CIAT 1988 PROGRAM AND BUDGET CCDLATI ¡ , 1 --·. -... -,...-e A . \ .. __ _, l ·-- O 9 OCT. 1987 6334 S Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIA T) Apartado aéreo 6713 Cali, Colombia Press run: 500 September 1987 CIA T (Centro Internacional de Agricultura tropical). CIAT 1988 program and budget. Cali, Colom- bia. 104 p. CONTENTS MANDA TE ANO OBJECTIVES OF CIAT GOVERNANCE, ORGANIZATION, ANO RESEARCH SITES SUMMARY OF ACHIEVEMENTS THE 1988 BUDGET REQUEST THE RESEARCH PROGRAMS Bean Program Cassava Program Rice Program Tropical Pastures Program RESEARCH SUPPORT Visiting Scientists and Postdoctoral Fellows Genetic Resources Unit Biotechnology Research Unit Research Services Station Operations Carimagua Station Data Services Agroecological Studies Seed Unit INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Training and Conferences Communicatíon and Information Support Unit Page 3 4 12 15 15 21 38 44 50 50 51 54 57 58 59 60 63 65 73 73 74 ADMINISTRA TION Board of Trustees Office of the Director General Administrative Support GENERAL OPERA TING EXPENSES SELF-SUPPORTING ANO INCOME-GENERATING ACTIVITIES CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS ANNEX: T ABLES I - X LIST OF ACRONYMS ANO ABBREVIA TIONS CITED 79 79 80 81 82 84 85 87 101 MANDA TE ANO OBJECTIVES OF CIAT The purpose and approach of CIA T-one of severa! agricultura! research centers under the aegis of the CGIAR-is given in the following statement of objec- tives: To generate and deliver, in collaboration with national and regional institutions, improved tech- nology which will contribute to increased produc- tion, productivity, and quality of specific food commodities in the tropics-principally countries in Latín America and the Caribbean-thereby enabling producers and consumers, especially those with limited resources , to increase their purchasing power and improve their nutrition. 1 The CIA T strategy to accomplish these objectives is summarized by the following statements regarding resource emphasis, commodity choice, institutional role, and scope of activities. Resource Emphasis CIA T's strategy emphasizes entianced production through increased resource productivity on farms with limited resources and on underutilized land. By con- tributing to the improvement of productivity on small- and medium-scale farms , the Center seeks to provide for increased rural income and employment, modera te and stable food prices, and improved diets, especially of the low-income population in rural and urban areas. Technology which contributes to the expansion of agricultural production of suitable commodities on the less fertile frontier lands makes possible the release l. Statement of objectives and strateaies as approved by the C IAT Board of Trustees at its annual meeting in 1983. of the more fertile lands for maximum crop cultiva- tion . Hence more efficient food and animal production is achieved by using both poor and fertile land resources. Commodity Choice Commodities included under CIA T's manda te are predominan ti y food staples. Each commodity has one or more of the following attributes: it is a relatively inexpensive source of calories; it is a relatively inex- pensive source of protein; and it is an important component in the food budget of low-income con- sumers in the geographic region of emphasis. Com- modities are selected for their poten tia! to augment the productivity and incomes of small farmers andlor to contribute to increasing agricultural production on existing cultivated lands or in the agricultural frontier. lnstitutional Role A basic premise of CIA T's strategy is that it represents only one small segment of the agricultural researcb and development matrix. All the Center's activities, therefore, are viewed as complementary to those of other organizations. Linkage to otber closely related activities is essential in developing effective researcb networks that capture economies of sea/e in research on the chosen commodities. Such activities involve such groups as national research and extension systems, advanced scientific institutions, and related international programs. The most important interface is that with national research systems. In partnership with these programs, 1 CIA T concentra tes on activities in which it has a clear comparative advantage and in which the results have international transferabilityo Such activities include the assembly of germplasm banks; large-scale screen- ing, crossing, and se lection; methodology devel- opment; and information serviceso CIA T attempts to strengthen collaboration and to encourage horizontal technology transfer among national programs by helping to develop and strengthen research networkso Active training and conference programs serve to fortify national research systems, as well as the network activitieso Basic research institutions in both developed and developing countries are linked with CIA T activities to provide basic research inpuis and specialized re- search services that complement and support CIA T's more problem-solving research o The principie of complementarity also applies to other international institutions, especially sister cen- ters within the CGIAR system o Through informal discussions and formal agreements cooperation and division oflabor is defined to maximize the benefits of comparative advantage and minimize duplicationo Scope of Activities CIA T's efforts are predominantly focused on the American tropicso lts commodities are selected for their importance in this regiono Yet, within the CG lAR system the Center has been assigned broader respon- sibilities for given commoditieso CIA T is differentiat- ing functional responsibilities on the basis of their being either principal mandates or regional respon- sibilitieso Principal Mandates For commodities for which CIA T is assigned a principal manda te , CIA T assumes the following re- sponsibilitieso 2 l. 20 30 Assemble, maintain, and make available the world germplasm collectiono Conduct specialized strategic researcho Generate improved production technology components (or, and develop cooperative 40 50 activities with, national research systems in all regions in the developing world where the commodity is important and where no sister CGIAR center is assuming regional respon- sibilitieso Provide, on a global basis, inservice training for professionals in the specialized strategic areas of researcho Pro vide specialized inservice and production- oriented training for professionals from coun- tries where no o ther CGIAR center has regional responsibilities o '60 Collect, process, and disseminate information on the commodity on a global basiso 7 o Support the activities of another institution o r institutions, if any, whích has regional re- o sponsibilities for that commodityo Regional Responsibilities This category applies when a sister CGIAR center has global responsibilities for a commodity and, in clase cooperation with that center. CIAT takes on the mandates 3 and 50 Together with national research systems, it identifies principal production constraints o In clase collaboration with the center having principal responsibility, CIA T seeks to facilita te such activities as are required to overcome such constraintso Current Mandate In arder to achieve the objectives and apply the strategy described above, and taking into account the results of socioeconomic studies and the manda tes of other centers, the CIA T programs ha ve evo! ved to currently encompass the following responsibilities: l. 2. 3. Principal responsibilities for beans (Phaseolus vulgaris and related species) and cassava (Manihot esculenta). Principal responsibilities for tropical pastures with specific responsibilities for the acid in- fertile soils of the American tropicso Regional responsibilities for rice with specific responsibilities for the American tropics. GOVERNANCE, ORGANIZA TI O N, ANO RESEARCH SITES The Board of Trustees CIA T is governed by an independent Board of Trustees. The membership of the 1987-1988 Board is as follows: N ame William E. Tossell (Chairman) Nohra de Junguito (Vice-Chairwoman) Wil1iam A. Carlson Eduardo Casas Díaz De1y P. Gapasin Ken-ichi Ha yashi Frederick E. Hutchinson Gabriel Montes Llamas Jobo L. Nicke1 (Director General) Josef Noesberger Marco Palacios Rozo Luis Guillermo Parra Michel Petit Rodrigo Tarté Helio Tollini Fredrick Wang'ati Armando Samper Gnecco (Chairman Emeritus) Country of origin Cana da Colombia USA Mexico Philippines Japan USA Colombia USA Switzerland Colombia Colombia France Panama Brazil Kenya Colombia The full Board meets at least once during each calendar year. It has four standing committees: Execu- tive Committee, Program Committee, Audit Commit- tee, and Nominations Committee. Organizational Structure Organizationally, CIA T is comprised of three divi- sions. Research Division 1 consists of the commodity research programs for beans and cassava, as well as the Biotechnology Research Unit, the Genetic Resources Unit, Station Operations, and Research Services (except Data Services). Research Division 11 comprises the Tropical Pastures Program, the Rice Program, the Data Services Unit, the Seed Unit, and the Coordi- nating Office for Training and Conferences. The third division, Finance and Administration. is responsible for the general services and financial administration. Research Sites CIA T's research activities are concentrated at five locations in Colombia: the headquarters at Palmira, near Cali; Santander de Quilichao, 60 kilometers south of Cali, and characterized by acid, infertile soils; an intermediate altitude statioo at Popayán, 180 kilometers south of Cali; a substation for upland rice research in Santa Rosa, near Villavicencio (Meta); and Carimagua in the Eastern Plains of Colombia which is comanaged with ICA. In addition, pasture research is also carried out in Brazil at CPAC of the Brazilian agricultura! research system (EMBRAPA). CIA T also maintains coopera ti ve agreements with other national and regional institutions to help carry out regional and intemational testiog activities at many locations. In sorne cases, these agreements help support outposted staff members who conduct research or support commodity networks. 3 SUMMARY OF ACHIEVEMENTS Despite a levelling off of core funding in recent years, the Center has systematically sought to fulfill its role as projected in its " Medium-term Plan for 1986 to 1990." This has been made possible through a series of interlinked developments, including: l. Obtaining sizeable special project funds, a large portian of which are used to expand and intensify CIA T's international commodity networks, especially in relation to beans in Africa. 2. Systematically building up collaborative re- search projects with advanced research insti- tutions around the world, which greatly con- tributes to the effecti veness of the Center's research efforts. 3. Strategic use of the contributions of visiting scientists and postdoctoral fellows, both for carrying out well-defined, one-time research projects and to begin work that may ulti- mately need attention by core-funded senior staff. 4. Noticeable progress on the part of many collaborating national programs, and of the commodity networks in general, in assuming an increased degree of responsibility for re- search and development tasks that formerly were conducted by CIA T. lmpact of CIA T's Work The impact of CIA T's work is increasingly evident. In beans, farmers in many areas that ha ve been assigned high priority by the Bean Program and its national 4 collaborators have shown their acceptance of im- proved varieties. In selected countries, where, in spite of limited resources, CIA T was able to conduct systematic adoption studies, conservative estimates of the additional wealth generated by the new bean technology was close to US$25 million per year. Moreover, the potential benefits of the production technology now under development in eastern and southern África promise to be immense. In tropical pastures many years of highly innova ti ve and systematic germplasm development work ha ve led to a wide range of highly productive grass/legume combinations which are stable over time and econom- ically viable. Farmers are beginning to experiment with this new technology on a large scale. In cassava the recent breakthrough in terms of a low-cost , safe preservation technology for the fresh root promises to make fresh cassava available to the urban and rural population at reasonable, stable prices. This will benefit both producers and consumers in cassava-producing countries. The integration of production , processing, and marketing of dried cassa- va-successfully demonstrated in pilot projects in which CIA T played a central role-holds great promise for many cassava-producing countries, espe- cially in Latin America. In rice, the Program's efforts to help rice-growing countries expand their rice production around well- defined national plans, and the Program's work on reducing production costs (primarily through a fully integrated approach to pest and disease control) are showing signs of having major impact on national production statistics. Organizationally, the trend toward decentralization has continued: the Bean Program is building up its efforts on behalf of Africa, the Tropical Pastures Program is iñcreasingly seeking to have an impact in tropical America outside the highly acid savanna regions, and the Cassava Program is in a position to materially contribute to cassava production outside Latín America. The number of outposted staff is increasing. Sorne of this increase is counterbalanced by a corresponding decrease at headquarters, although CIAT is making every effort to ensure that its out- posted staff can count on a stable source of backup support from headquarters. Selected major achievements of the four commodity research programs during the reporting period, 1986- 1987, are described, together with achievements in the areas of Training, Genetic Resources, Biotechnology Research, Seed Technology, and Communication and Information. Tropical Pastures Program A. A germplasm pool of more than 18,000 acces- sions, complemented by a parallel collection of Rhizobium, provides the Program with the basic resources to attack the need for improved grasses and legumes for the Brazilian, Venezuelan, and Colombian savannas. Several genera and species ha ve already been identified as being well adapt- ed to the conditions of one or more of the ecosystems in which the Program works: the grasses Andropogon gayanus, Brachiaria spp., Panicum maximum; and the legumes Arachis spp. , Centrosema spp., Desmodium spp., Sty/osanthes spp., and Pueraria phaseo/oides. To support the germplasm collection, an inven- tory of land resources with edaphic, topo- graphic, and climatic characterizations of the region has been developed. The information is organized in a systematic manner and is easily retrievable. The Program has assessed the bio- logical and economic parameters ofthe extensive cattle-production systems that are predominant in the savannas, and this data is also in constant use in the evaluation of germplasm and technol- ogies. B. The productivity of a "first-generation technol- ogy" for savanna ecosystems, based on envi- ronmentally adapted, grass-legume pastures for example, A. gayanus + S. capitata, has been tested in farmers' fields and under farmer man- agement, with encouraging results- similar to those obtained at Carimagua. There it was found • that the combination produced 150 kg of Jive- weight gains per animal per year, and 230 kg per ha per year. This represented a two-fold increase in individual liveweight gains and more than a ten-fold increase in the productivity per area for savanna grasslands. These varieties have been released by national programs. Andropogon gayanus CIAT 621 has been released by Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, and Panama. Sty/osanthes capitata CIAT 10280, which was released by ICA in Colombia, is being adopted in the savannas of Colombia in association with A. gayanus, and this will in- crease once seed becomes commercially avail- able. SimilarÍy, the legume Stylosanthesguianen- sis CIA T 184 was released in Peru for the humid tropics. Initial commercial seed multiplication is underway. C. A "second-generation technology" is proving to be even more productive than those that have already been released, in the case of associations of A . gayanus and Brachiaria dictyoneura CIAT 6133 with Centrosema acutifolium CIAT 5277. The productivity of these associations is 20-30 kg higher in individual animal gains than those obtained with A. gayanus and S. capitata. It is highly encouraging to see that these associations are performing well under a wide range of management regimes, which is an important characteristic for future adoption. This second- generation technology is also being exposed to farmers. ICA in Colombia will release Brachiaria dictyoneura CIA T 6133 and Centrosema acutifo- lium CIAT 5277 during 1987. D. Through the formation of the International Tropical Pastures Evaluation Network (RIEPT) in 1979, an effective mechanism was established for collaboration with and among the national research programs working on pastures . Through RIEPT, pasture research programs, large and small, are working together toward the development of new pasture technology that will allow the expansion of the cattle industry into marginal and frontier lands. At present, RIEPT is conducting more than 200 trials in tropical America, and more than 120 scientists from institutions in 18 countries are taking part in systematic screening of germplasm and pasture evaluation. To support the collaborative efforts of RIEPT, the network has produced five man- 5 uals dealing with the shared methodologies used in research, from agronomic research to the evaluation of pastures under grazing. RIEPT is catalyzing a massive continental effort in pasture research that will not only contribute to in- creasing the productivity of beef and milk pro- duction systems in marginal and frontier areas, but will also help to free prime, ferti le lands that are now used for cattle production, so that the countries of Latín America can increase expan- sion of crop production to feed their popula- tions. Bean Program A. The Bean Program's breeding strategy, based on stress tolerance, saw a "fine tuning" of research efforts, directed toward incorporating those types of resistance that were lacking in superior lines. For example, the high susceptibility of landraces (especially red-seeded, early, Central American criollos) to BCMV has prevented their wide use in genetic improvement and produc- tion. Now that the linkage is broken between the I-gene and the unstable, "off-color" reds, the I-gene is being incorporated into a wide range of landraces through backcrossing or a modified backcrossing scheme. The true-red, BCMV-re- sistant landraces will be available for wide testing, as well as for use in breeding programs, in early 1987. B. Sometí mes deficiencies are encountered, even in highly successful varieties, when the variety is put into routine agricultura! production. An- other aspect of "fine· tuning" in our genetic improvement program is, therefore, that of improving newly released and successful varie- ties. Examples include the incorporation of anthracnose resistance in " Talamanca," and of CBB resistance in "EMGOPA Ouro." Seed size has been increased, and CBB resistance incorpo- rated, in excellent small-seeded lines such as BAT 1297. C. The major part of the collection of Phaseo/us coccineus has been evaluated and multiplied, and an international P. coccineus tria! was distributed to several countries. This germplasm may be u sed directly oras a donor parent to the common bean, for breeding resistance. The multiplication of the collection has a1so been initiated. 6 The previously identified, new sources of re- sistance to BGMV in grain types other than black, have been further exploited. Línes re- sulting from crosses involving these resistance sources (for example, Pinto, Garapato, A 429, DOR 303, and others) show high levels of resistances to BGMV and good performance under stress in both Central and South Ame rica. The race variability and racial geographic distri- bution of halo blight has been clarified through collaborative research with NVRS, in England. Four races have been found, and parents have been identified to breed for resistance to this important African disease. D. In mutated populations, plants were selected that lacked the ability to fix nitrogen in N-free medium with high Rhizobium popu/ations. These non-nodulating plants can serve as a zero-level check for nitrogen fixation, thereby eliminating the need to use non fixing species as a check in bean breeding trials. The presence of even moderate levels of soil nitrogen inhibits nodulation, although the ni- trogen leve! in the soil may be inadequate to permit normal plant development. Plants were selected from mutated populations because they were able to develop effective nodules under high nitrogen levels--these plants will be used to develop varieties that are able to fix nitrogen, even in the presence of soil nitrogen. E. High resistance to the bruchid, Zabrotes subfas- ciatus, in wild accessions of the common bean is dueto the substitition of a part of the phaseolin pr~Jtein by a new protein called arcelin. The presence of this protein is now being used by the Program (after research was completed in a collaborative project with the University of Wisconsin) as a rapid screening technique for Zabrotes subfasciatus resistance. Other com- pounds that may be associated with resistance to Acanthosce/ides obtecrus were found by the TDRI, in England. F. National programs have released over 100 im- proved bean varieties obtained through the CIAT network and, in several countries, new bean varieties ha ve been widely adopted. Surveys ofbean farme rs ha ve been conducted to meas u the adoption and impact of new varieties m Argentina, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicara- gua. These results are summarized in Table J. In 1986 an estimated 154,000 hectares were sown to new bean varieties derived from CIA T germ- plasm. Table l. Impact of improved bean varieties, 1986. Production Country Arca in Arca in Production increase due improved improved ofimproved to improved varieties varieties varieties varieties (ha) (%) (t) (t) Costa Rica 21 ,700 62 18,900 5,300 Guatemala 12,300 13 11 ,700 4,100 Nicaragua 14,000 17 11 ,200 2,800 Cuba 16,000 80 25,000 11 ,200 Argentina 90,000 40 120,000 26,000 Total 154,000 186,800 49,400 SOURCE: Farm surveys in Argentina, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicar•gua; National Program estimates in Cuba and Nicaragua. The gross value of production of the improved varieties was US$93,400,000 (1985), while the value of the additional output from new varie- ties, over what could have been produced with the traditional varieties during 1986, was US$24, 700,000. This su m is nearly four times the 1986 CIA T expendítures on bean research, in- cluding both direct program costs anda prorated share of nonprogram costs . Of course, national program efforts ha ve played a vital role in the success achieved with the new bean varieties. Arbitrarily assigning to CIA T and national programs an equal share of the gross benefits dueto the improved bean varieties, the net benefits (gross benefits minus investment costs) of CIA T bean research are presented in Figure l . This shows a period of incre¡lsing real net investment from 1973 to 1979. From 1979 onwards the benefits of the new varieties began to accrue, and from 1983 onwards the program entered a period of substantial and increasing positive net benefits, reaching US$5.9 million in 1986. G. New varieties were released by national pro- grams during 1986. "ICTA Ostua (JU 81-53)" was released as a BGMV-tolerant and ear1ier maturing line in Guatemala. Costa Rica released the locally developed line, HT 77-19, as "Caná- rio" for its to1erance to web blight. Brazil released BA T 48 as "Sobradinho." Peru released "Panamito Molinero" (line W 126 from MITA, Puerto Rico}. Rwanda released A 197 as " lkin- yange." H. Lack of seed for new varieties has too often been shown as a major bottleneck to increased adop- tion of new varieties. Onfarm seed production methods are being promoted, in collaboration with the Seed Unit. Sorne promísing devel- opments are taking place in Colombia, whete small local cooperatives are involved in seed production for members. One such cooperative in San Gil , Santander, produced over 20 tons of seed . A similar program ís being initiated in Guatemala . Net benefits (in US$) 20,000 15,000 10,000 5000 Years Figure l . Net benefitsofCIA T Bean Program. 1973-1986 (1985 USS in thousands.) 7 r- 1 . Rice Program A. The Rice Program continued to reorient its activities toward a more holistic approach to crop improvement in Latín America. While varietal improvement will continue to play a key role in the overall Program strategy, it is be- coming increasingly clear that varietal im- provement in itself is not sufficient to sustain continued growth within the Latín American rice sector. Factors that combine to limit pro- duction increases fall within the realms of crop mangement and policy environment as well as biological yield potential. The Program is there- fore expanding and reorienting its activities to respond to the changing world of rice production in Latín America. B. While modern varieties are grown on almost 70% of irrigated and favored upland rice-grow- ing areas, surveys of national rice programs in the region ha ve shown that the production costs are typically high; primarily because of high crop-protection costs. In Colombia, where the problem is acute, the Rice Program has launched a pilot study to develop an integrated crop man- agement (ICM) program designed to bring down costs. This program included agronomy compo- nents such as timely and adequate weed control, appropríate seeding rates, and land preparation, and a pest-management component. The latter centered on the development of an integrated pest management (IPM) research program for rice. The entire program was conducted in clase cooperation with the Federation of Colombian Rice Growers (FED EA RROZ) and the Co- lombian Institute of Agriculture (ICA), bring- ing these institutions together with CIA T to work on a well-focused, collaborative project. From the technical side, the project results clearly indica te that modifying current practices, by incorporating the research results developed during the study, can result in reduction of per- hectare production costs by the equivalent of 1 metric ton of paddy, with no yield sacrifice. The experience gained in inter-institutional coopera- tion; the development of 1 CM and IPM research programs; and the incorporation of a research strategy into a production-oriented methodol- ogy will permit the Rice Program to assist other national rice programs in developing a similar approach to solving their particular problems . C. The training activities of the Program are 8 evolving, reflecting the evolution ofthe program as well. Although there will always be the need for the general introductory course for young agronomists just beginning in rice research , as the national programs mature there is the need for more specialized programs that focus on the changing limitations to production. For exam- ple, the agronomists who participated in the ICM program in Colombia received specific train_ing on weed control and IPM as part of the overall project. Similarly, in most areas of the region, red rice is asevere problem. However, no progress will be made if the seed sector is not brought into an integrated red-rice-control pro- ject. Therefore, as part of a collaborative red-rice project with EMPASC (Santa Catarina, Brazil), members of farmers ' cooperatives involved in seed production and certification were brought to CIA T for a specific course on rice production. D. In the Program 's traditional area of crop im- provement, the hoja blanca-resistant lines, devel- oped by using a new, large-scale field-screening methodology, were tested in Ecuador under natural and heavy virus epidemic conditions. As expected, they proved to be highly resistant. An exhaustive characterization of the components of the resistance being used indicates that it is true resistance to the virus (as opposed to simply differential feeding behavior ofthe insect vector on differential genotypes), and that it is not likely to break down quickly, if ever. Resistant lines are being advanced rapidly in Ecuador and Colombia and should be released in approxi- mately two years. In Panama and Guatemala, two new varieties- one for irrigated rice and the other for favored upland and irrigated rice-are scheduled for release this year. The principal site in Panama is also used as a prescreening site for material destined for testing by Central America pro- grams. An analysis of the di sea se pressure at this site demonstrated that the disease complex and pressure are representative of the region, and more uniform from year to year than at other available sites. The breeding program for upland rice for the acid-soil savannas, afte r evaluating parental material under various management packages, has found that the production goal of3 t/ ha with low inputs is easily obtainable. The material has very high tolerance to the severe soil and biotic stresses encountered in - this ecosystem. The current improvement cycle is concentrating on ensuring that the high grain quality demanded by Latín American consumers is incorporated into all breeding lines. An unexpected spinofffrom the savanna project may be the diversification of the irrigated/fa- vored-upland germplasm. Many of the lines that are emerging combine dwarf plant type, typical of irrigated material, with deep, thick roots and diverse, hígh-Ievel, disease resistance, typical of traditional African upland material. The incor- poration of superior lines from the savanna program into the irrigated/favored-upland pro- gram is underway. E. Rice anther culture has, until recently, been viewed more as a laboratory curiosity than as a tool available toa large-scale breeding program. Typically, its proposed uses were limited to in vitro screening for tolerance to such stresses as toxins and herbicides. The Program has taken a different approach and examined its potential role in permitting the rapid advance of a Iarge number of breeding lines . A principal applica- tion would be to permit rapid progress in breeding for environments that are typically Iimited to one cycle per year, such as the temperate regions of South America and the Caribbean. The incorporation of superior grain quality and high-yield potential into cold-tolerant Chilean varieties is being used to test the application of the method. The results clearly indicate that anther culture, with the substantial modifica- tions developed by Program scientists, is adapt- able to a large-scale breeding effort. Field evaluations of these lines in Chile, and seedling evaluation under Iaboratory conditions, show that sorne of the lines ha ve high levels of cold tolerance combined with excellent grain quality. The high-yielding, high-quality, cold- tolerant lines developed from this project will ha ve direct application to Chile, and they should also prove to be excellent parents for a wide variety of breeding objectives. Anther culture is now being evaluated for its applications to tropical breeding as well. F. The pathogenic, fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. that cause sheath rot and grain discoloration of rice were recently discovered by the Program to be present in rice in Latín America. These have now been studied in considerable detail. A survey of discolored rice samples received from countries throughout Latín America indicated that these pathogens account for a substantial portian of discolored grain that was previously of unknown origin. Three closely related bac- teria! pathogens have been identified and means have been developed to eradicate them from seed. AH seed dispatched from CIAT is treated to ensure that it is free from these seed-bome pathogens. However, it has been ~ound that clean seed is not sufficient in itself to ensure disease-free fields. A program is therefore un- derway to identify and exploit varietal tolerance. Cassava Program A. The demand studies ha ve continued asan area of emphasis-the studies for Southeast Asia and Latín America are now completed. In Asia the demand for cassava is strong-production has been increasingat five percent per annum for the Iast two decades. In most of this regían the demand is for local use-either as food, for animal feed , oras the basis for the local starch industry. Most of the starch produced by local industry is eventually used for food products. Thailand differs from other producers in the region in that its production is almost entirely for export as pellets oras starch. The introduc- tion of quotas by the European Economic Community cast doubts on the future of these exports. However, Thailand has responded by moving into the rapidly expanding Southeast Asian market forenergy sources for feed concen- tra tes and starch. In Latín America, production outside Brazil has been keeping up with population growth. In Brazil, production has declined slightly, princi- pally due to the negative effects of the massive wheat subsidies. The demand situation in Latin America, which was greatly influenced by policies that favored the cereal grains, was also affected by the urbanization process which tended to reduce the aggregate demand for fresh cassava. Rural con- sumption levels are generally two to three times those in urban areas, due to the large marketing margins and the resulting high prices. The pace of urbanization in Latín America is slowing, however, as 70% of the population is now in urban sector. Moreover, the demand for fresh cassava is now increasing rapidly in many of the 9 major urban centers. New technology developed by the Cassava Program to conserve cassava and make ita more convenient and lower priced food should accelerate this increase in the demand. As Latín Ame rica has urbanized and developed, there has been an extreme! y rapid increase in the demand for intensively produced poultry pro- ducts. Producers of cereals ha ve not been able to satisfy the demand for energy sources for feed rations, and the debt crisis has made ever- increasing grain imports impossible. This situa- tion creates a large demand for cassava for animal feed: the studies indicate that cassava is highly competitive with locally produced grain. B. The development of ~ cassava-drying industry, based on pilot projects designed to establish the viability and modus operandi of integrated pro- duction, processing, and marketing systems, has proceeded rapidly. In Colombia there are now forty plants functioning and bringing benefits to more than 2000 farmers. This experience is being used to extend the technology to other regions of Latín America . In Mexico, Panama, and Ecua- dor, drying plants ha ve now been established and are functioning. C. Over the years, the Program has emphasized the development of technology to increase the shelf- life of fresh cassava. In 1986-87, this technology was tested for the first time, on a commercial basis, in a pilot project in Colombia. The technology was shown to be highly effective . It allowed the farmers to receive a higher price for their fresh cassava, and at the same time the purchase price for the consumer was reduced. The consumer evaluation ofthe conserved cassa- va was excellent. This new technology offers the opportunity to provide the small farmer produc- er with increased income while at the same time providing the urban consumer with a lower cost, higher quality product. 10 Also in the area of postharvest handling of the crop, a major problem has been that cassava must be peeled before processing to produce a high quality flour. This process is not only complicated and expensive but also wasteful. The Program discovered that, by drying the unpeeled cassava and then passing it through a standard wheat mili, the peel could easily be separated out and high quality flour could be produced. This process is not only low in cost, but it also greatly increases the yield of flour produced per ton of fresh roots. D. Breeding in cassava is a slow process: it takes lO years to produce and test a new variety, anda further five years is needed for that variety to be grown in a wide area. The early crosses and the selections made from local varieties in the mid- seventies are now beginning to be released and grown by farmers. In Thailand, a CIA T hybrid has now been released as " Rayong 3" and is commanding a high price, due to its high dry- matter content. Another CIA T hybrid has been released in the Philippines as PM-1. In Indone- sia, an ex-liT A trainee who has worked closely with CIA T has now developed a new hybrid, M-31, and this is being adopted rapidly by farmers due to its high-yield potential. In Latín America, new varieties are being re- leased and adopted. A CIA T germplasm selec- tion introduced to Mexico is now released as "Sabanera" and ís the dominant variety in that country. In Colombia, germplasm accessions and one hybrid made by the local research program collaboratively were tested in regional trials, and these have now been released as "Manihoica Pll, Pl2 and Pl3." One of these , "Manihoica Pl2," is now widely grown in the majar cassava-growing area on the north coast. In Cuba, a Brazilian line, "Mantigeira," intro- duced by CIAT, is now being grown widely asan early clone that extends the market season for fresh cassava . In addition, Cuban breeders trained at CIAT and using breeding and selec- tion methodologies similar to those developed by CIA T ha ve released a new high-yielding hybrid. E. The development of new varieties that will be well adapted to different growing conditions is dependent on having a profound knowledge of the major ecosystems where cassava is grown. By observing the performance of cassava under a wide range of conditions, the major ecosystems in which cassava is grown and the major con- straints of each of these ecosystems ha ve been identified. As a result , elite gene pools can be developed for each ecosystem and distributed to national programs for the final selection and release of new varieties. F. In the development of resistant varieties, it is necessary to possess adequate screening meth- ods. Cassava planting material coexists with beneficia! bacteria that protect it against attack by certain fungal pathogens. These bacteria complicate the process of screening for resis- tance. Through research on these bacteria the Program has now developed effective screening techniques. G. Cassava is grown in conditions where rainfall is often limited and sporadic. The mechanisms of cassava's tolerance to these conditions ha ve been elucidated. In addition, Program scientists have recently shown that cassava is intermedia te in its photosynthetic pathway between the highly pro- ductive and water-efficient "C4 pathway" and the less-efficíent "C3 pathway." This opens up the possibility of selecting even more efficient and water-use-efficient types in the future. H. In the area of management practices, the control of erosion and maintenance of soil fertility is critical as cassava is grown on the most marginal lands. Effective packages for erosion control and fertility maintenance have been developed. The adoption of new management practices and their impact on production are notoriously difficult to measure. In various regions of Co- lombia, in Cuba, and in Mexico, packages of improved management practices are being used with the new varieties, and good yields are being obtained. In one area of southern Colombia, where production had declined drastically dueto the presence of the frogskin disease, the use of clean seed has brought yields up to previous levels and total production is increasing rapidly. l. Biological control of pests can be used, even by farmers, to reduce losses. In Brazil, the horn- worm is a serious pest. A Brazilian scientist working in CIA T studied the use of Bacu/ovirus as biocontrol agent. On her return to Brazil, she developed a practical scheme for use ofthis virus that is now being extensively used by farmers. In Africa the cassava mealybug has devastated cassava plantations. Initial efforts to search for biocontrol agents were hampered by the fact that it was not known where in Latín America the cassava mealybug originated. CIA T scientists identified the cassava mealybug in southern Latín America, and scientists from the CIBC and liT A collaborated on the collection of parasites. Epidinocarsis lopezi was sent to liT A, and it has now been released in various African countries where it is reducing the populations of the mealybug. J . Cassava will grow in areas where the dry season is longer than the wet season. Under conditions where the dry season is prolonged, storage of planting material is a serious problem. Virus problems are, at any rate, severe in vegetatively propagated crops. However, no cassava viruses are known to be seed transmitted-thus, using sexual seed of cassava appears as an attractive proposition. CIA T has recen ti y shown for the first time that yields of a crop planted from sexual seed can equal or exceed that of the traditional planting method which uses cuttings. 