Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India R. Rengalakshmi | Ranjitha Puskur | C. M. Pratheepa R. Gopinath | Suchaita Tenneti | Allan Bomuhangi January 2024 RESEARCH REPORT This study was commissioned as part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) - Seed Equal Initiative and funded by International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and jointly carried out by M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) and IRRI. The CGIAR Research Initiative Seed Equal aims to support the delivery of seed of improved, climate-resilient, market-preferred and nutritious varieties of priority crops, embodying a high rate of genetic gain to farmers, ensuring equitable access for women and other disadvantaged groups. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is dedicated to abolishing poverty and hunger among people and populations that depend on rice-based agri-food systems. IRRI aims to improve the health and welfare of rice farmers and consumers; promote environmental sustainability in a world challenged by climate change; and support the empowerment of women and the youth in the rice industry. The M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) is a non-profit non-political Trust established in 1989 committed to harnessing science and technology for environmentally sustainable and socially equitable development embracing a pro-poor, pro-women and pro-nature approach. Suggested Citation: Rengalakshmi. R., Puskur. R., Pratheepa. C.M., Gopinath.R., Tenneti.S and Bomuhangi.A. (2024). Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender inclusive Development in India. M S Swaminathan Research Foundation and International Rice Research Institute. Research Report, MSSRF-IRRI Research Report 2024-001, India. MSSRF and IRRI Research Report - 2024-001 Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender inclusive Development in India. R. Rengalakshmi, Director, Ecotechnology, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India. Email: rengalakshmi@mssrf.res.in Ranjitha Puskur, Principal Scientist-Gender and Livelihoods, Module Leader-Evidence, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform, Sustainable Impact Department, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Email: r.puskur@irri.org C. M. Pratheepa, Senior Scientist, Ecotechnology, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India. Email: pratheepa@mssrf.res.in R. Gopinath, Principal Scientist, Ecotechnology, M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India. Email: gopi@mssrf.res.in Suchaita Tenneti, Associate Scientist: Gender Research, IRRI. Email: s.tenneti@irri.org Allan Bomuhangi, Scientist, Gender and Social Research at International Rice Research Institute. Uganda. Email: allan.b@irri.org January 2024 Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India R. Rengalakshmi | Ranjitha Puskur | C. M. Pratheepa R. Gopinath | Suchaita Tenneti | Allan Bomuhangi RESEARCH REPORT This research was undertaken jointly by M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) as part of the CGIAR SEED EQUAL initiative. We sincerely thank CGIAR Seed Equal Initiative for providing this opportunity to study the Community Seed Banks which is one of the important platforms community based, farmer managed seed systems. It marks a significant contribution to CGIAR and MSSRF’s work on improving the functioning of Community Seed Banks with a gender dimension. We express our heartfelt thanks to Ms Bhagyalakshmi and team from WASSAN for their inputs and guidance on linking with Community Seed Banks from their network. Our sincere appreciation and gratitude to all the NGO leaders and members of the Community Seed Banks for sharing their experiences and relevant contents as part of the study; Mr Mohan and Ms Chandra of CIRHEP, Nilakottai, Mr Sureshkanna of Kudumbam, Trichy, Dr.Isreal Oliver King, MSSRF, Kolli Hills and Mr. Ranganathan, TEDE Trust, Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu, Ms.Sangeetha, Srushtidnyan, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, Ms Usha, Thanal network, Trivandram, Kerala, Rtn. M.V.N.Rao, Acknowledgements Gram Vikas Trust, Kolar district, Karnataka, officers of Goa State Biodiversity Board, Saligao, Goa, Mr.Prashant Parida and Akshaya Kumar Panda, MSSRF, Koraput, Odisha and Mr. Keshav Dhuri of Cohesion Foundation Trust, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Most importantly, the study team is immensely indebted to women and men farmers from the respective CSBs for giving their valuable time and sharing their experiences and without their support the insights and new learnings would not have been possible. We also thank Dr. Gayatri Venkataramanan, Dr L Vedavalli and Ms Akshaya from MSSRF to meticulously reading the drafts and providing inputs to strengthen it. Finally, the team extend our gratitude and sincere thanks to all the members for their valuable inputs in different parts of this study. Executive Summary iii 1. Introduction 1 2. Methodology 2 2.1. Mapping CSBs and literature review 2 2.2. Profile of the CSBs identified in India 3 2.3. In-depth case studies of select CSBs 4 3. Analysis of CSBs 7 3.1. Context of CSBs 7 3.2. Strategies adopted to fulfil CSB goals 9 3.3. Governance structure and operations of the CSBs 14 3.4. Building capacities to manage the seed banks 17 3.5. Inclusion of women and tribal communities 19 3.6. Gender and CSBs 20 3.7. Effective communication and branding 21 3.8. Conducive policy and legal environment 23 3.9. Impact of the CSBs 24 3.10. Important challenges faced by CSBs 25 4. Conclusion 27 Recommendations 30 References Annexure 1. Community Seed Banks across India as of May 2023. 35 Annexure 2. Other sources referred to for the study. 47 Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study 3 Table 2. The number of CSBs in 24 States in India (as of May 2023) and the crops they cover. 3 Table 3. Profiles of the CSBs chosen for an in-depth analysis. 5 Table 4. Diverse goals of different CSBs. 8 Table 5. Key strategies adopted by promoting organizations to fulfil the objectives of the CSBs. 9 Table 6. CSBs adopting seed exchange as a practice to provide access to seeds. 