IPGRI in 
Asia, the Pacific
and Oceania
R
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tAPO 1999–2000
The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an
international scientific organization, supported by the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IPGRI’s mandate
is to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic resources for
the benefit of present and future generations. IPGRI’s headquarters are
in Maccarese near Rome, Italy, with offices in another 22 countries
worldwide. It operates through three programmes:
• the Plant Genetic Resources Programme
• the CGIAR Genetic Resources Support Programme
• the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and
Plantain (INIBAP)
Cover illustration
Farmers harvesting safflower in Xinjiang, China.
Citation:
IPGRI. 2001. Regional Report APO 1999–2000. 
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome
ISBN 92-9043-493-7
IPGRI, Via dei Tre Denari 472/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy
© International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 2001
R
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IPGRI in 
Asia, the Pacific
and Oceania
The Asia, Pacific and Oceania region 3
IPGRI in APO 5
Specific crops 6
Development and application of methodologies 22
In situ conservation 24
Ex situ conservation 27
Developing national programmes and regional collaboration 30
Human resource development 33
IPGRI staff in APO 35
Acronyms 36
Contents
About this report
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IPGRI inAsia, the Pacific and Oceania
This report highlights some particularly significant achievements of IPGRI’s
activities in Asia, the Pacific and Oceania in1999–2000 and describes the
impact that this work is having.
Past achievements of IPGRI in APO are detailed in IPGRI’s pre-1999 series 
of Annual Reports. Further information is available from IPGRI’s Web site,
http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/.
The Asia, Pacific and Oceania (APO) region is of immense importance biologically and socially.
The region accounts for 30% of the world’s agricultural land and 56% of its population. It has
the largest concentration of poor and malnourished people of any region. It is home to several
mega-centres of biological diversity and large areas throughout the region are facing severe
genetic erosion.
The region has undergone a great transformation over the past decade. This has been due in
part to an increased emphasis by governments on sustainable development, the increasing
globalization of agriculture and trade, shifts in intellectual property rights regimes and the
emergence in the region of several countries with economies in transition. Against this
backdrop, the need to increase food security, alleviate poverty and protect the environment
remains of real concern. In a rapidly changing world, the growing complexity of these already
enormous development goals requires IPGRI to pursue its mission in ever-more effective,
creative and proactive ways.
This report summarizes some of IPGRI’s recent activities in the region, carried out with its
numerous partners in the governmental, non-governmental and private sectors. The
activities were identified as priority areas for attention through consultations with national
and regional plant genetic resources networks and with specific crop networks.
IPGRI’s work contributes to three objectives:
• strengthened national capacities, particularly in developing countries, to conserve,
access and use genetic resources
• international collaboration in the conservation and use of plant genetic resources and
• generation and use of knowledge and technologies relevant to improved conservation
and use of plant genetic resources.
Specific crops and forest species such as coconut, banana, tropical fruit trees,
underutilized crops, bamboo and rattan have enormous potential to contribute to human
development in the APO region. IPGRI’s choice of these species for particular research
attention reflects the priority the institute gives to smallholder agriculture, to people living in
marginal areas and to poor farming households more generally.
IPGRI promotes the use of plant genetic resources in the region as a means to support the
rehabilitation of degraded habitats and to mitigate the possible impacts of climate change
through the development of crop varieties that are adapted to saline soils, low and high
temperatures, drought, cyclones and other stressful conditions.
It is a particular challenge to promote the conservation of agricultural biodiversity in a region
where the major concern is more often meeting an immediate and urgent need for food and
increased income. Harmonizing immediate needs with longer-term development
perspectives requires not only technical inputs but also social and community-based
approaches and technologies.
Humanity’s ability to continue to be able to make use of a wide array of genetic resources
of crops and forest species to meet future challenges depends on the existence of
effective conservation strategies and technologies. IPGRI continues to work in the region to
improve ex situ and in situ (including on-farm) conservation technologies and strategies as
well as to ensure their effective implementation. Sustainability and cost-effectiveness are
key considerations in looking at the total system of plant genetic conservation. Regional
Fo
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Foreword
2 1999–2000Regional Report for APO
genetic resources networks—partnership arrangements that are given high priority by
IPGRI—are an important mechanism for promoting the transfer of technologies and
resource sharing among countries.
IPGRI has put considerable effort and investment into building human capacity in the region,
as a means of ensuring the sustainability of national efforts. This has taken the form of short-
term training courses as well as postgraduate programmes conducted with leading universities
and institutes in the region. Special attention has been given to increasing public awareness of
the importance of conserving plant genetic resources and their actual and potential
contribution to economic and social development. In particular, public awareness activities
have targeted schools and key policy makers. The former are being targeted to help ensure
the commitment of the coming generation to conserving plant genetic resources, and the latter
to fill a more immediate need of expanding political and financial support for national and
regional plant genetic resources programmes.
We would like to extend our gratitude to the numerous individuals from our national,
regional and international partner institutions for their invaluable contributions to the work.
We wish also to recognize the many funding agencies that have so generously provided
the financial support that has enabled us, with our partners, to carry out the activities
reported in this document.
Percy Sajise Geoffrey Hawtin
Regional Director Director General
The Asia, Pacific and Oceania
(APO) region stretches from
Mongolia in the north to
Tasmania in the south and from
India in the west to the islands
of Micronesia in the east. This
vast region encompasses about
45 countries and includes half
the world’s population. The
region has a wide variety of
climatic, ecogeographic and
agro-ecological conditions: the
Mongolian tundra gives way to
highlands and semi-arid tropics
and then to humid coastal
plains, with climates varying
from subtemperate to tropical.
This varied environment, together with the long history of intensive agriculture in the region,
has produced great genetic diversity in crops, forest species and wild crop relatives.
Another factor contributing to the enormous diversity in cultivated plants in APO is the rich
mosaic of people and cultures found in the region, each of which has been selecting and
using genetic resources to suit their particular needs for hundreds of generations.
Population migration and trade have introduced new species and varieties that were
subsequently adapted to local conditions and bred with local varieties.
Crops were first domesticated in four main areas. Crops such as eggplant (Solanum
melongena), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), black pepper (Piper nigrum), plantain (Musa spp.)
and jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) originated from the Indian centre of diversity.
Soyabean (Glycine max), onion (Allium cepa), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), peach (Prunus
persica) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) developed in the Chinese centre. Oriental rice
(Oryza sativa), banana (Musa spp.), citrus (Citrus spp.), mango (Mangifera indica), yam
(Dioscorea spp.) and taro (Colocasia esculenta) emerged from Southeast Asia. Coconut
(Cocos nucifera) and breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) originated from the Pacific Islands. Many
underutilized crops that are of localized importance in the region show very great diversity
at the species and genetic level. The same is true for tropical fruit species. Additionally, the
genetic diversity in both indigenous and introduced species has been enhanced through
extensive exchange of material within the region.
Many of the species that originated in the APO region, such as rice, banana and coconut,
moved across the Indian Ocean to Africa and the Pacific Ocean to America, where
secondary centres of diversity have arisen. For example, soyabean originated in northern
China but 74% of world production now comes from the Americas. Groundnut originated
in South America but nowadays India and China produce 66% of the world’s groundnuts.
This interdependence among regions is an important factor in development and exchange
of material and many countries in the region recognize this.
Almost all types of forestry zone occur in the region, from dry deserts to humid tropical
forest. Several independent estimates have shown great intra- and interspecific diversity in
these natural ecosystems. Some of the most useful non-timber forestry species, such as
bamboo and rattan, exhibit an enormous wealth of genetic diversity. However, the diversity
that is present in these forests is not well understood.
3The Asia, Pacific and Oceania region
Th
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Citrus and coconut at the market, Vientiane, Laos. 
P. Quek
4 1999–2000Regional Report for APO
There is severe genetic erosion in both crop and forestry species in the region, but the
full extent is not known. Population growth, deforestation, erosion, changing land use
and climatic factors are major threats to the existing biodiversity of the region. Demand
for food is increasing as the human population grows. Competition for water resources
is becoming intense.
Many countries in the region are rapidly becoming highly competitive export economies.
Urbanization is increasing and agriculture is changing from subsistence-based to highly
market-driven farming. Although these changes have increased incomes of the populations
of these countries, not all of them are for the good. In particular, biodiversity is declining as
a result of some of these changes. It is essential to conserve the vanishing plant genetic
resources, and to understand better the linkages between agricultural and economic
systems that affect diversity and sustainable production.
People in the APO region are increasingly aware of environmental degradation, land-use
changes and the associated decline in biodiversity. Non-governmental organizations are
becoming more active on environmental issues, and the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) have had significant
implications for the policies of the countries in the region. While many of these countries
recognize the need for legislation to protect intellectual property rights, they also recognize
and value the contribution made by farmers and local communities in maintaining and
improving genetic resources. Some countries in the region have introduced legislation that
strongly upholds the national sovereignty provisions in the CBD, which hampers exchange
of germplasm.
Mango, 
Malaysia.
IP
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IPGRI started its activities in the APO region in 1974 with the establishment of its office for
South East Asia. This office was initially located in the Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific (RAP) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in
Bangkok, Thailand. It shared this office with FAO’s Regional Committee for South East
Asia, which served as a planning and advisory body for the IPGRI programme. In 1988,
IPGRI opened an office in Beijing, China to co-ordinate activities in East Asia and an office
in Delhi, India to serve South and Southeast Asia. The Regional Office moved to Singapore
in 1992 and then to Malaysia in 1997.
IPGRI’s Beijing office is based at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)
and operates under a memorandum of understanding between IPGRI and CAAS. In
1999–2000 IPGRI’s Delhi office was hosted by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR) in the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) campus.
The national programmes in the region, IPGRI’s primary partners, vary enormously in
strength and capability. Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic People’s
Republic (DPR) of Korea, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New
Zealand, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam all have
some national-level co-ordination of activities in plant genetic resources (PGR). Australia,
China, India, Japan and New Zealand have well-established national programmes. National
plans are being developed for Bhutan, Cambodia and others. Hence IPGRI’s role varies
from country to country.
IPGRI’s regional programme in APO works with these national systems and with regional
networks on plant genetic resources or specific crops to identify regional and national
needs and priorities and to identify ways in which IPGRI can help in meeting these needs.
IPGRI’s APO office works to strengthen plant genetic resources programmes in the region,
as well as promoting networking among the national programmes. A considerable amount
of effort is devoted to developing improved technologies and to increasing exchange of
information. APO staff interact with IPGRI’s thematic groups, other regional groups and the
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) in sharing
priorities and experience gained in the APO region and in carrying out key research
activities. The INIBAP programme of IPGRI focuses specifically on banana and plantain
with the aim of increasing the production from smallholder systems. It does this through
collaborative projects and by coordinating and participating in the activities of the networks
concerned with banana and plantain. 
5IPGRI in APO
Maize and pulses 
in a market,
Sumatra, Indonesia.
6Coconut
The coconut is a fundamental smallholder crop in the APO region. Globally, it is grown on
almost 12 million hectares in 86 countries. It is generally regarded as the tree of life because
it provides so many basic necessities. In 1992, IPGRI established the International Coconut
Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) to promote collaboration on coconut research
among the countries of the region. COGENT’s initiatives in sustainable development and
food security have been a great success, with work that is directly relevant to small-scale
farmers (see Box, ‘Preparing for disaster’). Today, it has 38 member countries collaborating
in a worldwide network, involved in research projects and sharing germplasm and
information. COGENT’s project on raising incomes and improving nutrition of coconut
smallholders (see overleaf), funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD), is an excellent example of the high-impact work that the group is pursuing.