11 THE 1988 BUDGET REQUEST CIA T is presenting a total 1988 budget of US$29 .1 miUion (see Annex, Table la). Ofthis amount, US$24.1 million are to be used for core activities, and the remainder, US$4.4 million, for special projects. The majority ofthe special project funds will be directed to the re1atively large bean networking projects in eastern and southern Africa. Discounting the estimated inflation costs between 1987 and 1988 the additionai core resources requested by CIA T amount to US$0.69 million (see Annex, Table Ila). As mentioned below, this increase is for: (a) hiring two senior scientists who will representan initial step to expand the resource base of the Cassava Program in order to ensure that the Program can operate at a level commensurate with the world mandate that CGIAR has assigned it, and (b) aug- menting resources for the organization and execution of commodity network events. The core budget as presented in this document fully corresponds to the T AC recommendations regarding the CIA T program and budget for 1988. Discussion of 1988 Additions Tab1e Ila (see Annex) presents the proposed 1988 additions to the CIA T core budget, a summary of which is presented below: 1988 price requirements. These reflect the expected price increase of 4% between 1987 and 1988. Reduction in projected excbange rate gains. With the anticipated approximate parity between inflation in the Colombian peso and devaluation in CIA T's host 12 Summary of Table lla (See Annex): proposed program additions for 1988. Cost Item (US$ in thousands) Technical adjustments 1988 price requirements 998 Reduction in projected exchange rate gains Reduced capital requirements Addition of senior staff positions Position for CIA T cassa va scientist at liTA Position for virologist Addition in funds for network conferences Total 150 (240) 227 231 162 ( 1528) country, CIAT does not expect to realize further reductions in obligations-in dollar terms-on long- term peso obligations (as was the case in previous years when the rate of devaluation was ahead of inflation). Reduced capital requirements. CIA T's requirements for capital in 1988 are lower than in the preceding year. CIAT cassava specialist at liTA. The nonlocation specific research done by the CIA T core effort can bring great benefits to African cassava producers. CIAT does not, however, apply this technology direct- ly to African conditions-the information, germ- plasm, and biocontrol agents a re transferred directly and expediently to liT A which incorpora tes these elements into its regional efforts in Africa. To establish effective collaboration between the two Centers, liT A and CIAT ha ve agreed that a CIA T cassava specialist be posted at liT A who will be responsible for ensuring that African needs and requests that can make use of CIA T -based resources are rapidly me t. Both Centers agree that in the light of the scarce resources available for cassava research the liaison officer will form an integral part of the liTA cassava effort and carry out an active research program. At the present time liT A is developing a new strategic plan which will define the priority area of research by the cassava specialist. Position for virologist. As a vegetatively reproduced crop cassava is prone to virus problems transmitted by the planting material. This not only affects production on farmers' fields but also inhibits the free exchange of germplasm. It is essential to accurately characterize the cassava viruses, develop techniques for their detection and elimínation j and to devise control methods. In order to do this the Biotechnology Research Unit, which provides an administrative and resources umbrella for all virology work at CIA T, proposes to increase its staff by one senior member. While the proposed position for a virologist is to work primarily on cassava viruses, he or she will also dedícate selected resources to specific virus problems· in CIA T's Tropical Pastures and Rice Programs. Additional resources for network conference events. In the course of several years of systematic work toward the building up of international networks in support of the various commodities in the manda te of CIA T, relatively large and highly active networks ha ve developed and are fully functional. The getting togeth- er at regular intervals of members of the respective networks to discuss research methodologies and re- view and modify the process by whích ideas and materials are interchanged, has proved to be an essential ingredient in maintaining the dynamics of these networks. In order for CIA T to be able to fully implement its goal of organizing one network event per commodity network every year (or the equivalent of one network event in the sense that often network events are organized on a regional or subregional basis), the Center urgently needs to add sorne US$150,000 to its conferences budget. Network conferences referred to here are exclusive of bean networking activities in Africa where adequate resources for conference events are incorporated in the special-project funded projects that support CIA T's bean work in Africa. It should be pointed out here that prior to the budget difficulties in the early 1980s, CIA T did maintain a conferences budget which included the amount requested here. With the reduction in funding, the conferences budget was reduced but with the understanding that the reduction would only be temporary. In the mean time, the stage of development of the commodity networks is such that a restoration of these funds is essential. Discussion of "Change List'' As in past years, CIA T is highly attentive to the need of reducíng activities that have reached their stated objectives, or that are assuming relatively low prior- ities vis-a-vis new challenges or opportunities. The "Change List" proposed by CIAT for 1988 involves the following: Change list 1988. To be added Beans: Regional Coordinator for Brazil and Southern Con e To be deleted Beans: Coordinator, Regiona l Bean Project in Central America Position to be added: Beans: Regional Coordinator for Brazil and Southern Cone. CIA T propases to attach a scientist to the Brazilian national bean research team beca use more than half of all bean production in Latín America takes place in Brazil and the Southern Cone. The scientist's responsibilities will be to serve bean research and production in Brazil, as well as in Paraguay, northern Argentina, and Uruguay. This scientist is to provide liaison between CIA T and thc respective national bean programs, and is to promote horizontal integration of the respective national pro- gram efforts. The incumbent ofthis position is to place special emphasis on the screening of germplasm for low fertility conditions, and on facilitating the transfer of materials selected for low soil fertility conditions to the bean projects in Africa. Position to be deleted: Beans: Coordinator position in Central America. CIA T currently maintains a three- man regional team for beans in Central America. From the inception of this involvement in Central America, CIA T has made clear its in tended strategy to gradually reduce its commitment there as the sub- regional bean research network gains strength, andas the national programs assume increasing responsibil- ities. A recent indepth review of the regional activities in Central America has shown that, at this stage, 13 project management can and should increasingly pass to the national programs in the region. Consequently, CIA T propases to dele te the position of regional coordinator and, in its stead, one ofthe two remaining staff members will be assigned, on a part-time basis, 14 the coordinating function. A steering comoúttee is being formed, consisting of national coordinators and the two remaining CIAT staff members to further enhance the regional coordination of bean research and development activities. THE RESEARCH PROGRAMS BEAN PROGRAM Core resources Scientific Resources Senior staff and supervisory Clerical and other A e t. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. A e t. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Bud. A e t. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bu d. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Program leader 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 Soil microbiology 2 2 2 2 2 7 7 7 7 7 Soillplant nutrition 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Physiology 2 3 3 3 3 13 12 12 12 12 Breeding 1 3 4 4 4 4 13 15 15 15 15 Breeding 11 3 3 3 3 3 16 16 16 16 16 Breeding III 2 2 2 2 2 14 14 14 14 14 Entomology 3 2 2 2 2 11 10 10 10 10 Pathology 1 3 4 4 4 4 12 17 17 17 17 Agro no m y {prelim. trials) 2 10 Agronomy (cropping systems) 2 2 2 2 7 8 8 8 8 Agronomy (ínter. trials) 2 2 2 2 2 17 17 17 17 17 Virology 2 7 Economics 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Total 13 12 12 12 12 30 30 30 30 30 133 122 122 122 122 Decentralized regional programs Central America and Caribbean Regional Coordinator 1 3 3 2 2 Agronomy 1 2 2 2 2 2 Breeding 1 4 4 4 Brazil and Southern Cone Reg. Liaison/ Agronomy 3 3 3 Africa (Great Lakes Region) Breeding/Coordinator Pathology Systems Specialist Total 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 6 9 9 9 (( 'CJ ,..-;; r 15 :. .:_,, Direct costs ( 1987 US$ in thousands). Costs Current budget Proposed budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 2067 2448 2448 Honoraria , stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 416 487 487 Travel 181 303 303 Equipment replacement 16 51 51 Contingency 58 Subtotal 2680 3289 3347 Support unitsa 979 Price provision 132 Total 2680 3289 4458 a. Resource allocauon from support units to the !kan Program. Program Commentary lmportance of beans Beans (Phaseo/us vulgaris L.) are grown on approx- imately 12 million hectares in the tropics, and are a principal food crop for small farmers in many coun- tries in tropical Ame rica , Africa , and the Middle East. Bcans constitute a major source of protein in these countries, especially for the Jow-income segments of their populations. Bean production is also the main activity supporting an estimated five million people living on small farms in Latin Ame rica and Africa. For a far greater number of such farmers, beans are an important part of their cropping systems and of their die t. Beans provide 11% of total protein consumption in tropical Latin America and in many countries THEY ARE the cheapest form of high quality protein. In eastern and central Africa per capita bean consump- tion reaches 50 kg per person per year-the highest in the world. Here, people derive more pro tein from beans than from a!l animal products combined. Beca use of their Jow price, beans play an especially critical role in the nutrition of the poor. For example, in urban Colombia, the share ofbeans in total protein intake of the poor is twice that of high income people. Beans are of greatest importance in diets in rural areas. In rural Brazil, beans provide from one-quarter to one-third of the total protein consumption, as well as JO% to 15% oftotal calories . 16 1988 Budget request for Bean Program. Activity Water management Soil management and conservation research Agrocl imatology research Germplasm Conservation, characterization, and documentation Enhancement Plant breeding and improvement International trials (distribution and exchange) Seed production Crop systems research Plant protection research Plant nutrition research Human resource enhancement Specialíz.ed co urses (sho rt term) lndividualized internships Conferences and seminars Documentation and dissemination Research on approaches, concepts , methodologies, and procedures Counselling and advising NARS Technical assistance Coordination of networks Eco nomic and social analysis at microlevel Market analysis Policy analysis Nutrition and consumption analysis Research on research Exploratory research Conversarion and utilization research Total Amount ( 1988 US$ in thousands) 24.9 30.8 8.8 95.2 246.8 828.5 324.2 0. 1 431.4 381. 1 255.2 174.4 297.7 29.0 126. 1 146.8 126.4 97.3 476.8 72.8 40.4 40.4 29.7 8.3 119.6 45.1 4457.8 Bean production in the tropics is principally concen- trated in Latín Ameríca (the center of the crop's origín) where 4.1 míllíon tons are produced annually. In eastern Afríca nearly ~ míllíon tons are produced annually. In Latín Ameríca, Brazíl ís the largest producer, followed by Mexíco. In Afríca, Burundí, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda are the lead- íng producers. Because small farmers in Afríca and Latín Ameríca produce beans wíth low levels of inputs, on poor hillsíde soils, subjected to considerable disease and drought stress, and in low plant popula- tíons, yields average little more than 500 kglha in tropical Latín America and Africa. However, this Jow yield is partly due to competition from other crops, such as maize, which are grown in association with beans. Because of the high stress conditions under :which they are prbduced, beans are a risky crop with highly variable output. For example, in Latín Ameríca production fluctuates by as much as one míllíon tons from year to year. Moreover, in most bean-producíng countries there has been no productívíty growth in the period 1966-1981, and in many instances yields have been fallíng duríng this períod. Due primarily to area expansíon, productíon increases have been Jagging behind population growth in most countries. As a result, for the first time in history, Latín Ameríca and Africa ha ve become net importers of beans. For sorne countries, however, this picture has started to change. (See "Summary of Achíevements", p . 6-7). Problems of the crop Potential yields of currently grown varíetíes in Latín Ameríca range from 2-3 t/ha. One of the principal reasons why actual yíelds are low is the heavy dísease pressure on the crop. Dísease íncídence varíes from regíon to regíon. Nevertheless, sorne diseases are prevalent in virtually all production regíons, for example, 60% of bean productíon in Latín Ameríca ís subjected to the rísk ofanthracnose attack. Disease transmíssion vía the seed has undoubtedly contríbuted to the wide distribution of many bean diseases. Disease pressure is further increased by the poor plant type ofbush beans. Plants commonly lodge at maturity and, with pods in contact wíth the soil, disease accumulatíon in seed occurs. Farmers traditíonally save theír seed for subsequent plantings, a practice wbich further con tributes to disease incidence. Climb- ing beans that are excessively vigorous ha ve pod Joads well above the ground, but are subject to seed loss when the maize lodges. Farmers have reacted to the • strong disease pressure by planting toward the end of the wet season, which increases drought stress. In addition to diseases, insects can cause severe reductions in bean production, particularly under the· drier conditions referred to above. With beans increas- ingly being displaced to marginal lands, soil acidity and phosphorus fixatíon are becoming important. A further important problem is that beans do not fix much nitrogen under most production condítíons. Program Objective The Bean Program's objective is to support national programs in the development and promotíon of improved technology that permits increased bean production and yields. The following primary activi- ties support this objective: Genetic improvement ofbean germplasm to meet the agronomic requirements of farmers as well as consumer preferences. Development of agronomic practices compatible with improved genotypes. Training to strengthen the research and technol- ogy transfer and validation activities of col- laborating national programs. lnternational cooperation af all levels for the further development of an active bean research network throughout the action area of the Pro- gram. Program Strategies Genetíc improvement to overcome productíon pro- blems-rather than the use of purchased inputs-is the principal strategy ofthe Bean Program to increase yields. Genetic improvenient activities are based on the large genetic variability encounter~d in beans and are facilitated by the availability of more than 35,000 bean accessioñs (including. their wild ancestors and related species) in the bean germplasm bank housed in the Genetic Resources Unit of CIAT. Tbis collection ís periodically evaluated for desirable traíts. The Bean Program performs severa( thousand hybridizations per year involving superior accessions. The resulting progenies pass through uniform successive nurseries. The best selections are tested in international uniform nurseries from which the · national programs select 17 materials for direct use in regional or onfarm testing or, alternatively, for use in their own breeding pro- grams. At the beginning of this decade, and following severa! years of systematic training of national pro- gram personnel, the Program started an intensive effort to decentralize selection. Today, national pro- gram scientists are increasingly selecting locally adapted materials mostly from CIA T -generated pop- ulations. National programs· often request CIA T to make specific crosses for them. CIAT does not release or name varieties as this is entirely a national respon- sibílity. CIA T only provides genetic variability ac- cording to expressed needs. Seed shipments pass through the seed health laboratory of the GRU to ensure that the exported seed is free of virus · and disease contamination. The bean breeding activities seek to combine the following desired variability: 18 Resistance to priority diseases and insects. These are BCMV, rust, anthracnose, angular leaf spot, common bacteria! blight, and leaf- hoppers. In addition, the Bean Program, through its decentralized breeding strategy, attempts to incorporate into improved va- rieties resistance to important location-specif- ic diseases (such as bean golden mosaic virus in Central America, or the bean fly in Africa). Of major importance in selecting improved varieties is the need to meet local color and seed-size requirements, besides specific agro- nomic requirements. These requirements vary from country to country and from region to region. Yield potential. Increasing yield poten tia! of a legume crop such as beans is a long-term objective. In arder to be able to increase yields of beans when disease resistances have been incorporated , the Program is placing in- creasing emphasis on genetic improvement for higher yield potential, first under no-stress conditions and, later, under diverse stress conditions. Improvement of drought resistance. Over Iarge areas in Africa and Latin America beans suffer from irregular drought stress. The germplasm collection and breeding will pro- vide lines better able to withstand drought stress. Decreased dependence on fertilizer require- ments. While alllines are being developed and evaluated under low fertilizer (and plant protection) regimes, a genetically improved bean/ Rhizobium interaction is sought to in- crease the nitrogen-fixation ability of beans . The Bean Program al so strives to enhance the genetic variability for adaptation to low soil phosphorus conditions which is of principal importance in Brazil and large areas in Africa. Nutritional quality. While genetic improve- ment for protein content, cooking time, or digestibility is not actively pursued, the Pro- gram does monitor these factors in newly developed materials to ensure that no deterio- ration occurs. Since agronomic practices are largely site-specific, the Bean Program conducts little research in this area. Often, however, improved varieties perform dif- ferently on the experiment station than on farmers' fields. Given that onfarm research and regional variety trials are still inadequately developed in most coun- tries, the Program has found it necessary to devote considerable resources to diagnosis and validation trials. The Bean Program has therefore developed an active onfarm research and training program with national programs to provide feedback to research and link research and extension . This program is being developed in close collaboration with other interna- tional centers, especially with CIMMYT as beans ar.e mostly grown in association with maize. Achievements of the Program (See Bean Program section under "Summary of Achievements", p. 6-7). Special Projects Bean improvement for eastern Africa The objective of this project is to increase bean production in Ethiopia, Uganda, and Somalia, there- by increasing protein intake, and so improving the nutritional status of local populations who are mainly small farmers . Production is to be increased by the propagation of improved varieties and the adoption of improved production technologies. Major activities are : (a)developing national program research capacity by training bean breeders and agronomists; (b) intro- ducing new germplasm and, through national breeding programs, developing highly productive varieties adapted to local conditions and consumer preferences; and (e) improving cropping systems. Germplasm improvement emphasizes the development and distri- bution of mulúple disease- and pest-resistant lines. Emphasis is on regional collaboration on research and networking activities to improve communication among national programs. This special project is supported by CIDA and USAID. Personnel (4 senior scientists) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1978 282 464 122 237 91 ISO 41 so 67 57 76 127 63 101 742 1186 Bean improvement for southern Africa (SADCC countries) This project is designed to increase bean productivi- ty, production, and consumption, and to strengthen national agricultural research in Phaseo/us beans in the nine SADCC countries of Africa. This regional net- working project will develop, in collaboration with national programs in the region, new bean-production technology for both traditional and innovative crop- ping systems. It will also strengthen national research capacity so that national bean production can be increased to keep pace with expected demands from tbe rapidly growing populations of the- region. This special project is supported by CIDA. Personnel (S senior scientists) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Eqllipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 356 S04 so 273 74 132 68 60 316 166 110 155 46 68 1020 1358 Research on Phaseolus germplasm This project includes collaborative research with Italian institutions on: (a) virus diseases of Phaseo/us, primarily bean yellow mosaic virus; (b) creation of new variability tbrough mutagenesis in Phaseo/us germplasm; (e) seed protein quality; and (d) regenera- tion of Phaseo/us from unorganized cell preparations. This special project is financed by the It~lian,govern­ ment. Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital lndirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 OS$ in thousands) 1987 1988 23 45 40 26 16 150 30 30 22 19 14 115 Beans and rice research in Peru This project involves collaboration with INIPA on bean and rice research through two advisors who provide technical backup and assist national program coordinators. The advisors also play an active role in varietal selection trials, inservice training, and the selection of candidates for training at CIA T. They also assist in the formulation of medium- and long-term research plans. This bilateral project is financed through a World Bank loan to Peru. Personnel (2 senior scientists) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 140 140 53 53 9 9 14 14 216 216 19 l ¡ t farmer participation in technology design and transfer In close collaboration with the Instituto Colombia- no Agropecuario (ICA), this project is to: (a) imple- ment, on a pilot scale, new methodology for small- farmer participation in the design and evaluation of agricultural technology; (b) demonstra te the effec- tiveness of the methodology in achieving accelerated generation and transfer of new technology; and (e) develop training materials on the techniques and management requirements of this methodology for worldwide dissemination. Initially, there will be inten- sive, practica) training in the methodology for ICA staff from the lntegrated Rural Development Area in Cauca. This project is supported by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital lndirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget ( 1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 77 82 15 17 3 5 6 8 23 15 20 22 144 149 Economic study on snap beans in the tropics This economic study addresses four major areas: (a) compilation of information on developing country production, marketing, and consumption in arder to identify the most important production areas; (b) assessment of trends in production, consllmption, prices and productivity, and investigation of the 20 causes of such trends; (e) analysis of major produc- tion/ marketing/consumption systems to determine constraints to increased production and consumption, as well as to generate baseline data on current technology and critica) quality characteristics; and (d) evaluation ex ante of the socioeconomic and nutri- tional impact of improved snap bean technology, focusing on the distribution of benefits among con- sumer a nd producer groups. This project is financed by the government of the Netherlands. Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and se rvices Travel Equipment replacement and capital lndirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget ( 1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 32 40 3 4 7 8 6 8 2 3 50 63 Germplasm collection for beans, cassava, and tropical pastures (See under "Special Projects" in Genetic Resources Unit section, p. 53). Legume germplasm (See under "Special Projects" in Genetic Resources Unit section, p. 53-54). Specialized information centers (See under "Special Projects" in Communication and Information Support Unit section, p. 77-78). CASSAVA PROGRAM Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bu d . Bu d . Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Program leader 1 1 Utilization 2 2 Physiology Germplasm development Pathology Entomology Soil/ plant nutrition Cultural practices (Agronomy) Economics Media Luna carimagua Viro1ogy Breeding Total 8 8 8 10 10 Decentralized regional programs Asia Breeding Agrono my Economics Sub-Saharan Africa Liaison scientist (liT A) Brazil Agronomy/ Breeding Total 2 5 5 Program Commentary As a crop grown exclusively in the tropics ofthe Third World, adapted to marginal conditions, grown chiefly by small farmers, provider of an important source of inexpensive calories to 500 million of the poorest consumers, grossly underresearched in developing countries, and lacking a research knowledge base from developed countries, cassava would appear to be the ideal candidate to be assigned highest prio.rity for maximum allocation of funds in the CGIAR system. Yet the CIAT Cassava Program, despite having been assigned global responsibilities for this crop, has been Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other A e t. Bud. Bud. Bu d . Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bu d . 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 1 5 1 2 2 3 1 3 21 1 1 3 1 4 4 5 5 10 7 7 14 14 3 3 3 3 ll 11 11 11 11 2 2 2 2 27 27 27 27 27 2 2 2 2 l3 l J 11 11 ll 4 4 4 4 12 12 12 12 12 2 2 2 2 9 11 11 11 11 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 10 2 6 4 2 2 9 9 24 22 25 25 108 lOO 96 112 112 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 2 2 3 3 S 18 18 perennially plagued by questions asto its future role, and indeed, its very existence. Many of these doubts originated within the Center itself as the Board and management repeatedly ques- tioned the future of the Cassava Program and con- strained its growth, making it the first target for reductions in times of budget constraints. These doubts about a crop of such obvious importance to the poorest farmers and consumers were the result of skepticism about the future demand for cassava and the subsequent misgivings about the need for im- proved production technology. Consequently, the Cassava Program embarked u pon a series of studies to 21 l ! i j ! ¡ 1 ¡ 1 ~ ¡. t ~ r f ¡ i ¡ 1 ¡ 1 1 1 1 ~ l f ¡· 1 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Costs Proposed Curren! budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 1579 1567 1701 Honoraria , stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 222 203 220 Travel 213 225 244 Equipment replacement 46 30 33 Contingencies 39 Subtotal 2060 2025 2237 Support unitsa 897 Price provision 128 Total 2060 2025 3262 a. Resource allocation from support units to the Cassava Program. ascertain the future role of this crop in the agricultura) economies of developing nations. This effort was accelerated and expanded in response to the recom- mendation of the 1984 EPR of CIAT that studies be undertaken to assess the future demand for cassava and cassava products; that the future direction and scope of the Cassava Program should be reviewed after the completion of such studies; and that in the meantime, the program should be held at its current level. The CIAT midterm plan for 1985- 1989 (<\ revision of the long-range plan "CIA T in the 1980's", taking into account the recommendations of the EPR) also reserved judgment on the Cassava Program, pending the outcome ofthe studies. In the interim, the T AC, in its "Review of CGIAR Priorities and Future Strategies" (p. 3-11 and 3-12), gave strong support to cassava asan important small-farmer crop of special importance to and with high potential payoff for research for Africa and stated that demand was "buoyant" in Asia, but they considered the situation in Latin America to be more complex, with future demands for cassava unclear. The T AC stated: "Firm recommendations for the longer term must awai t the outcome of the market study." These studies have now been completed for Latin America and Asia. The results of the studies, as well as the empirical observations of what is happening to cassava in the rapidly changing economic conditions ofthe Third World , convince us that cassava is indeed a crop whose time has come! Tbe description below describes what CIA T now considers to be the present and future role of cassava; 22 1988 Budget request for Cassava Program. Activity Amount (1988 US$ in thousands) Soil management and conservation research 58.0 Germplasm Collection 52.0 Conservation, characterization, and documentation 299.6 Enhancement 300.9 Plant breeding and improvement 640.0 International trials (distribution and exchange) 242.7 Crop systems research 295.7 Plant protection resea rch 335.3 Plant nutrition research 23.7 Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) 89.0 Individualized internships 172.0 Conferences and seminars 35.6 Documentation and dissemination 55.6 Research on approaches, concepts, methodologies, and procedures 2.8 Counselling and advising NARS 76. 1 Technical assistance 97.3 Coordination of networks 84.5 Economic and social analysis at microlevel 96.6 Market analysis 61.4 Policy analysis 64.2 Nutrition and consumption analysis 49.8 Exploratory research 67 .O Conversion and utilization research 62.2 Total 3262.0 the objectives and strategies of a program with the global mandate to conduct research to enhance that role; and the mínimum size and deployment of a research team to carry out such a strategy. It should be seen as an update and addendum to the other docu- ments referred to abo ve. In the interest of brevity, much of what should be said about cassava cannot be included here. For a more complete picture, the reader should also read tbe CIA T long- and midterm plans and the T AC priorities paper. Present Status of the Crop Nature of the crop The cassava plant, which originated in Latin Ameri- ca, was probably first cultivated by Amerindian tribes about 4000 years ago. The fact that it spread so rapidly and became an important component of small farmers' cropping systems and of the diet of hundreds of millions of the people in Africa and Asia so quickly after its introduction to these continents by Spanish and Portuguese traders less than 400 years ago, attests to íts unique nature. It is one of the world's most efficient converters of solar energy to carbohydrates. The crop's special stomatal response to low relative humidity allows it to survive and produce a reasonable harvest under conditions of drought and sporadic rainfall that frequently cause other crops to fail. Because of its drought tolerance and the fact that its roots can be left in the ground for long periods as a food reserve, it represents excellent insurance against famine. The plant's inherent characteristics and as- sociation with mycorrhizae make it especially well adapted to acid, infertile soils. As the plant does not have a critica! growth stage during which a severe insect or disease attack can cause complete crop failure, it is partieularly suited to biological control measures. These characteristics have made cassava an attractive option for farmers with limited resources in marginal agricultural areas of the tropics. lt ideally meets the equity criteria of the CGIAR. As cassava production and processing are highly labor intensive, it responds to CGIAR concerns for employment generation. Distribution Cassava is grown throughout the lowland tropics. Total world production is about 130 millions tons (52 million tons cereal equivalent), with about 40% of production in each of Africa and· Asia, and 20% in Latin America. Brazil is the world's Iargest producer and consumer of cassava. In terms of total calories produced in the tropics, cassava ranks fourth, follow- ing rice, sugarcane, and maize. End uses Cassava is a multipurpose crop as shown in the following table. These global statistics mask large inter- and intraregional, and even intracountry, dif- ferences. In Latin America, use of cassava for con- sumption by humans is about the same as the global figures, while in Africa a larger portion is utilized as food. In severa! African countries cassava provides 40% to 50% of the total calorie intake and is the single most important source of calories. In the economically depressed northeast region of Brazil, it is the dominant food staple. World utilization of cassava, 1975-77. End use Human food Fresh Processed Animal feed Starch Export SOURCE: FAO. Future Prospects Demand studies Contribution (%) 64.6 30.8 33.8 11.5 5.5 7.0 Defining the problem. Much of the basis for skepti- cism about the future demand of cassava relates to the observed decline in per capita consumption of this crop in Latin America. This was perceived as being due to rapid urbanization, rising per capita incomes, and increasing possibilities for commodity substitu- tion. It was reasoned that: (a)cassava was an inconven- ient, bulky, perishable, and less-desired commodity that would-like many other basic staples-gradually become less important as economic development and urbanization proceeded; and (b) that the Latin Ameri- can experience may be a portent ofthe future for Asia and Africa. The corollary to this reasoning was that there would be little demand for improved production technology for a crop with a declining market. On the other hand, it seemed precipitous to abandona crop of such importance for income generation by poor farmers and with the potential of providing inexpen- sive calories for consumers. It was necessary, there- fore, to determine whether or not this trend would continue in Latin America, whether it would apply to Africa and Asia, whether alternative uses of this multipurpose crop would come more into play with the evolving economic conditions, how new technol- ogy would affect the future demand, and how all of these fáctors would affect the research agenda. 