were female or illiterate, as well as for households made up of unskilled
family members. Female heads of households are less aggressive in seeking out
amenities or services owing to the societal dominance of males, while illiterate and
unskilled heads of households were incapable of acquiring opportunities in a com-
petitive environment. Higher dependence on agriculture, migration of male members
due to increasing LUP changes, conversion of agricultural to non-agricultural land,
and greater proximity to urban areas seemingly increased societal vulnerability, as in
the case of DBW. Adopting more than one type of agricultural livelihood is one of
the adaptive strategies for agricultural communities in these SEPLS in coping with
climate vulnerability and decreasing viability of agriculture. Thus, families having
multiple agricultural practices were considered less vulnerable, which is why EKW
had a better LVI score than DBW. A community’s livelihood vulnerability was
found to be related to the degree of displacement of people from their traditional
livelihoods, as in the case of EKW. Most families have at least one member in a
non-agricultural livelihood, working in unorganised sectors in the urban areas. Due
to the lack of reliance on agriculture, the community has adopted such livelihood
120 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
strategies. Many of the farmers practice farming in leased lands and commute to
these places from other parts of the peri-urban areas of both Kolkata and Guwahati.
The percentage of households having no fertile land is the highest in DBW, whereas
fish farms are sharply shrinking in EKW.
3.4 Bio-Rights: Impact Assessment
The rights-based neo-economic conservation model was initiated by the South Asian
Forum for Environment (SAFE) in the year 2016–2017 to recognise the rights of the
marginal fishers and farmers in the wetland SEPLS, who are also engaged in the
conservation and maintenance of wetland habitat. To improve the wetland habitat,
capacities were built in conservation activities among the wetland communities, like
maintenance of water quality, regulation of nutrients leading to eutrophication,
planting of wetland species for phytoremediation, stabilisation of embankments of
lakes, and maintenance of the environmental flow of water. To compensate for the
opportunity costs of beneficiaries, they were trained in alternative livelihood oppor-
tunities like making handicrafts out of water hyacinth plant fibre, recycling of
municipal solid waste that spoils the habitat, and organic family farming.
Assessments were conducted over a 3-year span in 2016–2017 and 2018–2019.
The recognition as a formal local institute and the financial inclusion of the benefi-
ciaries entailing insurance coverage and credit linkages compensated for opportunity
costs from payments for ecosystem services (PES), thereby assuring livelihood
security, financial inclusion, and risk mitigation. Formation of Joint Liability Groups
(JLGs) comprised of the fishers and farmers of the wetland communities was
initiated for ensuring shared responsibility and a strengthened local institutional
framework. Financial inclusion of these JLGs through bank linkage, credit linkage,
and micro-insurance coverage spread the risk and ensured economic security as well.
Gender equity and women’s empowerment were core components of the interven-
tion. Three villages each in EKW (EKWV1, V2, V3) and DBW (DBW V1, V2, V3)
were selected for the intervention, comprising a total of 2500 households in the six
villages. The villages were assessed on indicators like LVI, increased primary
productivity, and revenues earned therefrom, as well as additional man-days created
through alternative livelihood opportunities. Impacts on habitat health were
accounted for using the Trophic State Index (TSI) in the conserved wetlands.
Review and analysis of data available from 2016 to 2017 and from April to
December 2019 showed the striking impacts of the bio-rights intervention on both of
the Ramsar wetland SEPLS (Fig. 6.6). These impacts are highlighted below:
(a) Strengthening of local institutions and enabling of risk coverage through micro-
insurance and financial inclusion substantially lowered vulnerability in the
3 years of time span.
(b) Community-led conservation in both SEPLS, viz. EKW and DBW, accentuated
sustainable intensification of ecosystem services, thereby increasing the returns
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 121
Fig. 6.6 Bio-rights: increments in impact factors (source: prepared by authors)
on revenues, as evidenced by an increase in the per capita income of fishers by
17–20% per year. The bio-rights intervention also leveraged alternative eco-
nomic opportunities from ecotourism and circular economic interventions for
women’s entrepreneurship.
(c) Collective responsibility in wise-use practices and shared efforts for sustainable
intensification of ecosystem services were more distinct in EKW, owing to the
organised patterns of community engagements and robust local institutions. This
is thus considered as an indicator of sustainability, accomplished through
bio-rights.
(d) Conservation activities in the SEPLS improved habitat health and increased
primary production in the area.
3.5 Assessment Studies During the Pandemic Crisis
During the COVID pandemic, announcement of a nationwide lockdown triggered a
mass reverse exodus of temporary migrants working as casual labourers and an
enormous loss of livelihood in the informal sector. During this crisis, nearly 2000
landless labourers belonging to the wetland communities returned to EKW and
DBW. The bio-rights intervention could minimise the adversity both on life and
122 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
Fig. 6.7 Attitude scaling on health services of SEPLS (source: prepared by authors)
livelihood of these migrants without compromising the conservation objectives. The
intervention supported these migrants with some economic opportunities through
manual labour work in farming and fisheries, and engagement in the supply chains of
the farming sectors. While the intervention extended health support to the urbanites
living in the near vicinity by providing protein supplements in daily food from table
fish, fox nuts, and duckery products, production of fresh vegetables and local
medicinal plants also supported indigenous communities in the wetlands during
the crisis. The agro-biodiversity preserved in the local cropping cycles, which are
mostly managed by women farmers in the wetland SEPLS, is the source of food and
food supplements for augmenting the health and immunity of the local people. This
had a great bearing on the lives of these indigenous communities during the
pandemic crisis. The urbanites in the vicinity, who visited the wetland ecotourism
trails for morning walks and physical activities during “work-from-home” periods in
the pandemic, experienced the ambience of fresh air, oxygenated and free from
urban pollution. An attitude scaling on the health impacts of these eco-trails is
indicated in Fig. 6.7, showing that 50–60% agreed that the landscape rebuilds
immunity and provides fresh air, while 37% deemed the protein food supplements
made available from these wetlands as important.
4 Outcomes and Impacts
Wetlands, though alienated from mainstream conservation owing to deficient policy
frameworks, are unique socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes
(SEPLS) which are significant in the milieu of climate change. This chapter reviews
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 123
two peri-urban Ramsar sites to put forward ecosystem-based adaptive strategies for
conservation and recommends a framework using a rights-based neo-economic
approach to compensate for the opportunity costs of wetland inhabitants and depen-
dents. This chapter makes a case for this approach based on the following
observations:
(a) It is observed that the vulnerable communities in these SEPLS continually
explore opportunities amidst challenges imposed on them, such as during the
pandemic when they attempted to reduce the impact of externalities through
appropriate resource stocks, extraction, and marketing strategies. Since most of
the beneficiaries work in informal sectors, wherein institutional arrangements are
somehow fragile and cannot handle onslaughts imposed by large-scale and
systemic perturbations, beneficiaries chose either to accept working as casual
labourers in urban areas or to change to alternative economic opportunities in
urban service deliveries, as evidenced from sociometric assessments in the
wetland communities.
(b) Perusal of outcomes from focus group discussions and household surveys in the
SEPLS revealed that under economic pressure, responsibilities of risk mitigation
move from individual to collective action, enabling the sharing of economic
losses by suitably changing livelihood options. However, mechanisms to mon-
itor compliance and enforcement of the norms for collective community action
are not easily practised due to a diverse perception of risks. Obviously compen-
sation for loss and damage comes mostly from the use of nature’s goods and
services. This leads to loss of habitat and biodiversity owing to overuse.
(c) Predictive analyses based on participatory evaluation of ecosystem services and
the fate of wetland functions under worst-case scenarios can also greatly help to
define best scenarios in bio-rights-centred livelihood promotion coupled with
community conservation strategies and related institutional mechanisms devel-
oped in the course of implementation of the bio-rights project.
(d) By tracing the biodiversity, community dynamics, and relevance of spatio-
temporal changes in LUP and LC, as well as institutional arrangements that
have formalised with the management of the EKW and DBW over years of
community-based conservations in these two SEPLS, the chapter aspires to
explore avenues to design a more inclusive sustainable ecosystem service-
based management plan that includes novel concepts like bio-rights.
5 Recommendations for a Framework
Reviewing the determinants of the dependence on wetland ecosystem services by
marginal agrarian communities vis-à-vis the impacts of urban encroachment on these
peri-urban wetlands in advocating sustainable intensification of primary productiv-
ity, a rights-based conservation framework has been recommended for wetlands near
urban growth centres for adaptive policy planning (Amerasinghe & Dey, 2018). A
brief overview of this framework is outlined hereunder:
124 D. Dey and P. H. Amerasinghe
1. In recognising the importance of these peri-urban wetland habitats and their
services, a normative practice has to be enunciated to measure the economic
value of goods and services, ensuring that the estimations are non-ambiguous and
non-discriminatory at all levels of policy and practice to leverage the benefits of
conserving these wetlands, especially in the climate milieu.
2. The peri-urban wetlands must be recognised by town planners and urban archi-
tects as socio-ecological production landscapes, and the returns on investments in
intensifying primary productivity in these wetlands must be added to the GDP.
This would enable sharing of benefits, and co-benefits earned from the goods and
services of the wetlands with the marginal communities to ensure inclusive growth.
3. Ecosystem-based adaptation for conservation of peri-urban wetlands needs to be
included as mandatory clauses in town planning and landscaping, leaving no one
behind in participatory management, and be recommended for enriching national
natural capital like forests and rivers.
4. The lessons learned must be incorporated in the draft for developing National
Wetland Policy (conservation and management) in India for inclusion and
adoption.
The following facets may be considered for further reference to be included in the
draft as well as the knowledge economy. Reference frame for defining community-
based wetland conservation strategies and enabling a platform for redressal of issues
pertaining to it:
(a) Wetland Conservation
1. Conservation strategies for peri-urban wetlands are to be outlined at the
community-ecosystem interface to recognise community governance in con-
servation, similar to policies and practice utilised in community forest
management.
2. The local wetland authority entrusted for the conservation and management
of wetland SEPLS has to be inclusive and should have equitable community
representation for redressal of issues as well as assure remedial support to
ensure equity, reciprocity, and partnership for conservation.
3. A frame of reference is expected to be in place to assure conservation and
wise use of peri-urban wetlands through a national policy document, to be
referred to as the National Wetland Policy [NWP] to mitigate any or all issues
pertaining to conservation and management of these wetlands.
(b) Ownership and commons’ property rights
1. With regard to the ownership and property rights of wetland ecosystems, it is
recommended that they be private, joint, and/or state owned. Alterations to
conservation regulations, changes pertaining to land-use pattern of the
SEPLS, or changes in usages would mandatorily need to prioritise commons’
bio-rights and conservation of biodiversity to upkeep the ecosystem services
for all stakeholders, ensuring equitable access and benefit sharing.
2. In cognisance of the above mandates, ecosystem services of these SEPLS
must be recognised as commons’ property rights for economic co-benefits,
6 Community “Bio-Rights” in Augmenting Health and Climate Resilience of. . . 125
irrespective of the ownership of the wetlands, whereas efforts for conserva-
tion would be recognised as an “equal and reciprocal responsibility” for all
facilitating partnership and participation beyond the property rights.
3. The conservation and management regulations and the commons’ property
rights of wetlands shall not alter with any alteration and/or transfer of
ownership rights.
(c) Participatory conservation paradigm and bio-rights of commons
1. Planning procedures for conservation must encourage and facilitate a partic-
ipatory practice, leaving no one behind to promote inclusive partnership.
2. Implementation of the conservation plan must have a robust monitoring and
periodic evaluation (M&E) system and feedback systems for adaptive learn-
ing and constructive review of the plan being implemented.
3. In enforcing the implementation plan and considering wise use as conserva-
tion priority, the opportunity costs of commons incurred in forgoing the
co-benefits of ecosystem services need to be estimated and compensated
through novel and uniform financial models. The compensation may be
used for either risk spreading or coverage, as may be decided collectively
by the participants from time to time.
(d) National Wetland Policy for conservation and management
1. The state must implicate on an emergency basis the propounding of a national
reference agenda for conservation and management of wetlands, to be
recognised as the “National Wetland Policy” that may consider the details,
as discussed above, to be integral to its operational framework.
2. The state must appoint efficient, trained, and empathetic experts as custodians
of the policy upon implementation to facilitate the conservation objectives
and augment ecosystem services thereto.
3. The policy framework, thus built, must seek concurrence with all national
policies for conserving other potential ecosystems to undermine the conflicts
of interests and opinions in overlapping jurisprudence and co-parallel regu-
lations, so as to avoid abundance and loss of national natural resources.
Acknowledgements The authors sincerely acknowledge the support extended by the International
Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka, and the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research,
Japan, for carrying out the study.
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Chapter 7
Effective Water Management
for Landscape Management in the Siem
Reap Catchment, Cambodia
Chris Jacobson, Jady Smith, Socheath Sou, Christian Nielsen,
and Peou Hang
Abstract International awareness of the world-renowned Angkor Wat temple com-
plex has drawn attention to the challenges of climate change, deforestation, and
water management in Cambodia. The aim of this chapter is to examine the benefits of
enhanced water management provided within Angkor Archaeological Park, and to
consider challenges to maintaining those benefits. The Authority for the Protection
of the Site and Management of the Region of Angkor (APSARA) designed and in
2014–2018 implemented within the Park a water management project to recharge
groundwater supplies, mitigate floods, and provide irrigation. To assess the benefits,
we draw on an economic analysis of ecosystem service changes, including
interviewing 145 households from across the Park and four experts. To assess
challenges to sustaining the benefits, we also interviewed 73 households and
conducted 12 focus group discussions in the upper catchment. We used a combina-
tion of quantitative analysis (i.e. economic assessment) and qualitative data analysis
(e.g. thematic analysis). Our analyses of data from people living in and around the
Park showed that improved water management (e.g. reinforcing dykes and storage
facilities for groundwater recharge) and investment in economic diversification
(e.g. tourism, horticulture, and heritage crops projects) reduced vulnerability of the
people to climate hazards. Currently, these benefits are threatened by forest loss in
C. Jacobson (*)
Live and Learn Environmental Education, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
e-mail: chris.jacobson@livelearn.org
J. Smith · C. Nielsen
Live and Learn Environmental Education, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
S. Sou
Live and Learn Environmental Education, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
P. Hang
Authority for the Preservation and Management of Angkor and the Region—APSARA, Siem
Reap, Cambodia
© The Author(s) 2022 129
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_7
130 C. Jacobson et al.
the upper Siem Reap catchment. Our analysis of data from the upper catchment
showed that forest loss also resulted in detrimental effects to human health and well-
being, and was associated with higher food insecurity. Solutions are suggested to
enhance nature-based employment opportunities and promote economic diversifica-
tion. This would extend the scope of management of this socio-ecological produc-
tion landscape (SEPL) beyond the Park and ensure its sustainability by improving
the health and well-being of the people living in the upper catchment.
Keywords Angkor, Siem Reap · Diversification · Climate change · Food security ·
Ecosystem services, Nature-based solutions
1 Introduction
Management of human-nature interactions has occurred across millennia in the
Angkorian landscape (Siem Reap Province). Angkor Archaeological Park is one
of the most important archaeological sites in Southeast Asia. It contains the remains
of various capitals of the Khmer Empire. In 1992, Angkor Archaeological Park was
recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) as a world heritage site. Its listing highlights not only archaeological
heritage, but also the linkages between tangible heritage (e.g. temples) and intangible
heritage (e.g. forest conservation, water management). Thus, the Park is a socio-
ecological production landscape (SEPL) based within one of the largest archaeolog-
ical sites in the world.
The Park is threatened by (1) limited protection of upstream ecosystems, which
impacts the groundwater recharge and availability within the Park, and (2) pressure
from communities in the surrounding rural areas, for whom harvesting natural
resources (such as forests) is an easy but unsustainable form of livelihood. In the
upper Siem Reap River catchment, forest degradation resulted in loss of 36.6% of
forest area between 1989 and 2019, and changes in structure and composition (Chim
et al., 2019; Wales, 2020). Most of the loss resulted from conversion for agriculture
(Chim et al., 2019) due to increased population pressure on the land, as evident in
decreased landholding size (National Institute of Statistics, 2009, 2017). These
changes have increased run off, increasing sediment levels in the lower catchment
ponds and lakes, with potential impacts on fishery productivity (Chim et al., 2021).
The result is an overall trend towards a drier landscape with less precipitation
(Jacobson et al., 2019) and changes to the flood pulse in the Tonle Sap lake
(Frappart et al., 2018). In addition, there is increased water consumption for house-
hold use and agriculture, which lowers groundwater levels and consequently reduces
supply, and potentially temple stability (Kirsch, 2010; Chim et al., 2021).
In response to these challenges (i.e. agricultural expansion, deforestation, and
changes in water availability), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade of
New Zealand (MFAT) supported the Authority for the Protection of the Site and
Management of the Region of Angkor (APSARA) to conserve and restore an
archaeological hydraulic engineering system and support livelihood advancement
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 131
projects within the Park (2014–2018). However, the benefits of these activities have
as yet not been documented. In addition, the importance of application of effective
management systems beyond the Park boundaries has not been assessed. This
chapter examines the potential effectiveness of the project’s activities to enhance
the resilience of this SEPL. It demonstrates how project interventions addressed the
nexus between ecosystem health and human well-being, and the importance of their
extension beyond the Park boundary. The case is significant as a study of
reinvigoration of traditional water and landscape management, demonstrating the
benefits from combining modern engineering technologies with traditional knowl-
edge through heritage conservation.
2 Background and Methods
2.1 The Angkor World Heritage Site and Its Significance
Situated in the province of Siem Reap, Angkor Archaeological Park, “the Park”
(Fig. 7.1 and Table 7.1), is one of the most important archaeological sites in
Southeast Asia, as well as a major tourist attraction (Hang et al., 2016). The Park
stretches over 400 km2 and contains the remains of various capitals of the Khmer
Empire which flourished over six centuries from the early ninth century. It includes
temples (e.g. world-renowned Angkor Wat), hydraulic structures (e.g. basins, dykes,
reservoirs, canals), and forested areas. Angkor is considered a “hydraulic city”
because of its complicated water management network used for systematically
stabilising, storing, and dispersing water throughout the area. The temple complex
is supported by three river systems stretching 50 km upstream. Lakes, moats, ponds,
and royal basins saturate the sand-clay soils supporting the temples, ensure temple
stability, enable irrigation, and support the food security of the increasing local
population; they also provide flood protection to Siem Reap city (Hang et al., 2016;
Chim et al., 2019). The Angkorian water management system includes a series of
moats and lakes with spillways, connected by canals (see Chim et al., 2021 for a
diagrammatical representation). Water gates direct and control water flows, while
intact canals, reservoirs, and spillways direct water to or away from where it is
needed for agriculture purposes. Canals whose walls are partially eroded result in a
loss of water from those canals. Moats and lakes recharge groundwater, and provide
water storage, limiting floods in the wet season and mitigating against drought in the
dry season. Recent LiDAR analyses (e.g. Chen et al., 2017; Evans, 2016; Wales,
2020) provide scientific analysis of the spatial scale of these structures beyond the
Park. The analysis demonstrated that ancient water management occurred across the
whole landscape, not just within the Park boundaries as currently occurs.
132 C. Jacobson et al.
Fig. 7.1 Map of the Angkor Landscape showing the core zone of the Park (approximately
210 km2) and the catchment (approximately 1220 km2) (polygon developed by authors, source:
Map data © Google, 2021; insert from Nakau, 2020)
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 133
Table 7.1 Basic information of the study area
Country Cambodia
Province Siem Reap
District Project site: Angkor Thom, Siem Reap, Prasat Bakong,
Banteay Srey
Catchment: Angkor Thom, Banteay Srey, Siem Reap, Svay
Leu, Varin, Prasat Bakong
Municipality n.a.
Size of geographical area Site: 6900
(hectare) Catchment: 122,300
Number of direct beneficiaries Park: 118,652
(persons)
Number of indirect beneficia- 1,014,000 (2019 census)
ries (persons)
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if n.a.
appropriate
Size of the case study/project 21,000
area (hectare)
Geographic coordinates (lati- 13
21047.900 N, 103
51023.000 E
tude, longitude)
2.2 Angkor Park Management Projects
In partnership with APSARA, the New Zealand MFAT has invested in making the
management of the Park more resilient since 2010. This has included development
of a Park plan and enhancement of capacity for community-based natural resource
management within the Park. In 2014, the Angkor Community Heritage and Eco-
nomic Advancement Project (ACHA) (2014–2019) was initiated. The goal of this
project was to increase food security and promote sustainable management, includ-
ing revitalisation of ancient water management across the entire Park. An evaluation
of this project provided understanding of the benefits of the water management
component. The ACHA project activities included (1) 16 new or repaired gates, and
rehabilitation of dykes, moats, and spillways, and (2) enhanced water storage
through the new and rehabilitated storage structures (>1,700,000 m3 storage)
(Fig. 7.2 provides an example). Water storage activities were designed to ensure
soil water saturation, support temple stability, as well as capture water for irrigation
during the wet season (>1730 ha irrigated paddy under cultivation) and in the dry
season (20 ha irrigated paddy under irrigation). This chapter documents the benefits
of these water management activities to the SEPL.
134 C. Jacobson et al.
Fig. 7.2 Water infrastructure around the temple complex (photo by C Jacobson)
2.3 Assessing the Impacts of Existing Management
and Future Opportunities
This case study was based on an assessment of ecosystem service benefits associated
with the water management activities within the Park by comparing to areas beyond
it. It draws on two sets of previously unpublished data.
Data Collection
We used two data sets to assess the impacts of existing management and future
opportunities. The first data set was used to assess the economic benefits of ACHA
water management to people living in the Park, where provisioning, regulating, and
cultural services provided by the ecosystem were identified.1 Indicators used were:
1This work was led by Jacobson et al. (2018) to provide insights for the donor, and has remained
unpublished.
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 135
1. Changes in the economic value of local livelihoods—provisioning services
(household interview data)
2. Changes in the value of tourism—provisioning services (calculation using the
Ministry of Tourism data and data from APSARA staff interviews)
3. The value of improved flood management—regulating services (calculation using
household interview data, and data on flood impact costs from ADB (2012))
4. Changes in the value of cultural services provided (calculated using transfer
values)
Household interviews were used to inform the assessment of changes in local
livelihoods. The Cambodian local government structure formed the basis of house-
hold interviewee selection, and is organised in district-commune-village-household
hierarchy. We conducted 145 household interviews. Household selection was based
on the following steps:
1. Selection of one target commune from each of the five districts, ensuring repre-
sentation from the north, west, east, centre, and south of the Park where soil
quality and tree density differ, also reflecting agriculture and livelihood diversity
observed during field visits
2. Within the boundaries of a target commune, random selection of at least 1.5% of
all households (minimum sample size of 15) stratified by villages wholly within
the Park. This provides for a margin of error of <10%; the ability to provide
precise estimates is limited by a lack of sample frame data
These interviews were conducted with 118 participants in 2018 in Khmer lan-
guage by APSARA staff. Structured questions (quantitatively analysed using
descriptive statistics) were included about:
• Flood frequency (reflecting on frequency before and after ACHA water infra-
structural development between 2016 and 2018) and flood impacts (before and
after infrastructural development, using an ordinal scale2)
• Livelihood activities (before and after water infrastructural development), includ-
ing farmgate value (i.e. value when purchased from the farmer) or wholesale
produce value (i.e. value when purchased from a wholesaler) and enterprise value
(i.e. for non-agricultural produce)
• Food security, using Food Insecurity Experience Scale (Carletto et al., 2013)
• Debt
Lastly, APSARA staff were interviewed to understand the reduction in flooding
frequency and extent in the Park that resulted from improved water management;
this provided data on the number of days of Park closure that enabled assessment of
benefits of water management associated with tourism. The four interviewed
2This research used a development project as the case study. The project lacked ex post data on
flood impacts, and hence used an ordinal change analysis. The ordinal scale acknowledges the
limitations in data quality that would exist had we used unverified recall data.
136 C. Jacobson et al.
APSARA staff members were not involved in the household interviews on changes
in flood frequency and their impacts on food security and livelihoods.
The second data set, collected in 2020,3 provides reference values that enable
comparative analysis with data on Park management. It provides understanding
about broader landscape management constraints that have impact upon the Park,
and the ability to maintain the benefits derived from the ACHA project. It included
73 semi-structured interviews conducted in four communes in the upper and
mid-Siem Reap catchment outside of the Park (40 females, 33 males). It also
included 12 focus group discussions, which engaged an additional 93 community
participants (50 females, 43 males) and local government officials (3 female,
23 male) associated with each commune. This sample size was considered appro-
priate given the exploratory intent and qualitative nature of this research.
For the second data set, interviews were based on questions about the following
topics that were qualitatively analysed:
• Current uses of natural resources
• Changes in the frequency and impacts of weather events
• Challenges to the management of land, water, and forests
• Perceptions about environmental quality, changes in it, and predictions about the
future
For the second data set, focus group discussions were based on the topics of:
• Environmental quality, including changes in ecosystem services
• Livelihood benefits from native biodiversity
• Adaptation and change in livelihoods in response to shocks, changes, and/or
disasters
• Engagement in decision-making and information sharing
Data Analysis Methods
For the first data set, we provide analyses of household data. We then combined this
primary data with values from other Cambodia studies (ADB, 2012) to conduct
economic valuation of the different types of ecosystem services affected by water
management.
Average household livelihood changes were scaled to the total number of house-
holds in the Park, and then assigned an attribution range4 of 10–20%. This attribu-
tion range was based on an expert assessment by hydrologists in APSARA, and
recognised that water was one factor contributing to improved agriculture
livelihoods.
3This data is presented in Jacobson and Smith (2020), and has served as an internal document
shared with the donor and project partner, and remains unpublished in academic form.
4Attribution range refers to expert judgements (made by APSARA experts in livelihoods, water and
natural resources) about the share of change that could be attributed to the ACHA project.
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 137
The value of tourism changes was calculated using ticket value, visitor numbers,
and changes in Park access. Park access changes when flooding occurs and tourists
are unable to visit, resulting in a loss of revenue. We asked experts to estimate the
total average of days of closure before and after water management, and their
responses provided conservative and upper bounds of the value of tourism changes,
which we provided to represent the lack of certainty on the impacts to tourism across
the entire park (i.e. a closure rate of between 2 and 4 days per year).
The value of flood protection to Siem Reap province was calculated using
avoided cost estimates, based on the costs of flood impacts associated with typhoon
Ketsana (ADB, 2012). This typhoon impacted Siem Reap Province before ACHA
project activities occurred, but only impacted the population within the Park and
downstream of it. The values from this ADB study were multiplied by the proportion
of the population living in the province at the time that was impacted, and multiplied
by changes in annual flood probability (expert assessments of 10% annual likelihood
pre-ACHA, reduced to 1–2% after ACHA activities).
Lastly, cultural service values attributable to ACHA water management were
assessed by determining existence values. We used transfer values based on the
willingness to pay for cultural heritage (temples) presented in studies from Thailand
and Vietnam (Seenprachawong, 2006; Tuan et al., 2009), adjusting for per capital
GDP inflation since they were conducted. The per capita existence value was scaled
to the entire population of Cambodia and ten million international visitors, per year.
Attribution values of 5–10% account for the potential share of water management in
the temples’ existence.
The second data set was analysed using thematic coding, and data are presented
on the themes of forest uses, water and climate, health impacts associated with
landscape change, connections between upper catchment and the Park, and prospects
for the future.
Limitations
The project used ex post techniques5 to evaluate the impacts of a development
project. One limitation of this technique is the breadth of indicators that can be
included. While additional indicators and specific measures (e.g. health and biodi-
versity metrics) are relevant and potentially of interest to many involved in SEPL
management, a lack of reference data for comparing change makes them less
meaningful for impact assessment. The use of data from the upper catchment is
primarily to contextualise the impact of the project, and its sustainability. The
5Ex post is a form of evaluation typically used to justify whether a specific intervention has worked,
its strengths, and its weaknesses. It is conducted after a project has been completed. Ex post uses
change measures for key indicators. However, not all potential project benefits or impacts of a
project can be foreseen when a project begins. In these cases, ex post techniques compare
achievements to reference areas. JICA (2004) notes that ex post evaluation provides for impact
and sustainability evaluation.
138 C. Jacobson et al.
limitations of use of data from the upper catchment to assess benefits from a project
implemented in the Park are acknowledged.
While health was not an explicit focus during data collection, the qualitative
analysis does highlight the linkages between water and health, focusing on health in
terms of the well-being of communities. Likewise, we use the forests and their
protection (or lack thereof) as an indicator of biodiversity.
3 Results
3.1 Understanding the Impacts of Water Management
in Angkor Park
Interviewees’ responses indicated a reduction in flood frequency and impacts fol-
lowing implementation of the ACHA project. Compared to 2013 before the infra-
structure investment, 49.6% of survey respondents reported decreased flood
frequency, compared to 21.0% who reported increased frequency. Meanwhile,
47% of the respondents observed reduced impacts and 39.1% completely averted
floods, whereas 25.2% reported increased impacts. Of these, 5.2% reported
experiencing a flood where they had not seen one previously.
An analysis of interview data revealed that between 2014 and 2017, average
household income also increased, driven primarily by agricultural development.
Agriculture-related increase was primarily due to increase in vegetable production,
rising from an average of 190 USD per household in 2014 to 1592 USD in 2017.
Despite the increased income, 32.3% of households had a member experiencing
severe food insecurity, and 59.4% of households had debt. Reference values for food
insecurity in the same year from the upper catchment as obtained from Jacobson
et al. (2019) and Jacobson and Seng (2018) unpublished data are higher, being
51.7% and 72.0%, respectively, for the two studies.
Economic analysis methods provide total estimates of the economic value arising
from water management, for the life of the ACHA project, in USD calculated by
Jacobson et al. (2018). These (in USD) were6:
• Provisioning services—local livelihoods $1,117,258–$2,234,517
• Provisioning services—tourism $3,240,000–$3,780,000
• Regulating services—flood protection $3,292,800–$3,704,000
• Cultural service benefits $1,850,000–$3,700,000
Improvements in water management through infrastructure and ancient water
management reinvigoration are therefore estimated to have had immediate impacts
of 9,500,308–13,429,417 USD over the project time horizon. Reduction in flood
6The range accounts for the expert judgement in attribution to ACHA project, as described in Sect.
7.2.3 on methods.
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 139
Fig. 7.3 Mild flooding in Banteay Srey, prior to water infrastructure refurbishment (photo by C
Jacobson)
frequency and impact severity accounted for a third of all economic benefits.
Figure 7.3 provides an example of minor flooding before the project. These benefits
are significant to the province’s inhabitants given the low per capita GDP. However,
the ability to sustain these levels of benefit over the long term depends on
maintaining water flows and water management systems.
3.2 Understanding the Broader Socio-Economic Production
Landscape
The second data set (which includes household interviews and focus groups, see
Sect. 7.2.3.1) enables comparative evaluation about how upstream landscape man-
agement impacts the ecosystem service delivery within the Park, and the ability to
maintain the benefits derived from the ACHA project.
140 C. Jacobson et al.
Forest Uses
Focus group discussions identified ecosystem services provided by forests,
including:
7
• Attracting water (humidity for improved cassava and cashew nut yield, and
groundwater recharge)
• Reducing erosion and preventing sedimentation in waterways
• Limiting the speed of water movement across the landscape, and hence reducing
the likelihood of flooding
• Providing livelihood benefits, including non-timber forest product collection and
tourism
• Increasing soil fertility, contributing to organic fertiliser, and reducing the need
for synthetic fertiliser
• Limiting the potential impacts of storms
• Providing health-related benefits including shade for heat relief, and
reducing dust
• Offering shelter for wildlife
• Providing medicinal plants and spiritual trees
Forest cover in the upper catchment was observed to have declined over time due
to encroachment and illegal forest uses, forest fires, and some overharvesting of
natural resources (e.g. rattan), affecting the services forests provide. Key threats
identified during focus group discussions included deforestation, illegal activities in
protected forests, ineffective management (e.g. access to water resources), limited
engagement of communities in forest management, overuse of agricultural inputs,
and illiteracy of community members (i.e. affecting education and the adoption of
more sustainable livelihoods).
Water and Climate
Interviews revealed that community members perceived water resources to be a
critically important part of the landscape, linked to forest health. Focus group
discussions revealed that the river, natural springs, and rain-fed ponds provided
benefits, including:
• Water for household, crop, and livestock use
• Humidity for improved agricultural yield
7Based on the authors’ experiences, many community members without scientific training, from
both developed and developing countries, express the belief that forests “attract” water. In Cam-
bodia, this could be due to a range of reasons. Alternatives to forests such as intensive agriculture
might have a higher use of available groundwater than forests (which tend to have deeper root
systems). It might also be due to the implications of humidity being more apparent without shade.
We choose to keep the language and meaning of participants.
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 141
• Fish habitat
• Temple stability and culturally important sites8
• Tourism attractions (e.g. waterfalls)
• Temperature reduction
During focus group discussions, participants commented on changes in the
timing, length, and intensity of the wet and dry seasons. In the upper catchment,
forest degradation was identified as a driver of change in the area becoming drier
with less ground and stored water availability. Participants reported that the quality
and quantity of water resources had declined over time. Spring-fed water resources
and wells reportedly became shallower, in some cases completely drying out. Water
infrastructure was also apparently ageing and becoming less efficient, with impacts
on agricultural yields and crops (e.g. the ability to grow vegetables in the dry
season). Agricultural intensification, including increased pesticide and herbicide
use, was associated with impacts on aquaculture, such as a decline in fish and
crabs in rice fields. Increased variability in weather also reportedly resulted in
chicken deaths. Successive drought and heavy rain were identified as exacerbating
the risks of flooding due to soils becoming hydrophobic, and were identified as
resulting in increased microfinance debt for some households given lower yields
associated with these conditions. The following quote is an example from these
discussions:
Since last year, degradation of forest in the Park has caused surrounding areas to become
drier. This affected yield of cashew nuts and water availability of Teuk chub [spring water].
