Report 

on 

Participatory Evaluation of Climate-Smart Risk Maps and Adaptation 

Plans (CS-MAP) at Community Level for the Coastal Agriculture  

of Bangladesh 



 

  

Authors/ Contributors 

A M M Mostafa Ali 

Md. Mostafizur Rahman 

Champa Rani Saha 

Syed Arman Akib Rahman 

Md. Ehsanul Haque 

Md. Abu Ryhan 

Bui Tan Yen 

Katherine Nelson 

Trang Vu 

Quyet Vu 

Nguyen Bao Tran 

Ahmad Salahuddin 

 



 

CORRECT CITATION 

A M M Mostafa Ali, Md. Mostafizur Rahman, Champa Rani Saha, Syed Arman Akib Rahman and Md.  

Ehsanul Haque, Md. Abu Ryhan, Bui Tan Yen, Katherine Nelson, Trang Vu, Quyet Vu, Nguyen Bao 

Tran and Ahmad Salahuddin. 2024. Participatory Evaluation of Climate-Smart Risk Maps and 

Adaptation Plans (CS-MAP) at Community Level for the Coastal Agriculture of Bangladesh. Dhaka, 

Bangladesh: Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information Services and International Rice 

Research Institute.   

 

This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Securing the food systems of 

Asian Mega-Deltas for climate and livelihood resilience, which is carried out with support from 

CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details, please visit 

https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/asian-mega-deltas/. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a 

food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a 

climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with 

hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, 

academia, development organizations and the private sector. We would like to thank all funders who 

support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders. 

 

The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these 

organizations.  

 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International 

Licence (CC by 4.0). Articles appearing in this publication may be freely quoted and reproduced 

provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication may be used for resale or other 

commercial purposes. 

 

 

DISCLAIMER  

This guide has been prepared as an output for the Asian Mega-Deltas Initiative and has not been 

peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect 

the policies or opinions of the CGIAR, donor agencies, or partners. All images remain the sole 

property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the 

source.



 

i 

Table of Contents 

List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................iii 

List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................................................................iii 

Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................................................................................................................................ iv 

Participatory Evaluation of Climate-Smart Risk Maps and Adaptation Plans ................................................... 1 

1. Background ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1 

2. Aims and Objectives ....................................................................................................................................................... 2 

3. Key Method ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2 

4. Workflow of Activities .................................................................................................................................................. 3 

4.1 Step 1: Preparation Phase ................................................................................................................................... 3 

4.1.1 Selection of Community ............................................................................................................................. 3 

4.1.2 Communication and Schedule Set Up ................................................................................................... 3 

4.1.3 Preparation of Questionnaire .................................................................................................................. 3 

4.1.4 Selection of Participants ............................................................................................................................ 4 

4.1.5 Arrangement of Logistics........................................................................................................................... 4 

4.1.6 Preparation of Data and Information ................................................................................................... 4 

4.2 Step 2: Participatory Evaluation Workshop Phase ................................................................................... 5 

4.2.1 Inauguration and Presentation ............................................................................................................... 5 

4.2.2 Individual Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 5 

4.2.3 Group Evaluation .......................................................................................................................................... 6 

4.3 Step 3: Post Workshop Phase ............................................................................................................................ 6 

4.3.1 Data Processing and Storing .................................................................................................................... 6 

4.3.2 Data Analysis and Dissemination ........................................................................................................... 7 

5. Main Characteristics of the Community ................................................................................................................ 7 

5.1 CS-Map Outputs ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 

5.2 Climate ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9 

5.3 Hydrology ................................................................................................................................................................ 10 

5.4 Land Use ................................................................................................................................................................... 10 

5.5 Economy .................................................................................................................................................................. 11 

5.6 Social Services ....................................................................................................................................................... 12 

5.7 Existing Adaptation Plans ................................................................................................................................. 13 

6. Union wise Community Evaluation Profile ....................................................................................................... 13 



 

ii 

6.1 Outputs of Batiaghata Upazila, Khulna ....................................................................................................... 13 

6.1.1 Amirpur Union ............................................................................................................................................ 13 

6.1.2 Batiaghata Union ........................................................................................................................................ 15 

6.1.3 Surkhali Union ............................................................................................................................................. 17 

6.1.4 Community Observation vs CSMAP Output .................................................................................... 19 

6.1.5 Recommendation ....................................................................................................................................... 20 

6.2 Outputs of Galachipa Upazila, Patuakhali .................................................................................................. 21 

6.2.1 Amkhola Union ........................................................................................................................................... 21 

6.2.2 Dakua Union ................................................................................................................................................. 23 

6.2.3 Golkhali Union ............................................................................................................................................. 24 

6.2.4 Community Observation vs CSMAP Output .................................................................................... 26 

6.2.5 Recommendation ....................................................................................................................................... 27 

6.3 Outputs of Amtali Upazila, Barguna ............................................................................................................. 28 

6.3.1 Haldia Union ................................................................................................................................................. 28 

6.3.2 Arpangashia Union .................................................................................................................................... 30 

6.3.3 Gulishakhali Union .................................................................................................................................... 31 

6.3.4 Community Observation vs CSMAP Output .................................................................................... 33 

6.3.5 Recommendation ....................................................................................................................................... 34 

Reference ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 

Annex 1: English Form for Individual Evaluation of Climate Risks and Adaptation Measures .............. 38 

Annex 2: Bengali Form for Individual Evaluation of Climate Risks and Adaptation Measures in 

Khulna ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 

Annex 3: Bengali Form for Individual Evaluation of Climate Risks and Adaptation Measures in 

Patuakhali .................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 

Annex 4: Bengali Form for Individual Evaluation of Climate Risks and Adaptation Measures in 

Barguna ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 

 



 

iii 

List of Tables 

Table 1: List of Community and Event Dates ................................................................................................................... 3 

 

 

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Questionnaire Fill Up during Individual Evaluation ................................................................................. 6 

Figure 2: Discussion with Local Farmers during Group Evaluation ...................................................................... 6 

Figure 3: Screenshots of Survey Form in Kobo Platform ........................................................................................... 7 



 

iv 

Abbreviations and Acronyms 

AAEO Assistant Agriculture Extension Officer 

AMD Asian Mega Delta 

BPH Brown Plant Hopper 

CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers 

CS-MAP Climate Smart Risk Mapping and Adaptation Planning 

DAE Department of Agricultural Extension 

UAO Upazila Agricultural Officer 

SAAO Sub Assistant Agricultural Officer 

LLP Low Lift pump 

STW Shallow Tubewell 

FGD Focus Group Discussion 

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal 

RRA Rural Rapid Appraisal 

 

 



 

1 

Participatory Evaluation of Climate-Smart Risk Maps and Adaptation Plans 

1. Background 

Bangladesh, an agricultural country, is highly vulnerable to climate change and is ranked seventh 

among the most extreme disaster-prone countries in the world (UNDP, 2023). The country faces 

exceptional challenges due to their low-lying and flat topography, subjected to riverine flooding (due 

to sea level rise), frequent cyclones, storm surges, heavy rainfall, tornados, river bank erosion, 

salinity, high population density, high level of poverty, and solely reliance of livelihoods on climate-

sensitive sectors and extreme weather events resulting from climate change (Islam et al., 2024). 

The total area of the country is about 14.75 million hectares (Mha) of which 51.25% (7.56 million 

hectares) of the land is cultivated to feed a population of 169.8 million (BBS, 2022). Half of the total 

agricultural land is reserved for double cropping while 13% of land is usable for triple cropping. 

Though there is a possibility of sufficient production of food required to meet the domestic demand, 

natural calamities and climate vulnerabilities regularly stand before the country’s food self-

sufficiency. Crop production in Bangladesh is facing more challenges due to the negative impacts of 

climate change, especially salinity intrusion, drought, and flooding that significantly damages the 

economy and lives of people Therefore, a root-level adaptation plan is a must for the country. 

To deal with the condition, the Asian Mega-Deltas for Climate and Livelihood Resilience (AMD) 

initiated by CGIAR aim to create resilient, inclusive, and productive deltas that maintain socio-

ecological integrity, adapt to climatic and other stressors, and support human prosperity and well-

being. Developing climate-risk maps and adaptation plans (CS-MAP) is one of the actions adopted 

under the AMD initiative. 08 (eight) CS-AMPs were prepared for 03 (three) districts (Khulna, 

Patuakhali and Barguna) from 02 (two) coastal divisions of Bangladesh. District-level CS-MAP 

considered two climatic risks for widely cultivated crops for extreme and normal scenarios and 

adaptation strategies identified by local stakeholders from different administrative levels. The 

approach is centred on developing a participatory, community-driven process that combines top-

down scientific understanding with the personal experiences of individuals most impacted by 

climate change. 



 

2 

It is important to observe the impacts of climate risk and the feasibility of adaptation measures from 

the farmer’s perspective, as they perceive from a very site-specific angle that is influenced by 

farm/household capacity (land quality, labour, capital, education, etc.), gender equity and other 

social norms. Therefore, individual evaluation was conducted in nine unions of 03 upazilas from the 

previously mentioned three districts. Individual evaluation at the farmer level is essential for 

understanding their views on climate risks and workable options to cope with their risk-prone 

conditions, identifying the grassroots constraints and willingness of male and female farmers to 

undertake adaptation measures, empowering farmers or community by involving both male and 

female farmers in climate-planning and decision-making processes and informing planning and 

strategy development of local and central government (Bui et al., 2023). 

However, adopting climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies is needed to ensure 

participatory planning and development to flourish in such predicaments. Adaptation planning is 

crucial to ensure the overall productivity of agriculture against climate change events. This requires 

enough data on base conditions such as agricultural land, cropping systems, major crops, disasters, 

and topography. Besides, the participatory approach should be accompanied by climate risk maps, 

cost-benefit studies for adaptive alternatives, climatic future trends, etc. Initiatives like CS-MAP are 

essential as climate change keeps threatening Bangladesh's agricultural sector to ensure food 

security and safeguard the livelihoods of millions of people. 