23 Methodology. Because consumption patterns, gov- ernment policies, and the resource endowment and production costs for cassava and alternative crops vary so greatly among and within regions and, in sorne cases, within countries, it was not possible to consider future demand on a global basis. Thus, the studies were disaggregated by regions and for selected key countries. Coverage. The Latin American studies , considered to be the most critica! by the EPR and the T AC, were conducted most intensively. Under the leadership of the senior economist of the Cassava Program, three postdoctoral economists were contracted for a two- year period each. They conducted individual country studies of Brazi l, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. These studies, conducted collabora- tively with economists from na tional programs in the respective countries, used secondary data and, where necessary, collected primary data to: Analyze the cur rent and poten tia! role of cassava for human consumption. Evaluate the income generation and employment opportunities created by cassava production and processing. Describe the current and potential incorporation of cassava into animal feed. Identify the regions where cassava production can be expanded and the markets that it will en ter. Special attention was given to production costs for cassava and possible competing crops to determine those cases where cassava could or could not compete . Current government policies that may arti ficia lly affect such competition and possible changes of policy tha t would benefit the economy were also considered . In addition to these Latín American economic studies, a doctoral student conducted his dissertation research on consumer trends in Colombia to determine the factors behind the decline in per capita consump- tion in urban arcas and consumer preferences for cassava in relation to other starchy foods. The Asia demand study relied exclusively on sec- ondary data. It was conducted by the senior economist of the Cassava Program, with the valuable contribu- tion of senior economics consulta nts from Thailand and Indonesia. Individua l country studies were con- ducted for China, India, Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand . In the case of Indonesia , CIA T was fortu- na te to draw upon the intensive studies on cassava 24 carried out by the Food Research Institute at Stanford University. African demand studies will be carried outjointly by CIA T and liT A, beginning in early 1988. These will take more time and will be more costly as more primary data will need to be gathered . A three-year project involving four economists has been jointly developed by the two Centers. Each is placing half of the estimated costs into its core budget request for 1988-90. Whi1e it is obviously important to understand the trends better and explore the future potentia1 for cassava in Africa, the importance of the crop fo r human food and the fact that sorne of the factors responsible for the changes in consumption patterns in Latin America and Asia (that is, increased per capita income and rapid urbanization) ha ve not progressed as far in Africa suggested that this study was less urgent than those for the other continents. Highlights ofthe results. It is obviously im possible to do justice to the wealth of va1uable information on the poten tia! for cassava for various uses in a wide range of ecological, social, economic, and political conditions coming o ut of the demand studies in a ny brief summary statement such as th is. The reader is there- fo re urged to read the Executive Summary' of the studies. Even that summa ry cannot provide adequate information o n meth odology, data, and qualifications to satisfy the skeptic tha t the conclusions are based on sound economic a nalyses. Those so inclined should read the fu ll reports (one report each for Asia and La tín America)1 • Overall , these results demonstrate a buoyant market potentia l fo r increased cassava production, but this is not t rue for a ll uses in a ll countries. T he studies show that: The observed decline in fresh consumption in Latín America is principally dueto the urban- ization process. High marketing costs have shifted re lative prices of cassava and gra in staples between rural and urban arcas, caus- ing consumption to be lower in urban Latín America . Fresh cassava has a positive income elasticicity and consumption can be expected to grow modestly. New preservation technol- ogy is likely to reduce marketing costs and accelera te this growth. Where consumption of processed cassava by humans has declined , this has largely been the l . Copies of these documents may ~ obtained by writing to C IA T's Marketing and Distribution Offíce. Communication and lnformation Suppon Unit, Apartado Aéreo 6713. Cali. Colombia . result of government subsidies of competing cereals. These trends are already being re- versed as these subsidies are removed, and demand for cassava in processed form can be expected to grow. These products will contin- ue to serve asan important so urce of inexpen- sive calories to the very poor. Starch, much of which is used in the produc- tion of various foods, is expected to provide a growing demand for cassava, especially in Asia. A major potential for growth in demand for cassava is seen as a component of animal feed, chiefly for domes tic use in Latín America, and for both domestic use and export in Asia. The growing market for cassava in Asia has alreády reached the point that production is not keeping up with demand. Cassava is an important too! for equitable development. Its characteristics are such that the benefits of new technology can be targeted on the very people who have normally been Ieft out of the development process. Empirical observations Tbe world did not stop while the demand studies were being carried out. Important changes in the economy were taking place, and a number of devel- opments were under way. It was clear from the outset that a good deal could be Iearned by following these developments that would complement the economic studies. When the studies were initiated, a pilot project to help small farmers' associations develop drying and chipping capacity to process their cassava and sell it to animal feed manufacturers was getting under way in Colombia. This has been a remarkable success. To date, 37 such farmers' associations have been estab- lished. Analyses of the impact have shown that: the farmers' incomes improved markedly, both from the sale of their produce and from the distribution of association profits; the new agroindustry has generat- ed considerable employment in an economically depressed area; yields have increased as farmers have incentives to apply improved production technology; and, surprisingly, the benefits have gone chietly to small farmers. Although large-scale farmers are pres- ent in the region, the maximum benefits from the project have been obtained by farmers with farms of around 3 hectares. The success of the Colombian project Jed to the development of a similar agroindustry in Ecuador. In 1986 that experiment seemed to be running into trouble. Rainfall, usually a limiting factor in the area, was abundant, resulting in a bumper maize crop anda depressed market for the cassava chips. It was then discovered that dry cassava chips when finely milled are an excellent substitute for imported binding agents used in shrimp concentra tes. This cassava flour sells at over US$300 per ton, a price higher tban for wheat flour. The.implications of this discovery for poten tia! cassava demand for the vast and growing shrimp culture industry is still unknown, but could be tremendous. Dried cassava is currently being produced profitably in Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Panama, demon- strating that the potential for use of this crop in this form to increase small-farmer income and generate rural employment is no Ionger hypothetical, but an economically viable reality. Brazil, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Peru all have active plans under way to develop similar agroindustries. Thailand, at the peak of its export of cassava chips to the EEC in 1982, sold 6.7 million tons to that market. Later that year, through an international agreement, the "voluntary" quota for imports ofThai cassava chips to the EEC was reduced to 5 million tons, with a further reduction to 4.5 million tons in 1985. There was great concern as to what Thailand would do with its excess production and what alterna- tive crops the Thai cassava farmers could plant now .that they could no longer sell all oftheir product at the artificially high prices in the protected EEC market. These developments were certainly watched with interest, as they would give an indication as to how cassava pellets could compete in the cold world of international markets. Cassava production in Thai- land has continued to rise, reaching just under 20 million tons in the 1984-85 crop season. This has been possible through the opening up of new export markets and increased domestic use in animal feed rations. Conclusions The demand studies and empirical observations in a rapidly evolving economic scene ha ve clearly demon- strated that there is sufficient potential demand for increased cassava production. They have also con- firmed that beca use ofits unique qualities, cassava is a "natural" for the CGIAR system. On the other hand, cassava is different from most of the commodities dealt with by the CGIARcenters. Its different end uses under different socioeconomic and eco1ogical condi- tions dicta te a decentralized strategy for research and development. The nature of consumption patterns, marketing requirements, and multiple end uses of this remarkable crop also dictate that the traditional germplasm approach will not be sufficient for cassava research and development to yield its maximum social benefits. Production research must be integrated with work on processing, utilization, marketing, and policy- making. These all affect the strategy and activities of CIA T's Cassava Program. A revised ¡;rogram strategy, based on these realities, follows: A Global Cassava Program Goals and objectives The goals of the CIA T Cassava Program are to contribute materially to increased income and food supplies of small farmers and to improve food avail- ability in tropical developing countries. Within the context of these goals, the Program pursues the following nine objectives to: 26 Develop components of production technology that form the basis for stable, cassava-based cropping systems with low costs per unit output. Develop technology that allows cassava to be grown on presently underexploited lands. Develop processing technology that makes cassa- va a low-cost, high-quality, convenient food. Develop both production and processing technol- ogy that is cost-competitive, increases farmer income, and is sufficiently labor intensive to generate employment for landless labor. Develop marketing strategies for cassava that reduce the marketing margin . Stimulate the development of markets for cassava that provide a stable price floor for the raw material, thus providing farmers the incentive to increase production and so reducing price fluctua- tions for the consumer. · Assist in the development of new uses of cassava that increase the overall demand for the crop. Develop waste-reducing technology that increases the percentage of total production that is finally consumed. Stimulate other agencies to play an active role in the cassava research and development process. Strategies Operational principies. As a CIA T commodity re- search program, all activities of the Cassava Program are governed by the set of operational principies underlying all the Center's activities. Included among these principies are Relevance, Equity, Complemen- tarity and Cooperation, Compara ti ve Advantage, and Sustainability. l. Relevance. The efforts of the Cassava Program are directed towards increased food production that favors the poorer segments of the population, rather than increasing the body of scientific knowledge per se. Research is focused on solving the most important problems in the regions served by the Program. 2. Equity. In seeking to contribute to increased food production, the Cassava Program attempts to benefit primarily the small, resource-poor farmer, as well as the low-income urban and rural consumers. 3. Complementarity and cooperation. The Cassava Program's activities represent only one segment ofthe cassava research and development spectrum. Conse- quently, all activities are designed to complement those of other organizations. Of particular importance are the efforts in support of cassava by national agricultura! research and development agencies in countries that the Cassava Program seeks to serve. The Program maintains strong linkages with these agencies and coordina tes its work program el ose! y with those of collaborating national programs. 4. Comparative advantage. The Program caneen- trates on resolving those problems and developing those techniques and methodologies for which it has a clear comparative advantage in relation to other agencies, be they international or national, public or prívate. The comparative advantage arises from cer- tain characteristics of commodity research programs in international centers, including: (a) the ability to provide the necessary backup of scientists to salve problems; (b) the facility to m ove information, biolog- ical control agents, and genetic materials across bor- ders; (e) a high degree of continuity of effort; (d) location in the tropics; (d) being in a position to coordina te activities of different entities on a regional or international leve!; (e) the ability to capitalize on economies of scale; and (f) the ability to take a long- term view of the overall research and development process. 5. Sustainability. The Cassava Program, in its en- deavor to make a major and lasting contribution to cassava production and consumption, emphasizes long-term cumulative gains over dramatic sbort-term impacts. Hence, it seeks to develop production tecbnol- ogy that promises environmental barmony, relatively broad adaptation to important production con- straints, and relatively low requirements for purcbased inputs. Operational strategies. Cassava researcb must oper- ate witbin an evolving context where principal con- straints on the development of tbe crop often shift from production to utilization to processing and marketing. An effective research strategy for cassava must focus on the complete-commodity system. In so doing it will provide an effective integration between research on production; research on processing and postharvest utilization; and research on consumer preferences, market demand, and appropriate meth- odologies for tecbnology introduction. In this way the return on investment in production research is maximized. Moreover, the number of potential inter- ventions in the commodity system allow for maximum flexibility in beginning to target the technology on the aforementioned objectives. This holistic strategy allows a particularly effective approach to ensuring impact on equity objectives. To attain the aforementioned interlinking objectives it is necessary to develop an interdisciplinary team of sufficient size and with the muliitude of specialized expertise required to address these objectives. How- ever, it must have a flexible structure that allows continuous interaction amongst the various special- ists. Such a team would address the following areas of endeavors: l. Assembly of a basic body of knowledge of the crop. In order to develop new technology for any crop, it is necessary to ha ve a systematic understanding of it. This includes knowledge on: the crop's basic biology and growth processes; its reaction to different envi- ronmental conditions; its interactions with pests and diseases together with an intima te knowledge of their biology and epidemiology; and the crop's physical and chemical characteristics. Before engaging on strategic research in any of these areas, the Cassava Program first of all evaluates the compara ti ve advantage it has to carry out the work and the possibilities of cooper- ating with other agencies. Only when there is a clear advantage or it is likely that no other agency will beco me in volved does it proceed with the setting up of a research effort. 2. Genetic conservation and improvement. lt is evident that any attempt to develop efficient produc- tion technology is highly dependent u pon the existence of a good variety. The development of effective varieties, in turn, is dependent u pon the availability of a gene pool that possesses desirable characteristics. CIA T is in a unique position to collect, characterize, and conserve the world's cassava germplasm in such a manner that it can readily be used by other agencies. In this context, the use of gernrplasm by other agencies, in particular national breeding programs, can be made much more efficient if desirable characters for specific ecosystems or end uses are already concentrated in elite gene pools. The Cassava Program, therefore, provides breeding programs throughout the world with gene pools that: combine high harvest index with high total biomass production; tolerance to diseases, pests, and adverse soil conditions; and high Ievels of starch in the roots. 3. Integrated pest management. The reduction of losses caused by diseases and pests in a long growth .cycle crop, grown by small farmers, is most effectively achieved through an integrated approach to pest management. As a first step, the Cassava Program evaluates the importance of individual pests or pest complexes in terms of losses caused and the potential area over which they can cause damage. Work is then concentrated on developing the basic building blocks of an integrated pest management program for the most damaging pests and diseases. This includes a thorough knowledge of the organisms and the cassava plant's response to them, as well as the evaluation of alternative strategies such as phytosanitary control, biological control, and host-plant resistance. When host-plant resistance or biological control are deemed to be important components of an integrated pest management strategy, the Program identifies resistant lines and collects and evaluates biological control agents. In the case of host-plant resistance, the sources are incorporated in the elite gene pools. Biological · control agents are distributed to agencies working on biological control of cassava pests. CIA T's Cassava Program is in a unique position to carry out these activities as it is located in the center of origin of cassava and the pests and diseases that ha ve coevolved with cassava. The economies of scale that result froin having one center collect and evaluate the sources of resistance and the bíological control agents are con- siderable. 4. Sustainable agricultura! production systems. Production systems are inherently location specific. Nevertheless, certain basic technological components and principies can be applied over a wide range of conditions. Of particular importance, are measures to reduce and control soil erosion (which range from appropriate management practices to the use ofinter- 27 cropping and a variety of ground covers) and to counteract soil depletion (through appropriate crop rotation and the use of fertilization at the mínimum threshold leve!). The Cassava Program aims to utilize the basic knowledge, developed through its strategic research efforts, to understand the crop in applied research on crop management. Most of this applied research is carried out in clase cooperation with the national programs and the results of such cooperation are compiled and analyzed by the Cassava Program in arder to develop further the principies of improved crop management. These findings are then used by the national programs in their own adaptive research programs. 5. Improved root quality. The development of new varieties and the rapid move of cassava into new end uses have highlighted the fact that cassava roots of different varieties are characterized by considerable variation in their quality characteristics. No one characteristic can be selected as optimal for all end uses. The situation is further complicated by the fact that at this time, little is known about the basic nature of differences in quality. This makes screening and selection not only a slow, but also haphazard, process. Given that the varietal component is of such para- mount importance in determining root quality, addi- tional systematic attempts to improve root quality must be based on the world germplasm collection at CIA T. This research will be carried out in conjunction with various agencies with expertise in this field, including the Tropical Development and Research Institute (TDRI) anda food research institute in the U.K. 6. Improved preservation and processing technol- ogy. The movement of cassava into new markets is dependent on its being converted into a competitive , low-cost, and convenient product. This requires the development of improved methods of postharvest handling. These technologies should be relatively nonlocation-specific and their transfer to new applica- tion sites should require only mínima! adaptive re- search. Certain postharvest technologies are already well developed or are being investigated by other agencies. In general, these technologies are for large- scale industrial use-an area in which the Cassava Program does not, and will not, play an active role. In the development of small-scale processing technology, however, the Program has airead y taken alead role. In the future, emphasis will be on refining the techniques for fresh cassava conservation and the development of technology for the production of high-quality flours. This latter product will then form the basic raw material for developing a variety of new food products. 28 In the area of animal feed, efforts will be limited largely to refining technologies so as to ensure con- tinuous availability of cassava in an appropriate form for use either in the feed industry or on the farm . Other agencies are expected to carry out feeding trials and adaptive testing of available technologies. 7. New products and alternative markets. The changing economic and social conditions in the devel- oping world are leading to changes in people's habits, life styles, and the products they purchase. The CIAT Cassava Program will continually be monitoring the overall patterns of these socioeconomic parameters with a view toward identifying: likely new markets for cassava-based products, or new ways of bringing traditional products more effectively into the changing market structure . Such identification should assist in the improvement of the nutritional status and/or economíc well-beíng oflow-incorne urban consumers. This work will provide a constant input into the other efforts ofthe Program to ensure that new varieties and processing technology are appropriate to the new marketing niches as they emerge. 8. Development of an appropriate policy environ- ment for cassava. The world agricultura! scene toda y is frequently characterized by economic distortions and conflicting policies that neither serve the best interests of the countries nor favor the poorer, more marginal sectors ofthe population. Large, economically power- ful agricultura! groups, often organized in commodity federations, ha ve the resources to analyze the situation of the particular commodity they deal with and use this analysis (often one-sided) to further their cause at the expense of marginal sectors. CIA T is in a uniqúe position to assist national programs in the analysis of the possible effects of policy decisions that aff~ct cassava. Through continued economic analyses of the role of cassava and other crops for which it can substitute, the Cassava Program will provide informa- tion to national policymakers to assist them in asses- sing the potential benefits and disadvantages of the various policy options available to them. 9. lnstitutional models for development with equi- ty. To meet the goals of equitable development through increased cassava production and improved postharvest handling and marketing, it is necessary to integrate the efforts of diverse agencies. In the past, public sector agricultura] development projects have tended to concentra te on the production side. E ven· in the case of integrated rural development programs, the production side has frequently been divorced from the processing and marketing aspects. Both the theoretical and empirical bases for the institutional structure to support the integrated devel- opment of production, processing, and marketing programs are poorly developed. Recent experience, however, has shown that the form of instítutional structure is critica! to successful programs and that the form can steer the program to provide benefits to the target population . Although it is true that each project will díffer, depending on the specific agronomic, climatic, social, and economic environment, there are a series of common guiding principies for imple- menting successful projects. These principies can only be deduced . from a hands-on approach and el ose contact with development projects. The Cassava Pro- gram will continue to assist national programs in setting up pilot development projects . The careful monitoring ofthese projects wíll permitan evaluation of the most effective approacbes. CIA T will be instrumental in stimulating the devel- opment of a network of agencies in volved in cassava- based development projects, through which the rapid diffusion of the most effective methodologies will be ensured. It should be noted that CIA T's role is not that of a development agency, but that of a source of information and advice on the most effective means of achieving equitable development. Activities The fact that cassava is uniquely produced in the tropics has had, and continues to have, a profound effect on the organization of world research on the crop. There is no research (apart from that currently linked to IARCs) on cassava in developed countries, meaning that funds for cassava research have had to come from developing countries or international aid funds. This situation has had three profound effects: (1) the research history on cassava is extreme! y Jimited, especially when compared to grain crops; (2) the basic research on the crop, on which sound applied research is based, is virtual\y nonexistent; and (3) world re- search on cassava will continue to be limited to the tropics but because of the very limited funds for cassava research, tbere is need for a more rational division oflabor. The CIAT Cassava Program has had to bridge well prioritized strategic research with appropriate applied research and the Jatter with methodology development for adaptive research and technology introduction. The Program has filled this breach, while working toward the development of a worldwide cassava research network which makes the most effective use of the limited research funds for cassava. Thus, the Cassava Program 's activities can, in broad terms, be divided into the general areas of: ( 1) strategic and applied research of a more general nature, which is carried out by the central, Jargely headquarters-based program, as well as collaborative research, normally of a strategic nature , with research agencies in both developed and developing countries; (2) regional activ- ities that are interwoven with national agricultura! research and development agencies and that are of an applied or adaptive nature; and (3) networking. Strategic and applied research of global significance A strong backup staff of cassava researchers at headquarters forros the basis of this activity. This concerted effort is directed toward nonlocation-specif- ic research, the benefits of which are expected to be felt in the cassava-growing areas of the world in ap- proximate proportion to their present shares of total world production. Physiology of the crop and identification of desired characteristics. The basic physiology of the crop is investigated, and characteristics of the crop that lead to high, stable yield under adverse conditions are identified for use by the breeders in crop improvement. Particular emphasis is placed on the identification of drought tolerance and the improvement of produc- tivity through variation in the photosynthetic capacity ofthe crop. Germplasm collection, development, and distribution. Germplasm is a critica! component of the research strategy but in turn that strategy does not depend just on improved varieties. Because cassava is strictly a rainfed crop, grown across a wide range of edapho- climatic conditions, and under single or multiple stresses, the breeding strategy has to accommodate this significant va"riability. The strategy developed is two pronged: ( 1) developing elite gene pools for the principal ecosystems, the description of which are continually refined by the CIA T's Agroecological Studies Unit; and (2) selection from broad-based seed material in the target area, where the gene pool has been matched to the national program's selection site. This system optimizes the needed diversity that goes to a national program, while the selection is done under the stresses relevant to the production region. The selection process is backed by periodic visits to national programs by CIA T breeders. This breeding approach epitomizes the decentralized research strat- egy of the program: well-developed research methods 29 and broadly targeted technology which in turn incor- porates sufficient malleability to be adapted to local conditions. Germplasm from all over the world is collected, evaluated, and conserved. Currently, emphasis is on the collection from specific ecosystems which are poorly represented in the present collection . New breeding methodologies are developed and tested , and the possibilities of using biotechnology are evaluated. In the case of biotechnology, further research on anther culture could lead to the development of hybrids and the production of cassava from true seeds. This would make it easier to store seed and reduce disease transmission vía seeds. A compromise solution that is being explored is the use of soma tic embryos, which could be considered as pseudo seeds. In the crossing program, selected lines are used to develop elite gene pools specifically directed at different ecosystems. These materials are then distributed to national programs for testing and evaluation . The CIA T breeders keep close contact with their counterparts in national programs to ensure that the specific requirements of collaborating national pro- grams are met. This involves continued visits to the diffen: nt li•ccding programs and the joint evaluation of lines. Colombia , because of its wide range of climatic conditions, has served handily as a base for devel- opment of the elite gene pools in priority ecosystems. However, refiningthe descriptions of these ecosystems for Latín America, and more recently for Africa, has highlighted the importance of semiarid regions and subtropical ecosystems, which do not exist in Colom- bia. These ecosystems, however, exist in Brazil and , moreover, a large and di verse germplasm pool adapted to these environments also exists there. Severa! of these elite gene pools will have to be developed in Brazil, backed by a systematic survey and collection of existing varieties. Diseases and pests. Research on cassava diseases and pests takes advantage of the fact that through a number of testing sites and a wide range of growing conditions in Colombia, most of the important diseases and pests can be adequately covered within the country. Where this is not possible, close links are established with national agencies in other countries to develop the required information on these problems. The identification of viruses and the development of effective indexing methods is emphasized, and clona! materials are routinely cleaned and tested to ensure that they are free ofviruses before shipment. Although 30 virus transmtsswn is not a problem in the case of sexual seeds, they must be certified clean of fungal and bacteria! pathogens. Utilization. The quality characteristics of cassava roots for various end uses are studied in order to establish guidelines for developing techniques for the rapid measurement of root quality. These techniques then become a routine part of the breeding program. Fresh cassava conservatíon technology will be fur- ther improved . New products for controlling micro- bial deterioration are being tested , and the possibility of biological control using fluorescent bacteria will be explored. The basis for new, convenient food products is the conversion of cassava to a more stable form. The prototype technology for low-cost, drying systems to produce high-quality flours now exists and will be tested and modified under commercial conditions. Once it is possible to produce these flours com- mercially, research activities will concentra te on their introduction as a partía! substitute for wheat flour and on the development of new, . cassava flour-based products. Socioeconomic studies of cassava production and marketing. The demand studies underlying the re- search strategy espoused he re highlight the importance of socioeconomic information in determining research priorities. Such information should also prove highly useful for policymakers. Although the intensity of such data collection and analysis activities, outside of Africa, will decline in coming years, the Cassava Program will continue to carry out this type ofwork in strategically selected countries. Regional programs Cassava as a plant species is adapted toa wide range of edaphoclimatic conditions, although any single genotype, if well suited to its environment, has only a narrow range of adaptation . In an analogous manner, cassava &S a commodity is well adapted to economies at very different stages of development but, similarly, this adaptation , especially in product utilization, takes very different forms. This malleability with respect to different market conditions in turn makes cassava a useful instrument in meeting a range of policy objec- tives in developing countries. Because the structure of the agricultura! sector and the stage of development is so different between Asia , Latín America, and Africa, different strategies are required. The Cassava Pro- gram, theref.ore, adjusts applied research of a region- specific nature to the adaptive research needed to achieve impact. Africa. l. Collaboration with liT A. Within the CGIAR system CIA T has global responsibility for cassava, while liT A has regional responsibility for the crop in Africa. CIA T's strategy in Africa is very clearly to complement the liT A research program. This includes more basic or strategic research, applied research in priority areas on which liT A has decided not to work, and research in Latín America that dir~ctly supports the research effort in Africa. A research base in Latín America has already been shown to be critica! to the success of research on biological control of mealybug and green spider mi te in A frica. The same is expected to apply, in the future, to: the development of gene pools for particular ecosystems in Africa, to sorne of the utitization and root quality research, and even to the areas of market development. 2. Agroeconomic studies of cassava in Africa. The importance of cassava in Africa is beyond doubt. Nevertheless, the data available for the purposes of planning research and development programs based on cassava are deficient. This makes it difficult for the t~o Centers and national programs to develop a coherent research strategy for this continent. Conse- quently, CIA T and liT A pro pose to set up a major short-term (three-year) agroeconomic study of cassava that will: characterize the present production, proces- sing, and marketing systems in Africa; assess the potential for producing cassava in new areas; and assess changes in demand that are likely to occur in the coming years. These studies will form the basis for a coordinated CGIAR system plan for cassava in Africa, which will be jointly presented by CIA T and liT A. The funding for the agroeconomic studies referred to here is projected to be forthcoming through a special project arrangement. Asia. In Asia a multiple market structure for cassava has airead y developed in most countries. Markets are in place that can absorb significant increases in production and, if prices can be lowered, new markets are poised to come on line. Hence the efforts of the Cassava Programare directed towards establishing an effective cassava production research network. The structure of that network was discussed ata workshop held in June 1984 and the results were published as "Cassava in Asia, its Potential and Research Devel- opment Needs." Genetic variability in cassava is limited in Asia indicating that the potential exists for increasin~ productivity through the introduction of new germ- plasm. CIA T is developing and servicing a network for testing and evaluating both CIAT and local germ- plasm _throu~hout the area. Scientists from the region are ~emg tramed in handling germplasm and makinJ spectal crosses to suit the conditions of the region. Nevertheless, new varieties alone cannot remove all the constraints to obtaining highly productive cassava~ based sy~tems. In the intensive Asían cropping sys- . te m~, mamte~a_nce of soil fertility and thc control of 1 eroswn are cnttcal. Over the past deeade, a consider- ¡ able body of basic information on the principies of mixed cropping, soil fertility maintenance, and erosion control has been developed in Colombia. In ordcr to apply this knowledge to the Asían situation, a regional Cassava Pro,gram agronomist assists Asían programs in developing improved cropping systems. The re- gional team (that is, the soil scientist/agronomist referred to above,.and a plant breeder) not only work in their specific areas, but also play an important coordinating role in the region to ensure the full integration of cassava research in the regional net- work. The initial phase of the CIA T economic studies was designed to determine the potential demand for cassa- va in the region. Yet to be carried out at the micro- economic scale is: (a) a critica! evaluation ofhow new technology will fit into the intricate cropping patterns of tbe region; and (b) an identification of constraints on the adoption of new technology. For cassava production to increase markedly in the region, the fresh roots will have to be processed. At present, the available processing technology is rela- tively efficient and is not seen as an immediate constraint. CIA T willlimit its activity in this area to transferring new processing technology developed at headquarters to Asían national programs through training and conferences. Latin America. In Latín America demand for cassa- va still relies chiefly on food markets, which in turn ha ve inhibited the development of alterna ti ve markets. It has been shown that cassava can compete in such markets, especially the animal feed market, but incen- tives to invest in processing, capacity have been masked by the nature of price formation in cassava food markets. To overcome this constraint CIA T has developed the concept of integrated production, pro- cessing, and marketing projects in order to foster increased cassava production and utilization and better mark.et integration. Moreover, these projects utilize this unexploited demand poten tia! as a means of increasing small farmer incomes in Latín America, 31 especially farmers in more marginal areas. Much fie ld- based research has been spent on developing meth- odologies and project design components which will maximize the eq uity potential of cassava development in Latín America. Moreover, the integrated projects, which have now been established in Mexico, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and , more recently, Brazil , provide a focal point for germplasm testing and agronomic research. This research is thus well targeted, has backup from the project , has continuity, and provides the capacity for field-level problem identification for feedback to CIAT. The projects are thus the laboratories for much of CIA T's decentralized research on agronomy, bio- logical control, and processing methods. l. lntegrated production, processing, and marketing projects. These projects are run and managed by the national programs. CIA T's role is to assist and give technical advice. The funding for this activity is from bilateral funds or, as in the case of Colombia , paid for by the government. The basis of integrated projects rests on a study of possible markets and areas of production for cassava. This is followed by the selection of the most appropríate processing technol- ogy, and the setting up of a pilot project to evaluate the possibility for subsequent expansion into a majar development project. While this procedure is simple, its execution is complex. It requires the testing of production technology, an analysis of the best forms of organizing the production to ensure equitable distribution of benefits, and systematic market devel- opment. 