Preparing for disaster
IPGRI, through COGENT and with funding from the Asian Development Bank (ADB), is
collecting and conserving coconut varieties that can resist natural calamities such as
typhoons, cyclones, drought, pest, diseases and global warming. 
Disasters in atolls
The low-lying atolls of the South Pacific have little soil and water and are vulnerable to
drought and typhoons. Coconuts are extremely important in the ecology of these islands as
they stabilize the fragile farming systems on which the inhabitants depend for their
subsistence. Mature trees grow where nothing else will, anchoring the delicate tropical soil,
lowering temperatures, reducing evapotranspiration and minimizing salt spray and storm
surges. IPGRI and COGENT are collecting germplasm in the atoll countries of the Cook
Islands, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu and conserving it in COGENT’s International
Coconut Genebank (ICG) in PNG. Once properly conserved, the germplasm is multiplied and
used to plant and restore this economically important crop in atolls with fragile farming
systems that have lost their coconuts to a natural disaster.
Drought
Coconut is grown in rainfed areas and is vulnerable to severe drought. COGENT member
countries are collecting germplasm from drought-prone areas in India, Indonesia, Thailand,
Sri Lanka and Vietnam, evaluating its tolerance in Sri Lanka, conserving it in field genebanks
and on farm in India and Sri Lanka, and sharing it with coconut breeders worldwide to breed
drought-tolerant varieties. A total of 56 ecotypes have been collected and characterized.
IPGRI is also developing molecular marker techniques, in collaboration with partner
institutions, to identify germplasm and tag characters for drought tolerance.
Typhoons and cyclones
Many Asian, Caribbean and Pacific countries are prone to cyclones and typhoons. Coconut
in these areas is often severely damaged in these storms, so IPGRI is identifying ecotypes
that resist strong winds. Characters that provide for resistance to strong wind include
dwarfness, big boles and stems, strong leaves and deep root systems. Germplasm is being
collected in PNG, the Philippines, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu. Material is characterized and
conserved in national genebanks and at the ICG, where it is further evaluated and shared
with national coconut breeding programmes.
During typhoons, cereal crops are usually destroyed, causing food shortages in the devastated
areas. IPGRI is collaborating with South Pacific countries to develop coconut-based intercropping
systems with root crops that provide good yields and food security after strong winds. 
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Specific crops
1999–2000 7Regional Report for APO
Raising incomes and improving nutrition 
of coconut smallholders 
IFAD is supporting an IPGRI/COGENT project to raise coconut farm productivity and income
for smallholders. The project follows a three-pronged strategy: promoting planting of adapted
and high-yielding varieties, developing marketable high-value products and promoting
intercropping and livestock rearing under coconuts. The last two activities have the most
immediate impact on farm income. The project is also documenting the various food recipes
using coconut in COGENT member countries. Initially, these recipes are being provided to
hotel and restaurant associations to help them develop appropriate coconut dishes that they
could serve to clients. These recipes will be catalogued and shared with coconut-producing
counties worldwide. It is hoped that this will encourage more people to cook coconut-based
dishes and that this will promote nutrition and expand the use of coconut.
Promoting high-yielding and adapted varieties 
The project has initiated research with Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Philippines and PNG to
deploy high-yielding and adapted coconut varieties and hybrids in coconut-based farming
systems in coconut-growing communities. A plan is also being initiated to undertake this
activity in 75 coconut-growing communities in 15 countries.
Developing high-value products
The project identified a number of marketable high-value products and market locations
(see Table 1). Feasibility studies in Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and
Vietnam on selected products are indicating the most promising avenues of research and
those that will have the most impact on raising incomes and eradicating poverty.
Table 1. Initial list of marketable high-value products 
and market locations
Palm sugar All developed countries with health-food markets
Desiccated coconut Europe, Americas, Asia–Pacific, Africa 
Milk/cream Asia–Pacific, Americas, Europe
Milk powder Europe, Asia–Pacific
Fresh coconut Asia–Pacific consumes the most, about six times the
combined consumption of the other regions
Makapuno coconut dessert USA leads other regions and consumption is associated with
the location of Asian populations
Coconut water Asia–Pacific, Americas, Europe 
Nata de coco Asia–Pacific, Americas, Europe, with consumption associated
with Asian populations
Coir fibre Europe, Americas, Asia–Pacific 
Fibre dust Europe, Asia–Pacific, Americas, Africa
Shell charcoal Asia–Pacific, Europe, Americas
Activated carbon Asia–Pacific, Europe, Americas
8Palm sugar production: Palm sugar is a heavy, rich, brown product and is an
appetizing and healthy alternative to conventional sugar. It has a potential niche in the
health-food market in developing countries, either as a product on its own or as a
replacement sweetener in prepared foods. It is easily produced by cooking the coconut
sap to evaporate the water. It could thus provide additional income for little extra work
or investment.
In 2000, Indonesia identified a hybrid palm (Malayan Yellow Dwarf x West African Tall) with
a high sap yield. Project researchers have also improved on the existing processing
technology for producing coconut sugar from the sap. Fifty-two farmers in Lampung
Province, Indonesia were trained in the improved technology and generated an annual
gross income of over US$3000 per hectare, which is 12 times the income from copra.
Similar work in Thailand identified local hybrids that are early bearing and have high sap
production and shorter trunks. The researchers have also improved sugar production
technology and introduced three pilot sugar-making demonstration units in coconut-
farming communities in Thailand.
Tender nuts: In many countries farmers can earn much more by selling young coconuts,
known as tender nuts, rather than mature nuts. The nuts are sold in roadside stalls to local
people, who buy them for their sweet meat and refreshing water. COGENT activities in
Bangladesh, Fiji, India and Sri Lanka have been testing new technologies and varieties to
produce tender nuts, at the same time involving women in the process.
Under this project, five coconut nurseries in India supply seedlings of varieties suitable for
tender nuts to coconut-producing communities. Farmers can earn about US$2000 per
hectare per year from tender nuts, about eight times the income from copra. Market stalls,
mostly run by women, were also established to evaluate the profitability of selling tender
nuts. Four stalls monitored in August 1999 generated an average of US$93 per stall during
the month, enough to quickly pay for the cost of building the stall
and yield an income to supplement the family budget. 
In Sri Lanka, the cultivar Thembili (King) is the most popular variety
for tender nut use but it produces nuts during only one season of
the year. Research of the Coconut Research Institute (CRI)
concentrated on developing a non-seasonal variety. The project
has identified populations with non-seasonal bearing and other
preferred nut characters and these were sown in nurseries to
produce seedlings for field performance evaluation. 
In Fiji, an initial market survey of farmers, wholesalers, vendors,
exporters, quarantine officials and hoteliers showed there was great
potential for trade in tender nuts, both locally and in Australia.
There is added potential for large-sized nuts in markets further
afield. Researchers found that the palm variety Fiji Tall was the
major source of nuts but farmers could not meet even existing local
demand because of the low productivity of the variety. Work began
to encourage more planting and evaluation of the existing variety
and to find new varieties with higher productivity and large nuts. As
a result, the output of tender nuts is steadily rising.
In Bangladesh, COGENT-trained researchers and extension
workers found an active market for tender nuts. Farmers preferred
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
Pineapple 
and coconuts 
at the market,
Bogor, Indonesia. 
I. de Borhegyi.
the Bangladeshi Tall variety to improved dwarf coconuts because of
its greater yield and the better quality of its nuts early in the season.
The taller stems also allowed intercropping with other crops when
planted around homes, which increases domestic food supply.
Project scientists identified superior mother palms in farmers’ fields,
from which 30 000 seedlings were raised and transplanted into
villages near Dhaka, the main tender nut market.
New products: In Vietnam, project staff identified three novel
marketable coconut products that could be produced by farm
households and co-operatives: geotextile (coir nets) from coconut
husk, coconut shell handicrafts and nata de coco (high-fibre health
food) from mature coconut water. The raw materials for these
income-generating products are normally thrown away as waste.
Project staff are training women to make the twine used to weave
geotextile and the project is loaning them the US$14 it costs to buy
a twine-making machine. Initial estimates indicate that a person can
earn up to US$72 per month making twine.
Increasing farmer income 
per unit area per unit time
Farm income per unit area per unit time must be increased if
coconut is to be a competitive crop and hence attractive to farmers.
The crop also needs to be able to provide a sustainable income.
One way to do this is by growing other crops and livestock under
coconut. Researchers tested the viability of this strategy in China, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Samoa and Tonga, and initiated coconut-based farming systems research to
increase farmers’ incomes and also to generate income to subsidize maintenance of a
coconut field genebank. 
Studies in China showed that a wide variety of marketable products could be grown under
coconut, including forages, cocoa (Theobroma cacao), vegetables (hot/sweet pepper
(Capsicum spp.), cabbage, eggplant, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)), flowers, banana,
areca (Areca catechu), tea (Camellia sinensis), maize (Zea mays), groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea), litchi (Litchi chinensis), carambola (Averrhoa carambola), jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)
and mango. The pasture legume Stylosanthes guianensis cv Reyan yielded about 30 t/ha
under young coconut; 10 other pasture varieties are being evaluated under mature
coconut. Intercropping provided additional income, increased employment and provided
security against market risk. In addition, growing this forage legume improved water
retention, increased soil fertility, reduced soil erosion and controlled weeds.
In Samoa, an evaluation of potential coconut-based farming systems, based on current
farmer practice and research station trials, showed that banana, cocoa, fruit trees, kava
(Piper methysticum), taro, vegetables and yam could be grown successfully under coconut
palms. Project staff are testing a range of intercropping techniques to further improve
yields and income. In Tonga, intercropping taro, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and
tomato with the preferred tall coconut types generated additional income of US$1125,
US$1466 and US$4680 per hectare, respectively. Research began in Vanuatu on
intercropping coconut with banana, cassava (Manihot esculenta), maize, kava, sweet
potato, taro, vegetables and yam.
1999–2000 9Regional Report for APO
A forage crop
growing under 
young coconut 
trees. 
IPGRI
10 1999–2000Regional Report for APO
Germplasm collection, conservation, 
evaluation and utilization
Coconut genetic resources database
COGENT member countries in the Asia–Pacific region submitted information on 93
accessions to the International Coconut Genetic Resources Database (CGRD) project
between September 1999 and September 2000. The database now holds passport and
characterization data on 1045 accessions from the Asia–Pacific region and a total of 1316
accessions worldwide. The accessions are conserved in 25 sites in 20 countries. The
updated database is disseminated annually to coconut breeders worldwide and used as a
basis for exchange and research.
Establishing field genebanks and collecting accessions
To date 14 countries have established national genebanks to conserve their coconut
germplasm, four more than COGENT’s original target. In the second phase of an ADB-
funded project on collecting and conservation of coconut, the Network has helped 20
countries (Bangladesh, China, the Cook Islands, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Malaysia, the
Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Philippines, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Vietnam) to collect additional germplasm and conserve it in field
genebanks. Sixteen countries are undertaking additional collecting and conservation
activities themselves, while the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands and Tuvalu are
conducting their collecting and conservation activities in collaboration with scientists from
the Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement
(CIRAD), France. In these four countries, embryos collected are cultured in vitro at the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) in Fiji. They are then transferred to PNG, where
they are planted in the International Coconut Genebank for the South Pacific (ICG-SP).