2. Aims and Objectives 

This project aims to evaluate the climate risks to various crops across different seasons as 

experienced by farmers over the years and adaptation plans as recommended to reduce the yield 

loss. Within the framework of AMD, the main objectives of community-level evaluation of CS-MAP 

are: 

 To understand community perspective on climate risks and possible adaptation options 

to cope with their risk-prone conditions 

 To identify the constraints at the grassroots level and the willingness of male and female 

farmers to adopt measures 

 To empower the communitybyinvolving both male and female farmersin climate-

planning and decision-makingprocesses 

 To inform planning and strategy development of local and central government 

3. Key Method 

With an aim to achieve the targets for farmer-level verification, the key methodology provided by 

Yen, Salahuddin and Nelson (2023) was followed step by step. The guideline explains a basic 

framework to conduct a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the participation of local farmers, DAE 

officials and other associated individuals. The framework consists of the 3-step processes and simple 

tools that are usually applied in the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rural Rapid Appraisal 

(RRA). This technique has been adopted only to stay focused on the feedback of the farmers on the 

outputs derived from the CSMAP district level workshops. The outputs are based on the perception 

of risk level and feasibility of proposed adaptation measures.  



 

3 

4. Workflow of Activities 

4.1 Step 1: Preparation Phase 

Prior to conducting CSMAP community evaluation workshop, a number of activities were done at 

preparation phase to ensure that the event was organized successfully and the output came as desired. 

4.1.1 Selection of Community 

Since community level evaluation was supposed to conduct in nine (09) unions of Khulna, Patuakhali 

and Barguna districts, each three (03) unions from one upazila of a representative district was 

selected through consideration of polders and high, medium and low level of the most considerable 

climate-risks. The unions that were finalized are -  

 Amirpur, Batiaghata and Surkhali unions in Batiaghataupazila, Khulna 

 Haldia, Arpangashia and Gulisakhali unions in Amtaliupazila, Barguna and 

 Amkhola, Golkhali and Dakua unions in Galachipaupazila, Patuakhali 

4.1.2 Communication and Schedule Set Up 

After selecting the districts, a tentative schedule was set up initially to kick-off the journey of 

workshop and check the feasibility of the plan. Two adjacent districts were planned to conduct 

workshop in a week. Interval time from each trip to another was counted at least one month to 

process the workshop outputs and prepare for next trip. The interval time might vary since a 

number of important events and facts such as government holidays, religious practices, political 

unrest, knowledge dissemination sessions, meetings, availability of the facilitators etc. were 

considered during schedule set up. However, following the schedule, the Upazila Agricultural Officer 

(UAO) of Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) of the targeted district was communicated 

beforehand to discuss the overall workplan and check the availability of the officers on the 

scheduled date. After receiving consents from UAOs, the workshop date was finalized, and 

accordingly further preparations were taken. The final dates when the workshop events were hold 

are given below in Table 1. 

Table 1: List of Community and Event Dates 

District Upazila Union Event Date 

Khulna Batiaghata 

Amirpur 28 August 2023 

Batiaghata 30 August 2023 

Surkhali 30 August 2023 

Patuakhali Galachipa 

Amkhola 20 May 2024 

Golkhali 20 May 2024 

Dakua 22 May 2024 

Barguna Amtali 

Haldia 10th September 2024 

Arpangashia 11th September 2024 

Gulisakhali 12th September 2024 

4.1.3 Preparation of Questionnaire 

Preparation of questionnaire is an important task for union validation workshop. The basic 

framework of the questionnaire was developed in Bengali following the guideline shared by Yen, 

Salahuddin and Nelson (2023). While finalizing the questionnaire, the climate risks and adaptation 



 

4 

plans of respective districts were included so that the community could evaluate the outputs only 

derived from that district workshop. The key contents of the questionnaire are- 

 Household crop system and cropping calendar;  

 Perception of last 5 years on climate risks: risk level, risk trend and occurrence of 

climate risk; 

 Evaluation of the proposed adaptation measures: level of interest, willing to adopt, 

potential change in gender role and support needed;  

 Household adoption intention: agricultural system intended to be transformed, difficulty 

or challenge and supports needed; and  

 Other current difficulties in food production of the household 

The original framework was used during workshops in Khulna. Later, the pattern was revised 

allowing the same content to receive better response from farmers within a short time. However, the 

finalized questionnaire was shared with UAO earlier so that Sub-Assistant Agricultural Officers 

(SAAO) of the selected unions were informed regarding the workshops and concerned of the 

information required from the farmers. The questionnaires are attached in Annexure (Annex 2-4). 

4.1.4 Selection of Participants 

The key participants of community-level evaluation were 20 farmers (10 female and 10 male) and 

DAE officials, especially UAO, Assistant Agriculture Extension Officer (AAEO) of the respective 

upazila and SAAOs of the respective unions for each community evaluation workshop. Farmers were 

selected from the targeted community aiming equal number of men and women who were involved 

in cultivation, fishery, and livestock and knowledgeable about the environment of the community. 

SAAOs, as representatives of local officials and extension workers facilitated the farmer selection 

process and ensured their presence on the event day on time. Farmers undergoing climate 

challenges for agricultural production and having farm size small to large were given priority to join 

the evaluation process. 

4.1.5 Arrangement of Logistics 

All the necessary logistics required for the participatory evaluation workshop were arranged 

carefully and made available when required. The most important item was hard copies of 

questionnaire which was mandatory to provide the participants and collect information from them. 

The supplementary items such as pencil, eraser was also organized for the participants so that they 

could have all the accessories ready for filling up the form. Seminar file, notepad and pen were also 

arranged to welcome all the participants. Banner, timely food supply, proper venue decoration etc. 

were ensured for a successful event. A handsome honorarium was also considered for all the 

participants. Presentation with all the CSMAP outputs were prepared to deliver speech on the event. 

Voice recorders were also taken to record the discussion of the farmers and officers.  

4.1.6 Preparation of Data and Information 

During preparation phase, detail data and information were attempted to collect and process for a 

comprehensive understanding of the overall background of the communities. This activity plays 

crucial role in providing support to cross-check information derived from real-world aspects.  

However, a lion part of data was collected from secondary sources such as reports, journals, existing 

databases etc.  Information on climate risk prone areas and adaptation options were directly 

extracted from district level CSMAP workshops. Besides these, the following information were 

considered-  



 

5 

 climate information such as rainfall, temperature, climate risks;  

 hydrological information such as open irrigation water, ground water level;  

 land use information such as cropping pattern and calendar, main current food 

products;  

 economic information such as living standards, sources of income, agricultural & 

livestock, production, farming systems, farm size; 

 sociological information such as number of households, number of farmers  

 existing adaptation plans affecting farmers’ decision at different level of administration 

4.2 Step 2: Participatory Evaluation Workshop Phase 

Participatory evaluation workshop phase refers to all the activities that took place during the days 

ofworkshop. The event was divided into four sessions- opening session, individual session, group 

session and closing session. The key activities were - 

 Inauguration and presentation on CSMAP outputs belong to the opening session. 

 Filling up the questionnaire belong to the individual session. 

 Discussion with male and female participants belong to the group session. 

 Summary of the outputs and closing speech belong to the closing session. 

4.2.1 Inauguration and Presentation 

Each evaluation workshop was inaugurated with a short speech delivered by respective UAO, DAE of 

the respective upazila. The representative of IRRI team also delivered a short speech on the 

background of CSMAP and the purpose of the evaluation. After the inauguration, a detail 

presentation was delivered by CEGIS team to explain about CSMAP process, objectives, 

implementation, adaptation options and findings relevant to the target community and to share the 

expectation out of the validation workshop. 

4.2.2 Individual Evaluation 

After the presentation, the participants were aware of the upcoming activities in the event. The 

participants were provided with the hard copy of questionnaire in the beginning of the workshop so 

that they could take a look in the information. They were instructed how to fill the form and what 

information was expected to receive through the survey. After receiving proper guidance, farmers 

filled out the questionnaire and questioned to the facilitators if there was any confusion. SAAOs of 

the respective unions joined to facilitate the farmers so that they could understand the topic and fill 

up quickly. If any farmer was having issues in reading and writing, he/she was attended individually 

to accomplish the task on time. However, all filled forms were collected and conducted a quick 

statistic to make a list of common issues in the respective union. An instant qualitative assessment 

was done to bring the summary of the individual session into the participants. 



 

6 

 

Figure 1: Questionnaire Fill Up during Individual Evaluation 

4.2.3 Group Evaluation 

Group session was started with a discussion on the list of common issues figured out during 

individual evaluation. Since the aim was to get common agreement of issues, each of the issues were 

discussed with the participants. Their feedbacks were recorded following FGD method.  The 

discussion basically focused on perception of climate-risks, agreement of applicable adaptive 

measures and necessary investments (e.g., irrigation, crop variety, fertilizers etc.) and technical 

supports. Both male and female farmers were encouraged to share their experiences and opinions.  

 

Figure 2: Discussion with Local Farmers during Group Evaluation 

4.3 Step 3: Post Workshop Phase 

Post workshop phase includes all the activities that were conducted based on questionnaire and 

voice recordings, and the phase ends with data analysis and report writing.  

4.3.1 Data Processing and Storing 

The major outputs of the evaluation workshops were questionnaires from individual evaluation and 

voice recordings from group evaluation. The outputs were processed in two different methods. 

I) A digital survey form was developed in kobo platform (https://ee-

eu.kobotoolbox.org/x/hQQPhKgL) following the topics in hard copy questionnaire. All the 

information in filled up questionnaires were transferred into the digital platform and 

stored in excel format.  

https://ee-eu.kobotoolbox.org/x/hQQPhKgL
https://ee-eu.kobotoolbox.org/x/hQQPhKgL


 

7 

 

Figure 3: Screenshots of Survey Form in Kobo Platform 

II) The voice recordings were stored at the desktop and listened carefully to the discussion. 