(Men’s focus group, Svay Leu District)
Health Impacts Associated with Landscape Change
During focus group discussions, participants identified health benefits as an ecosys-
tem service provided by forests. Changes in forest extent were identified as increas-
ing heat stress in both humans and animals, and loss of trees from roadsides and
around houses and villages was identified as resulting in increased dust, affecting
respiratory health. Participants associated the increased use of chemical fertilisers
and pesticides to improve crop yield with pollution of limited freshwater resources
(including spring-fed ponds, lakes, and wells). Increased frequency and intensity of
storms were also associated with health impacts, including waterborne illnesses. The
following quotes exemplify these discussions:
Before the water sources were clean, but now it is so bad and that is why we need to use
water filters to clean the water for household consumption. (Women’s focus group, Svay Leu
District)
The agricultural waste and chemical use flowed into the streams and badly affected the
villagers’ health, like diarrhoea, itch, etc., when they used that polluted water. (Men’s focus
group, Varin District)
8Additional temples exist in the upper catchment outside of the Park boundary.
142 C. Jacobson et al.
Connections Between Upper Catchment and the Park
Participants identified linkages between the upper and lower parts of the catchment
(where the Park is situated). Focus group discussions included comments about
nutrient flows linked to soil nutrients, groundwater quality, and agricultural input
use. The use of “traditional” compost was identified as an option to mitigate the
impacts of agricultural inputs on water, and maintain soil nutrients. Some partici-
pants were aware of the connection between their interaction with the landscape and
its effect on lower parts of the catchment (i.e. the Park). One example is provided
below:
[Soil erosion] could flow to fill in the lake from year to year, and the water level would
become lower and lower and cause water shortage in the next year. And the poor families
would lose some foods (fish) from this bad event. (men’s focus group, Prasat Bakong
District)
Prospects for the Future
Interviews revealed that community members have already adapted livelihoods from
a predominant reliance on rice to other crops, including cassava and cashew nut.
Some participants had also adapted from growing cassava and cashew to growing
other crops (e.g. vegetables, fruits) because of low yield. For example, some
participants replaced cashew with orange trees (high value) and other participants
had responded to soil quality depletion associated with cassava by rotating crops,
and growing other cash crops such as corn and watermelon. Livelihoods have also
been diversified to include chicken, duck, and pig raising.
Inequitable sharing of benefits from both forests and water was identified during
interviews. For example, changes in forests were often attributed to “outsiders” who
collected non-timber forest products and burnt the forest (for unclear purposes).
Focus group discussions emphasised the limited ability of government or commu-
nity members to enforce Community Forestry Area regulations, affecting the ability
of local communities to maximise the potential benefits of forest protection. Com-
munity Forestry Areas and Community Protected Areas are established under the
Forest Law and sub-decree on Community Forest Management, and the Law on
Natural Protected Areas, respectively. These laws enable community committees to
request areas to be recognised as such, and to recommend regulations to the
government for endorsement, and subsequently enforcement. This typically includes
the sustainable use of areas, including subsistence use of non-timber forest products,
and use of areas for cultural purposes, in accordance with community plans. Twenty-
one Community Forestry Areas and five Community Protected Areas exist within
the catchment.
Over half of interview participants (58.7%) reported that natural resources were
only sometimes sustainably managed. Less than half (39.1%) expected environmen-
tal quality to stay the same or improve in the future. During focus groups, partici-
pants identified the need for community-based natural resource management
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 143
capacity development, better enforcement of forest regulations, further investment in
water infrastructure, and governance transparency for long-term sustainability. The
following quote captures these ideas:
Community forest was protected because the villagers had understood the benefits of forest
that could provide non-timber forest products, fresh air, rain etc. for their daily life. This
village located on the peak of Mount Kulen, if there were no trees or forest, the heat would be
higher than the low land. If there was no forest, what would happen for the Siem Reap river?
(Men’s focus group, Svay Leu District)
4 Discussion
According to the respondents, ACHA project investments in water management
infrastructure reduced flood frequency and impact. This logically provided for
higher agricultural productivity (e.g. the recorded increase in the value of vegetable
production) and contributed to lower levels of severe food insecurity and debt,
suggesting significant benefits of improved water management. We did expect
benefits to arise, but had not formulated expectations about the scale of benefits.
The fact that respondents reported both decreased and increased flood frequency,
and decreased and increased impacts, suggests that respondent bias was unlikely to
have occurred (i.e. it does not indicate that respondents answered questions
according to what they thought interviewers wanted to hear). Data are also corrob-
orated by key informant interviews with APSARA staff (wherein flooding frequency
and impact did vary across the Park). We acknowledge that the 3-year time frame for
assessment (limited to ACHA project time frame) may not provide a sufficient time
period to detect impact.
The benefits of effective SEPL management (i.e. maintenance of water services)
clearly support agricultural productivity and improved health outcomes in the lower
part of the catchment through food security. While protection of the Park has enabled
regulation on deforestation within its boundaries, it has also attracted tourists and
most likely resulted in increased population growth in Siem Reap,9 adding pressure
on groundwater resources needed to support the temples. This project demonstrates
that while synergies between biodiversity protection and economic development
exist that can strengthen SEPL management, new challenges may be created whose
mitigation requires a broader landscape focus.
Focus group data from the upper catchment contributed to the understanding of
the linkages between water, loss of forests, and human health. Discussions about
forest change beyond the Park boundary, compared to the benefit of forests protected
within the Park, provide three clear lessons for SEPL management. Firstly, a loss of
9The rationale for this comment is based on the correlation between population and tourism growth.
Between 2008 and 2019, the population of Siem Reap Province grew by 12.3% (Population Census
data). Over the same time frame, tourism grew by 149.1% (Ministry of Tourism data on arrivals to
Siem Reap by air).
144 C. Jacobson et al.
forest coverage impacts human health. Some of these impacts are direct (e.g. shade
trees), whereas others are indirect. Indirect changes include a change in land use
from forest to rice, cassava, and cashew nut cultivation. The negative impacts of
these crops on soil fertility often result in increased rates of agricultural input use
(Mahanty & Milne, 2016). Increased health risks are attributed to the use of
agricultural inputs. The respondents’ awareness of these linkages bodes well for
improved SEPL management in the future. Discussions about pathways forward
indicated that alternatives do exist that improve water quality and ameliorate health
impacts (e.g. traditional composts). Health impacts are particularly important for
pregnant women who are more vulnerable, and for women in general who are more
susceptible to increases in temperature (WHO, 2014).
Secondly, the loss of biodiversity and land-use changes are clearly associated
with development pressure, with participants shifting to higher value cash crops, and
complaining about their ability to control the use of forests by “outsiders”. Cash
crops such as cassava are low labour-intensive, enabling migration of family mem-
bers for part of the year to supplement household income in the country of origin of
migrants (Eliste & Zorya, 2015). Studies from Siem Reap (e.g. Jacobson et al., 2019;
Jacobson, 2020) indicate that migration results in a loss of agricultural labour.
Losses of agricultural labour can result in less intensive production, or smaller
production areas, which can result in lower total production and food availability.
This can further exacerbate existing food insecurity for remaining members, in
addition to other reported impacts on human health, such as increasing violence
against women and children. Outsider use of forests is indicative of the rural-urban
poverty divide, whereby the urban poor in Cambodia improved their share of
disposable income by nearly twice as much as the urban rich between 2009 and
2017, whereas the rural poor improved it by only 30% as much as the rural rich.10
Illegal and “outsider” use of forests is an option for rural poor to advance themselves;
restricting forest degradation therefore requires carefully targeted development
initiatives for this group. Identifying and working with vulnerable groups who
engage in deforestation in meaningful ways remain a critical development challenge.
Lastly, the potential impacts of any future deforestation in the upper catchment,
coupled with climate change, are expected to result in water shortages and affect
temple stability in the Park (Chim et al., 2021). Likewise, any further deforestation in
the upper catchment is predicted to also affect the economic benefits from tourism
(Chim et al., 2021). This could severely affect tourism benefits associated with the
Park, estimated at 4.9 billion USD in 2019 (Ministry of Tourism, 2019). It would
also impact the ability to sustain the cultural service benefits associated with the
ACHA project in the Park, and could affect the ability to sustain food security
benefits within the Park due to the impact on groundwater reserves.
Future challenges to SEPL management include the accelerating pressures of
climate change, alongside livelihood development placing further pressure on water
10Based on the analyses of National Institute of Statistics CSES data on disposable incomes for
2009–2017.
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 145
resources. Further lower flows in the Mekong River are anticipated to undergo
proposed hydroelectric development (Hecht et al., 2019); this will affect the flood
pulse in the Tonle Sap lake, reducing groundwater levels. This compounds changes
that result from extractive uses of water. The ability to sustain ACHA project
benefits therefore depends on additional interventions that address the concomitant
impacts of development, climate change, as well as unknown impacts of the
COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism during the pandemic has all but ended, declining
by 95.5% between June 2019 and June 2020,11 with an estimated forgone annual
provincial revenue of 1.3 billion USD.12 The COVID-19 pandemic has also resulted
in many migrants returning home, with remittance losses for many; for example,
reported rates of migration in Siem Reap province prior to the pandemic were up to
46% of households, with an average remittance of 284 USD (Jacobson et al., 2019);
loss of remittances is also likely to affect debt sustainability, and places increased
pressures on food availability. These socio-economic challenges are likely to hinder
the ability to maintain biodiversity and the benefits derived from ACHA in the
future. In recent years, the physical extent of ancient Angkorian water management
infrastructure beyond existing protected area boundaries has been studied by scien-
tists (Evans, 2016), although knowledge of it likely persisted through traditional
mechanisms. Continued investment in its reinvigoration beyond the Park boundaries
is therefore likely to support the whole of landscape management.
Addressing the links between environmental health and human well-being
requires recognition that management interventions might need to occur at locations
different from where the impacts of poor management are experienced. For example,
the impacts of forest degradation are experienced in the Park in terms of lower
groundwater levels. However, the most important sites for action are probably in the
upper catchment where deforestation is higher, and the mid-catchment where
groundwater recharge can be maximised through water-efficient agriculture. In
addition to the obvious focus on water, we identified four other strategic directions
to enhance environmental health and human well-being outcomes through sustain-
able management of landscapes.
First, we advocate for community-based natural resource management (CBNRM)
to enhance SEPL management in the upper catchment, and complement existing
management of the Park in the lower catchment. CBNRM recognises that environ-
mental protection requires the survivability of communities as stewards of the
natural environment. Criteria for successful CBNRM include (1) local recognition
of problems and initiation of projects, (2) economic incentives for environmental
management, (3) alternative livelihoods that combat the opportunity costs of envi-
ronmental protection, (4) autonomy of decision-making, and (5) capacity develop-
ment (Measham & Lumbasi, 2013).
11Based on Cambodian Ministry of Tourism arrival data, reported monthly.
12Using figures of the total value of tourism reported by the minister adjusted by share of arrivals.
Reference is made to https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/cata-president-looking-ahead-
revival-tourism-industry.
146 C. Jacobson et al.
Our analysis demonstrated that community and government staff acknowledged
the importance of ecosystem services to livelihoods and well-being (criterion 1).
Economic incentives for protection exist as evidenced from economic analysis of
water infrastructure management in the Park (criterion 2). However, it is unclear
whether these will outweigh the opportunity costs of further actions to limit land-use
change and protect forests (criterion 3). Payment for Ecosystem Services (Redford &
Adams, 2009) could reduce the rate of land-use change, but the benefit distribution
as well as the identification of appropriate buyers of services will be critical. The
opportunity cost balance could also be addressed through a more nuanced under-
standing of vulnerability. This will ensure that even those who are contributing to
negative impacts, but doing so inevitably due to their vulnerability, could benefit
from development projects so as to be compensated for missed opportunities and
ensure that their livelihoods are sustainable. This will be particularly important given
the emerging economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, those
from outside of forest communities may be more vulnerable than those within,
leading them to engage in forest clearing. In development projects, these people,
as well as people within forest communities, need to be considered as beneficiaries.
For autonomy (criterion 4), some mechanisms already exist that could be
strengthened to protect forests. Management committees for Community Protected
Areas and Community Forestry Areas (examples of which exist in the upper
catchment) have the ability to set regulations on forest use, but lack resources and
a mandate to address regulation breaches. Legal provisions also exist that could
support community-based management of water, but these have had limited appli-
cation (Mak, 2017). Capacity development is also needed, as identified by commu-
nity members (criterion 5). We propose community-based monitoring of disaster
risk reduction and environmental health (e.g. Rainforth & Harmsworth, 2019) as one
mechanism for incorporating and improving knowledge and autonomy in
management.
Second, we also advocate for nature-based solutions (NBS). NBS specifically
promote nature as a means of mitigating climate change and adapting to it
(Nesshover et al., 2017). Solutions relevant to the Park include actions that
strengthen ecosystem service provision while providing alternative livelihoods.
For example, riparian planting could reduce erosion of river banks. It also has the
potential to provide food (fruit trees) and jobs in nursery production, as well as shade
trees to reduce heat stress. Alternatively, instream structures could be built that slow
the speed of water travel across the landscape and increase production yields through
soil moisture retention. Health impacts could be ameliorated through the promotion
of organic compost instead of chemical inputs. This could take advantage of existing
aquatic plants, and potentially improve production returns through organic
certification.
Third, we advocate for economic diversification. Economic diversification is
considered critical for resilience building (Davidson et al., 2016), and lessening
the risk of livelihood failure during times of uncertainty and crisis. Smallholder
reliance on one or two key crops heightens risks associated with climate change.
Market supply-chain development and careful selection of alternatives in
7 Effective Water Management for Landscape Management in the Siem Reap. . . 147
horticultural production will be important, given the market competitiveness of
imported fruits and vegetables in Cambodia (World Bank, 2015). Unique heritage
crops such as tiger-hand potato, and high-value land-efficient crops such as pepper
and moringa, could provide niche market opportunities.
Lastly, we advocate for improved disaster preparedness. Disaster management in
Cambodia is in its infancy (ESCAP, 2016). Understanding the temporal-spatial
dimensions of disasters within the catchment, and facilitating preparedness for
sudden and slow on-set events (i.e. emergency responsiveness, preparedness, and
adaptation), will enhance resilience. This includes planning for emergency water and
food reserves (i.e. rice), adaptation in crop varieties and crop choices, and prepared-
ness for emergency livelihoods (e.g. tuber crop stems and rice seed).
5 Conclusion
Our case study highlights the potential benefits of effective SEPL management from
re-invigorating ancient water management systems—benefits valued at over nine
million USD over four years in Angkor Park. Protection of forests in the Park and
water management arguably supported improved livelihoods. Improved hydrologi-
cal and biophysical monitoring and regular socio-economic and health data collec-
tion would enable more detailed quantitative assessment of the relationship between
changes in biodiversity, health, and sustainable development.
Sustaining these benefits into the future is a challenge. Increased pressure from
proximate sources (e.g. tourism in Siem Reap), global changes (e.g. climate change),
and rural-urban poverty divide that is contributing to land-use change are examples
of ongoing pressures on water resource management. Population and developmental
pressures coupled with climate uncertainty and changes in water availability mean
that a water deficit is likely to remain, or even worsen, in the future. This provides a
trade-off between tourism and water management. Tourism reinforces the need for
conservation and protection of forests. However, it also adds extractive pressure on
water resources required to maintain the temples. As a result, consideration of the
socio-economic production landscape at the catchment scale is needed to facilitate
adaptation and long-term sustainability—the same scale as ecological processes that
influence hydrological dynamics.
Our research demonstrates that effective SEPL management of the entire Siem
Reap catchment is needed, even if the socio-economic dimensions are complex.
While community members are aware of environmental deterioration and its poten-
tial impacts on the Angkor Archaeological Park, their ability to address forest and
land degradation cannot be decoupled from the need for poverty reduction. We
highlight potential solutions that recognise the dependence of communities on
natural resources, and generate benefits for communities and nature. Upstream
investment in water infrastructure, community-based management of forest and
water resources, and nature-based solutions such as riparian food forest planting
are some examples. Investments in disaster preparedness and targeting of activities
148 C. Jacobson et al.
to the most vulnerable will be critical to removing disincentives to adaptation that
result from absolute poverty.
Acknowledgements The research presented was supported with funding from the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and Trade, Manatū Aorere, New Zealand, through Angkor Community Heritage
and Advancement project, and the Angkor Landscape Management Strategy. Part of this work
included economic valuation of water management conducted by Jacobson, Professor Ken Hughey,
and Emeritus Professor Ross Cullen (Lincoln University, New Zealand), with secondary data
provided through partnership with the University of Battambang (Cambodia), New Colombo
Plan (DFAT, Australia), and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation’s Life and
Nature project. Our sincerest thanks to community members and officials for their participation, and
our teams for support with data collection.
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Chapter 8
Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation,
and Urbanisation of Alpine Landscapes
Threatening Human Health and Ecosystem
Diversity?
Andrea Fischer, Henriette Adolf, and Oliver Bender
Abstract The Jamtal Environmental Education Centre is a joint effort of the local
communities of Galtür and Ischgl and the Alpinarium museum, dedicated to high
mountain livelihoods and landscapes. For this study, we compiled available scien-
tific evidence and personal views in the two communities on the co-evolution of
human health and the biodiversity of local ecosystems. Main sources are historical
records and maps, chronosequencing in the glacier forefields, and an analysis of
contemporary land cover and glacier changes. In both communities, a large part of
the area has remained unused since the start of the records in 1857. While the glacier
area has shrunk by 70% since then, the forest area has increased as a result of
changing land use and climate. Chronosequencing reveals that the glacier forefields
are refugia for cold-adapted species under pressure from climate warming. Although
land cover has changed, no type of land use recorded in the historical data has
disappeared completely. While health services and infrastructure are thought to be
sufficient, interviewees saw the largest potential for improvement in today’s life-
style. Traditional practices involving usage of herbs or food culture, for example
related to Gentiana punctata, are still alive and important for the communities.
Keywords European Alps · Tourism · Biodiversity · Health · Museum · Silvretta
1 Introduction
Both conservation and sustainable use of mountain biodiversity can ensure the
health of humans and the ecosystem and increase the resilience of socio-ecological
systems. In this sense, mountain municipalities are promoting their landscapes as
A. Fischer (*) · H. Adolf · O. Bender
Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research of the Austrian Academy of Sciences,
Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
e-mail: andrea.fischer@oeaw.ac.at
© The Author(s) 2022 151
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_8
152 A. Fischer et al.
destinations for sports, wellness, and even health tourism. The upper Paznaun Valley
in the Austrian Alps is one of the highest settlements in the Eastern Alps. With
glaciers and badlands like steep rocky mountain faces occupying 69% of the area of
the community of Galtür and 37% of the community of Ischgl, only 1% and 5% of
the area, respectively, is inhabitable. Therefore, the majority of the land is not used
directly, despite the evidence of human impact in pollen profiles for the last
millennia.
The landscape we find there today is shaped by various geomorphological
processes, ongoing agricultural use, and modern infrastructure such as traffic, energy
production, and tourism. The community of Galtür and the Alpinarium Society
founded a museum, the Alpinarium (https://www.alpinarium.at), which came into
operation in 2003. This Erlebnismuseum (experiential museum) is dedicated to
livelihoods in high mountain regions. In 2013, the Jamtal Environmental Education
Centre was established as a joint venture between the Alpinarium, the community of
Galtür, and the Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research of the Austrian
Academy of Sciences to improve the accessibility of scientific results and initiate a
discourse with the public. The main target audience has been pupils, who can spend
a week at a mountain hut and experience high mountain nature and climate as a first
step to come to a deeper understanding of mountain landscapes based on their own
experience. Now the Environmental Education Centre has gained more cooperation
partners, like the local guides who help to extrapolate the Alpinarium museum from
the building into the backyards and outdoors. But the major impulse towards
transdisciplinarity arose from the extensive exchange between the cooperation
partners, so that the needs expressed by the communities also shape the upcoming
scientific studies.
Of the data compiled for the Environmental Education Centre, this chapter pulls
together those scientific data related to biodiversity and health. It shows that a look
back in time can help to understand current environmental changes and their
consequences for local people. Located near the border between Austria, Switzer-
land, and Italy, a nodal point of cross-Alpine mobility, the upper Paznaun Valley has
been inhabited and farmed for millennia. During industrialisation, with decreasing
trade, the prosperity of the region fell, forcing families to send their children abroad
for work. Tourism started in the late nineteenth century, changing (but not entirely
replacing) agricultural land use and increasing the mobility and exchange of goods,
people, and ideas. Consequently, poverty was alleviated, the provision of affordable
(clean) energy improved, and transport infrastructure expanded throughout this high-
alpine environment, with large investments in avalanche mitigation measures, all of
it deeply altering the socio-ecological production landscape. Changes in agricultural
land use led to decreasing biodiversity. From the mid-nineteenth century onwards,
glaciers retreated, becoming one-third of their former size. The rapid succession of
plants in the ice-free former glacier areas has created new ecological niches.
This study is focused on the co-evolution of agricultural and touristic land use,
and related changes in social settings. We tackled the former through a detailed
analysis of geodata and investigated the latter by interviews with stakeholders of the
two communities of Ischgl and Galtür. The landscape is permanently changing as a
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 153
result of both natural processes and (changing) cultural practices. We analyse the use
of agricultural areas in particular, as this has a high impact on biodiversity in the
settlement area.
Within the larger framework of the UN 2030 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), this study illustrates that the communication of pathways of sustainable
development in the past and present is a necessary endeavour to ensure the balanced
development of healthy and biodiverse socio-ecological production landscapes.
1.1 Geographical Information
The communities of Ischgl (1377 m asl) and Galtür (1600 m asl) are the highest
villages in the Paznaun Valley, right at the national border with Switzerland (Fig. 8.1
and Table 8.1), in the Austrian state of Tyrol. The highest point of the two
communities is the Fluchthorn peak (3399 m asl).
Located right at the margin of permanently inhabitable areas, the villages have a
rough climate with an annual mean temperature of 2.7 
C (Galtür 1957–2000) and
high annual precipitation (1013 mm; Fischer et al. 2019). In recent years, monthly
temperature means have exceeded past averages by up to about 4 
C. Average height
of winter snow cover is among the highest in Austria, and the topography-induced
precipitation in the case of north-westerly flows leads to high precipitation rates.
Now the glaciers are receding extremely rapidly (Fischer et al. 2021), with a
potential total deglaciation in a few decades. This could have major effects on
inhabited areas due to glacier outburst floods during the rapid retreat and sediment
erosion and rock falls after the loss of ice (Kääb et al. 2005). The high number of
rock glaciers in the area (Krainer & Ribis 2012) holds additional potential for
destabilisation during the current climate change.
The area has been inhabited for at least 6000 years (Dietre et al. 2014), with a
history of migration and adaption of different ethnolinguistic groups from German-
speaking Upper Valais, Rhaeto-Romance Switzerland, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg
(cf. Bender & Haller 2017). The specific groups brought with them greatly differing
agricultural practices, making the region a rich repository of diverse cultural prac-
tices (Gemeinde Galtür 1999).
The glaciers are located close to pastures, and the trails used for trading cattle and
goods were reportedly unpassable due to the glacier advance during the Little Ice
Age (Huhn 1997). This caused major problems, as until the sixteenth century, Galtür
and Ischgl were part of the community of Ardez in the Engadine Valley in the
Grisons (now part of Switzerland), and the area had been used as summer pasture as
was common along the main Alpine ridge in the Eastern Alps.
Working migration has involved the outgoing seasonal working migration of
poor alpine peasants’ children, mostly 6–14 years old, to big farms in the German
(Suebian) foreland (so-called Schwabenkinder) continuing from the fifteenth to the
early twentieth century (Ulmer 1943), and currently includes the presence of incom-
ing seasonal workers mainly from Eastern Europe (Bender 2015).
154 A. Fischer et al.
-10000 0
a) 10° E                15°Eb) CZ
lley
DE SK
a 48 ° N
un
 v AT
azn
a FR CH
HU
P SI HR
IT
BA 44° N
Ischgl c)
Legend
glaciers   2018
buildings
stream
Galtür borders
-10000 0
d)
inhabitants
overnight stays
Fig. 8.1 Site map (a) and location of the communities (in red) in Austria (AT) (b) of the
communities of Ischgl and Galtür in upper Paznaun, with (c) pupils in action with the Environ-
mental Education Centre in Jamtal on Jamtalferner (photo by Andrea Fischer), and (d) total
population and overnight stays (data source: Federal Administration of Tyrol)
From about 1870, the first touristic infrastructure began to be constructed, mainly
mountain huts. Slowly, summer tourism also developed down in the valley, but it
was not until the 1960s that cable cars were built—60 years after ski tourism reached
the valley. In the 1970s, earnings from winter tourism exceeded those from summer
tourism, and have been increasing since then, more strongly in Ischgl than in Galtür.
In 2019 both municipalities together had ca. 441,000 tourist arrivals and over two
million overnight stays (Land Tirol 2021).
In 2020, a population of 766 lived in Galtür on the 6 km2 of inhabitable area of a
total municipal area of 121 km2. The community of Ischgl had 1604 inhabitants
number of inhabitants
190000 200000 210000
190000 200000 210000
number of overnight stays
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 155
Table 8.1 Basic information of the study area
Country Austria
Province Tirol
District Landeck
Municipality Ischgl, Galtür
Size of geographical area (hectare) 22,400
Number of direct beneficiaries (persons) 776 + 1604
Number of indirect beneficiaries (persons) 776 + 1604
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if appropriate n.a.
Size of the case study/project area (hectare) 22,400
Geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) 46
59017.7600N, 10
14055.6500E
(5.2 km2 inhabitable area, 103 km2 total area). The population in Ischgl and Galtür
slightly decreased from 355 inhabitants in 1869 for five decades, with a strong
reversal of the trend after the census of 1923; however, the resulting average increase
for 1870–1940 amounted to only 0.25% a year, while after the Second World War
population increased significantly by 1.25% a year (Statistik Austria 2021, Fig.8.1d).
This population increase was due to a positive population change (birth surplus,
e.g. 2001–2011: +144), which over both time periods, before and after the Second
World War, exceeded the negative spatial population change (migration balance,
e.g. 2001–2011: 87). During the last 50 years, demographic change has led to a
significant ageing of the population. While the age group of 0–14 years halved, the
15–29 group stagnated, and all groups for 30+ years increased by around one-third.
This trend is a result of a strong decrease in birth rate and the increasing outmigration
of young people, mostly in search of faraway higher education opportunities and
related workplaces. On the contrary, for the period 2001–2011, about 300 persons of
the 50–74 age group in-migrated from more distant places (other political districts or
abroad) (all data from GALPIS), making the upper Paznaun Valley a typical
destination for amenity and retirement residences (Bender & Kanitscheider 2012;
Bender 2015).
Livelihoods in the valley have also exhibited distinct change (Table 8.2, Figs. 8.1
and 8.2). While the number of workplaces in the agrarian sector became nearly
insignificant, employment in the traffic and tourism sectors increased substantially,
especially in Ischgl. Likewise, from 1971 to 2011, the proportion of commuters
doubled (Fig. 8.2). In 2011, 24% of employed persons living in Ischgl and Galtür
were commuting out to other municipalities, and 38% of the persons employed in the
communities were commuting in. Especially for Ischgl, the number of persons
commuting in was three times that of those commuting out (all data from GALPIS).
Especially due to commuters, multilocal living (357 second residences in 2011 for
both municipalities), and tourists, mobility has become very high, up to a degree
which is typical for winter sport resorts in Tyrol in the uppermost locations of the
tributary valleys (Bender & Borsdorf 2014).
156 A. Fischer et al.
Table 8.2 Change of workplaces by economic sectors in the municipalities of Galtür and Ischgl
1971–2011 (source: GALPIS with temporally harmonised data after the Austrian classification of
economic activities ÖNACE)
Galtür Galtür Ischgl Ischgl
(1971) (2011) (1971) (2011)
Workplaces (total number) 235 235 360 864
Agriculture (%) 23.4 5.1 30.6 1.2
Production of goods (%) 4.7 5.1 6.7 2.1
Supply of water and energy (%) 6.4 0.0 1.7 0.8
Construction (%) 5.1 11.5 5.3 0.2
Commerce and repair (%) 5.5 13.2 5.6 11.5
Traffic and communication (%) 6.8 10.6 13.9 28.0
Tourism (%) 28.9 31.9 18.3 37.4
Banking and insurance; housing and business- 0.9 8.5 0.8 10.8
related services (%)
Other public and private services (%) 17.9 14.0 14.4 8.1
Unknown/not classified (%) 0.4 0.0 2.8 0.0
1.2 Human-Nature Interaction
Human-nature interaction in the communities over the long term is recorded in
pedological and palynological records (Dietre et al. 2014) and shows the strong
impact of human presence on biodiversity, e.g. by grazing cattle or managing forests,
and wildfires over at least the last six millennia. Cultivation of land and land use
reached up to the glaciers even as late as the 1870s, with the majority of Neolithic to
Bronze Age activities taking place above today’s tree line (Kutschera et al. 2014).
The federal maps of the Habsburg Monarchy allow the first detailed insight into the
spatial distribution of land cover at one point of time. The first land register, the
Franziszeischer Kataster (e.g. Scharr 2018), was drawn up to assign the amount of
taxes to be paid to reflect different types of land use/cover (for classes, see Fig. 8.2).
In 1963 Böhm (1970) mapped land cover in the area again in a detailed study.
Although glaciers are much smaller now, and climatic conditions much better, the
area used for grazing cattle is much smaller today—partly the effect of switching
from sheep and goats to cows. Today, irrigation of dry meadows is not as important
as it was before 1950, and the forest is reconquering the area up to the actual glacier
termini (Fischer et al. 2019). The now ice-free areas formerly covered by glacier
tongues are discussed as refugia for species under pressure by thermophilisation,
i.e. species adapted to warm conditions grow in areas where species adapted to cold
conditions used to grow (Pauli et al. 2012).
Early tourism started up in the mountains, with the building of huts by Alpine
Clubs (von Pfister 1911), not down in the valley. There, tourists were not very
appreciated, as, in contrast to travellers and traders, they were thought of as being
demanding and reluctant to pay for services. This view has definitely changed. In
contrast to other regions, like neighbouring Silbertal in Montafon, where spas have
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 157
a) working population 1961-2011 b) age distribution 1971 and 2011
100 women / men
Ischgl_2011 Galtür_2011
Ischgl Ischgl_1971 Galtür_1971
50
Galtür
0
80 40 0 40 80
# of people
c) education 1971 and 2011 d) persons/household 1971 and 2011 e) commuters 1971 and 2011
out / within Austria
600 800 400
out /other countries
500 700 350 in
400 600 300
300 500 250
200 400 200
100 300 150
0 200 100
100 50
0 0
1       2       3      4      5
household size
Galtür 1971 Ischgl 1971
Galtür 2011 Ischgl 2011
Fig. 8.2 Changes in working population by sector (a), age distribution (b), education (c), number
of persons per household (d), and commuters (e) of the communities of Ischgl and Galtür in upper
Paznaun (prepared by author, data source: Federal Administration of Tyrol)
been reported as early as 1616, neither early health tourism, such as visiting healing
baths, nor pilgrimages took place in upper Paznaun.
Only 0.18% of the area of Galtür and 2.8% of the area of Ischgl are used for ski
runs and cable cars (Table 8.3), but most of this area is also part of pastures. Over the
years, the construction of cable cars has been discussed by the local community, as
# of people # of people # persons
university
non-university higher ed
higher vocaonal college
grammar school
vocaonal school
apprenceship
mandatory school
# of people
transport & comms
age
# of commuters
158 A. Fischer et al.
Table 8.3 Proportion of area which could be used for ski resorts, area actually used for ski resorts
and other sports, and inhabitable area in total numbers and percentages (data source: Federal
Administration of Tyrol)
Area reserved for Area for other
skiing in spatial Area used for sports and Inhabitable
planning ski runs recreation area
Municipality km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 %
Galtür 2.520 2.079 0.189 0.156 0.006 0.005 1.590 1.312
Ischgl 22.956 22.215 2.823 2.732 0.022 0.022 5.200 5.032
well as on a broader scale. Some projects, like the construction of the Piz Val Gronda
cable car in Ischgl in 2013, were carried out despite protests by NGOs. Others were
debated and rejected by the locals, like the proposal of a glacier ski resort on
Jamtalferner glacier in 1976. Construction of skiing infrastructure is not only
based on the decision-making of the locals. Federal and state laws stipulate a
complex procedure of approval in terms of water resources, environmental protec-
tion, and various other aspects before cable cars can be built. Even so, the effects on
nature are debated by a much wider and diverse community (Fig. 8.3).