15 Table 7. CSBs adopting a price-based model. 16 Table 8. Key capacity building strategies adopted by a few CSBs. 17 Table 9. Inclusion of women and tribal communities in CSBs. 19 Table 10. CSBs among tribal communities. 19 Table 11. Communication/dissemination strategies of CSBs. 22 Table 12. Specific impacts of the different CSBs 24 Figure 1. Flow chart of the systematic screening process. 2 Figure 2. Evolution of informal seed systems. 26 Box 1. Key terms used for the search. 2 Box 2. Traditional seed management practices in Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu. 7 Box 3. Impact of CSBs on women. 17 List of Figures and Boxes i CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CSB Community Seed Bank DUS Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability FPO Farmer Producer Organization HYV High Yielding Varieties IPR Intellectual Property Rights IRRI International Rice Research Institute MSSRF M S Swaminathan Research Foundation NBA National Biodiversity Authority NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources NGO Non-Governmental Organizations PPVFR Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses SHG Self Help Group VSB Village Seed Bank ACRONYMS ii Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 8 The formal seed system in India mainly includes seeds of notified varieties and important crops, predominantly produced for markets. However, it faces challenges in meeting the diverse crop and varietal needs of small and women farmers in marginal agroecosystems. Most importantly, formal seed systems have less space for women to access preferred varieties, knowledge, market potential, and institutional linkages due to exist- ing gender norms. Women have also not been actively participating and making decisions on the use of improved varieties in food systems. They largely depend on informal seed systems to access seeds. However, with changing agrarian relations and structures, informal seed systems face challenges in ensuring equitable access to traditional and community-preferred landraces or varieties from informal social networks, con- nections, and exchanges. At the field level, these changes adversely impact women and marginal farmers’ access to preferred crops and varieties/ landraces, gender relations, food and nutrition security, dietary diversity, food systems resilience, and livelihoods. Against this backdrop, the Com- munity Seed Banks (CSB) model has evolved as an important component in the informal seed system to ensure access to traditional varieties of different crops, specifically neglected and un- der-utilized crop species. A detailed study was carried out to understand the significance of the CSBs, their operational processes, and challenges from the gender and social inclusion perspectives. It delved into the status and characteristics of CSBs in terms of their objectives, activities, functioning, governance structures, impacts, and challenges, aiming to understand their potential in the face of chang- ing agrarian landscapes and climate-induced stresses. The research methodology combined a comprehensive literature review with primary data collection. The study mapped 144 CSBs that have been functioning for at least five years until 2021. Of these, 54% were accessed primarily by women Executive Summary and 46% by both women and men. Predominantly, a higher proportion of the CSBs focus on tradi- tional paddy and millets, combined with pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables to a small extent. The main promoters of the CSBs are Non-Govern- mental Organizations (NGOs). In the recent past, government and research organizations with an interest in conservation have also been engaged in facilitating CSBs. The main goal of CSBs is to enable equitable ac- cess to seeds of locally adapted varieties/land- races which have less market value to the public and are not included in formal seed systems. Till recently, notified high-yielding varieties were also included in CSBs to improve the use of quality seeds and varietal replacement. The CSBs were established with the multiple objectives of on- farm conservation, ensuring the livelihoods and income of farmers, promoting sustainable/organic production systems with farm-level crop diversity, promoting cooperation among farmers in culti- vating traditional crops and varieties in marginal agro-ecologies, and enhancing seed and varietal replacement rates. The study revealed that CSBs follow multiple and context-specific strategies to achieve equitable seed access to marginalized farmers, such as strengthening farmers’ networks to share knowl- edge and seed resources, raising awareness of farmers' rights, organizing community seed fairs/ festivals, building skills of farmers in seed produc- tion and management, forging institutional part- nerships, and bundling the service of seed access with other services. Also, the study highlighted the importance of mainstreaming the functions of CSBs with the group/collective approach in order to harness social capital for their effective func- tioning and ensure their sustainability in the long run. Governance and operational processes a. The predominant governance structures of the CSBs were either group-based (Self-Help iii Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 9 Group - SHG) or farmer collective (Farmer Producer Organization - FPO) models em- bedded with seed saver/user networks in 142 CSBs. Only two CSBs have adopted the nod- al/individual farmer approach. The study also captured the transformation in governance structure of a few CSBs from group-based to individual-based approach, each with differ- ent strategies. This has implications on gender dimensions; women face challenges in oper- ating independently while men quickly adopt this approach. b. Almost 60% of the seed banks are governed by women’s groups while 40% have both men and women members in the committees. The CSBs promoted by many NGOs have adopt- ed pro-women and collective approaches as part of management guidelines; this is missing in CSBs promoted by government and re- search institutions. c. Of the 144 CSBs mapped, 45% are vil- lage-centric, with