Sharing and exchange of germplasm 
among member countries
Member countries have agreed to share and exchange germplasm by putting selected
national accessions in the multi-site ICGs for Southeast Asia (located at Sikijang,
Indonesia), South Asia (Kidu, Karnataka, India), the South Pacific (Madang, PNG) and
Africa (Côte d’Ivoire). Bilaterally, Sri Lanka has provided seednuts of three of its germplasm
accessions to share with Pakistan. Germplasm conserved in ICGs will be shared with
COGENT member countries.
Handling coconut germplasm in vitro
In 1997 the global Coconut Embryo Culture Project established a network that is promoting
interaction and co-operation among embryo culture researchers in developed and developing
countries and accelerating refinement and practical application of the technology. The aim is
to make embryo culture and acclimatization technology more efficient tools for germplasm
collecting, conservation and safe exchange. Fourteen laboratories in 11 countries are taking
part in this project, including laboratories in China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, PNG, Sri
Lanka and Vietnam in the Asia–Pacific region and Brazil, France, Mexico and Tanzania. The
project has also disseminated improved embryo culture protocols developed at the Philippine
Coconut Authority, University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB), the Central Plantation
Crops Research Institute, India and the Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD),
France. Improvements to embryo culture technology developed through this collaboration
increased the recovery rate of in vitro plantlets from Macapuno, a coconut variety with a soft
endosperm that is used to make highly priced sweets and confectionery
products. Growing Macapuno palms provides farmers with a higher
income than they would derive from growing normal coconuts and
creates employment and income opportunities in sweet making.
Embryo-derived Macapuno plants produce 80–100% Macapuno fruits,
compared with only 7–14% from the traditional Macapuno palm. The
Makapuno variety does not readily produce seedlings, hence needs to
be rescued and grown through embryo culture techniques. The
improved technology will also be used to produce plants from similar
coconut types in Kopyor, Indonesia and Dikiri Pol, Sri Lanka to enhance
income generation in the coconut communities.
Underutilized crops
Minor or underutilized crops are essential elements in local agriculture
in the APO region. Many of these crops are adapted to farming
conditions that are not suitable for major crops, such as saline soils,
arid conditions or degraded and marginal areas. In some cases they
are the only crops that can be grown. Nevertheless, they have been neglected by
researchers as being too specialized or limited in their application. Yet in many cases these
crops have the potential for more widespread use and some could increase income among
poor people in APO. Such crops include buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.), sesame (Sesamum
indicum), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Lathyrus spp. and taro. These crops could be
grown on a much wider scale, diversifying food supply and opportunities for income
generation, and their yields could be increased, increasing the food security of their
traditional growers.
A first step in promoting the use of these and other minor and underutilized crops is to
conserve their genetic resources. IPGRI is assisting in this process by promoting
networking on underutilized crops in APO to increase collaboration among countries.
Buckwheat
IPGRI’s project on in situ conservation (see, p. 24) is focusing on buckwheat as a key Asian
crop that requires further research. Working in the mountains of Nepal and southwest China,
project staff are studying the ecology and conservation of tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum
tataricum). The information they have gathered from local people on their methods of
production and seed handling has revealed much about the selection criteria the farmers use
and about the distribution of landraces of the crop. Results of an allozyme study of nine
species and one variety of the genus Fagopyrum in China confirmed the currently accepted
taxonomic relationships among the material. The
information has been invaluable in identifying
approaches for intensive breeding of the crop that will
increase yields and raise incomes.
Buckwheat grows in hostile conditions, such as on
marginal soils and in mountainous terrain, and is an
important source of genes for resistance to these
stresses. In 1999, the project studied the feasibility of
conserving bitter buckwheat on farms in the
mountains of Nepal. Local farmers in six districts
participated in characterizing buckwheat landraces
and selecting material for conservation. The study
1999–2000 11Regional Report for APO
Taro, a crop 
with wide 
potential 
in APO.
Threshing
buckwheat. 
12
helped demonstrate the value of in situ conservation of buckwheat genetic diversity in
Nepal as a means of safeguarding the buckwheat genetic diversity and in capturing the
farmers’ knowledge of the crops they are growing.
Under a collaborative research programme between Nepal and Japan, started in 1998, a
scientist from Nepal was trained in Japan on molecular characterization of plant germplasm.
Using this knowledge, the scientist used RAPD (randomly amplified polymorphic DNA)
analyses on leaf samples collected in 1999 and 2000 to assess the genetic diversity of 11
populations of Fagopyrum cymosum (common buckwheat) from three regions of Nepal. Two
populations, from Kaski and Dolpa districts, showed the highest within-population diversity.
Based on this finding project staff will focus their efforts on monitoring the status of these
two populations.
Lathyrus
Lathyrus sativus is an important hardy legume crop in marginal areas of South Asia. To
support research on and conservation of this crop, in 2000 IPGRI developed and published
a descriptor list for Lathyrus, in consultation with Indira Gandhi Agricultural University
(IGAU), Raipur, India and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria, and with financial support from Japan. These descriptors are
helping Lathyrus workers to characterize more accurately the material they are working
with. During 1999 and 2000, IPGRI staff gathered information for a comprehensive Lathyrus
germplasm directory and compiled a database on national programmes and international
organizations holding Lathyrus genetic resources. These efforts are helping Lathyrus
researchers to communicate with each other and collaborate in their efforts to conserve
and utilize a broader range of diversity in this important underutilized crop. 
Lathyrus sativus is an important source of protein for many people in eastern India,
Bangladesh and the mountainous regions of Nepal. However, the crop contains a neurotoxin,
Beta-oxalyl-diamino-propionic acid (Beta-ODAP) that can destroy a person’s nerves if the
seeds make up too large a part of the diet. In 1999, IPGRI began a study of Lathyrus genetic
resources with IGAU, Raipur, India in which 2243 accessions were grown to identify
accessions containing little or no Beta-ODAP. The results of the study are currently being
analyzed, but as an immediate follow up discussions started on similar studies in Bangladesh.
To promote exchange of information on Lathyrus, IPGRI is assisting in the editing of the
Lathyrus Lathyrism Newsletter, which is published jointly by the Centre for Legumes in
Mediterranean Agriculture (CLIMA) and the Third World Medical Research Foundation (TWMRF).
Safflower
Earlier efforts of IPGRI helped to establish regional collaboration on safflower through a
network. In support of this network, in 1999 IPGRI staff developed a electronic catalogue
of germplasm collections using the data interchange
protocol (DIP) format and DIPVIEW software developed by
IPGRI staff (see, p. 22). This simple and efficient system has
allowed information covering 60 descriptors on 2000
accessions of safflower held in 22 germplasm collections in
institutes in 15 countries to be integrated into an electronic
catalogue. The end product, a searchable catalogue
published on paper and on the Internet, makes it easy for
researchers and breeders to locate germplasm with
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
Farmers harvesting
safflower 
in Xinjiang, China.
particular characteristics. This improved access is increasing
the use of the stored germplasm and thus stimulating
breeding activities. Similar catalogues are being developed
for sesame and Lathyrus.
IPGRI further assisted the safflower network’s access to
information on safflower research by developing a safflower
homepage in co-operation with the International Safflower
Germplasm Advisory Committee (ISGAC:
http://safflower.wsu.edu/). The site provides information on
safflower, including a directory of collections, germplasm
characterization data, a newsletter devoted to safflower,
researcher contacts, news on conferences and meetings
and links to other information sources. The Web page is also
linked to the Genetic Resources Information Network (GRIN)
database for querying safflower information in USA safflower collections.
In 2000, IPGRI and the Institute of Industrial Crops of Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, China started a joint project to study the ecological adaptability of 30 safflower
varieties from 18 different countries. In 2000 the study was conducted in four locations
covering a range of climatic conditions and information on about 30 descriptors was
recorded. Analysis of the data is revealing associations between genotype and the
environment that will help in identifying the most promising sites for collecting genetic
diversity for breeding as well as for in situ conservation. 
Taro
The majority of Pacific islanders eat taro regularly and the crop provides a large part of
their dietary energy. Given the importance of the crop, IPGRI has been providing technical
and scientific input since 1997 to TaroGen, a taro genetic resources network funded by the
government of Australia. Network staff, together with national participants, have collected a
wide variety of taro germplasm in PNG and the Solomon Islands and established a regional
germplasm centre in Fiji to conserve this material ex situ. IPGRI helped the network to
compile a descriptor list to evaluate and characterize the material. IPGRI also facilitated the
development of a collecting strategy that was used to plan and manage additional
germplasm collecting in the South Pacific region. Project staff collaborated with the
Ministry for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests in Fiji to establish a pilot in vitro genebank
and a field genebank. These will conserve collected material in secure conditions and allow
it to be duplicated for further use.
During 1999–2000, IPGRI APO staff developed a taro collecting
strategy and trained TaroGen members in the techniques of collecting
and documenting accessions. IPGRI staff helped their TaroGen
counterparts to develop a project proposal for in situ conservation of
taro germplasm in Vanuatu, but TaroGen has yet to find a donor to
support the project.
IPGRI staff are currently assisting TaroGen in developing a core set of
accessions from the thousands collected in the Pacific countries. This
will help rationalize the existing collections by eliminating duplicate
accessions and reduce the cost of maintaining the collection.
Researchers will also be able to access and use more easily the full
range of the genetic diversity of the material.
1999–2000 13Regional Report for APO
Safflower diversity
in the field, 
Xinjiang, China.
Taro field trial,
Papua New Guinea.
14
Sesame
Sesame is one of the world’s oldest oilseed crops and has been cultivated in Asia for
thousands of years. Rich diversity of this economically important crop occurs in India,
China, Myanmar, Bangladesh and several other countries in Asia. Generally, there has been
little research on and development of this crop. However, there is tremendous scope for
improving the crop simply by increasing the use of material in existing germplasm
collections across Asia by national sesame breeding programmes. To promote this effort,
IPGRI organized a workshop on sesame evaluation and improvement with ICAR/NBPGR in
India. Eleven countries participated in the workshop, which used a novel approach. Five or
six months before the workshop, each participating country sent seed of 20–30 cultivars
and landraces to the NBPGR. These accessions were grown out ahead of the workshop,
and during the workshop participants were able to observe the range of material available
and select accessions that would be useful to their own country’s breeding efforts. The
approach was very successful, with a large number of requests for material made by the
participants, which IPGRI directed to the genebank holding the accessions.
In 1999, IPGRI assisted the Republic of Korea in preparing a research proposal to promote
use of sesame germplasm in the country. Work started in 2000 on establishing a core
collection of Korean sesame landraces. The core collection is to be based on the analysis
of characterization data, both morphological and molecular traits, of all 2740 landraces
stored ex situ in the country. The methodology for developing the core collection was
finalized and project staff have recorded data on 14 morphological descriptors and have
begun work on quality characters. Once the data are all gathered, a core collection will be
quickly established. This will facilitate use of the material and increase its accessibility.