The feedbacks were noted separately for male and female participants. Their discussion 

and feedbacks ultimately came out in form of interpretation of the issues, 

recommendations and expectation which were pointed out and documented in the 

relevant section.  

4.3.2 Data Analysis and Dissemination 

When all the workshop data were processed and stored, the final task was data analysis. The outputs 

of individual input and the points raised during group discussion were reviewed and ensured the 

coherence. The results were also compared with the outputs of district level workshops. All the data 

and information derived through the workshop were analyzed and shared with IRRI. 

5. Main Characteristics of the Community 

5.1 CS-Map Outputs 

Batiaghata is one of the nine Upazilas of Khulna district located in the southwestern coastal area of 

Bangladesh. There are seven unions in Batiaghata out of which Amirpur, Batiaghata, and Surkhali 

are considered for CS mapping verification. T. Aman is widely produced in the upazila. Surkhali, 

Gangarampur, Batighata and parts of Baliadanga unions face a moderate (30-50% yield loss) 

waterlogging risk during T. Aman harvesting both in normal and extreme times. Existing sluicegate 

management and maintenance, and excavation of rivers, canals and small ponds could aid in solving 

this problem. The other parts of the Upazila experience no water logging during T. Aman harvest. 

Moderate drought is ubiquitous in the area during normal years. Surkhali and part of Gangarampur 

union pose a high risk (50% yield loss) during the extreme drought. Sluicegate management and 

maintenance, excavation of rivers, canals and small ponds, and introduction of drought-tolerant 

variety and deep boring for irrigation could diminish the risk of drought in the western part of the 

Rupsha River. In the eastern part of the river excavation of rivers and canals and managing 

sluicegate can help to cope with the situation. Boro is cultivated in Amirpur, Baliadanga and parts of 

Bhandarkhol and Jalma unions. Salinity and drought are the major climate risks for Boro in the 

region. Jalma union poses a moderate risk of salinity and a low risk (10-30% yield loss) of drought. 

Other parts where Boro is cultivated, are under low risk of salinity but moderate risk of drought. 



 

8 

Along with the mentioned adaptation measures for T. Aman, salinity tolerable short-duration variety 

should be introduced to lessen salinity risk. Shallow boring for irrigation is also effective in this 

aspect. Watermelon is cultivated in three unions of the Upazila namely Surkhali, Gangarampur, and 

Batiaghata. The two main climatic concerns for watermelon in the area are heavy rainfall and 

drought. In normal years, the crop poses a lower risk (10-30% yield loss) of drought and a moderate 

risk (30-50% yield loss) during extreme years. Excavation of rivers, canals and ponds, policy 

intervention to stop the lease of rivers and deep boring to collect groundwater for irrigation can 

reduce drought risk. The crop is highly vulnerable to heavy rainfall during normal and severe times. 

Heavy rain could damage more than 50% of watermelon production. Managing and maintaining the 

existing sluice gates and constructing shallow-risk farrow drainage systems can assist in diminishing 

the risk of heavy rainfall. 

Galachipais one of the eight Upazilas of the Patuakhali district. Three of the 12 unions in Galachipa 

namely Amkhola, Golkhali and Dakua were considered for ground truthing of CS mapping. T. Aman, 

mungbean, watermelon, sunflower, and Aush are the most produced crops in Patuakhali, and T. 

Aman and mungbean were considered for risk mapping and adaptation planning. All the agricultural 

land in the area is under T. Aman cultivation. The most common climate risks for T. Aman 

production are waterlogging, drought, heavy rainfall, salinity, cyclone, excess humidity, river 

siltation etc., out of which heavy rainfall and waterlogging due to tidal intrusion scored as major 

climate risks. Amkhola and Golkhai unions have a moderate risk (30-50% yield loss) of heavy rain in 

the normal scenario and a high risk (more than 50% yield loss) during the extreme scenario. On the 

other hand, Dakua Union has low risk (10-30% yield loss) during the normal year and moderate risk 

in the extreme year.  In the average situation, waterlogging poses a moderate risk to the Amkhola 

and northern part Golkhai unions, but in the severe case, there is a considerable risk (more than 

50% yield loss). Conversely, Dakua Union has a moderate risk in an exceptional year and a low risk 

(10–30% yield loss) in a normal year. The southern part of the Golkhali union poses a low risk of 

waterlogging at both times. To adapt to the risk of extreme rainfall and waterlogging, improving 

drainage facilities through water control structure (i.e., sluice gates) management, U-shape drain 

construction and introducing new rice varieties such as submerged variety, short duration variety 

etc. are recommended to reduce yield loss. Mungbean is also widely cultivated in the area. Irregular 

rainfall, late joe conditions, drought, salinity, and tide cyclones are common climate risks for 

mungbean production. Irregular rainfall and late joe conditions were identified for mapping. 

Amkhola Union has a moderate risk (30-50% yield loss) of irregular rainfall in the normal scenario 

and a high risk (more than 50% yield loss) during the extreme scenario. On the other hand, Dakua 

and Golkhai Unions have low risk (10-30% yield loss) during the normal year and moderate risk 

during extreme irregular rainfall. To adapt to irregular rainfall, the most suggested adaptation 

pathways were improving drainage systems and irrigation facilities, introducing short-duration 

variety, weather forecasting etc. Amkhola Union has a moderate risk (30-50% yield loss) of late Joe 

condition in both normal extreme scenarios. On the contrary, Dakua and Golkhai Unions have low 

risk (10-30% yield loss) during both normal and extreme years of late Joe condition. To habituate to 

late Joe conditions, weather forecasting; introducing a new mungbean variety; introducing an early 

variety; buried pipe, water flow management etc. are recommended adaptation strategies suggested 

by the local people. 

Three unions of Amtaliupazila namely Haldia, Arpangashia and Gulisakhali were considered for CS-

Map verification in Barguna District. T. Aman, Aus and mungbean are selected as three major crops 

to map climate risks and adaptation plans. T. Aman is widely cultivated in Amtaliupazila. Nearly 

100% of the arable land is under T. Aman. T. Aman production in Barguna is mostly challenged by 

heavy rainfall and waterlogging.  Arpangashia, the northern part of Haldia and a major part of the 

Gulisakhali unions have no risk during normal situations but low risk (5-20% yield loss) during 



 

9 

extreme heavy rain conditions. Part of the Gulisakhali Union along the Amtali River and the south 

and eastern parts of Haldia Union have low risk during normal conditions and moderate risk (20-

50% yield loss) in extreme rainfall events. A similar condition occurs when the risk of waterlogging 

is considered. Drainage facility Improvement through water control structure management, 

waterbody excavation, introducing waterlogged tolerant local variety and high yield variety etc. are 

considered to adapt to heavy rainfall and waterlogging and save the T. Aman crop loss. Though not 

as ubiquitous as T. Aman, Aus is cultivated in many parts of the area. The western part of 

Arpangashia, the northern and small southern parts of Gulisakhali and the southeastern and 

northeastern parts of Haldia unions are under non-Aus cropland. Aus production is mostly 

challenged by drought and soil salinity. The Aus cropland has low drought risk (5-10% yield loss) in 

normal situations and moderate risk (10-20% yield loss) in severe conditions. When soil salinity is 

considered, the Aus cropland near the Amtali River of Gulisakhali and Arpangashia union has low 

risk during normal years but high salinity risk (more than 20% yield loss) during extreme scenarios. 

The other Aus croplands are not susceptible to soil salinity. Improvement of irrigation facility 

through water control structure management, waterbodies excavation, introducing drought tolerant 

variety, introducing salt tolerant short duration variety, use of low lift pump etc. can be introduced 

to cut short the loss of Aus crop in the area. The western half of Arpangashia, the major part of 

Gulisakhali except a small tip in the northwestern part and several small portions of Haldia union 

are under mungbean cultivation. Mungbean production is mostly challenged by low rainfall and high 

temperatures. The area under mungbean cultivation poses a medium risk (10-30% yield loss) of low 

rainfall under normal scenarios and a high risk (more than 30% yield loss) under extreme scenarios. 

Considering the high temperature, the area poses a low risk (5-10% yield loss) in normal years and 

medium risk in extreme years. The recommended adaptation techniques to adapt to the situations 

include improving irrigation facilities through water control structure management, rivers, canals 

and ponds excavation, introducing drought tolerant variety, introducing salt tolerant short duration 

variety, using buried pipe and low lift pump, introducing heat tolerant variety etc.  

5.2 Climate 

The rainfall in Khulna over the previous nine years (2013–2021) has varied from 1073 mm in 2018 

to 2286 mm in 2017. Khulna receives the lowest rainfall among the three study regions in this phase. 

The average annual temperature in Khulna was 27.1℃ in 2022 with the lowest mean temperature of 

19.3℃ in January and the highest mean temperature of 30.7℃ in June. The area had an average 

annual relative humidity of 77% in 2022; March had the lowest humidity of 66%, while October had 

the highest humidity of 84%. 

Over the last nine years (2013–2021), Patuakhali's annual rainfall has varied from 1902 mm in 2018 

to 3090 mm in 2015. Patuakhali had an average yearly temperature of 26.9°C in 2022; January had 

the lowest temperature of 19.9°C, while April had the highest temperature of 19.9°C. With a low 

mean relative humidity of 68% in March and a high of 90% in October, Patuakhali's average yearly 

relative humidity in 2022 was 81%. 

The annual rainfall of Barishal ranges from 1418 mm in 2018 to 2624 in 2017 in the last nine years 

(2013-2021). With a low of 19.1°C in January and a high of 30°C in July, Barishal's average yearly 

temperature in 2022 was 26.5°C. The average annual relative humidity in Barishal was 81% in 2022 

with the lowest mean humidity of 73% in March and the highest mean humidity of 87% in 

September. 

