Agroecology Initiative Context Assessment Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe Vimbayi G. P. Chimonyo, Telma Sibanda, Dennis J. Choruma, Gatien Falconnier and Frédéric Baudron December 2023 This report contributes to Output 2.1. Baseline – current conditions of agricultural systems of smallholder farmers in each Agroecological Living Landscape (ALL) and provides context to their current state. For Zimbabwe, the ALLs are at the district level, with two sub- ALLs at the ward level. The current Context Assessment has been reported at the district level and, where information is available, the wards where the nuclei ALLs have been established were given. The purpose of this Context Assessment was threefold: first, to characterize the environmental, social, and economic context of the Mbire ALL; second, to understand the data and information currently available in the ALL; third, to characterize the extent to which agroecological principles are already being employed in the ALL. The Context Assessment is not meant to be a quantitative baseline or an exhaustive report but rather a broad overview of the situation in the ALL. The data collected during focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and meetings were also used to shape the Context Assessment and will inform the Impact Assessment. The CGIAR initiative Transformational Agroecology across Food, Land, and Water Systems develops and scales agroecological innovations with small-scale farmers and other food system actors in seven low- and middle-income countries. It is one of 32 initiatives of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. www.cgiar.org/initiative/31-transformational-agroecology-across-food-land-and-water-systems/ Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe Vimbayi G. P. Chimonyo1 Telma Sibanda1 Dennis J. Choruma2 Gatien Falconnier3,4,5 Fréderic Baudron1 1 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), 12.5 km Peg, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe 2 International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Southern Africa, 333 Grosvenor Road, Hatfield Gardens, Pretoria, 0018, South Africa 3 AIDA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier, France 4 CIRAD, UPR AIDA, Harare, Zimbabwe 5 Department of Plant Production Sciences and Technologies, University of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 2 Contents Executive summary 4 Acronyms and abbreviations 6 Mbire District 8 Description of the Agroecological Living Landscape 9 Environmental context .................................................................. 9 Economic context ........................................................................ 11 Social context ............................................................................... 13 Political context ........................................................................... 13 Context Assessment for the Agroecological Living Landscape farming systems 14 Recycling ...................................................................................... 16 Input reduction ............................................................................ 18 Soil health ..................................................................................... 19 Animal health ...............................................................................20 Biodiversity ..................................................................................22 Synergies ......................................................................................23 Economic diversification ............................................................ 24 Co-creation of knowledge .........................................................26 Social values ................................................................................26 Fairness and connectivity ...........................................................28 Land and nature resource governance ....................................34 Participation .................................................................................35 Concluding remarks 38 References 40 December 2023 | 3 Executive summary This report contributes to Output 2.1. Baseline – current conditions of agricultural systems of smallholder farmers in each Agroecological Living Landscape (ALL) and provides context to their current state. Therefore, the document is a Context Assessment report developed and maintained to ensure a thorough understanding of the operational context and the stakeholders and communities. This document is a living document and will continuously evolve. For Zimbabwe, the ALLs are at the district level, with two sub-ALLs at the ward level. The current Context Assessment has been reported for Mbire, which is at the district level and, where information is available, the wards where the nuclei ALLs have been established were given. We used gray literature from published articles, reports, and web pages as the main source of information. This information was validated with data collected during focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs), and meetings. “ The key findings show that Mbire comprises mainly family farmers characterized as resource-poor The key findings show that Mbire comprises mainly family farmers characterized as resource-poor. The community is largely patriarchal, with chiefs and herdmen managing natural resources. The main production constraints include, but are not limited to, weather risks (drought and floods), low access to improved technologies, low market access, and human-wildlife conflict. Sorghum, sesame, and cotton are the main field crops produced, while farmers keep goats, cattle, pigs, and poultry. Horticultural crops are also produced along riverbanks. The main environmental hazards are soil erosion, gullies, and deforestation. The communities in Mbire have good access to diverse foods across the different food groups, most of which are sourced from the natural forests that surround the communities. However, food availability is greater from March to August and the peak lean period is experienced from September to December. Findings from KIIs and FGDs across Mbire District revealed several farmer groups and committees. Farmer groups are small and formed on their own initiative or through development agencies with specific objectives, such as strengthening food security and improving the household income of group members. Many of the groups formed are not concerned about diversity but rather contributing to the group cause. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 4 Shiela Chikulo/CIMMYT December 2023 | 5 Acronyms and abbreviations AARDS ................................................. Agricultural Advisory and Rural Development Services ALL .............................................. Agroecology Living Landscape APT ...............................................Agricultural Partnerships Trust APU ................................................................... Anti-Poaching Unit CIAT ...................... International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) CTDO ......................................................Community Technology Development Organization CottCo ........................................Cotton Company of Zimbabwe DDC .......................................District Development Coordinator DVS ........................................Department of Veterinary Services ESC ............................................. Environmental Sub-Committee FGDs ........................................................ focus group discussions FSA .....................................................................food system actor GMB ........................................................... Grain Marketing Board KIIs .......................................................... key informant interviews LDC ......................................Livestock Development Committee NGO .............................................non-government organization NTS .............................................................National Tested Seeds RDC .............................................................. Rural District Council RDDC ............................Rural District Development Committee VIDCO ..................................... Village Development Committee WADCO .....................................Ward Development Committee WP............................................................................. Work Package ZRP .......................................................Zimbabwe Republic Police Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 6 David Brazier/IWMI DDeececemmbbeer r2 2002233 | | 7 Mbire District Mbire District is located in the Zambezi Valley, approximately 200 km north of Harare, Zimbabwe’s capital (Figure 1). The district borders Mozambique. Figure 1. Map indicating the location of Mbire. Figure reprinted with permission from (Ncube et al., 2017). Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 8 David Brazier/IWMI Description of the Agroecological Living Landscape Environmental context Figure 2. Ward 2 (Angwa) and Ward 3 (Mushumbi) in Mbire District where the Mbire is part of the Mid-Zambezi Valley, formed by the former Agroecology Initiative will be operating. floodplains of the Zambezi River between Victoria Falls and Cabora Bassa Lake, at an average elevation of 400 m above sea level. Annual rainfall is low and ranges from 350 to 650 mm, whereas temperatures range from 10 to 38 °C, and can be as high as 45 °C (Mavhura et al., 2022). Based on Zimbabwe’s agroecological zoning, Mbire is in region IV and has a low potential for agriculture. The region is suitable for livestock farming, resistant fodder crops, forestry, and wildlife tourism. Two seasons are clearly defined: a rainy season from December to March and a long dry season from April to November. In this area, potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. Figure 2 shows the two wards in which the Agroecology Initiative will be operating. December 2023 | 9 The communities in Mbire face several hydrometeorological season has shifted. Kupika et al. (2019) reported that the threats, which are influenced by place-based environmental, overall season is shorter than in previous years, while rainfall socioeconomic, political, and climatic conditions (Makuvaro, has declined. The focus group discussion also reported that 2014). The most common hydrometeorological threats that “Rains are no longer coming in November but mid-December affect the district are high rainfall variability, droughts, floods, and end in early March. In the past, we used to get rainfall and low soil moisture (Gumindoga et al., 2020; Mashingaidze from October/November until around March/April. The et al., 2021). length of the rainy seasons has also decreased; we get rainfall only for just two months or even one month.” According to Temperature extremes: Mbire District is said to have high Kunedzimwe et al. (2021), the average of models for both temperature variability (range 5.8 °C). The temperature RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 for the immediate future period (2021– increase has led to an outbreak of crop and livestock pests 2040) showed decreased rainfall for all the models (Figure 3). and diseases, and a scarcity of fodder has led to changes in livestock and crop production patterns (Gumindoga et al., Drought: Local-level KIIs and FGDs stated that droughts 2020). On the other hand, for temperature, RCP scenarios have increased in frequency in recent years. Makuvaro et (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5) showed slightly higher temperatures in al. (2018) noted that droughts occurred every three years the future (Kunedzimwe et al., 2021). (unlike the five-year average usually experienced in the 1980s and 1990s). These droughts have led to total crop Rainfall variability: Kupika et al. (2019) reported that farming failure (especially in upland fields), drying up of rivers and communities in that region used to receive early rain such boreholes, and livestock deaths. A historical timeline exercise as gukurahundi and bumharutsva1 before the onset of the identifying serious drought years that have occurred in the rainy season in November. The authors indicated that these area since 1980 carried out with community members during rainfall events seldom occur today, and the onset of the rainy community workshops showed the following years as having Figure 3. Current and predicted future spatial variation of mean temperatures in Mbire. Figure reproduced with permission from (Kunedzimwe et al., 2021). 