operations confined to farmers within the village and 55% operate in a cluster of villages. d. The CSBs largely operate on either seed exchange or price-based models. Seed exchange is a common practice for locally adapted varieties, wherein seeds borrowed are returned with double the quantity after harvest. It promotes agro-biodiversity. The model is predominantly followed by women farmers and covers varieties and crop species that are less economically important, largely used for household consumption, and have less marketable surplus. In the fixed-price models, seeds are transacted for a cost which is 5-10% less than that in the open market. This is common for high-yielding varieties or those with high market value. These models were largely adopted by male farmers, and mainly for varieties and crop species of com- mercial and economic importance focussing on the market. Of the two models, the seed exchange model mainly depends on social networks to borrow and return seed. The CSBs adopted multiple capacity-building strategies to boost their knowledge and skills in seed production, handling, and bank operations. This provided an opportunity for women to gain new knowledge, skills, and to take a lead in seed management. The modules covered seed quality standards, testing protocols, storage methods, fa- cilitation, and negotiation skills that were gained as members of the committee. Women farmers consider the CSB as a social hub in the village that provides them a platform to meet and exchange knowledge, besides seeds. Otherwise, in the changing socio-economic con- text, the space for social networks for women is shrinking in rural areas. Such interactions have al- most vanished, and due to their workload, women tend to come back early from such events. The CSBs were mostly promoted in marginalized areas with a greater focus on rural women and tribal communities. In specific cases, the unique knowl- edge of tribal communities was integrated into the operations of the CSBs. The studies from the literature review have not explicitly mentioned the gender dimensions and social inclusion of the intervention process as well as its impacts and challenges. However, the operational geography comprises largely margin- alized agroecosystems covering rainfed, coastal and remote hill landscapes, where women play a key role in food systems. The crops and variet- ies cultivated and conserved by them are mostly underutilized and neglected by mainstream seed systems; they function solely based on informal seed systems. Interaction with CSBs revealed that women farmers adhere to the terms and condi- tions of the CSBs more carefully than men farmers in the Kudumbam, Gram Vikas, CIRHEP and Kora- put CSBs. Also, they prefer the exchange model to access seeds that come without a financial com- mitment as it helps them start sowing operations without depending on men. Given the social norm of restricted mobility, interactions with men out- side the family, and access to finance to purchase seeds, women find CSB services useful. The discussions and secondary sources revealed two different strategies being adopted by the CSBs. The first one is regularly organizing com- munity seed fairs/festivals which help farmers to come together, discuss, and borrow/return seeds of preferred varieties. The second strate- gy is embedding or mainstreaming with the SHG federation/FPOs. In addition, horizontal social networks connected through individual visits, group meetings, and workspaces as a community iv Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 10 labor-sharing practice (common among women in tribal and geographically isolated landscapes) (CIRHEP, Gram Vikas, TEDE Trust, Kudumbam, Shrustidnyan, Kolli Hills and Koraput CSBs). Wom- en prefer these informal networks and channels to receive information, knowledge, and seeds. Men avail of the initial support and then establish their own social networks through mobile phones, agro-input dealers, agriculture extension centres, group meetings, and meetings at NGOs. Although there are several policies governing seeds, there are no specific guidelines and sup- port for CSBs under the Seed Act of the Govern- ment of India. Only, it has made provisions under disaster management guidelines to establish seed banks with notified varieties to ensure quick access. From the Farmer’s Rights perspective, the enactment of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPVFR) Act 2001 enables CSBs to guide and link with farmers. The CSBs also act as a platform to facilitate farmers' rights by following either the ownership (intellectual property rights and claiming benefit sharing) or stewardship approach (recognizing the contribution of farmers in the innovation of crop genetic resources and documenting crop varieties in biodiversity regis- ters). However, from the discussions with CSBs, it is evident that the promoting organizations do not have adequate knowledge and access to re- sources related to the PPVFR Act and the National Biodiversity Act. Besides their core functions, CSBs support the firming up of agroecological princi- ples (through mixed farming, intercropping, and sustainable/organic production practices) and livelihoods for better food and nutrition security. CSBs are a platform to build the value chain and link it with markets, revive social networks, promote leadership and the agency of women as guard- ians of seeds/ seed mothers, reduce inequalities, and promote innovative social enterprises for improved food security and livelihoods. The CSBs, established over the past three decades, serve as effective tools to strengthen local seed sys- tems and empower women farmers by providing access to productive resources, knowledge, skills, and institutional linkages. Some key challenges the CSBs face are as follows: • Although they are institutionalized through SHG federations/FPOs, continuous nurturing of social capital among the members remains a challenge. • Building and promoting the organization’s capacity to characterize varieties according to Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) standards and registering them under the PPVFR Act requires attention