1.3 Health-Related Issues of Livelihood
Out of many potential scientific approaches towards measuring sustainability, well-
being, and health, indicators such as the Years of Good Life (YoGL; Lutz et al. 2021)
or the SDG Indicators (United Nations Statistical Commission 2017) for Goal
3, “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”, try to capture
the status quo and make improvements visible. A list of aims and the respective
indicators in the framework of the SDGs can be found in Appendix 1. Austria, where
the study area is located, is among the most developed countries. This results in high
scoring on SDG health indicators related to good health infrastructure such as
medical care and hospitals, as well as some low scoring on other health indicators,
for example, for alcohol consumption (Fig. 8.4).
Changes in livelihoods in the study area since 1850 are diverse, with
industrialisation and recently digitalisation affecting society. Böhm (1970) described
various physical, cultural, ecological, and societal aspects of the site at the beginning
of the period of rapid economic development (“Deutsches Wirtschaftswunder”) after
the Second World War, which drastically changed livelihoods and the landscape
even in the remotest parts of central Europe. Mountain farming was influenced by
mechanisation of work, with increasing amounts of machinery and decreasing
numbers of workers (Lichtenberger 1965). Figure 8.5 illustrates that the total
working hours for a typical farmer were distributed more equally around the 2010s
than in the 1960s, as holidays from the secondary occupation (in most cases in
tourism) were used for farming work. Figures for the 1960s and the 2010s are based
on a survey made by Böhm (1970) in the 1960s and the authors in 2021. In the
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 159
Fig. 8.3 Orthophotos of the communities of Galtür (left) and Ischgl (right) in 1954 and 2016 (data
source: Federal Administration of Tyrol). The number of buildings and traffic areas have increased
significantly. North of the communities, some of the former agricultural land is occupied by forest,
and south of Ischgl, part of the forest has become a ski slope
2010s, 3 h per day were needed for farm work, with 2 weeks of holidays made
possible by supportive manpower. The holidays at the end of the skiing season were
used for preparatory work, and few days were spent for hay work in July and the
second week of September. The cattle are grazed on the mountainside from June
15 to September 10 or 15, with 3 weeks of grazing outside the stable afterwards. Tree
felling and other additional work have been excluded from this study. Böhm (1970)
listed small bed and breakfast activities as typical businesses complementary to
farming in the 1960s. Although this type of business was often run by female family
members, empowering them by allowing them to earn their own money (Schmitt
2010), the summer season was part of a very busy farming time. In contrast, in more
recent times the period where two occupations overlap is much shorter.
During intensive working periods, e.g. making hay, external workers or family
members are needed as extra labour. While in the 1960s farming was the main part of
160 A. Fischer et al.
Austria
Austria   
parameter 3.1.1 parameter 3.1.2
Maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 births  Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
Austria parameter 3.2.1 parameter 3.5.2
female female
male male
Austria
Infant mortality rate (deaths per 1,000 live births) Consumption of pure alcohol in litres
Fig. 8.4 The parameters of the study area, as part of Austria, with all other countries of the world
for indicators 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.2.1, and 3.5.2 show that the supply of healthcare in Austria is above
average, but lifestyle-related health issues such as alcohol consumption clearly have the potential
for improvement (data source: United Nations Statistical Commission 2017)
working life, in the 2010s the “secondary” occupations (blue line) are the main and
most continuous part of the working life of the farmer, due to the workload being
reduced by the mechanisation of farming (data sources: Böhm 1970, author’s
survey).
2 Description of Activities and Methods
2.1 The Environmental Education Centre
The Jamtal Environmental Education Centre at Jamtalhütte hut was founded in 2013
to foster the transfer of scientific knowledge, mainly on the effects on climate
change, to the interested public directly on-site. The community of Galtür and the
local Alpinarium museum supported this project. Based on more than 30 years of
research on climate and glaciers in the area, the project has come to include more and
more disciplines and opened a dialogue between local people and scientists. This
number of countries number of countries
number of countries number of countries
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 161
35
1960s tourism/guesthouse farming
30
2010s ski resort/secondary farming
occupaon
25
20
15
10
5
0
01.01 01.02 01.03 01.04 01.05 01.06 01.07 01.08 01.09 01.10 01.11 01.12
time of the year
Fig. 8.5 Working time for a typical farmer in the 1960s (solid black line) with additional earnings
from small guesthouses (dashed black line) and farming and paid work time in the 2010s (source:
Böhm 1970, author’s survey)
dialogue comes together in the Alpinarium, where the local community presents
high-alpine livelihoods and environment, their changes over time, and their relation
to global processes.
Local activities include usage of a flowering plant called a gentian (Gentiana
punctata), designated as an intangible cultural heritage (UNESCO 2013). The roots
of Gentiana punctata are collected in a strictly regulated way to produce schnapps
used as medicine. Despite being forbidden for a short period after 1991, the practice
of collecting roots has been allowed again. Likewise, the traditional and sustainable
practice of collecting grassland plants and lichens as described by Zwitter and
Rasran (2022) has long been part of the local identity and economy, with the
numbers of gentian rising due to the intensification of land use during the Neolithic
and later periods. Zwitter and Rasran (2022) show that the usage of medical plants
led to an increase in the number of this species. Therefore, a modern restriction on
plant usage has no guarantee of preserving the niche of a species in an ecosystem,
which is the result of thousands of years of co-evolution of humans and the
biosphere. The now joint efforts of locals and scientists aim to tackle past pathways
in the co-evolution of nature and society to build a sustainable future. “Living in
harmony with nature” implies dynamic action and response from both sides, humans
and nature, to cope with pulse and pressure dynamics as societal response to
environmental pressure and vice versa (e.g. Collins et al. 2007).
working hours per full time employee per day
162 A. Fischer et al.
2.2 Analysing Land-Use Change from Historical Maps
and Land Cover Types
Repeated data on biodiversity in the area are rare and restricted to single plots. For
example, the chronosequencing of the periglacial area of Jamtalferner shows the
rapid succession of vascular plants after glacier retreats (Fischer et al. 2019). One of
the major drivers of changes in biodiversity is land use, as shown in numerous
studies (e.g. Mayer et al. 2009, Brugger & Erschbamer 2012). To get an impression
of the spatial distribution of land cover/land use and its changes, we analysed
historical maps and modern data of the Federal Administration of Tyrol. The
changing extent of glaciers (Fischer et al. 2021) and the area of rock glaciers
complement the total picture of land cover/land use and badlands in the study area.
In addition, information on historical and present infrastructure related to human
health was compiled, including local health infrastructure.
2.3 Interviews
To reach this study’s aims, we carried out interviews with mayors and managers in
the local authorities (Gemeindeamtsleiter) in February 2021. The interviews were
structured and followed a set of open-ended questions (see Appendices A2 and A3).
3 Results
3.1 Land-Use Change
In both communities, the portion of agrarian land (agriculture, pastures) has
decreased since 1857 (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7, Table 8.4). In 1857, alpine pastures reached
up to the actual glacier areas, but these are not used for grazing cattle today. The
largest part of the areas of both communities is badlands, forests, and alpine
meadows. In Galtür, large-scale timber production for the salt mine located in Hall
reduced the total amount of forest drastically in the nineteenth century. Today the
proportion of forest in Galtür is small but on the increase again as a result of
abandoning of alpine pastures and of the warming climate raising the treeline. In
1857 traffic routes (footpaths) led to the Swiss border. Today no road across the
border exists. Recreational areas are not evident from the 1857 maps. In relative
figures, the fraction of both recreational and inhabitable areas in both communities is
small. Therefore, most areas in both communities can be considered to be unaffected
by direct local human influence. Larger scale pressures like climate change,
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 163
-10000 0 -11250 -11000 -3000
municipal boundary Ischgl
foot paths/traffic area
water
farm buildings
stone houses
public buildings
sacral buildings
vegetable garden
agriculture
meadow
alpine pasture
forest
rocks
Galtür rock glacierglacier ~1850 AD Galtür 1857 Ischgl 1857
Fig. 8.6 Land use as displayed in the cadastral map Urmappe/Franziszeische Mappe of 1857 (map created by the authors based on the cadastral map Urmappe/
Franziszeische Mappe)
2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 3 0 0 0 2 0 3 5 0 0
2 0 8 0 0 0 2 0 8 2 5 0
2 0 8 0 0 0 2 0 8 2 5 0
164 A. Fischer et al.
Fig. 8.7 Land use as displayed by the land-use plan (Flächenwidmungsplan) of the Federal Administration of Tyrol for 2018 (source: Land Tirol, data.tirol.gv.
at 2021)
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 165
Table 8.4 Land use in the communities of Galtür and Ischgl in absolute figures. The year 1857 was extracted from the map of the land register of Francis I
(Urmappe of the Franziszeischer Kataster), and other data were provided by the Federal Administration of Tyrol. Although the data sources have been compiled
in very different legal frameworks and settings, they allow for interpretation of the general picture of changes, which can also be gleaned from changes in the
classifications themselves. For example, the footpaths of theUrmappe have only limited economic or legal impact today, as most of the traffic is on roads. Traffic
areas were not compiled for every year in the table
Buildings Agriculture Vegetable gardens Alpine pasture Forest Water Traffic area Other
Year km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2
Galtür 1857 0.024 6.009 0.002 46.087 4.657 0.482 0.044 63.930
1944 0.039 2.935 0.000 45.885 3.917 0.000 68.389
1973 0.050 3.091 0.000 45.471 3.939 0.448 68.166
1983 0.056 3.076 0.000 45.471 3.939 0.456 68.167
1987 0.062 3.070 0.000 45.469 3.939 0.456 68.169
1991 0.070 3.057 0.000 45.469 3.939 0.457 0.307 68.174
1995 0.084 2.919 0.001 45.449 4.084 0.460 0.312 67.866
1998 0.085 2.845 0.025 45.543 4.045 0.457 0.316 68.174
2001 0.104 2.636 0.100 45.515 4.131 0.460 0.356 68.227
2002 0.110 2.667 0.097 45.482 4.131 0.460 0.356 68.227
2005 0.077 2.660 0.103 45.482 4.131 0.462 0.360 68.264
2014 0.106 2.532 0.100 33.102 14.829 1.603 0.478 69.381
2015 0.106 2.531 0.100 33.102 14.829 1.603 0.478 69.381
2020 0.109 2.527 0.109 33.047 14.833 1.608 68.995
Ischgl 1857 0.050 13.437 0.014 51.772 21.620 0.333 0.084 16.205
1944 0.068 3.847 0.000 61.851 19.659 0.000 18.002
1973 0.075 4.292 0.000 61.829 19.285 0.318 17.628
1983 0.120 4.240 0.002 61.826 19.248 0.325 17.629
1987 0.139 4.184 0.002 61.819 19.238 0.326 17.681
1991 0.149 4.170 0.002 61.819 19.238 0.328 0.362 17.682
1995 0.130 4.199 0.016 61.803 19.224 0.328 0.368 17.260
(continued)
166 A. Fischer et al.
Table 8.4 (continued)
Buildings Agriculture Vegetable gardens Alpine pasture Forest Water Traffic area Other
Year km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2
1998 0.140 4.122 0.056 61.803 19.213 0.336 0.405 17.661
2001 0.250 3.504 0.216 61.793 19.497 0.338 0.442 17.731
2002 0.255 3.490 0.211 61.793 19.455 0.338 0.443 17.786
2005 0.132 3.482 0.221 61.790 19.449 0.342 0.452 17.924
2014 0.231 3.789 0.137 37.246 23.816 1.012 0.750 36.087
2015 0.231 3.790 0.138 37.246 23.816 1.012 0.750 36.086
2020 0.235 3.780 0.142 37.404 23.768 0.995 37.014
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 167
pesticides, and accumulation of microplastics by rain and snow, however, occur.
Areas set free by the shrinking Alpine glaciers provide new refugia and niches for
vascular plants (Fischer et al. 2019).
3.2 Interviews on Health Issues
All interview partners described the health infrastructure and medical provision as
good and sufficient for both municipalities (see the complete interviews in Appendix
2). At the same time, the way of life clearly has potential for a change towards a
healthier one—reducing the need for medical interventions. Traditional medicines,
schnapps, and fresh and healthy foods and herbs are all getting increasing attention
in the municipalities both for personal use and as a touristic attraction.
4 Discussion
The data presented in this study relate to Goal 3 of the UN Sustainable Development
Goals, “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”, as well as
SDG 15, “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degra-
dation and halt biodiversity loss”, but gaps in knowledge are evident. By combining
data on changes in land cover and livelihoods in two Alpine villages, we try to relate
sustainable development of the landscape to human health and well-being.
In Austria, one of the richest countries in the world, healthcare in the communities
is very good, with low maternal mortality and an environment that sustains health.
As evident from the interviews, lifestyle is considered a major criterion for health
and well-being. Interviewees expected the most room for improvement at this
individual level. To identify this potential, our land cover and demographic data
need to be complemented by empirical social research. What is clear, however, is
that only together are scientists and local people able to approach any problems in a
broader and more effective way—and hopefully find answers.
Keeping in mind the historical background of the partial deforestation of Galtür in
the course of timber production for the salt mines in Hall, present changes in land
cover are less drastic and have minor effects. Even accounting for the increased area
used for settlements and the skiing industry, every type of land use is still present.
Changes in the landscape are found mainly in Ischgl during the summer, as the
arable fields of the 1950s have been replaced by meadows—a general phenomenon
in the Alps for the second half of the twentieth century. The forest is now regaining
areas which had been used for grazing cattle, and warmer temperatures allow trees to
168 A. Fischer et al.
conquer areas occupied by glaciers 100 years ago. With ongoing debates about land
use at all levels of society and politics, awareness of land-use changes and their
implications may be greater than ever in history.
5 Conclusion
In the communities of Ischgl and Galtür, land use/land cover has changed, with an
increasing portion of previously used land being abandoned. Changes in climate
have led to glacial recession with biotic succession and a rise in the treeline. Both
factors have impacted biodiversity. Human impact on the landscape since 1857
comprises an increase in the settlement areas, a decrease in arable fields, as well as
the addition of traffic and tourism infrastructure. The areas used for ski tourism are
also part of alpine pastures.
Traditional health-related activities are the ongoing use of Gentiana punctata as a
medicinal drug and as a herb, although for a short period, use of the roots of this
protected plant was forbidden. Now, strictly limited use is allowed again and
protected in the United Nations’ framework for cultural heritage.
The local people of the communities of Ischgl and Galtür see the landscape they
live in as an intrinsic part of their livelihood, and one they benefit from for their own
health and for health tourism. Living standards in the middle of the European Alps
are already very high in terms of health infrastructure, food and water security,
affordable and clean energy, and climate change mitigation and adaptation. SDG
indicators for Austria confirm the statements in the interviews that future optimisa-
tion of health and well-being does not need additional resources and infrastructure,
but a change in the way of life. In the light of the “One Health” approach and the aim
of “living in harmony with nature”, the most important piece of the puzzle to be
improved now is the individual lifestyles to increase personal well-being and
resonance with nature.
Acknowledgements We thank the communities of Ischgl and Galtür as well as the Alpinarium,
the Jamtal Environmental Education Centre, and the Jamtal hut for their cooperation and support.
The Federal Administration of Tyrol provided Open Government geodata and statistics. Last but far
from least we thank Brigitte Scott for improving the language!
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 169
Appendix 1
Table 8.5 Targets and indicators for SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at
all ages (Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General, 2019)
Aim Indicator
3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal 3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio
mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live 3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled
births health personnel
3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of new- 3.2.1 Under-5 mortality rate
borns and children under 5 years of age, with all 3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate
countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to
at least as low as 12 per 1000 live births and
under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per
1000 live births
3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, 3.3.1 Number of new HIV infections per
tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical 1000 uninfected population, by sex, age, and
diseases and combat hepatitis, waterborne dis- key populations
eases, and other communicable diseases 3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000
population
3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1000 population
3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000
population
3.3.5 Number of people requiring interven-
tions against neglected tropical diseases
3.4 By 2030, reduce by one-third premature 3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovas-
mortality from non-communicable diseases cular disease, cancer, diabetes, or chronic
through prevention and treatment and promote respiratory disease
mental health and well-being 3.4.2 Suicide mortality rate
3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment 3.5.1 Coverage of treatment interventions
of substance abuse, including narcotic drug (pharmacological, psychosocial, and rehabili-
abuse and harmful use of alcohol tation and aftercare services) for substance-use
disorders
3.5.2 Alcohol per capita consumption (aged
15 years and older) within a calendar year in
litres of pure alcohol
3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global 3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries
deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sex- 3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive
ual and reproductive healthcare services, age (aged 15–49 years) who have their need for
including for family planning, information and family planning satisfied with modern methods
education, and integration of reproductive 3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged
health into national strategies and programmes 10–14 years; aged 15–19 years) per 1000
women in that age group
3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, 3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services
including financial risk protection, access to 3.8.2 Proportion of population with large
quality essential healthcare services, and access household expenditures on health as a share of
to safe, effective, quality, and affordable total household expenditure or income
essential medicines and vaccines for all
(continued)
170 A. Fischer et al.
Table 8.5 (continued)
Aim Indicator
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number 3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household
of deaths and illnesses from hazardous and ambient air pollution
chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and 3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe
contamination water, unsafe sanitation, and lack of hygiene
(exposure to unsafe water, sanitation, and
hygiene for all (WASH) services)
3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to
unintentional poisoning
3.a Strengthen the implementation of the 3.a.1 Age-standardised prevalence of current
World Health Organization framework con- tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and
vention on tobacco control in all countries, as older
appropriate
3.b Support the research and development of 3.b Support the research and development of
vaccines and medicines for the communicable vaccines and medicines for the communicable
and non-communicable diseases that primarily and non-communicable
affect developing countries, provide access to
affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in
accordance with the Doha Declaration on the
TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which
affirms the right of developing countries to use
to the full the provisions in the Agreement on
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public
health, and, in particular, provide access to
medicines for all
3.c Substantially increase health financing 3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution
and the recruitment, development, training, and
retention of the health workforce in developing
countries, especially in least developed coun-
tries and small island developing states
3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in 3.d.1 International Health Regulations (IHR)
particular developing countries, for early warn- capacity and health emergency preparedness
ing, risk reduction, and management of national
and global health risks
Appendix 2 Interview on Galtür and Health
Anton Mattle (AM), mayor of Galtür, and Helmut Pöll (HP), head of the municipal
administration of Galtür, were interviewed in German on 2 February 2021, 10:10–
10:30 a.m., by Andrea Fischer (AF). The transcript was translated into English.
AF: Question 1. Galtür and health: What is your assessment of the current
healthcare provision?
HP: Healthcare provision is mainly covered by the local general practitioner. The
nearest hospital is in Zams. It is well equipped and can be reached by car in about
40 min. Specialist doctors across the spectrum are available in Zams, Landeck, and
Innsbruck. I would consider the medical provision very good.
8 Are the Skiing Industry, Globalisation, and Urbanisation of Alpine. . . 171
Older people are being cared for either at home by members of their family or in
the home for the elderly. There is support for care at home available from the local
care services Sozialsprengel, for instance with looking after patients. The home for
the elderly is run jointly with other municipalities and is located in the village of
Grins at the start of the Paznaun Valley. Whether people are cared for at home or in
the home for the elderly depends not just on their health status and the related
medical and care needs, but also on the total circumstances of the family, for instance
whether there is sufficient space available, whether all family members are working,
or someone is at home.
AF: Question 2. Galtür and health: How is health in Galtür—how has the
situation changed in recent decades?
HP: Health has declined. We no longer lead as healthy lives as the older people.
For example, my father ate everything, including bacon with lots of fat, but then he
did hours of physical labour. So he never had any problems with his weight, and he
was never really ill and lived to over 90. So that fat never accumulated. Today we
lack exercise. Of course, medicine has made great advances, and we can fix a lot. But
our lifestyle is not as healthy as in the past.
AF: Question 3. What traditional substances and practices of healing exist in
Galtür?
HP: Many people still use herbs in everyday life, for cooking and as tisanes. In
our community we also have individuals who work with healing herbs as a sideline
and produce oils and salves. We have also developed touristic options in this respect,
for instance the learn-about-herbs path.
AM: In our village the spotted gentian [Gentiana punctata] is distilled into
schnapps which is used as a traditional healing substance. Unlike the yellow gentian
[Gentiana lutea], the spotted gentian cannot be cultivated. It is already mentioned
way back in the herbarium of Admont monastery as a medical drug with a number of
applications. Gentian of course also has a cult following. Marmot fat is another
example, it is used against problems of the musculoskeletal system, but also in
midwifery, for humans and animals.
AF: Question 4. What is your view of health tourism?
AM: We work with what nature offers us, our landscape. We want to preserve
nature, our ancestors rejected plans to develop glacier skiing. Our village is part of
the climate association and we participated in a climate change adaptation project.
We are the only climatic spa in Tyrol and have been awarded the ECARF label of the
European Centre for Allergy Research Foundation.
Appendix 3 Interview on Ischgl and Health
Christian Schmid (CS), Ischgl local authority manager, was interviewed on
4 February 2021, 13:00–13:30 by Andrea Fischer (AF)
AF: Question 1. What is the current health infrastructure like?
172 A. Fischer et al.
CS: General practitioner Dr. Walser employs four doctors. Then there is the
Schenk sports injury surgery, equipped with a CT scanner; they also operate two
rescue helicopters in the skiing area, but only in the winter season from late
November to early May. We have two ambulances of the Red Cross stationed in
the village, plus another rescue helicopter of the Austrian automobile club ÖAMTC
stationed all year round in Finais/Zams. One dentist and two physiotherapists have
their practices in the village. The home for the elderly is located in Grins, and the
Ischgl care association supports the infrastructure for care at home.
AF: Question 2. In your view, has the health situation improved or declined in
recent decades?
CS: In the past there was only one ambulance and one general practitioner in the
village, so provision has improved. But the people practiced more exercise in the
past, and possibly also more leisure time. It would be good to be free every day from
about 4 p.m. and have the weekends free. There is a rethink among younger people;
they roam our mountains again in summer and winter, getting exercise.
AF: Question 3. Is there traditional medicine in Ischgl?
CS: In Galtür there is the Enzner (schnapps) (laughs). In Ischgl we have good
cuisine—ten gourmet restaurants and five-star chefs. Gathering gentian is not as
popular here as in Galtür, but the restaurants in our village and up on Idalpe use local
produce. There is a small slaughterhouse in Ischgl and a farm cheesemaker. A range
of produce of the 60 farmers in our municipality is processed and consumed in our
village.
AF: Question 4. Is there health tourism in Ischgl?
CS: In 1969 we created a forest swimming pool with tennis courts (pulled down
and rebuilt in 1993). In summer you can walk, climb, cycle, and play tennis, and in
winter you can ski, snowboard, go cross-country skiing, ice skate, and much more.
In short, enjoy nature in its beauty to the full. The open-air swimming pool and the
leisure centre, built in 1986, are beginning to show their age. A new spa is under
construction.
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Chapter 9
Promoting Local Health Traditions
and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study from
a Biocultural Hotspot of India
N. Anil Kumar, V. V. Sivan, and P. Vipindas
Abstract Degradation of socio-ecological production landscapes (SEPLs) trig-
gered mainly by the impoverishment of biodiversity and the increasing incidence
of climate catastrophes significantly challenges human health and food and nutri-
tional security. Critical concern needs to be placed on ensuring both human and
ecosystem health and contributing to nutrition-sensitive local food production and
protection of SEPLs. As case points, we describe herein a few interventions and
their impacts in promoting the conservation, cultivation, consumption, and com-
mercial aspects regarding the medicinal and food plant diversity of a biocultural
diversity hotspot in the Malabar region of India. The local communities of this
region have historically possessed a wide array of local health traditions (LHTs)
and local food baskets (LFBs) based on a landscape approach. Yet, this richness is
being eroded or oversimplified, and as a result, many plants important for their
local food and health value are becoming rare. The need for revitalisation of the
LHTs and LFBs through homestead and landscape-level interventions is discussed
in view of human immunity to infectious diseases. Recommendations are also
suggested to address some of the policy gaps in promoting the sustainable man-
agement of SEPLs.
Keywords Biodiversity · Local health and food traditions · Self-help groups ·
Primary healthcare training · Home nutrition gardens · Immunity
1 Context
Biodiversity is the major link between environment, food, medicine, and human
health. Although areas rich in biodiversity have a correspondingly high number of
potential pathogens that can impact human health negatively, these viruses often live
safely in animal reservoirs. The services of ecosystems that are rich in biodiversity
N. Anil Kumar (*) · V. V. Sivan · P. Vipindas
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Meppadi, Kerala, India
e-mail: anil@mssrf.res.in
© The Author(s) 2022 177
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_9
178 N. Anil Kumar et al.
often have the capacity to shield as a protective factor to prevent transmission of
infectious diseases (Romanelli et al., 2015). The research and communication needs,
however, remain enormous for our modern society to valuate such services of the
ecosystems, for both wild and socio-ecological production landscapes (SEPLs), and
to understand the interlinkages between human, environment, and animal health.
Health traditions of pre-modern societies across the globe have treated environment
and human health synergistically as one health to fight many human health prob-
lems. For instance, in the Indo-Malayan realm, the Indian region in particular has an
age-old non-institutional practice of local health traditions (LHTs) and maintenance
of local food baskets (LFBs), with the active participation of around one million
traditional healers and around 200 million informed households involving the use of
over 7500 plant species (Arima & Harilal, 2018). The holistic systems of medicine
that originated in India, such as Ayurveda (an alternative medicine system which
postulates “Food itself is medicine and medicine itself is food”), Sidha (a traditional
Tamil system of medicine), yoga, naturopathy, and Sowa-Rigpa (enriched in the
Trans-Himalayan region and has similarity with Ayurvedic philosophy), put equal
emphasis on the mind, body, and spirit and strive to manage health in a holistic
manner. Diverse methods for improving immunity in both codified and non-codified
systems and ranging from herbal water and tea, Choorna (powdered form), Lehyam
(colloid form), and Kashaya (tinctures) to complex rejuvenation therapies are known
in India. Plants for these preparations are often harvested from the community
landscapes (SEPLs). The community landscapes are in general maintained with a
mosaic of vegetation types, such as community forests, sacred groves (remnants of
past evergreen forests untouched due to religious beliefs), moist bamboo brakes,
bushes, scrubs, riparian forests, swamps, and marshy grasslands.
Sen and Chakraborty (2017) reported local trade of more than 1500 herbals as
dietary supplements or traditional ethnic medicines in India. These therapeutic and
dietary domains together produce up to 25,000 effective plant-based formulations
that are commonly used by a large majority of rural and ethnic people. Although
India has rich plant species with diverse folk medicinal usages recorded in the
community-managed landscapes, only a fraction of these species have been studied
scientifically for their pharmacological potential or health benefits.
The case reported here from the Malabar region of India is intended to throw light
on the need for increasing awareness on the availability of and informed access to
local medicinal and food plant diversity, healthy diets, and a favourable policy
environment related to primary healthcare and production and consumption of
healthy foods. The chapter points towards the need for scientific understanding of
the interlinkages between the ecological heterogeneity of production landscapes,
traditional resource management practices, and abundance or scarcity of plants of
therapeutic, food, and health value to local communities.
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 179
2 About the Intervention Site
The intervention took place in the Wayanad district, a hilly terrain in the historic and
globally renowned maritime destination that is the Malabar region. Wayanad terrain,
covering an area of 2172 sq. km, encompasses the southwest part of the Nilgiri
mountain range (76
150–77
150E and 11
150–12
150N). It is an east-sloping, gently
undulating, medium-elevation plateau abruptly descending in the west to the Kerala
plains but merging imperceptibly with the Mysore plateau to the east. Malabar is
known for its rich diversity of spices like black pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom,
and medicinal plants. For Malabar, the historic treatise of van Rheed’s “Hortus
Malabaricus”, published between 1678 and 1693, is a testimony of its rich herbal
heritage. Malabar is one of the richest centres of endemic, endangered biodiversity
and cultural diversity of the country (Fig. 9.1). The basic information on the
intervention site is provided in Table 9.1.
The biodiversity of Wayanad is greatly influenced by the management
approaches of the diverse “sociocultural groups” that live there (Fig. 9.2). There
are over 36 ethnic communities in Kerala, of which 11 are seen in the district.
Farming communities in Wayanad cultivate more than 100 taxa of edible roots,
tubers, and rhizomes; 20 varieties of legumes; 16 citrus cultivars; 150 vegetable
varieties; and about 14 Musa cultivars (M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
(MSSRF), 2020).
Wayanad’s population counts 817,420 people (401,684 males and 415,736
females) with a tribal population of 148,215 members, which constitutes 18.1% of
Fig. 9.1 Map of Kerala state and Malabar region (source: authors’ creation based on map retrieved
from Wikimedia Commons Contributors, 2021)
180 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Table 9.1 Basic information of the study area (source: Government of Kerala, 2013)
Country India
Province Kerala
District Wayanad
Municipality n.a.
Size of geographical area 213,100
(hectare)
Number of direct beneficiaries 51,320
(persons)
Number of indirect beneficiaries 81,742
(persons)
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if Muslims; however, 18.53% of the population are Adivasis
appropriate (indigenous communities)
Size of the case study/project 134,313
area (hectare)
Geographic coordinates (lati- 11.6854
 N, 76.1320
 E
tude, longitude)
Fig. 9.2 Map of Kerala state and Wayanad district (source: authors’ creation based on map
retrieved from Wikimedia Commons Contributors, 2021)
the total population (Census of India, 2011). Paniya is the largest tribal group in
Kerala, and 74.49% of the population of this tribe lives in this district. The
Katunaikka, a forest-dependent community belonging to the Particularly Vulnerable
Tribal Group (PVTG) category, also has a wide presence. Scores on basic human
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 181
development indices for education and health are alarming among both these
communities.
The terrain is a mosaic of diverse ecosystems ranging from mid-elevation plateau
to high-range mountain landscapes with wet evergreen forests, and grasslands to
dry-deciduous and scrub jungles. Apart from the wild vegetation types, the food and
agricultural production landscapes are seen with certain edaphic types such as reed
brakes, moist bamboo brakes, secondary evergreen forests, pseudo sholas, and
marshy grasslands. Part of Wayanad’s forests is a wildlife sanctuary protected
under the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR).
3 The Intervention
The intervention of M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) in the herb-
based healthcare sector among the local communities, entitled the Green Health
Programme (in partnership with the Department of Biotechnology, Government of
India, and a local NGO called Vanamoolika), aimed at revitalisation of primary
healthcare practices and was put into action during four intermittent time periods
(1998 to 2001; 2004 to 2006; 2008 to 2010; and 2015 to 2018) with the following
five major activities:
1. Formation and capacity-building of women’s self-help groups (SHGs) and
farmers' forums under the supervision of traditional healers, Ayurvedic physi-
cians, botanists, and nutrition experts
2. Collection, conservation, and cultivation of medicinal plants focusing on an
inventory of medicinal plants known to the community and documentation of
associated traditional knowledge
3. Cultivation, validation, value addition, and marketing of medicinal rice called
Navara (Njavara/Nakara)
4. Collection, conservation, and consumption of wild food plants
5. Enriching the local food baskets by promoting home nutrition gardens
4 Key Results
The results that emerged from the intervention revealed the SEPLs to be comprised
of shade-grown coffee farms with diverse wild trees on hill slopes and integrated rice
paddies in the valleys, alongside networked water canals and bushes, head ponds,
and sacred groves, with many relict species still existing on hill tops and accessed by
tribal and local men and women. How the interventions helped to improve human
and environmental health is schematically shown in Fig. 9.3 and described herein.
182 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Fig. 9.3 Schematic illustration of the results of the interventions: The graphic shows how the
interventions helped to improve human and environmental health. The revitalisation and
popularisation of local health traditions (LHTs) and local food baskets (LFBs) have had impacts
on both human and environmental health. Revitalisation and popularisation of LHTs helped to
conserve plant diversity associated with LHTs and thereby plant diversity contributing to environ-
mental health. Those who depend on LHTs benefit from good-quality primary healthcare with little
economic cost (source: conceptualised by authors (N. Anil Kumar, V. V. Sivan, Vipindas P) for this
case study to communicate various interconnections between human and environmental health)
4.1 Formation and Capacity-Building of Women’s Self-Help
Groups (SHGs) and Farmers’ Forums
The Green Health Programme resulted in benefitting approximately 7000 rural and
tribal women, including all the women SHGs and their family members and neigh-
bours from Wayanad and the adjoining districts—Calicut and Malappuram. A total
of 28 SHGs, each comprised of 10–15 women from resource-poor families, were
trained, with group leaders serving as master trainers. Group members were encour-
aged to revitalise the practices and methods of the local healthcare systems, includ-
ing medicinal plant identification, propagation, harvesting, preparation, storage, and
use of primary healthcare products. Selected groups received 8 days of intensive
training over a period of 8 months in the preparation of a set of 36 herbal formula-
tions grouped into five categories: choornam (powder), lehyam (colloid form),
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 183
thailam (oil), gulika (tablets), and powdered seed mixtures. One of the lehyams was
“chyavanaprash”, an ancient Ayurvedic product for boosting immunity prepared
using 46 different ingredients (Table 9.2). Many of the medicinal herbs needed for
this preparation were once commonly available in the traditionally managed agri-
cultural landscapes.
The concept of “People’s Biodiversity Registers” for recording of local knowl-
edge was also shared with group members to facilitate the access and benefit-sharing
mechanism. Not less than 500 awareness classes were conducted under this activity
for SHG members. They were taken to observe various vegetation types, in partic-
ular the agricultural production landscapes, to help them understand the distribu-
tional differences of medicinal plants according to the land-use types. They were
also allowed to visit well-reputed Ayurvedic institutions to get first-hand experience
in their herbal gardens and drug production units, and to learn from their doctors.