1 Gukurahundi = the rain in August and bumharutsva = the rain in September. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 10 been affected: 1982–1983, 1991–1992, 1994–1995, 2001–2002, him off from the family by giving him his piece of land to till 2003–2004, 2006–2007, 2008–2009, and 2012–2013. The for his family. As such, the field owned by the father becomes trend clearly showed an increased frequency in drought smaller to apportion to his sons. Under such circumstances, occurrence. According to Makuvaro (2014), droughts and a child is usually allocated land in the forested area. Because prolonged dry spells in the region have resulted in the of the scarcity of arable land that is not forested, some nonperennial flow of big rivers, lower yields, and dried-up children end up being given forested land as their fields. wells. A total of 57% (n = 251) of the respondents from the When this happens, the wildlife habitat will be destroyed. The ZRBF2 survey mentioned drought as a major shock affecting destruction of the wildlife habitat will escalate HWC. their livelihood. The main reasons for this were the drying up of streams, boreholes, and wells owing to increasing drought In Ward 2, for instance, new households are settled right in cycles. the heart of wildlife corridors. Wildlife corridors are bridges, and they allow for the safe passage of wildlife from one area to another. Settling people in wildlife corridors is usually “  done by the village heads without consulting the relevant These droughts authority. When the new households clear their fields, they cut down trees and burn grasses. This decimates the wildlife have led to total crop habitat and increases pressure on the remaining forests and grasslands. Some wildlife may migrate, leading to failure (especially in ecological imbalances. Unfortunately, settling in a wildlife corridor exposes households’ crops, property, and livestock upland fields), drying up to attacks by a host of animals, such as elephants. Elephants usually remember very well their paths or those used by their ancestors. Once a household settles in a wildlife of rivers and boreholes, corridor where there is an elephant path, that household will experience human-wildlife conflict. and livestock deaths Economic context The communities in Mbire rely on a range of livelihood Floods: Despite the dry conditions, floods are a common strategies for income. These include, but are not limited to, feature in Mbire. The mountain range south of the district is agriculture, fishing, hunting, mining, off-farm remittance, and the source of the flash floods and strong winds in the valley. casual labor. According to Baudron et al. (2022), livestock This mountain separates the middle Zambezi Valley from the have become the main source of income for most farms high-veld areas of Zimbabwe. The worst floods were recorded surveyed (30.5%, n = 141 farms), followed by cotton (28.4%) in 2000, 2008, 2011, 2015, and 2017 (EM-DAT, 2019). Flood and casual labor (22.0%). Within the context of agriculture, events resulted in significant social distress and suffering Baudron et al. (2022) noted that the main farming systems among many smallholder farmers (Manyangadze et al., 2022; were maize, sorghum, cotton, sesame, groundnuts, cattle, Mavhura, 2019). Although the system of rivers increases small ruminants, and poultry. During the FGDs, stakeholders vulnerability to floods, it provides fertile alluvium and residual mentioned non-forest timber products (honey, wild fruits), moisture along riverbanks and floodplains (Manyangadze et harvesting firewood, collecting grass for thatching, and al., 2022; Mavhura, 2019). Flood-based farming is one of the harvesting reeds for weaving baskets. climate-sensitive livelihoods. Land use: Mbire is largely a wildlife-reliant area as it situated at the border of many conservatives. However, illegal alterations to land-use patterns have resulted in significant causes of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Human population growth is one of the significant causes of changes in land- use patterns in Mbire. In most cases, households have larger family sizes and smaller fields. The arid to semi-arid conditions that prevail in Mbire make it difficult to realize high crop yields from small pieces of land. Therefore, most households believe “ These include, but are not limited to, agriculture, fishing, hunting, mining, off-farm remittance, in extensification to compensate for the low yields. The customary laws in Zimbabwe’s rural areas provide that, when and casual labor. a boy child has become of age (married), his father weans 2 Zimbabwe Resilience Building Fund. December 2023 | 11 David Brazier/IWMI Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 12 Social context Type 4: largest farms, own production as the main source of food, cotton as the main source of income, According to Mudavanhu et al. (2020), family sizes range relatively high food security. from 3 to 12. According to ZIMSTAT (2022), the average household size in either Ward 2 or Ward 3 in Mbire is four. It was evident that the main livelihood strategies revolved Women outnumber men (Baudron et al., 2022; Mudavanhu et around the intensity of agricultural activities; however, the al., 2020; ZIMSTAT, 2022) owing to the men leaving the area defining features of the typologies were farm size (in terms to search for work in neighboring towns and cities. About of cultivated area and livestock), farm production levels, and 30% of the households are said to be taking care of orphans, livelihood strategies. These typologies imply the type of 9% have chronically ill members, and 10% have people with cropping systems and input use and management. disabilities, which also compounds the increasing household vulnerability to food insecurity. The level of education influences the nature of the occupation and the status of Political context household livelihoods. About 90% of the household heads In Zimbabwe, polarization of the national political landscape did not finish secondary education and were engaged in occurred following the Movement for Democratic Change rainfed agriculture. The low level of education is a function of (MDC) formed in 1999. Local governance is along a low income, high unemployment rates, high levels of poverty, party-political dimension, directly linking local resource and low agricultural productivity. According to Mudavanhu management to national politics. Chiefs and headmen in local et al. (2020), household heads’ lack of secondary and tertiary governance are important in the governance of resources. In education decreased their capacity to respond to flooding. addition to these local government structures, communities Baudron et al. (2022) classified the communities in Wards 2 raise their concerns using the powerful idiom of mhondoro.3 and 3 into four types: This idiom is said to build strongly on an insider-outsider Type 1: relatively small farms, main source of food other divide, just like the political polarity at the national level. than own production, livestock as an important source Well understood by those in power, people’s use of the of income, intermediate food security. insider-outsider divide in the idiom of mhondoro contests Type 2: medium-sized farms, own production as the political hierarchies and defines entitlements to local natural main source of food, livestock as an important source of resources. income, intermediate food security. Type 3: smallest farms, casual labor as the main source of income, low food security. CIMMYT 3 Lion ancestral spirit. It is believed that mhondoro spirits reside in the bodies of male lions until they have a host to possess. Mhondoro spirits are royal ancestral spirits of deceased chiefs and kings or any other royals. They are believed to be concerned with matters of the clan and territories, including the nation. December 2023 | 13 Context Assessment for the Agroecological Living Landscape farming systems The majority of households in Mbire can be considered family In contrast, cotton and sorghum are drought-tolerant farmers. They are characterized as resource-poor and much (Nyamwanza, 2018). Not surprisingly, 79% (n = 60) of the of the food produced is consumed while a smaller fraction is households grew cotton in the drier uplands compared with sold or traded. Farmers in Mbire participate in a diverse range 17.7% in the riverine wetlands, and 15.3% of the households of agricultural activities. The farmers produce cereal staples grew sorghum in the uplands compared with 5.5% in wetlands. (maize and sorghum), horticultural crops (carrots, tomatoes, Other crops that were grown were vegetables (1.2%) in onions, sweet potatoes, cabbages, and pumpkins), legumes, the wetlands and cowpea (1.9%) in the uplands. Riverbank cotton, sesame seeds, and sweet potatoes. The livestock crop production takes place in out-fields on the banks of kept are cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, guinea fowl, and pigs. major rivers, referred to as minda yekugova in the area, and In the crop production sector, sorghum and cotton are the averaging 0.5 to 2.0 ha per household (Nyamwanza, 2018). most cultivated, while maize, susceptible to drought and Riverbank fields form the most arable lands in the area as heat waves, is grown along floodplains where it uses residual they are characterized by rich alluvial fertile soils, which store moisture. During the rainy season, vegetable gardens can be residual moisture from the rainy season into the dry season, found closer to homesteads; however, during the dry season, thus enabling villagers to conduct farming there year-round. when the rainy season ends (around March-April), households Kinship and lineage are important factors in the ownership of make ridges on the stream bank to grow vegetables while riverbank fields as the fields are inherited and passed on from there is still moisture before the river dries up. When the river generation to generation (Nyamwanza, 2018). Most owners does dry up, households dig wells in the riverbed to water of riverbank fields are autochthonous residents, with others vegetables. gaining usufruct rights mainly based on close neighborhood, friendship, or kinship. All households interviewed by were involved in upland and riverbank crop production during the “ The farmers produce research Nyamwanza, 2018). Much of the seed for the main crops (cotton and sorghum) is cereal staples (maize and obtained through government support (Cotton Company of Zimbabwe and Government of Zimbabwe support programs). sorghum), horticultural For maize, a study conducted by Pindiriri et al. (2021) during the 2016–2017 cropping season revealed that 60% of the crops (carrots, tomatoes, farmers used self-retained seed while 38.1% of the plots were under seed donated by the government or donor onions, sweet potatoes, organizations. In contrast to this, ZimVac (2021) showed that 54% of the households used certified seeds. cabbages, and pumpkins), The use of fertilizer is dependent on farm type, crop systems, legumes, cotton, sesame and source. Overall, fertilizer use is low. (Baudron et al., 2022) showed that, on average, farmers apply 99 kg/ha of fertilizer seeds, and sweet potatoes on cotton, 53 kg/ha on maize, 12 kg/ha on sorghum, 4 kg/ ha on sesame, and 2 kg/ha on groundnut (this includes basal compound and topdressing fertilizers). Farmers growing Although uplands and wetlands were cultivated, the cotton reported obtaining fertilizer from CottCo and the communities in Mbire (75.1%, n = 60) valued wetland fields Grain Marketing Board (GMB). From the FGD, attending for their higher productivity for crop production because farmers reported selling or using fertilizer in their maize of fertile soils and enhanced food security due to residual fields or vegetable gardens. It was also reported that fertilizer moisture that allowed continued cropping for up to 4 months support under cotton programs came late in the season when after the end of the rainy season (Nyamwanza, 2018). Other the rain had gone, and the amount of fertilizer supplied was reasons given were traditional practices (12.2%), lack of never enough to meet the needs of the production systems. money to buy fertilizer if maize is grown in infertile uplands One farmer during the FGD stated that “We receive one to (6.7%), soils easily worked with hoes (3.3%), and shortage two bags of urea, which we either sell to get money for food or of land (1.7%). Most households (75.6%) grew maize in the use in our maize fields or vegetable gardens.” wetlands because they considered it susceptible to drought. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 14 David Brazier/IWMI In terms of crop management practices, Goredema et During the FGDs with the ALL, farmers pointed to the al. (2019) showed that 10.3% practiced mulching, 3.1% following constraints: agroforestry, and 22.2% burned their crop residue. According to ZimVac (2021), 60% of the households were familiar with { Limited access to improved seed varieties, thus affecting the use of compost or organic material, while 43% were their yield as they rely on retained seeds. using compost or organic material. According to the same { Their production costs are too high because of high input database, 69% of the households were familiar with mulching; prices. Labor costs have increased due to low availability. however, only 37% were using it. A major deterrent from using { Even though they have abundant natural resources such mulch was free grazing at the beginning of the dry season. as cattle manure and leaf litter, they don’t have ways to Free grazing means that a lot of the residue left from the transport manure to their fields. previous harvest is grazed, and little is retained for mulching. It was clear that few farmers pen-fed or used supplementary { Crops are being affected by pests, but communities don’t feeding for their livestock. According to the ZimVac (2021), have appropriate pesticides to apply, so they end up using 18% of the households were familiar with using locally harmful pesticides. available materials to make livestock feed; however, only 10% { Less fertile soils characterize the district and, because of of the households made livestock feed from these materials. numerous human activities, soil fertility is deteriorating, The ZimVac (2021) survey revealed that 4% of the households which affects yields. were familiar with drip irrigation; however, just 1% used it. Only 0.4% of the households owned a tractor and no farmer { Poor local livestock breeds that don’t fetch higher prices owned a two-wheel tractor. on the market. December 2023 | 15 Recycling Recycling waste is seldom practiced in Mbire; however, Sustainable Agricultural Technology reports having constructed 20-m3 biogas digesters in and around the communities at hospitals and schools, which can use animal waste (cattle, chicken, and pig manure). Six-cubic-meter digesters have been designed at the household level but are yet to be installed (https://bit.ly/46QyDO). Participants confirmed the lack of household installation during the FGD. In terms of water saving, Nyamwanza (2019) and Baudron et al. (2022) pointed out that different forms of in situ rainwater- harvesting (RWH) methods are being employed. These methods are digging Zai pits (planting pits, planting basins, micro-pits, or small water-harvesting pits), mulching, and contouring. However, for household use, the FGD participants mentioned that they did not practice ex situ RWH. Concerning the recycling of biomass and nutrients, the FGD participants stated that most of the plant residue is often consumed by livestock during the dry season, although the use of mulch was reported. Postharvest crop residues (sometimes called stovers) are a secondary but important nutrition source for ruminants. The use of local renewable resources involves crop residues, mainly sorghum and maize, but biomass yields are usually too low to produce significant excess residue for feed and mulching. In some instances, these residues are spread within the kraals (enclosures) and farmers regard this as an important management practice that helps to keep kraals dry. The practice also increases the amount of manure and prevents excessive loss of nutrients such as nitrogen. For recycling of nutrients, most farmers use cattle, goat, chicken, or pig manure to fertilize their fields. Some also mentioned that the main challenges for the use of livestock manure as fertilizer were the transportation and spreading of the manure, and the spreading of weeds in the field: “Fields are too far from the homestead and some of us need to hire ox-drawn carts when we need to apply manure. Also, the more we use manure, the more problems we have with weeds.” In Mbire, where access to clean water is limited, ex situ rainwater harvesting can be an effective method for increasing the availability of water. Some innovative solutions for increasing ex situ rainwater harvesting in rural areas of Zimbabwe are the use of check dams. Check dams are small barriers built across gullies or other water channels to slow down the flow of water and allow it to be absorbed into the ground. This helps to recharge groundwater supplies and increase water availability. Water-harvesting ponds could also be a priority innovation to increase water saving. Water- harvesting ponds are large, shallow ponds designed to collect rainwater from surrounding areas. The water can be used for domestic purposes, irrigation, or livestock watering. Another strategy would be to prioritize or fast-track the building of biogas digesters in an effort to increase renewable energy use and production. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 16 ILRI December 2023 | 17 Input reduction An increase in pest populations was also reported. Factors that emerged to have collectively impacted the changes Mbire has also decreased dependency on purchased inputs are climate variability, limited agency on the part of farmers, such as fertilizer since most farmers in Mbire use low rates power dynamics involving the government and private cotton (<50 kg/ha) of fertilizer in their fields or gardens. According companies, and farmers’ perceptions and practices. Farmers to the farmers who participated in the FGD, “We grow up are aware of integrated pest management to facilitate the being told that synthetic fertilizers are bad for our soils and integration of chemical control with a broad range of other the environment and that we should use animal manure and pest control tactics; however, few practice IPM principles. compost. Our fields are fertile; during good seasons we get good yields, but bad seasons yields are low. The main problem being the extreme heat that dries up all the rain Priority innovations for input reduction in Mbire are the quickly.” To increase self-sufficiency, farmers suggested using following: irrigation and soil water conservation techniques. A baseline 1. Integrated pest management: IPM involves the use of survey conducted in 2019 by Goredema et al. (2019) showed a range of practices to manage pests, such as using that 7.2% of the households used drip/basin irrigation, and, biological control agents, crop rotation, and resistant according to the ZimVAC database, none of the interviewed varieties. This can help to diminish the use of chemical households used motorized water pumps and only 0.8% used pesticides while maintaining or improving crop yield. mechanical water pumps (ZimVAC, 2021). It is not clear why uptake of irrigation in Mbire is low; however, farmer profiles 2. Precision agriculture: This involves the use of technology would suggest that they cannot afford external inputs such as such as remote sensing, GPS, and variable rate application irrigation infrastructure and its maintenance. to optimize the use of inputs such as fertilizer and water. This can help to decrease input use while maintaining or Regarding pest and disease management in Mbire, improving crop yield. pesticides represent a potential public health hazard of note. Accumulating evidence indicates that some pesticides used 3. Farmer-led research and innovation: This can empower in agriculture act as hormone disrupters, potentially resulting farmers to develop and implement their own solutions to in chronic health effects (Zinyemba et al., 2018). Despite such input reduction, which can help to promote sustainable a growing evidence base, pesticides remain the preferred agriculture. This can involve supporting farmer-led method of pest control in Mbire. Farmers in Mbire have research and innovation, promoting farmer-to-farmer reported an increase in the use of pesticides, specifically extension services, and creating spaces for farmer-led insecticides, since the early 1980s (Zinyemba et al., 2018). experimentation and learning. David Brazier/IWMI Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 18 Soil health Because of declining soil fertility, there is an increase in land Figure 4. Mean responses on soil health and clearing in the area. A majority of the farmers interviewed management in Mbire. (57%, n = 303) indicated that soil fertility is deteriorating. Table 1 shows the results of a survey on land management and soil health conducted in the area (see also Figure 4). Soils Tree cover in Zimbabwe are generally infertile and deficient in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) (Thompson & Purves, 1978). Soil fertility Status About 70% of Zimbabwe is covered with sandy soils, mostly Improving derived from coarse granite. Sandy soils in the south are Stable Soil erosion Deteriorating derived from gneiss. The northwest of the country, where Mbire is situated, has Triassic and Kalahari sands. These sandy Soil compaction soils are low in N, P, and S and cation exchange capacity (CEC) owing to low clay and organic matter contents. In addition, the 0 25 50 75 100 sandy soils are usually acidic. Percentage Table 1: Survey results from Mbire (n = 303) on land management and soil health. Characteristic Overall (n = 303) Ward 2 (n = 170) Ward 3 (n = 133) Clearing new fields in the past 5 years 8.9% 11.0% 6.8% Clearing new fields during the last season 52.0% 61.0% 33.0% Area cleared during the last season (ha) 1.2 (1.1) 1.1 (1.1) 1.4 (0.9) Change in soil fertility Deteriorating 57.0% 69.0% 42.0% Improving 4.3% 2.9% 6.0% Stable 38.0% 28.0% 52.0% Change in soil erosion Deteriorating 46.0% 52.0% 38.0% Improving 11.0% 6.5% 17.0% Stable 43.0% 42.0% 44.0% Change in soil compaction Deteriorating 37.0% 45.0% 26.0% Improving 10.0% 8.8% 12.0% Stable 53.0% 46.0% 62.0% Change in tree cover Deteriorating 42.0% 47.0% 36.0% Improving 19.0% 24.0% 14.0% Stable 38.0% 29.0% 50.0% Change in soil health In Zimbabwe, using carbon credits as a conservation The association between the distribution of gullies and flood mechanism and a way of boosting economic development is hazard, land cover, soil, and terrain variables was assessed at being explored. Policymakers are focusing on environmental Mushumbi Pools, which