to recognize their due contribution. This empowers CSBs to claim ownership of unique landraces/varieties and necessitates adopting a gendered ap- proach to document and recognize women's contributions. • Seed policies of the Government of India have not recognized CSBs as a community-based institution; a formal recognition will motivate such sources. In the context of the increasing push for organic or natural farming by several states, the demand for traditional varieties/landraces/locally adapt- ed notified varieties is expected to increase. As local seed systems predominantly involve crops of women's preference, formalizing and scaling up CSBs in special mission-based projects, such as millet missions, natural farming and organic farming, is crucial to ensure access and control over seed resources by women and marginalized farming communities. v Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 1 Community Seed Banks (CSBs) are a village-level decentralized, informal collection of seeds of lo- cally adapted landraces/cultivars/traditional va- rieties that are stored, preserved, and managed by local communities. Farm-saved seeds and sharing seeds at the community level have been traditional practices in India that ensure equitable access to seeds for all. Such systems are infor- mally managed through a gendered network and institutions with self-evolved norms and practices. However, these community-level practices have been on the verge of disappearing due to the introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) and the push for formal seed systems coupled with changes in agroecology and agrarian relations, especially social and gender relations in pro- ductive roles. These changes have led to deeper and adverse impacts on local crop/plant genetic resources, community-led practices and institu- tions, associated traditional knowledge, and most importantly, livelihoods, food and nutrition securi- ty, and gender relations. In the past three decades, there have been efforts to systematically revive community seed-saving systems aimed at conserving, restoring, revi- talizing, and strengthening local seed systems, resources, institutions, and practices. In general, community seed-saving and exchange networks prioritize traditional varieties/landraces that are not part of formal seed systems. Despite women’s contribution to informal seed systems, prevailing gender norms reinforce inequalities and influence women’s access to seeds and their effective par- ticipation in the production sphere (Puskur et al. 2021). The community-based seed saving system is also referred to as community seed system/ bank, farmer seed bank/hut, community seed reserve, village seed bank, etc. In this project, we refer to it as Community Seed Bank (CSB). CSBs are established and managed by local farmer groups with the technical and managerial sup- port of community-based organizations (CBOs), research institutions, and NGOs, depending on the context. Although a lot of work has been done on CSBs at the field level, there are very few research studies that have been peer-reviewed. However, vast grey literature is available about them. The CSBs differ in terms of their scope, size, governance structure, management style, gender dimensions, infrastructure created/available, and technical aspects that they handle, such as seed selec- tion, storage, conservation, and documentation. Despite changes in seed systems over the years due to the change in local cropping patterns and social relations and institutions that govern land ownership and production, there is no systemat- ic study to understand the status of communi- ty-based farmer-led or farmer-managed seed banks in India with its potential to reach out to women farmers to ensure food and nutrition security and facilitate income-generating oppor- tunities. Besides, CSBs have evolved as a major institutional form in the informal seed systems space. This study fills these gaps and aims to: a. Map the CSBs in India through a literature review and secondary sources, taking previ- ous mappings as points of departure; analyze their scope of work and functions with a focus on their engagement with women and other vulnerable groups of smallholder farmers and their ability to reach these groups with timely availability of affordable and quality seed. b. Select a few CSBs for an in-depth study of their contribution to food and nutrition securi- ty and improved livelihoods in light of climate change-induced stresses and threats, with a particular focus on women and other vulnera- ble groups. c. Identify factors that influence the ability of these CSBs’ to contribute to improved access to good quality seed to women and other vulnerable groups, based on the case studies. 1. Introduction Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 2 Figure 1. Flow chart of the systematic screening process. The study applied a combination of keywords relating to the search on CSBs (Box 1). Each set of terms was applied to specify the country name India. The study used both online resources (Annexure 2) as well as the MSSRF library which has a rich collection of publications on CSBs. 2. Methodology KEY TERMS USED FOR THE SEARCHBOX 1 The key terms used for the search were: “Community Seed banks”, “Seed Banks”, “Seed conservation”, “Traditional seed conservation”, “Community seed conservation in hilly areas”, “Indigenous seed conservation methods”, “Village Seed conservation methods ”, “Seed conservation of traditional varieties”, “Conservation of seed varieties in millets”, “Community- based indigenous seed conservation”, “Informal seed system”, ”Local seed system”, “Seed exchange” “Seed sharing”, and “women and vulnerable farmers managing CSBs”. Web of Science (n = 510) Scopus (n = 65) PubMed (n = 330) Google Scholar (n = 1092) Records screened (n = 40)Identification Eligibility Screening Included Full text articles assessed (n = 36 ) Records after duplicates removed (n = 36) Abstracts screened (n =36) Articles and 15 Reports included (n =15) Reports (n = 26) Identified duplicate articles and excluded them Excluded, irrelevant from title screening Included articles that have focused only on community seed bank studies in India 2.1. Mapping CSBs and literature review The systematic process of identifying and listing CSBs in India was done using databases such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and grey literature from various digital sources (Figure 1). These databases hold a wide range of peer-reviewed literature, research reports, policy notes, working papers, conference papers, and case studies. Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 3 The keywords “seed bank” yielded other related keywords including “village seed bank” and “seed con- servation” in combination with “seed banks”. The process adopted the inclusion criteria (Table 1). 2.2) Profiles of the CSBs identified in India The mapping exercise recorded through secondary sources identified 144 CSBs that are functioning across 24 states. These are facilitated by 93 community-based organizations in India. The state-wise number of CSBs is listed in Table 2. All the 40 articles identified were imported into Endnote software and duplicate articles were excluded. Following the initial title screening, 36 articles and 15 Reports (reports, books, and scientific papers) were identified, including 15 peer-reviewed articles. Then the shortlisted titles, abstracts, and key contents were screened carefully (as per Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines). All the identified articles were used to map the CSBs and prepare a profile of CSBs in India. Also, the peer-reviewed articles were analyzed to understand the CSB profile and their charac- teristics. Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study. Table 2. The number of CSBs in 24 States in India (as of May 2023) and the crops they cover. Criterion Inclusion Exclusion Geographic location Indian articles Non-Indian studies Language English Any other language Type of publication Articles available online and MSSRF library source Other unknown sources Participants Both men and women farmers, vulnera- ble groups – ST and SC communities - Time/period Articles published till May 2023 Articles published after May 2023 Relevance All relevant content as per keywords, peer-reviewed articles, and grey liter- ature Similar content under different titles and years of publications Tool kits and manuals on CSBs State Number of CSBs Crop Andhra Pradesh 24 Millets, pulses, paddy, vegetables, oilseeds, and cash crops Telangana 21 Paddy, wheat, millets, pulses, and cash crops Madhya Pradesh 12 Paddy, wheat, millets, pulses, oilseeds, and cash crops Gujarat 9 Paddy, wheat, millet, maize, pulses, and cash crops Odisha 9 Paddy, millets, vegetables, and cash crops Karnataka 8 Millets Maharashtra 8 Paddy, wheat, millets, and pulses Tamil Nadu 8 Paddy and millets Uttar Pradesh 8 Pulses, wheat, oilseeds, and cash crops Chhattisgarh 5 Paddy and pulses Jharkhand 5 Paddy, pulses, and oilseeds Rajasthan 5 Wheat, millets, and pulses Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 4 A basic profile of the CSBs was compiled from the respective articles, websites, phone calls, and emails. The profiles cover the crops the CSB is associated with, the kind of seed exchange/sale practiced, and the main users of the bank (An- nexure 1). Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Madhya Pradesh have the highest number of CSBs. It was ob- served that the CSBs have been established not only for traditional varieties but also to promote high-yielding and improved varieties. However, the proportion of such CSBs is limited. The type of crops stored in CSBs covered cereals, particularly paddy, millets, pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables. Among cereals, paddy was the dominant one, with a focus on locally-adapted varieties/landra- ces. Only in a couple of cases were high-yielding varieties of wheat and paddy included. In the recent past, apart from CBOs, government agen- cies (in Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland) too have been promoting CSBs intending to pro- mote on-farm conservation of traditional varieties of main crops. State Number of CSBs Crop Kerala 3 Paddy Uttarakhand 3 Paddy, millets, legumes, vegetables, and oilseeds West Bengal 3 Traditional paddy, vegetables, and pulses Arunachal Pradesh 2 Paddy Assam 2 Paddy, pulses, vegetables, and cash crops Bihar 2 Paddy Tripura 2 Paddy, maize, vegetables, and cash crops Goa 1 Paddy and vegetables Himachal Pradesh 1 Barley and millets Meghalaya 1 Traditional paddy, maize, millets, and pulses Mizoram 1 Cash crops Nagaland 1 Paddy and vegetables Source: MSSRF 2023 2.3. In-depth case studies of select CSBs The mapping exercise identified 144 CSBs across India. The mapping also revealed that a signif- icant number of them were closed or stopped functioning within a few years of commencing operations. Hence, the following criteria were followed to select 10 CSBs (Table 3) for in-depth case studies: a. Those that have been functioning for at least five years as of 2021; b. Those from vulnerable agroecosystems such as coastal, hilly, and rainfed regions as well as those working in a range of crops and crop varieties within these regions; and c. Those with diverse operations and gover- nance structures. Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 5 Table 3. Profiles of the CSBs chosen for an in-depth analysis. S. no. Name of the CSB Location Agroe- co-system Crop focus Operational structure Promoting organiza- tion Focus com- muni- ty 1 Amman Women SHG – Community Seed Bank, CIRHEP Pudur, Nilakottai, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu Semi-arid system - rainfed Sorghum and green gram landraces Women SHG promoted by CIRHEP NGO Rural 2 Community Seed Bank for Paddy in Goa Biodi- versity Board Curtorim and Bando- ra villages, North Goa district, Goa Coastal systems Tradition- al paddy varieties Bank manage- ment commit- tee (BMC), from farmer groups supported by Goa Biodiversity Board - men Govern- ment insti- tution Rural 3 CSB Gram Vikas Kuubara- halli, Malla- nayakana- halli Gram Panchayat, Kolar dis- trict, Karna- taka Semi-arid system - rainfed Tradition- al paddy varieties and fin- ger millet Seed bank man- agement com- mittee of women farmers group, supported