The trained women were actively involved in the production and consumption of
several primary healthcare products, household-level herbal preservation, and con-
sumption of self-prepared products made from medicinal and wild edible plants. The
trainees prepared these formulations for their own healthcare needs as well as to
serve as an additional income source. The quality of the new formulations was
assessed before marketing with the help of well-reputed research organisations. Nine
of these products that were found to have high local demand were marketed by the
SHGs. Marketing was conducted through neighbourhood sales and local horticul-
tural and seed fairs. One of the best-selling formulations, a “Navadhanya mixture”
(a mixture of nine types of grains), was tested and found to be nutritionally richer
than many similar products available in the market as per the results of a nutritional
analysis. All groups were trained on marketing techniques and developed their own
marketing strategies, with income from sales always divided proportionately among
members.
The initiative began at the grassroots level and was scaled up to establish a fully
equipped and licensed factory (Fig. 9.4) in Wayanad in 2008 with financial support
from the state government. It is being managed by one of the partnering organisa-
tions named Vanamoolika, along with the women SHG members.
Another highlight was a state government-supported project for production of ten
selected herbal products. This project paved the way for organising a medicinal plant
cultivators’ society named JEEVANI to help small-scale farmers cultivate and
market medicinal plants. The 165 farmers registered as members in this society
were linked with the Kerala Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation
(KINFRA) for large-scale cultivation of medicinal plants.
Following project activities, people who never had the habit of keeping more than
ten essential species of medicinal plants started to grow many more medicinal herbs
at their households. According to project records, the number of species maintained
in households and nearby areas ranged from 25 to 200, and people understood their
potential uses. This practice reduced the pressure on wild habitats, ensuring the
sustainability and health of the ecosystem.
184 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Table 9.2 Ingredients in the chyavanaprash lehyam (an ancient Ayurvedic product for boosting
immunity)
Common/
No. Malayalam name Binomial name English name
1 Munja root Premna serratifolia L. Headache tree
2 Koovala root Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Bel tree
3 Payyani root Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth.Ex Kurz Broken bones
tree
4 Kumizhu root Gmelina arborea Roxb. Beechwood
tree
5 Paathiri root Stereospermum tetragonum DC. Yellow snake
tree
6 Kurunthotti root Sida alnifolia L. Bala
7 Orila root Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. Sal leaved
desmodium
8 Moovila root Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. Sticky
desmodium
9 Kaattuzhunnu root Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek Wild black
gram
10 Thippali root Piper longum L. Long pepper
root
11 Vanthippali Piper chaba Trel. & Yunck. Bangla
thippali fruit
12 Naikkurana root Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Cowhage,
velvet bean
13 Cheruvazhuthana root Solanum violaceum Ortega Small brinjal
14 Cheruchunda Solanum indicum L. Indian night
shade
15 Karakkadakasringi Pistacia chinensis subsp. integerrima Chinese
(J. L. Stewart ex Brandis) Rech. f. pistache
16 Keezharnelli Phyllanthus amarus L. Feather foil
plant
17 Munthiringa Vitis vinifera L. Raisins
18 Adapathiyankizhangu Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. Swallowwort
19 Pushkaramoolam Inula racemosa Hook. f. Orris root
20 Akil Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. ex C.DC. White cedar
21 Kadukkathodu Terminalia chebula Retz. Chebulic
myrobalan
22 Amruthu Tinospora cordifolia (Thunb.) Miers Giloy
23 Kaattumuthira root Dolichos trilobus L. Wild horse
gram
24 Jeevakam idavakam Malaxis rheedii B. Heyne ex Wallace Jeevak
25 Kacholam Kaempferia galanga L. Galanga, sand
ginger
26 Muthanga Cyperus rotundus L. Nut grass
27 Thazhuthama Boerhavia diffusa L. Spreading hog
weed
(continued)
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 185
Table 9.2 (continued)
Common/
No. Malayalam name Binomial name English name
28 Kaatupayar root Vigna vexillata (L.) A. Rich Wild green
gram
29 Sathavarikkizhangu Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagus
30 Amukkuram Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Winter cherry
31 Chittelam Heracleum rigens Wall. ex DC Heracleum
32 Chengazhineerkizhangu Kaempferia rotunda L. Indian crocus
33 Chandanam Santalum album L. Sandalwood
34 Palmuthakku Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. Giant potato
35 Adalodakam Justicia adhatoda L. Malabar nut
36 Kakkathondi Capparis sepiaria L. Wild caper
bush
37 Nellikka Phyllanthus emblica L. Indian
gooseberry
38 Neyyu Ghee
39 Then Honey
40 Nallenna Gingelly oil
41 Jaggery Raw cane
sugar
42 Koovanooru Maranta arundinacea L. Arrowroot
43 Thippali Piper longum L. Long pepper
fruit
44 Nagappoovu Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana Indian
chestnut
45 Elam Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Cardamom
46 Elavangam Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl Cinnamon
4.2 Collection, Conservation, and Cultivation of Medicinal
Plants
The trained SHG women also started developing herbal and edible food gardens on
the premises of their homes using plants that are in high demand for making the
herbal and food preparations. Herbal nurseries were set up in these gardens to raise
the locally important plants that are used to prepare the 36 herbal formulations, as
well as to supply identified medicinal plants to households, to promote community-
level medicinal plant gardens, and for commercial cultivation (Tables 9.3 and 9.4).
During the period from 2000 to 2012, the project provided seedlings of 50 species of
medicinal plants important for making home remedies to 158 SHG members to set
up their home herbal gardens. Also during this period, about 100,000 seedlings of
medicinal plant species were raised and maintained by the SHGs in two community
nurseries. The help of trained SHG members was extended to M. S. Swaminathan
Research Foundation (MSSRF) to get duplicate collections of the herbal plants,
which are raised sustainably by collecting only necessary seeds from wild plants, for
186 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Fig. 9.4 Factory established for the production of healthcare products (top left), equipment (top
right and bottom left), products (bottom right) (photo credit: Sivan V V 2008)
the MSSRF’s botanical garden. One successful outcome was the conservation of
superior varieties of seven selected medicinal plants: Aristolochia tagala, Celastrus
paniculatus, Embelia ribes, Embelia tsjeriam-cottam, Gloriosa superba, Rauvolfia
serpentina, and Saraca asoca.
4.3 Cultivation, Validation, Value Addition, and Marketing
of Medicinal Rice
Navara is reported to have multiple uses. It is a nutritious, balanced, and safe food
for people of all ages (Gopinath et al., 2008). The key result in this area was
promotion of cultivation, validation, value addition, and market development of
speciality rice varieties such as Navara and Chennellu (medicinal) and
Gandhakasala and Mullanchanna (scented). The process involved collection and
documentation, genetic purification (to establish distinct types of cultivars, if any),
clinical validation, and biochemical analysis of Navara, and studies on value
addition for the other three varieties, with a view of taking the commodities
developed to non-traditional markets as a medicinal or nutraceutical package. The
results were (1) cultivation of special varieties of rice in an area of 23 ha, involving
76 new farmers constituting five farmer clusters; (2) genetic purification of Navara
rice at the on-farm level; (3) six value-added products developed from Navara rice
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 187
Table 9.3 List of medicinal plants recommended for home herbal gardens (Kerala)
Dashapushpa (ten herbs traditionally significant to the people of Kerala)
Malayalam name Binomial name Common/ Remarks
English
name
Cheroola Aerva lanata Mountain Ten flowers/plants used during festi-
knot grass vals and in folk medicine preparations
Karuka Cynodon Bermuda
dactylon grass
Kayyonni Eclipta False daisy
prostrata
Mukkutti Biophytum Reinwardt’s
reinwardtii plant
Muyalcheviyan Emilia Cupid’s
sonchifolia shaving
brush
Nilappana Curculigo Golden eye
orchioides grass
Poovamkurunthal Vernonia Purple
cinerea fleabane
Thiruthali Ipomea obscura Lesser glory
Valliuzhinja Cardiospermum Balloon
halicacabum plant
Vishnukranthi Evolvulus Dwarf
alsinoides morning
glory
Thrikadu (group of three spicy ingredients used in Ayurveda)
Inchi Zingiber Ginger • Helps to clear excess kapha or
officinale mucus from the body. Supports respi-
Kurumulaku Piper nigrum Black ratory function. Improves digestion.
pepper Helps in weight management
Thippali Piper longum Long pepper
Hruswapanchamoolam (group of five non-tree roots used in Ayurveda)
Njerinjil Tribulus Bullhead Five non-tree ingredients of
terrestris Dashamoolarishtam, recommended for
Cheruvazhuthina Solanum Indian night abdominal and gastrointestinal
violaceum shade discomforts
Kandakaarichunda Solanum Yellow ber-
xanthocarpum ried night
shade
Orila Desmodium Sal leaved
gangeticum desmodium
Moovila Pseudarthria Sticky
viscida desmodium
Vallipanchamoolam (group of five vines used in Ayurveda)
Paalmuthukku Ipomea Giant potato Five important vines used in Ayurveda
mauritiana in various medicinal preparations
(continued)
188 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Table 9.3 (continued)
Naruneendi Hemidesmus Indian
indicus Sarsaparilla
Chittamruthu Tinospora Giloy
cordifolia
Maramanjal Coscinium Yellow vine
fenestratum
Aaduthodappaala Tylophora Emetic
asthmatica swallow-
wort
Panchakolam (group of five spicy herbs used in Ayurveda)
Thippali Piper longum Long pepper Five important heat-generating ingre-
Kaattuthippali Piper mullesua Wild long dients used in herbal product
pepper formulation
Kaattumulaku Piper trioicum Wild pepper
Chethikkoduveli Plumbago Indian
indica leadwort
Chukku Zingiber Ginger
officinale
Panchathikthakam (group of five bitter herbs used in Ayurveda)
Chittamruthu Tinospora Giloy Five bitter plants used in Ayurveda
cordifolia
Veppu Azadirachta Neem
indica
Aadalodakam Justicia Malabar nut
adhatoda
Putharichunda Solanum anguivi African
eggplant
Padolam Trichosanthes Wild snake
lobata gourd
Thrikantakam (three spiny or caustic herbs used in Ayurveda)
Cheruvazhuthina Solanum Night shade A group of three thorny plants used in
violaceum Ayurveda
Chethikkoduveli Plumbago Indian
indica leadwort
Vizhal Embelia ribes False black
pepper
put under trial marketing through a women’s initiative; and (4) characterisation of
Navara golden yellow and black varieties.
The results also included reporting for the first time the occurrence of four distinct
subtypes of Navara rice, which included both awned and awnless black-glumed and
yellow-glumed grains (Yasmin et al., 2006). Further, more farmers were mobilised
at the cluster level for Navara cultivation, and the development and promotion of a
few value-added products were attempted (Kumar et al., 2003). The pilot effort to
clinically evaluate the efficacy of Navara rice (yellow awnless) in collaboration with
the Institute of Applied Dermatology in Kasaragod called for profiling these varieties
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 189
Table 9.4 List of medicinal plants for community herbal gardens
Malayalam name Binomial name Common/ Remarks
English
name
Nalpamara (group of four barks used in treating skin-related ailments in Ayurveda)
Arayal Ficus religiosa Sacred fig Group of four fig trees, whose powdered
Athi Ficus racemosa Cluster fig bark is used for skin care
Ithi Ficus Chinese
microcarpa banyan
Peral Ficus Banyan tree
benghalensis
Thriphala (group of three fruits helpful in weight loss)
Kadukka Terminalia Chebulic • A group of three fruits, helpful in
chebula myrobalan weight loss, acts as a detoxifier, cures
Nelli Phyllanthus Indian digestive issues, helps in fighting infec-
emblica gooseberry tions, and enhances immunity; benefi-
Thanni Terminalia Belleric cial in maintaining oral hygiene and eye
bellirica myrobalan health, and treating gastric ulcers and
urinary tract infections
Thrigandha (three fragrant woods used in Ayurveda)
Akil Dysoxylum White cedar Group of three fragrant trees frequently
malabaricum used in Ayurveda
Chandanam Santalum album Sandalwood
Rakthachandanam Pterocarpus Red sandal
santalinus
Brihatpanchamoolam (five tree roots used in Ayurveda)
Koovalam Aegle marmelos Bel tree Five tree roots used for the preparation
Munja Premna Headache of Dasamoolarishtam, a fermented
serratifolia tree herbal tonic prepared using the root of
Palakappayyani Oroxylum Broken ten medicinal plants (in the Sanskrit
indicum bones tree language dasa ¼ 10, moola ¼ root)
Paathiri Stereospermum Yellow
tetragonum snake tree
Kumizhu Gmelina Beechwood
arborea tree
Panchapallavam (five tender leaves)
Mavu Mangifera Mango Five plants whose tender leaves are used
indica in Ayurveda
Njaval Syzygium Indian
cumini blackberry
Mathalanarakam Punica Pomegranate
granatum
Vilaarmaram Limonia Wood apple
acidissima
Koovalam Aegle marmelos Bel tree
190 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Fig. 9.5 Women engaged in medicinal rice cultivation (left), seed material exhibited for dissem-
ination and exchange in Wayanad Seed Fest 2018 (right) (photo credit: Vipindas P 2019)
for the presence of specific components responsible for the unique characteristics
and defining of benefits for hemiplegia and other neuromuscular disorders
(Guruprasad et al., 2014, p. 63).
These efforts to promote high-value rice helped to check the pace of paddy field
conversion to alternate crops in selected cluster areas of Wayanad, which in turn
helped to enhance employment opportunities for women (Fig. 9.5, left).
4.4 Collection, Conservation, and Consumption of Wild Food
Plants
A study conducted during the period 2002–2005 revealed that the tribal groups of
Wayanad have extensive knowledge regarding wild food and are using a wide array
of plants and animals, with variations among different tribal groups (Fig. 9.6, left).
There were 372 wild edibles utilised by different tribal communities, which include
102 species of leafy greens, 19 species of Dioscorea, 40 species of mushrooms,
5 species of crabs, 39 species of fishes, and 5 types of honey (Narayanan et al., 2004;
Kumar & Narayanan, 2011).
The trained tribal women of the SHGs were very interested in the wild food plants
as many of the wild roots, fruits, and leaves are of high nutritional and health value to
them. At one time, tribal communities had access to boundless diversity—roots and
tubers, fruits and seeds, small animals that were trapped, and fish and crab that were
caught, constituting a major source of their nutrition. Another result of the project
was the introduction and maintenance of live collections of wild foods (Fig. 9.5,
right), like Colocasia and Dioscorea tubers, in home gardens. Balakrishnan et al.
(2003) reported the existence of ten species of wild Dioscorea and seven lesser
known varieties in the southern part of the Western Ghats. They reported several
morphologically distinguishable species such as D. pentaphylla, D. wallichii, D.
hamiltonii, and D. belophylla. Among the wild species of Dioscorea, Nallanoora
(D. pentaphylla var. pentaphylla) is the most commonly consumed tuber, and D.
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 191
Fig. 9.6 Tribal woman engaged in wild leafy green collection (left), and tribal family engaged in
wild Dioscorea collection (right) (photo credit: Sivan V V 2019)
hamiltonii and D. oppositifolia are the most frequently consumed (Fig. 9.6, right).
Different tribes consume nine kinds ofDioscorea tubers, of which the most preferred
are Kavalakizhangu (D. oppositifolia) and Noorakizhangu/Nallanoora (D.
pentaphylla var. pentaphylla). They consider the Noorakizhangu and
Kavalakizhangu to be rich in starch and fat, and the Narakizhangu (D. wallichii)
to be rich in fibre.
4.5 Enriching the Local Food Baskets by Promoting Home
Nutrition Gardens and Wild Food Plants
The training activities focused on the capacity-building of SHG members,
Panchayath Raj Institutions (a system of rural local self-government in India elected
by the local people for the management of local affairs), Anganwadi (a type of rural
child care centre) workers, school teachers and students, and other community
members on topics including sustainable crop cultivation practices, nutrition,
agriculture-nutrition linkages, health and hygiene-related aspects, and more. Train-
ing modules included basic concept of home nutrition approach, and basic concept
of a healthy and balanced diet, and culinary practices, including infant and young
child feeding (IYCF) practices.
To serve as grassroots centres for nutrition intervention, nutrition gardens were
established in Anganwadi centres. Community conservation plots for banana, pulses,
192 N. Anil Kumar et al.
Fig. 9.7 Tribal children engaged in food collection (left), home nutrition garden maintained by
tribal family at tribal hamlet Puthoorvayal, Wayanad district (right) (photo credit: Vipindas P.)
Fig. 9.8 Tribal man engaged in the management of community conservation plot (left), members
of the community harvesting different varieties of tubers at Madamkunnu tribal hamlet, Wayanad
district (right) (photo credit: Vipindas P)
legumes, and leafy greens were established and maintained at selected sites in the
Wayanad, Thrissur, and Kannur districts. Participatory activities such as these have
become even more relevant in the wake of climate change impacts on food crop
species, especially in biodiversity and climate hotspots. In addition, nutritional
assessment sample surveys (anthropometric and dietary) and medical camps were
completed among the target groups to detect commonly existing health ailments due
to nutritional deficiency.
A major result in this area was the promotion of home nutrition gardens (HNGs)
for the purpose of enhancing food availability at the household level, particularly
nutrient-dense foods through judicious integration of crops with animal husbandry,
apiaries, fish tanks, etc. The HNG (Fig. 9.7, left and right) activities resulted in
increasing (1) availability of a number of underutilised, nutrient-rich traditional and
wild food crops (Fig. 9.8, left and right) and (2) availability of eggs, meat, and fish
through appropriate interventions involving backyard poultry, small ruminants, and
freshwater aquaculture among nearly 1000 tribal families. Also as part of home
nutrition garden initiative, 30 crop varieties (pulses, roots and tubers, banana, leafy
greens, and fruits) were promoted. This crop combination assures access to food
almost year-round. Alongside the HNGs, efforts were taken to promote the
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 193
integration of apiaries among 245 selected families scattered over the district by
providing each of them with two honey boxes. The families harvested and marketed
about 1200 kg of wild honey. Honey boxes placed in the vicinity of tribal hamlets
helped tribal women to harvest wild honey, an activity that was earlier practised only
by men. The tribal department of the state government has selected this initiative as a
model for their interventions in poverty reduction in tribal areas of Kerala.
Highly motivated and progressive men and women farmers from the target
villages were inducted as community resource persons (CRPs). They were skilled
in various aspects of conservation, cultivation, and consumption of locale specific
food crops. The pre-intervention nutritional assessment surveys helped in gathering
the target groups’ food preferences in order to identify and promote suitable crops in
the HNGs. Trainings were conducted targeting families on topics including crop
management; maintenance of HNGs; nutritional value of crops promoted in the
gardens; nutritional requirements of different genders and age groups; awareness on
water, sanitation, and hygiene; and role and function of different nutrients.
Outcomes of the activities also included (1) an increased knowledge base on the
region’s forest food biodiversity; (2) conservation of forest food diversity including
wild relatives of some of the crops and homestead of tribal hamlets; and (3) nutri-
tional profiling of some of the selected wild food species.
5 Discussion
Communities derive multiple benefits from SEPLs. Some of the key benefits in the
case of this programme were (1) increased access to safe, traditional, and diverse
foods through homestead crop diversification; (2) revitalisation of some traditional
healthcare practices, which helped people to address many simple ailments on their
own and in a timely fashion without rushing to the hospital or to see medical
practitioners, which was otherwise common; (3) home herbal gardens with at least
25 medicinal plants at every household; (4) increased involvement in the manage-
ment of medicinal and nutrition gardens; (5) increased awareness on the conserva-
tion of surrounding biodiversity; (6) considerable reduction of expenditure for food
and healthcare; and (vii) additional income from sales of healthcare products.
But, despite these benefits, there has been a steady erosion of cultural knowledge,
including that related to the LHTs associated with biodiversity utilisation across the
targeted locations. This is mainly due to changes in the societal values and behav-
iours, as well as changes in the way healthcare, food production, and consumption
practices are promoted by the state.
There have been a few trade-offs of the benefits community derive from SEPLs.
For instance, protecting agro-biodiversity, particularly the genetic diversity of fruits
and roots, from crop raiding by wild animals that are legally protected under forest
and wildlife acts, is challenging. Crop raiding by monkeys, birds, wild boars, and
elephants has now become more frequent in many locations that are closer to forests.
Another situation is the growing trend to disband traditional joint family systems to
194 N. Anil Kumar et al.
become independent small families in order to get maximum benefits from
government-sponsored schemes.
The effective management of the SEPL is mutually beneficial and could be well
measured through quantitative and qualitative assessments. These measurements
include changes in health and nutrition status through periodical assessments,
analysis of the dietary diversity supplements provided, and intensity and frequency
of health issues. For the landscape, monitoring of diversified home herbal gardens
and home nutrition gardens kept enriched with plants from the wilderness, changes
observed in harvesting resources from the wild, use of diverse herbal plants and wild
foods that supplement the health system, regenerative agricultural fields with avail-
ability of and access to fresh water and healthy soil, and government-sponsored
programmes to promote tribal agriculture are some of the methods and indicators
used to measure and understand effectiveness.
The SEPL inWayanad is experiencing rapid land-use and land cover changes that
negatively impact the availability of many wild species of food and medicinal value.
For instance, despite the richness in the genetic diversity of medicinal and nutrient-
dense rice in Wayanad that was developed and conserved mainly by local farmers,
the low productivity and low profitability of these varieties alongside economic
pressures are compelling the farmers to convert the rice paddies into banana plan-
tations. During 2006–2015, the area under rice cultivation in Wayanad drastically
decreased from 21,770 ha to 8000 ha (Government of Kerala (GoK), 2015). This
shift from paddy production to banana farming has had a cascading effect on the
paddy wetland ecosystem. Firstly, the trend has impacted rainwater storage and
aquifer recharging, and secondly, it has impacted the livelihood options of tribal
communities like the Paniya, who largely depend on this ecosystem for food,
employment, and income. Finally impacts have been wielded on the environment,
paving the way to dump larger quantities of highly toxic pesticides for banana
cultivation.
Similarly, the once species-rich shade-grown coffee farms in the region have now
experienced a shift towards monocropping and high-input farming. There have been
deliberate attempts to grow coffee completely exposed to sun with the high input of
agrochemicals aimed at maximising crop productivity and income. This change in
farming practices and intensified use of farm inputs have become major sustainabil-
ity issues, particularly in the context of climate vulnerabilities. The challenges
associated with climate variations result in staggering poverty, mainly nutrition
and health issues, especially among the resource-poor farming communities, and
the tribal communities like Paniya, Adiya, and Kattunaikka in Wayanad. Neverthe-
less, the growing awareness of local people on the conservation and sustainable
management of SEPLs in the present scenario of food adulteration and ecosystem
degradation is a green signal and opportunity to move forward.
This demands focused attention on the preservation and restoration of tradition-
ally managed SEPLs, biocultural diversity, and revitalisation of the herbal healthcare
heritage backed by scientific studies, behavioural changes, and capacity develop-
ment programmes for the promotion of local biodiversity and LHTs. To address
these issues, we suggest the following six integrated strategic interventions:
9 Promoting Local Health Traditions and Local Food Baskets: A Case Study. . . 195
First, a national-level commitment to revitalise location-specific, culturally sig-
nificant, and time-tested healthcare and sustainable food production practices: Inte-
grating local health traditions and traditional medicine in the sustainable
development and health agenda of the world can benefit both biodiversity and
human health. A report by the WHO and CBD (Romanelli et al., 2015) discussed
in detail the criticality of developing and providing cost-effective, safe, and quality-
proven traditional medicine and the involvement of traditional healers in building up
healthcare systems with new knowledge. Adequate investment and effective inte-
gration between different departments that deal with food and nutrition and primary
healthcare promotion are required to improve human and ecosystem health.
Second, reorientation of primary healthcare services from an exogenous
approach to an endogenous approach, where the focus is on the promotion of healthy
foods and traditional medicine. The WHO recognises traditional medicine as an
integral part of LHT, and as the “total of the knowledge, skill, and practices based on
the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether
explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention,
diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical and mental illness” (WHO, 2013).
Approaches should treat human-animal-environmental health synergistically as
“One Health” to fight against any human health problems.
Third, promotion of “Green Health” practices in every home: Promotion must
involve knowledgeable individuals, trained primary health practitioners, custodian
farmers, tribal and rural youth, and women to focus on micronutrient-rich (naturally
or chemically biofortified plants) and immunity-boosting herbals in home gardens.
This can be part of promoting the concept of local health heritage villages or
biodiversity heritage sites as proposed in the National Biodiversity Act (2002),
wherein biodiversity is mainstreamed in the production of food, nutrition,
healthcare, and livelihood needs.
Fourth, sustainable value-chain development for certified primary health-
boosting foods, products, and nutraceuticals by organising a cadre of trained
women’s groups in the form of herbal producer organisations: Sustainability in the
supply chain occurs when management practices and governance impact positively
on the socio-economic and environmental outcomes throughout the life cycles of
goods and services. Sustainable commerce can be better illustrated through the 4C
continuum promoted by MSSRF (M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
(MSSRF), 2019). In this approach, commerce is done with the primary aim of
creating an economic stake through options in livelihood security on small and
marginal farmers, and promoted through a consumption pattern that enhances
biodiverse diets, ensures food and nutrition security, and drives cultivation practices
based on principles of organic farming. All of the three sector activities lead to
conservation of biodiversity in situ, on-farm, and ex situ at off-farm levels. With this
approach, communities can continue to engage in promoting conservation, cultiva-
tion, consumption, and local-level commercialisation of herbals, as well as plant
genetic resources (PGRs) of food, nutrition, and therapeutic value.
Fifth, promotion of integrated scientific research in nutrition, health, and well-
being to achieve health innovations and nutritional products from traditional and
196 N. Anil Kumar et al.
ethnomedicine systems through a transdisciplinary approach (by involving tradi-
tional healthcare practitioners and physicians of multiple medical sciences) to
understand the bidirectional linkage between undernutrition and immunity issues
and the role of nutrition and herbal remedies for a healthy life: Research in labs needs
to focus on the effects of multi-micronutrients on immunity and for medical health
conditions.
Sixth, restoration and preservation of SEPLs to protect from climate risks and
enhance food security, water supply, and biodiversity: The buffer zones of the
Wayanad district qualify as the most characteristic locations for ecosystem restora-
tion in the Western Ghats, which itself is the highest human-populated biodiversity
hotspot in the world. As 2021–2030 is the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration,
there should be efforts from the state for a massive scale-up in the restoration efforts.
This warrants a comprehensive Training of Trainers (ToT) programme in SEPLs
management to offer to rural youth and officials in hill area land management,
watershed development, agriculture, and allied sectors.
6 Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic crisis is an opportune time to seriously reflect on our
indigenous traditional knowledge systems that have time-tested sustainable practices
and principles in biodiversity management, and also prudence in maintaining the
heterogeneity of food and agriculture production landscapes. Such practices and
age-old values help local communities to keep their options alive for accessing a
diverse spectrum of species of food and health value from the wild. In this context,
the primary healthcare system planners need to develop a community-centric and
holistic healthcare approach to effectively cater to the needs of the rural and tribal
populations. The “Health for All” goal set by the United Nations in 2000 was to be
achieved by adopting preventive measures, immunisation, and acquiring the capac-
ity to access treatment and good nutrition at the individual level. Equally significant
is integrating the preservation and protection of wild landscapes, ecosystems, and
species diversity to succeed in this goal. This is possible if there is a transformation
in the healthcare system approach by making the traditional healthcare sector as the
fourth tier of the national healthcare system.
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Chapter 10
Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated
with Local Foodways in Traditionally
Managed Socio-Ecological Production
Landscapes in Kenya
Patrick Maundu and Yasuyuki Morimoto
Abstract Traditionally managed socio-ecological production landscapes (SEPLs)
provide communities with a range of goods and services vital for livelihoods,
including nutrition and health. In Kenya, many of these landscapes, encompassing
the resources therein and the indigenous knowledge vital for optimising their value,
are now under threat.
Utilising diverse traditional foods for the benefit of local communities has often
been hampered by insufficient knowledge about the foods and negative attitudes
towards them. For over two decades, a team from the National Museums of Kenya,
Bioversity International, and their partners has been working with local communities
to find out how local food resources can contribute more to community livelihoods,
especially with regard to nutrition, health, and income. Understanding local food
systems is a vital step. The team developed a methodology for involving local
communities, and the youth in particular, to inventory their foodways. The docu-
mentation opened opportunities for research and development interventions. This
chapter highlights three development and conservation case studies founded on
foodways documentation: (1) promoting African leafy vegetables in Kenya;
(2) safeguarding kitete (bottle gourd) by Kyanika Women’s Group in Kitui,
Kenya; and (3) utilising digital technology to educate consumers about healthy
eating using local foods.
All cases have shown that converting underutilised local foods into main sources
of nutrition and income opportunities, as well as conserving these foods in their
environment, requires foodways documentation, community participation, and
multi-stakeholder and multidisciplinary collaboration. Awareness on the nutritional
P. Maundu (*)
KENRIK, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Nairobi, Kenya
Y. Morimoto
Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Nairobi, Kenya
© The Author(s) 2022 199
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_10
200 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
and health benefits of local foods was a key incentive for their conservation and a
catalyst for the change in attitudes and eating habits.
Keywords Socio-ecological production landscapes · Foodways documentation ·
Underutilised local foods · Conservation · Human nutrition and health · Community
involvement · Multi-stakeholder, Multidisciplinary interventions · Kenya
1 Introduction
In Kenyan rural community food systems, a huge diversity of food species, espe-
cially fruits and vegetables, are obtained from the immediate environment or
socio-ecological production landscapes (SEPLs), where they may be cultivated,
semi-wild (cultivated and also wild), or gathered from the wild. The high diversity
is found at landscape, food group, species, and below-species levels. In addition, a
rich food cultural heritage—including local knowledge of food production and
utilisation, beliefs, oral traditions, ceremonies, and other practices—exists as part
of these food systems and constitutes the foodways of the communities. Food is
therefore not only for nutrition, but also for the well-being of the community as a
whole, and thus is inextricably linked with the landscape.
A high diversity of underutilised traditional foods can be seen in African leafy
vegetables (Maundu et al., 2009). Foodways documentation by the National
Museums of Kenya (NMK) and Bioversity International in collaboration with
local community groups recorded about 220 vegetable species used by various
communities in Kenya (Maundu et al. 1999a, b; Kilifi Udamaduni Conservation
Group, 2010). Of these, 90.9% were gathered from the local wild landscape
(Fig. 10.1). In spite of this native diversity, a few exotic vegetable species have
dominated the Kenyan market and kitchen in the recent past.
Indigenous food systems in Kenya have been undergoing continuous disruptions
since the colonial era. Traditional foods were looked down upon as foods of the poor
and less modernised. This attitude and the associated stigma led to neglect by
researchers and development workers. Consequently, the use of these foods
Fig. 10.1 A chart showing
the proportion of cultivated 1.8 7.3
and wild leafy vegetable
species for the 220 species
recorded in Kenya (data
source: Maundu, Njiro,
et al., 1999b; Kilifi
Udamaduni Conservation Culvated only
Group, 2010)
Culvated and wild
Wild only
90.9
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 201
decreased, leading to erosion of local food diversity and the associated local
knowledge.
By the year 2000, the diversity of leafy vegetables in the market and diet had been
narrowed considerably, typically to three vegetables—cabbage, kale (sukumawiki),
and Swiss chard (“spinach”). Traditional vegetables were mainly sold in very rural
towns and backstreets of main cities. Fast “junk” foods such as potato fries were
slowly replacing the healthier traditional cuisine, and younger people were increas-
ingly inheriting less local knowledge from their communities. Such trends had the
potential to lead to loss of local crop varieties, less dietary diversity, and hence food
and nutrition insecurity (Maundu et al., 2008; Johns et al., 2013; Kariuki et al., 2013;
Induli, 2019a).
1.1 Changing Diets and the Double Burden of Disease
Kenya, like many other African countries, now has the simultaneous problems of
undernutrition (e.g. stunting in children) and over-nutrition. Stunting in children
under 5 years in 2008–2012 was at 35.3%, reducing to 26% by 2014 (from Kenya
Demographic and Health Survey 2014 in KNBS , 2014). On the other hand, lifestyle
diseases such as high blood pressure, heart disease, and diabetes were on the rise.
The prevalence of overweight and obesity among women of reproductive age
(15–49 years) was 33% in 2014 (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS),
2014) and on the rise. Rapid changes in dietary habits including high intake of
carbohydrates, lipid-rich diets, low intake of micronutrients, and insufficient exer-
cise are considered to be the main contributing factors. The urban population was
most affected mainly due to overreliance on relatively cheaper, high-energy refined
foods. The 2014 survey established that 28.6% of women from the urban population
were overweight, and 14.9% were obese, whereas among women from the rural
population, 18.9% were overweight and 7.1% were obese (Mkuu et al., 2018; Kenya
National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), 2014).
1.2 Interventions by a Multi-stakeholder,
Multidisciplinary Team
In an effort to arrest the trends mentioned here, a multidisciplinary team from the
National Museums of Kenya, Bioversity International, and partner institutions has
been for the last two decades implementing a series of activities aimed at achieving
the following: (1) safeguarding local food systems, (2) creating opportunities for
community benefits, and (3) creating awareness about the value of local foods.
Fundamental in this process is the documentation of the foodways of communities.