Tropical fruit trees
A wide range of tropical fruits grow in the APO region and IPGRI’s overall emphasis is to
promote both the conservation and sustainable use of these valuable species. Several
related wild species are endangered and genetic erosion is significant, so work is focused
on the priority genepools of both major (mango, citrus, rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum))
and minor fruits (jackfruit, durian (Durio zibethinus), litchi, mangosteen (Garcinia
mangostana), longan (Dimocarpus longan), duku (Lansium domesticum), carambola and
tamarind (Tamarindus indica)). Research is aimed at assessing the extent of the genetic
diversity available in these fruits, its distribution and maintenance and the conservation
status of collected genetic resources. Other aspects look at the conservation strategies
needed for species such as those possessing recalcitrant seeds and methods of in situ
conservation in native habitats and home gardens. 
The International Centre for Underutilized Crops (ICUC), UK
and IPGRI are currently collaborating on a project funded by
the Department for International Development (DFID), UK to
promote awareness of the value and importance of tropical
fruits among key audiences, including policy makers,
researchers and plant breeders. Information to policy makers
highlights the role that fruits play in their country’s economy
and the diet of their people, while the focus of information to
researchers is on the material that is already available. IPGRI
collaborates with the Underutilized Tropical Fruits in Asia
Network (UTFANET) through consultation and avoiding
duplication of work. A proposal is being developed for
submission to the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) for support of further research
on conservation of tropical fruit species.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
Mangosteen,
Malaysia.
1999–2000 15Regional Report for APO
Native fruit species
In 2000 IPGRI started work on a three-year project on conservation and use of diversity of
native tropical fruit species in Asia under a technical assistance agreement with the ADB. The
project focuses on four major tropical fruit species—citrus, rambutan, jackfruit and mango—
and selected local species in 10 countries—Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. Project activities include locating,
collecting and evaluating existing biodiversity in the target genepools; implementing practical
and effective conservation methods; selecting and improving native fruit diversity in national
programmes; using improved accessions in local communities; training people in PGR
activities to build up national fruit research and development programmes: and promoting
collaboration and the sharing of technologies and fruit germplasm. The project will result in
better conservation and sustainable utilization of target tropical fruit species.
The project aims at locating and documenting existing diversity of the target genepools
through ecogeographic studies and documentation of existing collections. Additionally,
surveys and constraints analysis will be undertaken in orchards and home gardens.
Threatened and valuable diversity of target genepools will be collected and placed in
genebanks. To this end, ecogeographic studies and genetic diversity studies have been
built into to the individual country proposals.
In late 2000, IPGRI and UPLB organized a regional training course on managing information
on fruit species genetic resources as part of the ADB-funded project. One participant from
each of the 10 member countries participated in the course, held at Los Baños, Philippines.
IPGRI APO staff participated as resource people. The 10 participants acquired new skills in
managing genetic resources information on tropical fruit species and also gained knowledge
on using new software.
Citrus
IPGRI’s research on citrus species in APO is funded by the
Republic of Korea and carried out in collaboration with Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM),
Malaysia. The work focuses on in vitro conservation and
cryopreservation. Studies on freezing and desiccation sensitivity at
UKM indicated that the seeds of Citrus madurensis and Fortunella
polyandra were sensitive to desiccation and freezing, while those of
Citrus medica and Citrus aurantifolia were less sensitive. Eighty per
cent of C. madurensis apices and 50% of F. polyandra apices
survived storage in liquid nitrogen, while 80% of C. medica and C.
aurantifolia embryos survived storage in liquid nitrogen. Studies at
UPM indicated that seeds of C. madurensis and Triphasia trifolia are
recalcitrant while those of Aegle marmelos are orthodox. Based on
these findings the two institutions began to develop
cryopreservation protocols to conserve selected citrus species.
Similar studies are in progress in China. These studies will assist in putting in place
protocols for improved conservation of valuable citrus genetic resources in the region.
Information and documentation
Information on tropical fruits is scarce in the APO region. IPGRI’s APO office has a significant
advantage in the acquisition and synthesis of information because of the wide regional
coverage of the institute’s offices and their network connections. Continuing activities include
Citrus madurensis
explants,
cryopreservation
trials, Universiti
Putra Malaysia.
16
publishing monographs on citrus, mango, rambutan and durian,
documenting existing information on priority fruit species, documenting
indigenous knowledge on priority fruit species and preparing descriptors
for key crops.
APO staff prepare and distribute basic information on the status of fruit
crops in the region. These reports are based on a survey of all available
documented information in the region, including unpublished and ‘grey
literature’ that may often contain extremely valuable information that has
not been disseminated widely. During 1999–2000, the APO office
produced and distributed status reports on jackfruit in India and on litchi
in India, Thailand and Myanmar.
These reports fill a major gap in the information on tropical fruit species
in the region. They identify gaps in research and long-term development needs while
illustrating work that will eventually result in enhanced conservation, production and
utilization of tropical fruit species in the region. Because this approach has proved so
effective, a further series of status reports was developed and distributed.
Status reports on tropical fruit species
Mango India, Bangladesh, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka
Citrus India, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Nepal
Rambutan Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia
Durian Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia
Jackfruit Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India
Litchi China, India, Thailand, Myanmar
All of these materials are available on IPGRI’s Web site
(http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/system/page.asp?theme=7 — click on APO Publications).
Together with a number of other IPGRI publications on tropical fruits, this collection of
electronic information forms a major resource for the study of tropical fruits that is having
significant impact on rationalizing research in the region.
Banana and plantain
INIBAP’s regional office is situated in the Philippines and carries out an extensive programme of
collaboration, training, networking, publishing, information management and research. One of
its most important duties is to coordinate the banana research network for the Asia and Pacific
Regional Network (ASPNET), which brings together representatives from most of the NARS in
the region. The current course of action set out by the ASPNET steering committee includes:
• establishing a system of national repository, multiplication and dissemination centres for
banana germplasm
• establishing a breeding programme in the region, with INIBAP facilitating and providing
technical advice
• continuing and extending collecting missions to new countries
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
Citrus
madurensis
plantlet
growing 
in vitro. 
Cho Eun Gi
• supporting the newly-established regional germplasm centre in the South Pacific
• training in virus-indexing
• participating in the International Musa Testing Programme (IMTP)
A large number of projects are under way with the ultimate aim of contributing to the
improvement of banana production. The following text reports on a selection of these activities.
Taxonomy of Musa
The APO region is the major centre of banana diversity. Several hundred banana varieties are
found in the region, but the number of names exceeds the number of varieties. Now, for the
first time, curators, breeders and researchers are able to work with an agreed taxonomy of
banana varieties in Southeast Asia. The agreed classification system was the result of a
workshop held in the Philippines in September 1999. This gathering, sponsored by DFID,
INIBAP and the Bureau of Plant Industry-Davao National Crop Research and Development
Center (BPI-DNCRDC) brought together the curators of collections in the region to review
Musa taxonomy. The participants identified names used for the same variety in different
countries and 149 names were established for distinct cultivars. The report of the meeting and
the derived classification have been published in a small book by the INIBAP office in APO.
Nematodes in wild bananas
Banana yields in Vietnam are on average low, at around 13.7 tonnes/ha. Pests and
diseases are a strong contributory factor. An INIBAP-sponsored Associate Expert, situated
at the Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI) in Vietnam is carrying out research on
nematode pests that affect banana crops with funding from the Vlaamse Vereniging voor
Ontwikkelingsamenwerking en Technische Bijstand (VVOB), the Vlaamse Interuniversitaire
Raad (VLIR) and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). As
part of the work, surveys are being undertaken for nematodes on cultivated and wild
bananas and sources of resistance are being screened. Searches for perhaps the most
destructive of all nematode species, Radopholus similis, which is prevalent in neighbouring
countries, have so far produced no results.
Banana blood disease in Indonesia
DFID is funding the evaluation of a management strategy
to combat banana blood disease in Lampung in
Sumatra, where the disease is spreading and causing
serious damage to crops of cooking bananas. The
approach involves cleaning tools very carefully to avoid
transferring the bacterium that causes the disease and
removing the male flower bud early, as this is thought to
be the entry point for the bacterium. The evaluation
showed that these simple, economical approaches
dramatically reduce infection and farmers have readily
accepted the practices. The outcome of the first year of
trials is promising and the programme will be expanded
to other parts of Indonesia to assess the overall
effectiveness of the strategy in managing the disease.
1999–2000 17Regional Report for APO
Wild bananas,
Sungai Buluh,
Malaysia.
Leaf spot diseases
Researchers from Asian countries are working together to gain an understanding of leaf
spot diseases in the region. With funding from DFID, INIBAP is collaborating with
national research organizations to investigate the source and distribution of leaf spot
diseases in the region. Black Sigatoka, a disease caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella
fijiensis, is prevalent in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the South Pacific
Islands. In recent years, however, a related disease, which has been named Septoria leaf
spot, has been identified by CIRAD from banana leaf samples taken from Bangladesh,
China, India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. The causal organism is
Mycosphaerella eumusae. A morphological characterization of the species was carried
out by CIRAD in 2000 and the anamorph stage was found to be very different from other
Mycosphaerella species. A phylogenetic study of the ribosomal DNA placed M. eumusae
as a species distinct from other related members of the genus and other close genera.
From this analysis, molecular tools for identification of the leaf spot pathogens will be
developed. 
Forest trees, bamboo and rattan
In situ conservation in tropical forests
In southern India, scientists from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India
and the University of Massachusetts, USA have focused their research efforts on
conserving in situ the forest genetic resources in the Western Ghats in 1996. This work has
been carried out in close collaboration with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and
the Environment (ATREE) and IPGRI. The work takes a comprehensive approach to
conserving and using forest genetic resources in areas where rural and urban populations
depend heavily on the rapidly diminishing forests for a multitude of goods and services.
The study has focused on three endemic centres for forest species in the Western Ghats:
Nilgiris, Anamalai and Agastyamalai Hills. The current distribution of forest types was
compared with past distribution using a geographic information system (GIS) to estimate
rates of deforestation between the 1930s and the 1990s. Socio-economic data such as
population growth rate, history of forest resource usage, extent of road networks, number
of hydroelectric projects and agricultural production were also included.
Distribution maps for the different ranges of forests have been developed and are being
used to identify isolated populations of forest species. A major
objective of the work is to construct a spatial map of genetic
diversity for two economically important tree species,
Santalum album (sandalwood) and Phyllanthus officinalis
(emblica or nelli). The study will identify factors causing
genetic erosion and devise methods to conserve these forest
resources safely in situ.
Locating and assessing diversity in
tropical forests
During 1998–99, IPGRI’s partners in the Research Centre for
Forest Tree Improvement at the Forest Science Institute of
Vietnam surveyed threatened but valuable timber species
Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia oliveri
18
Bambusa variabilis
Munro.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
1999–2000 19Regional Report for APO
and Chukrasia tabularis. The surveys found that all the species
except P. macrocarpus have a naturally high potential for
regeneration. The surveys also showed that the species are
found only in some national parks and conservation areas.
Between 1973 and 1995, forest cover decreased by 20–35% in
some locations while other locations showed only small
reductions of 3–7%. Conversion of forest areas to agricultural
and residential land was the prime cause of the decrease. This
deforestation, together with continuing intensive utilization of
the tree species for fuelwood, furniture making, decoration and
construction, is endangering the resource; conservation efforts
are essential. Researchers have selected representative
populations of the species for active protection. Further
investigations are focusing on assessing genetic diversity
among different populations so that these populations can be
conserved for future generations.