Simulation of salinity intrusion with an SLR of 52 cm in 2050 shows that the freshwater zones in 

Khulna, Barguna, and Patuakhali are likely to be lost (BDP 2100, 2018). The Institute of Water 

Resource Management (IWM) predicts the salinity in surface water will be 15-20 ppm in Khulna, and 



 

10 

2-4 ppm in Barguna and Patuakhali by 2050 (IWM, 2014). Besides, Land use loss due to sea level rise 

and flooding, Water logging, Cyclones, tidal fluctuation and storm surges are the remarkable climate 

change risks experienced by the local people. A minimum of seven severe have hit directly the 

Khunla region of Bangladesh since 1970. The latest of them was Cyclone Remel, which hit the coast 

in May 2024. On the other hand, more than four cyclones abruptly hit the Barguna region from 1970 

to 2022. The latest of them was Sitrang, which occurred in 2022. Galachipa suffer from river erosion 

and flooding. The Upazila also has several large char areas that frequently get inundated. In general, 

the area experiences rainfall variability, river floods, sea-level rise, salinity, tropical cyclones, storm 

surges, drought, extreme heat waves, extreme cold, riverbank erosion and lightning due to climate 

change (MoEFCC, 2022). 

5.3 Hydrology 

BADC's ground zoning map 2018, the groundwater level in the study region is below 5.3 meters. 

However, groundwater quality in BatiaghataUpazila is generally better compared to other regions in 

Khulna. Most shallow aquifers in Batiaghata are suitable for both drinking and irrigation purposes, 

except in Dighalia where the water is only suitable for irrigation (Jahan, 2013).  Seasonal variation is 

observed in groundwater level in both the Amtaliupazila of the Barguna district and the 

Galachipaupazila of the Patuakhali district.  BWDB’s groundwater monitoring well PT006 located in 

Amtali, shows that the groundwater table (GWT) decreases rapidly after the premonsoon and during 

monsoon it gradually increases and reaches the previous level (BWDB, 2020). The groundwater 

level of GalachipaUpazila fluctuates from -0.41m to 0.89m and remains above the surface level most 

of the time (BWDB, 2020).  

Research on surface water in AmtaliUpazila shows a seasonal variation of chemical properties 

(Mahtab and Zahid, 2018). For example, the value of pH remains at 7.84 in the wet season and 

increases to 8 in the dry season. Similarly, the electric conductivity (EC) and TDS of surface water 

doubled in the dry season. EC varies from 203 (µS/cm) in the wet to 513 (µS/cm) in the dry season 

and TDS from 258 (mg/l) in the dry season to 101.2 (mg/l) in the wet season (Mahtab and Zahid, 

2018). 

According to the Agriculture Census 2019, the net cultivated area of Khulna, Barguna and Patuakhali 

districts are 263797, 199156 and 328017 acres respectively out of which 144329, 14035 and 8904 

acres are under irrigation.  

5.4 Land Use 

The Yearbook of Agriculture Statistic 2023, published by BBS in June 2024 includes the quantitative 

information of Bangladeshi agriculture. Data used in this section is adapted from the statistics. Three 

categories of Aus crops (Local, HVY and Broadcast) are cultivated in the study region. The time of 

sowing/transplanting of the varieties starts between mid-March to mid-April and is harvested 

between July and August. Two varieties of Aman paddy (Transplant and HVY) are widely cultivated. 

HVY transplant takes a month more than the local transplant variety. Sowing of local transplant 

varieties usually starts at the end of June and is completed by early September. On the contrary, HVY 

sowing starts in late June and can be done before mid-August. Both varieties are harvested between 

December to early January. Three varieties of Boro paddy (Local, HVY and Hybrid) are widely 

cultivated in the study region. The transplant and harvest of local Boro start a month earlier than the 

other two. The transplant of HVY and Hybrid varieties begins in December and ends in mid-

February. The harvesting starts in mid-April and is completed by June. 

Three varieties of Aus (i.e., Local, HVY and Broadcast), two varieties of Aman (i.e., Transplant and 

HVY) and three varieties of Boro (i.e., Local, HVY and Hybrid) are generally produced in Khulna. 



 

11 

Wheat and maize are the major cereal crops in the area. Maize is grown in both the Kharif and Boro 

seasons. Gram, lentil (Masur), pea (Motor), green gram (Mug), black gram (Mashkalai), and khesari 

are the major pulses grown in this region. Till, rape and mustard, groundnut, linseed, coconut and 

sunflower are grown as oil seeds. Till is found to be grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons. Both 

local and HYV mustard are produced. Chilli, onion, garlic, turmeric, ginger, coriander, coriander leaf, 

and cassia leaf are the major spices cultivated in this region. Chillis are found to be grown in both 

summer and winter. Sugarcane, date palm, and palmyra are grown as sugar crops. Jute and Shimul 

cotton are the major sources of fibres. Betelnut and betel leaves are also grown to a small extent. A 

wide variety of vegetables are found to be grown in summer and winter. Besides, many native and 

foreign fruits are grown intensively in the area. 

Aman paddy, watermelon, potato, moong dal, betel leaf, chilli, Kesari, maize, sesame, mustard, 

sesame, sunflower etc. are the main crops grown in Patuakhali. Two varieties of Aus (i.e., Local and 

HVY), two varieties of Aman (i.e., Transplant and HVY) and two varieties of Boro (i.e., Local, HVY) are 

generally produced in the area. In the Rabi season, the only cereal crop maize is grown in the area. 

The main pulses farmed in this area are khesari, green gram (Mug), lentil (Masur), and gram. Oil 

seed crops include sunflower, rape, mustard, peanut, linseed, and coconut. The main spices grown in 

this area include cassia leaf, coriander, onion, garlic, turmeric, and chilli. Unlike Khulna, chilli is 

grown in the winter season. Sugar crops include palmyra, date palm, and sugarcane. Shimul cotton is 

a prominent fibre crop in the region. A minor amount of betel leaves and betelnuts are also farmed. 

Vegetables of all kinds are grown in both the summer and the winter. In addition, a large variety of 

domestic and exotic fruits are heavily farmed nearby. 

Two varieties of Aus (i.e., Local and HVY), two varieties of Aman (i.e., Transplant and HVY) and two 

varieties of Boro (i.e., HVY and Hybrid) are generally produced in Barguna. In 2022-23, hybrid boro 

was cultivated in 850 acres of land. But cyclone Sitrang hit the coastal area in October 2022 and 

damaged the crops. The area's sole grain crop, maize, is farmed during the Rabi season. The primary 

pulses farmed in this area are khesari, green gram (Mug), black gram (Mashkalai), pea (Motor), lentil 

(Masur), Fallon and gram. Till, sunflower, groundnut, rape and mustard, and sunflower are farmed 

for their oil seeds. The principal spices that are grown in this area include coriander, cassia leaf, 

onion, garlic, turmeric, and chilli. Like Patuakhali, chilli is grown in winter. Crops grown as sugar 

crops include sugarcane, date palm, and palmyra. One important crop for fibre in the area is Shimul 

cotton. There is also some small-scale cultivation of betel leaves and betel nuts. An immense variety 

of vegetables are grown in both the summer and the winter. In addition, the region is abundantly 

planted with various domestic and overseas fruits. 

5.5 Economy 

33.22% of the population are in agriculture, industries and services in the Amirpur union. About 

38% of the employed population is engaged in agricultural activities. 75.86% of the population aged 

over 15 are literate in the union (BBS, 2024b). In Batiaghata union, 32% of the population is 

involved in various economic activities of which 47% are in agriculture. Saline water intrusion is a 

common problem in the union where farmers cultivate a single rice crop in the monsoon season 

(Shammi et al., 2016). The literacy rate is very high in the Batiaghata Union. 80.49% of the 

population are literate (BBS, 2024b). Surkhali Union has the lowest employment rate in 

BatiaghataUpazila (31%) and a majority (73%) are involved in agricultural activities. 30.2% of 

Batiaghata live below the poverty line making it one of the high poverty-prone Upazila. Besides, the 

union has the lowest number of educated people in the upazila. 28.87% of the people are illiterate in 

Surkhali (BBS, 2024b). 



 

12 

Unemployment is a big issue in Amkhola Union. Only 28% of the people are employed in different 

activities. Agriculture is the most widespread source of income. About 60% of the employed 

individuals are involved in agricultural activities. 65.61% of the population in the union are literate 

(BBS, 2024c). 31% of the population is involved in different economic activities, of which 63% are 

engaged in agricultural activities in Golkhali Union. 33.73% of the people are illiterate in the union 

(BBS, 2024c). Dakua Union also faces acute unemployment. Almost 72% of the population do not 

have any source of income or are dependent on others. Agriculture is the major means of livelihood 

in the union. 61% of the employed people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The literacy 

rate is satisfactory in the union (70.49%) (BBS, 2024c). In addition to this scenario, Galachipa is one 

of the Upazilas under a very high poverty level. About 41.5% of the population live below the 

poverty line (BBS, 2020). 

Haldia union has the lowest employment rate (25%) and people highly depend on agriculture for 

their livelihood. 75% of the employed people survive in this sector. The literacy rate of the union is 

67.95% (BBS, 2024a). The employment rate in the Arpangashia union is lower at 27%, and most of 

the population depends heavily on agriculture. 53% of employed persons make a living from this 

sector. 76.48% of the population in Arpangsahia are literate (BBS, 2024a). The employment rate is 

comparatively lower in the Gulisakhali union. Only 27% of the population is engaged in different 

sectors (i.e., agriculture, industries and services). People in the union rely heavily on agriculture for 

their livelihood. 58% of the working population earns their livelihood from this sector. Only 66.14% 

of the people in the union are literate (BBS, 2024a). Besides, AmtaliUpazila of Barguna district has 

the highest poverty rate. 31.5% of the population live below the poverty line (BBS, 2020).  