by Gram Vikas Tribal 4 CSB TEDE Trust Thiruporur, Kancheep- uram district and Palai- yur, Nagap- patinam district, Tamil Nadu Coastal system - irrigated Tradition- al paddy varieties Started with a CSB manage- ment committee – men farmers group and later changed to in- dividual farmers, supported by TEDE trust NGO Rural 5 CSB Kudumbam Keeranur, Pudukot- tai district, Tamil Nadu Semi-ar- id system - rainfed and irri- gated Tradition- al paddy varieties and kodo millet Started as a CSB and changed to men and women custodian farm- ers, supported by Kudumbam NGO Rural 6 CSB Cohe- sion Foun- dation Vansda, Navsa- ri district, Gujarat Hilly region Tradition- al paddy varieties, pulses, and veg- etables Bank manage- ment committee – women sup- ported by Ujas Mahila Khedut Sangthan of Cohesion Foun- dation Trust NGO Rural and tribal Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 6 7 Seed net- work, Thanal Thiruva- nanthapu- ram and Wayanad districts, Kerala Hilly region Tradi- tional varieties of paddy and veg- etables Men and women farmers - cus- todian farmers supported by regional-level community seed banks managed by Thanal NGO Tribal and rural 8 CSBs – Kolli Hills, MSSRF Alathru- anpatti, Kolli Hills, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu Hilly region Tradi- tional landraces of small millets Seed bank man- agement com- mittee – women SHGs NGO Tribal 9 CSB Kora- put, MSSRF Boiparigu- da block, Koraput, Odisha Hilly region Tradition- al paddy and fin- ger millet landraces Seed bank man- agement com- mittee – women FPO NGO Tribal 10 CSB Srusht- idnyan Ratnagiri, Maharash- tra Hilly region Tradition- al paddy and fin- ger millet landraces Seed bank man- agement com- mittee – farmer interest group – women NGO Tribal and rural Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 7 3.1. Context of CSBs Numerous stakeholders are involved in seed production and distribution, including individual farming households (men and women farmers), farmer networks, community-based producers, local traders, government institutions, research institutions, and private seed companies. Seed networks are classified as formal, informal, and integrated seed systems (Reddy et al. 2010). The formal seed system has a clear supply chain and seeds of notified varieties and crops are pre- dominantly focused on the market. However, it has limitations in meeting the diverse needs of small farmers in remote rural areas and is highly centralized at the state level. Most importantly, women have less space to access knowledge on different varieties and their characteristics, market potential, and price and have limited institutional linkages. The informal seed system is farmer-centric, loca- tion-specific, and has evolved based on the com- munity’s specific seed requirements. It includes the way farmers produce, store, and access seeds from their harvest and exchange them among community members either through informal net- works or in the local markets. It serves as the main source of seed for small and marginal farmers, especially women, that can be accessed directly from their harvest or through local networks or community-based sources. The system is char- acterized by its flexibility to access preferred and locally-adapted traditional varieties or landraces. The seed quality is governed by trust-based cer- tification and locally evolved information channels are used to access and exchange seed. In the recent past, the system has changed. The main issue is the difficulty in accessing traditional and community-preferred landraces or varieties from informal social networks, connections, and ex- changes. These informal seed networks have bro- ken and operated with a shorter node, adversely impacting gender relations, food and nutrition security, and livelihoods of marginalized farming communities. The case in Box 2 clearly explains the importance of the horizontal seed network in ensuring access to seeds and its operational norms, women’s leadership in the network, and the context in which CSBs evolved. 3. Analysis of CSBs TRADITIONAL SEED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN KOLLI HILLS, TAMIL NADUBOX 2 Kolli Hills is inhabited by Malayali tribal communities that predominantly cultivate three species of small millets in both mid- and upper slopes under rainfed conditions. The farmers rely on their own source of seed. At the household level, it is the primary responsibility of the women to en- sure seed availability for the next sowing. They usually store five times the quantity of their seed requirement. After sowing in the current season, women keep a part of the excess seed as buffer stock for the next season, foreseeing the risk of crop failure in this vulnerable rainfed system. In addition, they share seeds with needy farmers; the terms and conditions for these transactions have evolved and been institutionalized at the societal level. Malayali farmers have informally recognized certain farmers as ‘seed savers’, and evolved a trust-based horizontal seed network among them, mainly based on kinship and neighborhood networking, and self-evolved to facil- itate and ensure seed availability to all the farmers. Sometimes, they exchange seeds based on their agronomic and genetic purity. The network function is governed by local norms and ethics and exchange takes place without cash transactions. The current governance structure is a CSB management committee with a president and treasurer selected by the farmer groups them- selves. Women play a dominant role in exchange networks by sharing information, which is the Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 8 Over the last three decades, CSBs have evolved into local institutions that are mostly informal, governed and managed by the local communi- ty, and functioning based on banking principles. Their main goal is to enable equitable access to seeds of locally adapted varieties/landraces to men and women farmers where existing social networks and cropping systems are undergoing changes. In the recent past, a few CSBs evolved to promote the use of notified varieties to improve seed and varietal replacement rates. Besides, CSBs have been upgraded