Bamboo and rattan
The annual world trade value of bamboo and rattan is around
US$14.5 thousand million. Exploitation of these species
provides a living for millions of rural people. Bamboo and rattan have been used for
millennia in every part of human life in the tropics, yet little attention had been paid to the
resource base. Materials are continuously extracted from the forests, with exploitation
increasing every year. This is inevitably depleting the natural resource base. In 1993, the
International Network on Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) requested IPGRI lead its work on
the genetic resources of bamboo and rattan. IPGRI’s APO group took responsibility for the
activity and the Japanese government has been funding the programme since 1993.
Ecogeographic studies
In 2000, IPGRI’s partners in Vietnam produced status reports on Vietnamese bamboo
and rattan genetic resources, based on surveys supported by IPGRI. These provide brief
morphological descriptions of bamboo and rattan species, together with information on
their distribution and status. A guide to economically important bamboo and rattan
species in Indonesia was published in the Indonesian language (S.D. Sastrapradja, E.A.
Widjaja, J.P. Mogea and E. Sudarmonowati (eds.). 2000. Di Antara Alunan Bambu dan
Bisikan Rotan. Naturae Indonesiana, Bogor, Indonesia. 77 pp.) Further studies are being
commissioned in Myanmar, Vietnam and India. All reports are being continuously
updated and revised.
The activities supported have helped promote research in areas such as more effective ex
situ conservation linked with wider ecogeographic studies, prioritizing species,
establishing and identifying bamboo and rattan, biodiversity studies at community,
species and molecular level, propagation studies, seed viability and germplasm collecting.
The work done so far to identify available genetic resources in various countries is
allowing better use of those resources, including identification of more species that can
be cultivated, thus enhancing conservation through use. The experience gained and the
results established in Asia are also creating a wide awareness of the need for further
research on bamboo and rattan among the scientists in Africa and South America. The
transfer of technology from Asia will help them to improve and better utilize their vast
bamboo and limited rattan resources.
Plantation of
Phyllostachys
pubescens
Mazel ex 
H. de Leh 
plantation,
Vietnam.
20
Genetic variation
The degree and distribution of genetic diversity of bamboo and
rattan must be assessed and understood if these resources are
to be managed on a sound scientific basis. When IPGRI first
began working on the species in 1993, few studies on the
genetic diversity these species had been made. Since 1993,
IPGRI and its partners have been using both molecular and
traditional methods to assess levels of genetic variation in
bamboo and rattan at the population and species levels.
Genetic variation in Calamus manan, C. caesius and C.
palustris (three priority species) was studied using isoenzyme
analysis, in collaboration with the Forest Research Institute
Malaysia (FRIM), Malaysia. Fifteen genotype classes were
identified in C. manan. Single and multilocus genotypes were
recognized in the three species under investigation. RAPD
profiles were developed for two species, giving new and
interesting information on genetic variation. The genome size of
a number of bamboo and rattan species was determined by
flow cytometric measurement of fluorescence of nuclei isolated
from leaves. Knowledge of DNA content as illustrated by
genome size is useful in research in plant breeding and
molecular biological studies.
Growth characteristics and propagation studies
Studies on phenology, growth characteristics and macropropagation of bamboo at the
Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Trivandrum, India have resulted in
improved macropropagation methods for five bamboo species. These methods facilitate
production of large numbers of propagules for plantation establishment and will be made
available to farmers for application.
Development and implementation 
of conservation procedures
Work on ex situ conservation of some important commercial bamboo species in Myanmar
started in 2000. This work should trigger the interest of bamboo workers in a country
where much of the bamboo diversity is unknown. A study on genetic diversity and
sustainable development of bamboo resources in Xishuangbanna in Yunnan, China also
began. This study focuses on collecting native bamboo species and maintaining them in a
community genebank. It has established 20 species in a 2-ha area in Hongqiang, Central
Yunnan, China. This initiative had an immediate and direct benefit in the area when 30
farmers from the local community were trained in management techniques including
cultivation, propagation, pruning, and harvesting of shoots and poles. This knowledge will
be passed on to other farmers in the community, increasing the yield of bamboo while at
the same time ensuring its continued conservation. 
Impact of extraction
Most bamboo and rattan that is used in trade is simply harvested from the wild, without
any consideration of the effects of such harvesting on the continued maintenance of
diversity or sustainability of the resource. A study on the impact of human activities in the
Western Ghats of India was carried out by ATREE, Bangalore, India in 1999 to quantify
extraction of bamboo and rattan resources at the local and state level and determine how
Phyllostachys
pubescens Mazel 
ex H. de Leh
plantation 
after exploitation,
Vietnam.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
1999–2000 21Regional Report for APO
important they are to the economy. Initial analyses of bamboo production and potential
consumption in the study area suggested that demand may soon exceed supply. The first
phase of the study showed that there was a decline (up to 90% in parts of Biligiri Rangan
Swamy Wildlife Sanctuary) in the bamboo resources in Karnataka state, where 61% of
bamboo harvested was consumed by the industrial sector and 38% by cottage industries.
The project is moving on to identify the social and economic causes of the decline of these
resources and to work on ways to mitigate the impact of the declining resources on the
dependent population and industries.
Methods for sustainable conservation and use
An IPGRI study on identifying genetic markers to determine gender in dioecious rattans is
continuing in collaboration with the National University of Singapore. In many species of
rattans sex differentiation is not possible when they are not flowering. Alternative means for
early identification of male and female plants are essential for seed production and genetic
diversity conservation. This study is providing a useful means to monitor the male:female
balance in natural populations, which has implications on seed production and
consequently on natural regeneration. A population survey and genetic analysis of the
bamboo species Phyllostachys pubescens and Dendrocalamus latiflorus in China is
revealing a large degree of variation in many morphological traits correlated with change in
geographical and temperature factors. The genetic variations between populations will be
known when the RAPD-PCR (polymerase chain reaction) amplifications for all samples
collected have been analyzed. These results will allow the Chinese scientists to pinpoint
areas of the highest genetic diversity, making them natural candidates for immediate
conservation measures. 
Dendrocalamus asper
(Schultes f.) 
Backer ex Heyne
22
Exchanging genebank data
IPGRI’s APO group is supporting networking among its partners by developing tools that
the national programmes can use for information exchange.
Many genebanks in the APO region have developed their own germplasm documentation
systems or adapted commercial software packages based on proprietary databases,
spreadsheet data formats or straightforward text-based formats such as ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange). As a result data from one genebank are often
not compatible with those from others and hence can not be exchanged or reused.
Institutions are reluctant to change their existing systems; even if they wished to, most do
not have the resources to do so. APO staff have developed a data interchange protocol
(DIP) that allows incompatible databases to communicate with one another. The DIP format
was proposed during a meeting of the East Asia Co-ordinators and the software, known as
DIPVIEW, was developed at CAAS, China for initial testing in 1996. Rice passport data
were successfully exchanged in DIP format between CAAS and National Institute of
Agricultural Research (NIAR), Japan in 1996, showing the viability of the system. 
DIP has enabled centres to share the genetic resources data using existing systems and
resources. For example, the DIP format for data export was easily included in the CGRD
and hence allowed reuse of the data outside the CGRD and in other applications. 
Genebank staff at NBPGR in India recently used DIP to produce electronic catalogues of
genebank holdings of 10 crops with virtually no need for manual revision of their database.
The Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (ICGR), CAAS, China is currently working on
similar catalogues for its key crops. The RECSEA (Regional Co-operation in Southeast Asia)
plant genetic resources network used DIP to publish electronic directories of institutions and
researchers involved in genetic resources work. The system eliminated a lot of tedious
preparation work and allowed the network to produce these valuable reference tools rapidly
and economically, giving researchers easy access to up-to-date information.
DIP is particularly effective in setting up new network information systems for genebanks
where data exchange is needed. IPGRI offered a training course to TaroGen (see p.13)
participants which included using a text editor or word processor to collect data in the DIP
format and how subsequently to transfer the data to a database. IPGRI has produced a
DIP manual and DIPVIEW software, which are available free of charge from the IPGRI web
site at www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/apo/apoweb/zip.htm.
Documenting indigenous knowledge 
Indigenous knowledge (IK) develops among people in a particular area, accumulates over time
and is handed down from generation to generation. The knowledge is closely related to the
environment that the people live in and is a living body of knowledge that changes over time.
Factors modifying indigenous knowledge include changes in social structure and values and
interactions with other communities. Close interaction among local biodiversity, the
environment and farmers generates the IK in plant genetic resources conservation. This area
of IK is a valuable source of information in the in situ conservation of plant genetic resources.
Recording, analyzing and quantifying this knowledge is difficult; even more difficult is
apportioning intellectual property rights to the knowledge and guaranteeing that the owners of
the rights are rewarded for any profitable use of the information. IPGRI’s APO staff began work
on IK in 1995 with a series of workshops with national programme staff that provided the
foundations for efforts to document IK in the region. Further discussions highlighted the need
to secure the rights of knowledge holders and allow the community to reuse the knowledge.
Development and application of methodologies
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IPGRI staff suggested that collecting IK could be run as a system parallel to the
established system of scientific knowledge which resulted in the idea for an ‘IK Journal’.
The Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences (YAAS), China, in collaboration with the
Yunnan Farmers’ Speciality Technique Association (YFSTA) further developed the concept
of an ‘IK Journal’. Under this approach, YAAS and YFSTA staff visit farmers, explain the
idea of the journal to them and capture their knowledge on a specific topic on audio tape
in their own language. YAAS scientists then assist in documenting the farmer’s knowledge,
with the farmer as the author and the scientist as co-author, in the form best suited to the
information to be conveyed. Abstracts based on these ‘papers’ are published in YAAS
technical journals and pamphlets for redistribution to farmers and elsewhere. The original
tapes used to capture the knowledge are catalogued and kept in the Academy’s library, so
that they are accessible for future use by researchers. This makes it possible to track the
use of the knowledge as the tapes are cited. Copies of the tapes are kept also within the
original community. The equipment needed for capture and replay is simple and allows the
knowledge to be passed down using the original language. More importantly it also
encourages local communities to further develop and maintain that knowledge. The
approach is to empower the knowledge holders and to recognize their contribution at the
national and scientific level. The experience gained so far has been very positive, with
researchers using the information and local farmers rapidly grasping the importance of the
project and participating in the work. YAAS is continuing to train farmers and local
administrators to recruit more people to the initiative. The system is being introduced into
other regions and there are plans with the Sarawak Biodiversity Centre in Malaysia to
develop community-based resource centres for communities to house their knowledge. 
The existence of the ‘IK Journal’ approach is clear evidence that IPGRI and its partners are
taking action to address the rights of indigenous knowledge holders. The ability to trace
the knowledge used to its provider enables reinterpretation of the knowledge and possible
equitable sharing of benefits.
Farmers threshing rice,
Indonesia. 
Humong farmers
harvesting maize,
Sapa, Vietnam.
24
Conserving biodiversity 
in situ
In situ conservation of crop germplasm refers to the continued
maintenance of germplasm by farmers in their agro-ecosystems. This is a
complementary approach to ex situ conservation. In spite of international
interest in in situ conservation, knowledge as to how farmer- or
community-based management of genetic resources can contribute to
conservation is still limited.