With understanding of foodways, various development interventions based on
202 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
opportunities offered by local food resources can be implemented (Induli et al.,
2020). The following case studies of development initiatives are highlighted in this
chapter: (1) African leafy vegetable (ALV) research and promotion, (2) bottle gourd
(kitete) conservation, and (3) using modern technology to educate consumers on the
nutritional and health value of local foods. A common objective of these initiatives
has been finding incentives for communities to utilise these local food resources to
improve their livelihoods while sustaining the landscapes from where these foods are
obtained or grown. Understanding the benefits of these food resources, including
nutrition and health, and also discovering new value through research collaboration,
can motivate the communities to promote their local foods (Induli et al., 2020;
JAICAF, 2020).
The objectives of this chapter therefore are firstly to demonstrate via these case
studies the role of foodways documentation as a basis for developing interventions
for biodiversity conservation and development at the community or landscape level,
and secondly to demonstrate the importance of community participation and multi-
stakeholder cooperation in finding ways to optimise the value of such resources as an
incentive for conservation. Also highlighted in the chapter are the conditions nec-
essary for the success of such interventions, key lessons learned, and shortcomings.
2 Activities (Methods)
2.1 The Foodways Documentation Method
In this section, we start on the premise that among Kenyan rural communities, food
is diverse and not only cultivated, but also picked from wild environments, and that
local knowledge is a prerequisite to optimising benefits gained from these resources.
Much of this knowledge on food diversity is undocumented, making food-based and
conservation interventions hard to implement. A logical starting point, therefore,
would be to find answers to these questions: What foods are cultivated or gathered,
from where, when, and by whom? How is the food source managed? How is the food
harvested and utilised? Is it stored or sold? How is it prepared and eaten and who
eats it? What do people say about its value to the body? Is it used in ceremonies or
rituals and what are related beliefs or taboos? These are important questions in
foodways documentation.
This approach is unique in two aspects. Firstly, it captures the totality of knowl-
edge and practices related to food within a given community, and therefore results in
a nearly complete inventory of food species used as well as ways of utilisation.
Secondly, the documentation is executed by community members. Such documen-
tation helps us understand the important place of the local landscape in people’s food
systems and resilience for food security and nutrition (Hama-Ba et al., 2016, 2017).
In Kenya, traditional foodways are being eroded at a high rate due to global trends
such as globalisation of food and urbanisation, which are not only detaching the
youth from rural landscapes and from sources of local knowledge, but also changing
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 203
Fig. 10.2 Map showing countries and regions where the foodways method of documentation has
been applied (source: Map Data © 2020 Google)
their preferences and values concerning food. Building the capacity of the youth,
alongside that of other community members, to take the lead in foodways documen-
tation helps bridge the intergenerational gap in the knowledge of local resources, a
key ingredient in the sustainability of conservation interventions. Documentation
provides the basic information necessary for other local resource-based intervention
initiatives and also gives us the opportunity to recreate the foodways in the future in
case the knowledge in the community is lost.
For a number of years, the authors have been developing a foodways documen-
tation method that is community-led and involves the youth. The method has so far
been tested in six communities across four African countries—the Mijikenda,
Isukha, and the Pokot of Kenya; Loita Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania; Gumuz of
Ethiopia; and Dagara of Burkina Faso (Figs. 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5). Some basic
information about these communities is presented in Tables 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3.
Documentation by Community Members
Selected community members are trained on foodways documentation. The basic
materials needed for documentation include a notebook, a simple camera with video
facility, or a smartphone and storage facility like a computer. A community coordi-
nator or champion monitors the documentation process, gathers the collected infor-
mation, and keeps it at a community resource centre or an institution within the
community. This was the system applied among the Gumuz and Dagara. It is
recommended that documentation goes on for a period of one year or more to
capture variation through different seasons.
204 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
Fig. 10.3 Map showing the location of study sites in Kenya and northern Tanzania. The nine main
sacred forests (Kaya) in coastal Kenya are shown in the inset (source: Map data © 2016 Google;
source of inset base map: Survey of Kenya, 1973)
Fig. 10.4 Map of Kamashi area of Benishangul-Gumuz region in northwestern Ethiopia, showing
the location of research villages (source of base map: ArcGISOnline.com, 2015; source of inset:
ESRI/ArcGIS, 2015)
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 205
Fig. 10.5 Map of southwestern Burkina Faso, showing the location of research villages, with main
villages underlined (sources: Base map: Map data © 2015 Google; inset map: ArcGISOnline.com,
2015)
Foodways Documentation by Schools
A most effective approach is mobilising and training the youth, including school
children, to gather information from their parents and relatives and sharing this, for
instance, using social media or with fellow pupils and their teachers. Documentation
by school pupils has been done in four communities—the Isukha, Pokot, Mijikenda,
and Maasai. Except for the Mijikenda, where nine schools were involved, two
schools participated per community (Induli, 2019b).
In each school, two or more teachers volunteer to guide the pupils. Teachers could
also be patrons of a school club. One teacher coordinates all the activities at a school.
The teachers are trained by a multidisciplinary team in information gathering,
including interviewing, organising the stories, how to use a camera, and handling
data from pupils (e.g. preparing photo metadata, putting on captions, annotations,
and attributions). The teachers in turn train the participating pupils. In most schools,
participating pupils were 10–14 years old, and the number of pupils was such that the
teachers could manage the group when reviewing foodway stories and also while on
outdoor activities.
Each pupil in consultation with the teacher chooses a topic to research. The topic
could be about a plant product, e.g. a fruit. The pupil then goes and gathers all
available information in consultation with parents and relatives. The pupil takes
photos and videos of various activities related to the food. The pupil then writes an
essay about his or her topic, making illustrations where possible, and brings it to the
teacher for assessment. The length of this essay is flexible, and it is written in a
language agreed upon with the teacher. The pupil gets feedback from the teacher to
improve the essay. The pupil also works with the teacher to write captions for
selected photos.
206 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
Table 10.1 Basic information of the study communities in Kenya and Tanzania where the foodways documentation protocol was applied
Country Kenya Kenya Kenya Kenya Tanzania
County/district Kilifi, Kwale Kakamega Baringo Narok Ngorongoro
Sub-county/division Kilifi South, Kaloleni, Rabai (Kilifi), Msambweni, Shinyalu Tiaty Loita Loliondo
Kinango (Kwale)
Study sites Mijikenda (9 sites): Kaya Kauma, Kaya Chonyi, 2 sites: Shihuli, 2 sites: Chemolingot, 2 sites: 2 sites: Waso,
Kaya Jibana, Kaya Kambe, Kaya Ribe, Kaya Muraka Churo Entasekera, Loliondo
Rabai, Kaya Fungo (in Kilifi), Kaya Mtswakara, Olmesutye
Kaya Kinondo (in Kwale)
Dominant ethnicity(ies), Mijikenda (9 communities): Kauma, Chonyi, Isukha Pokot (Eastern) Loita Maasai Loita Maasai
if appropriate Jibana, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai, Giriama, Duruma,
Digo
Size of the case study/ 25,000 10,000 116,084 (Churo/ 20,000 20,000
project area (hectare)1 Amaya and Ribkwo
wards)
Number of direct bene- 50,000 40,000 35,799 3000 3000
ficiaries (persons)2
Geographic coordinates • 3
37014.000S 39
44010.000E (Kauma) • • 0
58051.500N • •
(longitude and latitude) • 3
48015.600S 39
40054.400E (Chonyi) 0
12027.700N 35
58017.900E 1
54022.800S 2
02023.200S
• 3
50015.000S 39
40010.000E (Jibana) 34
47038.500E • 0
46025.200N 35
43055.500E 35
42042.500E
• 3
51049.000S 39
39007.000E (Kambe) • 36
24029.400E • •
• 3
53049.000S 39
37058.000E (Ribe) 0
14050.700N 1
54022.700S 2
03042.400S
• 3
55055.000S 39
35046.000E (Rabai) 34
45010.000E 35
43056.900E 35
33037.600E
• 3
47055.000S 39
30052.000E (Fungo)
• 3
59054.000S 39
31025.000E (Mtswakara)
• 4
23036.000S 39
32041.000E (Kinondo)
Note: The superscript numbers indicate that the number of indirect beneficiaries does not apply in this case as it was mainly a documentation exercise. Only
those who interacted with the researchers directly can be considered beneficiaries
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 207
Table 10.2 Basic information of the study communities in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia where the
foodways documentation protocol was applied
Country Ethiopia Burkina Faso
State/province Benishangul-Gumuz Ioba
District/department Kamashi Dissin, Zambo, Dano
Villages/sites/commune 2 main villages: Jalo, Kobi 3 main villages: Zambo,
Nakar, and Complan
Size of geographical area 90,000 147,000
(hectare)1
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if Gumuz Dagara
appropriate
Size of the case study/project 9000 49,000
area (hectare)1
Number of direct beneficia- 2000 50,000
ries (persons)2
Geographic coordinates (lon- 9
30016.8”N 35
51051.500E 10
57010.8”N
gitude and latitude) (Kamashi zone, Aba Ciotte) 2
59010.4”W (Banfaré
area)
Note: The superscript numbers indicate that the number of indirect beneficiaries does not apply in
this case as it was mainly a documentation exercise
The teachers read all essays, looking at not only the content, but also the grammar
and style. The teachers are also the custodians of cameras. They keep all records,
including copies of completed pupils’ essays. Teachers also ensure that the pupil’s
name, age, class, school, date, and topic appear on the top of the pupil’s essay and
that all pages are numbered.
The following are some key topics pupils covered during their interactions with
family members:
1. Local names of the food
2. Description of the food
3. Description of where it is found and/or grown
4. Management in the field
5. The process of harvesting or gathering
6. Preparation or recipes
7. Cultural aspects: myths, beliefs, taboos, etc.
8. Other uses and any other information
9. Seasonal availability
10. Trends in utilisation
11. Tools and equipment
The pupils are also guided by questions about what, who, why, when, where, and
how, at every stage of compiling their essays.
The multidisciplinary team also plays a key role by providing scientific input
including nutritional information and scientific names. The team also ensures that the
same information is archived and shared with a national repository according to
terms agreed upon with the community. The team works closely with the community
208 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
Table 10.3 The diversity of edible species and habitats associated with each community where the foodways documentation was applied (source: prepared by
authors, 2021)
Food animals Cultivated Wild and semi- Total
Main sources of Domesticated in natural food plants cultivated food number of
Community livelihood Target environment/landscape animals environment only plants species
Mijikenda Crop cultivation, Sacred forests (Kaya) with farm- 6 (1.6%) 170 (44%) 35 (9.1%) 181 (46.9%) 386 (100%)
(Kenya) gathering wild lands around them
food
Gumuz Crop cultivation, Medium forest, bamboo forest, and 6 (3%) 53 (26.4%) 53 (26.4%) 95 (47.3%) 201 (100%)
(Ethiopia) gathering, hunting bushland with villages and
farmlands
Dagara Crop cultivation, Medium forest and bushland, with 8 (3.8%) 34 (16.2%) 59 (28.1%) 117 (55.7%) 210 (100%)
(Burkina gathering, hunting villages and farmlands with natural
Faso) fruit trees
Isukha Crop cultivation Community farmlands with rich 8 (5.9%) 9 (6.7%) 72 (53.3%) 54 (40%) 135 (100%)
(Kenya) agricultural biodiversity
Pokot (Kenya) Pastoralism Semi-arid land with high wild 7 (3.5%) 35 (17.6%) 22 (11.1%) 142 (71.4%) 199 (100%)
diversity
Loita Maasai Livestock keep- Community-managed forest (Loita) 4 (2.6%) 4 (2.6%) 42 (27.6%) 106 (69.7%) 152 (100%)
(Kenya and ing, minimal crop and bushland with rich plant and
Tanzania) production animal diversity
Note: “Animals” refers to both land and water animals used for food
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 209
Fig. 10.6 A pupil’s essay on Chidemu (Vernonia sp., a leafy vegetable) written in Swahili (photo
credit: P. Maundu, 2017)
to identify opportunities for using their knowledge and food resources to improve
their livelihoods. Standard consent procedures are followed when dealing with the
community.
A typical pupil’s essay is provided in Fig. 10.6. In all cases, and as expected,
pupils gave priority to their main foods. In the pastoralist Pokot for example, the
community gave priority to livestock diversity and food gathered in the wild, while
those in the agricultural Isukha gave priority to cultivated foods. Among the foods of
the Loita Maasai, milk (the most important Maasai food) had the highest frequency
constituting over half of the 450 essays recorded by the two schools involved. About
1000 essays were written by the pupils from the Mijikenda schools over 18 months.
210 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
The main challenges faced concerned language and the use of cameras. Maasai
pupils preferred to write in their local language (Maasai), while Mijikenda pupils
preferred Swahili. This meant engaging translators. In some schools, photos were
not taken as school teachers would not entrust pupils with cameras. In most
communities, documentation by schools was augmented by simultaneous documen-
tation work by trained community youth. The combined information from the
community and pupils resulted in a rich document about food resources from the
local landscape.
Some potential outputs of the foodways documentation can be:
• An inventory of traditional foods of a community and indigenous knowledge
about them
• Identification of season of availability
• Identification of local recipes
• Identification of food taboos, beliefs, and ceremonial use
• Recognition of the value of a food species to a community
It is evident from Table 10.1 that the people relied on many species obtained from
the immediate natural environment. Dependence on wild resources seemed to be
particularly high among pastoralists and communities with gathering practices.
The foodways documentation among the Isukha and the Pokot was published in
three volumes which are now accessible on the internet (Maundu et al. 2013c,b,c,d).
Follow-Up Development and Conservation Activities
Documentation should not be a stand-alone activity. It should pave the way for
community development activities based on the local knowledge and resources.
Such activities help communities to treasure their knowledge and resources. The
following three cases demonstrate the kind of development projects that can follow
documentation.
3 Cases Studies
Each of the three cases presented here has documentation, development, and con-
servation aspects. In all cases, foodways documentation has proved useful in the
development and execution of the activities.
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 211
3.1 Case Study 1: African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs) Research
and Promotion
Phase I
The main drive to bring back African leafy vegetables (ALVs) to the Kenyan menu
started in 1995, and involved a consortium of institutions brought together by the
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). Key partners were the
National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and local universities. During the first phase,
1995–1999, local production systems, associated indigenous knowledge, and local
use of the ALVs were documented using many aspects of the foodways documen-
tation method. The documentation in this phase not only laid a base for future work
but also selected 24 priority vegetables (out of 220 documented) for further research
and promotion (Fig. 10.7).
At the end of the first phase, key areas of follow-up were identified, including
increasing awareness in the general public; collecting seeds of priority species;
improving seed systems; developing protocols for cultivation; linking farmers to
markets; documenting recipes; and conducting nutritional analysis. This guided the
preparation of the second phase.
Phase II
In this phase between 2001 and 2006, the multi-stakeholder group of partners was
expanded to include government ministries, national research institutions,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), community-based organisations (CBOs),
and more universities. The team embarked on improving people’s perceptions of
local vegetables through promotional activities based on scientific evidence. Nairobi
City, the commercial hub, was strategically chosen for promotional activities, firstly
Fig. 10.7 The orange-
fruited African nightshade
(Solanum villosum), one of
the priority leafy vegetables
(photo credit: P. Maundu,
2012)
212 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
Fig. 10.8 A leaflet used in the promotion of traditional vegetables in Kenya (source: P. Maundu,
2002)
because it has people from various ethnic communities (hence has a ready market for
a variety of species) and secondly, what goes on in the capital eventually trickles
down to the rural areas. Farmers in Nairobi’s peri-urban agricultural areas were
particularly targeted for the production of traditional vegetables. The fact that most
traditional vegetables are highly nutritious proved helpful during promotional cam-
paigns. Promotional activities took the form of cooking demonstrations, street and
media campaigns, field days, posters, and leaflets providing recipes and nutritional
benefits of the food (Figs. 10.8 and 10.9). By 2003, a change was noticeable. The
negative attitude among vegetable consumers had begun to crumble. Traditional
vegetables started to flood through both formal and informal markets, opening
income-generating opportunities for farmers and traders who are mainly women.
Farmers had a reason to conserve the species and their landscapes (Maundu et al.,
2008).
Alongside promotional work, the project gathered germplasm, some of which
underwent selection work for improvement at the World Vegetable Centre facilities
in Arusha, Tanzania. Improved seeds were distributed to farmers and seed compa-
nies. Farmers around Nairobi were given agronomic support and linked to formal
markets, initially Uchumi Supermarkets, one of the main supermarket chains at
the time.
By 2006, consumption had increased, creating unprecedented demand (Gotor &
Irungu, 2010). Most households in and around the city of Nairobi incorporated
traditional vegetables in their diets. Supermarkets started to sell the vegetables
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 213
Fig. 10.9 Promotional campaigns on the streets of Nairobi in June 2004 (photo courtesy: National
Museums of Kenya, 2004)
while street vendors flooded some streets with the vegetables (Figs. 10.10 and
10.11). Restaurants started to include vegetables in their menus. As attitudes had
changed and stigma turned into pride, the once neglected traditional vegetables
became an area of interest for development agencies and training and research
institutions. Production and marketing slowly moved from city suburbs into rural
areas. Up to 17 traditional vegetable species were now regularly sold in local
markets. The years that followed saw many organisations, including NGOs and
universities, come to the scene and implement projects on ALVs.
214 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
Fig. 10.10 Traditional vegetables flood the streets of Nairobi after the 2003–2006 campaign (photo
credit: P. Maundu, 2006)
Post-Phase II Years and the Impact of the ALV Promotion
From 2008 to 2011, Bioversity International in partnership with the National
Museums of Kenya and other organisations used a similar research and promotion
approach in Kitui County located about 100 km east of Nairobi. One area within the
county (Mwingi South) was chosen as the control site and Kitui Central as the
intervention site. A baseline situation was established before the intervention.
Neither the “control” nor the “intervention” markets sold traditional vegetables
like the African nightshade and spider plant. After a year of promotional work in
Kitui Central, a marked difference was noticeable. Attitudes in Kitui Central had
changed, and more traditional vegetables were being cultivated and sold there. The
diversity of vegetables in diets had also increased. The African nightshade, ama-
ranth, and spider plant became mainstream traditional vegetables in Kitui Central
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 215
Fig. 10.11 Traditional vegetables had made a come-back by 2003 with most supermarkets
stocking them. Tuskys Supermarket, Ongata Rongai (photo credit: P. Maundu, 2006)
(Kariuki et al., 2013) and only appeared on the “control” side at least a year later and
also after an end-line intervention.
The above work is a clear demonstration that, with awareness and promotion,
neglected and underutilised species can again become part of local diets, contribut-
ing to nutrition, health, and incomes, particularly among peri-urban women. The
involvement of a multidisciplinary research and development team is a key factor to
success.
This work on ALVs has been evaluated by a number of individuals and organi-
sations interested in specific aspects of the outcomes. An impact assessment
conducted in 2006 and 2007 positively attributed increased production, marketing,
and consumption to the work of the consortium. The women-dominated industry
saw increased incomes for peri-urban women producers and city vendors. Nearly
two-thirds (62.5%) of households growing ALVs increased their income from the
sale of ALVs, while nearly half increased their consumption of ALVs. The assess-
ment further found that interest in ALVs had increased among researchers, pro-
ducers, traders, development workers, and consumers. Seeds had become more
accessible, and increased cultivation of previously wild species was also observed.
Traditional knowledge about the vegetables and associated practices had been
revived (Gotor & Irungu, 2010).
216 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
3.2 Case Study 2: Bottle Gourd (Kitete) Conservation
The bottle gourd project, which was implemented between 2000 and 2002, used the
foodways documentation method to identify the diversity of bottle gourds, local
management practices, and related knowledge and cultural practices in Kitui County
and surrounding counties (Morimoto & Maundu, 2002). Using the documented
information, the project raised awareness among local communities to create eco-
nomic, cultural, and livelihood opportunities by increasing bottle gourd cultivation
and incentivising maintenance of the unique bottle gourd diversity.
A community group, Kyanika Adult Women Group in Kitui County, was
concerned about losing the diversity and indigenous knowledge (IK) of an important
cultural species due to the introduction of plastic containers, and solicited support
from scientists at Bioversity International and the National Museums of Kenya.
Group members started to collect seeds of different landraces and to document the
indigenous knowledge of all the diverse bottle gourd shapes and types—initially
from group members, then from other communities in Kitui County, and finally from
more distant counties where they had contacts. Scientists guided the process. The
group was trained on documentation protocols including use of the camera and tape
recorder. One of the greatest innovations of the group was initiating an activity
whereby group members formed pairs and then travelled to their original parental
homes, often in faraway and diverse places, to interview elderly parents and relatives
and collect bottle gourd seeds from them. The purpose of the pairing was for the
women to be seen as belonging to a group and also to provide support to one another.
Upon returning, members shared their experiences with group members and com-
piled the information in a 700-page compendium about the species. Nearly 200 bottle
gourd types (landraces) referred to by approximately 70 different local names were
collected and catalogued for propagation in community fields (Morimoto &
Maundu, 2002; Morimoto et al., 2005, 2008; Morimoto, 2010).
The group members grew both edible gourds and those used as containers, and
shared seeds with neighbours and friends. They also established a kitete community
museum within the village. The museum serves as a centre for storing and distrib-
uting bottle gourd seeds, and also for learning about the bottle gourd. Visitors
include school children, scientists, and bottle gourd enthusiasts (Morimoto et al.,
2010). In addition, the group, in partnership with the different stakeholders, learned
skills for decorating the kitete and nzele (a half gourd used as a bowl) and began
selling these items to restaurants and tourist centres (Fig. 10.12).
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 217
Fig. 10.12 Members of Kyanika Women’s Group displaying decorated bottle gourds while youth
from a visiting school look on (photo credit: P. Maundu, 2012)
3.3 Case Study 3: Introducing Modern Technology
to Educate Consumers on Diversifying Diet with Local
Foods—The ADD-IT System
The ALV approach provided lessons that were later applied to promote dietary
diversity in general. A study conducted by the team in Kitui County examined the
link between food diversity (in the farm and wild landscapes), dietary diversity
(at the household), and nutrition and health status of individuals. A set of 10 villages
(the intervention villages) were exposed to promotional activities such as community
seed fairs and seed exchanges, traditional food cooking demonstrations, and
awareness-raising on nutrition for a period of 2 years (2009–2011). In another set
of 10 villages (control villages) separated from the first by a mountain ridge, no
promotional activities were carried out until after the two-year period had ended. The
study found that diversity (agro-biodiversity) at individual households in the inter-
vention villages increased significantly between the baseline and final survey, while
agro-biodiversity did not change much in the control villages. Dietary diversity at the
household level showed the same trend. The study could not, however, establish a
connection between the increased diversity at household level and any impacts on
people’s health (Maundu, 2011; Herforth et al., 2019). The changes observed were
218 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
attributed to the intervention activities. This work found that, despite communities
having good access to diverse foods, poor dietary habits due to lack of awareness are
sometimes to blame for poor nutrition. As was the case with ALV case study,
awareness and education changed individuals’ food choices, especially incorporat-
ing more local foods in diet.
Based on the above experience, a new tool (an app) called the Agrobiodiversity
Diet Diagnosis Interventions Toolkit (ADD-IT) was developed by the Alliance of
Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture
(CIAT) in partnership with the National Museums of Kenya and the Tokyo Univer-
sity of Agriculture, Japan.
The app utilises a newly developed, validated food frequency questionnaire
(FFQ) to understand the food consumption patterns of the subject. Using a number
of inbuilt datasets including a database on locally available foods, nutrient compo-
sition, and recommended daily nutrient allowance, the app is able to determine over-
and underconsumption of specific food groups. It then provides nutritional education
using an inbuilt nutrition education facility which guides the subject through the
steps to take in order to stay within the country’s dietary guidelines, but with specific
emphasis on local foods (Induli, 2018; Irie et al., 2019).
ADD-IT thus (1) helps the subjects visualise their dietary patterns
(i.e. deficiencies and excesses), (2) provides relevant real-time nutrition education
based on what foods are available locally (in the community) at the time (season),
and (3) stores the data in a web-based database system that can be used for further
assessment.
The application is built mainly with community health workers in mind
(Fig. 10.13) but will help any respondent(s) including households to understand
their consumption habits. The overall data collected by the app at community level
may help planners to initiate more targeted programmes to counter malnutrition or
specific deficiencies at the community level. The application can also be used to
accumulate new information on local food diversity.
The creation of this tool involved public-private sector cooperation. A private
company provided the technical support to create the app, and scientists provided the
databases on which it runs, while health workers and extension staff tested the app
and provided feedback for further improvement.
4 Discussion
This chapter has highlighted the significance of the foodways documentation
approach in the identification of useful local food resources in local landscapes.
We have also seen that foodways documentation itself is not the end, but rather a
stepping stone to developing programmes that can benefit the community. Benefits
in the form of income or better diets can act as incentives for communities to
conserve and sustainably manage the local landscapes where these foods grow. In
the case of the African leafy vegetables, the vegetable habitats and the species
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 219
Fig. 10.13 A community health volunteer (CHV) in Vihiga County (holding tablet) uses a
prototype ADD-IT system tool to assess dietary patterns of the respondent (looking on) and provide
feedback (photo credit: Y. Morimoto, 2019)
themselves were more appreciated when an economic aspect was introduced, and
this gave the vegetables and their habitats some form of protection. The increased
demand for the vegetables as a result of promotional activities spurred production
and trade, thus creating more opportunities for income (especially for women who
dominate vegetable cultivation and trading activities) and household nutrition.
As seen earlier, the foodways documentation methodology helps us understand
food in relation to other aspects of community culture. It is therefore less useful in
situations where a community has significantly lost its culture and diversity. Com-
munity involvement, especially of the youth, is a key feature of the method. Much
can be achieved when school children are mobilised as they can handle different
aspects of the foodways. With the advancement and spread of digital tools and
forums such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, it will become even easier for the
youth to share information on foodways.
The educational aspect of the ADD-IT tool builds upon data gathered from the
foodways documentation. Aside from conservation and development opportunities,
foodways documentation also opens up opportunities for nutrition research, such as
the 24-h dietary recall and the food frequency questionnaire. The methodology is
still being improved as the authors continue to test it in different production systems
and cultures. Improvement is needed in the area of managing the massive amount of
data that is churned out. Partnerships between communities and the private sector
can create good synergies.
This chapter has also shown how the methodology has been applied at different
levels of diversity—including the landscape, ecosystem, species, and variety levels.
220 P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto
At the ecosystem level, foodways documentation has led to the empowerment of
pupils and communities situated around the biodiversity-rich sacred Kaya forests of
the Mijikenda and the Loita Maasai Forest, leading them to appreciate the diversity
of their immediate ecosystem. In these cases, the communities have chosen to
conserve wild areas as forestland rather than converting it to agricultural land—a
case of balancing conservation and development objectives. Such well-conserved
ecosystems (Maundu et al., 2001; NMK, 2008) are perfect examples of the multiple
dimensions of health as they are not only a source of food and herbs for nutrition and
health, but also a source of mental and spiritual health (many cultural ceremonies are
held in the forest). The forests offer livelihood security through benefits such as
water sources, non-timber forest products (e.g. honey), climate change mitigation
and adaptation, and general community livelihoods (Maundu et al., 2001). As is with
most conservation work, there are trade-offs. Increased selection of a species is
likely to narrow the genetic pool of the species. However, with good management
plans (e.g. promoting both wild and improved (selected) varieties on the basis of
culinary strengths or preferences and cultural uses), these shortcomings can be
overcome.
Moreover, this chapter has shown that community participation and leadership in
documentation, as well as awareness on the value of local foods and cultural
knowledge and practices, help in achieving ecosystem health, human health, and
sustainability within socio-economic production landscapes (SEPLs) management
(Bergamini et al., 2014; Morimoto et al., 2015; Mijatovic et al., 2018). Therefore, the
effectiveness of SEPL management with respect to foodways can be measured
through the following:
• Food diversity at the landscape level (diversity of production habitats, food
diversity, household dietary diversity)
• Community benefits (income, health including mental and physiological, nutri-
tion, cultural identity, general welfare)
• Community leadership and level of participation and interest (local champions,
community support, and involvement in decision-making)
• Youth involvement (mentorship, youth in leadership)
4.1 COVID-19 Effects
In Kenya, the COVID-19 pandemic has had an unprecedented impact on the well-
being of the people, not so much from infections and mortalities, but economically,
socially, and psychologically. Lockdowns, restriction on movement, loss of jobs,
higher cost of living, etc. have all taken a heavy toll on the people’s livelihoods.
However, rural people who earn most of their livelihood from their immediate
natural environment have been impacted much less by the pandemic than those in
urban areas. This is a further demonstration that SEPLs can serve as the basis of
resilience in local communities in the event of catastrophes and especially those
10 Safeguarding the Biodiversity Associated with Local Foodways in. . . 221
affecting human health (Morimoto et al., 2015; Bedmar Villanueva et al., 2018;
Dunbar et al., 2020). While this enhanced protection may be a result of plants
providing a physical barrier and low population density, it could also be due to the
healthy and diverse foods and herbal medicines in the environment, which the local
people ingest daily, as well as their psychological status (Matsuda & Morimoto,
2020). The Maasai of Loita, for example, use diverse plants in soups and milk (key
foods of the community) for health (Maundu et al., 2001). Some of the plants used
for respiratory diseases in infusions are known to have antiviral and anti-
inflammatory properties. The authors have observed that the COVID-19 pandemic
has made many Kenyans more conscious about their health, and therefore it has
pushed the demand for traditional vegetables, fruits, spices, and herbal teas higher,
forcing many to grow their own healthy foods (Xinhua, 2020). These cases, and
particularly the ALV and the ADD-IT projects, have a direct relevance to the
COVID-19 pandemic as nutrition security is a short-term goal.
5 Conclusion
The case studies described herein have demonstrated not only the importance of
foodways documentation in the sustainable management of rural landscapes, but
also its role in community development, including ensuring human and ecosystem
health. Foodways documentation is fundamental in development programmes that
aim to maximise the benefits of landscape resources. Such programmes require
multi-stakeholder action in collaboration with local communities as demonstrated
in the three case studies. The studies have shown that multiple benefits to the
communities serve as incentives for conservation and sustainable use (Maundu &
Morimoto, 2011). Biodiverse community-managed landscapes such as the Loita
Maasai Forest and Kaya sacred forests of the Mijikenda give multiple benefits
including resilience for food security, nutritional and health benefits, good mental
health, and prevention of infectious diseases like COVID-19. The cases provide
insights on how foodways documentation approaches can contribute to sustainable
management of natural resources, achievement of global biodiversity and sustain-
able development goals, and good health for all.
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Chapter 11
Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving
Agricultural Biodiversity and Enhancing
Food Security and Community Health
During the COVID-19 Pandemic
in Kampong Cham, Cambodia
Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Mari Arimitsu, and Machito Mihara
Abstract Agricultural biodiversity plays a vital role in enhancing food security and
human health. Sustainable agriculture practices that conserve soil and water can
result in good environmental and human health. In view of this, a project on
capacity-building for sustainable agricultural practices targeting extension officers
was implemented between September 2017 and February 2021 in Kampong Cham
Province, Cambodia, by the Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conser-
vation (ERECON), Japan. The project involved government agencies, educational
institutes, NGOs, and farmers, and employed a multi-stakeholder approach to
promote sustainable farming practices among local farmers and enable conditions
for the sale of agricultural products with low chemical inputs, especially in a
province where agrochemical application is prevalent. A questionnaire survey, key
informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations from farmers were
used for programme monitoring. Farmers reported that soil quality was improved
after applying compost, and more beneficial insects were found after integrated pest
management techniques were applied. The amount of agrochemicals applied to
farmlands decreased compared to usage before the project start, implying that the
project was successful in promoting sustainable agriculture in the province. During
the COVID-19 pandemic, communities in the project areas are struggling to cope
J. Sakkhamduang (*)
Southeast Asia Office, Pathum Thani, Thailand
Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
M. Arimitsu
Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
M. Mihara
Institute of Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan, Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo,
Japan
© The Author(s) 2022 227
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_11
228 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
with food and health insecurity. The intervention has helped communities become
more resilient during this hard time. After 3 years, many of the approximate 1500
farmers involved in the project are applying organic fertilisers and enhancing
agricultural biodiversity in their farmlands. This case is a grassroots-level activity,
but the concept of multi-stakeholder activities for agricultural biodiversity conser-
vation can be replicated in other areas of Cambodia for achieving the sustainable
development goals.
Keywords Sustainable agricultural practices · Agricultural biodiversity · Food
security · Multi-stakeholder approach · COVID-19
1 Introduction
In Cambodia, the application of chemical fertilisers and pesticides has significantly
increased to promote agricultural productivity. However, the inappropriate use of
agrochemicals, such as overuse and application without sufficient knowledge, has
caused various problems to human and environmental health (Paavo & Sergiy,
2015). Although agricultural productivity has increased temporarily, environmental
issues including soil degradation, water contamination from agrochemicals, and
water quality degradation such as eutrophication have resulted. Several studies
have proposed that one way to avoid the adverse impacts of agrochemicals on
humans and the environment is sustainable agriculture (Lotter, 2003; Crowder
et al., 2010; Eyhorn, 2007).