2. Support for integrated projects. If current trends are any indication , it can be expected that there will be an increasing number of integrated development pro- jects in coming years. Sorne of the older ones will achieve their objectives and will essentially disappear from the scene, while new ones will develop. A CIA T headquarters-based "integrated projects team" will provide a continuity of effort in this area and will use the experience of the various projects to develop generalized methodologies for the successful imple- mentation of such projects. This tea m will then use this experience to stimulate national agencies to develop their own such projects. It will also assist national programs in the planning stages, provide technical support in the establishment phases, and help in the design of systems to monitor their success in meeting objectives. The team will consist of: a social scientist (specialized in economics) who is intimately involved in determíning the initial feasibility of developing a 32 project, in designing the project, and in monitoring and evaluating the project; an agronomist who will be closely in volved in the area of evaluating the potential for productíon, as well as working with national agencies in the development of productíon packages that ensure a steady supply of raw material to the project; and a processi ng specialist who will be in- volved in advis ing on appropriate types of processing techniques and in the planning and carrying out of adaptive research to develop technology suitable for local condítions. Networking Networks function differently in the work of the Cassava Program from most other crop programs. Finished technologies do not flow within the cassava network. Rather, the Program focuses on introducing a significant degree of diversity or malleability in the "technology" at the leve! of the national program or project site. The network focuses on both broadening and deepening the methods by which technology is adapted to local conditions and in the identification of research arcas not covered within the network. A national, field-level research capacity a nd pooling of research resul ts are critica! to the functioning of the network. A range of different networks on cassava has evolved as follows: The international cassava research and development network. Its members are: national research and development agencies interested in cassava; individu- a ls in national agencies working on cassava; advanced research institutions in developed and developing countries working on cassava; and international and regional agencies with an interest in the furtherance of the crop. This is a large and amorphous group, held together by the cassava newsletters, the informa- tion/ documentation services on cassava, and frequent but nonsystematic contacts between and among mem- bers. Regional and subregional germplasm exchange net- works. Because of the marked differences in the adaptation of germplasm in different regions and subregions (that is , a strong genotype-by-environment interaction), germplasm exchange networks are most meaningful and effective if they are regionally based, although they can as well cut across particular agro- climatic zones. Germplasm exchange in cassava m oves principally as sexual seed, originating from elite germplasm pools. Such gene pools have been devel- oped in Colombia·, are in the process of being devel- oped in Asia, and are projected to be developed in Brazil. In addition to the exchange of germplasm, the networks focus on methodology development and interchange of information. Specialized networks. These networks seek to unite cassava research that líes outside the national cassava programs. In Asia much research on cassava proces- sing and utilization is done in specialized research centers, unconnected to national cassava research programs. Plans call for the organization of an Asían cassava utilization network to rationalize and support research in the region. In Latín America a network of agencies involved in cassava integrated projects is being organized, again prinéipally to interchange methodological approaches and organizational op- tions. The Cassava Program will continue to act as a catalyst in the development of these networks and in servicing them to the extent possible. The principal resources available to support this effort are training, international and regional conferences, newsletters, and the world cassava documentation and information center based at CIA T. While the Program seeks to be instrumental in the efficient functioning of the net- works, it also seeks to make sure that the Program itself is not placed in the focal point as the principal source of information and materials. Rather, it seeks to stimulate active participation on the part of all network members and attempts to ensure that the networks are marked by a horizontal exchange of ideas, germplasm, and technologies. Projection of resource requirements The following table provides an overview of actual ( 1987) and projected ( 1988-1992) senior staff positions of the CIA T Cassava Program. It is followed by a description of all currently existing and projected positions. For the time being, T AC has endorsed the position of "CIAT Cassava Specialist at liT A" and "Virol- ogist" for inclusion in the 1988 core budget. The remaining new and, as yet, not funded positions will be presented by CIA T in 1988 in conjunction with its proposal for a five-year budget for the period 1989-1993. Actual ( 1987) and projected (1988-1992) staffing pattern of the CIA T Cassava Program. Position 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Headquarters Leader Pathologist Entomologist 1 1 Physiologist 1 1 1 1 1 Breeder(s) 2 2 2 2 2 Economist 1 1 Agronomist 1 1 1 1 1 1 Utilization Specialist(s} 1 2 2 2 2 2 Virologista o African region CIAT Cassava Specialist at liT A o 1 1 1 Agroeconomic Study Teamb [4] [4] [4] Asian region Breeder AgronomistC Economist o Latín American RegionCl Breeder/ Agronomist (Brazil) o 1 1 1 Total 10 16[ + 4] 16[+4] 16(+4] 16 16 a. Position attached to the CJ A T Viro logy Unit. b. For Agroeco nomic Studies of Cassava in A frica which a re expected to be special-project funded. Altho ugh this is a joint project with liTA. all positions are shown here. c. Position presently funded o n special-project basis. d . Additional positions are expected to become available. thro ugh bilatera l and other no ncore funding, fo r a fi xed-term involvement in integrated cassava develo pment . projects in particular countries. 33 Headquarters-based staff. l . Program Leader. The coordination and leadership required to ensure a fully integrated multidisciplinary, decentralized approach to global cassava research and development is pro- vided through the Leader position at headquarters. Technical supervision and monitoring of a ll activities of the headquarters and outposted tea m members, as well as technical co llaboration with liT A and col- labo rating advanced research institutions, remain the cent ra l responsibility for the scientist in this position. 2. Pathologist. Resea rch o n the fungal and bacteria! disease complexes of the crop, particularly as these relate to key cassava ecologies, will continue, with emphasis no t only on germplasm improvement, but also in p roviding a sound framework in which specific integrated disease control methodologies for those ecologies can be applied in the develo pment of sus- tainab le cassava cro pping systems. Monitoring re- search on the means for the safe and efficient interna- tional transfer of germplasm will continue. 3. Entomologist. The research on cassava pests will continue to strengthen the existing inter-Center effort o n biological control of major cassava pests thro ugh the identification, rearing, and dístribution of benefi- cia! insects from the center of origin. In addition , attention will continue to focus on germplasm evalua- tion for pest resistance and tolerance as a basic input into germplasm improvement. 4 . Physiologist. The research will continue to con- cent ra te on further unravelling the basic physiology of the C3-C4 intermediate in collabo ration with scientists in advanced institu tions. At the same time, geno type responses a nd the underlying mechanisms of those responses toa range of s tress factors will be assessed . Such assessment wil! rellect the environmental focus o f cassava, in particular wa ter-use efficiency, water- stress tolerance, and lo w soil ferti lity adaptation (with part icular emphasis on phosphorus and potassium nutrition, and the role o f mycorrhizae). The basic role ofthe physio logist at CIAT is to s timulate and conduct research o n a c rop that has not received sufficient global attention, with a view to providing a basic knowledge framework for germplasm improvement and developing sustainable cropping systems. 5. Breeder l. The existing position at headquarters will continue to focus on genetic improvement of cassava with.in the framework of a decentralized impro vement program. The program will continually evaluate the growing cassava germplasm collection and incorpo ra te sources for tolerance or resistance toa wide range of stresses into high-yielding background 34 populations which have appropriate quality charac- teristics for cassava 's wide range of end uses. The breeder will ha ve specific responsibility fo r develo ping germplasm resources for the humid and subhumid lowland areas of Latin America and Asia. Research will include collaborative decen tralized breeding and selection activities with national program scientists and backup services for outposted CIA T breeders in Asia and Brazil. 6. Breeder 11. This new position projected at head- quarters will strengthen the d ecentralized improve- ment program by: concentrating on the middle-alti- tude tropical highlands and the subtropical ecologies of Latin America; and b y pmviding impro ved popula- tions through liT A for these same ecologies in A frica and elsewhere. 8oth headquarters-based breeders will increasingly adapt new tissue culture methodo logies in the germplasm improvement effort as these become available , for example , through the possible use of haploids, through a nther culture, and in soma tic em- bryógenesis for producing a rtificial seeds. The scientist in this position will provide the main channel for colla borative breeding activities with liT A to ensure that the full range of genetic va riability available can be applied in Africa . The scientist will al so pro vide the inpu! requi red from the Ca ssava Program for the management of the internationa l cassava collection in collaboration with the Germplasm Resources Unit. (Note: Although projected to be eventually core funded , this positio n has no t yet been endo rsed by T AC and is not included in core budget request for 1988.) 7. Economist. The econo mist will continue to focus on studies of socioeconomic fac tors affecting cassava research and develo pment through the production, processing, marketing, and utilization of vario us end products. The principal role o f the economist is to provide an economic framewo rk in which integrated cassava develo pment can take place in identified areas of greatest poten tia!. The economist is an integral part of the headquarters team which is devoted to the catalytic activities associated with C IA T's collabora- tion with d evelopment projects in Latín America . It also provides the means for the interco ntinental transfer of socioecono mic expe rience. In this regard, a el ose association of the economist with the liT A- CIAT agroeconomic studies planned fo r Africa will ensure that experiences obtained elsewhere in cassa va development can be better applied within the African context once the study period is completed. 8. Agronomist. The headquarters-based agron- omist forms part of the sub tea m specifically devoted to collaborative actlvlttes in integrated cassava devel~ opment in the Latín American region. In particular the subteam works with national programs in decentral- ized research to ensure that appropriate agronomic practices, leading to sustainable cassava-based crop~ ping systems, are developed. The recognition of the need for more location-specific agronomic research gives a specific focus for the agronomist as he col~ !abarates with ongoing national integrated cassava production projects and those projected by collaborat- ing agencies. 9. Utilization Specialist l. The existing utilization position will continue to focus on the engineering and logistical aspects of cassava processing for the wide range of end usrs, and to develop, not only new methodologies, but also improvements for traditional processing systems. The feasibility and necessity of new or improved methodologies for Africa will be established by the planned liT A-CIA T collaborative agroeconomic study of cassava in Africa. This scientist also forms part of the headquarters subteam devoted to CIA T's role in integrated cassava development in Latín America and the Caribbean. 10. Utilization Specialist II. The acceptance of new varieties is highly dependent u pon the quality charac- teristics of the fresh roots as related to the final end market. Little is known at present about the para- meters that determine root quality. An additional position is projected in the utilization section at headquarters to work closely with the breeders to define these biochemical parameters and develop screening techniques that will accurately discriminate among genotypes. Guidelines will also be developed and methodologies designed to improve the quality of cassava products after processing. This cassava-qual- ity work will ha ve direct application to the wide range of cassava products in Africa. (Note: Although pro- jected to be eventually core funded, this position has not yet been endorsed by T AC and is not included in core budget request for 1988.) 11 . Virologist. As a vegetatively reproduced crop, cassava is prone to virus problems transmitted through the planting material. This not only affects production on farmers' fields, but also inhibits the free exchange of germplasm. It is essential to characterize the cassava viruses accurately, develop techniques for their detec- tion and elimination, and devise control methods. In order to do this, the Biotechnology Research Unit, which provides an administrative and resources um~ brella for all virology work at CIAT, is projected to increase its personnel by one senior staff position. (Note: This position has been endorsed by T AC for inclusion in the 1988 core budget request ofCIA T and is included in the present budget request.) African region. l. CIA T Cassava Specialist at liT A. The nonlocation-specific research done by the overall CIAT effort can bring great benefits to African cassava producers. CIA T does not, however, apply this technology directly to African conditions. The information, germplasm, and biocontrol agents are transferred directly to liT A, who incorpora tes these elements into its regional efforts in Africa. To establish an effective liaison between the two Centers, liT A and CIAT ha ve agreed that a CIAT cassava specialist be posted at liT A. He is to ensure that African needs and requests, that can make use of CIAT-based resources, are rapidly met. Both Centers agree that in the light of scarce resources this scientist should forman integral part of the liT A cassava effort and carry out an active research program. (Note: This position has been endorsed by T AC for inclusion in the 1988 core budget request of CIAT and is included in the present budget request.) 2. Agroeconomic studies of cassava in Africa. The importance of cassava in Africa is beyond doubt. Nevertheless, the data available for planning research and development programs based on cassava are deficient. This makes it extreme! y difficult for CIA T and liT A and the national programs to develop a coherent research strategy for this continent. As a result, CIA T and liT A are proposing to set up a major short-term (3-year) study of cassava. This study will characterize the present production, processing, and marketing systems in Africa; assess the potential for producing cassava in new areas; and assess the changes in demand that are likely to occur in the coming years. The study will have a team envisaged as headed by a study director (an agricultura! economist), and com- prising three economists, each of whom will assume responsibility for a separate geographical region. This tea m is to be supported by a series of national study coordinators. CIAT and liT A are seeking special project resources to be able to carry out these studies. The results of these studies will form the basis for a coordinated CG lAR system plan for cassava in Africa which will be presented jointly by CIA T and liT A. Asian region. l. Breeder. The regional cassava pro- gram for Asia is projected to have ultimately three scientists. The program focuses on the decentralized regional breeding program and collaborates with the national researchers within a ~egional germplasm development network. Backup from headquarters in terms of a providing a broader germplasm base for 35 Asia is ba lanced by a concerted program to stimulate genet ic recombinatio ns and selection for specific local environmental constrai nts a nd end uses. The specific role of the regio nal breeder is to provide guidance to national efforts a nd to stimulate intercontinenta l excha nge of improved germplasm . The lower inci- dence of cassava diseases and pests in Asia permits greater concentration o n yield, quality, and adapta- tion to environmental stress. 2. Agronomist. In the complex Asían cropping sys- tems in the upland areas, sustainability of production is a major concern. An agronomist is stationed in Asia to assist national programs to develop production systems that reduce erosion a nd maintain soil ferti lity. This position is special project-funded through 1989, whereupon it is projected to be incorporated into CIA T's core budget. (Note : Although projected even- tually to be core funded, this position has not ye t been endorsed by T AC and is not included in core budget request for 1988.) 3. Economist. An integral member of the Asían team will be a social scíentist (economist) whose main task will be to ensure that the new technology fits into the intricate Asía n cropping systems and is acceptable to fa rmers. This will in vol ve working c losely with the CIAT agronomist and the national program agron- omists in the tes ting of new technology packages at the farm leve! and in the monitoring of adoption of new technology. In addition, the economist will analyze the overall direction of cassa va development in the regio n to ensure that other research activities are directed to resolving pro blems related to cha nging socioecónomic conditions. (Note: Although projected eve ntually to be core funded, this positio n has not yet been endorsed by T AC and is not included in core budget request for 1988.) Latin American Region. l . Breeder/ Agronomist for Brazil. At present it is not possible for the headquarters team in Colo mbia to dedícate adequate attention to two importa nt cassava ecologies even though they a re within the species' center of origin. These ecologies are the subhumid tro pics and the cool-seaso n subtro pics. In view of the overall importance of cassava in Brazil and the existence of these two ecologies there, C IA T has projected a new position in Brazil. The locat io n of the Breeder/ Agronomist will depend u pon discussions wi th EMBRAPA , but most like ly will be in no rtheast Brazi l. In addition , the scientist would supervise a research associate to be located in the south to handle the development of breeding populations for the cooler ecosystems. The Breeder/ Agronomist at the base location will mainly be developing specific cassa- 36 va germplasm pools adapted to the drier areas of the lowland tropics. The futu re role of this particular germplasm in the subhumid savannas of Africa wi ll be studied in collaboration with liT A. The richness of the germ- plasm resources avai lable in Brazil is a key element in this decentralized strategy. (No te: Although projected eventuall y to be core fu nded, this position has not yet been endorsed by T AC and is not included in core budget request for 1988.) 2. Integra ted cassava development projects. In the foregoing definitions o f the role of existing and projected senio r staff positions, three scientists from the core-financed headquarters team o f the Cassava Progra m a re given specific responsibilities to provide collabo ra tive linkages to integrated cassava devel- o pment projects in Latín Amer ica and the Caribbean , that is, in addition to their normal activities in the Program . These scientists are the Agronomist, Econ- no mist,and Utilizat ion Specialist. l. CIA T plans to stimulate integra ted cassava development projects in carefully defined regions with the grea test potential a nd across the range of end uses for cassava. These projects will be funded through special projects to CIA T and/ or through bilateral projects funded direct- ly to the collaborating country institutions. Achievements of the Program (See Cassava Program section under "Summary of Achievements", p . 9-11 ). Special projects Cassava development in Brazil. T his project aims to establish pilot projects for the production, processing, and marketing of cassava in two a rcas of Brazi l-the south and the no rtheast-and to develop the methodol- ogy for expanding cassava production in these regions. In the longer term , experience gained in the pilot projects will be used to develop natio nal program capacity to carry o ut cassava-based development programs tha t will bring benefits to the rural popula- tio n o f Brazil. These methodologies will cont ribute to the o ther rura l development p rograms forming part of the network of cassava-based integrated rural devel- opment projects. T his p roject was no t yet finally approved by the W. K . Kellogg Foundation as of June 1987, but was expected to be approved shortly thereaf- ter. Personnel (2 senior scientists) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contíngencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 77 179 lO 15 l3 31 lO 20 34 16 17 35 161 296 Exploration and evaluation of cassava mite preda- tors. This collaborative research project with liT A is a component of the Africa-wide Project for Biological Control of Cassava Pests. The following activities are involved: (1) survey of cassava mite predators in the Americas; (2) evaluation of the efficiency of these predators, including field ecology · and pbenology studies; and (3) preparation of the predators for shipment to Africa. This project is supported by liT A. Personnel Honoraría, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 72 83 ll ll ll 12 36 20 9 14 l3 153 139 Cassava and rice research in Panama. This is a bilateral agreement whereby: (1) CIA T's Rice Pro- gram helps IDIAP to evaluate segregating populations in order to obtain advanced lines and varieties under Panamanian and Central American conditions. It also carries out observation, yield, and regional trials of promising lines and selections. (2) CIA T's Cassava Program assists in the baseline study of: socioeconom· ic and physical-biological conditions of cassava pro- duction in Panama; the development of appropriate production and processing technology; and devel· opment, at the experimental level, of cassava proces· sing and drying technology for a future national-level project. This project is financed by USAID. Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 2 2 57 57 18 18 4 4 l l 82 82 Agroindustrial development of cassava in Colom- bia. In collaboration with the Integrated Development Program (DRI) of Colombia~ CIAT will provide technical assistance in the execution of this agroindus- trial development project on cassava production and drying for small farmers on the north coast of the country. This project is financed by DRI and IDRC. Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 25 ll 12 49 28 l3 15 57 Farmer participation in technology design and trans- fer. (See under "Special Projects in Bean Program section, p . 20). Germplasm collection for beans, cassava, and tropical pastures. (See under "Special Projects" in Genetic Resources Unit section, p. 53). In vitro active gene bank. (See under "Special Projects" in Biotecbnology Research Unit section, p. 57). SpeciaUzed information centers. (See under "Special Projects" in Communication and Information Su~ port Unit section, p. 77-78). RICE PROGRAM Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bu d. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Program Leader Agronomy (production systems) Breeding (Santa Rosa) Breeding (Palmira) Pathology Integrated pest mgt. Economics Physiology (Santa Rosa) Total 6 7 7 7 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Costs Current budget Proposed budget Actual Re vi sed 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 775 1016 1016 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Suppljes and services 157 lOO lOO Travel 80 93 93 Equipment replacement 11 21 21 Contingency 17 Subtotal 1023 1230 1247 Support unitsa 366 Price provision 49 Total 1023 1230 1662 a. Resource allocation from suppon units to the Rice Program. Program Commentary The CIA T Rice Program focuses on the Western Hemisphere including Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. It collaborates closely with IRRI's efforts in global rice research and with liT A in areas of mutual interest. Research on major regional constraints is encouraged through an active 38 7 Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. 86 87 88. 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 7 9 9 9 9 2 2 2 2 2 12 12 12 12 12 2 3 3 3 3 22 22 22 22 22 3 3 3 3 ~ ll ll 11 11 ll l l l 4 4 4 4 l 1 l l 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 lO 15 15 15 15 59 69 69 69 69 network of rice specialists cooperating in the lnterna- tional Rice Testing Program (IRTP). Annual growth rates for rice in Latin America during the past two decades have averaged· 3.3%, 2.3%, and 1.0% for production, area, and yield, respectively. Per ca pita consumption of rice has been rising and is currently about 35 kg of milled rice annually. Rice provides, on the average, 9% of total calories in the Latin American diet. Countries with the highest rice contribution to total caloric intake are Panama, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Peru. Traditionally Latin Ame rica, as a region, has been a minor net importer of rice. The largest exporters were Uruguay, Suriname, Argentina, and Guyana and the major importers were Cuba, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru. If demand increases continue at the annual rate of about 3.5% as observed during the past 20 years, production must double by the year 2000 to satisfy interna! demand at current relative price levels. This indica tesan increase from the current 17 million tons to over 30 million tons by the end of.the century. Unless production is stimulated rapidly, the countries that will face serious rice deficits are Mexico, Nicara- gua, Cuba, Jamaica, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Except in the Caribbean region, land and water resources are sufficient to permit this growth. However, in severa! key countries where growth has been rapid a production plateau has been reached. In these arcas production costs are very high. Tbus, rice farming is becoming a less attractive proposition. The high costs are partly dueto excessive pesticide use and inappropriate, inadequate, and ex- pe.nsive weed control. The challenge is to distinguish among physical, biological, agronomic, economic, and political constraints to rice production growth. With proper identification of the principal problems, training, research, and cooperation with national programs can be oriented effectively. 1988 Budget request for Rice Program Activity Soil management and conservation research Germplasm Research on conservation and diversity Conservation, characterization, and documentation Enhancement Plant breeding and improvement lnternational trials (distribution and exchange) Seed production Crop systems research Plant protection research Plant nutrition research Machinery research and development Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) lhdividualized internships Conference and seminars Documentation and dissemination Research on approaches, concepts, methodologies, and procedures Counselling and advising NARS Technical assistance Coordination of networks Economic and social analysis at microlevel Market analysis Policy analysis Nutrition and consumption analysis Total Amount (1988 USSin thousands) 2.5 83.5 57.7 9.4 448.7 72.9 33.2 71.3 227.7 25.6 5.7 103.5 39.9 34.5 33.4 25.2 112.3 38.5 83.7 55.4 26.6 50.0 20.9 1662.1 Production Systems and Constraints Trends in rice production, arca planted, and yield vary widely among countries and over time. The major contribution to produc!ion during 1965-1975 carne from increase in arca, particularly in Brazil. This was reversed in the more recent period of 1976-1982 when essentially all regional growth carne from yield in- creases. The unfavored upland arca in Brazil began to decline, but was offset by increased productivity from irrigated arcas in Río Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, where yields are good. Fourteen of the 23 more important rice-producing countries now ha ve average yields of over 3 t/ha. The Latín American average of 2 t/ha reflects the massive impact of the national average of 1.> t/ha in Brazil. The basic causes for tbis low yield are found in the predominance of the unstable production system in the Brazilian Cerrado. This system accounts for approximately 50% ofthe rice arca under production in the en tire region and, beca use of unreliable rainfall, yields average about 1 t/ha. Several distinct produc- . tion systems exist in the region. Often rice production is divided, somewhat misleadingly, into two ~ain systems, irrigated and upland. In 1983-1984 irrigated rice covered 2. 4 mili ion ha ( 3 2% of the are a), a veraged 4.2 t/ha, and contributed 61 % of regional production. The favored upland systems, which bave niore in common with irrigated rice than with unfavored upland, covered O. 7 million ha, averaged 2.4 t/ha, and produced 11% of regional production. In comparison, unfavored upland rice was grown on 4.1 million ha (about 55% of the total arca), y\elded 1 t/ha, and contributed 26% of regional production. The rainfed and manual upland ecologies together contributed only 2% of Latín American rice. Icrigated rice. This system receives high CIA T priority because of its major contribution to regional production and its comparative advantage in main- taining and further increasing productívity and stabil- ity of supply. It is found in all countries and predominates in southem Brazil, Colombia, the Carib- bean region, Guyana, Nicaragua, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and the Southem Cone countries. lrrigated rice is increasing in countries that formerly were upland producers. Average national yields range from 3 to over S t/ha. lmportant constraints include increasing production costs, weeds, water control, rice blast and other diseases, lodging, and, in sorne coun- tries, the availability of suitable grain quality for export markets. Favored upland rice. This system is generally con- fined to flat areas receiving _1500 to over 2000 mm of rainfall in eight or nine months of the year. Normally, there are no short dry periods during the rain y season. The soils are alluvial, slightly to moderately acid and well- drained. This system uses modern dwarf varieties and improved agronomic practices. Yields average 2.5 t/ha, but better farms can produce 4-5 t/ha. The system is found in parts of Brazil, Central America, Colombia, and elsewhere in tropical America. Majar constraints are grassy weeds, diseases, and general instability dueto irregular precipitation in sorne years. CIAT assigns high priority to this system. Unfavored upland rice. This system, found in areas having irregular and low total rainfall, has low plant- ing densities and utilizes tall varieties producing an average yield of less than 1 t/ha. Yield variance is extremely high. Much ofBrazilús rice is produced with this system on relatively infertile and moderately acid soils. The main system constraint is dry periods occurring during the growing season. This stress is compounded by poor root development associated with aluminum toxicity in the subsoil. The degree of drought enhances the severity of fungal diseases, particu1ar1y blast, in this system. Phosphorus and other deficiencies are a serious overall constraint. CIA T does not conduct research directly on unfavored upland rice since the system is mainly utilized in Brazil and at the present time the Program has no comparative advantage fo¡ work in this area. However, lines under development may play a role as parents for characters such as acid-soil tolerance and disease resistance. The main unfavored upland rice system areas in the region ha ve two main environmental constraints, that is, low and/ or unreliable rainfall together with infertile acid soi1s. In the tropical lowlands of the Americas there are vast areas of well-watered savanna lands which ha ve not been opened up for arable agriculture. In these areas rice does have a future potential provided the problems of adaptation to low soil fertility and soil acidity can be successfully resolved. CIA T has commenced research on these problems. Rainfed lowland rice. This system is a transition between irrigated and upland and utilizes rainwater trapped and held by field levees. Nevertheless, water deficits and/or deep flooding are common. Dwarf varieties can be grown when water control is provided, but taH varietíes predominate. Average yields are 2.5 t/ha. The crop may be transplanted or directly seeded 40 and few purchased inputs are used. Rainfed rice is important only in coastal Ecuador, Colombia 's north- ern coast, and in the Dominican Republic. Given that rainfed lowland rice contributes only 1% to Latin American production, CIA T does not directly re- search this system. Program O bjectives The three specific objectives for Rice Program activi- ties in collaboration with national institutions in th.e Western Hemisphere are the: Continued development of germplasm-based technology designed to overcome the principal constraints to increased production of irrigated rice and the more favored upland production systems. Development of widely applicable production technology. This includes the introduction and evaluation of appropriate farm machinery that is oriented toward weed control and other related cultural practices in arder to reduce costs and increase stability of supply. Strengthening of national rice research programs in the region through assistance in the preparation of national production p1ans, training, confer- ences, and technical collaboration activities. Through these mechanisms the Rice Program can further stimulate the highly effective regional rice research network which is now in place. General Research Strategy Since its beginning in 1967, the Rice Program 's basic strategy was to improve yields and production of irrigated rice in the region. This strategy was adopted beca use: irrigated rice offered the greatest opportunity for rapid gains; irrigated rice technology was more easily generated and transferred than that for other production systems; and limited core resources did not permit simultaneous·work on all production systems. Varietal improvement has been the key element in CIAT's irrigated rice research strategy. Tall varieties were used throughout the area befare 1968, when IR 8 was introduced. An immediate increase in productivity of2 tlha confirmed the decision to work exclusive1y on dwarf materials for this s-ystem. The research has sought varieties combining dwarfism, strong stems, insensitivity to photoperiod, long grain with clear endosperm, resistance to the Sogatodes leafhopper, and blast resistance. Earliness and improved adapt- ability to acid soils are more recent varietal objectives. In recent years, with the exception of rice blast, the fungal diseases of dirty panicle, brown spot, leaf scald, eye spot, narrow brown leaf spot, and sheath blight have increased in severity and now constitute yield constraints, partially as a consequence of increase in fertilizer use and of expansion of upland rice and irrigated rice on infertile soils. These problems, along with the resurgence of the hoja blanca virus, have intensified the need for resistance breeding for all ecologies. To address these needs, the Program moved its main breeding site to the Colombian Llanos, near Villavi- cencio, where disease pressure is high for the most serious foliar and grain pathogens. Material is selected under enhanced epidemics of leaf and neck blast, leaf scald, and grain discoloration. A large-scale, semi- controlled field screening method has been successful- ly implemented for the hoja blanca virus. The hoja blanca-resistant lines were tested under natural and heavy virus epidemic conditions in Ecu~­ dor. As expected, they proved to be highly resistant. An exhaustive characterization of the components of the resistance being used indicates that it is true resistance to the virus (as opposed to simply differen- tial feeding behavior of the insect vector on differential genotypes), and that it is not likely to break down quickly, if ever. Resistant lines are being advanced rapidly in Ecuador and Colombia and should be released in approximately two years. lron toxicity is an increasing problem in acid, irrigated soils in Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, and Venezuela. An efficient, simple screening method capable of handling severa! thousand lines per year was developed. Many advanced lines are highly toler- an t. allowing IRTP to send only known tolerant materials to areas where iron is a constraint. As improved dwarflines and varieties are produced, research is extended to developing appropriate cul- tural practices for the high-yielding varieties. Seeding rates and methods, fertilizer practices, and timing of weed control are emphasized . Farmers ha ve l~arned to manage modern varieties, but severe cultural practice deficiencies remain. These include red-rice and weed infestations, seed quality, land preparation, water control, and the lack of simple appropriate equipment for small-farm operations. In the irrigated sector the number of crosses has increased substantially in response to new disease problems, need for iron-toxicity tolerance, and the specific low temperature constraints and grain quality requirements for the temperate Southern Cone. This latter activity is expanding rapidly now that dwarfs are known to be well adapted throughout the temperate production areas, and that anther culture technology has permitted large-volume production of fixed lines that combine the necessary characteristics for these conditions. Field evaluations of these lines in Chile and seedling evaluatíons under laboratory conditions show that sorne of the lines ha ve high levels of cold tolerance combined with excellent grain qualíty. The high-yielding, high-quality, cold-tolerant lines devel- oped from this project will have direct application to Chile and should prove to be excellent parents for a wide variety of breeding objectives. Anther culture is now being evaluated for its applications to tropical breeding as well. The unexpected adoption of the newer dwarf varie- ties in recent years in the more favored upland systems allowed the Program to modify its original strategy. Entries for nurseries, especially for the more favor~d upland systems, are selected from the advanced irri- gated breeding lines and distributed to national pro- grams for continued local selection and evaluation. Thus, CIA T con tributes directly to upland systems while focusing on irrigated varieties. In 1981 CIAT began to intensify its activities in upland rice. Breeding for the more favored upland ecologies and high-rainfall, acid-soil, savanna upland has increased dramatically. Crossing is currently focused on disease tolerance, grain and plant type, earliness, and general adaptability to upland soils. Work must be under- taken on the multiple mineral nutrition stresses of upland soils with specific breeding attention to toler- ances to zinc, phosphorus, iron, and manganese deficiencies along with aluminum and manganese toxicities in acid soils. It seems clear that one way to reduce fungal disease pressure in upland rice is through breeding for tolerance to problem soils. Specific research strategies for the remainder of the decade ofthe eighties and beyond ha ve been developed for the various production systems identified for priority attention. Research strategy for irrigated rice. This system will continue to receive major attention. Enhanced toler- ance to diseases (for example, blast, other fungal diseases, hoja blanca) and soil problems (for example, iron toxicity and straighthead disease) should increase yields, lower production costs, and increase produc- tion stability. The approach will combine breeding 41 directly for disease resistance with breeding for toler- ance to soil stresses and emphasize weed control and lower seeding and fertilizer rates. Lowered inputs should result in decreased fungal disease severity. Additionally, breeding will focus on better lodging resistance and, simultaneously, seek modest gain in yield potential. lmprovement in farm cultural' practices is indis- pensable to narrow the gap between varietal yield potential and farm productivity. Research on cultural practices has lagged behind varietal development. General rice weeds, including red rice, constitute the most serious problem in rice production. As most countries have effective herbicides, the reduction of the problem is focused on improved land preparation and levelling, largely through more appropriate equip- ment, especially for smaller farms, including steel tractor wheels, small tractors, and tillers. Work in integrated pest management shows that costly insecticide applications can be eliminated for most insects under most conditions. Studies of all major insect targets for insecticides showed that economic thresholds, field monitoring, varietal toler- ance, and biological control can elimina te insecticides for most pests. Prophylactic seed treatments are being developed for the few pests that cause risk during the first two weeks after seeding. Fungicide applications for the complex of fungi associated with dirty panicle, a rapidly increasing, worldwide disease were shown to be ineffective. Their elimination will contri bu teto reduce production costs. Dir~y panicle, widely distributed in Latín America and elsewhere and formerly considered to have a fungal etiology, is now known to be caused in many cases by a complex of seed-transmitted, systemic bacteria. The pathogen is eradicated with extremely severe dry heat therapy that does not reduce seed germination. National programs are being urged to heat treat genetic and foundation seed to control the disease on farms. International centers and Latín American national programs were advised ofthe cause and control of dirty panicle to elimina te international movement of the pathogen. Many new irrigated rice areas are coming into production, principally by small producers. They lack appropriate small machinery to facilita te the transition from transplanting to direct seeding where labor is scarce. Such machines (hand seeders, boom sprayers, harvesters, and threshers) are commercially available. The Rice Program will emphasize the introduction of appropriate machinery through national programs. 