IPGRI’s work on in situ conservation studies the decision-making
processes of farmers that influence in situ conservation of
agrobiodiversity. This will allow NARS and NGOs to plan and implement
on-farm management of agrobiodiversity. The project is running in nine countries around
the world—Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Hungary, Mexico, Morocco, Nepal, Peru, Turkey and
Vietnam. The Netherlands is funding the work in Nepal for five years from 1997, while
Switzerland is funding work for the same period in Vietnam. The project has a strong focus
on participatory approaches in research, conservation and plant breeding. IPGRI’s partners
in Nepal are the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and an NGO, Local Initiatives
for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD). In Vietnam, a National Project Co-
ordination Committee has been established and five multidisciplinary teams from the
Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute, Can Tho University, Hanoi Agricultural University,
Hue University of Agricultural and Forestry and Tay Nguyen University have been formed to
carry out various studies in seven contrasting in situ sites.
Nepal
Variation in agro-ecosystems in Nepal is directly related to altitude and a very wide range
of crops can be found in the different regions, including rice, barley (Hordeum vulgare),
finger millet (Eleusine coracana), buckwheat, taro, sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca) and
pigeon pea. In order to cover a wide range agro-ecosystems the project selected three
regions, representing high, medium and low-altitude crop production systems. Surveys
collected data on religious and cultural characteristics of different farmer varieties, food
and feed uses, plant type, disease resistance and susceptibility, drought tolerance, specific
growing niches, productivity, cropping system, area and other relevant information. Initial
results reveal tremendous genetic diversity in the local varieties. In Kaski, single
households often maintained as many as 20 varieties of a single crop. In total, the study
identified and characterized 64 rice varieties, 24 finger millet varieties, 24 taro varieties, 14
cucumber varieties and 13 sponge gourd varieties.
The farmers have a vast knowledge of variety identification, selection, crop management and
microenvironments acquired from generations of hands-on experience. Every season they
adapt their planting regimes and mixtures of varieties in response to subtle environmental
factors. This gradual process of farmer selection adapts the crops to the changing local
environments, gradually increasing the diversity in their cultivars. The large number of
varieties of different crops found within small areas clearly showed the socio-economic and
ecological importance of farmer selection in sustainable farming systems. Maintaining and
using the varieties on farm conserves the genetic resources of the crops. On-farm seed
selection and storage increases farmer control of the resources. This is a powerful motivating
force to continue the work of conservation. Most importantly, the project helps grass-roots-
level farmer groups, community-based organizations, co-operatives and NGOs understand
the importance of local crop diversity conservation. It has also motivated them to strengthen
In situ conservation
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their capacity to implement on-farm crop conservation activities through innovative
participatory approaches such as diversity fairs, diversity blocks, diversity kits, community
biodiversity registers (CBRs) and participatory plant breeding (PPB).
The project introduced the idea of CBRs to promote the objective of conserving these
communities’ traditional genetic resources. Community seed banks, with seed stored at
household level but information recorded in a CBR, maintain the genetic diversity and also
the sustainability of farmer varieties. This approach was very successful and increased the
security of the resources, as well as making them more widely available for exchange
among the farmers and giving farmers control over their genetic resources. Conservation
training, community awareness and continued landrace enhancement through breeding
involving farmers and scientists is increasing the value of the material. 
The farmers’ knowledge of the resources had never before been documented but it is
essential to record and sustain this invaluable information for research purposes and to
safeguard it for future generations. The farmers understand this and are collaborating
enthusiastically with the project to record the knowledge that exists within their
communities. The information will be extremely useful to scientists, researchers,
entrepreneurs, extension workers and development workers in future work on Nepalese
genetic resources.
Vietnam
Vietnam is an important centre of diversity for crops such as rice and taro. Initial site
selection surveys identified four contrasting sites in the Red River delta (Nghia hung),
intermediate upland (Nho quan), mountainous (Da bac) and Mekong river delta 
(Tra cu) areas. The project is working with provincial and district extension systems, which
offers good access to both farming communities and local policy makers. A baseline
survey was carried out in all sites to estimate amount of genetic diversity on-farm. Six
diversity fairs were held during late 1998 and early 1999 to inspire local communities and
promote exchange of materials. The events help project scientists understand farmer’s
preferences and reasons for maintaining diverse varieties and provide opportunities to
collect materials for further genetic studies. The second phase of the project (2000–02) was
initiated with a goal-oriented participatory planning process. Three new partners were
selected for the second phase, broadening the range of ecosystems covered. The site at
Hue adds the coastal ecosystem of central Vietnam, Sapa represents a mountain
ecosystem with eco-tourism potential and the Daklak site represents the driest part of the
central highlands. Rice, taro and beans are the keystone crops identified.
25
Women
transplanting rice
seedlings in 
a diversity block,
Kaski, Nepal.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
26
Protecting home gardens
Specific microenvironments within agricultural systems, such as home gardens, contain
significant diversity in crop and tree species. IPGRI and its partners have been studying the
role of home gardens in the conservation of plant diversity in the APO region since 1996.
A pilot study in Vietnam has shown the wide diversity maintained by local people in their
home gardens. Among 656 different plants recorded in the home gardens surveyed, 347
were edible. Of these, 42 are used for their tubers or roots, 181 as vegetables or salad and
117 as fruits. Some 167 have medicinal uses, 203 are ornamentals, 49 are used as spice, 40
for beverages, 11 as stimulants, 39 for their timber and 45 of other uses (animal fodder,
green manure or religious purposes). Further research revealed well-structured household
systems for classifying intraspecific diversity of key species such as taro, sweet potato,
cassava, jackfruit, papaya (Carica papaya), kaki (Diospyros kaki), bitter gourd (Mormodica
charantia) and chayote (Sechium edule). Within the taro family (Araceae) about 20 different
edible varieties were found. Local farmers consider 14 of them to be cultivars of Taro. Sweet
potato, cassava, jackfruit and kaki have a similar high variability. The survey found only two
varieties each of bitter gourd and chayote, which grow only in the highland area. Papaya
cultivars are distinguished only by the shape and the colour of their fruit.
Due to economic pressures and rapid development (new settlements and migration), the
stability of the home gardens is precarious. Extension policy centres on a strategy to
promote high-yielding varieties and cultivars that are suited for export and bring in a higher
income to farmers in the short term. To counteract this policy, the project is assessing the
influence of socio-economic factors, such as the market situation, land-use patterns, land
availability and sociocultural and gender factors on the selection of plants, and therefore on
the plant genetic diversity in home gardens. A database on neglected and useful species in
home gardens is being assembled, together with an ethnobotanical dictionary in
Vietnamese, which will provide a guide to the diversity and utilization of plant species
grown in Vietnamese home gardens.
This project is revealing for the first time the depth of valuable genetic diversity that exists
in Vietnamese home gardens and the importance of home gardens to conservation and
breeding work. These results are having an immediate effect on government policy, as well
as increasing the security of the food supply of the local population.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
27
Storing recalcitrant species in vitro
The problem of recalcitrant seed
Some crops, predominantly tropical or subtropical crops and tree and shrub species,
produce seeds that die if dried or chilled and hence cannot be stored dry at low temperature.
These seeds are known as recalcitrant. Other crop species do not produce seeds, have
sterile genotypes, or produce only highly heterogeneous orthodox seeds that are of little
value for the conservation of particular genotypes. All of these species are, therefore, usually
propagated vegetatively.
These problem species are traditionally conserved as whole plants in the field. There are,
however, several serious problems with field genebanks, including the risk of natural
disasters, attacks by pests and pathogens and high maintenance costs.
Research has developed techniques to conserve recalcitrant species as plantlets growing
slowly in vitro. An additional benefit is that plantlets cultured in vitro can be made free of
pests and diseases and thus can be distributed safely, without the risk of transferring the
pests and diseases associated with material distributed from field genebanks.
The slow growth technique is only effective for short-term conservation as the plantlets 
must be re-cultured every 3-18 months. Long-term storage can be achieved through
cryopreservation, i.e. storage at extremely low temperature, usually that of liquid nitrogen 
(-196ºC). Although cryopreservation is the only safe and cost-effective option for the long-
term conservation of genetic resources of problem species, the technology is more advanced
for vegetatively propagated plants than for recalcitrant species. In addition, cryopreservation
might hinder the utilization of genetic resources of long-living perennial species. IPGRI is
working to address these issues.
Many recalcitrant species are fundamental to local agriculture and food supply in the APO
region. IPGRI has contributed to improving scientific and technical expertise and to increasing
research in APO on how to handle the many recalcitrant species important to local agriculture.
Research activities in the region have focused on developing in vitro collecting, slow-
growth and cryopreservation techniques for various fruit trees, forest trees and vegetatively
propagated crops. In vitro collecting techniques are being developed for Dipterocarps.
Slow-growth techniques have been developed for medium-term conservation of citrus
germplasm and are under testing with sweet
potato. Cryopreservation protocols have
been established for zygotic embryos of
almond (Prunus dulcis), tea, jackfruit and oil
palm (Elaeis spp.), and are under
development for apices of yam, sweet
potato, taro and apple (Malus spp.). Much of
this work was supported by DFID UK. Work
on citrus is supported by the Republic of
Korea and that on forest species by
Denmark. This work is protecting the
valuable diversity existing in the regional
varieties and making it more easily available
for researchers and breeders to exchange
and use.
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Ex situ conservation
Regional training course on in vitro
conservation and cryopreservation,
12–25 October 2000, New Delhi, India.
28
Tissue culture techniques can be used to produce disease-free plant germplasm for
distribution. The new tissue culture systems that IPGRI-sponsored research is developing
allow genebank staff to propagate plants rapidly in an aseptic environment. Disease- and
virus-free plants can be obtained through meristem culture and thermotherapy. The result
is a good supply of healthy material for local requirements. The pest- and disease-free
stocks also simplify quarantine procedures for the international exchange of germplasm.
The miniaturization of the explants also reduces the space needed for storage and reduces
labour costs for the maintenance of germplasm collections—important considerations in
the resource-limited national programmes of many countries in the region.
Several researchers in the APO region received training on in vitro conservation techniques
between 1996 and 2000, through either individual training or training courses. IPGRI also
contributed to organizing an international symposium on in vitro conservation of genetic
resources during 1999 in Tsukuba, Japan in collaboration with JIRCAS. Taken together, these
activities have contributed significantly to increasing the awareness of the potential of in vitro
conservation techniques to improve the conservation of germplasm of problem species.
Establishing core collections 
Collections of germplasm may contain thousands of accessions of a single species. This
makes it expensive and sometimes impractical to study them in-depth. A core collection
helps overcome this problem and increase use of the germplasm.
A core collection is a limited set of accessions of a crop species and its wild relatives
chosen to represent all or most of the genetic diversity held in the larger collection.
Because it is much smaller than the complete collection, a core collection can be rapidly
studied to identify useful genes for use by plant breeders, farmers and researchers.
Between 1995 and 2000, IPGRI, the Oil Crops Research Institute (OCRI) of CAAS in
Wuhan, China and NBPGR in New Delhi, India developed core collections for sesame.
Sesame is an economically significant crop in both China and India, yet production is often
low because of the lack of high-yielding varieties and losses to insects and diseases. OCRI
and NBPGR both hold important collections of sesame, but the
size of the collections makes them difficult to use.