form part of Ward 3 of Mbire District, policies that decrease deforestation and promote economic and showed a low and moderate erosion hazard covering development. Such initiatives have been encouraged and 72% of the district, with pockets of high hazard occurring in implemented in the district through development plans. In areas with steep slopes, low-erodibility soils, high settlement Mbire, carbon credits have been acquired under REDD+ density, and cultivation. In Wards 2 and 3, 10% or more of the projects through forest conservation. area was classified as a high erosion hazard. Information on how communities are addressing erosion is scant. December 2023 | 19 Prior to AE-I interventions, there have been projects such as Few farmers produced fodder (6.4%), used concentrate the “Supporting smallholder farmers in Southern Africa to (2.1%), or used improved animal breeds (7.8% for cattle better manage climate-related risks to crop production and and 1.4% for goats). Cattle and small ruminants are sold to post-harvest handling” in 2013 supported by the FAO. The middlemen purchasing animals for the slaughterhouses main objective of that project was to develop and promote of Harare, the capital city. No other livestock product is smallholder farmer innovative techniques, methods, and marketed to a significant level. approaches to manage risks to crop production, such as soil management. Priority innovations for soil management in rural districts in Zimbabwe could involve conservation agriculture (CA). CA is a farming system that promotes “ Despite efforts minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover, and crop rotation. It helps to decrease soil erosion, improve soil health and fertility, and increase crop yield. This approach has been from Zimbabwe successfully implemented in other parts of Zimbabwe and has shown promising results. Another innovation could be Park authorities to the use of compost and manure. Compost and manure are organic fertilizers that help to improve soil fertility, increase soil organic matter, and improve soil structure. Since Mbire mitigate human and is predominantly a livestock-producing area, compost and manure can be produced locally using farm waste, livestock wildlife conflicts, manure, and other organic materials. wild animals, such Animal health Livestock production in the Mbire area includes cattle, goat, as hyenas and sheep, pig, and poultry rearing, with cattle, goats, and poultry forming the largest number of animals. Most farmers see animals lions, target cattle, as a symbol of wealth and prosperity, so they sell them only when they need cash urgently. They used to sell them to livestock traders, who transported the animals to the cities, where the goats, and sheep demand for meat was high. Despite efforts from Zimbabwe Park authorities to mitigate human and wildlife conflicts, wild animals, such as hyenas and lions, target cattle, goats, and sheep. Previous projects in Mbire were the Zimbabwe Resilience According to ZimVAC (2021), 59% of the households in Mbire Building Fund (ZRBF) implemented in the Zambezi Valley own one or more goats. Opportunities exist for farmers to obtain with ActionAid Zimbabwe the lead organization working in improved breeds, but this accounts for only about 5% of the partnership with Zimbabwe Environmental Law Association goat stock in the district. Goats are more prevalent in Ward 2, (ZELA), AfroSoft Private Limited, and Africa Breeders Services where farmers own from 5 to 45 goats vis-à-vis an average of 10 Total Cattle Management (ABS TCM). The project focused in Ward 3. According to ZimVac (2021), 58% of the households in on building local expertise in livestock production methods Mbire did not own cattle, while 28% and 16% of the households such as pen fattening and artificial insemination. Cattle pen owned one to five and more than five animals. Within the area, fattening involves the feeding of beef cattle with a protein- most of the diseases affecting cattle are tick-borne diseases: balanced, high-energy diet for a period of 90 days under anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and theileriosis. According to confinement to increase liveweight and improve quality and Baudron et al. (2022), 14.2% of the interviewed households thus build resilience of the animals. Artificial insemination is a had experienced the death of their cattle due to African method of increasing animal resilience by selecting desirable trypanosomiasis (a disease caused by blood protozoan parasites characteristics such as drought tolerance and high milk from the genus Trypanosoma and vectored by several species of production. hematophagous tsetse flies from the genera Glossina). Priority innovations in the Mbire area could focus on “The kraals for animals are built on the ground, and some animals improving infrastructure such as roads to facilitate the are mainly affected by foot rot. Some wards have been in the transportation of livestock to external markets and building tsetse red zone since 1980; however, animals have been tested, boreholes and dams to ensure that animals have access to and the results returned negative for tsetse infection.” water throughout the year. The Mbire area is dry and prone to droughts. Building of an abattoir and butcheries could also According to Baudron et al. (2022), more than 50% of the benefit local farmers as they would have a ready market for farming households used dip tanks and home vaccines livestock in their area. The creation of a commercial abattoir (administering vaccines or spraying cattle at home). However, in Mbire would help shift livestock farmers from selling live less than 50% used other improved livestock management animals to generating processed meat products that can approaches. fetch higher prices in the market. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 20 ILRI December 2023 | 21 Biodiversity A study by Tambara et al. (2012) showed that Mbire had a total of 82 woody species from 32 families. More species were Mbire has a rich biodiversity and has protected areas present on clayey soils (53 species, 63%) than on sandy soils forming part of the mid-Zambezi biosphere and CAMPFIRE (43 species, 52.4%). Tree diversity (Simpson’s and Shannon- (Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Weiner diversity indices) was usually higher on sandy soil than Resources) buffer zone. Its economy depends greatly on the on clay soil. On clayey soil, the highest number of species was forest systems and their biodiversity. Mopane woodlands dominate much of Mbire. Deforestation and poaching, recorded on fallow land (45 species), followed by cultivated especially of large mammals such as elephants, are major land (36 species) and natural woodland (27 species). Tree threats to the economy and community livelihoods. density was also lower within cultivated areas (673 trees/ha) than within fallow land (1,653 trees/ha) and woodland The mammal diversity in Mbire has elephant, buffalo, zebra, (1,242 trees/ha) (Tambara et al., 2012). greater kudu, sable antelope, waterbuck, impala, and warthog (Table 2). From the aerial census data presented A survey conducted by Utete et al. (2022) reported a total by Baudron et al. (2022), the numbers of all wild ungulates of 17 common fish species being identified by fishers. The appear to have decreased significantly from 2003 to 2014, most frequently occurring captured fish species within the with no buffalo, zebra, sable antelope, waterbuck, or river networks in Mbire were silver labeo (Labeo ruddi) and impala being detected during the census of 2014. Most tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) (Utete et al., 2022). Most farmers (73.7%, n = 141) perceived elephant populations respondents in the Utete et al. (2022) study believed that fish to have increased or remained stable over the years, and biodiversity and average body size had decreased drastically buffalo populations were perceived by most (80.1%) to have in the pools during the past 15–20 years. The frequency decreased. More than 50% also perceived the populations of of occurrence of fish species, determined from what the lion and leopard (two other species, in addition to elephant interviewed fishers observed in their catches, comprised in and buffalo, of importance for revenue generation through descending order silver labeo, tigerfish, small-mouth bass, CAMPFIRE) to have declined (Baudron et al., 2022). chubbyhead barb, red-breasted tilapia, eastern bottlenose, African sharptooth catfish, redeye labeo, African freshwater Table 2: Presence of wildlife and livestock in Mbire eel, snake catfish, chessa, Kariba tilapia, greenhead tilapia, Nile tilapia, Zambezi bream, black tilapia, and large-mouth Species Scientific name bass (Utete et al., 2022). The threats facing fishery resources in Mbire are poor land-tilling practices and heavy application African savannah elephant Loxodonta africana of pesticides, especially for cotton farming. Unsustainable African buffalo Syncerus caffer harvesting techniques, for example, using mosquito nets, Common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius were also cited as a threat to fish biodiversity. Respondents Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus indicated that mosquito nets do not select, but simply trap Lion Panthera leo all sizes of fish, which decreases fish density and diversity in Chacma baboon Papio ursinus the pools. Vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus An essential habitat for the megafauna, which includes Spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta elephants, giraffes, buffaloes, hippos, lions, and zebras, is Plains zebra Equus quagga burchellii the Zambezian and mopane woods. Because of the area’s Common duiker Silvicapra grimmia abundant biodiversity, safaris such as Chewore, Doma, and Dande have been established. But conflicts between people Common impala Aepyceros melampus spp. melampus and wildlife are frequent. Large elephant populations and Greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros lion attacks are said to be the blame for the region’s human Sharpe´s grysbok Raphicerus sharpei fatalities, injuries, livestock mortality, agricultural damage, Leopard Panthera pardus and destruction of infrastructure and property. Wild pigs, Side-striped jackal Canis adustus baboons, and monkeys also raid crops (Jani et al., 2020). Small carnivorea Promoting biodiversity in Zimbabwe’s rural areas is critical Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus for maintaining ecosystem health, supporting sustainable Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus livelihoods, and promoting climate resilience. Priority Bushpig Potamochoerus larvatus innovations include ecological restoration and agroforestry. Warthog Phacochoerus africanus Ecological restoration involves the active restoration of degraded ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, and African crested porcupine Hystrix cristata grasslands. This can help to promote biodiversity by African civet Civettictis civeta restoring habitat and supporting the recovery of native Aardvark Orycteropus afer species. Agroforestry involves the integration of trees into Cattle Bos taurus agricultural landscapes. This can help to promote biodiversity Goats Capra hircus by providing habitat for wildlife, enhancing soil health, and a e.g., common slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea). decreasing erosion. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 22 Synergies are a valuable source of supplementary feed during the dry season in mixed crop-livestock farming. Soil-plant system The Pfumvudza Program supported by the presidential management involves the use of residues as soil amendments free-input scheme has helped in introducing and scaling to improve soil fertility. Cowpea also contributes to soil conservation agriculture practices across Zimbabwe. fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. Although there is strong integration of crop-livestock systems in two districts, manure use is gradually decreasing The Mbire area is dominated by mopane and acacia forests because farmers receive chemical fertilizer support from the and woodlands. The mopane woodlands are a source of Pfumvudza Program and applying manure to crop fields is timber, fuelwood, and construction materials for gardens, labor-intensive. livestock pens, and traditional huts (Mavhura, 2019). In many fields, communities did not always practice agroforestry. In Mbire, crops such as sorghum and cowpea are relevant However, in situations in which crops and trees occupied the crops in terms of creating synergies within farming systems. same land, Faidherbia albida was mostly found, which is used Sorghum is unique in its ability to grow under a wide array and grown by the farmers for soil nutrient improvement. Many of harsh environmental conditions, making it a resilient crop institutes and projects are promoting agroforestry. During widely used for food, feed, and beer brewing, especially in the FGD, Carbon Green Africa reported that it is promoting the hot and dry conditions of Mbire. Crop-livestock synergies agroforestry and crop-tree systems. The organization has involve the use of residues of sorghum as an important Faidherbia albida and moringa trees in stock that are given to source of dry-season fodder for livestock. Sorghum can be farmers for free, although farmers prefer fruit trees only. fed to livestock as wilted green chop, silage, and grain. It is primarily a feed energy source, with an estimated 65% total Several stakeholders are or have been engaged in forest- digestible nutrients. Similarly, cowpea is an important source related management activities with communities in Mbire. of food and income in Mbire. Cowpea leaves and haulms Table 3 shows some of the stakeholders and their activities. have a higher crude protein content than cereal residues and Table 3. Stakeholder linkages with indigenous people for sustainable forest management in Mbire Institution/program Role Institution–indigenous people linkages Forestry Commission Forest management and Engagement of communities in fireguard regulation of forestry resource use construction and support from local people in through issuance of permits preventing unsanctioned forest product extraction Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife management Engagement with communities to restrict Wildlife Management wildlife poaching Authority Environmental Education and training on natural Traditional leaders’ support in awareness raising Management Agency resource use and environmental and training on sustainable environmental (EMA) management management involving local communities Mbire RDC Development of bylaws and Enforcement of forest management bylaws projects for the management of through the support of traditional leaders and the environment within its local communities’ participation in forest-related jurisdiction projects such as CAMPFIRE and REDD+ CAMPFIRE Community-based wildlife Meaningful participation with clearly defined management initiatives governance involving indigenous people in decision-making and sharing of wildlife proceeds Kariba REDD+ Emission reduction project Clearly defined governance system involving through forest management indigenous people in decision-making and involving communities sharing of project benefits NGOs Advocacy on indigenous Strengthening indigenous-based structures for people’s rights, awareness articulating people’s rights with regard to raising, and training on resource use sustainable resource use Source: Chanza & Musakwa (2022) December 2023 | 23 Johnson Siamachira/CIMMYT Some priority innovations that could help to promote 2 to 3 months (Utete et al., 2022). There were remittances natural resource synergies in Zimbabwe’s rural areas involve from household members within and outside the country adopting an integrated natural resource management (South Africa, Zambia, or Mozambique). Utete et al. (2022) approach. This involves taking a holistic approach to the found that 70% (n = 60) of the households stated that they management of natural resources, with the aim of optimizing received remittances irregularly. Households reported their use and minimizing negative impacts. This can include receiving remittances in both monetary and non-monetary developing and implementing integrated land-use plans, forms. Respondents stated that the money earned through promoting sustainable land management, and encouraging remittances was not sufficient, as many of their family the different stakeholders and actors working in the district. members were employed in low-income activities. The issue Agroforestry can help to promote natural resource synergies of remittance was corroborated by stakeholders attending by improving soil fertility, decreasing erosion, and enhancing the FGDs. Although cattle sales between wards within the biodiversity. Agroforestry can also provide a source of wood district are illegal because of red zoning, households sell fuel, fodder, and other products for local communities. livestock to traders. Livestock are sold at the onset of floods or drought. Households stated that the sale of livestock has the Economic diversification greatest impact on their food and income security because A diversity of activities is mostly centered around agriculture livestock are their “life’s bank” and being forced to sell and livestock production. From the literature and FGDs, it was livestock because of drought or flood constitutes a real loss of evident that communities diversified their sources of income. valuable money and productive resources. During the FGDs, participants mentioned that most Mbire Economic diversification is critical to promoting sustainable inhabitants were involved in non-agricultural activities, such development in Zimbabwe’s rural areas. Key priority areas as fishing (for both household consumption and commercial where innovations are needed could be in the following areas: purposes), trading in goods (in small shops and flea markets), and remittances for a few households. It was also mentioned that women sold pottery, baskets, and mats during the off- 1. Agricultural value chain development: Developing value season to supplement household income. A survey by Utete chains in the agricultural sector can help to promote et al. (2022) showed that almost all of the 60 households economic diversification by creating market opportunities included in the study engaged in fishing and at times gold- for smallholder farmers. This can include developing panning activities to supplement food and income. Beaven processing and packaging facilities, improving access Utete et al. (2022) had surveyed households living close to to finance, and supporting marketing and distribution the river network in Mbire. According to Baudron et al. (2022), channels. Utete et al. (2020), and Mudavanhu et al. (2020), many families 2. Rural enterprise development: Promoting the across Mbire, and in Wards 2 and 3 in particular, were in the development of rural enterprises can help to diversify the labor market (local or migrant). local economy and create employment opportunities. This The majority of labor migrants are wage employees in can involve providing training and technical assistance Zambia or Mozambique. The time spent by migrants in their to entrepreneurs, developing access to finance, and destination communities (Zambia or Mozambique) was from supporting market linkages. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 24 Thomas Lumpkin/CIMMYT December 2023 | 25 Co-creation of knowledge In most cases, these farmer groups and platforms work with several government departments and development partners, Findings from FGDs carried out by WP 5 indicated that it is clearly illustrating the creation and transfer of knowledge better to work with communities in farmer groups as these from farmer to farmer and between farmers and other encourage each other to work hard. More so, members of the stakeholders such as the government and NGOs. groups would be farmers willing to be part of the intervention; therefore, interested members are part of the groups. Another point that many key stakeholders mentioned was Box 1: Mbire sorghum group that, if farmers work in groups, they would be able to meet This is a group of sorghum farmers who have partnered product demand for their markets; thus, farmer groups are with processing companies (that provide them with viewed as strategic in that regard. contracts) to lower transaction costs and increase market visibility toward enhancing food and income security. The two key processors are into beer brewing “ Another point that and stockfeed processing. Increased production and marketing capacities are locally designed and many key stakeholders appropriate in the context of the farmers. These farmers had remained marginalized from mainstream mentioned was that, if farmers production and marketing space because of their being crowded out by other crop and livestock work in groups, they would enterprises such as cotton, maize, cattle, and goat sales. Innovativeness has emerged in the communities since be able to meet product they have developed their own seed bank and long- term contracts with beer and stockfeed companies. demand for their markets In some instances, farmers have come together through their own initiative and created farmer-to-farmer exchange Social values platforms that then seek assistance from development In a household survey assessing nutritional vulnerability of partners on specific aspects of their food production system, pregnant women in Mbire District by Ncube et al. (2017), including exchanging ideas and experiences. As in this respondents (n = 100) indicated that they consumed eggs case, farmer groups would be better positioned to obtain (5%), meat (13%), fish (7%), legumes or pulses (22%), milk and recognition and assistance from government departments milk products (9%), sadza (mealie pap) (23%), roots and tubers and development in a group setting to address their needs (10%), vegetables (14%), and fruits (10%). These statistics and priorities. In support of this, one key informant indicated indicated that the respondents relied mainly on the food the following: basket provided because very few had other foodstuffs to “People approached us, and it was by community demand eat. According to Baudron et al. (2022), food aid was the main because they wanted our market linkages, so we have source of food for 19% (n = 141) of the surveyed households addressed the needs and priorities of the communities.” and own production for 52%. Additionally, WP 5 findings indicated that, if farmers worked in groups, they would have an opportunity to exchange ideas and even assist each other in various ways to achieve group objectives. Another key informant had this to say: “The women pull each other up; some members know something about agriculture, some know how to do it, and others know but do not have the resources to start the projects. When they come in as a group, they help each other “ These statistics indicated that the respondents relied mainly on the food basket provided because very fe w had other foodstuffs to eat. and work together in portions. Some of them have ideas and no resources; for them coming as a group, they exchange Table 4 summarizes discussion on the main foods found ideas, and that area is uplifted, and they find therapy through in Mbire and their availability across the month (0 = not agriculture.” available, 3 = readily available). In the early dry season, dietary diversity improves with increased accessibility to other foods Several stakeholders, including local government and NGOs, such as vegetables, fruits, and rainfed food supplies such as work in the Mbire area facilitating the horizontal creation and pumpkins and groundnuts. The major source of protein is transfer of knowledge and good practices. Most program, plant-based (mainly beans, cowpeas, bambara groundnuts, farmer group, and committee objectives are to improve and groundnuts) and small livestock such as goats and sheep. agriculture, natural resource management, climate change The FGD highlighted that, although the availability of animal- resilience, access to markets, and social issues (gender and based protein sources was constant, their consumption was empowerment), aligning themselves with the government. quite low. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 26 Table 4: Food calendar suggested by farmers and stakeholders during the focus group discussions Food Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Roots and tubers Sweet potatoes 0 0 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 Potatoes 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 2 Cassava 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 Manyenya* 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Tsopori* 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Humbakumbarara* 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Madyahanga* 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Fruits Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Ziziphus mauritiana (masawu) 0 0 0 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 Baobab 0 0 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Snot apple (matohwe) 0 0 0 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 Bird plum (nyii) 0 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 Bananas 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Apples 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 Oranges 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Wild loquat fruit (mazhanje) 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 English plums (nhunguru) 0 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 Vegetables Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec African spider flower (nyevhe) 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 Cowpea leaves (munyemba) 3 3 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 Pumpkin leaves (muboora) 3 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 Covo/rape 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 Carrots 0 0 0 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 Cabbage 0 0 0 2 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 Tomatoes 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 0 Cucumbers 0 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 0 0 Pumpkin leaves 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 0 Pumpkin 0 0 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 0 Amaranthus (mowa) 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Chambururuzi* 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Mandindindi* 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Cereals Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Green mealies 0 0 2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maize meal 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 Sorghum 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Millet 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rice 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Meat, dairy, and poultry Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Guinea fowl 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Local chicken 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Broiler chicken 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Eggs 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 Goat meat 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Beef 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Fish 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Dried kapenta 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Mopane worms 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Game meat 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Legumes Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Sugar beans 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 Bambara groundnuts 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 Groundnuts 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 Cowpeas 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 December 2023 | 27 Fairness and connectivity a barter trading system (where the 20-L bucket is a common measurement unit). The selling price of sorghum at the farm Work Package 3 of this Agroecology Initiative has mapped gate is USD 2 per 20-L bucket. Considering that a volume of value chain actors for 12 crop and livestock commodities: 1 L could be equivalent to 1 kg of grain, the equivalent price sorghum, cotton, sesame, maize, groundnut, sweet potato, for farm-gate sorghum would be USD 0.10/kg. According to vegetables (tomato and onion), cattle, goats, poultry, and the FGD participants in Mbire District, the decision to sell honey. Most of these commodities are channelled to the sorghum grain is a joint decision between the household main markets in Harare. Sesame is smuggled to Mozambique head and spouse. However, the participants indicated that the and the market mainly depends on middlemen. The Grain household head is the one in charge of controlling the income Marketing Board (GMB) is the major actor in sorghum and realized from sales. maize marketing in both wards. Groundnut is sold to rural and urban consumers after processing it into peanut butter locally After buying grain from farmers and local assemblers, the within the production zones. Goats and cattle are mostly GMB sells sorghum grain to companies that process it for supplied to the Harare market by middlemen collecting these food and feed (Figure 5). It also gives some quantity of grain livestock from village markets and moving door-to-door to back to the community under the social welfare program. For buy enough to transport to Harare. Honey production and instance, in 2021, 90% of the 5,000 tons of sorghum collected marketing are still at their initial stage through the support at Mushumbi depots was sold, while 10% was given back to of HELP from Germany and the Zimbabwe Apiculture the community. The Mushumbi GMB depot has a carrying Trust projects. The long dry season is a challenge in honey capacity up to 8,000 tons, but it is not very secure; hence, production. Below, we summarize the main attributes of the the produce is transferred to other depots with silos. Grain core value chains in Mbire. buying prices were gazetted at the beginning and maintained throughout the season despite the inflation in the country. Sorghum Grain suppliers to the GMB are mainly aggregators (local On average, farmers produce 3 tons of sorghum, selling about assemblers) and they hire their own transportation to get the 1 t and consuming the rest. Farmers usually sell sorghum collected quantity to the GMB depots. In addition to buying to local collectors both in cash and in kind. In most cases, grain, the GMB supports the government initiatives of the three-fourths of the marketed surplus sorghum is sold using free-input program as a distribution channel to reach farmers. Figure 5. Sorghum value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Export market Grain export Consumption Local Food Grain consumers Reserve Delta Livestock feed Beverages processors (Irvines) Processing Grain Marketing Board (GMB ) Safety net program Trading Local aggregators Production Farmers Input Input suppliers (providers), presidential input schemes, ADRA Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 28 Enabling environment: grain qu ality, policy on grain movement, banks, etc. Anne Wangalachi/CIMMYT Maize herbicide, and pesticide. Most farmers grow hybrid maize Nearly all farmers produce maize (Figure 6). Production seed in the district. Both men and women in the household is supported though the presidential free-input initiative, participate in the production of maize, and also have a stake but farmers supplement the 5 kg of seed and 50 kg each for in maize grain marketing. Similar to sorghum, farmers mainly basal and topdressing chemical fertilizer provided under the sell their maize produce to the GMB directly or through free-input program. Farmers buy additional seed, fertilizer, middlemen. At the farm gate, maize fetches about USD 0.15/kg. Figure 6. Maize value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Consumption Local consumers Food Grain Reserve Livestock feed processors (Irvines), National Foods Processing Grain Marketing Safety net Board (GM B) program Trading Local aggregators Production Farmers Input Input suppliers (providers), presidential input schemes, Farm and City, Windmill, Siyawayamwawa, Farmshop December 2023 | 29 Enabling environment: gra in quality, policy on grain movement, banks, etc. Cotton AGRITEX focuses mainly on extension provision while cotton companies provide a full range of agronomic advice, pre- The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (CottCo) is a parastatal financing, production support, and marketing. Services in cotton that provides inputs free of charge to viable and willing production are not demand driven and they are free of charge, cotton farmers under the presidential free-input scheme. at least from CottCo, the main player in Mbire District. Cotton CottCo controls 99.5% of the cotton sub-sector in Mbire fetches from USD 0.10 to 0.50/kg. Most cotton companies have District. Other cotton companies also pre-finance at least ginneries that process cotton wool into lint and seed. The lint is cotton seed, but these account for only 0.5% of the market sold to local textile factories that absorb about 40% of the annual (Figure 7). All cotton companies pre-finance cotton production while the remainder is exported. Seed cotton is production and companies other than CottCo recover their exclusively used in the local market to support cotton production investments after sales. as seed and to make other products such as livestock feed and oil. Figure 7. Cotton value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Export market Export (60% of lint cotton) Domestic Textile Factories Ginnery Cottco Ginnery Processing (Southern Co tton) Assembling Southern Cotton Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Production Contract farmers Input Seed, fertilizer, pesticides, crop management (Cottco, Southern Cotton, Cotton Company of Zimbabwe Sesame seed. No specific roles are assigned to men and women in In Mbire, farmers mostly use recycled sesame seed. Other sesame production. All participate in production and in some companies and organizations that provided production instances make joint decisions on production and marketing support in Mbire District were Olam Zimbabwe, ETG, arrangements. Private buyers from Mozambique are the Sidella, ActionAid, and the GMB (Figure 8). Other farmers main buyers. The bulk of the produce is sold to private buyers use recycled seed brought from Mozambique. The who come from Mozambique. It is understood that Olam presidential free-input initiative provided 2 kg of seed to Zimbabwe in the past used to export sesame to India, China, a few households, which was the first time to use certified and Myanmar. Sesame fetches about USD 0.80/kg. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 30 Enabling environment Figure 8. Sesame value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Export market Olam (Zimbabwe) Trading Middlemen supporting illegal Olam (Zimbabwe) aggregators from Mozambique Farmers Production Input suppliers (seed recycled Inputs and Pesticides, agro-dealers: from Mozambique, fertilizer, services Farmshop, Farm and City) Olam-Zim, ETG, SIDELLA) Goats goats. In addition to conventional pen fattening that involves According to the report made by Work Package 3, interested the use of inorganic supplementary feed purchased in shops, farmers can buy improved breeds from Chivhu at Zvikomborero communities in Mbire use homemade pen fattening from farm and there is also an initiative to provide farmers with organic crop residue. The improved goat breeds, especially improved goats through the Zimbabwe Agricultural Growth the Boer goats, are not browsers. So, supplying them with Program’s Value Chain Alliance for Livestock Upgrading and purchased feed is important. Farmers obtain feed for goats Empowerment (VALUE), in which they source their goats from Superstore located in Mushumbi Town (Figure 9). Farmers from Zvikomborero farm, which also supplies improved goat barter goats for pesticide, herbicide, household supplies, or breeds to farmers. Zvikomborero farm also supplies Boer clothes. Goats are bought at USD 15–20 from Mbire. Figure 9. Goat value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Consumption Urban consumers Rural consumers Butchers/Abattoirs Trader Processing in Harar e in Harare Assembling Local aggregators Production Smallholder farmers Small farmers Input Input suppliers (Breeds from Zvikomborero Farm, Action-Aid, feed from Mushumbi Superstore, Fivet) December 2023 | 31 Regulatory bodies: Police Department, Veterinary Department. Enabling environment Honey a farmer harvests 20 kg of honey per season, of which 25% Beekeeping is a recent business introduced in Mbire is consumed at home and the remaining is sold to other District, particularly in Ward 3, through the support of the fellow farmers for cash or using the barter system for grain HELP project from Germany. The main reason was to deter (usually sorghum). Few aggregators are buying honey from elephants and at the same time preserve forests when people these villages and selling it to urban consumers. There are see value in them. Zimbabwe Apiculture Trust started a two grades of honey (A and B). Grade A receives USD 2/kg project with farmer groups for honey production. Farmers whereas Grade B receives USD 1.50/kg. The barter system is were provided with modern beehives and related accessories used in local honey marketing (sorghum in a 5-L container for for beekeeping. The project also provided training to a 300-mL bottle of honey). Carbon Green is the only buyer of farmers on beekeeping and honey harvesting. On average, honey currently (Figure 10). Figure 10. Honey value chain (Mbire, Zimbabwe). Consumption Urban consumers Rural consumers Processing Trading Local aggregators Carbon Green Production Smallholder farmers Input Beehive and protection suit suppliers Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 32 Support services: HELP ( from Germany); Zimbabwe Apiculture Trust M. DeFreese/CIMMYT December 2023 | 33 Land and nature resource governance the real Mbire and moving communities away will be taking away their identity and source of livelihood.” This statement Land tenure was corroborated by AGRITEX officers, who have indicated Freehold and leasehold type of tenure systems are difficulties in enforcing legislation. Productive farmland in predominant in Mbire. Freehold communal (or customary) Mbire is concentrated along the major rivers (Baudron et al., systems are the most common. Communal lands are an 2022; Matema et al., 2022). inheritance of the colonial system of marginalizing black indigenous farmers to the periphery of economic activities. Grazing land, just like arable land, is governed by numerous Most of these communal lands are located in natural regions localized laws and regulations. Shared grazing areas have the III to V, known for high temperatures, low rainfall, and poor challenges of non-excludability and a lack of upper set limits agricultural activities. The dominant economic activity is for grazing land accessed by individual members. In addition, subsistence and small-scale farming. grazing areas are characterized by free-rider problems, especially in initiatives to improve pastures. Over the years, there have been shifts in area under grazing and agriculture. “ Land In Mbire, open vegetation expansion from 2006 to 2020 was mainly at the expense of scrub area, which decreased redistribution also from 91,824 ha in 2006 to 85,756 ha in 2014 and 74,869 ha in 2020. By comparison, the woodland area remained relatively significantly changed stable: 26,610 ha in 2006, 24,062 ha in 2014, and 26,755 ha in 2020. Although the net woodland area remained largely land  rights, access unchanged, a shift from east to west is noticeable, with woodland area continuously declining in the east study area rights, and their (from 8,647 ha in 2006 to 6,854 ha in 2014 and 5,585 ha in 2020), while the west study area regained woodland (from administration 17,947 ha and 17,192 ha in 2006 and 2014 to 21,149 ha in 2020). At the ward level, sustainable forest management activities are undertaken by the Environmental Sub-Committee (ESC) members as their mandate involves all natural resources In terms of institutional arrangements, the Zimbabwe within the ward. According to Goredema et al. (2019), the government implemented the Fast-Track Land Reform councillor and village heads play an important role in raising Program (FTLRP) formally beginning with the Land awareness on protection of forests from fires and cutting of Acquisition Act of 2002 to redistribute land to the black trees and mobilizing communities to fight fires in their locality. majority. The program, which effectively co-opted the farm The Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Agricultural, occupations since 1998, redistributed land from white- Technical, and Extension Services (AGRITEX), and Forestry owned farms and estates, as well as state lands, to more Commission District Officers play an important role in this than 150,000 farmers under two models, A1 and A2. The A1 awareness, although enforcement is limited because of a lack model allocated small plots for growing crops and grazing of adequate resources (transportation and human resources). land to landless and poor farmers, while the A2 model allocated farms to new black commercial farmers who had Land tenure has been a critical issue in Zimbabwe, particularly the skills and resources to farm profitably, reinvest, and raise in rural areas. Over the years, various innovations have been agricultural productivity. The FTLRP has resulted in a shift in proposed and implemented to address the challenges land tenure systems from private landholdings to state land. associated with land tenure in the country, but problems still Land redistribution also significantly changed land rights, persist. Priority innovations could involve the following: access rights, and their administration. Uncertainty, however, 1. Secure land tenure systems: Developing and exists surrounding the form and security of tenure in both A1 implementing secure land tenure systems can help and A2 schemes. In the new resettlement areas, the tenure to meet the challenges associated with land tenure form provided to A1 farmers is akin to that in the communal insecurity. This could include registering land titles and areas being based upon “customary” forms of allocation, developing systems that ensure that land rights are regulation, and adjudication. The issue of tenure insecurity respected and protected. has been identified as a strong disincentive in the current land reform program, especially for those on A2 plots. 2. Strengthening customary land tenure: Customary land tenure systems are prevalent in Zimbabwe’s rural areas. In managing natural resources, village heads (sabhukus) Strengthening these systems can help to ensure that play an important role in the allocation and management customary land rights are respected and protected. of farming land, grazing areas, and other natural resources 3. Land tenure regularization: This involves legalizing in Mbire. According to Matema et al. (2022), most wetland informal land rights and ensuring that they are recognized field owners reported being allocated land by the sabhuku and protected by the law. This can help to address land and relatives. Matema et al. (2022) went on to report that tenure insecurity and provide access to credit and communities within Mbire believe that “The riverine zone is other services. Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 34 Dennis J. Choruma/IWMI Participation iii. the President’s Department, The findings from KIIs and FGDs across Mbire District - the district head of each ministry and department of a revealed that farmer groups are small and formed on their ministry within the district that the minister may designate by own initiative or through development agencies with notice in writing to the district administrator, and specific objectives, such as strengthening food security - such persons representing other organizations (including and improving household income of group members. Many development partners) and interests as the minister, on the of the groups formed are not concerned about diversity recommendation of the district administrator, may permit.4 but rather contributing to the group cause. Development b. Full Council and its various committees. The Full committees are within government structures at the local Council consists of all sitting committee members. The level to support and strengthen development by the Full Council ordinarily sits three times per calendar year; government and other stakeholders, and these are led by however, special meetings can be sanctioned when local leadership (e.g., village heads, councillors). Membership necessary by the council. in these development committees is usually through position in the community or voting. Findings from WP 1 revealed c. Ward Development Committee. For each ward of a that the multiple stakeholder platforms in Mbire were within council area, there shall be a committee established government structures and at the district and ward levels. through the Rural Development Council Act, to be known However, some of these committees might or might not as a Ward Development Committee (WADCO), consisting be functional in some areas as they largely depend on the of vibrancy of the local leadership. In Mbire, platforms involve the following: (a) the councilor for the ward, who shall be the chairman of the committee, and a. Rural District Development Committees. For each (b) the chairman and secretary of every Village council area, there shall be a committee, to be known Development Committee (VIDCO) and Neighborhood as the Rural District Development Committee (RDDC), Development Committee in the ward: consisting of Provided that, in the case of a ward in which there is neither - the district administrator, a VIDCO nor a Neighborhood Development Committee, - the chairman of every other committee established by the the minister shall appoint persons to the WADCO from council, a list of names prepared by the councilor for the ward. - the chief executive officer of the council and such other Where a WADCO cannot be constituted for lack of officers of the council as the council may determine, representation, the minister can appoint such persons as he sees fit to constitute the committee. A WADCO shall, - the senior officer in the district of on or before 31 March of each year, prepare and submit a i. the Zimbabwe Republic Police, ward development plan to the RDDC of the council.5 ii. the Zimbabwe National Army, and 4 http://www.vungurdc.org.zw/RDDC.html 5 https://swm-programme.info/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=19c4a770-e252-7c1c-431d-aec12065a0c4&groupId=20142 December 2023 | 35 d. Village Development Committee (VIDCO). This is the same as the WADCO in terms of composition and structure but only at a lower level (village level), with members being elected by villagers