Major farming systems of Bangladesh include rice, rice-wheat, coastal artisanal fishing and highland 

mixed (BBS, 2011). The first two farming systems are aligned with the scope of this study. The 

predominant agricultural method in the rice farming system involves the intensive cultivation of rice 

(two or three crops in a plot in a single year) in fragmented bunded fields, either with or without 

irrigation (Ali, 2014). Irrigation is mainly required for Boro rice. T. Aman rice is primarily cultivated 

in Kharif-II when there is rainfallOne of Bangladesh's most intense and varied farming systems is the 

rice-wheat system, which is distinguished by an irrigated wheat harvest coming after a summer or 

monsoon T. Aman rice crop (Ali, 2014).  

BBS classified farms into three classes namely small, medium, and large farms during the Agriculture 

Census 2019. Small farms dominate the country’s farming system, with large farms being the least 

common. In Khulna, there are a total of 251,331 farm holdings, with the majority being small farms 

(228,346), followed by medium-sized farms (20,399), and a smaller number of large farms (2,586). 

Barguna has a total of 158,475 farm holdings, with 143,538 classified as small, 13,953 as medium, 

and only 984 as large. Patuakhali has the highest total number of farm holdings, with 260,526 in 

total, out of which 234,241 are small, 24,083 are medium, and 2,202 are large.  

5.6 Social Services 

The total area of the Amirpur Union is 14.7 sq km. 19 villages of this union have a population of 

19367 in 4888 households. Batiaghata Union covers an area of 110.27 sq km and it has a total 

population of 21580 in 5661 households. The total area of the Surkhali Union is 44.3 sq km. There 

are 30 villages in the union. It is housed for 27346 population.   

The total population of the Haldia Union is 34,325 with 8746 households. The population of 

Arpangashia Union is 15,338 and 3976 households. 30205 people live in 7712 households in the 

Gulisakhali Union.  

Amkhola Union has 8,533 households with a population of 33,241. Dakua Union, on the other hand, 

has a smaller number of households, totalling 5,304, and a population of 21,547. Golkhali Union has 



 

13 

the highest number of households, 9,115, and the largest population among the three, with 38,223 

people. This data highlights the variations in population density and household distribution across 

these unions. 

5.7 Existing Adaptation Plans 

BatiaghataUpazila is very prone to waterlogging. To solve the longstanding water logging problem, 

BWDB implemented the Khulna-Jashore Drainage Rehabilitation Project (KJDRP) during 1994-2002 

(BDP 2100, 2018). CEGIS conducted the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) study 

of KJDRP wherein the innovative Tidal River Management (TRM) concept was applied to relieve 

severe drainage congestion from the project area. 

The recent concept of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) has become popular among the coastal people 

to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. Such adaptation methods include floating gardens, 

crop diversification, converting paddy to fish production, practicing crop rotation, and salt-tolerant 

crops that utilize the intrinsic resilience of ecosystems to effectively address the effects of climate 

change (Saddaf et al., 2024). 

6. Union wise Community Evaluation Profile 

6.1 Outputs of Batiaghata Upazila, Khulna 

6.1.1 Amirpur Union 

Assessment of Individual Input 

Individual assessment on agricultural aspects in terms of climate change was concentrated into 

cropping patterns, climate risks, adaptation measures and other difficulties faced by the local 

farmers. Ten male and ten female farmers from the villages of MojidGhata, Rambhadrapur, Nijgram, 

Kesmotkurighata, Kharabad, Shyamganj, Talapara, Nijgram, Joypur, Korertol, Narayakhali and 

Hasimpur under Amirpur union participated in this process. Most of them have 1-2 family members 

who are involved in agricultural activities. Their farm size varies from 0.05 to 2 hectares. 

According to their response, T. aman, aus, and boro are the primary rice varieties, and mustard and 

sesame are major sources of oil seed in this union. Vegetables and corn are also grown extensively. 

During rabi season, boro and mustard are cultivated in most of the agriculture land which remain 

fallow in Kharif-I season and is used for T. Aman cultivation during Kharif-II season. T. Aman is 

almost one and only crop widely produced in monsoon period. Due to spatial variations, the life 

cycle starts from June/July and is harvested during November/December/January. Late harvesting 

of T. Aman lead farmers to the cultivation of short duration boro varieties starting in January or 

February and harvesting by the beginning of May, the same period applicable for regular boro 

varieties. The cultivation of regular boro variety usually starts in the first half of November. Although 

most farmers begin growing mustard in October, many continue sowing it until January. Mustard 

takes less than 120 days to be harvested. A significant portion of land remains uncultivated during 

Kharif-I season. Very few farmers produce aus, corn and sesame during that period.  

Farmers reported multiple moderate to high-intensity climate-related challenges such as salinity, 

drought, heavy rainfall, waterlogging, late-joe conditions and cyclones. Out of all these climate risks, 

most of the farmers experienced the occurrences of heavy rainfall, salinity, waterlogging, drought 

and cyclone in order during the last five (05) years which are increasing day by day. Heavy rainfall 

has been identified as the high-level risk for sustainable agriculture mostly in the period of June, July, 

August and sometimes during March and April which causes waterlogging during monsoon season. 

Cyclones generally visit the area in the pre-monsoon season. The moderate to high intensity salinity 



 

14 

is experienced in increasing pattern from the beginning of January and becomes high by the second 

half of February till the monsoon rains in June and July. Acute drought is experienced between 

March and May with spatiotemporal variation from February to June. Farmers experience 

a deficiency of rain in Rabi and the pre-monsoon season resulting into drought.  

Farmers are found to be highly interested to adopt a variety of strategies and reduce yield loss. To 

adopt with waterlogging caused by heavy rainfall and other risks, farmers recommended 

improvement of drainage system through sluicegate management and maintenance; excavation of 

river, canal and small pond; management of embankment and policy intervention to act against river 

leasing system. Action taken by the government is crucial to support these strategies. Besides, the 

farmers are interested in cultivating submerged variety, short duration variety and late variety, and 

expect certified seeds, financial support and training to elevate their production. To adopt with 

drought situation, farmers are interested in improving irrigation system through buried pipe, furrow 

irrigation, deep boring etc. and improving water storage facility. They also expressed interest in 

cultivating drought tolerant variety. Salt tolerant short duration variety is much expected to deal 

with salinity. 

 The rising concern of climate risk induced yield loss has influenced the local farming practices. 

Farmers choosing their livelihood in agriculture are in quest for alternatives that would bring more 

products and profit to them. They are particularly interested in modifying their patterns by 

incorporating these resilient crops in combination with their current crops, such as transitioning 

from traditional boro to blast-resistant boro, from mustard to salt-tolerant mustard, sesame to water 

tolerant sesame etc.  Although they do not have previous experience in shifting pattern, they are 

eager to attend training and get necessary supports such as certified seeds, financial support, 

agricultural machinery etc. 

Beyond climate induced challenges, the majority is concerned about the invasion of mice, rats, and 

other insects which cause significant damage to crops. The labor shortage is also prominent during 

crop harvesting and the labor cost becomes high.  Problems with production techniques arise from a 

lack of proper machinery and training. A significant portion of farmers are anxious about irrigation 

water due to decreasing groundwater level day by day. The untimely availability of good-quality 

seeds also presents a significant obstacle. Farmers face financial hurdles, such as a lack of capital and 

limited loan access to invest in crop production. The market is controlled by syndicates which 

deprive them getting fair price for their products. Finally, the increasing cost of seeds, fertilizers, and 

pesticides, keeps adding burden to the way of sustainable agriculture in Amirpur. 

Assessment of Group Discussion 

The farmers who participated in the individual assessment were also key participants in group 

discussion. The discussion took place ensuring that both male and female farmers’ feedbacks and 

opinions were taken care of. The recordings of the discussion revealed that both males and females 

agreed on the climatic challenges such as waterlogging, water scarcity, lack of rain, fog, blast, BPH, 

irregular rainfall which made their agricultural activities at stake. They jointly stated that due to 

excessive fog during winter, the seedbed of boro crop was damaged. Besides, blast and BPH were the 

consequences of gradual climate changes which were beyond control using regular pesticides, 

ultimately leading to yield loss. Male farmers also added salinity and the reduced navigability of the 

river which limited the source of water collection for irrigation. 

Although the livelihood of Amirpur farmers’ community is at risk, they are hopeful to find solution 

and cope up with the changing climatic condition and its consequences. They proposed solutions 

from their practical experience which reflect different scales of action and resource availability, 

influenced by their specific roles and responsibilities in the agricultural sector. Both group 



 

15 

emphasized on the improvement of drainage system and introducing high yield varieties (HYV), and 

expressed their interest to cultivate drought, salt and water-tolerant varieties of crops (sesame, 

vegetables, grains, mustard etc.) to mitigate the adverse impacts of water scarcity, high salinity and 

waterlogging on agricultural production. Male farmers recommended sustainable embankment 

construction and management, establishment of deep and shallow tube wells to adapt to the climate 

change risk.  

Both groups concurred with the point of government initiatives in managing sluicegate and 

embankment, while female farmers added that support for proper training and awareness-raising 

programs and seminars about climate change were required. Farmers in Amirpur Union face 

electricity shortages to run the existing water pumps and many have no electricity connection for 

irrigation. Male farmers highlighted the uninterrupted and easy access to electricity for 

the mechanization of the irrigation system for all the farmers. The poor drainage system was 

signified as one of the reasons for the reduction of crop production. The susceptibility to floods, 

waterlogging and salinity intrusion was reported high as more than 4 km of Dam was broken in the 

union. Many sluicegates were set in the wrong place and were not operated timely.  

Beyond climate change, market dynamics and resource governance, play crucial roles in limiting 

their agricultural production. Besides, rat invasion, syndicate market, labour scarcity, high labour 

cost, lack of proper training, low profit, illegal possession of canals, and low water layer are other 

issues experienced by local people. Female participants further mentioned that lack of precise 

knowledge to choose proper seeds and climate-resilient crops for cultivation, and leaseholders of 

rivers and canals not providing water to the field are their major concerns. 