In 1998, the Chinese collection comprised over 4200 accessions
classified into groups based on agro-ecological factors. Statistical
analysis of the characters allowed staff to divide the accessions
within each group into clusters. Following checks to confirm that
the full range of diversity was represented in the selections, a final
core of 442 accessions was identified.
The NBPGR collection comprised some 4000 accessions. In
1997 and 1998, NBPGR staff recorded data on 18 descriptors,
including qualitative and quantitative traits. Using this
information NBPGR identified 20 groups of accessions on the
basis of combined geographic and character association. A
core set of 10% of the total was then taken to represent the
majority of the diversity present in each group.
The resulting Chinese and Indian sesame core collections are
approximately 10% of the size of the full collections, yet contain
at least 70% of their genetic diversity. In India, the core
collection is being evaluated at different locations as part of the
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
1999–2000 29Regional Report for APO
All India Sesame Coordinated Research Project. In China, CAAS breeding programmes are
already using accessions from the core collection to develop higher-yielding varieties. In
2000, IPGRI published a technical bulletin with guidelines on the best procedures for
developing core collections in national genebanks (‘Core collections of plant genetic
resources’, by Th.J.L. van Hintum, A.H.D. Brown, C. Spillane and T. Hodgkin. Technical
Bulletin No. 3). This has been distributed to institutions around the world and posted on
the IPGRI web site (www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pubfile.asp?id_PUB=614).
Encouraged by the results of this thematic work, work on developing core collections is
now being extended to other countries in the region (see p.14).
Ultradrying seed
Keeping germplasm in cold storage is complex and expensive and hence poses a problem
for many genebanks in the developing world. Cheaper storage alternatives are needed.
One possible method being investigated by IPGRI is ultradry seed storage. Research has
shown that many types of seeds will stay viable for long periods at room temperature if
they are dried to very low moisture contents.
Between 1995 and 1997, IPGRI supported ICGR, OCRI and Beijing Botanical Garden
(BBG) in carrying out research and developing methodologies for ultradry seed storage.
Based on the findings of this work, IPGRI, the National Seed Storage Laboratory (NSSL),
USA, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) Asia
Center, India and ICGR, China started a joint project on optimizing seed water contents to
improve longevity in ex situ genebanks.
Experiments on suitable seed moisture contents (MC) for long-term storage were carried
out for 10 crops at ICGR. The results showed that the optimal moisture content for seeds
stored at 45°C was in the range 5±1% for all varieties of eight crops. The experiment is
continuing to investigate the best MC for long-term storage.
Experiments on a simple, low-cost method for ultradry storage at ICGR showed that
drying seeds with silica gel in laminated aluminium foil bags is a cost-effective method
for seed drying.
The genetic stability of plants obtained from oil crop seeds stored for 3–18 years under
ultradry conditions was studied at OCRI in Wuhan, China. The results showed that seed of
groundnut, rapeseed and sesame could be stored at ambient temperatures for 12–17 years
at a seed MC of less than 3.5% without significant damage. Initial plant growth and
development from ultradried seeds were slightly slower than for plants from seeds stored
under recommended cold storage conditions but the plants subsequently recovered to
attain normal size.
Observations in Wuhan on the ultrastructure of groundnuts showed no change in seeds
with an MC of 3.5%  stored for 17 years at room temperature. Basic research conducted in
BBG showed no harmful effects of ultradrying or ultradry storage on membrane lipids, the
macromolecules of the embryo, cell integrity, membrane function and chromosome
structure. 
Publication of the Chinese research kindled interest among researchers and more work at
the national and global level is now underway. To date, the evidence reveals that there is
considerable potential for the ultradry method to be adopted for long-term storage of
various species.
30
National programmes
Strong national programmes are the basis for effective conservation and use of genetic
resources. Strong national programmes are also better able to collaborate with others in
the wider genetic resources community.
IPGRI has been working to strengthen national programmes in the APO region since 1974.
There have been many successes, most notably in China, India, Japan and Malaysia, but
some countries still lack the necessary financial resources, coordination and staffing to
establish a discrete genetic resources programme and collaborate within the region. APO
staff are now concentrating on the countries with the least developed programmes,
particularly in the Pacific area, to develop essential skills such as management and
planning, build self reliance through training of staff and providing technical assistance and
direct funding. Indicators of a strong national programme include sustained conservation
and use of genetic resources by the national programmes, scientifically sound
complementary conservation strategies, appropriate management committees, enhanced
regional and international collaboration, participation in network activity and existence of
sustainable funding.
In recent years, IPGRI has worked with Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Japan, DPR
Korea, the Republic of Korea, the Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, PNG, Sri Lanka
and Vietnam. IPGRI participated in a number of national meetings at the request of the
country concerned where staff assisted the national programmes in achieving their
planning goals. After discussions with IPGRI, the Maldives agreed to identify a country co-
ordinator for genetic resources. In 2000, Sri Lanka has been awarded a US$5 million
project from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to conserve its biodiversity, so IPGRI’s
previous contacts with the genetic resources programme there will become even more
important in carrying out this project successfully. Staff worked to raise the awareness of
policymakers in Nepal and participated in a national planning meeting in Vietnam.
Assistance was provided in Bangladesh to develop a research proposal to establish an in
vitro laboratory and to begin work on molecular characterization. A series of meetings and
a workshop helped identify priorities and plant genetic resources activities in Bhutan. A
National Biodiversity Programme was initiated in 1998 to co-ordinate all activities on
biodiversity conservation and utilization. This programme has already completed a pilot
survey to undertake a complete biodiversity inventory of the country. IPGRI staff
collaborated with the National Biodiversity Programme and organized a national workshop
on plant genetic resources that emphasized the potential benefits of crop-specific
networks, advocated the development of material transfer agreements (MTAs),
recommended increased internal collaboration within the Bhutan government structure and
proposed the creation of a national seed policy and establishment of more plant quarantine
facilities. 
In support of these efforts, the APO group is developing InfoBase, an Internet-based
system to increase the access of national programmes to essential PGR information.
InfoBase consists of electronic links to various sources of information on plant genetic
resources within the countries in the APO region.
Regional collaboration
One of IPGRI’s major objectives in APO is to promote collaboration among countries in the
region. Staff encourage direct communication between countries, promote regional
networking and assist regional participation in international fora. For example, many APO
countries participated enthusiastically in IPGRI-convened meetings to develop the FAO-led
Developingnational programmesand regional collaboration
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Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture and on the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic
Resources to establish terms to recognize farmers’ rights and access and benefit-sharing
under the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA).
The Pacific
IPGRI’s increased contacts with the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are leading
to increased networking in plant genetic resources activities in the Pacific region. In 1999
IPGRI proposed a Pacific network for plant genetic resources to the New Zealand
Overseas Development Administration (NZ-ODA) and later involved SPC and ACIAR. The
first meeting on the network, held in November 2000, established a clear administrative
structure for the network and drafted a list of priorities and an action plan.
IPGRI also participated in the first meeting of the South Pacific Resource and Environment
Program (SPREP) in Samoa in September 2000. This was in connection with the ADB
Regional Technical Assistance (RETA) project on Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in
the South Pacific. IPGRI will work with the RETA project to increase public awareness
activities based on the work that IPGRI started in Malaysia.
South Asia
In October 2000, IPGRI APO staff participated in the fifth meeting of the South Asia
Network on Plant Genetic Resources (SANPGR). This meeting took a number of important
decisions on joint collecting, characterization and evaluation, information management and
the use of GIS. Work will begin on establishing duplicate sites of collections, as this is a
high priority for all the network members. SANPGR also proposed developing a regional
plant quarantine network and a regional database and information network to encourage
exchange of germplasm and promote human resource development. As part of this effort,
participants are drafting a harmonized material transfer agreement for the region to
facilitate germplasm exchange. Participants at the meeting developed an action plan for
implementing these recommendations.
East Asia
IPGRI is actively participating in the East Asian Plant Genetic Resources Network (EA-
PGR), which currently has five member countries. IPGRI publishes the proceedings of the
EA-PGR meetings as a way of disseminating valuable information among the membership.
During the last three years, APO staff also continued work on a regional directory of plant
genetic resources workers in EA-PGR member countries.
China, DPR Korea, the Republic of Korea, Japan and Mongolia are working together under
the EA-PGR to explore the genetic diversity of the Vigna angularis complex, or the adzuki
bean, in collaboration with IPGRI. The results of this study will reveal the relationships
between the components of the V. angularis complex and help in its better conservation
and use by network partners. 
In another network-sponsored activity, ICGR is testing the seed viability of eight crop species
(rice, wheat, maize, soyabean, sorghum, millet, common bean and Chinese cabbage) to
develop models for predicting loss of viability under different storage conditions. This work will
provide parameters that can be used for monitoring germplasm in genebanks in the region.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
ANSWER
The International Potato Center (CIP) office in Bogor, Indonesia is providing the
secretariat for the Asian Network for Sweet Potato Genetic Resources (ANSWER), in
collaboration with IPGRI’s APO office. IPGRI is preparing the Network’s proceedings for
publication jointly with CIP, filling an important gap in communication amongst the
network’s researchers. Communication will be further stimulated by the ANSWER web
page that CIP has established (at http://www.eseap.cipotato.org/answer). This initiative
has focused attention on Asian sweet potato germplasm, which, although not as diverse
as that from South America, is important to Asian sweet potato improvement people and
growers in the region.
Under the auspices of ANSWER, a study was started in collaboration with the UPM on
the genetic diversity in sweet potato, based on molecular markers and heterosis in the
progenies. No correlation was observed between heterosis and genetic distance. This
could be due to the lack of major differences among the parental material, which was
collected in one region. Techniques for measuring genetic diversity in sweet potato
accessions have been standardized and further work is in progress with diverse
genotypes.
Members of ANSWER met in September 2000, during the ISRTC Congress 2000 in
Tsukuba, Japan, and decided to place sweet potato characterization data on the
ANSWER Web page. Members agreed work together on mapping of germplasm collected
on a regional scale.
Collaboration with APAARI
APAARI is the Asia Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions. FAO provides
the secretariat for the association. The association provides a regional forum for
cooperation, consultation and priority setting, information support and regional
representation in agricultural research among NARS in the Asia Pacific region and
between the NARS and the CGIAR. APAARI is a key partner for IPGRI in its efforts to
strengthen links among countries in activities related to plant genetic resources. In 1999,
APAARI and IPGRI signed an MOU to facilitate collaboration between the two bodies.
APAARI has endorsed both regional and crop commodity genetic resources networks and
their programmes, which have been established and promoted or are being developed by
IPGRI. APAARI members see these networks as effective, inexpensive tools for helping
countries to conserve and sustainably use the vast amount of agrobiodiversity across the
region. IPGRI consults APAARI members in prioritizing collaborative activities to be
carried out under these networks. APAARI and IPGRI have been working together to
strengthen collaborative research and training activities and promote exchange of
knowledge and expertise through network workshops and meetings. This collaboration
includes INIBAP activities in Asia.