with additional func- tions that are context-specific and in the interest of the promoting organizations. Table 4 clearly demonstrates the multiple objectives of the CSBs. Table 4. Profiles of the CSBs chosen for an in-depth analysis. Main goal Reference Maintain seeds of locally-adapted varieties/landraces, manage crop genetic re- sources, ensure timely access and availability of seeds, and empower farmers to advocate for themselves. Vernooy et al. 2014; 2021; 2022 Enable the continued use of indigenous knowledge in crop genetic resources man- agement for seed selection, treatment, storage, multiplication, and distribution. Vernooy et al. 2015 Some activities have been upscaled to provide additional services to farmers and a few CSBs have graduated to Farmer Producer Organizations. Vernooy et al. 2020 base for the network operation and its sustenance. Women ensure seed quality while lending and take the responsibility of returning 1 ½ to 2 times the borrowed quantity after harvest. Fellow farmers trust the neighborhood certification of seed quality in terms of its vigor and germination percentage. If the harvest is affected in a particular season, the borrowed amount can be re- turned after the subsequent harvest, in which case the borrower has to return three to four times the seed borrowed. Women set the norms in the exchange process and normally exchange takes place for products having equal value. For example, samai (little millet) or thinai (foxtail millet) are not exchanged for paddy because after threshing paddy has nearly 60% of edible portion while in the case of samai and thinai, after dehusking they have around 75% of edible portion. Similarly, they never exchange products which require energy and labor for processing before being converted into useful products. For instance, even among Italian millet landraces, killanthinai is not transacted for koranthinai because the former needs less energy for pounding than the latter. This shows the intrinsic knowledge women have of the different landraces of small millet species. Usually, farmers exchange seeds due to seed scarcity that occurs due to a poor harvest or lack of rain- fall. Also, they exchange germplasm with other farmers if the seeds are not true to type or mixed with other landraces of the same crop. Thus, in addition to farmers’ sources, the local seed ex- change network ensures seed availability within the community. However in the late 1990s, small millets were on the verge of disappearing and the cropping pattern shifted towards cash crops, with a steep decline in the area under small millets. At this point, due to the ineffective horizontal social seed network, the farmers interested in growing millets are facing challenges in accessing preferred seeds of landraces. Focus group discussions and participant observations during 1999-98 as part of reviving small millet cultivation came out with a strategy of forming a community-based infrastructure to ensure equal access to seeds (seed is considered a common property resource by tribal farmers), leading to the formation of the CSB. (Source: Rengalakshmi and Vedavalli 2022) Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 9 The core activities of the CSBs include mapping traditional crops and varieties, collecting seeds, raising awareness among farmers, organizing community seed fairs, facilitating quality seed production, aggregating seeds for the bank, and exchanging seed with needy farmers. In the process, it operates with utmost transparency and social responsibility and fosters trust among farmers in the communities. 3.2. Strategies adopted to fulfil CBS goals Though the objectives of CSBs vary depend- ing on the location, the common objectives are to improve local seed systems for major, minor, and neglected crops for better crop production, and food and nutrition security; conserve valu- able plant genetic resources; and strengthen cooperation among farmers and others involved in agro-biodiversity conservation and improve their livelihoods. The strategies largely focus on strengthening the network among farmers to share knowledge and seed resources, raising awareness of farmers' rights, building skills of farmers in seed production and management, forging institutional partnerships, and bundling the service of seed access with other services. The in-depth case studies showed that at the grassroots level, multiple strategies were followed to promote CSBs among men and women farmers that are highly context-specific. Most important- ly, almost all the CSBs studied adopted main- streaming with the group approach to harness social capital for effective functioning and ensur- ing sustainability in the long run (Table 5). Main goal Reference Enable a strong social network and foster trust between fellow farmers in the com- munity, as well as establish social hubs to serve as a platform for women farmers to meet and exchange knowledge, besides seeds. Reddy et al. 2010; Vernooy et al. 2020 Restore the cultivation of traditional landraces and crop genetic resources, facili- tate easy access to seeds, revive traditional agricultural practices, and ensure food and nutritional security, besides facilitating the awareness of farmers’ rights (Kolli Hills CSB, Tamil Nadu and CSB, Koraput, Odisha). Case study Encourage sustainable agriculture/organic agricultural practices to ensure food and nutritional security along with the conservation of natural resources/ecosys- tem, on-farm cultivation of traditional landraces, and promote local consumption (CIRHEP, CBS Kudumbam and TEDE Trust CSB, Tamil Nadu and Shrustidnyan CSB, Maharashtra). Case study Promote on-farm conservation of traditional landraces/varieties (Goa-based CSB) Case study Facilitate the cultivation of paddy landraces to sustain paddy cultivation and en- sure the conservation of paddy wetlands (Thanal CSB) Case study Revive and safeguard local agro-biodiversity by encouraging traditional agricul- tural practices (Gram Vikas CSB, Karnataka) Case study Table 5. Key strategies adopted by promoting organizations to fulfil the objectives of the CSBs. Sl. no. Name of the CSB Core objectives Specific strategies 1 Kolli Hills (Tam- il