6.1.2 Batiaghata Union 

Assessment of Individual Input 

Cropping patterns, climate risks, adaptation measures and other difficulties faced by the local 

farmers were included in the individual assessment on agricultural aspects in terms of climate 

change. Ten male and ten female farmers from the villages of Balabunia, Basurabad, Fhultala, 

Haatbati, Hetal Bunia, Hogalbunia, Khulshi Bunia, Mailmara, Milemara, Mitebhanga and Phulatala 

under Batiaghata union participated in this process. Most of them have 2-6 family members who are 

involved in agricultural activities. Their farm size varies from 0.02 to 2.25 hectares. 

Their responses pointed out that T. aman, aman, and boro are the primary rice varieties, and 

sunflowers, mustard and sesame are major sources of oil seed in this union. Aman is the only crop 

widely produced in the monsoon period. Due to spatial variations, the life cycle of aman starts in 

June/July/August and is harvested during November/December/January. The cultivation of the boro 

variety usually starts in November/December/January and is harvested by April/May. Vegetables 

and corn are also grown extensively. Corn, mungbean, watermelon and vegetables are also 

intensively grown in Kharif I and Kharif II. Fish farming is also prominent in the union. A significant 

portion of agricultural land is dedicated to aquaculture.  Another portion of agricultural land in the 

union remains uncultivated in the Kharif season. The planting and harvesting times of other crops 

vary from place to place. For example, while some farmers begin Boro cultivation in December or 

January and harvest in April or May, others start in November and harvest in February. The farmers 

who don't cultivate Boro rice on their land grow watermelon or mustard instead. A significant 

number of farmers grow vegetables all year round. Farmers sow sesame in two slots, one after the 

Boro and the other after the Aman harvest. But sesame is grown once after Boro or Aman in a single 

piece of land in a year.  



 

16 

Farmers experience moderate-to-severe intensity of waterlogging, drought, cyclones, heavy rainfall, 

hail storms, and low rain and experience high-intensity salinity. Most of the farmers experienced 

occurrences of heavy rainfall, salinity, waterlogging, and drought in order during the last five (05) 

years which are increasing day by day. The area faces high salinity from February till July and the 

intensity of salinity becomes moderate to low during the monsoon. Most farmers face acute Drought 

and lack of rain from March to May. In some places, they are also experienced in July and August. 

Cyclones usually pass across the region in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The onset of 

heavy rainfall causes waterlogging in the monsoon season resulting in massive crop damage.  

Farmers are interested in various adaptation strategies to cope with these risks. As waterlogging, 

salinity, and drought are common in the area, the majority are keen to cultivate water-drought and 

salt-tolerant varieties of crops. Other adaptation strategies mentioned by the participants include 

sluicegate management, river, canal and pond excavation, sustainable embankment, deep irrigation, 

shallow-risk farrow drainage system, and buried pipe. Besides, policy interventions to stop the 

leasing system of rivers to ensure the equitable sharing of water for farmers were insisted. 

Besides, they are interested in modifying their cropping patterns by incorporating late and short-

duration varieties of crops. Farmers predominantly cultivate crops like Boro, Aman, Ropa Aman, 

sesame and mustard in different combinations. Notably, most farmers are willing to shift towards 

water-resistant or salt-tolerant crops like water-tolerant sesame, salt-tolerant vegetables, and blast-

resistant varieties of grains and oil seed crops. Several farmers are particularly interested in the best 

utilization of fallow lands modifying their cropping patterns. Corn, mungbean, and vegetables are the 

most preferable crops to cultivate in the fallow land.  

Apart from climate-induced challenges, farmers face difficulties with primitive production 

techniques and less access to modern technology and training. Besides, many farmers experience 

issues in irrigation systems arising from low water levels, salinity, and power outages. The 

unavailability of good-quality seeds also presents a significant obstacle. Crop diseases like blast and 

BPH (Brown Plant Hopper) are another problem they face. Many farmers encounter monetary 

obstacles like insufficient funds and unavailability of loans for marginal farmers. Market 

inefficiencies caused by middlemen and poor communication, lead to low prices for their products. 

Eventually, they mentioned more obstacles to sustainable agriculture emerged from the rising 

expense of pesticides, fertilizers, and seeds. A significant number of farmers highlighted several 

initiatives necessary to the way of sustainable climate-resilient agriculture. These initiatives include 

technical guidance and advice, certified seeds, financial support and economic cooperation, policy 

change and adoption of the law, the introduction of advanced technology, and governmental 

initiative etc. 

Assessment of Group Discussion 

The assessment of the group discussion exposed that male and female farmer quoted similar types of 

climate risks in Batiaghata Union. The most common climate risks in the Union, they referred to, 

include excessive rainfall and hail storms. According to their statement, hail storms usually occur in 

March-April when watermelon is produced, resulting in damages to the fruits and count loss to 

farmers. Local farmers also experience drought resulting from irregular rainfall and waterlogging, 

especially in riverside areas, due to sedimentation in the riverbed causing a decrease in navigability. 

Female farmers added that irregular rain causes damage to seedbeds while salinity increases from, 

February to June resulting in a scarcity of irrigation water. Time shifting of seasons also causes late 

Joe condition which delays crop cultivation resulting in seedbed waste and yield loss. Fish farmers 

are concern about the decrease in fish variety caused by the deviation in seasonal environment. A 



 

17 

major concern for the area is that most farmers are not concerned about climate change and do not 

have any access to the national forecast which ultimately causes loss to their production.  

As suggested by the male farmers, regular river and canal dredging are necessary to improve the 

drainage system in the area. Besides, establishment of freshwater reservoirs, deep boring, increasing 

dam height, and introducing drought tolerant sesame and sunflower were recommended for 

drought and salinity. Female participants drew attention to awareness-raising programs about 

climate change and introducing HYV to boost crop production. Male farmers highlighted the 

government's action in repairing and managing sluicegates and recruiting manpower to operate 

them properly when female farmers stressed the importance of farmer education and market 

control. Farmers should be well concerned about the pros and cons of crops they cultivate.  

The non-climatic risks that were widely reported to agricultural production in the region include 

labour shortage (the most prominent non-climatic issue), illegal possession of canals, and low profit 

due to the syndicated market which resulted into increased production costs. Labor costs are getting 

higher but profit is limited. Female farmers highlighted the shortage of cold storage for crop 

preservation. However, both group suggested to take actions by the government against syndicated 

market to save the farmers from being deprived of fair price. 

6.1.3 Surkhali Union 

Assessment of Individual Input 

Similar to other unions, the evaluation of agricultural aspects in the Surkhali union was related to 

cropping patterns, climate-related risks, adaptation strategies, and the challenges faced by local 

farmers due to climate change. Ten male and ten female farmers from the villages of Sukhdara, 

Rampur and Raipur under the Surkhali union participated in this process. Most of them have 1-4 

family members who are involved in agricultural activities. Their farm size varies from 0.1 to 0.9 

hectares. 

According to the farmers, the principal rice crops cultivated in the Surkhali Union are Boro, Aman, 

and T. Aman. All the agricultural lands in the union are under Aman rice. Farmers cultivate Aman in 

July or August and harvest from November to January. Many farmers cultivate Boro and leave the 

field fallow before cultivating Ama. Farmers in the union grow sesame, sunflower and mustard as 

major oil seed crops. Watermelon and vegetables are also produced intensively. A significant portion 

of agricultural land in the union remains uncultivated after the Kharif I. A significant portion of land 

remains fallow during the Rabi season and is used for cultivating sesame, vegetable, watermelon and 

mungbean or keeping them fallow before Aman cultivation. n. Some farmers cultivate uustard, 

sunflowers and to a small extent sesame in the Rabi season instead of cultivating Boro. Besides, 

some cultivate mungbean in the pre-monsoon season from February to May. Seasonal vegetables are 

cultivated in a small portion of land throughout the year. 

Farmers reported moderate to high-intensity salinity, drought, and heavy rainfall; moderate 

intensity of blasting and BPH (Brown Plant Hopper); and low to moderate intensity of waterlogging. 

Out of all these climate risks, most of the farmers experienced increased occurrences of heavy 

rainfall, salinity, and drought during the last five (05) years. Besides, the invasion of blast and BPH is 

also increasing day by day while the intensity of waterlogging remains unchanged during this time. 

High-intensity salinity is experienced from the second half of February to the first half of June. Heavy 

rainfall with high-risk levels occurs during the pre-monsoon months from March to May. While some 

farmers face low-intensity drought during the Boro cultivation, others experience severe droughts 

which spread before the season.  Few farmers highlighted that Blast and BPH extensively impact 

Aman and Boro crops during harvesting.  



 

18 

Farmers are highly interested in various adaptation strategies to cope with these risks. Like other 

parts of BatiaghataUpazila waterlogging, salinity, and drought are common in Surkhali Union. 

Therefore, farmers are keen to cultivate water-drought and salt-tolerant varieties of crops. Other 

adaptation strategies mentioned by the participants include sluicegate management, river, canal and 

pond excavation, sustainable embankment, deep irrigation, shallow-risk farrow drainage system, 

and buried pipe to improve the drainage systems. The development of late and short-duration crop 

varieties, which are anticipated to mitigate climate risks effectively, was prioritised by a greater 

number of farmers. Policy intervention and law enforcement were also highlighted in the discussion 

to ensure equitable water distribution for irrigation, aquaculture and prohibiting the leasing system 

of rivers and canals.  

Farmers in Surkhali Union predominantly cultivate crops like Boro, Aman, Ropa Aman, watermelon, 

mungbean, sunflower, sesame and Mustard in different combinations. Notably, they are inclined to 

shift towards water-resistant or salt-tolerant crops like water, salt and drought-tolerant Boro, Aman, 

sesame, vegetables, and blast-resistant varieties of grains and oil seed crops. But the majority have 

no previous experience with such modification in cropping patterns while a few face the issues of 

drought, salinity and irregular rainfall. Therefore, they require technical guidance, financial support, 

and certified seeds. Besides, farmers are particularly interested in the best utilization of fallow lands 

modifying their cropping patterns. Watermelon and vegetables are the most preferable crops to 

cultivate in the fallow land.  