Agriculture plays an important role in Cambodia by ensuring food security at
community and national levels as well as in providing income opportunities. In order
to improve agricultural production, Cambodia imports chemical fertilisers from
other countries. Recently the chemical fertiliser and pesticide markets have been
growing rapidly, and application has become quite common among Cambodia’s
farmers (Ministry of Environment (MoE), 2004). In 2001, chemical fertilisers and
pesticides were imported into Cambodia in the amount of 45,335 tons and 200 tons,
respectively (Ministry of Environment (MoE), 2004), while in 2010, 245,854 tons of
chemical fertiliser and 1357 tons of pesticides were imported into the country
(Ministry of Environment (MoE), 2010; FAOSTAT, 2021). Many Cambodian
farmers believe that increased agricultural production can only be achieved by
using modern inputs, especially agrochemical products. This practice contributes
to increased farm products, but also increases farm expenditure and the risks for
human and environmental health (Smith et al., 1990).
Kampong Cham Province is located in the central region, or plain zone according
to the topographical classification, of Cambodia with a population of 895,763 people
within 215,923 households (Royal Government of Cambodia, 2019) (Table 11.1).
Among the five provinces in the plain zone, Kampong Cham has the highest poverty
severity index and poverty gap index of 3.34 and 9.28, respectively (JICA, 2010).
Almost all of the area in the province is non-forest land (agricultural and residential
areas), as shown in Fig. 11.1. Agricultural lands can be categorised into two distinct
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 229
Table 11.1 Basic information of the study area
Country Cambodia
Province Kampong Cham
District All 9 districts in the province
Municipality 1
Size of geographical area (hectare) 459,400
Number of direct beneficiaries (persons) 1530
Number of indirect beneficiaries (persons) 899,791
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if appropriate Khmer
Size of the case study/project area (hectare) 459,400
Geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude) 11
 590 000 N, 105
 270 000 E
Fig. 11.1 Land cover map of Kampong Cham Province (source: Forest Administration, 2010)
topographical regions: lowlands and uplands. Lowland areas mainly support rice
farming interspersed with field crops, vegetable gardens, and fruit trees. Upland
areas are mainly used for rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations, maize (Zea mays),
cassava (Manihot esculenta), soybeans (Glycine max), mung beans (Vigna radiata),
peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), sesame (Sesamum indicum), sugar cane (Saccharum
officinarum), and fruit trees (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(MAFF), 2012). Similar to large-scale farmers in the country, farmers in Kampong
Cham rely heavily on agrochemical products to increase farm production.
EuroCham (2016) reported that 123,871 and 79,328 households in the province
applied inorganic fertilisers and chemical pesticides, respectively, to their farmlands.
230 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
Although many farmers realise the adverse impacts of agrochemicals to human
and environmental systems, they lack knowledge related to sustainable or alternative
farming practices. Meanwhile, the agricultural extension officers who are responsi-
ble for enhancing farmers’ knowledge are simply not enough in number compared to
their assigned areas (de Silva et al., 2014). Cambodia has suffered prolonged internal
conflict that has ruined the educational system and social economy across the
country, such that capacity-building of extension officers has not been implemented.
Hence, interventions from change agents such as NGOs, civil society, or educational
institutions are essential to tackle this problem.
To address the aforementioned issues, the Institute of Environmental Rehabilita-
tion and Conservation (ERECON) initiated the Project on Promoting Sustainable
Agricultural Conditions for Poverty Reduction in Kampong Cham Province
(September 2017 to February 2021) to enhance the capacity of extension officers
and farmers, with a multi-stakeholder approach as the key approach. The project
aimed to promote sustainable agricultural conditions through various forms of
education for change agents (agricultural extension officers) and farmers in the
province. The project covered all ten districts of the province. The specific objectives
included:
1. To build capacity on sustainable agriculture based on the cyclic use of natural
resources in the Provincial Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(PDAFF) and ten District Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(DDAFF) of the province, including dissemination skills and knowledge ranging
from soft (knowledge, skills) to hard (facilities) measures
2. To promote sustainable farming practices based on the cyclic use of natural
resources by local farmers
3. To promote conditions for the sale of agricultural products with low chemical
inputs
Although human health was not a main objective of the programme from the
beginning, from April 2020 to February 2021 amidst the COVID-19 global pan-
demic, programme stakeholders observed that due to achievement of objective
number two, some changes had occurred related not only to environmental but
also human health.
2 Methodology
2.1 Multi-stakeholder Approach
Hemmati (2002) described the multi-stakeholder process as a tool to promote better
decision-making by ensuring that the views of the main actors concerned about a
particular decision are heard and integrated at all stages of dialogue and consensus
building. The process takes the view that everyone involved in the process has a
valid view and relevant knowledge and experience to bring to the decision-making.
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 231
Table 11.2 Stakeholders and their roles in the project
Number of
participants from
each stakeholder
Stakeholder group group Role
Provincial Department of 5 Attend trainings and workshops and
Agriculture, Forest and Fisher- transfer knowledge to model and DG
ies (PDAFF) officers farmers
District Department of Agri- 25 Attend trainings and workshops and
culture, Forest and Fisheries transfer knowledge to model and DG
(DDAFF) officers farmers
Model Farmers and District 500 Attend workshops and transfer knowl-
Group (DG) Members edge to general farmers
General Farmers 1000 Attend workshops and transfer knowl-
edge to other farmers and neighbours
Royal University of Agricul- 3 Prepare technical content for trainings
ture (RUA) and workshops and giving trainings
and lectures in workshops
Kampong Cham National 2 Prepare technical content for trainings
Institute of Agriculture (KNIA) and workshops, giving trainings and
lectures in workshops, and programme
monitoring
Institute of Environmental 10 Prepare technical content for trainings
Rehabilitation and Conserva- and workshops, giving trainings and
tion (ERECON) lectures in workshops, programme
monitoring, and programme
facilitating
The approach aims to create trust between actors and solutions that provide mutual
benefits (win-win). The approach is people-centred, with everyone involved taking
responsibility for the outcome. When inclusive and participatory approaches are
used, stakeholders have a greater sense of ownership of decisions made, and are thus
more likely to comply with them. Stakeholders of the project included the Royal
University of Agriculture (RUA), Cambodia; Provincial Department of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries (PDAFF), District Department of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries (DDAFF), Kampong Cham; Kampong Cham National Institute of Agri-
culture (KNIA); and farmers’ groups for promoting sustainable agriculture. The
number of persons and the roles of each stakeholder group are presented in
Table 11.2.
Trainings and workshops covered topics ranging from sustainable agricultural
practices to product handling and marketing channels and were provided to exten-
sion officers and farmers by ERECON staff and RUA and KNIA lecturers, as
presented in Table 11.3. Contents of training and workshops were prepared and
delivered to PDAFF and DDAFF officers by ERECON staff and RUA and KNIA
lecturers. The trained officers gave feedback on the content and delivery methods to
lecturers and ERECON staff. The feedback was considered and incorporated into
outreach materials before it was used with farmers, as shown in Fig. 11.2. The
232 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
Table 11.3 Topics of trainings/workshops and number of participants
Duration Topic of training/workshop Participants
January 2018–June Improvement of soil fertility PDAFF and DDAFF
2018 Soil conservation practices officers (30)
Composting, pellet compost Model and DG farmers
Liquid fertiliser (500)
Multicropping General farmers (1000)
Agroforestry
14–17 May 2018 Technical training in Thailand for agricul- PDAFF and DDAFF
tural extension officers officers (20)
KNIA staff (1)
ERECON staff (1)
January 2019–June Integrated pest management PDAFF and DDAFF
2019 Biopesticide making (30)
Model and DG farmers
(500)
General farmers (1000)
13–18 May 2019 Technical training in Thailand for agricul- PDAFF and DDAFF
tural extension officers officers (20)
KNIA staff (1)
ERECON staff (3)
January 2020–June Irrigation techniques PDAFF and DDAFF
2020 Drip irrigation officers (30)
Mini sprinkle planning and installing Model and DG farmers
(500)
General farmers (1000)
September 2020– Post-harvesting, product handling, and mar- PDAFF and DDAFF
November 2020 keting channels officers (30)
Model and DG farmers
(500)
General farmers (1000)
roughly 1500 farmers who attended the trainings and workshops were expected to
share the knowledge gained with their neighbours. Agricultural materials, such as
compost boxes and tanks for making liquid fertiliser and biopesticide, were distrib-
uted to all farmers along with guidebooks on sustainable agriculture practices.
Networks for safe agricultural products were formed, and marketing channels for
the products were introduced to farmers in the final year of the project through
workshops and trainings. Small shops for selling low agrochemical input products
were set up in the ten districts of the province, with products sold at the stalls coming
from farmers who participated in the project. The main products included leafy
vegetables, tomatoes, eggplants, cucumbers, etc.
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 233
Stakeholders Activity Stakeholders
ERECON, RUA PDAFF and 
and KNIA Technical training DDAFF officers
Revise/ Feedback
improve
ERECON, PDAFF Model farmers 
and DDAFF Workshop and DGs
officers farmers
Revise/
improve Feedback
ERECON, PDAFF 
and DDAFF officers, Workshop General farmers
Model farmers and 
DG farmers
ERECON, PDAFF and Model farmers, 
DDAFF officers, Monitoring DG farmers and 
RUA and KNIA General farmers
Fig. 11.2 Stakeholder involvement in the Project on Promoting Sustainable Agricultural Condi-
tions for Poverty Reduction in Kampong Cham Province (from October 2017 to February 2021)
(source: authors)
2.2 Data Collection and Analysis
A questionnaire survey, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and
programme monitoring through farm data records and farm visits by DDAFF
officers and KNIA and ERECON staff were the methods used to collect data.
Moreover, the concept of citizen science (McKinley et al., 2017; Ryan et al.,
2018) was applied by asking farmers to observe and make note of changes observed
in their farmlands after converting to organic fertilisers. DDAFF officers were
assigned to make monthly visits to farmers participating in the project, make records
of natural fertilisers produced and utilised in farmlands, and write monthly reports.
To capture any changes following project implementation, 100 DG farmers who
participated in the project were randomly selected out of a total of 500 DG farmers to
conduct baseline and end-line surveys. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the
data collected.
234 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
3 Results
From the first year of the project until project termination, more than 50 workshops
were conducted for agricultural officers and farmers in the project area as shown in
Table 11.4. Trainings and workshops for PDAFF and DDAFF officers were
conducted at the provincial office. Officers working in the districts had to travel to
the provincial capital to attend. For DG and general farmers, workshops were held at
model farmers’ houses or at village meeting places as shown in Figs. 11.3 and 11.4.
The average distance travelled to attend workshops was around 4 km.
According to the baseline and end-line surveys, 78.0% of respondents were male
with an average age of 49.62 years old. Regarding educational attainment, 44.0%
graduated primary school, and 39.0 percent graduated secondary school. The aver-
age number of family members was 5.12 persons, and the average years of residency
Table 11.4 Number of workshops and participants during project implementation
No. of Number of Duration of Total number
participants workshops per each of trainings/
per training or topic per district workshop Number workshops
Participants workshop (10 districts) (in days) of topics organised
PDAFF 32 1 2 4 4
and
DDAFF
officers
(30)
Model 25 2 1 4 20
farmers and
DGs (500)
General 30–50 2–3 1 4 32
farmers
(1000)
Fig. 11.3 Workshop on
composting
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 235
Fig. 11.4 Training on
biopesticides (photo
courtesy of the Institute of
Environmental
Rehabilitation and
Conservation (ERECON),
2018a, b)
Table 11.5 General information on respondents (source: survey data)
Respondents (of total
100)
Item (Value) (%)
Gender (persons) Male 78 78.0
Female 22 22.0
Average age (years) 49.62
Educational background of respondent (persons) No schooling 4 4.0
Primary 44 44.0
Secondary 39 39.0
High school 12 12.0
College/university 1 1.0
Average number of family members (persons) 5.12
Average years of residence (years) 43.04
Average total cultivation area (ha) 1.19
Irrigation of farmland (households) Fully 72 72.0
Partially 26 26.0
Not at all 2 2.0
Average annual income from agricultural activity (in KHR) 8,385,414.14
Average annual income from non-agricultural activity (in KHR) 2,247,838.38
Average annual total income (in KHR) 10,633,252.53
in the respective districts were 43.04 years. The average cultivated land size was
1.19 ha with 72% fully irrigated. Main crops grown by the respondents included rice,
cassava, corn, fruit trees, and vegetables.
Even without any significant change in cropping area, end-line surveys showed
that the farmers’ average annual income from agricultural activity increased by
49.9% or 3,683,141.41 KHR (Cambodian Riel, around 905 USD) from the year
that the project started, pointing to an increased efficiency in the existing land use
(Table 11.5). Income from non-agricultural activities also grew by 45.2% or
236 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
1,015,079.76 KHR (249.5 US$) over the 2-year period (2018–2020). One of the
reasons for this increase was family members gaining income working in garment
factories or working abroad sending remittances back to their families.
3.1 Changes in Agricultural Practices
Farmers who reported using chemical pesticides decreased overall by 9.0% from
90.0 to 81.0 percent. Of these, farmers using herbicides decreased by 9.0% from 54.0
to 45.0%, and those using insecticides decreased by 11.0% from 78.0 to 67.0%.
Meanwhile, farmers who reported using organic pesticides increased by 39.0% from
23.0 to 62.0%. Similarly, farmers using chemical fertilisers decreased by 5.0 per-
centage points from 87.0 to 82.0% (Table 11.6).
The farmers who did not apply agrochemicals prior to joining the project stated
reasons including lands being relatively small (less than one hectare) and a lack of
any significant insect pest problems. They considered application of agrochemicals
to be unnecessary.
Likewise, comparing with the baseline survey, end-line survey results showed
that the number of farmers using organic fertilisers increased by 11.0% from 85.0 to
96.0%. Among organic fertilisers, the biggest increase was seen for compost, rising
by 74.0% from 7.0 to 81.0%, followed by liquid bio-fertiliser rising 25.0% from 4.0
to 29.0%, and green manure with a 28.0% increase from 6.0 to 34.0%. Rice husk
and/or bran went up 20.0% from 13.0 to 33.0%, rice straw 12.0% from 13.0 to
25.0%, and other organic fertilisers 6.0% from 2.0 to 8.0%. Of all organic fertilisers,
only animal manure saw a relative decrease in use, falling by 7.0% from 80.0 to
73.0% due to farmers using it to make compost instead of applying it directly on their
fields (Table 11.7).
The reason behind this drastic increase in organic fertiliser use was the farmers’
lack of knowledge in making organic fertilisers, such as compost or liquid fertiliser,
before the project started. Prior to the project, the most prevalent practice was
applying cow manure directly to farmlands, which carried the risk of pathogenic
bacteria such as Escherichia coli leaking into water sources. Through participating in
the project, farmers gained knowledge on how to make and apply compost and liquid
Table 11.6 Changes in Respondent (100)
application of fertilisers and
Item Baseline (%) End line (%)
pesticides (source: survey
data) Using chemical fertilisers 87.0 82.0
Using chemical pesticides 90.0 81.0
Herbicides 54.0 45.0
Fungicides 32.0 32.0
Insecticides 78.0 67.0
Other 1.0 3.0
Using organic pesticides 23.0 62.0
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 237
Table 11.7 Changes in Respondents (100)
organic fertiliser application
Item Baseline (%) End line (%)
(source: survey data)
Using organic fertiliser 85.0 96.0
Rice straw 13.0 25.0
Rice husk and/or bran 13.0 33.0
Green manure 6.0 34.0
Animal manure 80.0 73.0
Compost 7.0 81.0
Pellet compost 1.0 6.0
Liquid bio-fertiliser 4.0 29.0
Other 2.0 8.0
fertiliser to their farmlands. During the second year of the project, when some
farmers started to grow low input or organic vegetables, compost became a neces-
sary input for them. Many farmers changed their attitudes towards organic fertilisers,
especially compost, after observing the good practices of their neighbours.
However, some farmers still apply chemical fertilisers mixed with compost in an
attempt to get a quicker and higher yield than with compost alone. Some farmers
have continued to decrease the amount of chemical fertilisers used while increasing
the amount of compost. Chemical pesticides are still widely used in the project areas
due to organic pesticides showing a lower performance than that of chemical
pesticides, especially for farmers who grow large amounts of vegetables. Changing
the perception of farmers concerning the adoption of organic fertiliser application by
modelling the change proved to be very effective. In this case, the model farmers
played important roles in sharing knowledge and using their farms as places for
demonstration and showcasing of sustainable agricultural practices to their neigh-
bours and visitors.
Regarding changes in soil conditions and diversity in farms, semi-structured
interviews were conducted with ten model farmers. Excerpts from the interviews
are presented below:
First thing I did is reduce chemical fertiliser and pesticide; after participate in the training, I
clearly realise that applying chemicals is impacting health and the environment and costs
much more money. That is the reason why I changed to using compost for which materials
can be found around the house, and it’s cheaper. Second is I changed the traditional habit of
growing; I used to grow crops for only household consumption and without much taking
care. But now, that habit is changed, and I look after my crops and soil well. I can see the
soil condition is improved after applying compost. —Farmer A
I can say, it (crop diversity) is increased 30% in my farms. I cultivate many types of
vegetables, and I can produce foods for the year round. —Farmer B
Crop diversity in my farm is really increased. More than 50 dragon fruit trees are increased,
and I plan to add another 30 trees this year. Moreover, I grow more crops for household
consumption, like eggplant, tomato, lemongrass, and other herbs, etc. I also raise chickens,
ducks and some catfish to gain more income. —Farmer A
238 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
Since I started applying bio-pesticide to my farmland, I found out there are many beneficial
insect populations that have significantly increased. I noted that there are bees, spiders,
golden bugs, and frogs, etc. —Farmer B
I noticed that after I started applying bio-pesticide, some beneficial insects appeared more,
like bees and spiders. There are also birds and some types of reptiles coming to eat worms,
ants, and other pests. Those insects and small animals never showed up when I used
chemical pesticide. —Farmer C
Most farmers interviewed reported noticing improvements in soil conditions,
such as soil being more porous, softer, and darker in colour compared to before
applying organic fertilisers. Farmers also reported that they increased crop diversity
in their farmlands with multiple benefits, such as producing for household consump-
tion, for the market, or to use as safety nets (in the case of animal husbandry).
Moreover, more beneficial insects were found in farmlands after farmers stopped
applying chemical pesticides and began using biopesticides made from plants and
herbs in their farmlands.
3.2 Impact of COVID-19
Kampong Cham is one of the provinces with reported cases of COVID-19, with
118 cases as of 4 May 2021 (Ministry of Health (MoH), 2021). Due to the global
pandemic, several planned workshops and trainings had to be postponed because the
Royal Government of Cambodia restricted all events involving more than 50 partic-
ipants. The postponed activities have caused a delay in project implementation,
especially in the flood-prone areas along the Mekong River, which are normally
difficult to access during the rainy season.
During this hardship, several organisations working in the country decided to
hold workshops, seminars, or meetings using internet platforms to connect people.
However, most of the project beneficiaries are farmers living in rural and remote
areas with limited access to infrastructure such as tap water or electricity, let alone
smartphones to connect to the internet. Most of the farmers participating in the
project own mobile phones, but only 25% own smartphones. Some farmers reported
that although at least one of their family members owns a smartphone, they them-
selves do not know how to use it.
Face-to-face communication and social gatherings are still the most effective
means of communication with farmers, especially in remote areas. Therefore, local
stakeholders, especially agricultural extension officers, model farmers, and district
group members, play important roles in project monitoring and keeping the majority
of farmers engaged in the project via farm visits and mobile phone conversations.
A questionnaire survey for DG and model farmers and semi-structured interviews
were conducted to obtain updates on farmers’ situations during the pandemic,
especially on their feelings about their own health, food security, and mental health.
A total of 58 DG farmers completed the survey between January and May 2021.
Results are shown in Table 11.8.
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 239
Table 11.8 Farmers’ feelings towards health, food security, diversity in their farms, and mental
health during COVID-19 (source: survey data)
Items Respondents (58)
After applying organic fertilisers to your farmland, do you think Healthier54 No
you are healthier than before? difference4
Did you increase types of plants/livestock in your farmland more More No
than before? diverse49 difference9
Do you think you have more food security than before? More food No
security53 difference3
Do you think you have chances to meet with other farmers from Yes57 No
different villages/communes more often than before? difference1
COVID-19 concerns Number of respondents
(multiple responses
allowed)
How does COVID-19 affect your everyday life?
I worry that I or my family members are going to contract 55
COVID-19.
I cannot attend meetings or workshops conducted by government 33
agencies or NGOs as usual.
I do not want to go to public places such as pagodas, markets, or 50
meeting halls as I might contract COVID-19.
I feel less confident about consuming foods from markets as it 41
might be contaminated with COVID-19.
My agricultural products cannot be sold as before due to 33
COVID-19.
I feel depressed about the situation of COVID-19 and economic 38
situation.
How do you cope with such concerns or fears?
I and my family members always wear facial masks and wash our 56
hands often, especially when we go out.
I attend meetings or workshops as little as possible. 35
I avoid going to public places. 46
I eat more of my own foods, such as vegetables or livestock that I 40
grow rather than buying raw materials from markets.
I try to contact other farmers or agricultural officers to find other 30
market channels.
I talk and share my feelings with neighbours and farmers I know 35
from the project.
Do you think sharing your concerns or fears with neighbours
and other farmers from the project can reduce your stress
caused by the COVID-19 situation?
Yes, very much 32
A little 23
Not at all 3
240 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
Some responses from interviews with farmers are presented below:
Since COVID-19, I am only confident in consuming food collected from my own farm. And I
do not usually buy from outside, only meats and other necessary ingredients. I can rely on
my farm to survive during the pandemic. —Farmer D
Since the COVID-19 outbreak, I am more confident eating my own food from my farm rather
than going out to eat or buying vegetables from unknown sources. Because I only apply
compost, liquid fertiliser and bio-pesticide I have learnt from ERECON about my crops. Our
community members also know how to prevent themselves from contracting COVID-19 by
following the Ministry of Health’s announcements. Many of them diversified their farms to
meet household consumption and meet the market demand. But at the same time, their
products do not sell well, because of the reduction of buyers/consumers. —Farmer E
Most of the farmers interviewed stated that during the pandemic, they felt more
confident consuming their own products, believing that they could depend on their
own crop diversity. Meanwhile, they felt less stress after talking and exchanging
information among community members. Results of interviews clearly show that
sustainable agricultural practices lead to healthy soil and healthy and safe foods and
contribute to human health, both of the individual and the community.
4 Challenges and Opportunities
4.1 Challenges
During the 3 years of the project intervention, the number of farmers using organic
fertilisers has increased, but the use of chemical fertilisers mixed with compost is still
prevalent, although the amount of chemical fertiliser is small compared to compost.
Project staff and agricultural extension officers suggested farmers to gradually
decrease the amount of chemical fertilisers and increase the amount of compost.
Moreover, the biopesticides introduced by the project were not highly adopted by
some farmers, especially those engaged in mono-crop farming, as they are less
effective compared to chemicals. Positive human and institutional impacts were
seen as extension officers gain knowledge, skills, and experience in agricultural
extension and advisory services from agricultural development projects/programmes
(Ke & Babu, 2018). However, the number of agricultural extension officers assigned
to work in each district is still small considering the size of the areas for which they
are responsible. This challenge is also discussed in the work of Sothath and Sophal
(2010), who note that the average of extension service support in Cambodia at the
district level is 5000 households per extension worker. This limitation is an obstacle
for farmers to obtain adequate knowledge of sustainable farming practices.
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 241
4.2 Opportunities
Sustainable organic farming has become one of the province’s agricultural extension
policies. The project has contributed to provincial and district agricultural strategic
plans by promoting the production of low agrochemical input or organic products by
farmers in the province for supply to local markets. Moreover, the project has also
enhanced food security at the household and community level through increased
crop diversity and productivity. Organic farming and safer foods are well accepted
by relevant stakeholders, especially customers in the province. Several farmers
involved in the project produced low agrochemical input products or organic
products, which earned 20 to 25 percent higher a price than that of conventional
products. Figure 11.5 shows the organic vegetable farm belonging to one of the DG
farmers, which received a net house from another project as part of an integrated pest
management (IPM) technique promotion activity. The farmer has successfully
applied IPM techniques and demonstrated the benefit of selling low-chemical-
input products at higher prices. This case serves as a good example that can motivate
more farmers to follow a similar path. Enhanced engagement of youth and educa-
tional institutes was also observed. The project stakeholders included two educa-
tional institutes, one located in the capital city of Phnom Penh and the other located
in Kampong Cham Province, the Kampong Cham National Institute of Agriculture,
which actively engaged in the project by conducting farm visits and collaborating
with farmers using their farms as experimental sites for students. Sharing knowledge
with university students made the farmers more confident in their farming practices.
Moreover, the project also encouraged young farmers to get involved and use their
knowledge of and access to social media to support older farmers in keeping up with
news on techniques and other information related to sustainable agricultural
practices.
During project implementation, we observed the active involvement of women.
Several of them supported the extension officers during trainings and workshops by
Fig. 11.5 Organic
vegetable farm of a DG
member
242 J. Sakkhamduang et al.
Fig. 11.6 A farmer
showing her organic garden
to visitor (photo courtesy of
the Institute of
Environmental
Rehabilitation and
Conservation (ERECON),
2021 (Fig. 11.5) and
Institute of Environmental
Rehabilitation and
Conservation (ERECON),
2019 (Fig. 11.6))
sharing their knowledge and first-hand experiences in applying organic fertilisers or
other changes in their farms with other farmers as well with visitors from universities
and government agencies (Fig. 11.6). Several PDAFF and DDAFF officers acknowl-
edged that through this project, they acquired new knowledge and techniques on
sustainable farming practices used both in Cambodia and abroad. The technical
trainings in Thailand, in particular, motivated many officers to develop conditions
for sustainable farming practices in their own responsible areas. Moreover, the
knowledge dissemination design that required officers to give lectures to farmers
in the workshops gave junior officers the opportunity to hone their teaching and
communication skills instead of only observing senior officers perform.
5 Conclusion
After 3 years of project implementation, several changes and developments in terms
of agricultural practices and the capacities of officers and farmers were observed.
According to monitoring reports and farm visits, farmers produced and applied
compost, liquid fertilisers, and biopesticides in their farmland instead of agrochem-
ical products. The changes resulted in an increase in agricultural biodiversity in
farmlands and enhanced food security and human health.
The project has contributed to provincial and district agricultural strategic plans
by promoting the production and sale in markets of low-agrochemical-input or
organic products by farmers in the province. Although the progress of marketing
organic products was hindered by COVID-19, knowledge in marketing and net-
works were formed. Moreover, consumers in the Kampong Cham capital city
became aware of organic farming networks through the promotional event held by
PDAFF.
11 Multi-stakeholder Approach to Conserving Agricultural Biodiversity. . . 243
Through its multi-stakeholder approach, the project addressed Target 2.4 for Goal
2 of the SDGs, by promoting sustainable food production systems to increase
productivity and production, and improve land and soil quality. The project covered
the whole province encompassing various landscapes ranging from uplands to
lowlands and river ecosystems. The sustainable agricultural practices promoted
and applied by farmers in these landscapes have helped to conserve the soil and
water ecosystems and have resulted in improved human health.
The project also contributed to Target 12.2 for Goal 12, by promoting sustainable
management and efficient use of natural resources through composting and produc-
ing organic fertilisers. Generally, after rice is harvested from paddies, rice straw is
collected and used as animal fodder. However, farmers always burnt the remaining
rice stumps as a convenient way to clear the land before the next growing season.
Burning residue not only creates smoke and particulate matter (PM2.5), but also kills
microorganisms and animals in the soil (Ajay et al., 2019). Using farm residues to
make compost to apply to fields is a good example of cyclic use of resources for
sustainable production and consumption. Although more labour by farmers is
required to make and apply compost than needed for the use of chemical fertilisers,
the practices result in a better environment and improved human health both at the
individual and community levels.
Farmers who converted their agricultural practices from applying agrochemical
products to using organic fertilisers observed several changes in their farmlands. For
instance, some noted the improvement of soil conditions, such as more porous soils
that are darker in colour and contain more soil organisms. The integrated pest
management also allowed more beneficial insects to live, helping control insect
pests. Crop diversity in farmlands enhanced the food security of farmers, which has
proven to be vital especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
It is anticipated that understanding and awareness of sustainability, especially
with regard to consumption and production, will spread to the public in Kampong
Cham Province through the farmers’ network. We also expect that the outcomes
from this project will be scaled up and applied to broader areas of Cambodia.
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Chapter 12
Reducing Commodity-Driven
Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use
and Impacts on Socio-Ecological Production
Landscapes (SEPLs) in Ghana
Yaw Osei-Owusu, Raymond Owusu-Achiaw, Paa Kofi Osei-Owusu,
and Julia Atayi
Abstract Ghana’s Western North and Central Regions are biodiversity-rich land-
scapes. Cocoa is a major commodity produced in these two regions, accounting for
over 50% of Ghana’s cocoa output. As part of the efforts to further improve
productivity and ecological health of the landscape, the Government of Ghana
initiated the Cocoa Disease and Pests Control Programme primarily to control
cocoa pests and diseases, including the use of pesticides. In recent times, however,
there has been an upsurge in the use of highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) that have
far-reaching consequences on human and ecological health of the cocoa production
landscape. To gain a better understanding of pesticide-use patterns on cocoa farms
and address HHP-driven biodiversity loss, Conservation Alliance International
(CA) conducted a study within the landscape. The study was based on both quali-
tative and quantitative research approaches to understand pesticide use and resulting
impacts on human and ecological health. In all, 306 cocoa farmers were surveyed.
Analysis of the data revealed that about 81% of the cocoa farmers use pesticides to
address pests and diseases, causing visible impacts on humans and the environment,
including skin irritation, eye irritation, and death of pollinators. Pesticide use was
exacerbated by the adverse economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Policymakers are therefore advised to take steps to phase out HHPs, promote
integrated pest management, and tackle the spread of COVID-19 infections.
Keywords Pesticides · Cocoa · Communities · Environment · Health · Landscape ·
Biodiversity
Y. Osei-Owusu (*) · R. Owusu-Achiaw · P. K. Osei-Owusu · J. Atayi
Conservation Alliance International, Accra, Ghana
e-mail: yosei-owusu@conservealliance.org; rowusu-achiaw@conservealliance.org;
pkosei-owusu@conservealliance.org; a.julia@conservealliance.org
© The Author(s) 2022 247
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_12
248 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
1 Introduction
Cocoa production is a major economic activity in Ghana. Many studies have
confirmed that the cocoa sector is the mainstay of the economy, employing about
45.0% of the workforce (Vigneri & Kolavalli, 2018; Gakpo, 2012). It provides 30%
of Ghana’s total export earnings making it the second largest source of export
earnings after mineral exports (World Bank Group, 2018). Since 1990, the Govern-
ment of Ghana has implemented several policies aimed at reforming the cocoa sector
in order to increase the national cocoa output. Notably, in 1999, the government
developed a national cocoa development strategy to increase cocoa production from
300,000 metric tons (MT) to 700,000 MT by 2010 (Amoah, 2013). In 2001, the
government through its agency, the Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD), designed
another programme named the Cocoa Disease and Pests Control (CODAPEC)
programme, primarily to assist in the control of cocoa pests and diseases (Essegbey
& Ofori-Gyamfi, 2012). The CODAPEC programme provides free spraying of
approved pesticides over one acre of cocoa farm per farm to address incidences of
diseases and pests in an effort to curb the declining cocoa output (Anang et al., 2013;
Boadu, 2014). The programme does not cover the additional acres of farms that are
of more than one acre in size. Hence, cocoa farmers are expected to purchase
additional approved pesticides to cover the rest of their farms.
Additionally, the programme provided opportunities for enhancing the ecological
health of the production landscape by promoting agroforestry systems, integrated
pest management (IPM), and conservation of faunal IUCN Red List species
(Adjinah & Opoku, 2010). It also made provisions for enhancing the technical
capacity of key staff of the Ghana Health Service (GHS), Forest Services Division
(FSD), Wildlife Division (WD), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
as well as Protected Area Managers, to monitor the impacts of pesticide application
on the health of humans and protected areas. It therefore provided the requisite
motivation for conservation practitioners to collaborate with the programme pro-
ponents and relevant agencies, including the Ministry of Food and Agriculture
(MoFA), to address cases of pesticide poisoning among humans and ecosystems
through alternatives, including IPM. IPM is an environmentally sensitive approach
to pest and disease management that relies on a combination of common cultural
practices (Singh & Prasad, 2016). IPM programmes have a proven track record of
significantly reducing the risks of pesticides while improving the health of the
ecosystem. Cultural practices such as pruning trees and maintaining a close canopy,
among others, are practical ways to prevent pest attacks and also give agronomic
benefits to the cocoa trees.
By 2012, the CODAPEC programme had significantly increased national cocoa
output from 600,000 MT to a record 1,000,000 MT. This record was 35.7% higher
than the full-year record of 740,000 MT, obtained in the 2005/2006 season (ISSER,
2011). Much of the increase in cocoa output was attributed to increased pesticide
application on cocoa farms (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011). While the increase in output
is most welcomed, several studies have suggested that cocoa farmers have become
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 249
overly dependent on pesticides in addressing disease and pest control, posing
enormous risk to humans and the environment within the cocoa production land-
scape (Conservation Alliance (CA), 2019, 2020; Pesticide Action Network (PAN)
UK, 2018). Biodiversity loss within the agricultural portion of the production
landscape is mostly driven by pesticide use. Other factors degrading biodiversity
in the protected portions of the landscape include illegal logging, agricultural
encroachment, and poaching.