established through the Rural District Council Act. The role of the committee is to plan and coordinate all development activities at the village level and to report to the next level structure, the WADCO.6 e. Environment Committee and Sub-Committee. Every council shall appoint a committee known as the Environment Committee. The Environment Committee shall consist of such a number of members as the council may fix in consultation with the minister and, of those members, (a) half shall be councilors appointed by the council and (b) half shall be persons other than councilors, appointed by the council in consultation with the minister.7 In addition, Mbire District has groups and committees that deal with specific issues such as wildlife, livestock, and high incidences of gender-based violence, as follows: i. GBV Coordinating Committee (district level). This consists of the Ministry of Health (MH), Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP), and development partners that work on issues of abuse. ii. Environmental Management Committee (Including CAMPFIRE, Wildlife Committee/Anti-Poaching Unit). iii. Livestock Development Committees (LDCs) – Veterinary Department, Livestock Production Development, ActionAID, AGRITEX, and lead farmers. Other establishments, as revealed by stakeholders during the KIIs and FGDs, are the various groups of farmers formed through their own initiative and agenda and/or farmer groups that the development partners have started to facilitate working with project beneficiaries. The findings revealed that farmer groups are not multiple stakeholders in nature – just farmers with a specific challenge to address (e.g., marketing for livestock and horticulture produce or addressing household income). The findings from WP 1 showed that development partners initiate the formation of groups for beneficiaries of their projects. Regarding power and influence, WP 5 showed that women within Mbire had limited power and freedom to make food- related decisions. During group discussions, the participating women told WP 5 that women are often oppressed, and they oppress each other, and, even when it comes to putting fellow women in power, they do not vote for each other. It was also mentioned that culture and religion had been used to keep the women submitted to the men. 6 Higgins K M; Mazula A. 1993. Community development: a national strategy in Zimbabwe. Community Development Journal 28(1), p. 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/28.1.19 7 https://swm-programme.info/c/document_library/ get_file?uuid=19c4a770-e252-7c1c-431d- aec12065a0c4&groupId=20142 Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 36 Peter Lowe/CIMMYT December 2023 | 37 Concluding remarks Mbire is a resource-constrained area with low potential for Conservation agriculture agriculture, yet most of its inhabitants depend on agriculture The introduction of conservation agriculture helps infield as a livelihood strategy. The following constraints have been water retention and improves soil fertility. CA has several noted. economic and environmental benefits that help buffer farmers from the effects of climate change. The improved soil Production constraints structure, mulching with crop residues, and the associated { Farmers or communities have limited access to improved increase in soil organic matter improve rainwater infiltration seed varieties, thus affecting their yield as they rely on and decrease evaporation from the soil. The higher water- retained seeds. holding capacity of the soil enables crops to reach maturity { Their production costs are too high because of high input using residual soil moisture even if the rains cease before prices. the crops have reached physiological maturity (Bedoussac et al., 2015). Zero-tillage farming with residue cover saves { Even though they have abundant natural resources such irrigation water, gradually increases soil organic matter, and as cattle manure and leaf litter, they don’t have ways to suppresses weeds. Leaving the soil undisturbed increases transport manure to their fields. water infiltration, holds soil moisture, and helps to prevent { Less fertile soils characterize the district, and, because of topsoil erosion. Conservation agriculture enhances water numerous human activities, soil fertility is deteriorating, intake, allowing for more stable yields amid weather extremes which is affecting their yields. exacerbated by climate change (https://www.cimmyt.org/ { Poor local livestock breeds that don’t fetch higher prices in news/what-is-conservation-agriculture/). the market. Mechanization Human-wildlife conflict Over the last decades, a drive toward more sustainable agriculture has seen the increased advocacy and use { There is an increasing number of elephants, and they are destroying crops in Mbire. of mechanized reduced-tillage systems in much of the developed world (Jaleta et al., 2019). Mechanization { High livestock predation by hyenas, crocodiles, wild dogs, (especially power units, seeders, rippers, and sprayers) is a and lions. key input for CA and smallholder farmers (Mechanization of Biophysical constraints Conservation Agriculture for smallholders | FAO). Two-wheel tractors (single axle, a.k.a. power tillers) are small, versatile, { Decrease in the amount of rainfall received, which affects mobile agricultural machines and are often heralded as the growth and maturity of crops. appropriate mechanization for smallholder farmers, given { Prolonged dry spells and uneven distribution of rains also their more appropriate size for operations in small fragmented affect crop growth as communities depend on rainfed plots, the less substantive investment needed, the lower agriculture. operating costs, and the multiple uses (Jaleta et al., 2019). Over the previous decade, planter attachments to two- { Rivers dry up quickly because they aren’t receiving wheel tractors have been developed, which permit seed and sufficient water during the rainy season, and livestock fertilizer placement with minimum to zero tillage in a single must travel long distances for water, thus leading to pass. Recent tests have demonstrated that these implements livestock predation. can produce crop yields equal to or better than those of Social constraints conventional tillage involving hand broadcasting of seed and fertilizer (Johansen et al., 2012). Increasing the power supply { Streambank cultivation is causing rivers to dry up fast, thus to agriculture means that more tasks can be completed at depriving livestock of their water sources. the right time and larger areas can be farmed to produce { ALL members indicated that they lack knowledge or larger quantities of crops while conserving natural resources information on identified value chains, production, (https://www.fao.org/sustainable-agricultural-mechanization/ appropriate use of natural resources, and suitable seed overview/why-mechanization-is-important/en/). varieties. Push-pull/integrated pest management Economic constraints Push-pull involves intercropping cereal crops with insect- { Communities don’t have access to a diversified input and repellent legumes in the Desmodium genus and planting output market for the targeted value chains. an attractive forage plant such as Napier grass as a border around this intercrop. Push-pull has recently been adapted To address these challenges, the following interventions to drier areas by incorporating drought-tolerant companion have been identified as entry points to test agroecological plants: greenleaf Desmodium as an intercrop and Brachiaria innovations of interest based on the knowledge gaps. cv. Mulato as a border crop. Push-pull also controls maize ear Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 38 rots and mycotoxins, thus improving soil health and providing Haymaking high-quality fodder since the companion crops are superior In Zimbabwe, the feed-related factors that limit productivity forages; therefore, the technology facilitates crop-livestock vary at different times of the year. Early in the dry season, integration (http://www.icipe.org/news/icipe-push-pull- feed quality deteriorates, followed by a decrease in quantity technology-halts-fall-armyworm-rampage). According to due to high-density grazing. In the dry season, the grass Guera et al. ( 2021), in addition to controlling pests and in Zimbabwe deteriorates in quality to less than 3% crude weeds, push-pull improves the soil, allows the production of protein. The severity of undernutrition worsens during other resources (forage), and doubles maize yield. Additional drought, an integral part of southern African farming systems. uses of push-pull for another dimension makes it an attractive Developments in feeding strategy are necessary to overcome agroecological management method and not just one of pest this constraint (https://www.fao.org/3/AC152E/AC152E07. control. htm). Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) is one of the herbaceous legumes that can be incorporated within the smallholder Seed fairs farming sector to improve ruminant animal production Seed fairs are a special type of agricultural show whereby during the dry season (http://www.lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd14/4/ a temporary market is set up so that small-scale farmers mupa144.htm). Mupangwa et al. (2006) assert that improved can obtain good-quality seeds and seed companies can grasses show great potential to alleviate the problem of showcase their different varieties. They aim to promote the feed shortages during the dry season. Improved grasses are development of a seed market for stress-tolerant varieties usually bulky and high-yielding crops with high residual soil by forming partnerships with primary seed suppliers, who fertility, use capacity, and broad environmental adaptation. can provide information on types of crop varieties, their management requirements, amount of yields, and associated Feed formulation risks (https://bit.ly/41hdyLR). Community seed fairs allow Formulating diets with the appropriate contents of minerals farmers to exchange knowledge and experiences on the old and amino acids can help improve dietary protein and energy and new crops they grow and to generate information about efficiency and decrease nutrient losses (https://academic. local-level seed production capacity. The fairs also enable oup.com/jas/article/100/Supplement_3/124/6709425). the trading, exchange, and sharing of propagation material Feed formulation is the tool to value any raw material or feed among farmers and the creation of market linkages (http:// additive to support performance and to meet sustainability www.farmersrights.org/bestpractices/success_benefit- challenges (https://www.feedchannel.online/formulation- sharing_2.html). 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(2012). Farming perceptions and political ecology: Factors influencing changes does not necessarily conflict with tree diversity in the mid-Zambezi in pesticide use over 30 years by Zimbabwean smallholder cotton valley, Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems, 84(2), 299–309. producers. PLOS ONE, 13(5), e0196901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-011-9467-3 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196901 Thompson, J., & Purves, W. (1978). A guide to the soils of Zimbabwe. Technical Handbook No. 3. Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal. December 2023 | 41 David Brazier/IWMI December 2023 | 43 IMPLEMENTED BY CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.org We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders To learn more about this Initiative, please visit https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/agroecology/ To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio © 2023 CGIAR System Organization. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-NC 4.0). | | |