Alongside climate-induced risks, farmers in the area face difficulties due to a decrease in cultivable 

land, and the high cost and scarcity of labour, primitive production techniques, less access to modern 

technology and training. The unavailability of good-quality seeds presents a significant obstacle in 

crop production. Farmers reported that agriculture in the area experiences an acute shortage of 

funds and unavailability of loans for marginal farmers. Farmers highlighted that the cultivation area 

is shrinking due to river dredging, sand filling, and rising salinity, which reduces the available 

farmland. Labour shortage is the prime issue they mentioned as a non-climatic risk of agriculture, as 

labour is both scarce and expensive. Additionally, farmers are dealing with increasing pests and 

diseases, worsened by adulterated pesticides. The influence of brokers and low prices of products 

are the major issues in the market. Besides, poor infrastructure, high production costs, and 

inadequate communication with agricultural extension officers further hinder food production. 

Farmers emphasized various measures which are essential to the path toward climate-resilient, 

sustainable agriculture. A few examples of these initiatives are the introduction of advanced 

technology, financial support and economic cooperation, certified seeds, technical guidance and 

advice, policy changes and legislative adoption, and government initiatives. 

Assessment of Group Discussion 

As per discussion in the workshop, it has been found that both male and female groups emphasized 

on the issues of waterlogging, drought, water scarcity, late joe condition, high salinity, blast and BPH. 

Male participants mentioned drought as an important risk for Aus crop production. Late Joe 

conditions lead to late cropping increasing the probability of blast and BPH attack. High salinity in 

rivers is usually found in late February. However, the salinity is experienced in early January after 

Aila in 2009 and remains till June.  

Similar adaptation measures were also recommended to check the climate change risk on 

agriculture in the Surkhali Union. Introducing drought-tolerant aus, salt tolerant corn and sunflower 

can increase production in the area.  Both focused on establishing new sluicegates and repairing, 

managing, and maintaining existing sluicegates; deep and shallow boring, digging small ponds as 

freshwater reservoir, and well connectivity of cultivable lands with nearby rivers and canals which 



 

19 

are expected to mitigate climate risks. They assume that minimum of 100 ponds to preserve 

rainwater is required to improve water supply system for irrigation in the union. Besides, females 

are optimistic that HYV could assist in mitigating production loss. Farmers highly recommended 

government intervention to provide necessary investment and support for sluicegate management 

and better water management system; ensuring quality pesticides and well distribution of 

fertilizers; policy planning for preventing the lease of rivers and canals and assuring farmers a 

compatible market place. 

Beyond climate related issues, female farmers mentioned that specifically adulterated pesticides 

often fail to perform effectively, leaving farmers in critical conditions. Male farmers added on the 

previous with the market dominated by syndicates, forcing farmers to pay prices that exceed 

government rates. As a result, costs continue to rise, and despite their significant investments, 

farmers struggle to make a profit and sometimes even incur losses. Brokers exert control over both 

the market and transportation, further complicating the situation. Additionally, water sources 

located far from farmlands, require farmers to pay to access river or canal water, adding to their 

financial burdens. Labour costs are also high, contributing to the overall challenges they face. 

6.1.4 Community Observation vs CSMAP Output 

The section highlights the findings from the Climate-Smart Mapping and Adaptation Planning 

(CSMAP) workshops conducted at both district and union levels across three unions of 

BatiaghataUpazila namely Amirpur, Batiaghata, and Surkhali. These findings underscore the 

significant climate-related challenges faced by farmers, the major crops affected, and the proposed 

adaptation strategies to mitigate these risks. The analysis reveals a common theme of climate and 

non-climatic risks and necessary regional interventions. 

Major crops in Amirpur come from the CS-MAP workshop at district level T. Aman and Boro, 

whereas mustard, watermelon, sesame, vegetable along with the previous two mentioned in union 

level workshop. Similarly, the union-level workshop highlights Boro, mustard, sesame, vegetable, 

aquaculture, and sunflower, while the district-level CS-MAP workshop identifies T. Aman and 

watermelon as the main crops of Batiaghata Union. The primary crops for Surkhali Union that 

emerged from the district-level CS-MAP workshop is watermelon, Aman, and Boro. In contrast, the 

union-level session addresses mungbean, vegetables, sesame, sunflower, and the three previously 

mentioned crops. 

Surkhali and Batighata unions face a moderate (30-50% yield loss) waterlogging risk during T. Aman 

harvesting both in normal and extreme times. Surkhali Union poses a high risk (50% yield loss) 

during the extreme drought. Salinity and drought are the major climate risks for Boro in the region. 

These three unions are under low risk of salinity but moderate drought risk. The two main climatic 

concerns for watermelon are heavy rainfall and drought. In normal years, the crop poses a lower risk 

(10-30% yield loss) of drought and a moderate risk (30-50% yield loss) during extreme years. The 

crop is highly vulnerable to heavy rainfall during normal and severe times. Heavy rain could damage 

more than 50% of watermelon production. The union-level workshop outlines the more in-depth 

challenges of climate change. For instance, there is a low salinity risk but moderate drought risk in 

the Amirpur Union. Farmers also mention Blast and BPH which are responsible for production loss 

here. Heavy rainfall and drought largely affect watermelon cultivation in Amirpur and Batiaghata 

unions. CSMAP and Union workshops in Batiaghata union agree on three main climate risks: 

waterlogging, drought, and heavy rainfall. Additionally, the Union workshops highlight salinity, 

storms, cyclones, and hailstorms. The area has low or no salinity risk but low to moderate drought 

risk. Unlike the previous two, the Union-level workshop at Surkhali additionally highlighted salinity, 

blast, and BPH. 



 

20 

To mitigate these risks, introducing salinity-tolerant, short-duration varieties of Boro and T. Aman is 

recommended, along with shallow boring for irrigation to reduce salinity impacts which also came 

out from the workshop at the Union level. Strategies such as excavating rivers, canals, and ponds, 

halting river leasing through policy intervention, sluicegate management and maintenance, 

introducing submerged, drought-tolerant and late varieties, sustainable embankments, buried pipe, 

drip irrigation, shallow risk farrow drainage systems and using deep boring to access groundwater 

for irrigation are suggested to reduce drought and waterlogging risks.  

Both district and union-level studies collectively emphasize the significant climate-related risks 

experienced by farmers in different parts of the three unions, focusing mainly on crops like T. Aman, 

Boro, mustard, watermelon, sunflower, mungbean, and sesame. Both highlight key challenges such 

as drought, salinity, waterlogging, and pests like Blast and BPH, which severely impact agricultural 

productivity. The introduction of climate-resilient crop varieties, such as salt- and drought-tolerant 

species, and short-duration crops to mitigate these risks. The urgency of adopting these adaptation 

strategies to ensure the long-term viability of agriculture in the Union is mentioned in both 

workshops. 

6.1.5 Recommendation 

Recommendation Amirpur 

Farmers who participated in the study expect to receive support from government and non-

government institutions to increase their agricultural production sustainably. The majority welcome 

receiving training facilities that can equip them with the skills and knowledge necessary to adapt to 

changing agriculture demands. In addition, they are seeking easy access to loans to meet the rising 

costs associated with production. Financial solvency is important for farmers to invest in sustainable 

practices and technologies increasing their productivity. Moreover, there is a pressing need for 

efficient manpower to manage sluice gates and irrigation systems effectively. Several farmers 

highlighted the proper management of water resources which is vital for ensuring optimal water 

distribution and preventing crop damage. All are demanding policy changes to stop canal leasing, 

which they believe hampers their access to water resources for irrigation. To achieve a climate-

resilient agricultural framework, it is essential to implement changes to existing policies and 

introduce new initiatives at the micro level within local communities. The development of smart 

agriculture techniques can be encouraged through changes in strategies which consider the 

particular difficulties faced by farmers. These methods seek to increase production and make 

agriculture climate-resilient to foster long-term sustainability and food security. 

Recommendation Batiaghata 

Farmers have been actively encouraged to take decisive action against the pervasive syndicate 

system which often manipulates market dynamics. Participants mentioned that these syndicates 

consist of intermediaries or groups that control the pricing and distribution of agricultural products 

and can significantly undermine crop prices. In response to this challenge, farmers alluded to 

intensifying collective action. Through combined efforts, they can advocate for fair pricing policies, 

engage in collective bargaining, and establish direct links with consumers, bypassing exploitative 

middlemen. This will enhance their economic stability and foster a more sustainable agricultural 

environment where farmers feel empowered and valued. 

Recommendation Surkhali 

To improve agricultural productivity in the region, workshops at the village level should be 

organized to provide local farmers with detailed information on modern farming techniques, crop 



 

21 

management, and resource optimization. For example, in Surkhali, over five hectares of land remain 

fallow, representing a significant opportunity for agricultural expansion. By introducing high-

yielding varieties (HYV) of crops, this unused land can be converted into productive farmland, 

increasing food production and boosting the local economy. Furthermore, it is crucial to address 

issues within the current market system. The presence of syndicates controlling the market often 

leads to monopolistic practices, reducing competition and limiting farmers' ability to sell their 

produce at fair prices. Therefore, market reformation is a must in the union. In addition, the leasing 

system for rivers and canals should be abolished. The current practice of leasing these water bodies 

restricts farmers' access to essential irrigation resources. Thus, farmers can irrigate their fields more 

effectively improving overall agricultural productivity. 

6.2 Outputs of Galachipa Upazila, Patuakhali 

6.2.1 Amkhola Union 

Assessment of Individual Input 

Individual assessment of agricultural aspects in Amkhola Union included cropping patterns, climate 

risks, adaptation measures and other difficulties faced by the local farmers. Ten male and ten female 

farmers from Amkhola, Basbunia, Basirkhan, Bhangra, Mushurikathi, Shopnongazi, Tafalbaria and 

Vangraunder villages of Amkhola union participated in this process. On average 2-3 family members 

with a maximum of 07 are involved in agricultural activities. Their farm size varies from 0.4 to 6.78 

hectares. 