IPGRI has participated in almost all APAARI meetings and contributed to the
development of the association’s vision. IPGRI and APAARI are considering jointly
conducting an in-depth study of the regional networks to collect and share lessons on
successful strategies to strengthen plant genetic resources networks. IPGRI is consulting
with APAARI members on how to formulate a Pacific PGR network and a proposal has
been made to form a Pan-Regional Network on Plant Genetic Resources under the
umbrella of APAARI.
32 1999–2000Regional Report for APO
33
IPGRI has a global project on capacity building and institutional support that is co-
ordinated by the institute’s Documentation, Information and Training group (DIT), based a
IPGRI’s headquarters in Rome, Italy. APO staff manage activities of this project that are
carried out in the APO region, in addition to managing similar regional activities conducted
as part of the regional project.
These activities are building the capacity within the region to meet the medium- and long-
term needs for staff in plant genetic resources. Three collaborative capacity-building
initiatives have had a significant impact in the region, namely the development of an MSc
course in plant genetic resources at UPLB, Philippines, participation in the development of
an MSc course at UKM, Malaysia and raising the interest of NBPGR and IARI, India in an
MSc course at IARI, New Delhi.
Each year, IPGRI staff lecture at the course in the Philippines, which started in 1995. IPGRI
also supplied materials and books to this course, and in 2000 donated laboratory facilities
including computers and isozyme equipment to UPLB. Curriculum development workshops
produced course materials in the form of lecture syllabi and laboratory manuals for three newly
instituted courses on advanced characterization, evaluation and utilization, methods of
conservation and management, and database management for genebanks. IPGRI funded a
study tour by the senior UPLB staff member organizing the MSc programme to Birmingham
University and other UK institutions; this has had a very positive impact on the approach to
teaching in the course. An extensive training survey carried out by IPGRI revealed strong
support for such MSc training in the region. This survey report has been widely used by other
educational institutions in the region. In 1998, the ADB granted funding to IPGRI for 3 years for
further course development, training materials and MSc scholarships at UPLB. These
scholarship funds were matched by funds from the Center for Graduate Study and Research
in Agriculture (SEARCA), Philippines and from UPLB and supported deserving students from
the region.
An equivalent MSc programme recently began at UKM, Malaysia in collaboration with
several national organizations. IPGRI staff serve on the committee that is organizing this
programme and developing the course synopsis. In India, staff had extensive discussions
with NBPGR/IARI officials and supplied sample training materials. Based on these,
NBPGR/IARI developed a course curriculum, which IPGRI staff reviewed. Staff based at
the institute’s New Delhi office will also provide expertise as guest lecturers.
The emergence of three MSc programmes on plant genetic resources in universities in the
APO region reflects the strong demand for such courses, and the interest and capability of
national universities in the region to organize and provide such training. These programmes
are widely supported both nationally and regionally and will provide good quality, relevant
training to a cadre of future scientists and policymakers in the region.
In addition to developing MSc courses in the region, IPGRI has helped more than 20
people from the region to attend training courses in Europe. Trainees from Myanmar, Nepal,
Philippines and Vietnam have attended courses in Germany, Italy and UK. After the
courses the trainees return to their countries where they usually assume greater
responsibility for genetic resources activities and carry out further training of other workers.
COGENT training
COGENT’s human resources development activities focus on short courses held in the
region. Since 1992, COGENT has trained a total of 80 researchers on short courses such
as those highlighted below.
Human resource development
H
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Eight trainees from China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, PNG, Sri Lanka and
Thailand attended a course on genetic diversity assessment in Hainan, China. The course,
run by four IPGRI staff and four staff from the Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural
Sciences, taught the participants how to apply new biotechnology methods coupled with
traditional methods for measuring and analyzing genetic diversity to coconut.
A training course on standard research techniques in coconut breeding was held at the
Vanuatu Agricultural Research Center for four project leaders from the Cooke Islands,
Kiribati, the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu. The sessions taught the participants skills in
germplasm characterization and evaluation that will be extremely useful in their work.
Eighteen participants from 13 countries attended a training workshop on technical
writing, seminar presentation and public awareness at SEARCA in the Philippines in
2000. The participants learned techniques on how to prepare high-quality reports and
project proposals and how to develop support for their research projects through
public awareness.
A coconut data analysis course held at SEARCA in 2000 trained 19 participants from 14
countries in protocols for the analysis of genetic distances of coconut germplasm and the
agronomic performance of coconut germplasm in the field.
In addition to organizing training courses, COGENT also sponsors coconut researchers to
complete thesis research relevant to the network’s activities. Thesis research currently
supported by COGENT includes research assessing the coconut genetic diversity in Fiji,
studying pollen storage of coconut in Bangladesh, studying the selection and conservation
of coconut in Pakistan, and applying DNA marker technology to the in situ characterization
of coconut germplasm in Catanduanes Island, Philippines. SEARCA also provides
scholarships to six additional coconut researchers.
34
MSc students at
UPLB,
Philippines.
1999–2000Regional Report for APO
35
Serdang, Malaysia
Dr Percy E. Sajise Regional Director
Dr Ponciano Batugal Senior Scientist, COGENT Coordinator
Prof. H. F. Chin Honorary Research Fellow, Public Awareness
Dr Cho Eun Gi Associate Scientist, Citrus Cryopreservation
Mr Choo Kwong Yan Programme Assistant
Ms Sapura Mohd Derus Finance/Administration Assistant
Ms Christina Doss Programme Assistant
Ms Eleanor Flora Gomez Senior Secretary
Mr Hong Lay Thong Bamboo, Rattan and Forest Genetic Resources Specialist
Dr Jarkko Koskela Associate Expert, Forest Genetic Recourses
Ms Rohana Masod Secretary to Regional Director
Mr Shamsudin Mohammad Driver/Office Assistant
Ms Zulyana Mohd Nor Secretary
Dr Paul Quek Kwang Leng Scientist, Documentation/Information
Ms Parimala Rajagopal Documentation Assistant
Dr V. Ramanatha Rao Senior Scientist, Genetic Diversity/Conservation 
Dr Shaharudin Saamin Scientific Assistant
Ms Shalizahanim Shukor Communication Assistant
Dr Bhuwon Ratna Sthapit Scientist, In Situ Crop Conservation Specialist
Mr Yeow Giap Seng Programme Assistant
Mr Michael Weller Administrative Officer
Beijing, China
Prof. Zhou Ming De Senior Scientist, East Asia Coordinator
Ms Mei Tao Programme Assistant
Mr Xu Chongping Office Assistant
Mr Zhang, Zongwen Associate Scientist, East Asia Associate Coordinator
Delhi, India
Dr Bhag Mal Senior Scientist, South Asia Coordinator
Dr R.K. Arora Honorary Research Fellow
Mr V. Surendra Kumar Administration Associate
Mr Joshi Kishan Kumar Driver/General Assistant
Dr Prem Mathur Associate Scientist, South Asia Associate Coordinator
Ms Yadur S. Ramamani Scientific Officer
Mr Kishan B. Tamang Office Assistant
INIBAP Regional Office, the Philippines
Dr Augustin Molina Regional Coordinator 
Ms Ines van den Bergh Associate Expert (Vietnam)
Ms Maria Angeli Maghuyop Scientific Assistant
Ms Versalynn Roa Programme Assistant 
Dr Ramon Valmayor Honorary Research Fellow 
IPGRI staff in APO1999-2000
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ACIAR Australian Centre for
International Agricultural
Research
ADB Asian Development Bank
ANSWER Asian Network for Sweetpotato
Genetic Resources
APO Asia, the Pacific and Oceania
ASCII American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
ASPNET Asia and Pacific Regional
Network
ATREE Ashoka Trust for Research in
Ecology and the Environment
BBG Beijing Botanical Garden
Beta-ODAP Beta-oxalyl-diamino-propionic
acid
BPI-BNCRDC Bureau of Plant Industry-
Bagiuo National Crop Research
and Development Center
BPI-DNCRDC Bureau of Plant Industry-Davao
National Crop Research and
Development Center
CAAS Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences
CBD Convention on Biological
Diversity 
CGIAR Consultative Group on
International Agricultural
Research
CGRD Coconut Genetic Resources
Database
CGRFA Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and
Agriculture
CIP International Potato Center
CIRAD Centre de coopération
internationale en recherche
agronomique pour le
développement 
CLIMA Centre for Legumes in
Mediterranean Agriculture
COGENT International Coconut Genetic
Resources Network
DFID Department for International
Development
DIP Data interchange protocol
DIT Documentation, Information
and Training group, IPGRI
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DPR Democratic People’s Republic
(of Korea)
EA-PGR East Asian Plant Genetic
Resources Network
FAO Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations
FFTC Food and Fertilizer Technology
Center
FHIA Honduran Agricultural
Research Foundation
FRIM Forest Research Institute of
Malaysia 
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS Geographic information system
GRIN Genetic Resources Information
Network
HARRDEC Highland Agriculture and
Resources Research and
Development Consortium
IARI Indian Agricultural Research
Institute
IBPGR International Board for Plant
Genetic Resources (forerunner
of IPGRI)
ICAR Indian Council for Agricultural
Research
ICARDA International Center for
Agricultural Research in the
Dry Areas
ICG International Coconut Genebank
ICGR Institute of Crop Germplasm
Resources
ICRISAT International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics
ICUC International Centre for
Underutilized Crops
IFAD International Fund for
Agricultural Development
IGAU Indira Gandhi Agricultural
University 
IK Indigenous knowledge
IMTP International Musa Testing
Programme
INBAR International Network on
Bamboo and Rattan
INIBAP International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and
Plantain
IPGRI International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute
IPM Integrated pest management
IRD Institut de recherche pour le
développement
ISGAC International Safflower
Germplasm Advisory Committee
Ac
ro
ny
m
s
Acronyms
LI-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity,
Research and Development
MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research
and Development Institute
MC Moisture content
NARS National agricultural research
system
NBPGR National Board for Plant Genetic
Resources
NGO Non-governmental organization
NIAR National Institute of Agricultural
Research
NPGRL National Plant Genetic Resources
Laboratory
NSSL National Seed Storage Laboratory
NZ-ODA New Zealand Official Development
Assistance
OCRI Oil Crop Research Institute
PCARRD Philippine Council for Agriculture,
Forestry and Natural Resources
Research and Development
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
PNG Papua New Guinea
RAPD Randomly amplified polymorphic
DNA
RECSEA Regional Co-operation in
Southeast Asia
RETA Regional Technical Assistance
SANPGR South Asia Network on Plant
Genetic Resources
SEARCA Center for Graduate Study 
and Research in Agriculture
SPC South Pacific Corporation
SPREP South Pacific Resource and
Environment Program
TaroGen Taro genetic resources network
TFNet Tropical Fruits Network
TWMRF Third World Medical Research
Foundation
UK United Kingdom
UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
UM Universiti Malaya
UPLB University of the Philippines 
at Los Baños
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia
USA United States of America
UTFANET Underutilized Tropical Fruits in
Asia Network
VASI Vietnam Agricultural Science
Institute
VLIR Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad
VVOB Vlaamse Vereniging voor
Ontwikkelingsamenwerking en
Technische Bijstand
YAAS Yunnan Academy of Agricultural
Sciences
YFSTA Yunnan Farmers’ Speciality
Technique Association
37
Ac
ro
ny
m
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R
eg
io
na
l R
ep
or
tAPO 1999–2000
IPGRI in 
Asia, the Pacific
and Oceania
ISBN 92-9043-493-7