Damalas and Eleftherohorinos (2011) indicated that pesticides are widely used in
agricultural production to prevent losses due to pests and improve yields. Unfortu-
nately, pesticides reduce the populations of insects, spiders, and birds that naturally
control pests and pollinate the crops, through either direct effects or indirect effects
(such as lowering the number of flowering weeds visited by insects) (Gill & Garg,
2014). These hazards have been exacerbated by flooding of the markets with highly
hazardous pesticides (HHPs) and by abuses—including the use of mixtures of
different pesticides, use in higher concentrations than recommended, and application
at higher frequencies than required—by most farmers. More worryingly, the appli-
cations are carried out without strict adherence to precautionary measures including
wearing of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE). Additionally, current
government regulations and control measures in regard to the use of unapproved
pesticides including HHPs—such as fines—are not enough of a deterrent and are
poorly enforced. This is exacerbated by the lack of a clear policy direction on
timelines from the Government of Ghana with respect to phasing out HHPs within
the agricultural production landscapes.
The use of pesticides provides a number of benefits, including control of vector-
borne diseases (Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020). However, the use of these toxic
materials on the production landscape has potential hazards that are of great human
and ecological health significance (Conservation Alliance (CA), 2019). Concern has
risen in recent years that the current pesticide regulatory system, which is intended to
minimise health risk to the general population, may not adequately protect the health
of cocoa farmers and the environment (Pesticide Action Network (PAN) UK, 2018).
Additionally, the increasing demand for more cocoa for export has resulted in the
increased use of pesticides (Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020).
Aimed at cutting down the use of pesticides, Conservation Alliance International
(CA), an NGO, carried out a public awareness and education programme on the
adverse effects of pesticide abuse within the landscape through radio broadcasts and
community public address systems. Awareness on the associated risks of depen-
dency on pesticides could motivate cocoa farmers to press for alternatives. As part of
the awareness program, a study was conducted by CA to understand pesticide use
and impacts on human health and the environment since pesticide use poses a major
challenge in managing the production landscape. Another challenge for managing
the production landscape has been weak institutional coordination among stake-
holders due to overlapping mandates. There is an opportunity to address this
challenge through the local government authority, which is developing a strategic
plan to address biodiversity loss and promote sustainable development through a
250 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
jurisdictional landscape approach that encompasses activities of actors under one
central coordination unit to enhance the success of project interventions.
The main goal of this study was to gain better understanding of the use of
pesticides for disease and pest management and their impacts on human health and
biodiversity within two agricultural production landscapes in Ghana. Specifically,
the study sought to:
1. Determine farmers’ level of dependency on pesticides in managing diseases and
pests on farms.
2. Estimate the extent of use of unapproved pesticides on cocoa farms.
3. Assess farmers’ perceptions of the impacts of pesticides on the health of humans
and the environment.
4. Evaluate the effects and benefits of alternatives (IPM and organic pesticides) on
protected areas and the environment.
5. Document any COVID-19 and gender-related experiences relevant to the
biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus.
2 Methodology
2.1 Study Area
The study was conducted within two major agricultural production landscapes in
Ghana. These are the Bia Conservation Area (BCA) and Kakum Conservation Area
(KCA) in the Western North and Central Regions of Ghana, respectively. The BCA
includes the Bia, Enchi, Juaboso, and Sefwi Wiawso districts. The KCA includes the
Assin North, Assin South, Lower Denkyira, and Upper Denkyira districts (Fig. 12.1
and Table 12.1). The two landscapes cover a total area of 34, 987 km2 and fall within
the Upper Guinean forest hotspot, one of the most biodiversity-rich hotspots of
Ghana. The landscapes also contain 75% of primary forest and lie in the equatorial
climatic zone, which is characterised by moderate temperatures. The landscapes lie
in the moist deciduous forest ecosystem part of Ghana, with an average rainfall of
1600 mm per annum. They are characterised by a number of isolated forest patches
that contain exceptionally diverse ecological communities, distinctive biodiversity,
and a mosaic of forest types that provides refuge to numerous endemic species
(Conservation Alliance (CA), 2018). The cultivation of cocoa and oil palm consti-
tutes the main commodity-driven deforestation within the landscape. Agriculture is
the main economic activity within both landscapes, dominated by tree and food
crops. Cocoa is a major tree crop accounting for more than 55% of Ghana’s tree crop
exports (Kolavalli & Vigneri, 2011; Denkyirah et al., 2016). The BCA and KCA
accounted for more than half (56%) of cocoa production in Ghana in 2019
(COCOBOD, 2020). The favourable edaphic conditions and the rich ecosystem
largely account for the high production of cocoa.
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 251
Fig. 12.1 Map showing the study landscapes: BCA (left) and KCA (right) (source: Conservation
Alliance (CA), 2020)
Table 12.1 Basic information of the study area (source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020)
Country Ghana
Province Central and Western North Regions
Districts Bia, Enchi, Juaboso, Sefwi Wiawso, Assin North, Assin South,
Lower Denkyira, Upper Denkyira
Municipality n.a.
Size of geographical area 3,498,700
(hectare)
Number of direct beneficia- 1500
ries (persons)
Number of indirect benefi- 5000
ciaries (persons)
Dominant ethnicity(ies), if Akans
appropriate
Size of the case study/project 780,400
area (hectare)
Geographic coordinates (lati- 6
45035.100N, 3
04044.300W
tude, longitude)
252 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
2.2 Study Population and Sampling Method
The total number of registered cocoa farmers is about 1500 in the Western North and
Central regions (900 and 600 members, respectively) (Table 12.1). Among regis-
tered members, 70% are men and 30% women. A simple random sampling tech-
nique was adopted in selecting members of the Cocoa Conservation Association
(CCA) for the study. A sample size of 306 was derived from the random selection of
respondents of which 184 were from Western North Region and 122 from the
Central Region based on the respective population size (Kirk, 2011; Etikan & Bala,
2017). The sample sizes were further divided to get an equal representation of the
gender groupings. For the BCA, 129 male and 55 female farmers were sampled.
Similarly, 85 male and 37 female cocoa farmers were sampled in the Central Region
within the KCA. Images of interviewed respondents are shown in Fig. 12.2.
2.3 Data Collection
Both quantitative (survey) and qualitative research approaches were used. Farmer
surveys, community consultations, focus group discussions, district-wide
A C
B D
Fig. 12.2 Researcher interviewing input seller (a), CCA members (b), and individual farmers
(c and d) (Source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020. Photo credit: All images taken by CA
Communications Team)
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 253
stakeholder consultations, and key informant interviews constituted the main strat-
egies to generate data. Both primary and secondary data constituted a useful set of
data that defined the state of pesticide usage and impacts among cocoa farmers
within the landscape.
Surveys were conducted with farmers of the sample to generate primary data.
Secondary data was secured from various sources including public records, institu-
tional documents, management plans, policy statements, official publications, and
other research works. The questionnaires for the survey were administered in the
various districts in September 2020. Reviews of government documents on the
CODAPEC programme, including operational manuals and monitoring reports,
constituted another important form of data collection.
A series of key interviews were also conducted with the FSD, WD, EPA, and
Protected Area Managers to assess the effects of alternatives to pesticide use on the
health of protected areas. With respect to the effects of unapproved pesticides on
human health, the study team conducted a risk assessment based on farmers’
experiences in relation to the likelihood of occurrence and consequences of use of
the unapproved pesticides.
2.4 Data Analysis
The questionnaires for the survey of farmers were pretested using a selected group of
respondents outside the target population to ensure the reliability and validity of the
questions and responses. All data were coded, and analysis was carried out using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel. The data
obtained reflected the views, opinions, and attitudes of the respondents and further
enhanced the reliability, validity, credibility, and accuracy of the results. The data
obtained are summarised in tables for simplicity of analysis. The analysis was done
using descriptive analysis where issues of similarity and dissimilarities of responses
were compared. The descriptive statistical tools facilitated the quantitative compar-
ative analysis of the responses.
3 Results
3.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
The key demographic characteristics that were generated during the study included
the age, years of experience, level of education, and marital status of respondents.
Almost 70% of the respondents were male, arising from the dominance of males in
the sector (Table 12.2). Additionally, over 77% of the respondents were over
41 years of age and almost 80% of the respondents had more than 10 years of
work experience. Education plays a significant role in the acquisition and use of new
254 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
Table 12.2 Demographic characteristics of farmers (source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020)
Variable Category Number of Respondents Percent (%)
Gender Male 214 69.9
Female 92 30.1
Age (Years) <30 5 1.5
30-40 65 21.3
41-50 90 29.3
51-60 81 26.5
61-70 47 15.3
>70 18 6.0
Marital Status Married 256 83.6
Divorced 17 5.7
Single 33 10.7
Education Non-Formal 130 42.5
Basic 96 31.3
Secondary 73 24.0
Tertiary 7 2.2
Years of 1 – 5 15 5.0
Experience 6 – 10 47 15.3
> 10 244 79.7
Fig. 12.3 Use of pesticides Use of Pescides
(source: Conservation
Alliance (CA), 2020) 18.7%
81.3%
Yes No
technology. With more than 40% of respondents having no formal education, the
risk of unapproved pesticide use is high.
3.2 Farmers’ Level of Dependency on Pesticides
The use of pesticides is widespread among cocoa farmers due primarily to the high
level of disease and pests and the ready supply of free inputs. The study revealed that
about 81.3% of farmers are solely dependent on pesticides and consider them as the
most important method for managing diseases and pests (Figs. 12.3 and 12.4). About
18.7% of the respondents are reliant on IPM, including cultural methods to control
diseases and pests on farms, and depend less on pesticides.
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 255
Fig. 12.4 Farmer spraying
(source: Conservation
Alliance (CA), 2020. Photo:
CA Communications Team)
3.3 Use of Unapproved Pesticides
The study revealed that at least 30% of the sampled farmers have continuously
applied unapproved pesticides on their farms. Akate Suro (Diazinon) and Consider
(Imidacloprid) were the most widely used because they are readily available on the
market and their price is affordable (Table 12.3). Carbamult (Promecarb) and So Bi
Hwe (a suspected cocktail of several active ingredients), on the other hand, were
considered to be the most effective in controlling diseases and pests. The rest of the
farmers have consistently benefited from the government’s free supply of approved
pesticides.
The risk matrix (Table 12.4) revealed that Sumitox (chlorpyrifos), Akate Suro
(diazinon), So Bi Hwe (suspected cocktail), and Lambda Super (lambda-cyhalothrin)
had the most devastating impacts on human health. The study recorded 23 reported
cases of pesticide poisoning among cocoa farmers within the study areas within the
past 5 years. The BCA, which accounts for almost half (45%) of cocoa output in
Ghana, coincidentally also recorded about 78% of the reported cases, and the KCA
(11% of cocoa output) accounted for about 22% of reported cases of human health
impacts (Table 12.5).
256 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
Table 12.3 Unapproved pesticides used on cocoa by farmers (source: Conservation Alliance (CA),
2020)
Importing Exporting
Pesticide Active ingredient companies countries
Carbamult Promecarb Smuggled Cote d’Ivoire
Sumitox Chlorpyrifos Kumark Ghana India
Limited
Consider Imidacloprid Thomas Fosu China
Enterprise
Akate Suro Diazinon Mybarnes Israel
Limited
Lambda Lambda-Cyhalothrin Kumark Ghana China
Super Limited
So Bi Hwe Mixture of two or more of the above active Smuggled Cote d’Ivoire
ingredients
Table 12.4 Human health risk matrix of unapproved pesticides (source: Conservation Alliance
(CA), 2020)
Health Consequences
Likelihood Skin Eye Irritation Dizziness Breathlessness Headache Vomiting
Irritation
Almost So Bi Hwe Lambda Super Sumitox Lambda Super Sumitox Sumitox 
Certain (Mixture of (Lambda- (Chlorpyrifos) (Lambda- (Chlorpyrifos) (Chlorpyrifos)
two or more Cyhalothrin) Cyhalothrin)
active Lambda Super Akate Suro Akate Suro
ingredients) Akate Suro (Lambda- Akate Suro (Diazinon) (Diazinon)
(Diazinon) Cyhalothrin) (Diazinon)
Lambda Super
(Lambda-
Cyhalothrin)
Likely Lambda Super Sumitox Carbamult So Bi Hwe (Mixture Carbamult Carbamult
(Lambda- (Chlorpyrifos) (Promecarb) of two or more (Promecarb) (Promecarb)
Cyhalothrin) active ingredients)
Possible Akate Suro So Bi Hwe Consider Consider So Bi Hwe So Bi Hwe
(Diazinon) (Mixture of two (Imidacloprid) (Imidacloprid) (Mixture of two (Mixture of two 
or more active or more active or more active 
ingredients) ingredients) ingredients)
Notes: The probability of health effects occurring: Almost Certain (100%), Likely (50%), Possible (≤25%)
Consequence is very critical requiring immediate medical attention.
Consequence is major requiring specific treatment to contain it.
Consequence is moderate requiring normal routine management and effects fade after sometime.
3.4 Farmer’s Perception of the Impacts of Pesticides
The use of pesticides is perceived to adversely affect the health of humans. While
over 90% of the respondents were aware of the adverse impacts of pesticides on
humans because of the visible signs they leave behind, only a few (less than 10%)
knew of the effect on the environment (biodiversity) (Fig. 12.5).
During the study, the participating farmers shared their experiences related to the
prolonged use of pesticides in cocoa production (Fig. 12.6) and reported on symp-
toms experienced. Regarding the effects on human health, the farmers reported skin
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 257
Table 12.5 Reported cases of pesticide poisoning (source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020)
No. of reported Percentage of reported
Production landscape Districts cases cases
Bia conservation area Bia 8 34.8
Enchi 3 13.0
Sefwi Wiawso 3 13.0
Juaboso 4 17.4
Kakum conservation Assin North 2 8.7
area Assin South 1 4.3
Lower 1 4.3
Denkyira
Upper 1 4.3
Denkyira
Total 23 100.0
Awareness on Impacts of
Pescides  
8%
92% Humans
Environment
Fig. 12.5 Awareness on the impacts of pesticides (source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020)
irritation (more than 30%) to be the most commonly experienced effect on human
health. Others included eye irritation (21%), dizziness (18%), vomiting (16%), and
breathlessness (13%). About 5% of the farmers appeared indifferent to the adverse
effects of pesticides and argued that such effects on humans could only arise from
the state of the individual’s health, particularly the toughness of the skin.
With respect to the less than 10% of respondents who reported impacts on
biodiversity, about half of the reported impacts of pesticide use were perceived to
cause the death of vertebrates (e.g. rodents, reptiles) as shown in Fig. 12.7. About
35% of reported cases involved harm to a wide range of beneficial invertebrate
species (e.g. earthworms in the soil and other terrestrial habitats), and pollinators
(e.g. bees, midges, and butterflies). About 15% of pesticide impacts reported were
related to adverse effects on freshwater aquatic species (e.g. snails and water fleas),
which were affected via water and aquatic plants exposed to pesticide residue.
258 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
Perceived Health Effects of Pescides
35 32
30
25 21
20 18 16
15 13
10
5
0
Health effects
Fig. 12.6 Perceived health effects of pesticides (source: Conservation Alliance (CA), 2020)
Perceived Adverse Impacts of Pescides on Biodiversity
Freshwater aquac species (e.g. water fleas) 15%
Beneficial invertebrate species (e.g. pollinators) 35%
Vertebrate species (e.g. rodents) 50%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Level of Perceived Impacts (%)
Fig. 12.7 Perceived impacts of pesticides on biodiversity (source: Conservation Alliance (CA),
2020)
3.5 Effects and Benefits of Alternatives (IPM and Organic
Pesticides) on Protected Areas and the Environment
With respect to alternatives to conventional pesticides used by farmers that are
ecologically friendly to protected areas and the environment, the study recorded
about a 69.8% patronage of IPM and 30.2% of biopesticides (organic pesticides).
The most commonly used biopesticides were neem tree (Azadirachta indica) extract
(55%); pyrethrum 5EW, a natural substance purified from chrysanthemum flowers
Affected Species Frequency (%)
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 259
Table 12.6 Benefits of alternatives (IPM and organic pesticides) (source: Conservation Alliance
(CA), 2020)
No. of recorded % of recorded
Benefits benefits benefits
Reduced environmental risk associated with pest management 17 18
by encouraging the adoption of more ecologically benign
control tactics
Protection of non-target species including flora and fauna 22 23
Reduced air and groundwater contamination 10 10
Alleviation of public concern about pests and pesticide-related 13 13
practices
Promotes sustainable bio-based pest management alternatives, 15 16
thus reducing the need for pesticides
Maintains or increases the cost-effectiveness of a pest man- 19 20
agement programme
Total 96 100
(31%); and milk bush (Thevetia peruviana) extract (14%). Additionally, 86% of the
respondents attested to IPM and biopesticides being effective in pest control and
protection of non-target flora and fauna. The study also assessed the benefits of
adopting other alternatives (IPM and organic pesticide) and recorded 96 benefits
from the landscape through monitoring reports of the FSD, WD, and EPA
(Table 12.6).
According to the study, SEPL management by the community through sustain-
able practices such as IPM and biopesticide application had positive beneficial
effects contributing to the well-being of humans and environment, as shown in
Fig. 12.8. Therefore, this interdependent relationship among the three sustainability
pillars through IPM and biopesticides offers prospects for local communities and
farmers to adopt practices compatible with living in harmony with nature to enhance
the ecological health of their landscapes.
3.6 Gender and COVID-19-Related Issues
The study also documented some gender and COVID-19-related issues in the
landscapes, which were relevant to the biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus.
The study revealed that 60% of male respondents and 58% of female respondents
were aware that some pesticides were unapproved by COCOBOD. However, only
5% of the female respondents were able to specify these unapproved pesticides, as
compared to 65% of the male respondents. Additionally, the study examined how
the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the purchasing power of males and females
with respect to the use of approved and unapproved pesticides. Since the COVID-19
pandemic has negatively impacted the income of farmers, use of pesticides is based
on affordability. The study revealed that male cocoa farmers (65%) were able to
260 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
Environment Economic
Reduces Maintains or 
environmental risk increases the cost-
through adoption effectiveness of 
of ecologically 
IPM and a pest management benign practices. program.
Reduces or Biopesticides Reduces the need 
eliminates issues for pesticides by 
related to pesticide using several other 
residue. pest management 
methods.
Decreases farmers’
exposure to 
pesticides.
Alleviates public Social
concern about pests
and pesticide-
related practices.
Fig. 12.8 Community conceptualisation of benefits of IPM and biopesticides (source: Conserva-
tion Alliance (CA), 2020)
afford approved pesticides more than their female counterparts (25%), since
unapproved pesticides were found to be less expensive than the approved ones.
4 Discussion
The study found there to be an over-reliance on pesticides by cocoa farmers in
addressing incidences of disease and pests on farms. This is to be expected consid-
ering that these pesticides are freely distributed to farmers to help increase national
cocoa output. While the government programme has resulted in an increase in the
national cocoa output from about 600,000 MT to 1,000,000 MT, it also negatively
impacted the health of humans and the environment (Conservation Alliance (CA),
2020).
Some farmers were still reliant on unapproved pesticides, which are mostly
HHPs. Even though the law forbids the importation, marketing, and use of
unapproved pesticides, this regulation is not sufficiently enforced and the penalty
is not enough of a deterrent to stop illegal practices, largely accounting for their
widespread sale and use. Use of unapproved pesticides correlates with low purchas-
ing power, perception of the poor effectiveness of approved pesticides, and igno-
rance about which pesticides are approved, especially in developing countries
(Denkyirah et al., 2016). The Transnational Alliance to Combat Illicit Trade
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 261
(TRACIT) confirms that the use of these types of pesticides makes enforcement of
regulations more difficult, while also increasing the danger to human health and the
environment (Transnational Alliance to Combat Illicit Trade (TRACIT), 2019).
As observed by the farmers, pesticides cause prominent health and environmental
impacts, having adverse effects on pollinators, soil organisms, and human health
(e.g. acute headaches and breathlessness) (Özkara et al., 2016). In particular, pesti-
cides cause significant damage and pose serious risks to a wide range of beneficial
invertebrate species in the soil, vegetation, and aquatic habitats (Bernardes et al.,
2015). These organisms play vital roles in ecosystem functioning and services,
including pollination, regulating of organic wastes, nutrient cycling, food produc-
tion, biological pest control, and water cleansing (Power, 2010). The most damaging
ecological disturbances of excessive pesticide use include the existence of high
concentration of pesticide residues in food chains and biodiversity loss (Boakye,
2012). A study by Dankyi (2015) found that neonicotinoids are persistent in
Ghanaian soils even after several months to years of application and have a high
potential of being leached into surface and underground water systems. According to
a study by Pesticide Action Network (PAN) UK (2018), neonicotinoid pesticides in
cocoa production/farming can present acute health effects. According to the PAN
UK study, US farm workers have similarly reported skin or eye irritation, dizziness,
breathlessness, confusion, or vomiting after exposure to HHP pesticides
(e.g. imidacloprid). The same study by PAN UK highlighted serious harm to a
wider range of organisms at the levels which threaten the essential ecosystem
services of pollination, nutrient cycling, and natural pest control.
This study assessed alternatives to HHPs and showed that the majority of farmers
favour IPM (70%) as potential alternative and an effective means of pest and disease
control and maintenance of the socio-ecological health of the landscape. This was
reinforced by the number of recorded benefits of IPM, including protection of
biodiversity. According to Mboussi et al. (2018), IPM thus represents a better option
for sustaining cocoa yield and enhancing the ecological health of landscapes in view
of the multiple interrelated practices. A similar study by Dara (2019) showed that the
adoption of IPM strategies and organic pesticides provides economic benefits by
reducing pest damage to crops, thus increasing productivity. According to Pesticide
Action Network (PAN) UK (2018), the adoption of IPM enhances benefits for
biodiversity, the environment, and food productivity as compared to the use of
synthetic (chemical) pesticides. IPM has greatly reduced pesticide poisoning inci-
dences within the production landscape. Additionally, some community members
integrate tree cultivation into their agricultural lands not only to reduce disease and
pest incidences, but also to enhance the ecological health of the farmlands. As a
result, 12 cocoa farms belonging to some cocoa cooperatives have been turned into
demonstration plots for promoting best practices in pest and disease management
within the project landscape. Additionally, the increased awareness on the evidence
of ecological and health benefits of IPM and biopesticides has resulted in increased
adoption among community members.
The study revealed that there is a low level of knowledge among women
concerning the illegal practice of using unapproved pesticides, which are mostly
262 Y. Osei-Owusu et al.
HHPs. This can be attributed to low education, less participation during sensitisation
exercises, inability to read, and lack of involvement during group meetings, thus
exposing women to greater risk from highly hazardous pesticides as compared to
men. According to Kawarazuka et al. (2020), despite gender differences, research
and training on pest and disease management often target farmers as a whole
neglecting the specific needs of women and men. This study also revealed that the
lower financial status of women is a key driver for women to use unapproved
pesticides, which were mostly highly hazardous. Poverty is one of the key reasons
why the envisioned sustainable cocoa sector is failing. The same poverty has
compelled cocoa farmers, especially women farmers who are not able to purchase
approved pesticides, to resort to cheaper but more hazardous pesticides especially in
the face of the COVID-19 pandemic (Walker, 2021). Additionally, the high per-
centage of males in cocoa farming is likely linked with the involvement of the
women in the cultivation of other crops and trading of food crops. Accordingly, most
of the training programmes organised by COCOBOD have often targeted male
cocoa farmers with the participation of very few women (Williamson, 2011).
5 Conclusion
This study sought to document the various methods commonly used by smallholder
cocoa farmers to manage pests and disease incidence, and to establish their level of
dependency on pesticides. The dependence on pesticides by farmers has adversely
affected the socio-ecological health of the production landscapes. Governments are
advised to take steps to phase out active ingredients of HHP pesticides from the
pesticide value chain due to their adverse effects on human health and the environ-
ment. Regulatory agencies must be further empowered to regulate these products on
the market and clamp down on unapproved pesticides with very deterrent penalties
including lengthy imprisonments, huge fines, and suspension of operations of
companies and individuals that disobey the laws. Additionally, policymakers are
encouraged to promote the use of environmentally friendly pesticides, including
biopesticides, which are relatively safe to humans and biodiversity. Steps must be
taken to stimulate investments in the production and distribution of biopesticides so
that they are available, accessible, and affordable to cocoa farmers. Furthermore,
there must be intensification of farmer education and training on IPM coupled with
intensified supervision and monitoring by extension officers to encourage the
increased adoption of IPM to enhance the socio-ecological health of the cocoa land-
scapes in Ghana.
12 Reducing Commodity-Driven Biodiversity Loss: The Case of Pesticide Use. . . 263
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Chapter 13
Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies,
and Strategies to Address the Nexus
in SEPLS
Maiko Nishi, Suneetha M. Subramanian, and Himangana Gupta
Abstract This chapter synthesises major findings from the eleven case studies
presented in the previous chapters, offering policy recommendations arising from
the synthesis. It distills key messages to address questions on the following issues:
(1) how to conceptualise the nexus between biodiversity, health, and sustainable
development in the context of SEPLS management; (2) how to measure, evaluate,
and monitor the effectiveness of SEPLS management in regard to securing and
improving both ecosystem and human health; and (3) how to address the challenges
and seize the opportunities of SEPLS management in minimising trade-offs and
maximising synergies between different efforts augmenting both ecosystem and
human health, as well as well-being, so as to move towards more sustainable futures.
The chapter identifies several policy recommendations to better manage the
biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus in SEPLS and facilitate transformative
change for sustainable development. It also revisits the concept of the biodiversity-
health-sustainability nexus to offer perspectives on the complex interlinkages in the
context of managing SEPLS on the ground.
Keywords Socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes · Nexus · Trade-
offs · Synergies · One Health · Integrated approaches · Sustainable development
Contributing authors to this chapter include Nadia Bergamini, Valerie Braun, Jung-Tai Chao,
Dipayan Dey, Andrea Fischer, Chris Jacobson, Paulina G. Karimova, N. Anil Kumar, Kuang-
Chung Lee, María Elena Méndez López, Patrick Maundu, Yasuyuki Morimoto, William
Olupot, Yaw Osei-Owusu, Raymond Owusu-Achiaw, Md. Shah Paran, Vipindas P, Andrés
Quintero-Ángel, Sara Catalina Rodriguez Dias, Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang, Fausto
O. Sarmiento, V.V. Sivan, and Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir.
M. Nishi (*) · S. M. Subramanian · H. Gupta
United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS),
Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: nishi@unu.edu
© The Author(s) 2022 267
M. Nishi et al. (eds.), Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in Socio-Ecological
Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS), Satoyama Initiative Thematic
Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9893-4_13
268 M. Nishi et al.
1 How Can We Conceptualise the Nexus Between
Biodiversity, Health, and Sustainable Development
in the Context of SEPLS Management?
The nexus between biodiversity, health, and sustainable development can be
seen as the interdependent connections between the ecological and human dimen-
sions of a social-ecological system that together contribute to the well-being and
resilience of the human-nature system (see Chap. 1). Such a conceptualisation
furthers a recognition of the links between biodiversity and health in the sense of
physical, mental, and spiritual health. Furthermore, human health and well-being are
dependent on environmental health that provides various ecosystem benefits we
derive including clean air, water, regulation of floods, food security, nutritional
security, medicinal resource diversity, and access to various cultural benefits,
among others. The understanding of this dependence of human health on the
environment has become more vivid during the COVID-19 outbreak, when multiple
challenges arising from the viral disease, including those relating to access to
medical facilities, conventional food markets, employment opportunities, and the
like, came to the fore especially in the context of local communities. We examine in
this volume (and specifically this chapter) how communities cope and find solutions
to address these multiple challenges within the context of socio-ecological produc-
tion landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS). Specifically in the context of SEPLS,
biodiversity acts like insurance to ensure security of food, health, energy, water,
livelihoods, and income, among others. This is because a diversity of resources (and
by implication well-functioning ecosystems) enhance options to mitigate or adapt to
various perturbances (natural or human-induced) through regulating natural pro-
cesses (such as floods and soil fertility), providing varieties that can adapt to climatic
change, and opening economic opportunities that allow diversifying risks from
economic or natural shocks, leading to better health outcomes. It is important to
note that securing these benefits is dependent on the wise use of both traditional and
modern knowledge relating to use, maintenance, and marketing of products and
services from the SEPLS.
1.1 Human Health and Healthy Environment
Health and Sustainable Development
Health is defined as physical, mental, and social well-being (WHO, 2006), implying
a deep and wide correlation that connects the environment with social relations and
economic activities. What this means is that ensuring good health is a pathway
towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For example,
unravelling the various constituents of good health at the local level has been well
highlighted in connection to food security and sovereignty brought about by dietary
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 269
diversity (for instance, see Chaps. 9 and 11). Also well understood are access to
medicinal resources and spaces of cultural and aesthetic significance that are also
important for mental well-being (in addition to physical health). This implies that
ensuring good health at the community level strongly contributes to a high level of
social-ecological resilience. In this context, the following components, in no specific
order, have been identified as relevant parts of the nexus between biodiversity,
health, and sustainable development:
• Ensuring food security and sovereignty,1 dietary diversity, and nutritional secu-
rity: To achieve this, ensuring a high degree of agro-biodiversity, furthering
healthy soils, and “no-harm” agronomic practices (such as rational or low use
of chemical pesticides and increase in ecologically friendly organic pesticides)
are required. These have consequent benefits for the health of water systems
(including coastal and marine ecosystems), other biological life forms, and
human health (e.g. Chaps. 3–5, 10–12).
• Ensuring the integrity of ecosystems especially relating to the regulation of
natural cycles such as of water, soil fertility, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus:
Achieving this requires management of water, plant, and soil resources in a
sustainable fashion and may involve regeneration activities. These activities
have a direct impact on agricultural productivity, availability of clean air and
water, as well as psychological health, in addition to enhancing biocultural
linkages (e.g. Chaps. 4, 6, 7, and 11).
• Ensuring One Health that includes the health of people, environment, and
animals: This requires interdisciplinary expertise from modern sciences and
local knowledge to establish good practices for the integrated management of
the health-for-all-linked components of human society and nature. This would
require negotiating prejudices between disciplines, knowledge systems, and
power hierarchies among different decision-making institutions. This nexus
approach would enable policy coherence and a strong alignment of local-level
priorities and policy goals on ensuring health and sustainability using a systems
approach (e.g. Chaps. 2, 4, 9, and 12).
• Ensuring that different stakeholders in the community are engaged proactively in
the decision-making and management of SEPLS: This ensures inclusion of
various priorities related to well-being and bridges potential areas of conflict
that could arise due to decisions related to the individual use and management of
landscapes and seascapes. This would require an explicit acknowledgement of the
rights and obligations of different stakeholders to the landscape and resources,
including both primary and secondary stakeholders (e.g. Chaps. 4, 8, 10, and 12).
• Ensuring connectivity between adjoining landscapes under different governance
regimes: This requires an explicit recognition of the heterogeneity of ecosystems
that is to be factored in to planning and governance systems in landscapes and
seascapes, including national and regional government reserves, production
1Sovereignty refers to control over types and supply of food.
270 M. Nishi et al.
areas, private lands, indigenous reservations, and other effective area-based con-
servation measures (OECMs). This will ensure conservation of biodiversity and
ecosystems and their sustainable use, and will further ensure that the norms for
access and management are fair, just, and equitable to all stakeholders
(e.g. Chaps. 3, 4, and 5).
In summary, the nexus at the SEPLS level constitutes a combination of access to
food, medicines, various ecosystem types and benefits, autonomy and
co-management, and cultural and political rights.
1.2 What Does the Nexus Approach Mean in the SEPLS
Context?
Based on the priorities identified in the nexus between biodiversity, health, and
sustainability, we can further identify some clear scalar level guidance to the
management and governance of SEPLS to strengthen these interconnections.
These include the following:
• At the resource level:
– Focus on promoting spatial connectivity (within and between landscape and
seascape) that is crucial to the linkages between production practices and
impacts on biodiversity and health of humans and other life forms.
– Given the direct dependence of populations in SEPLS on biodiversity, for
example for food, health, and nutrition, promote activities that enhance diver-
sity of species and improve mediums that support life (such as soil, water), and
encourage cultural practices that promote this diversity (e.g. endemic food,
local food concepts, traditional medicine practices, sustainable production and
consumption that are linked to cultural knowledge).
– Enhance livelihood security based on the connectivity of traditional knowl-
edge and modern sustainable customary practices such as aquaculture, small-
scale fishing, crab culture, honey and wax culture, and traditional arts and
crafts, as both alternative and additional livelihood options.
• At the governance level:
– Focus on promoting inclusive planning among different stakeholder groups
including women, youth, and other marginalised groups.
– Promote cooperation and strategic alliances between public, private, and
academic sectors with convergent goals and co-management scenarios.
– Integrate traditional and modern knowledge for endogenous development,
which works on the principle that all available knowledge and experience
are leveraged to address well-being priorities on the ground for sustainable,
regenerative development.
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 271
– Promote intergenerational transfer and documentation of traditional knowl-
edge and sustainable customary practices and sharing of experiences with
other SEPLS and a wider set of communities that would foster relevant
innovations.
• At the macro policy decision-making level:
– Focus on initiatives that promote sustainability including “green” energy use;
address issues of biodiversity loss, climate change, and livelihood security
together; promote adaptive capacity; and reduce vulnerabilities to natural and
socio-economic shocks (such as the pandemic, and other disasters from natural
and economic or policy shocks).
– Promote community-based approaches in national policymaking to encourage
local solutions within larger Global North-Global South scenarios in obser-
vance of the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.