42 Research strategy for the more favored upland systems. Selected lines from the irrigated breeding program can con tribute to the varietal component for expanding this system in the region. Nevertheless, a breeding progra01 is designed to address the peculiar stresses of upland soils, particularly moisture and mineral nutrition, and their interaction with fungal diseases in severa! si tes reflecting a range of ecologies from modera tely to highly favored upland. Vigorous dwarf varieties tolerant to problem soils, diseases, and short dry periods should increase and stabilize yields at an average of 3 t/ ha, 0.5 to n higher than existing average productivity. Weed infestations constitute a powerful yield con- straint in upland rice and are more difficult to control than in irrigated rice. Since available herbicides are relatively effective , research will focus on appropriate terrestrial delivery systems to improve timing and reduce dosages. New production systems research strategy. The vast savanna regions of Colombia, Venezuela , and Brazil are favored by abundant well-distributed rainfall , but the soils. are extreme! y a cid and infertile. Although little upland rice is produced on these soils there is a clear need for a crop component in the pasture system being developed by the Tropical Pastures Program to facilitate and finance land preparation for pasture establishment. Upland rice could become a pioneer crop, thus, encouraging the economically sound devel- opment of acid, high-rainfa ll savannas. A mínimum-input, upland rice system, using cul- tivars tolerant to acid soils and diseases, appea rs attainable. Initial research with soil-adapted cultivars consistently gives plot yields of 3.5-4.0 t/ha wi thout soil amendments or chemical protection. Thus, a 3-ton commercial yield seems reasonable and economically viable. A high-volume crossing program is underway with upland materials from Africa, Brazil, Japan, and other sources. Specific breeding objectives are identi- fied and parental sources are available . Although typical , high-yielding, irrigated germplasm is not useful for this ecology, many rices are well adapted to those infertile, acid soils having over 80% aluminum saturation. Breeding will stress tolerance to manga nese and aluminum toxicities and to phosphorus, zinc, and otherdeficiencies. The ideal plant type remains unclear but intermediate grain quality, multiple fungal toler- ances, hoja blanca, sogata , and sugarcane borer resistance are the main requirements. A spinoff of the savanna project may well be the diversification of the irrigated/ favored-upland germ- plasm. Many lines emerging from this prógram com- bine dwarf plant type, typical of irrigated material, with deep, thick roots and diverse high-level disease resistant levels, typical of traditional African upland material. The incorporation of superior lines from the savanna program into our irrigated/favored-upland program is underway. Research on cultural practices will concentrate on weed control, methods of seeding and applying ferti l- izer, and conversion into pastures after one or two rice crops. Research Sites The research program has Jargely decentralized its activities from the Palmira CIA T headquarters. How- ever, the crossing program, quality laboratory, germ- plasm storage, sogata and hoja blanca screening, and IRTP remain in Palmira. Three locations in Panama and two in Guatemala were made available by IDIAP and ICT A within collaborative programs, for selection of segregating generations of upland and irrigated materials. In 1983 CIA T acquired the Santa Rosa experiment station near Villavicencio, in the Colombian Llanos, which now is the central breeding location for favored upland and irrigated rice. Also in 1983 ICA provided long-term use of 16 ha of acid savanna on its La Libertad station adjacent to Santa Rosa. Irrigated and upland selection and evaluation work continues in Peru under a cooperative project with INIPA. Imple- mentation of the Caribbean Cooperative Rice Re- search Network will add the Juma Experiment Station in the Dominican Republic as an additional research si te. Achievements of the Program (See Rice Program section under "Summary of Acbievements", p. 8-9). Special Projects Caribbean rice improvement network This project aims to con tribute to the strengtheníng of national rice improvement and production systems through the development of a dynamic rice improve- ment and technology transfer network that will allow for horizontal transfer of production and seed technol- ogy and strengthen CIA T / IRRI coiJaboration with national programs in the region. Network activities will comprise: (a) coordination of collaborative adap- ti ve research on common problems, dividing responsi- bilitíes among national programs; (b) testing of germ- plasm for resistance to relevant production con- straints; (e) reinforcement of national research and extension capabilities through incountry courses and inservice training; (d) training in seed technology; (e) regional workshops and monitoring tours to improve communications and cooperation in area. (One senior staff position [Project Network Coordinator] is provided by IRRI through the IRTP; and CIDA is funding three Canadian scientists: an agronomist, an economist, and an agricultura\ engineer ,) Personnel Honoraria , stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital lndirect costs Contíngencies Sub total Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 32 100 44 85 10 34 7 23 28 28 14 36 11 27 146 333 Beans and rice research in Peru (See under "Special Projects" in Bean Program section, p. 19). Farmer participatiQn in technology design and transfer (See under "Special Projects" m Bean Program section, p. 20). Cassava and rice research in Panama (See under "Special Projects" in Cassava Program section p. 37). 43 ' 1 ! 1 TROPICAL PASTURES PROGRAM Core resources Scientific Resources Senior staff and supervisory Clerical and other A e t. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. A e t. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. A e t. Bu d . Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Program Leader 2 4 4 4 4 7 7 7 7 7 Germplasm evaluation Germplasm evaluation 3 2 2 2 2 15 15 15 15 15 Agronomy (CMG)él 2 2 2 2 2 12 12 12 12 12 Regional trials 1 4 Pathology 3 2 2 2 2 JO JO JO 10 JO EntomoJogy 3 3 3 3 3 9 9 9 9 9 Microbiology 3 3 3 3 3 10 JO JO 10 10 Forage breeding 3 3 3 3 3 11 JI 11 11 11 Legume breeding 2 7 Pasture evaluation Seed production 2 2 2 2 2 19 J9 19 19 19 Soillplant nutrition 1 2 2 2 2 14 14 14 14 14 Pasture deveJop. (CMG) 2 9 Pasture quality and productivity 2 3 3 3 3 17 20 20 20 20 Ecophysiology 2 2 2 2 2 8 9 9 9 9 Pasture evaluation in farm systems Livestock systems 3 3 3 3 3 11 11 11 JI 11 Economics 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 Total 15 13 13 13 14 34 34 34 34 36 158 149 149 149 156 Decentralized regional programs Tropical South America Cerrados ecosystemb Agronomy (reg. trials) Soil pasture develop. Humid tropics ecosystem Agronomy (regional trials) 6 6 6 6 6 Pasture reclamation 6 6 6 6 Central America and Caribbean Agronomy (reg. trials) 9 9 9 9 Africa Regional liaison (ILCA) 2 2 Total 2 5 5 6 6 3 3 3 3 6 21 21 23 23 a. CMG: Carima¡ua Station in the Llanos of Colombia. b. In Brazil. 44 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Costs Personnel Honoraria, st ipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement Contingency Subtotal Support unitsa Price provision Total Current budget Actual 1986 2415 526 299 23 3263 3263 Revised 1987 2634 330 301 54 3319 3319 Proposed budget 1988 2634 330 301 54 40 3359 1395 144 4898 a. Re so urce allocation from support units to the Tropical Pastures Program. Program Comm~ntary lmportance of the Program's products The Tropical Pastures Program has four major products: beef, milk, conservation of tropical ecosys- tems, and resource base expansion. A short summary of the importance of these products follows . Beef. Beef is one of the staple foods for people in Latin America, including the urban and rural poor. The availability of beef is one of the principal reasons why protein malnutrition is less acute in tropical America than in Africa or Asia. However, during the last 15 years the annual growth in demand for beef in tropical America (5.6%) has exceeded increases in production (3.6%). This gap is resulting in real price increases which will cause a decrease in beef consump- tion by families of the Iower 25% income strata which presently use 8% to 16% of their total budget to buy beef. The high price and income elasticities of demand for beef also suggest that increase in beef production leading to lower real prices would ha ve a larger impact on consumption and quality of diet than production increases of most other major staple food crops consumed by the Latin American poor. In order to accomplish this, production costs, particularly social costs, must be reduced, and this is more likeJy· to be possible in the underutilized , marginal, and frontier areas of acid infertile soils because of their low opportunity costs. 1988 Budget request for Tropical Pastures Program. Activity Amount ( 1988 US$ in tbousands) Soil management and conservation research 201.4 Agroclimatology research Germplasm Research on conservation and diversity Collection Conservation, characterization, and documentation Enhancement Plant breeding and improvement International trials (distribution and exchange) Seed production Livestock Crop-livestock s~stems research Plant protection research Plant nutrition research Machinery research and development Livestock nutrition research Livestock reproduction research Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) Individualized intemships Conferences and seminars Documentation and dissemination Research on approaches, concepts, methodologies , and procedures Counselling and advising NARS Technical assistance Coordination of networks Economic and social analysis at microlevel Exploratory research Total 10.8 151.1 225.3 315.1 492.2 172.7 531.6 160.4 257.6 139.7 136.6 167.3 43.2 425.2 48.9 265.8 164.2 70.9 8.3 234.0 118.1 95.0 279.3 66.4 116.3 4897.4 Milk. Milk production trends in tropical America are similar to those of beef with low per capita production (one-quarter that of the U.S.). Imports of milk and dairy products ha ve been tripling in the last 10 years. The program 's target area survey has shown that mil k production from dual-purpose cattle farms is 45 an important so urce of income in many areas and that its importance increases as farm size decreases. Conserving tropical ecosystems. The Oxisol/Uitisol savanna and Cerrado regions of tropical Latín Amer- ica, covering almost 300 million ha, are no longer only "potential" areas of expansion. As new roads are built, development is taking place atan ever-increasing rate. Much ofthis development occurs without appro- priate pasture and soil management technology, result- ing in land abandonment, soil erosion, and unstable farming systems with low productivity. Extensive native pasture-based beef production is the most widespread land use ín the region. Well-managed, adapted, productive, and persistent grass/legume pastures not only improve cattle productivity but also provide excellent protection against soil erosion and improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and nutrient recycling by plants and grazing animals. On the other hand, poorly managed, nonadapted pastures can be disastrous, especially on more sloping sites. The Latin American bumid tropics are exposed to intensive deforestation as a result of socioeconomic pressures emanating from surrounding poor and over- populated regions (colonization of the Amazon by Andean settlers), or geopolitically motivated subsidies from governments in their efforts to occupy these vast territories (Brazilian Amazon). Timber, shifting cultivation, and cattle are the main exploitation and farming systems developed in these regions. lt is estimated that, at present, the cattle population of the Amazon is more than 8 million heads. These herds are important sources offood and income for settlers in farming systems ranging from mixed (agriculture-cattle-fallow) to extensive cattle ranching. Cattle production systems in the area are generally characterized by degradation of traditional pastures (such as Panicum maximum and Hyparrhenia rufa) into weedy or low productivity swards. Although, at establishment, these pastures can take advantage of the relatively high soil fertility available immediately after the clearing and burning of forest, they rapidly degrade as the soils degrade with the leaching of nutrients and chemical fixation by clay particles, resulting in low levels of fertility and high acidity to which traditional pastures cannot adapt. Traditional pastures also lack resistance to pests and diseases. Such degraded pastures have sucñ low productivity that they are neither economically nor ecologically justifiable. New technologies based on adapted, nitrogen-fix- 46 ing, high-cover, and high-productivity pastures are being developed by the Program, in cooperation with national programs, in Pucallpa (Peru), and are expect- ed to be utilized for the reclamation of degraded lands. These improved, highly productive, and sustainable pastures are expected to make efficient use of airead y disturbed forest areas, thus reducing the pressure to clear additional virgin forests. Expanding the land resources base. In addition to its ecological implications, pasture-based beef produc- tion can serve as a catalyst for settling the Oxisol/Ulti- sol regions, primarily beca use the initial infrastructure investment required is much lower than for crop production. The development of well-managed pas- tures increases the value of the land. When roads provide improved access to ma rket, it becomes more profitable to intensify the farm operation by devoting part of the land to crop production. Well-managed, well-adapted, legume-based pastures that increase nitrogen and organic matter levels in the soils may reduce the fertilizer requirements for crops in rotation with pastures, providing for a more productive and socially efficient land-use alternative. Intercropping annual or perennial crops with pastures is also a feasible and efficient alternative. Therefore, beef opera- tions can serve as a wedge to develop this important resource base and open the way for integrated agricul- tura) development. Furthermore, increases in beef production in Oxisol/Ultisol regions permit alterna- tive uses ofbetter soils located closer to markets which should be used for more intensive crop production. This is particularly the case in Central America where cattle production is taking place in small-size, mixed farming systems on acid and moderately acid soils. Program Objectives The objective of the Tropical Pastures Program is to developand transfer, together with national programs, improved, low-input pasture technology in the acid, infertile lowlands of the humid and subhumid tropics, with the principal responsibility being for tropical America. The aim is to increase beef and milk production, conserve and improve soil resources of tropical ecosystems, and provide a basis for an economically and ecologically sound utilization of underexploited land resources. Program Strategies The Program 's research tea m is organized into three functional groups: germplasm evaluation (including sections for germplasm, agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, and breeding); pasture evaluation (in- cluding sections for soil plant nutrition and micro- biology, ecophysiology, pasture development, pasture quality and production); and pasture evaluation in production systems (including sections for seed pro- duction, farming systems, and economics). These three units coordina te their work to ensure a dynamic flow of germplasm in which characterization of germ- plasm screening by ecosystems, assembly of appro- priate pasture production technology, and economic evaluation of new pasture technology in farm systems constitute major research arcas. While thousands of germplasm entries are worked with during the initíal phases of the flow of germplasm through the Program activities, only very few highly promising germplasm materials succeed in being selected for the assembly of pasture technologies and further evaluations. The Program exploits the natural variability of germplasm to identify grass and legume species adapt- ed to the various ecosystems in the region. Germplasm is assembled from a wide range of conditions through- out the acid infertile soil regions of tropical Ame rica as well as Southeast Asia and Africa. At present, the CIAT germplasm bank contains sorne 18,000 acces- sions. This germplasm is screened for tolerance to high soil aluminum and acidity, Iow phospborus availabíl- ity, and tolerance to diseases and insects. Ecotypes wbich pass this first screening are characterized in terms of tolerance to drought, flooding, burning, grazing, mínimum nutrient requirements, nutritive value, and compatibility in grass/legume mixtures. Subsequently, pastures based on bigbly promising ecotypes are assembled, relevant establishment tech- nology is developed, and cattle liveweight gains are measured. The most promising pasture combinations undergo I~:mg-term productivity and economic evalua- tion, and the respective technological packages are further adapted to the requirements of the pre- dominant farm system in the arca. Finally, the im- proved technology is evaluated in economic terms. This entire research process is carried out in close collaboration with national programs throughout the arca of interest. To date the four main screening sites, which repre- sent major ecosystems, are: The Carimagua Research Station in the Eastern Plains of Colombia, jointly administered with the Colombian Agricultural Research Institute (ICA), and representing tbe isohyperthermic savannas, including the "Llanos" of Colombia and Vene- zuela and the "campos" of northern Brazil (Amapá and Roraima Territories). The Brazilian Agricultural Center for the Cerra- dos (CPAC) of EMBRAPA in the central cerrado plateau, near Brasilia. This center represents the isothermic savannas of the continent, including the "Cerrados" of Brazil and well-drained savan- na arcas of Bolivia and Paraguay. The Cattle Production Research Station of the Veterinary Institute for Tropical and High-Alti- tude Research (IVITA), at Pucallpa, Peru, where CIA T participa tes in a coopera ti ve project to develop low-input pasture technology for the reclamation of already degraded Iands in the humid tropics of the continent. CIA T's partners in this project are IVIT A and the Peruvian National Institute for Agricultural Research and Promotion (INIPA). Three sites in Costa Rica (operated in coordina- tion with CA TIE and the Ministry of Agriculture of Costa Rica), covering the moderately acid soils and semi-intensive double-purpose farming sys- tems. The International Tropical Pastures Evaluation Network (RIEPT) has been developed in cooperation . with national programs to evaluate promising germ- plasm in sites which represent subecosystems in the Llanos, the Cerrados, the humid tropics (including the poorly drained savannas), and moderately acid soils. This allows the Program, in collaboration with na- tional programs, to test germplasm throughout the arca of interest and to evaluate the adaptation and productivity of promising germplasm to the different ecosystems and subecosystems in the lowlands of tropical America. The information obtained through this evaluation network is recorded in computerized data banks whicb allow for effective analyses of germplasm performance across locations. Periodical- ly, partícipants of tbe network are brought together in workshops to discuss alternative methodologies for germplasm evaluation and to exchange data recorded in dífferent regional trials. These network activities allow for a high degree of feedback which assists in moving germplasm significantly faster to more ad- vanced stages of evaluation under grazing foreventual release by national programs. Status of the Program The Tropical Pastures Program is well on its way to developing, in collaboration with national programs, 47 low-input pasture production technology that has the potential to intensify the pioneer animal production system in the vast frontier lands of tropical Latín America. A vailable research results confirm the sound- ness of the Program's strategy to develop legume- based pasture technology that rests on germplasm adapted to specific ecosystems. The availability of alternative viable techniques is expected to contribute to the gradual recovery of ·severa! million hectares that are at present in different stages of degradation chroughout the hum id tropics in Latín America and the Caribbean. In 1987 the Pro- gram was able to decentralize further by establishing a major screening site in Central America. Staffed by a CIA T agronomist, this screening si te is designed for the selection of germplasm adapted to the pre- dominant moderately acid soils and semi-intensive double-purpose farming systems (beef and mil k) in the region. This project is carried out in coordination with CA TIE and the Ministry of Agriculture of Costa Rica (that is, Atenas, characterized by a subhumid clima te; Guapiles, in the rainforest; and San Isidro, in an area of semi-evergreen seasonal forest). As germplasm m oves into more advanced stages of evaluation under grazing in the different countries, more frequent visits are required to assist national programs in designing, analyzing, and interpreting trial results , as well as in coordinating the required backup from Program specialists. This is more ef- ficiently and economically done by outposted person- nel in charge of regional network activities than by scientists stationed at headquarters. This implies decentralization of the network activities of the Pro- gram. The plan is to develop four parallel networks in : Central America and the Caribbean; the Llanos ecosystem in Colombia, Venezuela , and northern Brazil; the humid tropics ecosystem in Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, and Peru; and the Cerrados ecosys- tem in Brazil , Paraguay, and Bolivia . The agronomists responsible for screening in the respective ecosystems are assuming these regional network responsibilities. This is allowing the Program to significantly accelerate technology transfer and to reínforce the work of national programs. These regional networks are crit- ical for horizontal transfer of technology among national programs operating in the respective regions and to bring about economies of scale through net- working of formerly isolated efforts. The Program has progressed to the stage where severa( genera and species ha ve airead y been identified as being well adapted to conditions of one .or more of the ecosystems of interest. These genera and species 48 include Andropogon gayanus, Brachiaria spp., Panicum maximum. Ara chis spp., Sty/osanthes spp., Desmodium spp., Pueraria phaseo/oides, and Centrosema spp. The potential productivity of a large number of pasture-grazing alternatives in the savanna ecosystem has been determined . Various grass/legume associá- tions in controlled grazing, low-input experiments, have produced annual liveweight gains per animal of more than 180 kg. On a per hectare basis sorne associations ha ve produced more than 300 kg per year . As part of the regional trials network there are, at present, more than 200 germplasm adaptation and grazing trials in selected si tes of Latin Ame rica and the Caribbean . Several germplasm sets ha ve also been sent to requesting instituti ons from Asia and Africa. The most promising germplasm is already moving into grazing trials in severa! Central and South American countries, as part of RI EPT, with partial support from the Canadian Internacional Development Research Centre (IDRC). Data obtained from regional trials in the humid tropics ha ve shown that a large number of grass and legume species selected by the Program are highly productive in this ecosystem with acid infertile smls. These are showing promise for replacing the present commercially available species which become un- productive 4-5 years after forest clearing. The highly promising Andropogon gayanus CIAT 62 1, released by Colombia as cv. Carimagua 1 and by Brazil as cv. Planaltína, has also been released by Venezuela as cv. Sabanero, by Peru as cv. San Martín, by Panama as cv. Veranero, and nominated for seed multiplication and farmers' use in Cuba. The adoption of A. gayanus in the central Cerrados of Brazil is rapidly accelerating. It is estimated that more than 250,000 ha ha ve airead y been planted to this species in Brazil. In Colombia, about 30,000 ha have been established. Since the release of A. gayanus in Colombia the Program has put considerable emphasis on the devel- opment of a companion legume for this grass. This has been achieved for the Llanos with anthracnose- resistant Stylosanthes capitata CIAT 10280, which has been released by Colombia as cv. Capica, a blend of five ecotypes. The seed of this Jegume is now being multiplied for commercial pla ntings. Similarly, as a result of the collaboration between CIA T and IVIT A in Peru, the latter has released S. guianensis CIAT 184 cv. Pucallpa for the Peruvian humid tropics. Achievements of the Program (See Tropical Pastures Program section under "Sum- mary of Achievements", p. 5-6). . Special Projects Role of pastures in mixed farming systems in the western Amazonia The purpose of this outposted position is to study the role of pastures in mixed farming systems in the western Amazonia. The project is financed by the Rockefeller Foundation. Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 Personnel 25 25 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 3 Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal 28 3 28 Farmer participation in technology design and transfer (See under "Special Projects" in Bean Program section, p. 20). Germplasm collection for beans, cassava, and tropical pastures (See under "Special Projects" in Genetic Resources Unit section, p. 53). Legume germpla5m (See under "Special Projects" in Genetic Resources Unit section, p. 53-54). Specialized information centers (See under "Special Projects" in Communication and Information Support Unit section, p. 77-78). 49 RESEARCH SUPPORT Visiting Scientists and Postdoctoral Fellows Core Resources Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and 486 639 639 allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement Contingency Subtotal 486 639 639 Support unitsa (639) Total .86 639 a. Resources allocated to otber programa. Program Commentary This section includes all funds for visiting scientists and postdoctoral fellows. Visiting scientists The Center seeks to attract outstanding scientists worlcing in research institutions in developed and 50 developing countries to spend short (six to twelve months) periods at CIAT to contribute, in their areas of specialization, to the objectives of CIA T's research or research support programs. In ~ large number of cases, visiting scientists spend time at CIAT as part of a sabbatical lea ve arrangement whereby CIA T pro- vides additional support as necessary. Senior research fellows CIA T has made provisions to provide for interme- diate positions between postdoctoral fellows and regular senior staff. Senior research fellows normally are appointed on a fixed-term basis; employment conditions are approximately in line with those pro- vided to postdoctoral fellows, with provisions made to recognize the additionll¡l experience of Senior Research Fellows. Postdoctoral fellows Most postdoctoral fellows are contracted in support of research activities. Contracts are for one year and extendable to a maximum of three years. A small portion of postdoctoral fellowships is reserved for postdoctoral fellows from cooperating countries who · stay at CIAT for short periods before returning to institutions in their borne country. Visiting scientist funds provide for about 7 man- years. Senior Research Fellow and Postdoctoral funds provide for 9 man-years. Genetic Resources Unit Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Head of GRU Germplasm processing Seed health Total Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and a,Uowances Supp1ies and services Tra,ve1 Equipment replacement Contingency Subtotal Support unitsa Price provision Total Current budget Actual 1986 267 56 10 333 333 Revised 1987 299 75 27 5 406 406 budget 1988 299 75 27 5 5 411 71 17 499 a. Resourcc allocation from support units to the Genetic Resources Unit. Program Commentary The objective of the Genetic Resources Unit is to provide suitable germplasm for crop improvement. In the short term the most important function of the U nit is to supply germplasm to CIA T programs and to fulfill requests from agricultura! researchers through- out the world. The long-term function is the mainte- nance of genetic variability, which is rapj.dly being lost on the fields ·of fanners, for use in the distant future. At present, the major activities of the Unit are concentrated on Phaseo/us beans for which CIA T has Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 3 4 6 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 18 17 17 l7 17 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 26 25 25 25 25 1988 Budget request for Genetic Resources Unit. Activity Germplasm Research on conservation and diversity Cotlection Conservation, characterization, and documentation Enhancement lnternational trials (distribution and exchange) Seed production Plant protection research Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) lndividualiz.ed internships Documentation and dissemination Counse11ing and advising NARS Technical assistance Total Amount (1988 USS in thousands) 36.6 45.6 281.7 9.9 11.4 5.3 36.5 19.6 lt.9 11.1 14.8 14.8 499.2 the largest collection and, more important, the most extensive of germplasm in the world. The Unit also maintains the pasture seed collection and germplasm data base for the CIAT pasture program, but the collection and mosto of the seed multiplication of this germplasm are the responsility of CIA T's Tropical Pastures Program. At present, the handling of cassava germplasm is outside the responsibility ofthe Unit, but 51 plans have been made to transfer cassavagermplasm handling, including an extended tissue culture facility, to the Unit. The most effective storage of Phaseolus bean and pasture germplasm is in the form of seed, dried to a low-moisture content, and placed in cold storage. The present storage consists of three cold rooms: One medium-term store of 150 mJ kept at 8 oc with a capacity for 42,000 samples; One medium-term store of 35 mJ kept at 8 oc with a capacity for 20,000 samples; One long-term store of 35 mJ kept at -15 oc with a capacity for 16,000 samples. These cold stores are almost lO years old and are obsolescent. New storage has been planned, with a greatly increased capacity under technically improved conditions. Construction began in early 1987. This should greatly reduce the need for expensive field rejuvenation, and maintain the viability ofthe samples. The collection of Phaseolus in Latin America, previously funded by the lBPGR, is now funded by CIA T. There stiU remains an unexpectedly large diversity of landraces not previously represented at CIAT. This indicates that, for sorne arcas, interesting landraces still exist and that there is a need for further collection. Special emphasis on collecting wild rel- atives of beans has produced seed of 12 species not previously known from living collections. Introduc- tion from existing collections continued, with special emphasis being placed on existing European and African collections. lntensive collecting in Africa, a secondary center of diversity for beans, is planned for 1988. A previous bottleneck in the introduction of germ- plasm was the need for third-country quarantine for African Phaseolus. An agreement with the National Vegetable Research Station in England has allowed the rapid processing of many hundreds of samples. This is now particularly important as Africa has beco mean important target arca for the Bean Program and African material is needed for breeding. An agreement with the Brazilian National Germ- plasm Center (CENARGEN) has been reached, cover- ing the duplication of the en tire CIA T Phaseolus collection. This duplicate is being placed in long-term storage by CENARGEN for security and will remain CIAT property. A similar agreement for storage of unique CIATcollections ofbeans has been signed with CATIE, Costa Rica. 52 Data handling for Phaseolus was improved by the introduction of a new data management system. This will allow a closer linking of information from the Bean Program and from the Unit. Direct access to the U.S. Department of Agriculture germplasm data base (GRIN) has been negotiated. The IBPGR World Data Base for Phaseolus has been made available to CIAT this yea,. To fulfill its international obligations to distribute disease-free seed, CIA T has expanded its Seed Health Laboratory within the U nit, where a variety of tests for pathogenic fungi, bacteria, and viruses can be carried out on outgoing seed samples. Seed distribution continued with G 709 germplasm samples of beans and 2211 samples of pasture species being distributed intemationally in 1986. Much larger quantities were passed to the respective CIA T pro- grams. The location at CIAT of an IBPGR liaison officer for Latín America continues and has permitted the strengthening of collaboration with IBPGR, especially in collection of Phaseolus, and training, with four trainees from national germplasm programs passing through the GRU in 1986. A Belgian associate expert attached to the GRU is responsible for investigating interspecific crossing in Phaseolus and evaluating the potential of Phaseolus coccineus x P. polyanthus (in cooperation with the University of Gembloux, Belgium). A new survey, also by a Belgian expert began on Phaseo/us lunatus, a species of high potential for hotter arcas. Achievements The Genetic Resources Unit was established to con- serve plant germplasm for the future use of CIAT Programs. Germplasm within the responsibility ofthe GRU includes Phaseolus beans and tropical pastures species. Routine germplasm management begins with surveys of the germplasm needs of programs. Targeted collecting in many countries of the world produces samples which are introduced to Colombia through . quarantine and multiplied to provide sufficient seed for storage, evaluation, and distribution. Although established to service CIA T programs, the G R U has taken on an additional role in supplying germplasm to agricultura! researchers in national programs world- wide. The free supply of germplasm by the Intemational Agricultural Research Centers is a considerable and continuing achievement. Centers ptovide the only intemational source of germplasm of the crops and pasture species of most importance to developing countries. Center collections are often the only source of duplicate material of samples lost during national storage. In 1986 CIA T retumed the national bean collection to lran and arranged to retum 500 samples collected in Spain and not in the Spanish national collection. Twenty-three countries received bean germplasm and twenty-two pasture germplasm. Germplasm has been directly distributed to CIAT programs in Africa- for example, 1100 samples of beans were sent to Ethiopia for evaluation. These samples represented a wide range of bean types. Information on types performing well will enable more examples of these types to be included in later trials- this pro vides a method of sampling, in trials of a reasonable size, the great range of diversity in the CIA T collections. Special emphasis was placed on collecting wild relatives of beans. Living material of twelve species was coUected for the first time. These increasingly provide useful genetic traits to increase the range of characters available to bean breeders. Taxonomic and biochemical investigation of wild Phaseo/us, which is already under way, is expected to throw light both on the origins ofbean cultivation and the potential for the further use of wild species in future breeding programs. Planning was completed for a large extension of cold storage facilities, mainly to supply secure long- term storage for CIA T collections. A tissue culture laboratory was included in the planned building to allow a transfer of the cassava tissue culture collection from the Biotechnology Researcb Unit to the GRU. Agreements ha ve now been signed with EMBRAP A/ CENARGEN, in Brazil, and CATIE, in Costa Rica, for duplica,te storage of CIA T germplasm collections. The G R U has placed considerable emphasis on growing out samples of beans and tropical pasture species for rejuvenation before long-term storage both at CIAT and (for beans) as duplicate collections in these other institutes. The work of both importing and exporting germ- plasm was smoothed as a result of an ICA quarantine officer being posted at CIAT. The Seed Health Laboratory has continued to develop techniques for recognizing seed-borne disease of all crops handled by CIA T and is now used for the routine inspection of outgoing trails. Tissue culture samples of African grasses have successfully been introduced in quantity, and the third-country quarantine facility for beans from Africa, located in England, had its ftrst tfull season of operation, handling 600 samples. Special projects within the GRU include seed mul- tiplication and evaluation of Phaseolus coccineus and of P. lunatus. The former of these, which included crossing with P. vulgaris, has reached a, successful advanced stage with the distribution of international trials. The latter has just started, and is producing useful information on the potential ofbeans for hotter regions. Special Projects Germplasm collection for beans, cassava, and tropical pastures This project involves the: (a) analysis of available plant genetic resources data for Phaseolus vu/garis cultivated and wild forros in Latin America; (b) transformatíon of existing cassava collections in Brazil, Guatemala, Mexico, and Paraguay into in vitro cultures for transportation to CIA T to be stored in cassava germplasm collection and to be utilized in crop improvement; and (e) collection of tropical forage species in Indonesia. This project is supported by IBPGR. Personne1 ( 1 senior scientist) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Trave1 Equipment rep1acement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Legume germplasm Budget (1987 USS in thousands) 1987 1988 9 9 5 5 7 7 10 10 6 6 37 37 This project is carried out in coordination with the University of Gembloux, Belgium. lt includes: (a) research on interspecific hybridization of Phaseolus vulgaris and P. coccineus, including a complete evalua- 53 tion and characterization of tbe latter; (b) character- ization of tbe existing P. lunatus collection and drawing up recommendations in relation to further germplasm collection activities in species; and (e) Biotechnology Research Unit Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bu d . Bud. Bud. Bu d. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Biotechnology research 1 1 1 Virology • 2 2 2 Total 2 3 3 3 Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Cuf!ent budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 172 280 434 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 34 43 61 Travel 11 18 27 Equipment replacement 37 6 10 Contingency 5 Subtotal 254 347 537 Support unitsa 70 Price provision 18 Total 254 347 625 a. Resource allocation from suppon uoíts to the Biotechnology Research Unit. 54 consultation by Belgian experts with CIA T staff on taxonomic problems related to forage legume species collection at CIAT. This special project is financed by the Belgian govemment. Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. Bud. Act. Bu d . Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 4 4 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 4 4 4 4 9 8 8 8 8 2 5 5 5 4 10 lO 10 6 9 9 9 9 12 18 18 18 Program Commentary In view of potentially becoming an important user of the emerging technologíes, CIA T anticipated its in- volvement in monitoring and applying biotechnologi- cal tools in its long-term plan in 1981. The second EPR of CIA T in 1984 recommended the establishment of an interdisciplinary research structure comprising those disciplines tbat would interact increasingly with all commodity programs. CIA T responded with the creation in 1985 of the Biotechnology Researcb Unit devoted the tbe emerging field of plant biotecbnology, and included the Central Virology Laboratory. Plant Biotechnology Objectives The work of the Plant Biotechnology section is complementary to that of the commodity programs. 1988 Budget request for Biotecbnology Researcb Unit. Activity Amount Germplasm (1988 USS in tbousands) Resea,rch on conservation and diversity 27.1 Collection 13.9 Conserv~tion, characterization, and documentation 45.2 Enhancement 13.9 Plant breeding and improvement 31.3 lnternational trials (distribution and exchange) 18.1 Plant protection research 141.7 Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) lndividualized internships Conferences and serninars Documentation and dissernination Research on approacbes, concepts metbodologies, and procedures Counselling and advising NARS Tecbnical assistance Coordination of networks Exploratory research Total 31.3 42.3 31.3 32.7 43.0 13.2 12.5 36.1 91.8 625.4 Hence, the research activities are based on program needs and priorities and are actively supported by the commodity programs. In addition, it is the section's responsibility to keep abreast of new techniques and advise the commodity programs on potential applica- tions. Thus, the Plant Biotechnology is charged with the following two functions: To develop techniques as a direct response to needs expressed by the commodity programs on problems which escape solution through conven- tional means, or would better be handled by using biotechnology. To conduct exploratory research to make the programs aware of new technologies which may be applicable to CIA T crops. Achievements The activities of Plant Biotechnology in the last two years included the following areas: (a) routine utiliza- tion of tissue culture techniques for germplasm management of cassava and tropical grass pastures such as in vitro conservation and exchange, and disease elimination; (b) development of electropho- retic techniques for genotyping cassava, beans, and tropical legume pastores; (e) collaboration with the Rice Program in developing antber culture techniques for obtaining rapid homocygocity and their use in rice breeding; (d) exploratory research to develop plant regeneration techniq ues in cassava and beans, to evaluate somaclonal variability in Stylosanthes guia- nensis plants regenerated from callus cultures, and to evaluate a wide-crossing technique using protoplast fusion of Stylosanthes spp. Other activities of Plant Biotechnology ÍQvolve the monitoring of agricultural biotechnology research in institutions of developed and developing countries. As a result, collaborative efforts for applying molecular tecbniques to construct a genetic linkage map in Phaseo/us beans, and for developing gene vector techniques in cassava have been initiated. Also, a study on the current situation and perspectives of agricultural biotechnology in Latín America and the Caribbean was conducted in 1986 in order to pro vide a basis for discussion by the directors of national agricultural programs. In 1986, 165 cassava clones were cleaned from frogskin disease and another 350 clones were also cleaned as a preventive measure. The cleaning tech- nique cgnsists in using thermotherapy and meristem- tip culture. Elimination of four cassava viral diseases (FSD, CsXV, CCMV, and CMD) was demonstrated by indexing techniques. Elite clones were shipped in vitro to nine countries in Latin America and Southeast Asia. Two hundred and twenty-eight cassava clones from Southeast Asia, Peru, and Africa were intro- duced to CIAT using in vitro techniques. A simple in vitro technique for field collection of germplasm was developed for cassava. The amount of cassava germ- plasm maintained in the in vitro gene bank incr~ased this year to over 3000 clones, which constitutes 72% of the en tire CIA T collection. In vitro embryo germination was used to recover plants from wild and aboriginal Phaseolus crosses with very poor germination and scarce seed availabil- ity. Using in vitro techniques, over 300 pasture grass accessions, mostly Brachiaria, were distributed from CIA T to Braz.il and Peru. 55 In a collaborative project with the University of Manitoba, Canada, isozyme/ protein electrophoretic techniques have been developed to characterize cas- sava, Phaseolus vulgaris, and legume pastures ( Cen- trosema, Desmodium, and Sty/osanthes). These tech- niques were tested with accessions which were mor- phologically similar, or which presented problems due to · mixture or taxonomic classification. The tech- niques had already proved useful in the elimination of duplicates from the cassava germplasm collection. Cassava plants regenerated by somatic embryogen- esis were transplanted to the field for evaluation. Plants displayed characters of juvenility and, in one variety, a few clones showed variation in electropho- retic pattem of an isozyme system. It was found that cassava somatic embryos originate from many cells of the embryogenic tissue which in turn develops from irnmature foliar segments. This finding may be relevant to the genotypic stability of regenerated plants. Ce lis of suspension and callus cultures of Sty/osan- thes guianensis showed cytogenetic variation. Cells with polyploid and aneuploid chromosome number were found. Among regenerated plants, the frequency of tetraploid plants increased up to 25% when the cultures were maintained in the callus stage for up to 90 days. Variability in plant vigor, flowering, and seed production, and reaction to anthracnose were detected in the field in the progenies of regenerated diploid and tetraploid plants. Sorne unusual phenotypes were displayed within particular clones, such as plants with bifoliated leaves, chlorophyll-deficient plants, and bushy plants. The potential usefulness of this tech- nique will be further assessed. Preliminary evidence was shown on wide-crossing by protoplast fusion between S. guianensis with S. capítata or S. macrocephala. Putative somatic hybrid plants have been transplanted to soil for further rnorphological and genetic evaluations. Central Virology Laboratory The first virology position at CIA T was created in 1978 for the Bean Program. This position demanded a considerable investment in special equipment. In 1981 , a Postdoctoral Fellow was incorporated into the Cassava Program to investigate the virus diseases of cassava in Latín America. This second virologist was able to conduct the necessary laboratory research thanks to the existen ce of the Bean Yirology Labora- tory. Since 1981, however, the Cassava Program has 56 been contributing to the improvement of the virology facilities at CIA T. By 1983, the Rice Program had to face a serious virus threat in Latín America and, thus, rice virus research was initiated at CIA T with the available resources. One year later it became obvious that the promising forage germplasm collected by the Tropical Pastures Program was also being affected by viruses. Therefore, in response to the increasing dernand from all four commodity programs at CIAT for specialized plan virus research, a Central Virology Laboratory (CVL) was created in 1984 and was attached to the Biotechnology Research Unit. Objectives The rationale behind the creation of the Central Virology Laboratory was to centralize the costly and specialized equipment necessary to conduct virology research and accommodate the research personnel working in this area for the four commodity programs. Highlights The Laboratory is adequately equipped to perform the critica! steps of virus isolation and characteriza- tion. Among the basic equipment available the lab- oratory has low- and high-speed centrifuges, spec- trophotometer, density gradient fractionator, diverse electrophoresis equipment and gel scanners, ion- exchange columns, a cold room, and fume hoods for toxic and radioactive materials. For immunology there is an animal-rearing facility, the basic equipment for production of polyclonal antisera, and ELISA equipment, including an E LISA reader. The laborato- ry houses a JEOL 100-SX electron microscope, evap- orator and an ultramicrotome for cytological work. Additionally, there is a laboratory specially equipped to handle radioactive materials for use in nucleic acid hybridization tests based on complementary-DNA technology. Also available is a dark room for electron microscopy film processing, and autoradiography, with photographic equipment and a transilluminator for nucleic acid analyses. All necessary chemicals.and reagents are imported or purchased locally. Virology research at CIAT has airead y made severa! contributions to the overall efforts ofthefour research programs. F or instance, all improved bean germplasm now being released is resistant to common mosaic (except for virus-free areas), and effective control measures are being implemented to counteract the serious yield losses inflicted by whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses. For cassava, various diagnostic tech- niques have been implemented to free valuable germ- plasm of viruses. In rice, a complete characterization ofthe causal virus of rice hoja blanca disease,led to the development of an efficient screening methodology. In the case of forage legumes, preliminary work has demonstrated the economic and phytosanitary im- portance of viruses in this highly promising germ- plasm. Future developments It is expected that with the creation of a second senior staff position (to replace the existing Senior Research Fellow position of the Cassava Program) the Central Virology Laboratory will be able to meet the increasing virus research needs at CIA T. The es- tablishment of collaborative research projects with advanced virology institutions abroad is a promising avenue to exploit the new techoology developed in the field of biotechnology and molecular virology. This new technology has very practica! applications at ClAT to improve its research efforts. Research Services Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud . 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Food quality and nutrition Laboratories Greenhouses Maintenance Total Special Projects In vitro active gene bank The objective o~ this project is to assess and demonstrate the technical and logistical aspects of establishing and running an in vitro active gene ban.k to agreed standards, using cassava clones. Monitoring activities for viability and stability pf so urce plans and cultures at various storage periods are ¡yso included. This project is supported by IBPGR. Personnel ( 1 Postdoctoral Fellow) Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel· Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal Scientific Budget (1987 US$ in thousands) 1987 1988 53 53 7 7 60 60 and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 14 14 14 14 14 3 3 3 3 3 ] 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 18 19 19 19 19 57 Direct costs (1987 USS tbousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 190 181 181 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 93 83 83 Travel 2 1 1 Equipment replacement 33 2 2 Contingency Subtotal 318 267 267 Support unitsa (267) Total 318 267 a. Resources allocatcd to otber programs. Program Commentary The Laboratory Services U nit is under the control and supervision of the Research Services Committee and provides the following services: Routine analyses of soil, plant tissue, water, and Station Operations Core resources Resources Senior staff A e t. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Station operations Popl\)'án Quilicbao Santa Rosa (Meta) Tractor pool Labor pool Total 58 fertilizer samples submitted by program scientists for research purposes; Routine quality evaluation and consumer accept- ance of CIA T's commodities, especially beans and cassava; Maintenance and repair of all CIA T laboratory instruments and equipment, and coordination of the use of laboratory facilities; Control, washing, and sterilization of glassware used by pathology and microbiology programs; Management and maintenance of CIA T's green- houses, screenhouses, and growth rooms, includ- ing soil storage and sterilization facilities; and Maintenance of colonies of small animals such as rabbits and mice. In the recent past, these activities were supervised on a part-time basis by various senior staff members who were part of the Research Services Committee. With the addition of a senior staff position in 1988, the supervision of these activities can be provided on a more systematic basis. The senior sta1!f will also provide administrative leadership to the Biotechnolo- gy Research Unit and the Virology Laboratories. Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. A e t. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 1 28 28 28 28 28 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 20 20 20 20 20 1 1 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 21 21 21 21 21 5 5 5 5 5 84 82 82 82 82 Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement Contingency Subtotal Support unitsa Total Actual 1986 579 301 7 96 983 983 a. Resowa:s allouted to otber prol!J&JIIS. Carimagua Station Core resources Resources Personnel (Positions) Support unít Adminístration Total A e t. 86 Revised 1987 1988 559 559 194 194 6 6 8 8 767 767 (767) 767 Senior staff Bud. Bud. Bu d . 87 88 89 Bud. 90 Program Commentary The Station Operations U nit provides logistics support for the land use of the research programs. The Unit is in charge of agricultura! machinery, land preparation, planting, irrigation, field work, and harvesting at headquarters in Palm.ira, and at the three substations in Quilichao, Popayán, and Santa Rosa (Villavi- cencio ). The U nit is also in overall cha,ge of the general upkeep and maintenance o~ the experimental fields, and of the continous upgrading of the experi- mental sites in the four locations. In addition, the Unit is in charge of commercial seed production (rice, beans, tropical pastures) and commercial crop pro- duction (sorghum, maize, beans, and cassava) on experiment station land that is temporarily not utilized for research purposes. The Unit is in charge of the management, repair, and maintenance of the farm machinery in all CIAT stations as well as the vehicles used in Quilichao, Popayán, and Santa Rosa. Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bu d . Bu d . Act . Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 l 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 S 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 59 Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement Others Contingency Subtotal Support unitsa Total Actual 1986 71 219 . 15 69 221 595 595 a Resourcc:s allocated to other programs. Program Commentary Revised 1987 1988 143 143 190 190 35 35 227 227 595 595 (595) 595 The Carimagua Research Station is located 350 kilo- meters east of Villavicencio, near the Meta-Vichada Data Services Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bu d. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Statistical and computing services Total 60 border, at latitude 4°30' N, and longitude 71030' W in the Eastern Plains of Colombia. Carimagua's climate, soil, vegetation, and topographic conditions are typical of one of the greatest land resources in the world that is just beginning to be exploited- the tropical American savannas, whích comprise 300 million hectares. In 1969 ICA purchased 22,000 hectares ofland, and field work was initiated in early 1970. In February 1977 an agreement was signed between ICA and CIAT for the development of a cooperative research program in the Eastern Plains. U nder the terms of the agree- ment, an advisory committee composed of three ICA managers and three CIA T senior staff members is responsible for coordinating and directing operations of the station. Costs of this research station are shared equally by ICA and CIA T. The budget shown is for CIA T's share of the cost of personnel, supplies and services., and travel costs. Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 9 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personne1 309 340 340 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supp1ies and services 12.5 164 164 Trave1 10 9 9 Equipment replacement 20 6 6 Contingency Subtotal 464 519 519 Support unitsa (519) Total 464 519 L Resoun::es allocated to otber programs. Program Commentary The Data Services Unit provides advice, training, and assistance in a1l mathematical, statistical, and com- putational a¡spects o~ the work. of the scientific pro- grams of CIAT. The Unit has two sections, Biometrics and Computing, whose functions and responsibilities are detailed below. Biometrics Section The functions and responsibilities of this Section are: To provide statistical advice on all aspects of CIA T's work., including planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. To k.eep abreast with current deyelopments in statistical methodology by interna! and externa! education, and utilize and develop such techniques for the betterment of agricultural research at CIAT. To provide a statistical computing service. To carry out collaborative research with other workers with the aim of producing joint scientific publications. To provide advice and .assistance and engage in collaborative research work on operational re- search topics, such as simulation mathematical programming and decision theory. To provide training in statistical methods both for staff within CIA T and for CIA T program courses. Computing Section The functions and responsibilities of this Section are: To provide and maintain appropriate computer hardware for the scientific and associated pro- grams at CIA T; To provide and maintain appropriate computer · software for the scientific and associated programs at CIAT; To provide adequate documentation of all soft- ware and hardware; To investigate a1l aspects of work at CIAT which might benefit from computerization; To k.eep abreast with current developments in computing; To carry out collaborative research; To write suites of programs of general applicabil- ity; To ensure sufficient training is obta,ined within and outside the section; and To provide the hardware and software to build and maintain scientific data bases and ensure that these are accessible to the appropriate range of personnel within a commodity network. An IBM 4331 Group 1 computer with one megabyte of real memory was installed at the end of 1981. During 1983 the machine was upgraded to a Group 2 anda further mega byte of memory was added. Early in 1984 the real memory was increased to the maximum for the machine, namely four megabytes. Administra- tive work. was moved to an IBM System 36 purchased in 1983. During 1985 the CPU was upgraded to 4361 Group 5 and real memory increased to six megabytes. The machine currently has a mip rating of 1.3, about six times its original rating as a 4331 Group l . At present IBM has no further upgrade path other than a poteotial memory of 16 megabytes. In 1986, a further disk unit was attached, faster tapes were purchased to replace the 8808s and a work station adapter was purchased .to facilitate the connection of more termi- nals and microcomputers. 61 The present configuration of the 4361 is as follows: 1 4361 Group 5 CPU with 6 megabyte real memory 4 3370 Fixed Disks Units in 2 strings with a totai of 2.4 gigabytes 3262 Line Printer rated 650 lines per minute 5210 Letter Quality printer rated 60 characters per second Communication Adaptor with 6 lines Work Station Adaptor Calcomp Model 965 Plotter with 909 Controller 2 3430 Magnetic Tape Units 1600/ 6250 bpi 312 kbyte per second 3 Cluster Controllers type 3276 26 Displays type 3278 including Operator Consoles 19 IBM PC Microcomputers connected as 3278s. The machine runs under the operating system VM / CMS. lnstalled data base software includes the products IDMS / R (Cullinet Software, Inc. West- wood, Massachusetts, USA), ISIS (IDRC Canada), and ST AIRS (IBM). Statistical and Mathematical packages include SAS (SAS Institute, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA), GENST AT, GLIM, and NAG Li- brary (Numerical Algorithrn Group, Oxford, Eng- land), and MINOS (Stanford University, California, USA). There are 80 registered users of the 4361 and the system is running at about 50% of the capacity of the upgraded CPU. IDMS data base systerns have been written and are currently in use in the four rnajor CIA T programs and a collaborators' Mailing List System has been provided forthe Cornrnunication and Information Support Unit and Research Programs. These systems continue to be developed in the Corn- puting Section. In spite of the increase in data base activities, statistica1 processing by the Biometrics Section of the Unit still takes a considerable (30-35) percentage of the cornputing resources. To facilitate the interchange of information the Cornputing Section publishes a newsletter and there is a Users' Group made up of representatives of the programs and staff of the Data Services U ni t. Status of Program During the last two years much has been done to improve and streamline the mainframe and linked 62 microcomputing network and irnprove both the Bio- rnetric and Computing Service for the commodity programs. The rnajor software development task of the Com- puting Section has been the setting up of a data base for the commodity programs on the mainfrarne IBM 4361 computer, using Cullinet's Integrated Database Management Systern (IDMS/ R). Although the origi- nal Cullinet product was a CODASYL network system, sorne relational features have been built into the software, hence the extension 1 R. The relational part of the systern was used to develop the CIA T Directory of Collaborators (sorne 15,000 entries). This list is used by CIS U on a routine basis and, in addition, program users can jo in this central! y rnaintained data base to their own, usually more detailed, supplemen- tary base of information about their own prograrn collaborators. The Bean Prograrn network scherna was first pro- duced sorne three years ago, but is now integrated with the Cassava and Agroecological schemas. In due course the Pastures scherna should also be integrated into this overall schema. With the exception of the Rice Program, all CIA T's breeding records are now stored in the IDMS data base and can be accessed online by IDMS Dialogs or prograrns. All the Bean, Pastures, and Cassava gerrnplasm accessions are also in the data base, although sorne Genetic Resources passport data still has to be entered. Data from series of evaluation experirnents have airead y been entered into IDMS and the structure exists for any other experiments. The Agroecology clirnate data base has now been loaded into IDMS, and the structure for the cassava microregions has now been designed . Dialogs and programs for accessing the data have been con- verted from the original Fortran code. Data base areas currently allocated amount to sorne 500 rnegabytes and will be increased when disk space is available. A new software product currently being developed at SAS lnstitute will interface data from the IDMS data base with SAS programs for statistica1 analysis. This should prove to be very useful both to the Data Services workers and to users in the commodity programs as it will integrate the efficient storage/ re- trieval facilities of IDMS with the comprehensive statistical features of SAS. ' Agroecological Studies Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Personnel (Positions) Agrometeorology Total 86 87 Direct costs ( 1987 USS i~ thousands). Costs Current budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 Personnel 131 143 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 12 11 Travel 12 13 Equipment replacement 3 Contingency Subtotal 155 170 Support unitsa Price provision Total 155 170 88 89 90 Proposed budget 1988 143 JI 13 3 2 172 66 7 245 a. Resource alloc:ation from support units to the Agroecological Studies Unit. 1988 Budget request for Agroecological Studies Unit. Activity Amount (1988 USS in thousands) Agroclimatology research 166.7 Crop-livestock systems research 44.1 Documentation and dissemination 9.8 Economic and social analysis at microlevel 24.5 Total 245.1 Program Commentary One of the most important underlying reasons for Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 agroecological analysis is that crop and pasture im- provement for less-favored areas and their wider diversity of production constraints imposes severe problems on new technology design, development, and transfer. Less-favored production zones, that is, most nonirrigated areas in the tropics with a wide range of soil constraints and insect and disease pres- sures, are _the main targets of CIA T research. The rale of progress in genetic improvement of any species is generally inversely proportional to the number of constraints to be overcome through new genetic variability. It is clear that accurate information on the relevant constraints in each zone is essential at all stages of increasing production and productivity of basic food commodities in the tropics. This need is even more critica) in the small-farm situation since the environmental conditions on farms in this sector- particularly those in Latin America- are generally more severe and constraints are more varied than in the case of the large-farm sector. Given the great diversity of prevailing climates, soils, cropping sys- tems, and socioeconomic conditions, the need for an inventory of production conditions in the small-farm sector is pressing. Objectives for Agroecosystems Analysis So me general areas ha ve been identi.fied that represent common needs across CIA T programs with respect to agroecosystem informa.tion for the areas of interest in each commodity. These needs are reflected in the following objectives: To develop a system for environmental and socioeconomic assessment of introduction con- straints in the production areas of present or 63 future importance in each CIAT commodity. Such assessment will allow for a more accurate definition of research priorities, and therefore of allocation of research resources among the wide range of alternatives available for action. To develop an agroecological information systel!l which can be integrated with the germplasm development process. This improved process will provide for a more cost-effective and efficient operation of the cooperative germplasm transfer and evaluation programs with collaborating na- tional institutions. The objective is essentially to reduce the burden on national institutions im- posed by testing all germplasm in all locations. To develop a data system which will permit the evaluation of responses of new genetic variability when exposed to a wide range of selected con- ditions in terms of meteorological, edaphic, and agronomic factors . One example would be crop/ weather relations in international nurseries and in other experiments. To develop a data system which will provide a firm base for comparative socioeconomic studies on the wide diversity of production zones. This system will enable both ex ante and ex post assessments of the impact of new technology, in particular within the small-farm sector, so that the research process can be further focused on real needs. In addition, the data system would provide a medium in which to assess economically the development priorities for underutilized frontier lands and to analyze marketing and associated economic constraints to increased production and productivity. Research Strategy A computer-based information system designed for the needs of four ecologically divergent commodity programs must be flexible in order that the degree of detail and scale provided is appropriate in each case. In addition, the ·collection of data, and its storage, retrieval, and analysis, must beata leve! of definit_ion appropriate to the resources available. In other words, CIA T could not implement a massive new survey involving a great deal of field work. Accordingly, a methodology has been developed which relies on prior surveys, census information, and local knowledge of the situation in each zone. Information is gained on an opportunistic basis by CIA T personnel during duty travel and from the large number of visiting scientists 64 and trainees from the region who visit CIA T. In this way, a cost-effective collection system has been devel- oped which appears sufficiently accurate. Any attempt at a more detailed approach would probably be frustrated by lack of accurate local data. Progress of Agroecosystem Analysis in Commodity Programs The following examples illustrate sorne of the work completed and planned in the various programs. Tropical Pastures. The study on the South Amer- ican lowlands 1 has enabled a classification of the major ecosystems making up the Program's area of interest. Aggregation of the land system units within each major ecosystem has permitted a quantitative assessment of the natural resources available in each ecosystem. The basic philosophy o~ the Progra,m outlined in this plan revolves around this classification. With the expansion of the mandate of the pastures program to include the moderately acid soils of Central America and the Caribbean, the study needs extending. of ecosystems need refining to cover the much more varied environments of the new mandate region. This is now underway and an extensive data collecting mission is due to start in April 1987. Coincident with this survey, the overallland system data will be loaded into the recently developed target area data base and will then form the CIAT-wide soils and land-form information base for all programs. Beans. The Program has been considerably aided by early studies in defining research priorities and strate- gies and in the location of its primary si tes for the first two stages of the germplasm evaluation program. These early analyses are now overshadowed by the potential for climatic analysis from the climate dat~ base of over 10,000 recorded stations from Africa and Latín America. These data are being used to produce maps of climatic similarity to assist the team in selecting sites for the African network and in compar- ing these sites with known areas in Latín America. As in the case ofthe soils data, this data base, started for a specific commodity program, is now availabie for all the CIA T commodity programs. l. Cochrane, T. T.; Sánchez, L. G.; de Azevedo, L. G.; Porras, J . A.; and Garver, C. L. 1986. Land in tropical Ame rica: computer sumrnary and soil pro file descriptions of the land systems. CIA T, Cali, Colombia, and EMBRAPA-CPAC, Planaltina, Brazil. Tbe inventory of African and Latin American bean production is now well under way. Maps are being produced at the scale of 1:5,000,000. Following the methodology devised for tbe cassava studies, tbese will be used in the next stage of environmental character- ization and microregion definition. Rice. During tbe last year the data base has been used to produce two important reports for the Rice Program: an evaluation of possible rice-producing areas in tbe Bolivian savannas, and a mapping of tbe areas suitable for the new savanna rice varieties being produced at the La Libertad station. Tbis provides an example of the power of using the joint target area data base. Cassava. Major advances bave been made in the analysis of the cassava program target area. A com- prehensive classification of cassava environments has been produced from the initial 1:5,000,000 scale mapping of cassava production in Latín America. This is, at present, being used to classify potential cassava- growing environments in Africa, and will be of great Seed Unit Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Seed specialists 2 2 2 2 2 Total 2 2 2 2 2 assistance to the forthcoming collaboration between CIA T and liT A. The climate section of the data base has found considerable application, particularly in tbe produc- tion of maps of climate homologues to guide the collection of cassava pest predators in Latín Ame rica for subsequent release to specific·zones witbin Africa. Great strides ha ve been made in tbe development of a methodology for microregion definition. The north coast of Colombia, eastern Paraguay, and tbe central coast of Ecuador were chosen as test cases and to provide valuable information to the Cassava Program. A method, using secondary data, informal survey, and semistructured rapid rural survey techniques was found to give excellent resultsl. ~ gives hope tbat large areas of the target area may be characterized in relatively little time. 2. Carter, S. E. 1986. Cassavamicro-re¡ions in partofeastem Para¡¡uay: an explanation of tbeir t.cmn and comparative study of cassava produc:tion witbin some of tbem. A¡roccolo¡ical Studies Unit, Centro Internacional de A¡ricultura Tropical (CIA 1), Cali, Colombia. Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 6 6 7 7 1 8 11 11 11 11 6 6 7 7 7 8 11 11 11 11 65 Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 402 367 367 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 80 80 80 Travel 55 37 37 Equipment replacement 3 3 Contingency 5 Subtotál 537 487 492 Support unitsa 69 Price provision 14 Total 537 487 575 a. Rcsource allocation from support units to the Seed Unit. 1988 Budget request for the Seed Unit. Activity Amount Germplasm (1988 USS in thousands) Research on conservation and diversity l . 7 Cottection 1.1 Seed production 34.7 Machinery research and development 11 .6 Human resource enhancement Specialized courses (short term) 86.7 Individualized intemships 46.2 Conferences and seminars 92.4 Documentation and dissemination 52.0 Counselling and advising NARS 40.4 Technical assistance 80.9 Coordination of networks 92.4 Economic and social analysis at microlevel 5.8 Market analysis 11 .6 Policy analysis 11 .6 Conversion and utilization research 11 .6 Total 580.7 66 Program Commentary The need for a Seed Unit at CIAT grew out of two different problem contexts. First, the CIA T com- modity programs-beans, rice, tropical pastures, and cassava- have reached a stage of development where a centralized support service for the production, con- ditioning, and distribution of breeder and basic seed represents the most rational and obvious route for the streamlining of seed-related activities at the Center. Second, the flow of new materials emanating from CIA T's research programs was hampered by the fact that in many Latín American and Caribbean countries there was only an incipient seed industry at the national leve! and which needed determined and systematic assistance from the international leve! to accelerate development. Regarding the Jatter point, CIA T was an obvious choice for the location of an international input in the development of national seed programs. In addition, CIA T was con cerned about a need for a stronger seed sector in Latín America and the Caribbean that is capable of deliver- ing seed of improved materials to the producer leve!. The Center had available the necessary conditions for hosting a successful seed effort: physical facilities for basic seed production, an extensive training infra- structure, expertise on seed-related aspects, and an international mode of operation. The first phase of the Seed Unit special project, financed by the SDC, was for the three-year period, J anuary 1979 to December 1981. The second phase was for the period, January 1982 to December 1983. During the third phase, 1984-86, the U nit continued as a restricted core activity with SDC support. The 1987- 88 period continues with approximately two-thirds of the support from the SDC and the remainder from the core budget. To date, the objectives of the Seed Unit at CIAT have been: To train personnel in government and private institutions, primarily from Latín American and Caribbean countries, in various aspects of seed industry and seed prograrn development. To extend technical collaboration to countries in the region interested in seed progrlVJl devel- opment, with the aim of expanding the production of high quality seed of improved cultivars at all levels from the breeder to the commercial stage, with emphasis on, but not restricted to, the commodities with which CIA T works. To conduct specific research in seed technology which is relevant to CIAT commodity interests and relevant to problems that collaborators at the national level are faced with. To provide CIAT with a single unit to cooperate with commodity programs in multiplying, pro- cessing, storing, and distributing advanced ex- perimental materials, or Breeder and Basic Seed, to collaborating countries for further multiplica- tion. To disseminate information on seed activities, advances in .seed technology, and the availability of promising materials in the region. The project includes two internationally recruited scientists with a full complement of support services, resources for consultants and visiting scientists, plus scholarship monies for postgraduate interns. Also included in the initial project were resources for the remodelling of existing buildings and for the construc- tion of additional facilities for the operation of seed- related activities (seed conditioning, storage, labora- tory spaces for training purposes, and officejwork:ing spaces for staff of the Seed Unit). During the period 1979 to the present, the Unit has mainly concentrated its efforts on: Training. A combination of intensive seed produc- tion and seed technology courses, advanced short courses, individualized in service training, and M.Sc. thesis research opportunities are offered. In the period 1979-86, sorne 576 professionals ha ve received CIA T- based traioing by the Seed Unit. In addition, the Seed Unit is supporting incountry training courses in the areas of seed production and seed technology. Workshops. The Seed Unit organizes and conducts an average of one work:shop per year to provide a forum for professionals with similar interests to ex- change experiences and to work together in developing plans, recommendations, and fresh approaches to help seed activities advance more rapidly. Technical collaboration. Assistance to seed pro- grams, industries, and associations contribute to developm~nts at the nationallevel. Subregional activi- ties in Central America and the Andean Zone have reinforced seed network developments. Seed production and supply. The Seed U nit has supported the CIA T commodity research prograrn- especially rice, beans, and tropical pastures-with the production, drying, conditioning, and supply of basic seed of promising materials and already released varieties. Research. A limited research input in tbe area of seeds is provided by the Seed Unit primarily through M.Sc. thesis programs. Communication and information. The preparation and dissemination of technical publications, workshop proceedings, and audiotutorial units bave spread seed technology and production information in the region. In addition, a newsletter every four months imilfoves communications on developments in the region and contributes to the strengthening of the seed network. Status of the Seed Unit. The emphasis by the Seed Unit on training has resulted in 20 courses of different levels and specialization at CIA T o ver the past eight years, involving 532 participants. Seed technology and production traioing provided by the Seed Unit at the subregional and incountry level has involved a furtber 893 people. The challenge during the next five years is to capitalize on this base of trained people. The seed sector involves public and private activi- ties, ranging from the crop research programs to the seed enterprises and marketing groups that sell seed to farmers. Successful national seed programs are those that develop clear goals and strategies and identify mechanisms to belp all segments of the sector develop and work: together. A recent survey showed that one- fourth of former course participants have contributed in a special way to seed program development at the national level. In the future increased follow-up is needed with these people to help them, other leaders in tbe seed sector, and their governments, to focus more sharply on solutions that can help overcome limita- tions restricting the production and use of improved varieties by farmers . The Seed Unit continues to focus on ways to assist, especially small farmers, to grow and use better seed of improved varieties. As a result of Seed U nit activities, many national programs are directing more attention to tbe seed needs of small farmers. Significant differences exist among tbe countries in the region with respect to development of their seed programs. The countries witb the greatest need are in Central America, the Caribbean, and the member countries of JUNAC (also known as Grupo Andino). Mechanisms are being sought to provide special assistance to tbese subregions through outreach pro- grams linked to the Seed U nit to belp accelerate the development of seed programs and industries in these are as. 67 The basic seed production activities ofthe Seed Unit are helping to improve the availability of seed for further multiplication. This need is felt most acutely with tropical pastures seed. Increased eff!ort is needed on systems for cassava-propagation material. At the national leve!, better organized and functional basic seed units are needed in many countries to strengthen the link between the crop research program and the rest of the seed multiplication a,nd supply chain. Helping this aspect of national programs to become more dynamic and effective remains a priority with the Seed Unit. Seed production and technology research in the region is largely done in a few universities with special interest in seeds. The Seed Unit's research role mostly has been limited to the work done by a few research scholars involved in degree programs. The Unit has a comparative advantage for a few high-priority areas of special interest to the CIA T commodity programs and sister centers. Opportunities exist to assist the devel- opment of collaborative research network in the region to solve region-wide problems. A workshop held in 1985 started joint thinking on priority areas of research for the region. The follow-up to proposa ls by that workshop can result in more work on high- priority areas and increased cooperation among re- searchers in the region. The Seed Unit provides the mechanism for con- tinued communication among seed programs and seed scientists in the region. The continued improvement of the news1etter, the frequent updating ofthe "Directory of Seed Personnel and Institutions ", development of a seed science and technology data base focused on the needs of the region and subregion, and regional courses will continue this network deve1opment pro- cess. Donor and technical assistance agencies will need to continue assisting seed programs in the region for at least another decade. Through the knowledge ac- cumulated and country status reports, the Seed Unit is in an excellent position to work closely with these agencies in developing projects and supporting their implementation. Similarly, links with CIA T's sister international centers with program interests in the region will be strengthened. As seed units are started in other parts of the world, mechanisms are needed, and will be sought, to collaborate fully with them in their development and program implementation. 68 The Future of the CIAT Seed Unit Based on an indepth study by a team of consultants in early 1987, CIA T developed a medium-term plan for the Seed Unit for the period 1988-92. T he essential features of this Board-approved plan are as follows: Objective The Seed Unit's objective is to assist the Center's work in contributing to increased food production and resource productivity in Latín America and the Car- ibbean region. The Unit is to foster and assist, in close coordination with CIA T's and other IARC com- modity programs, the prompt and sustained devel- opment of national seed production and supply sys- tems and policies. This should allow the rapid adop- tion of improved varieties as they are released by the national programs. The above objective involves a set of specific objectives to be pursued, fostered, and supported by the U nit in el ose coordination with CIA T's commodity programs and with CIMMYT's Maize Program. This set of specific objectives is as follows: To identify and diagnose seed systems-related constraints to the adoption of improved varieties of beans, rice, cassava, tropical pastures, and maize at the country leve!. To develop and implement national seed produc- tion plans for the specific commodities, which should include appropriate policies, as well as functional and technical solutions for seed systems and seed q uality-related constraints. To study the seed systems (and their components) that ha ve provento be effective in servicing small- farm groups. To identify and 1 or develop appropriate technol- ogy for small-scale production, conditioning, storage, and marketing of seeds within major ecosystems, particularly for humid and tropical conditions. To strengthen seed-training capabilities in coun- tries of the region. In collaboration with CIP, to work with the Latín American potato network by providing assistance in organizational aspects of seed-p roduction schemes for small producers. To establish and support seed researc h and tech- nical collaboration networks that address specific problems common to various countries and crops in such areas as seed systems for small farmers, seed policy, seed legislation, and seed trade. Research and cooperation strat.egies In line with CIA T's commodity programs, the Unit's research and cooperation strategy takes the form of two complementary and coordinated ap- proaches: the country-and-commodity approach, and the regional network approach. The country-and-commodity approach. The re- moval of seed system-related constraints to adoption of improved varieties should explicitly take into account the specific political and institut ional en- vi'tonments, as well as the socioeconomic production circumstances, on a crop-by-crop and a country-by- country basis. The essential catalyst for involvement by CIA T in these specific country activities will, of course, be the availability of onfarm-proven seed- based technology. The identification and solution of the most relevant seed production, processing, and marketing problems require well-defined interfaces among those research institutions producing breeder and basic seed; enterprises dealing with certified and commercial seed , and their production, processing, and marketing; and the extension system which advises farmers on appropriate crop management practices. The Seed Unit will, in conjunction with the respec- tive commodity research programs, help catalyze national seed plans for the respective commodities. These plans should specify clear goals, strategies, and policies. They should include well-defined roles and responsibilities for the different public institutions and the private sector, forming a functional and integrated system that will effectively link research, extension, and the seed sector. Moreover, the Seed Unit will,.in clase coordination with the respective commodity program, support the implementation and monitoring of such plans through research, technical consultation, and a targeted train- ing program. A highly focused training program is needed in order to achieve the required mínimum of well-trained professionals within each of the institu- tions and enterprises participating in the implementa- tion of the respective nation~ plans. The U nit will assign priority for admission to its regular seed production and seed technology courses lo groups of professionals from these institutions in order to assist in the prompt t~eoff of the program. As the training needs are expected to be far beyond the Unit's capacity, the majority ofthe professionals will need to be trained in incountry courses. The Unit and the respective commodity program will assist in the initial organization and development of these courses. Although the major focus is along commodity lines, the Unit will be alert and responsive to possibilities of integrating efforts on seed systems development for other crops if this be feasible and cost-effective. This could be particularly important for achieving econo- mies of scale in the case of: systems servicing small- farm groups; those institutions that have basic seed units and seed certification systems; and ¡ or enterprises such as producers' cooperativo:~,and organizations and seed processing and marketing enterprises. The regional network approach. A complementary approach to that of providing direct support to seed system development of individual countries is that of fostering the development and support of regional and subregional seed research.and technical collaboration networks. Such networks can be synergistic and increase the effectiveness of individual country pro- grams when addressing problems that are common to the participating countries. By focusing on common researchable problems, for example, seed drying and storage under humid tropical conditions and seed systems for small farmers, members of research net- works can profit from the experience and the com- parative advantages of participating institutions, scientists, and seed technologists. To be successful, these networks must be able to bring together the different disciplines relevant for tackling a given problem. When problems are crop specific, the Seed Unit will foster the integration of interested seed specialists and key institutions in existing .commodity networks in order to prevent duplication of efforts. When the problems to be addressed are not crop specific, the Unit will promote full integration in the respective network of researchers and extensionists that face these problems in the various crops with which they work. Because of the need to focus the Unit's activities sharply on the most relevant regional seed system- related constraints to the adoption of improved varie- ties, only a few key networks will be sponsored in the medium term. Activities planned In order to implement the aforementioned stra- tegies, the Seed Unit will need to carry out a series of 69 activities that will be described in detail in two-yearly rolling work plans to be reviewed one year in advance by the Seed Advisory Committee. Research on seed technology. Research on seed technology will concentrate, along commodity lines, on the most important technical constraints. It will be carried out in close coordination with the respective commodity programs and, in the case of beans, cassava, and maize, wi ll emphasize technology for small-scale operation s. Emphasis will be also placed on appropriate technology for tropical and humid environments- a neglected arca in many crops. The general arcas of research include: Identification of critica! seed-related constraints hampering the adoption of improved varieties such as high cost of seed, low quality seed, seed- borne d iseases, and their potential technical solu- tions. Technology for seed production in the field , such as techniques to overcome field deterioration during maturation and red-rice control in the field. Seed dryi ng, conditioning, and storage technol- ogy, for example, low-cost drying methods and storage tcch niques, small-scale quality upgrading treatments, and field and commercial techniques for conditioning seed of tropical pastures species. Quality testing a nd effects of seed quality on crop yield such as devising simple low-cost tests to determine moisture viability, purity and germina- tion testing procedures for t ropical pasture spe- cies, and effect of seed quality, that is , germination and vigor, on yielding abi lity of new plants. Research on organization of seed systems. This arca of research incl udes the identification, analysis, and documentation of: Organizational constraints to effective perform- ance of seed systcms such as seed policy, secd legislation, abscnce of institutional lin kages, ex- cessive controls, a nd lack of incentives to the prívate sector. Case studies of succcssful experiences on sccd program development, for example, organization of sccd systcms servici ng small countries or small farmers effectively. Support for the development of national seed production plans. The primary objective of this type of act ivity is to facil itatc the buildup of effective national 70 seed systems for the respective crops. This will requi re an initial d iagnosis mission, followed by planning missions that may take from two to six weeks per country and involve staff from the Unit, from the commodity programs and, eventually, from manage- ment to address selected questions at the institutional and policy level. C IA T should be prepared to assist in the implementation of these plans by offering training opportunities, providing assistance for the conduct of incountry courses, making regu lar consultation visits, and providing backup research. Training in seed technology. The scarcity of well- trained personnel in the different arcas of seed tech- nology is the principal limitation in most institutions and countries. Targeting all training activities to the achievement of the U nit 's specific objectivcs is vital to the success of the regional crop networks. The U nit, in conjunction with the commodity programs, will or- ganize advanced, specialized , and intensive seed tech- nology courses on: basic seed production; seed drying, conditioning, and storage; organization and manage- ment of commercial and small-scale seed production; distribution and marketing of seeds; and seed quality. Staff from the Unit and the commodity programs will be prepared to support the initial organization and development of incountry seed courses. The actual number of courses will be specified in the two-yearly rolling work plans. In a rder to achieve this objective, there must be increased opportunities for inservice training of pro- fessionals as trainers for incount ry courses and for implementing the national commodity seed plans. The expanded research on seed technology (in relation to key constraints) and the organization of seed systems for small-fa rm groups can be achieved more efficiently through expanded thesis research opportunities than by staff appointments. Such theses will be joint ly supervised by staff from the Unit, the respective commodity program, and the thesis supervisor from the respective university. This will also permit in- creased collaboration with the two universit ies in the region that offer M.Sc.-level degrees on seed produc- tion a nd technology. It is expected that, in terms of cost, the increase in inservice and thesis research training will be offset by the reduction in fellowships required for intensive courses at C IA T. Production of breeder and basic seed . C IA T's commodity programs normally make available small quantities of breeder seed to national programs. Basic seed production is the responsibility of national pro- grams. Strong seed units at the national level are critica! to ensure the maintenance and availability of pure, healthy, basic seed for further multiplication. Wben basic seed units are in their initial development stages, national programs often request the assistance of CIA T in making available moderate quantities of basic seed to accelerate the initia,l multiplicatiou phases. Similarly, small countries are rarely able to mount the required physical facilities. In both cases, upon specific requests by the respective national programs and provided that no impediments to do- mestic basic seed production are created, the Seed Unit will produce and sell tbe requested amount on a full-cost recovery basis. Support of regional seed research networks. CIA T will support the development of regional seed research networks by means of: (a) coll~borative research conducted by the Unit and the respective commodity programs; (b) training opportunities in relev~t re- search areas; (e) sponsoring of workshops to discuss research results of and coordinatation among network participants; and ( d) providing appropriate specia:lized information and communication services. In addition to these essential activities, a considerable amount of the Seed Unit staff time and secretaria! support is required to help catalyze network activities and goals. Only a few networks with specific objectives will be sponsored in tbe medium term. Tbese will be identified during 1987 with the assistance of the .proposed Seed Advisory Committee. Seed workshops and seminars. Workshops and seminars are highly valuable for: (a) focusing attention on seed-related research issues, establishing priorities, and defining interinstitutional collaboration; (b) con- sulting on seed program strategies and selected issues with national counterparts; and (e) discussing issues of direct interest to the seed sector, but which may be less relevant for achieving the objectives specified for the Seed U ni t. While CIA T is prepared to host the last activity (e), the Center will sponsor only the first two types. Consultation workshops (b) will be held ap- proximately every three years, while network work- shops (a) will be held on a yearly basis, if necessary. The two-yearly rolling work plans will include details on the specific objectives and funding requirements for each event. Seed documentation and information services. The packaging and dissemination of the scientific and technical information on seeds, generated by the seed networks and by tbe Seed Unit and commodity programs, are essential to accomplish the stated objectives. In designing and developing the materials, CIAT makes a distinction between three purposes: (a) network publications, (b) scientific and technical publications, and (e) training materials . Seed network publications include aseed newsletter, proceedings of the workshops of the networks, com- pendiums of research results, and methodological manu~s developed by network participants. Tbese complementary mechanisms are all important to keep members abreast of new technical developments, upcoming events, and relevant research and devel- opment results f!rom the network and elsewhere. The development of technical publications is highly relevant in acbieving tbe Unit's objectives. Such publications include monographs on artisanal bean-, cassava-, or maize-seed systems; a seed glossary; a simple test to determine moisture and viability; and survey and sampling techniques to assess the quality of the seed used by small farmers. Relevant didactic training materials, including seed manuals and integrated training packages such as audiotutorials on specific topics, methods, or tech- niques, ha ve proveo to be highly effective in facilitating incountry and regional courses, thereby permitting the Unit to reach a much larger audience oftrainees. As in the case of the commodity programs, the Seed Unit will be able to rely on CIA T's Communication and lnformation ~upport Unit for the production and distribution of aú"the aforementioned publications and training materials. Seed Advisory Committee One of the major features of the Seed Unit is the formal implementation of a Seed Advisory Commit- • tee. With seed being the vehicle of new technology into specific growing environments, seed systems relate to all disciplines and fields from agricultural research to production. The rationale for proposing the creation of the Advisory Committee is to benefit from a wider group of disciplines and expertise than those that could be made available within the Unit. Staffing and financial requirements In order to achieve the stated objectives, the Seed · Unit will require acertain mínimum ofhighly qualified, · internationally recruited, principal staff and locally hired support staff. 1 t is proposed to maintain tbe number of senior staff at the current level (two positions), but to increase the number of postdoctoral and senior research fellows from one to two man-years, starting in 1988. 71 At the leve! of support staff, it is proposed to add a Research Associate position for the specific purpose of assisting the Cassava Program in resolving bottlenecks related to the production and dissemination of cassava planting material. This position will play a principal role in the setting up of pilot cassava seed projects, in 72 the evalution and modification of such projects, and in the use of these projects as training programs. These activities will be an integral part of many of the integrated cassava development projects in which CIA T's Cassava Program will be in volved. f INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Training and Conferences Core resources Scientífic Resources Senior staff and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Training and conferences 10 11 11 11 11 9 9 10 10 10 Total 10 11 11 11 11 9 9 10 10 10 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). 1988 Budget request for Training and Conferences. Proposed Activity Amount Costs Current budget budget (1988 US$ in Actual Revised thousands) 1986 1987 1988 Human resource enhancement Personne1 392 388 388 Specialized courses (short term) 590.7 Honoraria, stipends, and 747 594 740 Individualized internships 550.7 al1owances Conferences and seminars 350.3 Supplies and services 114 109 109 Trave1 229 161 161 Documentation and dissemination 15.6 Equipment rep1acement 8 8 Technical assistance 9.8 Contingency 14 Subtotal 1482 1260 1420 Coordination of networks 24.6 Support unitsa 76 Total 1541.7 Price provision 46 Total 1482 1260 1542 a. Resource allocation from support units to Training and Confen:nces. 73 Program Commentary In previous years a shift in training activities from at-the-Center course to incountry and regional courses was foreseen . At the same time, emphasis on in- dividualized specialization internships of national research program personnel was to be maintained at high levels, and degree thesis training was to receive relatively higher priority. These forecasts were fulfilled with one exception: due to the continuing strong demand for at-CIAT courses expressed by national agricultural research systems, this activity was main- tained in addition to increased incountry training. Conferences, through their various communication and training functions, continued to constitute a fundamental means of linking CIA T with the national programs. Two types of results of the overall training and conferences activities are visible: the strengthening of national agricultural research and development ca- pacities related to CIA T commodities; and the better articulation of and, therefore more productive, agricultura) knowledge systems which comprise both national and international components. Achievements During 1986, 1 O courses were held at CIA T and 24 in Latín American countries. In the former, 206 partic- ipants accumulated a total of 254 man-months and 614 professionals participated in incountry courses. A total of 157 professionals spent 421 man-months in individualized specialization internships at CIAT, and 16 carried out postgraduate thesis projects. Near1y 400 persons participated in JO conferences organized par- tially or completely by CIA T and another 500 partic- ipated in one major seminar. These figures illustrate the size of the training and conferences effort. The effectiveness hll$ been assessed in the past by externa! reviewers as being commenda- ble. Since then, further progress has been made in the continuing effort of tai1oring the training opportuni- ties to the needs of national programs and in selecting the participants accordingly. With regard to satisfying these needs, it is pertinent to mention that the 24 incountry courses were organized by national institu- tions and received CIA T support along three main lines: course design, resource persons, and training materials. In keeping with the aim of bridging the gap between research and extension, the participants were largely professionals engaged in technology transfer and development activities. A series of special courses held at CIA T complemented the response of CIA T to the expressed needs of national programs to strengthen their capacity to get CIAT techno1ogy to the farmers. The continuing need to strengthen the research capac- ity was addressed by means of the more traditional multidisciplinary courses and through the individual- ized specializations, as well as with degree thesis work. Communication and lnformation Support Unit Core resources Scientific Resources Senior staff and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bu d. Act. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Editor 1 Writing 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 Editor 1 Publications 5 5 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 2 Training materials 3 5 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 2 Distribut. and marketing 1 2 3 3 3 3 Graphic Arts Production 4 4 4 4 4 26 25 25 25 25 Unit Head and lnfo. Serv. 9 9 9 9 9 21 19 19 19 19 Total 3 3 3 3 3 24 26 28 28 28 54 52 52 52 52 74 Direct costs (1987 US$ in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personne1 896 1004 1004 Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services 459 364 364 Tra,ve1 23 33 33 Equipment replacement 32 21 21 Contingency 10 Subtotal 1410 1422 1432 Support unitsa (335) Price provision 33 Total 1410 1422 1130 a. Resoun:es allocated to otber programs. 1988 Budget request for Communication and lnformation Support Unit. Activity Amount Human resource enhancement (1988 US$ in thousands) Specialized courses (short term) 79.4 lndividualized internships 38.5 Conferences and seminars 7.1 Documentation and dissemination 926.8 Research on approaches, concepts, methodologies, and procedures 5.4 Coordination of networks 72.9 Economic and social analysis at microlevel 0.1 Total 1130.2 Program Commentary Communication strategies The Communication and Information Support U nit malees agricultural inf!ormation from all over the world readily accessible to the Center's staff and to its national program collaborators in the commodity research networks. The Unit also supports all of the Center's communication efforts with publications, training materials, graphic arts, and audiovisual ma- terials. CIA T presently employs four comm unication stra- tegies in support of increased production and pro- ductivity in the area of its four mandated crops. They can be summarized as follows: Communication is used to catalyze collaboration and to increase and reinforce networking among research groups working in CIA T's commodity areas and sharing similar objectives. Educational and informative materials are used to disseminate the technologies that are developed through collaborative research and the new method- ologies for conducting research. The materials are also to reinforce the research networlc's capacity to conduct research, through training its new members. Members of the networlc are kept informed and up to d3¡te about relevant technologies being developed outside the network through informa- tion retrieval and delivery systems. Communication is also used to inform adminis- trators and policymalcers about the work of the research networlcs, to lceep them aware of its importance, and to show them the value of supP,orting agricultura! research. CIA T's communication strategies, which define both audience and purpose for each product and stress an integrated approach to information and com- munication, result from close collaboration between the commodity support programs and scientific sup- port units and CISU. Specialists in agriculturaleduca- tion, information transfer, communication, and de- velopment and production of materials in various media worlc together as a multidisciplinary team to implement the strategies that are designed and provide CIAT and collaborating scientists with top quality communication and information support. Training materials Training support materials emphasize the mastery of concepts related to specific training objectives. Depending on the objectives and course design, lcey topics may be presented in manuals, study guides, technical sheets, video segments, or ftlmstrips; or, if the message requires it, a complete, self-contained audiotutorial unit may be produced. The materials are designed to teach research methodology, develop practical slcills, and foster altitudes that facilitate technology transfer. 