 

Agricultural lands in the Union are utilized to grow three or more crops in a year. According to their 

response, the majority of the farmers grow aush, Aman and Boro as a source of rice. Aush is grown 

quite late between May and August. Most farmers cultivate a short-duration variety of aush resulting 

in no late for the next crop, Aman. The farmers who cultivate Aman, start preparing their land in July 

or August and harvest the crop by January. Boro rice, here, is cultivated in the late pre-monsoon 

season. Mungbean, nun, corn, watermelon and vegetables are also produced extensively in the area. 

Most farmers grow watermelons, corn and mungbean from December to May. A few farmers are 

found to grow vegetables on their land all year round. Some land is used for cultivating jute while 

some farmers use it to cultivate pepper.  

Farmers in Amkhola Union reported several climate risks that greatly impacted their agricultural 

activity.  They experienced low to high-intensity salinity and cyclones which are increasing 

gradually, moderate to high-intensity drought, late joe condition, heavy rainfall and waterlogging. 

Out of all these climate risks, cyclone is the most widely reported climate risk among them. Several 

farmers delineated those cyclones caused low to moderate damage to their crops in Kharif I and 

post-monsoon seasons. Drought and salinity intrusion also greatly affect agricultural production. 

Most farmers experience a high drought risk from November to April when salinity presents low to 

moderate risks. Salinity is reported to increase by the tidal water intrusion into the land. Most 

farmers agreed that the heavy rainfall in monsoon and post-monsoon season creates waterlogging 

resulting in heavy watermelon damage. Due to waterlogging, it takes more time to ensure Joe 

condition of the land. Farmers additionally reported from their recent 05 years experiences that the 

intensity of late Joe conditions, drought, heavy rainfall and waterlogging is decreasing gradually. 

Farmers are keen to adopt various strategies to cope with the risks regarding water management 

and climate change. They suggested measures like sluice gate management, river, canal, or pond 

excavation, and using buried pipes to meet the water demand and solve waterlogging conditions. 



 

22 

Additionally, most farmers are interested in crop-based adaptations such as introducing salt-

tolerant and short-duration crop varieties, and submerged varieties to minimize crop loss as salinity, 

drought and waterlogging are prominent in the area. Several farmers are also interested in climate 

information services for better weather forecasting, sustainable embankments, U-shaped drains, and 

improvements in irrigation and drainage facilities to enhance overall farming efficiency and 

resilience.  

 

Besides, farmers are highly attracted to growing peppers, nuts and corn instead of nut watermelon 

and mungbean respectively. They also appreciated the introduction of hybrid varieties of Aman rice 

though almost half of the participants are not interested in changes in existing cropping patterns.  

Alongside climate-induced risks, farmers also mentioned some non-climatic difficulties in 

agricultural production. Labour shortages and rising labour costs are significant concerns for them 

during crop planting and harvesting, while years-old production techniques highlight the need for 

modern technology and machinery. Few farmers emphasize the challenges of irrigation arise from 

the scarcity of water and the absence of necessary pumps. Maximum farmers do not get seeds on 

time and experience a shortage of seeds, and poor seed quality. Pests and diseases, particularly 

insects like Majra and Shis flies, cause significant crop damage. Besides, adulterated pesticides and 

insufficient pesticide availability, also affect productivity. Several marginal farmers lack capital for 

crop cultivation with many households needing loans to sustain their farming activities. Challenges 

in marketing faced by the farmers include unfair pricing of crops and syndicate, which prevent 

farmers from receiving a fair price for their produce. These widely reported issues collectively create 

a tough environment for the farmers trying to maintain or increase their agricultural productivity. 

However, farmers emphasized various measures essential to adapting to the climatic and non-

climatic issues. Most farmers agreed on the points of introducing advanced technology, financial 

support and economic cooperation, certified seeds, technical guidance and advice, less dependency 

on manpower, and government initiatives. 

Assessment of Group Discussion 

Male and female farmers abstracted similar types of climatic threats in the Amkhola Union. Male 

farmers in Amkhola Union highlighted the lack of rain and excessive heat which dry out the crop 

yields and humid weather in monsoon and post-monsoon seasons spread the invasion of insects and 

diseases. They also correlate the invasion with climate changes as they thought that insects’ 

reproduction has increased in recent climatic conditions, particularly due to excessive heat. Female 

farmers added the unseasonal rainfall resulting in floods and prolonged waterlogging. These 

conditions severely affect agricultural activities, as they damage seedbeds, preventing proper seed 

germination and plant growth. Besides, Fruits and flowers drop off before their maturity due to 

extreme heat and water scarcity in the pre-monsoon season. This early shedding occurs before they 

have reached full maturity, which directly reduces the amount of harvestable produce.   

Male farmers are highly interested in changing cropping patterns including introducing hybrid, 

drought-tolerant, disease and insect-resistant varieties, and harvesting different crops to minimize 

yield loss. As their primary focus is on introducing crop varieties that are more resilient to the 

stresses posed by climate change and pests, they also mentioned the urgency of hybrid, salt, drought 

and water-tolerant varieties of crops. Additionally, female farmers focused on solving irrigation 

issues by regularly excavating rivers, canals and ponds and clearing water hyacinths from them to 

ensure proper water flow. Lack of manpower to ensure uninterrupted water flow is also highlighted. 

Appropriate ways of identifying diseases are thought to be effective in minimizing yield loss. Both 

male and female farmers focused on the improper management of existing sluice gates 



 

23 

malfunctioning frequently resulting in the inundation of crops. Alongside, scarcity and adulterated 

pesticides elevate the loss of crops. 

6.2.2 Dakua Union 

Assessment of Individual Input 

The outputs of the questionnaire survey conducted in Dakua union for individual assessment of 

agricultural aspects including cropping patterns, climate risks, adaptation measures, and other 

difficulties faced by the local farmers are discussed in this section. Ten male and ten female farmers 

from Atkhali, Atukhali, Dakua, Hogolbunia, Khrishnapur, and Phulkhali villages of the Dakua union 

participated in this session. On average 2-4 family members with a maximum of 06 are involved in 

agricultural activities. Their farm size varies from 0.4 to 2.4 hectares. 

According to the response, Aus, Aman, T. Aman and Boro are widely cultivated in the Dakua Union. 

In general, The Majority of farmers start cultivating Boro in November and harvesting in April while 

Aman and T. Aman are cultivated from July/August to November/December. But a few farmers 

cultivate Aman from January to the second half of March. Aus rice is generally grown from April/May 

to July/August/September. Corn, vegetables, mungbean, nut, khesari, jute, watermelon, and potato 

are also grown extensively in the area. Most farmers cultivate corn from December/January to 

April/May. Mungbean, nut, khesari and watermelon are also cultivated during that time. A small 

number of farmers grow jute in the Kharif I. Mustard, sesame, and sunflowers are grown as a major 

source of oil seeds in Rabi and pre-monsoon season respectively. Besides these major crops, chilli, 

pepper and betel leaf are additionally grown to some small extent. Fish cultivation, though not 

prominent, a few farmers cultivate in their single-crop lands. 

Farmers identified several climate-related issues that considerably impacted the agricultural activity 

in Dakua Union. They reported multiple moderate to high-intensity salinity, drought, heavy rainfall, 

waterlogging, late-joe conditions and cyclones. Most farmers reported experiencing moderate (from 

January to March) to high (from August to October) salinity. High-intensity cyclones are experienced 

in April and November. The risk of cyclones experienced by the farmers remains moderate from 

March to April and September to October. Several farmers delineated those cyclones caused low to 

moderate damage to their crops during the Kharif I and Kharif II seasons. Most farmers highlighted 

that drought conditions due to lack of rain and salinity obstacles to crop production in the Rabi and 

Kharif I season while waterlogging condition is created in Kharif II due to heavy rainfall in the area. 

Other climatic challenges reported by the farmers include irregular rainfall, excessive, late joe 

conditions, siltation in the river and tidal water intrusion. The intensity of these challenges ranges 

from moderate to low having a low impact on crop production. 

Farmers are willing to adopt several approaches to deal with the risks of changing the climate and 

water management. Most farmers want to solve the waterlogging and drought issues using buried 

pipes, constructing U-shaped canals, improving irrigation and drainage facilities, excavating rivers, 

canals and ponds, introducing submerge variety and managing existing sluice gates properly. 

Farmers also highlighted the introduction of new crop varieties, such as the new Mungbean variety 

and the early T. Aman variety, which are likely chosen for their adaptability and yield benefits.  Early 

transplanting, short duration and submerged varieties will be expected to optimize planting 

schedules. Most farmers also emphasized including climate information services or weather 

forecasting to ensure crop safety from risks.  

Farmers are highly interested in changing their cropping patterns from chilli, and mungbean to Boro 

and watermelon respectively. Besides, local chilli, Aus, Aman and boro varieties are to be replaced 

with hybrid and salt-tolerant varieties. Several farmers are interested in transforming the fallow 



 

24 

land under cultivation with new varieties of jute, Aus and mustard. To achieve this goal, most 

farmers require specific technical guidance and expert advice on modern farming practices, which 

can help them optimize crop production and resource management. Additionally, they also require 

certified, high-quality seeds to enhance yield and resist pests or adverse weather conditions. 

Furthermore, government initiatives are crucial in improving irrigation infrastructure and ensuring 

a consistent and reliable water supply to sustain agricultural activities, particularly in regions. 

Most farmers also disclosed several non-climatic difficulties under seven broader categories such as 

cultivable area, labour, production techniques, irrigation water, seeds, pests and diseases and 

capital. Farmers are concerned about the cultivable land which is decreasing gradually due to 

landfilling, riverbank erosions and rapid infrastructural development in areas for human settlement. 

Most farmers undergo labour shortage and the labour cost becomes high during harvesting. The 

majority of farmers lack training facilities to use modern technologies. They have poor irrigation 

systems which are undergoing a shor