– Expand recognition of communities’ rights, appreciation of their knowledge
and values, and protection of their lands in relevant policy processes at
international, regional, and national levels with a particular focus on the
Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) phase.
2 Measuring, Evaluating, and Monitoring the Effectiveness
of SEPLS Management with Regard to Ecosystem
and Human Health
The health-biodiversity-sustainability nexus is distinctive when it comes to SEPLS
because of inherent human-nature interactions and scalar linkages. Although con-
ventional methods and approaches for project monitoring and evaluation (M&E) are
well known (Bours et al., 2014; GIZ, UNEP-WCMC, and FEBA, 2020), monitoring
implementation of the interventions, particularly from the nexus lens, demands more
tailored approaches for SEPLS, based on the specific conditions of the multiple
ecosystems they represent, including their sociocultural diversity and well-being
parameters. In this section, we discuss the approaches, tools, challenges, and oppor-
tunities with regard to monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions
in SEPLS. The approaches and tools captured here emerge from the experience of
the practitioners of on-the-ground projects and initiatives. Figure 13.1 shows the
main keywords emerging out of these case studies with reference to M&E.
2.1 Approaches for Monitoring
the Biodiversity-Health-Sustainability Nexus in SEPLS
The previous volumes of SITR highlighted the need for M&E in SEPLS and various
M&E methods, focusing on SEPLS’ multifaceted and multidimensional nature that
272 M. Nishi et al.
Fig. 13.1 Top keywords on relevance and methods of M&E approaches in SEPLS presented in
this book
makes the need for integrated approaches much more essential (UNU-IAS & IGES,
2019; Nishi et al., 2021). In this volume, we discuss below such integrated
approaches used by and mentioned in various case studies, namely:
Community engagement approaches: These include operationalising traditional
knowledge systems, and building capacities of the community through facilitation,
training, and engagement in localising global, regional, or national indicators.
Communities need to be given greater ownership of the interventions, including
the situational enhancement of the role of indigenous peoples and local communities
(IPLCs), women, youth, and other marginalised groups in monitoring and documen-
tation based on localised indicators.
Mixed approaches using both quantitative and qualitative methods: Although
community engagement is deemed important, it is also useful to do economic
valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services to have quantitative estimates. To
effectively use mixed approaches, studies on human-nature interactions must include
social analyses to obtain a holistic picture, including qualitative aspects perceived
from the ground. This transdisciplinary effort will help combine biophysical and
social knowledge.
Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches: These approaches integrate
expertise across different levels and sectors. For this to happen, there is a need to
develop indicators that are locally sensitive and comprehensible to all involved
stakeholders while taking into consideration the diversity of sectors and metrics
involved in human-nature linkages that may need evaluation in terms of ecosystem
and human health. The different stakeholders include the public sector (various
ministries including health, agriculture, nature conservation, and environment),
private sector, and local community. In the SEPLS context, we may mention this
as a “whole-of-the-society” approach or an “interagency” approach.
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 273
Table 13.1 Synthesis of various approaches and tools used and suggested by the case studies
Approaches Methods and tools
• Community empowerment and • Use of indigenous and local knowledge
engagement of youth and women • Revitalisation of traditional practices
• Monitoring and documentation by the community
• Participatory planning
• Resource mapping • Local survey
• Ecosystem service valuation
• Remote sensing • Use of aerial imageries
• Use of GIS data available at other platforms
• Localisation of indicators • Selection of locally adapted indicators
• Engagement or creation of local self-help groups to
generate awareness on global indicators
• Networking • Long-term ecological network
• Engagement of multiple stakeholders
2.2 Tools and Indicators for M&E
Implementation of the above-mentioned approaches requires appropriate and need-
based tools and indicators well suited to the SEPLS context. While no one tool or
indicator alone would suffice for M&E in SEPLS, there are various options tried and
tested by practitioners. Table 13.1 shows the various approaches and tools used in
the case studies presented in this book. Some of them include the following:
SEPLS resilience indicators toolkit: This toolkit is unique in terms of its
suitability and flexibility for a SEPLS as it offers a set of indicators that are designed
for monitoring both ecosystem and human health and their linkages, but can be
flexibly chosen and adapted through local consultation to accord with local condi-
tions and circumstances.
Use of other available indexes: Other indexes, if well suited to the SEPLS
condition, can be used, such as the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI),2 Social
Vulnerability Index,3 and other tools that include biodiversity mapping. Some of
these already include multiple sectors or can be tweaked appropriately to include
more indicators related to the ecosystem and human health nexus.
Setting benchmarks: For very specific local conditions, it is better to set appro-
priate benchmarks for the evaluation of ecosystem and human health including
qualitative and quantitative changes in biodiversity and air, water, and soil quality.
2The LVI uses multiple indicators to assess exposure to natural disasters and climate variability,
social and economic characteristics of households that affect their adaptive capacity, and current
health, food, and water resource characteristics that determine their sensitivity to climate change
(Hahn et al., 2009).
3Developed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (USA), it was meant to
create databases to help emergency response by planners and public health officials to facilitate
identification and mapping of communities that will most likely need support before, during, and
after a hazardous event. It is increasingly used as a part of a climate resilience toolkit.
274 M. Nishi et al.
This can also help in long-term resource mapping including degradation in ecosys-
tem or human health, and effectiveness of SEPLS management and conservation.
Adapting global indicators: Although several global indicators are available
from the SDGs, biodiversity, and health targets, many of them may not be well
suited for local conditions. Such indicators can be tweaked or downscaled based on
local parameters and needs, or more preference could be given to indicators that are
already localised and well understood by the community.
To use these tools and indicators, quality data needs to be collected from the
SEPLS, which can be done using the following:
Citizen science: Through citizen science, people share their knowledge and
contribute to data collection and monitoring, thus enhancing their participation and
collaboration in scientific research (National Geographic, 2012). In the context of
SEPLS, this could be seen as one of the most preferred methods for collecting local-
level data, as it can directly engage the local community. It helps develop networks
for ground monitoring, provided that it considers ecological knowledge, local use
practices, tradition and heirlooms, and other socio-demographic heritage indicators.
Secondary data: Secondary data or outcomes can be examined, for example,
from remote sensing data related to land use, mountainscape transformation, or
climate change.
Established methodological frameworks and networks: Available frameworks
and networks can provide data that help to provide basic ground information of the
SEPLS. These include networks like long-term ecological monitoring networks.
2.3 What Are the Major Challenges in SEPLS M&E?
Despite the availability of different tools and data, practitioners face challenges in
various contexts and levels. Some of the challenges are physical barriers and others
are social or capacity barriers. A few of these are discussed below:
Developing linkages between various indicators and frameworks: Although
various global indicators are available for sustainability, biodiversity, and health,
they often suffer from various trade-offs among them. There could be a trade-off
between the objectives of SEPLS and other objectives, such as the SDGs. For
instance, the SDGs’ “zero hunger” goal promotes free food distribution, affecting
people’s capacity and ability to grow local foods and develop local markets. This
makes M&E a tough task from the nexus perspective, as while one goal is achieved,
another is compromised. Therefore, there is a need to develop a global framework of
indicators that allows for minimising trade-offs and maximising synergies to address
the biodiversity-health-sustainability nexus and achieve multiple sustainability
goals. Such a framework is currently lacking. Further, there is a lack of a system
of global indicators that fully considers the nexus, which may lead to gaps between
global indicators and local ones.
Lack of data and robustness: There is a lack of scientific data for M&E, and
when available, they are often not scientifically robust. Quantitative data do not
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 275
always address some socially relevant questions well, such as “why” a certain
change happened. There is also a lack of knowledge on policy decisions that impact
the lives of locals.
Monitoring after funding ends: There is often no monitoring after a project ends,
as most donor-funded projects are output-focused and do not give much attention to
long-term outcomes. For this reason, the actual effectiveness of the interventions is
not measured over the long term.
Responsibility distribution for M&E: When multiple stakeholders are involved,
the party responsible for M&E can remain unclear, and may depend on who owns
the land, may it be private, government, or locals.
Quantitative nature of M&E: It is difficult to measure the benefits to a commu-
nity, as they purely depend on what value community members put on the local
resources, which broader quantitative estimates cannot measure.
2.4 What Are the Opportunities that Can Be Galvanised?
With challenges also come opportunities that can help overcome many barriers to
effective M&E. These may include, but are not limited to:
Traditional knowledge and IPLCs: Local traditional knowledge and community-
based monitoring can help with some of the listed challenges above, especially those
pertaining to the lack of qualitative and on-the-ground data and responsibility for
monitoring. Further, IPLCs also bring together years of accumulated knowledge and
experience for better conservation and management. Thus, promotion of traditional
knowledge in modern systems through participatory planning could be a way
forward (e.g. Chaps. 2 and 3).
Mainstreaming of biodiversity and health: It is also worthwhile and relevant to
mainstream health-biodiversity-sustainability indicators in other relevant indicators
or approaches, to make them an integral part of ecosystem management and con-
servation (e.g. Chaps. 9 and 10).
Communication of M&E objectives and bridging stakeholders: In cases where
the need for M&E and its implications to SEPLS management are clearly explained
and well understood by the community and other stakeholders, the quality of the
assessment process and its implementation can be enhanced (e.g. Chaps. 2 and 9). It
is also desirable to bridge stakeholders including academic institutions,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs), private companies, and other actors
involved in facilitating SEPLS initiatives and fostering communication between
primary (e.g. IPLCs) and secondary (e.g. government organisations) stakeholders
in SEPLS. In many cases, these stakeholders play an essential role in conducting
initial and follow-up M&E activities, in communication of M&E results and their
management implications, and in capacity development of other SEPLS stake-
holders (e.g. resilience assessment workshops in Xinshe SEPLS in Chap. 4).
276 M. Nishi et al.
3 How Can We Address the Challenges and Seize
the Opportunities to Manage the Nexus in SEPLS?
To explore ways forward, the nexus approach helps to elucidate trade-offs associated
with different pathways towards sustainability and to identify synergies that can
build on the inherently coupled and mutually interdependent elements of SEPLS.
This section first clarifies different types of trade-offs and then discusses the pro-
cesses and steps to simultaneously attain multiple sustainability goals of SEPLS
management through the nexus approach.
3.1 Types of Trade-Offs
Trade-offs are inevitable given the constraints in natural resources and multiple
values attributed to them differently by different actors. The case studies show
four types of trade-offs, including those between (1) ecosystem services, (2) stake-
holders, (3) human well-being components, and (4) management goals. Due to the
complex interlinkages between various elements of SEPLS, these types are not
always clear-cut, but rather reciprocally influence each other. Furthermore, many
of these trade-offs cut across sectors and scales, making varied impacts on different
sectors, geographic and temporal scales, and governance levels. This typology is
applicable to a wide range of multifunctional social-ecological systems (Lu et al.,
2021; eds. Sarmiento & Frolich, 2020; Manning et al., 2018), but the case studies in
this volume highlight the trade-offs in seeking for both ecosystem and human health
and sustainability that can result from human-nature interactions within SEPLS.
Ecosystem Services
SEPLS, involving a variety of ecosystem functions and processes, provide multiple
ecosystem services between which trade-offs can occur across sectors and scales.
For instance, the case of the Angkorian landscape in Cambodia explicates the trade-
offs between provisioning, regulating, and cultural services. The exploitation of
forest resources (along with other drivers such as forest fire) has led to the reduction
in water storage capacity and availability, affecting the quality and quantity of water
in the upper catchment and threatening the downstream system of water manage-
ment, which is also linked to agricultural production (e.g. through irrigation) and
tourism (e.g. through flood control) (Chap. 7). In this case where tourism is highly
dependent on natural and human-made water management networks, recent trends
demonstrate that the excessively flourishing tourism (e.g. too many inbound tourists)
contributes to the increase in demand for water that can put pressure on groundwater
resources, not only affecting the water supply but also fragilising the structural base
of the temples as cultural assets. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 277
adversely affected tourism (through decreased tourists) and has in turn reduced the
revenue available for the water sector, constraining the water management admin-
istration despite the lessened pressure on water resources.
Trade-offs also arise between quantity and quality of the same kind of ecosystem
services. The case of Indian peri-urban wetlands accounts for experiences in which
curbing the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides has improved the quality of
food provisioning services and redressed negative health impacts on humans, but
reduced the quantity of food provision in terms of crop production (Chap. 6). Similar
trade-offs are found in the case of the Ghanaian cocoa farms, where government
intervention to control cocoa pests and diseases has significantly increased the cocoa
output nationwide but undermined the quality of cocoa production, imposing neg-
ative impacts on ecosystem and human health particularly for those within and
around the local cocoa farms (Chap. 12).
Stakeholders
Given the varied ecosystem services derived from SEPLS, trade-offs arise likewise
among the stakeholders who receive those ecosystem services that contribute to
human well-being. The Angkorian case, where upstream forest degradation has
lowered downstream groundwater levels, illustrates that the material gain by the
population in the upper catchment (e.g. forest products) is traded off with the well-
being of those in the lower catchment (e.g. access to groundwater) (Chap. 7). This
raises a question about who should pay for the benefits from water management
(including forest management), considering that efforts in forest conservation in the
upper catchment, as well as water-efficient agriculture in the mid-catchment, would
contribute to downstream water conservation.
These trade-offs also involve political dimensions in regard to the distribution of
benefits from SEPLS management. The case of Alpine landscapes in Austria shows
that ski tourism development has definitely benefited the international enterprises
and their customers (e.g. through sports, wellness, and health), who can largely
control the business with their monetary power, but has mixed effects on human and
ecosystem health at the local level (Chap. 8). The regular tourism-based income has
helped to stabilise the livelihoods of the locals and keep traditional sustainable
practices alive (e.g. traditional gentian use contributing to biodiversity conservation)
while limiting opportunities for alternative land uses (e.g. through the construction
of large wellness hotels) and for earning decent subsistence from farming alone.
The case of local vegetable promotion in Africa also suggests that the gender gap
in power raises trade-offs in regard to the benefits from the vegetable production: the
women’s contribution to growing the underutilised vegetables is not socially well
recognised but instead, men take a central role particularly once the initiative
becomes economically profitable (Chap. 10). This alludes to the gendered trade-
offs in equitable sharing of benefits from the initiative (e.g. economic profits, social
recognition). The same case also points to possible trade-offs between holders and
users of traditional knowledge concerning local species and associated cultivation
278 M. Nishi et al.
and utilisation practices. As the political and economic power of knowledge users
mostly outweighs that of holders, particularly for traditional knowledge use, the
rights of knowledge holders are often undermined without any regulations and their
shared benefits from knowledge use could be compromised.
Human Well-Being Components
Related to the above trade-offs, different value preferences bring on trade-offs
between human well-being components—including material, relational, and subjec-
tive dimensions of well-being. This kind of trade-off often happens between differ-
ent stakeholders, and even within the same community and individual. The case
study of the “ridge-to-reef” watershed in Chinese Taipei, for instance, signals the
trade-offs incurred by the return of migrated youths to the community (Chap. 4).
Some of the returned youths valuing quality of life surrounded by a wealth of nature
(i.e. subjective well-being) became disillusioned with the rural living standard and
fewer income-generating opportunities (i.e. material well-being) and went back to
the city. Their continued urban lifestyle associated with wasteful consumption
(i.e. material well-being of the returned youths) could be perceived by the locals
as being against their cultural and traditional values (i.e. subjective well-being of the
locals), leading to conflicts or undermining the social cohesion (i.e. relational well-
being of both ends).
Another example is the Cambodian case of the Angkorian landscape where
migration under the pandemic is leading to emerging trade-offs between food
security and food sovereignty (Chap. 7). Food security of the locals (i.e. material
well-being)—in addition to the security of land, water, and jobs—has declined due
to the increased demand resulting from returned migrants in the aftermath of the
COVID-19 outbreak. In combination with border closures and raised awareness of
health, however, this challenge has turned their attention to local food and associated
cultural practices, creating opportunities for food sovereignty through local food
promotion and cultural preservation (i.e. subjective well-being). Nevertheless,
achieving local sustainability may depend on whether the cost for local food
production can be paid (i.e. material well-being) and whether the ownership of
food, knowledge, and culture can be secured (i.e. subjective well-being). In this
connection, the conflict between cocoa production and conservation in the Ghana
case points to the importance of trade-off analysis that could evidence the ecological
and health benefits from the integrated pest management (IPM) with biopesticide use
compared to those from chemical pesticide use (i.e. material well-being) (Chap. 12).
Such evidence helped increase the awareness among the farmers (i.e. subjective
well-being), resulting in the increased adoption of IPM.
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 279
Management Goals
The sustainability goals of SEPLS management are indeed in multiples as similarly
manifested in the SDGs. It is often the case that some goals could be compromised or
even sacrificed to pursue other goals if it is not feasible to attain multiple goals at the
same time. These trade-offs cut across economic, environmental, and social pillars of
sustainability. For instance, conservation measures such as the mandatory ban of
fishing during the spawning seasons of certain fish species (i.e. environmental)
distress the livelihoods of those economically dependent on local natural resources
such as traditional resource users (i.e. economic) (Chap. 2). The introduction of
alternative livelihood means to them (e.g. aquaculture), however, could help to meet
the original conservation goal (i.e. environment) without jeopardising their liveli-
hoods (i.e. economic).
Even once a win-win situation is attained, economic betterment through natural
resource use again requires caution for further trade-offs. The initiative to promote
underutilised crops in Africa, for example, involves the threats of overharvesting and
genetic erosion (i.e. environmental), particularly when it becomes economically
profitable (i.e. economic) (Chap. 10). This threat could be furthered by attracting
outsiders with different motivations or priorities, who may not only exploit natural
resources for economic gain (i.e. environment vs. economic) but also undermine the
social cohesion of the local communities (i.e. social). Similar trade-offs are
suggested in the Indian case of peri-urban wetlands (Chap. 6). Some of those initially
motivated in wetland conservation to develop ecotourism as an alternative livelihood
activity could become further committed to tourism development (i.e. economic) but
less attentive to conservation (i.e. environmental), especially once they are econom-
ically better off. Such a shift in mindset could divide stakeholders who were once
more united to start up ecotourism with wetland conservation but started to seek
different priorities and interests (i.e. social).
3.2 Ways Forward
To achieve multiple sustainability goals simultaneously, strategies for SEPLS man-
agement should essentially minimise inevitable trade-offs. Yet, solutions could be
found not necessarily within the zero-sum game in resource allocation, but can build
on synergies between multiple resources of SEPLS (Mohtar & Daher, 2017). The
nexus approach helps address both trade-offs and synergies to seek for sustainability.
Indeed, materialising the nexus approach in action allows us to pursue sustainable
pathways. This process entails three steps: (1) identifying problems and solutions,
(2) motivating multiple actors, and (3) governing multiple actions.
280 M. Nishi et al.
Identifying Problems and Solutions
To search pathways towards sustainability, it is highly critical to identify a “nexus
hotspot”. The hotspot is a vulnerable area of the “nexus” (i.e. wherein trade-offs are
established) at a given scale, which faces stresses resulting from resource allocation
that is at odds with harmonious human-nature relationships (Mohtar & Daher, 2016).
Due to the multiscale nature of trade-offs, attention needs to be geared towards
existing and potential nexus hotspots at multiple scales so as to minimise trade-offs
and strengthen the weakest links to secure positive connectivity. This process
requires attention to synergistic links between multiple resources so as to move
beyond the zero-sum game for allocating fixed resources (Mohtar & Daher, 2017).
The pathways could thus be better identified through dialogues and communications
among multiple actors who value and bring together different resources and develop
their own capacities for the nexus analysis (also see Chap 1).
Challenges and opportunities in drawing on the nexus analysis of problems and
solutions lie in two levels: knowledge and information, and communications. First,
knowledge and information concerning the nexus in SEPLS involve a high level of
complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainties, giving rise to challenges. For instance,
transition to a decarbonised society would require a major transformation, at least in
tourism, energy, and water sectors in the Austrian context, but efforts to bring about
such an unprecedented transformation may have unintended consequences, leaving
equity-related questions about who will be benefited and who should be compen-
sated for the costs for transition. Even in ongoing initiatives, challenges also exist.
Adverse effects of pesticide use on human and ecosystem health and the productivity
of cocoa farming have been felt and observed by local communities, and then their
enhanced awareness has helped improve both ecosystem and human health syner-
gistically at the local level (Chap. 12). Yet, these effects are not well recognised by
policymakers, whereas fake or inaccurate information through media could mislead
the stakeholders to take action. Also, transnational and multinational projects igno-
rant of local environmental conditions have made a huge investment in fossil fuel-
based power plants in an ecologically critical area in Bangladesh.
Opportunities to overcome these challenges and forge synergies lie in the
co-production of knowledge among multiple actors and making information more
communicable to them (e.g. Sarmiento et al., 2013). Knowledge co-production
among a variety of stakeholders—including local communities, government offi-
cials, enterprises, scientists, youths, the elderly, men, and women—allows for
learning from their diverse experiences (including trial and error), bringing in new
skills and different expertise, transferring knowledge within and across generations,
and empowering stakeholders for their sound decisions and actions (e.g. Chap. 4).
Among others, experiential knowledge held by local communities is essential for
knowledge co-production in SEPLS, where trade-off impacts on ecosystem and
human health are directly felt and seen. However, such knowledge is not always
easily understandable and available in a communicable form to other stakeholders,
including decision makers on the SEPLS management (e.g. policymakers). Some
cases provide examples of efforts that have been made in this regard, such as the
methodological development for documentation, synthesis, and visualisation of
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 281
knowledge and information on foodways for better recognition and communication
among different stakeholders including knowledge holders (e.g. Chap. 10).
Second, communication of knowledge and information is an important process
for the nexus analysis. Bringing together a wide range of stakeholders in the
communication process (e.g. the “whole-of-the-society” approach) to avoid negative
consequences for a certain SEPLS segment, particularly those vulnerable to envi-
ronmental change (e.g. IPLCs), and build synergies is indeed a high road. Yet, it is
not always easy to create new communication channels between different groups.
The case of a biocultural hotspot in India illustrates the distinctions between the four
sectors—food, health, culture, and biodiversity—which have posed a challenge in
communication and collaboration to promote the combined efforts on local health
traditions and local food baskets, but which if integrated could offer opportunities for
synergies (Chap. 9). The case of forest and milpa landscape (FML) in Mexico also
shows the challenges in involving external actors with very different interests and
values (e.g. pig firms and mega-projects) in the process of local SEPLS management
(Chap. 5). This is even tougher in situations of conflict and uprising. The case of
Sundarbans in Bangladesh alludes to the transboundary conflicts of water allocation,
which heighten competition rather than cooperation for transborder watershed man-
agement (Chap. 2). In the case of the Colombian Pacific ecoregion, where some civil
unrest has amounted to uprising and violence, even those who are committed to
collaboration (e.g. scientists, NGO workers) can hardly reach out to local and
indigenous communities for interventions in livelihood support and cultural preser-
vation due to security issues (Chap. 3).
Even when all stakeholders cannot be brought in, it is worthwhile to create or join
a platform for communication, dialogue, and learning so as to start converging the
interests of different stakeholders. The FML case of Mexico illustrates the
workshop-based peer learning through which multiple local communities within a
wider landscape came to better understand broader perspectives on socio-economic
conditions and collectively developed integrative bottom-up action plans for SEPLS
sustainability (Chap. 5). Likewise, in the case of Chinese Taipei, regional efforts
have in fact progressed to facilitate dialogue across a wider land/seascape, as part of
a nationwide initiative, called the Taiwan Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative
(TPSI), to identify common issues across different SEPLS communities and sys-
tematically develop locally sensitive management strategies. The TPSI and Taiwan
Ecological Network—and the national policy that supports them—operate with
three types of nexuses including the “green nexus” (terrestrial ecosystems), “blue
nexus” (freshwater and marine ecosystems), and “human nexus” (multiple SEPLS
stakeholders nationwide).4 In addition, as suggested by the Colombian case, even in
the case where local- or regional-level communications are difficult, global sharing
4For further information, please see (1) Taiwan Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (TPSI),
Forestry Bureau, Council of Agriculture official website (https://conservation.forest.gov.tw/
EN/0002040) and (2) 2018–2021 Taiwan Ecological Network, Forestry Bureau, Council of Agri-
culture official website (https://www.forest.gov.tw/0002812) (in Chinese).
282 M. Nishi et al.
of information and experiences would offer opportunities to facilitate global knowl-
edge co-production, replication of good practices elsewhere, and international col-
laboration to overcome challenges (Chap. 3).
Motivating Multiple Actors
The process of knowledge co-production through communication, dialogue, and
learning helps motivate people to act on the findings from nexus analyses. It
facilitates awareness raising, capacity development, and community empowerment
so that stakeholders can better understand existing and potential trade-offs, recognise
their rights and responsibilities, and appreciate their capacities and resources in
managing SEPLS. This process can have positive effects particularly on the subjec-
tive and relational well-being of stakeholders as members of society moving towards
sustainability, possibly leading to a shift in mindset and behavioural change from
unsustainable to sustainable practices.
However, material well-being is no less important to motivate people to take
action for sustainability. The case of Kampong Cham in Cambodia clearly shows
that farmers’ uptake and continuation of sustainable agricultural practices
(e.g. composting and use of organic fertilisers) fundamentally rely on their cost-
benefit analyses to sustain their livelihoods (Chap. 11). If additional costs are
incurred through the introduction of alternative practices to livelihood means, such
costs need to be sufficiently compensated; otherwise community members can
hardly be motivated to engage in such practices. Indeed, economic incentives
would work for garnering interest and getting key stakeholders engaged in new
sustainability projects. The Indian biocultural hotspot case offers evidence that the
premium price for medicinal rice with value addition, which was achieved through
marketing development supported by the local government, helped to compensate
for the crop loss caused by switching from the previous chemical use to organic
farming (Chap. 9). This intervention has economically incentivised farmers and
other stakeholders to support and engage in practices that synergistically enhance
ecosystem and human health. As a result, it has been replicated beyond the state in
the country.
Economic viability of interventions is needed for the long term, but the sustain-
able practices supported through subsidised projects often cease once the project
terms end. Economic viability, however, cannot be built overnight. It is rather
susceptible to market conditions and difficult to ensure over the long run. The
Cambodian case of sustainable farming practices exhibits the challenge that even
the markets, which were once viable for organic products, have become threatened
by changes under the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. the loss of access to major markets
as well as the loss of tourists as consumers resulting from border closures, and
increased demand for quantity of food due to the returned migrants) (Chap. 11). To
make SEPLS more economically viable and more resilient to shocks and stresses,
cautious approaches could be taken. One way is to put safety-net measures in place
to limit the liability of negative trade-off impacts on local communities (e.g. a
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 283
universal social security system to ensure access to health, education, and food
security, microinsurance coverage for economic security) (e.g. Chaps. 2 and 6).
Another is to build short-term measures within a SEPLS management programme
(e.g. immediate income compensation, managerial and financial support) in consid-
eration of a transition period for capacity development, which often takes time
(e.g. Chaps. 5 and 6).
Governing Multiple Actions
As mentioned above, trade-offs occur across sectors, levels (governance), and scales
(temporal and spatial). Governing different actions at smaller scales could be more
feasible given that actors may identify trade-offs that are more visible at hand and
could be motivated to develop synergistic solutions through more intimate commu-
nications and dialogues at the local level. However, managing the nexus that cuts
across levels and scales requires coordination and implementation of activities at the
large scale. This in turn provides opportunities to tap into diverse knowledge,
expertise, and resources of a wider range of stakeholders while giving rise to
challenges in mobilising and accommodating them and steering all of them towards
sustainability. In this regard, governments fulfil an important role in enhancing
policy coherence and ensuring fair and equitable incentive mechanisms across
sectors and scales (Mohtar & Daher, 2017). The case of foodways documentation
in Kenya alludes to the significance of policies, regulations, and protocols to prevent
local natural resources from being exploited by outsiders and to protect the rights of
traditional knowledge holders to be equitably benefited from knowledge use
(Chap. 10).
Governments alone cannot manage the nexus. Their knowledge and information
could be partial and might even be incorrect given the complexity, ambiguity, and
uncertainties associated with the nexus, possibly misleading the governmental
policies (e.g. Chap. 12). The “whole-of-the-government” approach may work to
some extent to mobilise knowledge and resources from different sectors for more
synergistic policymaking (e.g. cooperation between various agencies subordinate to
the Council of Agriculture in Xinshe SEPLS, Chinese Taipei (Chap. 4)). Yet,
knowledge and expertise at the government level can be insufficient to fully address
existing and potential trade-offs and create synergies. Likewise, the media can serve
as a major communication channel to cover and disseminate information, mobilise
public opinion, and influence policies. Yet, their information could again be partial,
biased, or wrong. If so, it may erroneously or even contradictorily influence policies,
while the advancement of information and communication technology (e.g. social
media) may offer opportunities to better inform policymaking and implementation.
Given that full-blown knowledge on the nexus cannot be produced instantly at a
certain point of time and area, the governing process needs to be repetitive, cyclic,
and gradual. Several case studies suggest that integrated and inclusive approaches to
SEPLS management at the local level (e.g. the One Health approach) should be
scaled up to address the issues of SEPLS that are interconnected and interdependent
284 M. Nishi et al.
at higher levels and scales (e.g. biodiversity, climate change, livelihoods, pollution,
gender, employment, and health) (e.g. Chaps. 2 and 9). As a first step to do so, it is
again crucial to support and, if needed, strengthen community-based governance
institutions to facilitate endogenous development and make the interventions more
sustainable. For instance, the case from Colombia points to the significance of
safeguarding the livelihoods and knowledge of indigenous peoples in reducing
their vulnerabilities and leading to betterment of both human and ecosystem health
through their enhanced ecosystem stewardship (Chap. 3). In this connection, the
Indian case of peri-urban wetlands suggests that a phased approach should help to
mainstream local institutions into higher level policy, comprising step-by-step
interventions in SEPLS management (Chap. 6). The approach included introduction
of microinsurance coverage to local communities, provision of alternative economic
opportunities along with capacity development, consultation among different stake-
holders with administrative and financial support, and awareness raising at the
broader scale.
These governing processes can facilitate identifying and acting on synergistic
solutions that build on local experiences and lessons but mobilise a broader range of
knowledge, expertise, and resources to minimise trade-offs and create synergies.
Synergistic examples at the relatively small scale include job creation based on
traditional practices (e.g. food production and cultivation), which has led to sustain-
able use of biodiversity, cultural preservation, land security, and income generation
for the locales (e.g. Chaps. 2 and 7). Another example at the larger scale is the
“ridge-to-reef” synergy where eco-agricultural practices in SEPLS have contributed
to (1) improved health of the coral reef coastal ecosystem, (2) reintroduction of
native species leading to revitalisation of indigenous and local knowledge, (3) crea-
tion of new income-generating opportunities based on local natural resources and
return of migrant youths, and (4) enhanced social capital of the communities
allowing for more marketing opportunities and more resilient livelihoods (Chap. 4).
4 Conclusion
The interconnections between biodiversity, health, and sustainable development in
the SEPLS context could be considered fundamental to ensure the well-being of the
social-ecological system. A well-functioning and biodiverse ecosystem ensures
attainment of various material benefits (e.g. food, medicine, clean water), regulating
benefits of natural processes such as water cycles and nutrient cycles, and intangible
and non-material benefits (e.g. cultural and educational values). These in turn
provide a base for productive livelihoods and attainment of different components
of good quality of life, which range across security of food, health, income, liveli-
hoods, and identity, to name a few. Factors that enable achieving a good quality of
life include access to biodiverse resources; knowledge related to their use, manage-
ment, and value addition; adaptive capacity to economic and environmental shocks;
and equitable and respectful interactions between different stakeholders in the
13 Synthesis: Concept, Methodologies, and Strategies to Address the Nexus in. . . 285
governance and management of the SEPLS. That said, in practice, as the case studies
highlight, several trade-offs arise owing to non-alignment or mismatches between
sectoral goals, stakeholder priorities, and institutional mandates.
At the same time, opportunities to synergise resources can be leveraged across the
phases of decision-making (i.e. planning, implementation, assessment, monitoring,
and review) through participatory and inclusive approaches involving all stakeholder
groups. The importance of peer learning, co-production of knowledge, promoting
co-management and co-responsibility over resources and sectoral priorities, foster-
ing bridging of institutions to negotiate and reduce conflicts, and engaging citizens to
ensure “whole-of-society” commitment comes across quite clearly in this regard.
Given the high relevance of local actions to meeting national and global policy
goals on sustainable development, evaluation, monitoring, and reporting on such
activities to high-level planning forums are essential. This also needs to be done in a
manner that ensures the richness of the contexts but speaks to the generalised
language of policy forums. What is noteworthy, though, is that multiple synergies
and trade-offs arising from the complex socioal-ecological connections in SEPLS
challenge the monitoring of progress in the nexus context. This could be resolved
through globally accepted indicators harmonised in the manner of minimising trade-
offs and maximising synergies, and localised based on community needs and
adaptability. It means that even while there exist no single methodology or
standardised indicators to measure or assess the strength of the nexus between
biodiversity, health, and broader sustainability goals, the case studies demonstrate
that it is possible to do so by contextualising accepted indicators and engaging in
more inclusive and participatory approaches to planning, managing, and governing
SEPLS. However, these also require investments in data collection, mainstreaming
activities, and capacity-building of different stakeholder groups to sensitively con-
ceive of and implement SEPLS management plans taking into consideration multi-
ple sectors and their overlapping agendas.
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