75 Research monographs and journal articles Scientific reports of basic and applied research on production constraints and methodologies for their solution are most often published as journal articles, technical bulletins, or research monographs. The Unit provides full editorial and production services for those that are published within CIAT, and assists scientists, especially those for whom English is a second or third language, in the preparation of journal articles and other research publications. Promoting networking One of the most important communication strate- gies of CIA T is that of promoting collaborative research and the sharing of research results among the members of the commodity research networks in which the Center's scientists participate, through various kinds of publications. Commodity newsletters contain short research briefs on new research and production technology that has been developed at any of the sites in the networks, as well as book reviews, conference announcements, and news of and inter- views witb people working within the research net- works. Annual program reports provide an indepth, yearly progress report on every are a of CIA T research. Tbe reports are working documents written in tech- nical language. Conference proceedings are often generated when the members of the networks convene. Sorne of the proceedings are developed as research monographs, and others are published as working documents that preserve a permanent record of the plans and accomplishments of a whole group of collaborators under one publication. Reporting the Center's activities CIA T Report is a full-color annual publication that highlights CIAT research for the previous year and communicates the Center's activities and achievements in a popular style. Tbe report is written in 'spanish and English. CIA T International, a trimestral newsletter, is de- voted to keeping decision makers and other CIA T contacts informed on program developments at CIA T and national program efforts toward new production and research methodology and utilization of germ- plasm. This popular bulletin is produced in botb Spanish and Englisb. Other publications and the broadcast media are also - 76 useful mechanisms for keeping CIA T's audiences informed. Press releases, interviews, and general in- terest articles, are usually produced by specialists in the specific media involved working dosel y with CIA T writers to get the latest research news to a broad sector of audiences. Specialized information services An important factor in the success of the research networks is having access to the scientific literature produced in other institutions across the tropics and throughout the world. CI A T believes this to be of such priority and importance that a very complete library and information service unit exists to serve this need not only for CIAT staff, but for national progra~ researchers as well. The Library contains sorne 43,000 volumes, special- ized collections containing 25,000 documents and 150 audiovisual materials, and a fast-growing microfiche collection that is supported by portable readers and a fliche-to-paper photocopying system. A current awareness service (Pages of Contents) helps users especially those outside the Center, to keep up to dat~ with the most current research . Retrospective bibliog- raphy files are produced by the Library to assist staff with specific information needs. Three specialized Information Centers collect abstract, and systematically file the scientiffic literatur~ on three of CIA T's commodities (common beans, cassava, and tropical pastures). Searches in CIA T's own computerized data base provide references to the world 's scientific literature on these commodities. A complete document delivery service allows the user to access the full text of each article. Online searches of major data bases can be conducted to allow the user to obtain information outside the commodity-specific collections. Specialized bibliographies are produced by both Library and Information Centers staff. Fact sbeets, directories, translations, reference volumes, and other such products are also generated and produced by the lnformation Centers. Information networks help to support the research networks, and CIA T is an active participant in severa): SNICA, AGRINTER, AGLINET, andA GRIS. They promote networking at national, regional, and in- ternational levels. A new communication network RICA, is also being actively supported by CISU. ' Marketing and distribution Increasing attention to delivery systems is ensuring that CIA T's publications, training materials, and information services reach an ever wider audience of researchers, extension workers, agribusiness manag- ers, students, and professors in both tropical and temperate areas. Professional booksellers make CIA T public3¡tions available in countries where CIA T's own distribution systems are least strong. Specialized cata- logs supplement the general catalogs and CIA T bibliographies that list and index the entire production of publications and training materials. A computerized data base of collaborators and information users supports multilevel distribution and marketing efforts. Computerized inventory control enables CIS U staff to study user demand for different kinds of materials. Evaluations of specific products are conducted from time to time to obtain feedback from the users themselves. Highlights of the year's activities All of the are as were highly prod uctive d uring 1986, meeting increasingly complex demands with an in- creasing level of success. Gains in productivity can be seen in many areas, for the fifth consecutive year (recording of statistical data began in 1982). The appearance of CIA T's communic3¡tion and information products is always improving. The Publica- tions/ Editorial Section and the Graphic Arts Section worked closely together during 1986 to produce new designs and to improve existing designs for CIA T's major publications. A new CIA T logo and letterhead were also produced. Additionally, there was a notable increment in the number of media reached with news of CIA T and its research results. Stories about the success of new varieties and technologies that resulted from research carried out by commodity networks have appeared in the press, in magazines and scientific journals, and on the radio in Latin America, the Caribbean, USA, and Europe. Sorne new directions were begun in the area of training materials. Two experimental videos were undertaken, and while these are not programmed to result in finished teaching films, they have been very useful to the scientific staff as a way of documenting the use of technologies developed in collaborative research programs. They were useful to the CISU staff as a method of learning more about a media that may be useful in future training strategies. A second major literature recovery project- this time for African cassava literature and economic and production data- was undertaken. The project, in- volving collaboration with liT A, is also a new initia- tive for the gro u p. Two consultants will be travelling to twelve countries to ask for the cooperation of the national institutions in providing research publica- tions to the Cassava Information Center, maps to the Agroecological U nit, and economic data to the liT A- CIA T team of economists. Computerization continued to influence procedures in most of the sections of CISU. The Graphic Arts Section began work on processes for computer-based graphics, working with the unit computer specialist and with many of the CIA T scientific staff, who ha ve learned to produce their own graphs and figures on the microcomputers assigned to the individual programs. A multi-ink plotter arrived in December and will begin to ha ve a greater effect on processes d uring 1987. All of the publications continued to be produced, using word-processing packages on microcomputers or on stand-alone word processors, and then passed elec- tronically to the photocomposition equipment. The data bases of the specialized Information Centers were brought online, after two years of work, but the inclusion of the older records remains to be done in 1987, and is, to a great degree, dependent on the availability of disk space on the mainframe computer. Acquisitions processes and billing were brought online during 1986, and two microcomputers arrived in November, for the computerization of bibliographic processes. Special Projects Specialized information centers The aim of this project is to reinforce operations of the specialized information analysis centers on cas- sava, beans, and tropical pastures. Specific objectives are: (a) for cassava, to include strengthening the scientific component in staffing of the center, increas- ing outreach activities in Asia and Africa, and pro- ducing state-of-the-art reviews or manuals; (b) for beans, to improve the capacity to collect and organize relevant documents and produce state-of-the-art re- views of manuals; (e) for pastures, to upgrade the information bulletin Pastos Tropicales to become a medium of publication for brief research reports and 77 Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement and capital Indirect costs Contingencies Subtotal 78 Budget { 1987 USS in thousands) 1987 1988 41 32 39 73 68 25 16 187 28 11 146 to produce a state-of-the-art review; and (d) for all three centers, to strengthen the common services available by computerizing their data bases, improving acquisition facilities in Asia and Africa, duplicating microfiche sets, producing minibibliographies, and improving promotion. This project is financed by IDRC. ADMINISTRATION Board of Trustees Program Commentary Core Resources Oirect costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget The CIA T Board ofTrustees has 17 roembers. Normal- ! y the Board holds one annual meeting. lts executive committee, program committee, audit committee, and nominations committee meet at the time oftbe annual meeting, plus at various intervals throughout the year as deemed desirable and necessary. Described in the table above are the costs for international and national travel, honoraria, per diems, and other expenses directly associated with the meeting of the Board and its committees. Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel Honoraria 56 52 52 Supplies and services 25 26 26 Travel 99 72 72 Equipment replacement Contingency Subtotal 180 150 150 Support units Total 180 150 150 79 OHice of the Director General Core resources Resources Senior staff Act. Bu d. Bud . Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Director General Assistant Director Assistant to the D.G. Interna! Auditor Visitors' Office Deputy Director General 2 2 2 2 2 Director of Finance and Administration Total 5 5 5 5 5 Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personnel 818 867 867 Honoraria 31 17 17 Supplies and services 53 36 36 Travel 104 101 101 Equipment replacement 7 6 6 Other expenses 31 51 51 Contingency 10 Subtotal 1044 1078 1088 Support unitsa 41 Price provision 37 Total 1044 1078 1166 a. Resource allocation from support uniu to the Office of the Director General. Program Commentary Three Division Heads, the Assistant Director ( or Assistant to the Director General), and the Interna! Auditor report to the Director General. The following three divisions malee up the organization of CIA T. 80 Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bu d. Bu d. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bu d. 86 3 3 2 10 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 11 11 11 11 10 13 13 13 13 Research Division l. This Division consists of the Bea,n Program, Cassava Program, and the follow- ing research support units: Genetic Resources, Biotechnology Research, Station Operations, and Research Services (except Data Services). This Division is headed by a Deputy Director General. Research Division 11 . This Division comprises the Tropical Pastures Program, the Rice Program, the Data Services Unit, the Seed Unit, and the Coordinating Office for Training and Confer- ences. The Division is headed by a Deputy Director General. Finance and Administration. This Division is responsible for the general services and financia! administration, and is headed by the Director of Finance and Administration. The Office of the Interna! Auditor is headed by a General Administrative Staff(GAS) member who also reports to the Director General. Budgeted in the Office of tbe Director General are special resources for the internationaJ travel of direct- ing staff of collaborating national institutions. These resources are used to malee possible selected trips of such staff to CIAT for consultation purposes. Administrative Support Core resources Resources Senior staff A e t. Bu d. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 87 88 89 90 Personnel (Positions) Controller Executive Officer Human Resources Supplies Systems ~d procedures Total Direct costs (1987 USS in thousands). Proposed Costs Current budget budget Actual Revised 1986 1987 1988 Personne1 1096 1086 1086 Honoraria 54 68 68 Supplies and services 178 198 198 Travel 34 33 33 Equipment replacement 40 l8 18 Other expenses 42 70 70 Contingency 13 Subtotal l444 1473 1486 Support unitsa 55 Price provision 45 Total 1444 1473 1586 a. Resource allocation from suppon units lo Administrative Suppon. Program Commentary The responsibilities of Administrative Support are to provide support to all CIA T activities in order that they can carry out the research and training activities of the Center. The section includes the many necessary housekeeping and administrativef fiscal units neces- sary to ensure that researchers have facilities to operate such as: Functions directly responsible to the Director of Finance and Ad~stration: Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 86 JO 3 2 4 6 25 87 9 3 2 4 7 25 88 89 90 9 9 9 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 7 7 7 26 26 26 Executive Officer Controller Treasurer 86 87 88 25 25 25 JI JI 11 13 13 13 23 "23 23 3 3 3 75 75 75 Administrative Data Processing Miami Office Special Projects Office 89 90 25 25 11 JI 13 \3 23 23 3 3 75 75 Functions that report to the Executive Officer: Human Resources Purchasing/ Supplies Maintenance Travel Office Bogotá Office Security Food and Housing Aircraft Operations Carimagua Administration Sorne of the t¡unctions reporting to the Executive Officer also appear in self-supporting activities as they are designed to provide support through general income. However, beca use of the nature of the service provided, they receive income from Core and Special Project sources. An lB M System 36 computer is used exclusively for ftScal and administrative support. Approximately90% of initially planned applications have been im- plemented. · CIA T opened its own office in Miami during 1986 in order to provide better purchasing, shipping, and importation services to CIA T in Colombia, as well as in other CIAT-operating sites. 81 GENERAL OPERATING EXPENSES Core resources Resources Personnel (Positions) Physical plant Maintenanct Security Gardens Cleaning Motor pool Total Act. 86 Direct costs ( 1987 USS in thousands). Senior staff Bud . Bud. Bud . Bud. 87 88 89 90 Pro posed Costs Current budget budget Personnel Honoraria, stipends, and allowances Supplies and services Travel Equipment replacement Other expenses Gain in exchange rate Contingency Subtotal Support unitsa Price provision Total Actual 1986 1243 1271 25 476 298 (92) 3221 3221 a. Resources allocatrd to other programs. 82 Revised 1987 1143 833 26 392 81 (200) 229 2504 2504 1988 1143 833 26 392 81 (50) JI 2436 (866) 228 1798 Act. 86 4 5 Scientific and supervisory Clerical and other Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud . Act. Bud. Bud. Bud. Bud. 87 88 89 90 86 87 88 89 90 4 4 4 4 54 53 53 53 53 41 40 40 40 40 13 11 11 11 11 48 49 51 51 51 45 48 50 50 50 5 5 5 5 201 201 205 205 205 Program Commentary The Palmira installations consist of about 20 buildings or complex-es of buildings, including two laboratory buildings, three office buildings, two field laboratory buildings, seed processing and storage facilities , com- munications and library buildings, conference fa- cilities, food, housing and recreational facilities, six greenhouses, warehouse, a germplasm store, service building for machinery and vehicle maintenance, laundry facilities, and water treatment. The gross area of buildings is 42,000 m2 of which about 50% is airconditioned. The entire complex is served by about 37 km of roads, 25,000 m2 of circulation areas and parlúng spaces, and is surrounded by about 10,000 m2 of gardens. Other than electricity, for which only standby and emergency capacity is maintained, CIA T pro vides all its own services. The Physical Plant includes resources to run these services, maintain all buildings and grounds, and provide security. CIA T operates a fleet of about 260 ve hieles which includes buses, trucks, vans, pickups, jeeps, and passenger cars from various manufacturers. The Motor Pool is responsible for servicing, repairing, and maintaining these vehicles and for providing bus services to transport personnel to and from work and regular services during the day and night to Cali and Palmira for employees, training participants, and visitors. 83 SELF - SUPPORTING ANO INCOME - GENERATING ACTIVITIES CIA T has severa! self-supporting activities, which are meant to break even, and severa! other activities which generate income in excess of the extra costs incurred. Activities falling under the two groupings are as follows : Self-supporting Food and housing Aircraft operation Publications fund Seed processing and conditioning "PROCIA T" health serví ce 84 lncome-generating Farm production Cattle herds Seed marketing Special project support None of these activities appear separately in this budget document, although in sorne cases, significant amounts are charged to the core budget. Examples of this are: the food operation, which is partly supported by a subsidy which is charged as a personnel cost; and the aircraft operation, which is funded by charges to the respective individual programs' travel budgets. CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS Tbe proposed capital budget of US$1,077 ,000 inc1udes US$250,000 for the tennination of a major construc- tion project initiated in 1987 to upgrade the quality and size of the germplasm storage facilities in the Genetic Research U nit building. An amount of US$200,000 is set aside for the completion of an expanded workspace (offices, clean and dirty labora- tories, seed storage space) for the Rice Program. The remainder is for equipment purchases, part of which is to support new activities as summarized in Table Ila (see Annex). 85 ANNEX la. Resource Summary (Core and Special Projects) lb. Resource Summary (Core Only) Ila. 1988 Additions (Core Only) lib. Reduction List (Core Only) 111. Capital Expenditures (Core and S pecial} IV. Summary of Authorized Senior Staff Positions (Core and Special Projects) V. Special Projects (Summary Only) VI. 1988 Total Budget Request: U.S. Dollar Amounts Allocated to Research and Research Related Activities VII. 1988 Total Budget Request: Positions Allocated to Research and Research Related Activities VIII. Summary of Sources and Application of Funds (C US$ Thousands) IX. Summary Financia! Data 1985-1988 X. Table of Positions and Manpower 87 CENTRO tNT!.RNACIONAL DE o\CRICULTUJI.A ti\OPJCAL (CIAT) Table la Reaourc.• S~r~ ~Cou: and Sfechl Pr o Jecu} 1936 Actual 1987 Plan 1988 Pro~ul 1989 For ~~ 14,')80 Re.•e.ucL Su[!201'"t: \'L1;{ttns Sc::i,.ntl~[-; and Pou Doctoral~:> 472 oJ• 6)9 6}9 C:er.rtic Resoutces; - cou )2) 406 :.ob 406 -Spedo~l 61 97 " 67 ~lotec;hnology Resedrth: -Cor,. 241 )47 ~Jn 130 -spechl JI Researcl1 S€!rvice!i JOS 2ó7 267 2 (, ;' ~tat Ion Opcrat ions 954 7&7 767 767 Carlmagua S r att~tl ;19 191 5~) ;o; Da toJ Sf'rvi ces 450 ~19 ~ 19 1 119 Agro .... col ogical ~tudi•fl 1 ~o 170 1 liO 1 170 Sud rntt -- ____2l.!. ___!_ --...!!!. ___!_ ~ __ 1 ~ Sub-Toul --· ~ __ 9 4 , .'!q4 ~ 4 47.:. .!!!. 4 ,.:.47 W7AL Rf:SEAR.Ct< ..• 14, ..,..," ,_ l() , })b 1h IA,Ob) "' Jq , o_; lnt•rn•[ ton<&l Cco2~ration: Tralning and conference¡: -C"r~ ) , .:.) ';1 1 . 2•0 1 ,40í. 1,404 -!tp•cloJI .. 221 2':1 247 c~unic.ation and lnfonMt.ion Support: -Cor~ \,lf)'} 1,4:!:! 1,422 1,4.?.1 - SpeciOISTRAtlOt>; 2 .~sq 2 , 101 2. 701 2 , 701 t.ener.1l OE~t:ra tln& ExEentes: Phystr.::•l Plant l,l.JO J,Mn 1 .0'10 1,090 Motor Pool 955 799 700 7., Gen~ral Expenso!~ -2!!3.. ___m. ~ ~ TOTAL GENE!U.l OP[RAT 1 r.<~ f.XPlNSE.S ].127 l , :J', 2 • .:..:~ 2 ,4l ) tlthotr: -ci)nt 1n¡enf'y .19 21• :~9 Frovision for Prlc~t Ch~na~• ~ 2,484 ! Cij,I.,J OTHI::RS --12.! ~ 1, 713 t UUL OPERATif'ISS .n.21"> ., lt. .~:f) 87 :!1 ,oo~ ~) .?9,939 l:o\J>llo\l Cort~t ruct ion: -Lo re ~; 2•1 zoo ;;o -Speclal 39 181 " :_¿ Equt~nt: -Cor .. ••• bS1 180 ft42: -Specta l '"' }J'} li4 111 CKL Con'!>t ructl on • t:.qutpm11nt 29 .. )(' 2SO Provh;1un fo< Pric• rh<'níl.•" ___:], ~ TOTAl CAP I11\I. l ,010 1, 710 1,401 1,440 ADDI110SA1. \o\)RJ(JSG Co\PilAl JI Zl llh 231 tct•l RequtreK•nt• ( i+ l • l) ¡:O . ~46 16.~~1 29 . 121 )1,610 tess: fl"MD5 ON HAND S!l2 808 Fundin¡ Reqv.i r~~::~ent a n .. z~~ 3~ .. ~=~ ~2 .. !~! H,~!2 SflliRC.ES Of FUNDS: rore: -Restr lcted 10,)71 11,)97 -Capital 7J 164 -Unrestri1..ted 10 , '\27 9, 769 -Wodd 8anlt 750 1 , 000 -E.srned Inco.e S74 6)0 649 680 - l'nldentHI•d Sources 2C.,Ol9 27,110 tOTAL CORF. 22.101 23 , 160 24,68$ 27,790 SPECIAL PROJf.CTS Capi t al 144 518 324 139 Others ~ ~ ~ ~ TOTAL SPLCIAL J>ROJECTS 2 , 449 2 , 589 4,433 1 ,820 TOTAL ,:.m ,~.m ~~ .. !U l! .. ~l2 n August 1987 88 CE~'TRO INTERNACIONAl. DE AGRlCUL!URA TRDPlCAI (C!AT) Table lb Resource Summorr (Co-r-e Only) !986 Actual 1987 Plan 1988 ProP:osa 1 1989 ror<~:cas:t Senior Senior Senior Senior Staf f A!:lount ~taff Ar.1C>1.t't St:aff ~oun t Staíf Amoun t ~ 86$000 67Svuo Postt 1ons 8 7$000 Positions 87$000 l. OPf.I\ATlON~ l'r.c.u::,~ k .. search l'rt'$t'Ams: !!.~Clfi~ 16 2 ,b02. 18 j , .'f<+ lE ) .189 lij l , :69 Ca'§!l.a\· •• 2,000 !. , 1·.·', 10 z. 1~S " j ,460 Rice 6 993 t •• • r- 1 1 ,,3Q 1 :,230 "! rúp 1 ~" 1 l'3<;lUTPS 17 3.168 _1_8 ~ ~ 1 , 319 _1_1 hl_!_l_ :Jub--l.t t:t 1 4~ ~ . )h: .,_ 9 , i)l,! ~ 1 10.036 ~9 11 , 490 ~PSf>arch Su2~urL: \'~dtlHS S( i••nt ists ar.l t'o:.l \h•~turdl!i 47!. óN 639 639 r:.--nv tic f(P-;onrces :,,: ~ iolló 4Q6 406 f lOledLIH' l U~\- Re~P .. Hl:~. ~4 7 j~ i 530 ~JO \·~~earc J, ',.•r\·tces ;e¡., lb) 267 767 ~t.n.t ion np.-. r .lll on ~ Y)'- Jh) )6; 7b7 f¡:¡rirl.-,,¡,u 1 1 so 170 1 170 1 )0 S~4!'d ult 2 ___12! 2 487 ___l ~ ~ ~ ~ub-Tot .. : i 4 ,COl'. __!! .:.,t':ll 4 .l80 -"- 4 ,JAO TülAL lolf.SLidTH 55 U , !f;; &t• 14 . o~n 6' 1 t., ,41 (, ··~ 1:. , 870 lnte.rn.;:;tional Coo~•·ratlon: Tra tuing •nd ~·onfPnmc~s 1 1 ,4 )9 1 1 , 1h0 1 1 ,404 l ,40.4 Cotrn.IJnlcat lt.m and tnforr.~.,t ¡m, Support _2 1_,_~ ....1 !.!_4Jl_ __)_ 1. 4~ 2 _1 j , 422 TOT,\l. 1 :~T t P~..\ T 1 0:-IAI (OOPERATlON 2 , 808 :.' ,h8 2 2 ,R2t l,B26 A.d~rir.istration: Board ol lr-u~tces 174 150 1 ;ú J;O IHreccor C:t:neral 517 S24 S2" ~24 Hirectors 40~ 1~4 554 J ~;· ñdminist rat t ,..,. Support ___1_ l ,402 ___1_ J~ ___1_ 1 ,!.7) 1 l , 47) 10TAL AOX~ 'o:! STRATiflt' l , 589 2,il'i '.;o: 1 , 701 Genera 1 02er-at ini (XE~OS~s: Physical P:l.1r.t 1 , 4 JO 1 , 09(1 1 ,090 1,090 Motor Pool 4» ¡c;r, 799 799 Ccnk!ral txp,.n~oes _ _7_ll_!_ ~ ~ ----ill 1'0TAI. c.n:lh.,\L OPf.R).T ¡ S:C EXHNSf'S \ ,1 2.7 2.- ~., 1 , 425 2 ,42~ 1Hher: ---c-on t in~•·n ... : 22 Y 2Z9 129 f·rovislon (pr !'rice Lh.1nges 698 L.:!07 TOTI\l. OThl ~~ ~ __ 1_,1_1_7 ~ TOTAl tif'J'KATIO!'~ o5 !:'h$Z 1, 29 1 l\1 87$21,44' 72 88$7J,49S 78 89$26,2~8 . . CM-!TAL Lons t ruct Í.ecial 2 Tropical Pastures: -Core 16 17 17 18 18 -Special 1 1 Sub-Total 51 58 60 65 66 Research SuEEort: Gene tic Resources: -core -Special Biotechnology Research: -e ore 3 -Special Station Operations Carimagua Station Data Services 1 Agroecological Studies 1 1 1 Seed Unit 2 2 2 Sub-Total 7 8 8 _1. 10 TOTAL RESEARCH 58 66 68 74 76 International CooEeration: Training and Confer encP.s: -e ore - Special Connnunication ~ In f o . Support: -Core 3 3 3 3 -Special TOTAL INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 4 4 4 4 4 Adminis tration: Director General 2 2 2 Di rectora 3 3 3 Adminis tra tive Support: -Core 1 - Special 1 TOTAL ADMINISTRATION TOTAL OPERATIONS: - Core 60 65 65 70 72 - Special Projec t s 9 12 14 15 15 --~2 ==u ==z~ --~~ ==~r 25 August 1987 93 1. OPERATIONS PROGRAM Beans TOTAL BEANS Cassava TOTAL CASSAVA Rice TOTAL RICE TROPICAL PASTURES Genetic Resources TOTAL GENEHC RESOURCES Training & Conferences TOTAL TRAlNlNG ó CONF. COMMUN lCATION & IN FORJo! . ADI!lN!STRATION SUPPORT TOTAL OPERATIONS 2 . CAPITAL TOTAL SPECIAL PROJECTS 94 CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRI CULTURA TROPICAL (ClAT) Special Projects Table V Senior Staff 10 15 1987 Plan 90 675 704 134 106 ___1Q 1, 759 32 49 144 127 352 32 110 118 260 28 37 60 97 121 100 221 162 2 ,879 518 (Summary Only) Senior Staff 10 15 86 1 ,129 1 ,1 92 101 106 63 2 ,6 77 32 57 139 280 sos 32 110 ~ 447 28 37 134 100 234 118 4 , 109 324 1988 Description Legume Germplasm Bean Improvement for EastPrn Africa Bean Imp rovement fo r Sou thern Africa Research on PhasP.olus Germp lasm Bilateral Sean Project with Peru Economic Stud ies of Snap Beans Cassava Program in Panama Agro-industrial Devel opment oí Cassava Explorat . ó Eval . of Cassava Hite Pred . Cassava Development in Brazil Rice Program in Panama Bilateral Ri ce Projec t with Pe ru Caribbean Rice Research Network Farming Systems in che West~rn Amazonia Germplasm Collection (Beans 1 Cassava & Tropical Pastur~s) ln-vitro Activ~ Gene Bank Farm.:!:r Part1cipat1on in Technology Design Various Course s & Training Specialized lnforma t ion Centers Special Projects Officer 25 August 1987 Table VI CtN1RO WIERNAC~OllhL !>E .1\Gl\lC\ll:rURA lltO?lCAL (CIA't) 1988 Total Budget R~i!quest: U. S. DolLar Amounts Allocated to Reaearch and Resean:h Related Activities Communi Training cations Biotech- Agroeco- and and Tropical Genettc nology logical Seed Con fe- Infor- ACTIVIT!ES Beans Cassava Rice Pastures Resources Research Studies Unit rences ~nation Total 'Wat.er 'Kanagement 24.9 24 . 9 Soil Hanageme.n t & Conservat ion Res. 146.9 57.2 2.5 207 .o 413.6 Agroclimatology Research 68.4 10.8 166. 7 245 . 9 Cert~~plasm: a) Research on Conservation & Diversity 83.5 151.1 94.6 27 .1 35b.3 b) Collection 51.3 225 .3 Bl,6 ll .9 )JZ.l e) Conservation~ Characterization & Doc. IJ5. 2 295.4 72 . 9 315 . 1 28 1. 7 45.2 1,145.5 d) Enhancement 478.9 296 .6 9 . 4 492.2 9 . 9 13.9 1 .300.9 e) Plant Breeding/ lmprovement 1,198 . 3 631.5 504 .1 172.7 31.3 2 , 537.9 f) lnternational Trials (distrtb, & Exch.) 493.2 248 . 9 232 . 5 531 .6 11.4 18.1 1,535. 7 Se.ed Product ion JO . 7 76.4 160.4 5.3 34 . 7 287.5 Crop Systems Research 663.5 301.1 104 . 4 1 , 069.0 Livestock 263 .2 263 . 2 Crop-Livestock Systems Research 145 . 3 44.1 189. 4 Plant Protection Research 630.5 470.8 236.5 136.6 36.5 141.7 1,652.6 Plant Nutrition Research 371.2 23 . 3 25 .6 167.3 587 •• Mat-hine'r1 V,.e;~ea;rch 6. t>eveioiJment j . 7 43 . 2 1 1.6 60.5 Livestock Nutrition Rf"S@arch 426.5 426.5 Livestoc.k Reproduction Research 50 .2 50 . 2 Human J!;~sourcf". Enhanc~"ml!-n t: a) Spec ialh:ed Courses (short t erm) 532. l 87.7 130.4 265 .8 19.6 31.3 86 . 7 646.8 79 . 4 1,879.8 b) tndividua.lhed 1nterosh1ps 359. j 169.6 61.6 164.2 11.9 42.3 46.2 64~ . 7 38.~ 1,539. ~ Conf4!-rences and Seminars 39.6 48.8 72 . 1 70.9 31.3 92.4 423. j 7.1 785 . 7 Docucoent3.tion a.nd Disseminatioo 134.5 68.9 48 , 6 8 . 3 11.1 32.7 9.8 52 . o 19.3 1 , 033. 5 1 ,418. 7 Reset'rch on Approaches, Conce.pts. Methodol. 175.6 45.2 25 . 2 234 . 0 43.0 5 . 4 528.4 and Procedures Coun!tdlin& a.nd Advislng NARS 358.5 130.3 112.3 118.1 14 . 8 l3. 2 40.4 787.6 Techoical Ass1stance 97 . 3 118.3 )8 . 5 qs .G \4.8 12. ~ B0.9 \ l.l 489.0 Coorclination of NEtvorks 119.5 83.3 114.2 279 .3 36.1 92 . 4 28.6 72 .9 1,426.3 Economtc and Social An.,lysls at Hiero-LEve! 101. 0 166.2 55 .4 74 . 7 24.5 5.8 11.9 439.5 Hark~t Analysis 56.1 60.5 26 . 6 11.6 154,8 PolicY Analysis 56. l 105.7 50.0 11.6 223 ,4 Nutrition and Consumption Analysis 29.7 49. 1 20 . 9 99.7 Research on R~search 8.3 8.3 Explor.ato ry Rt!search 129.7 66 . 0 116.3 91.8 403.8 Conversion and Utilization Res~arch ~ ____!B_:2 --- --- --- -- --- ~ --- --- ~ sUB-tOTAt.. 7 ,135. 0 3,728. 0 2 ,109. 3 4,925.1 59). 2 625.4 245.1 577.9 1 , 775. 6 1 , 248 . 7 22 . 963.3 Centra 1 Support ServJ c. es/ A.dmlni st ntion 4,640. 7 101:1\\.. <:G\U: Mi'U S?¡,Cli\L PROJf.C'iS ~!.~2~.2 2') August 1987 95 Table VII CENT~O INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTUilA TROPICAL (CIAT) 1988 Total 8udget Reque:¡t: Positiona Allocated to Research and Research Related Activitles Co..uni- Tratnln' cttione Biouch- Agroeco- and and Tropical Cenet ic nology logical Seed Con fe- ln(or- ACTIVITIES Beans Cassava Rice Paaturea Reeou rces R.e•earch StudJes Unit rene•• aatiof1 Toul Water Kanagecent 0.150 0 . 2 Soil Hanagement ft Conservation Res. o . 555 0.215 0 . 001 0.870 1.6 Agrodi1113tology huarch 0 . 250 0 . 050 o . 734 1.0 G•n~plasm: al Research on Conservation & Dlversity o. 276 0.424 0.103 0.100 0.9 b) Coll.ectlon o . 190 0 .4)) 1 . 104 0.050 1.8 e) Conservation , Characterization & Doc. 0.141 o . 395 o. 263 0.542 o . 573 0 . 200 2 .1 d) Enhancement 2.020 o. 385 0 . 052 2 .310 0.001 0 . 050 4.8 e) Plant Breeding/lmprovement 3. 370 1.895 2.411 o . 579 0 .150 8 . 4 f) lnternat tonal Trials (distrlb . 6o Ex ch.) 1.931 1.220 0.861 1.358 0.004 O. IOQ 5 . 5 Seed Product lon 0 .100 0.325 0 .4 50 0 . 002 0 . 124 1. 0 Crop Systcaa Re•urch 2. 519 o . 515 0.598 3.6 Liveato~;k 0 .940 0 . 9 Crop-Livestock Systeas Research o . 770 0.194 1.0 Plant Protectlon Research 2.850 1.090 0.945 0.820 0.011 0 . 800 6 . 5 Plant Nutrltion Research 1.6SJ 0.120 0 . 125 0.950 2.8 Hachin~try Research & Oevelop•ent 0.050 0.210 0.04 1 0.3 Llvestock Nutri t ion Research 1.470 1.5 Liveet<:tck Reproduction Reaearch o. 210 0.2 lluman kesource Enhancemeot: a) Spec l.aliu.d Courses (ehort term) L 160 0 .400 o. 592 1.015 0 . 032 0 .150 o. 309 o . 245 0.009 4.9 b) lndividualized lnternshtpt 1 . 820 o. 770 O. )JO 0.820 0 .051 0.200 o. 161 0 . 408 0 . 005 4.6 Con(e:rence• and Seainar¡¡ 0 . 220 0.210 o. 116 0 .160 0.150 o. 330 o . 326 0.001 1.7 Documentat l on and Disseainatlon o . 700 0.300 0 . 208 0 . 050 0 . 050 0.150 0.04) o. 185 0.020 2 . 892 4 .6 Research on A.pproaehes, Concepts . ttethodol. o . 790 0.160 o. 108 0 .660 0.200 0.001 1.9 and Proc.edures Couns~Uing and Advhtns NARS 1.420 0.520 o. 517 0.610 0 . 061 0 . 050 0.144 ). 3 Techn1cal Autstance o.5oo 0 .650 0. 116 0.430 0.061 0.150 o . 288 0 . 020 2.2 Coordlnation of Netvorks J . 260 0.450 0.471 1.490 0 . 100 0.330 0.192 6.3 Econoc::.ic and Social Analy51s at Hicro-L<~tvel 0.450 0.580 o. 296 0.)70 0.108 0.02 1 1.9 Harket Analysis 0 . 250 0.280 0.158 0.041 0.7 Polic:y Analysts 0.2>0 0 . 440 o. 243 0.041 1.0 Nutrition and Conau•ptlon Analytl:l 0 . 078 0.250 0.108 0.4 Research on Research 0.050 0 .1 Exploratory Resurch o. 396 0.285 0 . 580 0 . 400 1.7 Comtf!rsion and Ut111zatton Research ....2..:.!.!I. ~ -- --- -- - - -- .J!..,..Q!l -- -- ____g_,_§. SUB-TOTAL 28 . 000 11. 770 9 . 330 18 . 590 2 . 050 ) . 000 1.080 2.060 1.020 ).100 80.00 Centra 1 Support Servicu/ Ad11inistration ~ TOTAL SENIOR STAFF POSITIONS ~Z.22 25 Au¡ust 1987 96 CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL S~ruARY FINANCIAL DATA 1985- 1988 Current Asse t s Cash and Banks Receivable from Donors Receivable from Others Inventaries Total Current Assets Long-Term Accounts Receivable and Other Assets Fixed Assets Buildings, Lands & Construction in Progr ess Research Equipment Operation Equipment Vehicle Furniture & Office Equip . Airplane Total Fixed Assets TOTAL ASSETS Libilities Bank Debts & Overdrafts Accounts Payable & Other Liabilities Accrued Salaries & Benef . Advances Received from Donors Accounts Payable to Donors Total Liabilities Fund Balances Capital Fund Capital Development Fund Operating Fund Total Fund TOTAL LIABILITIES AND FUND BALANCES 98 Actual 1985 2,804 2 , 735 1,445 2 , 329 9,313 861 8,189 1,462 4,382 3,422 2,546 1,299 21 , 300 ~1~~r~ 1, 017 3,842 1, 237 1 ,994 391 8,481 21,300 1,245 448 22,993 ~1~~z~ 1987 Act ual Approved 1986 5,069 3,500 227 900 1, 291 2,300 1 , 323 454 7 , 910 7, 154 790 1,295 7 , 935 1,544 4 , 698 3 , 904 2 , 859 1 , 299 22,239 23,091 ~Q~2~2 ~1~~~Q 146 787 3 , 570 2 , 973 1, 594 1,835 553 600 655 302 6 , 518 6,497 22 , 239 23,091 1,374 1 ,752 808 200 24 , 421 25 , 043 ~Q~2~2 ~1~~~Q TABLE IX Budget Current Budget Estima te 1988 4,100 4,550 300 300 1, 350 1,400 1,145 1,012 6 , 895 7,262 800 800 23,949 25,350 ~1~~~~ ~~~~1~ 200 200 2,900 3,000 1,800 1,900 500 600 300 250 5,700 5,950 23 , 949 25,350 1,395 1,512 600 600 25,944 27,462 ~1~~~~ ~~~~1~ 25/08/87 ... . . . ' - . ' ULTURA T R O P 1 CAL Table X HANPOWER P O R T S T A F F TOTAL S T A F F ~ OTHER SUPPORT STAFF HAN- YEAJIS POSITIONS HAN-YURS POSITIONS HAN-YEAJIS Act. ll.ev. Bud. A<: t. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. Bud . Ac.t. Rev. Bud. 86 87 88 86 87 88 86 87 88 86 87 88 86 87 88 8.3 10,0 10.0 128 118 121 123.0 118.0 121.0 188 182 185 182.3 182 .o 185.0 7.9 9.0 9.0 103 94 92 98.0 93.0 113.0 141 136 133 136.9 135 .o 154 . 0 5.6 7 .o 6.0 63 77 77 55.7 73.0 77 .o 85 106 106 77.3 102.0 105.0 12 . 0 12.0 11.0 152 158 158 149.0 148.0 158.0 216 225 225 213.0 216.0 224.0 33.8 38.0 36.0 446 447 448 425.7 432.0 469.0 630 649 649 609.5 635.0 668.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 25 24 24 24.7 24 .o 24 .o 31 30 30 30.8 30.0 30.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 9 12 17 9.1 12 .o 17 .o 15 21 30 15. 1 21.0 30.0 18 19 19 17.6 19.0 19.0 22 23 23 21.6 23 . 0 23.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 82 80 80 80.8 80.0 80.0 90 88 88 88.8 88.0 88.0 5.8 4.0 5.0 1 2 2 1.5 2 .o 2.0 8 10 10 9.4 10.0 11.0 7 o 9 9.0 10.0 1 1.4 18 20 20 18.6 20. 0 19.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3 3 3 3 .o 3.0 3.0 6 8 a 5. 7 1.0 8 . 0 2.8 2 . 0 2.0 5 9 9 5 .o 9.0 9.0 16 19 20 15.6 19.0 20.0 21.6 20.0 22.0 144 149 154 143.1 149.0 154.0 206 219 229 205.6 218.0 229.0 55,4 58.0 58.0 590 596 602 568.8 581.0 623.0 836 868 878 815.1 853 . 0 897 . 0 5.8 5.0 5.0 4 4 5 4.0 4.0 5.0 20 21 22 20.2 21.0 22.0 14.8 18.0 16.0 39 34 34 39.2 34 .o 36.0 81 81 83 79.7 81.0 83.0 20.6 23 .0 21.0 43 38 39 43.2 38.0 41.0 101 102 105 99.9 102.0 105 . 0 4.1 4 . 0 4.0 2 2 2 2 .o 2.0 2.0 15 15 15 14.4 15.0 15.0 3.9 6.0 6.0 1 1 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 14 14 10.2 14.0 14.0 15 .1 61.0 67.0 3 3 3 3.1 3.0 3.0 94 94 95 99.4 94.0 95.0 83.1 77 .o 71 .0 6 6 6 6.1 6.0 6.0 119 123 124 124 .o 123 . 0 124 . 0 6.0 6.0 6 . 0 149 146 148 148 o 3 146.0 148.0 159 156 158 158.3 156.0 158.0 3.8 4 . 0 4.0 42 45 47 43.3 45.0 47.0 47 50 52 48.1 50.0 52.0 9.8 10.0 10.0 191 191 195 191.6 191.0 195 .o 206 206 210 206.4 206.0 210.0 25.0 24 .0 25 .o 62 60 62 62 . 0 60.0 62.0 98 94 98 98 . 0 94.0 98.0 193.9 192.0 191.0 892 891 904 8 71 .7 876.0 927 .0 1360 1393 1415 1343.4 1318.0 1434.0 - -·····--~-·-··-···· ··------------------ ·-------------------- ------------------·-- ------·-------- 25/ 08/ 87 CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE A¡ TABLE OF POSIT1 0 NJ SENIOR S T A F F SCIENTIFIC ANO SUPERVISORY POSITIONS HAN-YEARS POSITIONS HAN-YEARS POSITII A.c. t. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. Bud. Act. Rev. 86 87 88 86 8 7 88 86 87 88 86 87 88 86 87 RES!l.\RCII PROCRAHS Beane 16 18 18 15.0 18.0 J8.0 36 36 36 36 . 0 36.0 36.0 8 10 cassava 9 9 10 9 .o 9 . 0 10.0 21 24 22 22.0 24.0 22.0 8 9 Rice 6 7 7 6.0 7 .o 7 .o JO 15 15 JO.O 15 . 0 JS.O 6 7 Tropical Paaturea 17 J8 J8 17 .o 18.0 18 . 0 35 37 37 35.0 38.0 37 .o 12 12 SUB- rotAL 48 52 53 47 .o 52 .o 53.0 J02 1 J2 JJO 103.0 JI) . O 110. 0 34 38 R8Sll.\RCH SUPPORT Cenet ic Reaourcea Uoit 1 J 1 l. O l. O l. O 4 4 4 4.0 4.0 4.0 1 1 Biotechnoloay Reeearch J 2 3 J. O 2 . 0 3.0 4 6 9 4.0 6.0 9.0 1 1 Research Servicea 4 4 4 4 . 0 4.0 4.0 Station a¡,erationa 1 1 J l. O l. O J. O S S S 5.0 5.0 s.o 2 2 Cariaaaue Stati on 2 4 4 2.1 4.0 4.0 S 4 Data Serv ice e 1 1 1 J. O J. O J. O 8 JO 10 8.3 10.0 8.0 8 9 A¡roec.olo¡ical Studiea 1 1 1 J. O J. O J. O 1 3 3 o. 7 2.0 ) . 0 1 1 Seeds 2 2 2 2.0 2.0 2 . 0 6 6 7 5.8 6.0 7.0 3 2 SUB-rotAL 7 8 9 7 .o 8.0 9 . 0 34 42 46 33.9 41.0 44.0 21 20 rotAL RES!l.\RCH SS 60 62 54 .0 60.0 62.0 J36 154 156 J36.9 154.0 154.0 55 58 . IJITUKATIONAL COOPERATION Trai nina 4 Coo.ferencea 1 1 1 l. O J. O J. O 10 11 J1 9.4 11.0 11.0 S S Co.~~unication & lnfora. 3 3 3 3.0 3.0 3.0 24 26 28 22.7 26 . 0 28.0 15 18 TOTAL IJITL. COOP. 4 4 4 4.0 4.0 4.0 34 37 39 32.1 37 .o 39.0 20 23 AI»>INISTRATION Director General 2 2 2 2.0 2.0 2.0 7 7 7 6.3 7 .o 7 .o 4 4 Directora 3 3 3 3.0 3.0 3.0 3 4 4 2.3 4.0 4 .o 3 6 Adm.iniatrative Suppor t 1 1 1 l. O l. O J. O 23 23 24 20.2 23.0 24.0 67 67 rotAL ADIHNISTRATION 6 6 6 6.0 6.0 6 . 0 33 34 35 28.8 34.0 35.0 74 77 GENERAL OPERATING EXPENSES Pbysical Plant 4 4 4 4.0 4.0 4 . 0 6 6 Hotor Pool 1 1 1 l. O l. O l. O 4 4 TOTAL CENERA!. OPERATINC 5 5 5 5.0 5 . 0 s.o 10 JO Sl!:LP-SUPPORtiNC & lNCOKE CENERATINC ACTIVITIES J J J J. O l. O l. O 10 9 10 10.0 9.0 10.0 25 24 GRANO rotAL 66 71 73 65.0 71.0 73.0 218 239 245 212.8 239.0 243.0 184 192 ----------···--······--·· ········-·-·········----· ----------·· ·-·-····· ---------------------- ----···- AEU AGLINET AGRINTER A GRIS ARTES BCMV BGMV BMMV BNF BRU BTI CATIE CBB CCMV CENAR GEN CETREISEM CGIAR CGPRT CIAT LIST OF ACRONYMS ANO ABBREVIATIONS CITED Agroecological Studies Unit (CIAT) Agricultura! Librarles Network (United Kingdom and FAO) Sistema Interamericano de Información para la,s Ciencias Agrícolas (also known as Inter- American Information System of Agricultura! Sciences) International lnformation System for the Agricultura! Sciences and Technology (F AO) Asociación Regional de Tecnólogos en Semillas (for Central America, Panama, and the Caribbean region) Bean common mosaic virus Bean golden mosaic virus Bean mild mosaic virus Biological nitrogen fixation Biotechnology Research Unit (CIA T) Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research (USA) Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (for Central America, with headquarters in Costa Rica) Common bacterial blight Colombian cassava mosaic virus Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos (Brazil) Centro de Estudos e Treinamento em Tecnología de Sementes e Mudas (Brazil) Consultative Group on lnternational Agricultura! Research (USA) ESCAP Regional Co-ordination Centre for Research and Development of Coarse Grains, Pulses, Roots, and Tuber Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific (Indonesia) Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (Colombia) 101 CIBC CIDA CIMMYT CIP CISU CMD CPAC CPU CVL CsXV DNA DRl EEC E LISA EMBRAPA EMPASC EMR EPR ES CAP FAO FEDEARROZ FSD GAS GENSTAT GLIM-3 GRIN GRU IARCs IBPGR IBYAN ICA ICM 102 Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (U nited Kingdom) Canadian International Development Agency (Canada) Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (Mexico) Centro Internacional de la Papa (Perú) Communication and Information Support Unit (CIA T) Cassava mosaic disease Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuária dos Cerrados (Brazil) Central processing unit Central Virology Laboratory (CIAT) Cassava X virus Deoxyribonucleic acid Programa de Desarrollo Rural Integrado (Colombia) European Economic Community (Belgium) Enzyme-linked immunasorbent assay Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Brazil) Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária de Santa Catarina (Brazil) Externa! Management Review (CIAT) Externa! Program Review (CIA T) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Thailand) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Italy) Federación Nacional de Arroceros (Colombia) Frogskín dísease General Administratíve Staff (CIAT) A General Statistical Program (United Kingdom) Generalised Linear Interactive Modelling, Release 3 (United Kingdom) Germplasm Resources Information Network (USA) Genetic Resources Unit (CIA T) International agricultura! research centers International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (ltaly) lnternational Bean Yield and Adaptation Nursery (CIA T) Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (Colombia) lntegrated crop management ICRJSAT ICRO ICTA IDB IDIAP IDMS/ R IDRC IFDC liTA ILCA INIFAP INIPA IPM INTSORMIL IRAT IRRI IRTP ISIS IVITA JUNAC MINOS MIRCEN MITA NAG NARS NVRS ORSTOM International Crops Research Institute for tbe Semi-Arid Tropics (India) lnternational Cell Researcb Orgaoization Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agricola (Guatemala) Inter-American Development Bank (USA) Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias de Panamá Cullinet's Integrated Database Management System/ Relational (USA) International Development Research Centre (Canada) International Fertilizer Development Center (USA) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria) International Livestock Center for Africa (Ethiopia) Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuárias (Mexico) Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones y Promoción Agraria (Peru) Integrated pest management International Sorghum and Millet Program (USA) Institut de Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales et de Cultives Vivriéres (France) Internationa¡l Rice Research Institute (Philippines) International Rice Testing Program (Philippines) Interactive Simulation System (United Kingdom) Instituto Veterinario de Investigaciones Tropicales y de Altura (Perú) La Junta del Acuerdo de Cartagena (Andean Pact, Colombia) Modular ln-core Nonlinear Optimization System (USA) UNEP f UNESCO f ICRO Microbiological Resource Centre (Sweden) Mayaguez Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Puerto Rico) Numerical Algorithms Group (United Kingdom) National agricultura! research systems National Vegetable Research Station (United Kingdom) Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique d'Outre-Mer (France) PROCIANDINO Programa Cooperativo de Investigación Agrícola para la Subregión Andina RICA RIEPT SADCC SAS Red Interamericana de Comunicadores Agricolas (CIA T) Red Internacional de Evaluación de Pastos Tropicales (CIA T) (Translates as International Tropical Pastures Evaluation Network.) Southern African Development Coordination Conference Statistical Analysis System (USA) 103 SDC SNICA STAIRS TAC TDRI UNDP UNEP UNESCO U SAlO VM/ CMS 104 Swiss Development Cooperation Subsistema Nacional de Información en Ciencias Agropecuárias (Colombia) Storage and lnformation Retrieval System (USA) Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR Tropical Development and Research Institute (United Kingdom) United Nations Development Programme (USA) United Nations Environmental Programme United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization United States Agency for International Development Virtual machinef conversational monit?r system