Nadu) and Koraput, Odisha (King et al. 2015). On-farm conservation of indigenous crop diversity and building resilience among tribal farmers. ● Adopted the 4C approach (Conservation, Cultivation, Consumption and Commerce) Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 10 1 https://www.navdanya.org/living-seed/navdanya-seed-banks 2 Dwivedi S. 2022. Community Seed Bank Initiative Traces & Revives Heritage Rice Varieties in Tamil Nadu, https://krishijagran.com/ agriculture-world/community-seed-bank-initiative-traces-revives-heritage-rice-varieties-in-tamil-nadu/, Sep 2022. Sl. no. Name of the CSB Core objectives Specific strategies 2 Navdanya1 Promote a large network of CSBs across several states and advocate the on-farm conservation of agrobiodiversity through seeds of locally-adapt- ed landraces/varieties ● Building farmer skills in sustainable cultiva- tion practices ● Strengthening networks among farmers through CSBs ● Promoting self-reliance among farmers for seed access ● Raising awareness on farmers’ rights 3 Telangana (Reddy et al. 2006; 2010) Establish alternative informal systems that are reliable for the timely supply of seed of notified varieties at affordable prices and quality ● Integrating informal seed production as enterprise in the regular cropping systems 4 Madhya Pradesh (Vernooy et al. 2020) Provide timely access to seeds of locally suitable varieties and the sus- tainable management of crop genetic resources ● Building farmers’ resilience in seed produc- tion ● Expanding institutional linkages to improve their participation in the value chain 5 Tamil Nadu (Dwivedi 2022)2 Restore the in-situ con- servation of traditional paddy landraces/vari- eties and promote their cultivation ● Mapping diverse traditional paddy varieties as heritage seeds ● Promoting the knowledge of their therapeu- tic properties ● Facilitating on-farm cultivation across 24 districts of Tamil Nadu by identifying cham- pion farmers in partnership with local NGOs in the respective districts 6 Madhya Pradesh (Vernooy et al. 2020) Promotes improved varieties with the objec- tive of increasing seed replacement rate ● Integrating formal seed production among lead farmers with value addition and input supply (facilitating access to fertilizers and pesticides) and marketing of harvested products Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 11 CASE STUDIES Sl.No. Name of the CSB and loca- tion Core objectives Specific strategies 7 Amman Wom- en SHG – CSB, CIRHEP, Tamil Nadu Promote diverse mixed cropping systems to en- sure household food se- curity and enable access to seeds of traditional varieties of sorghum, pearl millet, and cowpea ● Strengthening networks among farmers through existing grassroots institutions (SHG federation and Watershed management committees) and embed CSB as one of the services ● Promoting organic farming and agro-eco- logically diverse mixed cropping systems which create demand for seeds that are not available in the formal systems ● Raising awareness among women farmers and school children on the importance of millets in diets and its health benefits 8 CSB for Paddy in Goa Biodiversity Board Facilitate the cultivation of traditional paddy va- rieties that are adapted to the region ● Conducting seed fairs at the village level ● Preparing People’s Biodiversity Registers and including the crop genetic resources ● Embedding the CSB in the village-level committees 9 CSB Gram Vikas Promote the cultivation of traditional paddy and finger millet ● Raising awareness about traditional crops and varieties ● Promoting organic farming which needs these traditional varieties ● Mainstreaming the seed bank with women SHGs in the village 10 CSB TEDE Trust On-farm conservation and cultivation of tra- ditional paddy varieties suitable to the region ● Facilitating a cadre of custodian farmers who continuously cultivate two to three traditional paddy varieties ● Promoting organic farming ● Supporting the processing of those paddy varieties, linking them with potential mar- kets, and preparing diverse value-added products ● Providing market services by organizing organic shops ● Networking among farmers through regular meetings and bringing them together as farmer collectives ● Post-project, the approach shifted from a centralized CSB to a decentralized custo- dian farmer approach among men, with the promoting agency continuing to mentor and provide institutional support Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 12 Sl.No. Name of the CSB and loca- tion Core objectives Specific strategies 11 CSB – Kudumbam Encourage the cultiva- tion of traditional millet species, kodo millet, finger millet sorghum, and traditional paddy varieties ● Building the capacity of women and men farmers in organic farming practices ● Promoting value addition facilities at the local level to process millets ● Regularly conduct health camps to build awareness among local communities, and. school and college students ● Organize networking platforms to link farmers through seed festivals and annual farmers’ meetings ● Post-project, the approach shifted from a centralized CSB to a decentralized custo- dian farmer approach mainly among men, with the promoting agency continuing to extend mentoring and institutional support 12 CSB, Cohesion Foundation Promote the cultivation of traditional varieties and improve the liveli- hoods of farmers ● Raising awareness among farmers on the importance of traditional crops and their nutritional qualities ● Building a network among farmers for seed exchange ● Supporting them in linking with markets and other institutions 13 Seed network, Thanal Revive the cultivation of traditional paddy varieties and improve the livelihoods of farmers ● Promoting networks among farmers to share and exchange seeds ● Conducting on-farm demonstrations and organizing seed fairs to bring farmers on to one platform ● Organizing awareness programs on the im- portance of organic farming and traditional varieties of paddy 14 CSBs – Kolli Hills, MSSRF Revive the cultivation of small millets and pro- mote on-farm conserva- tion of genetic diversity for household food secu- rity and better livelihoods ● Adopted the 4C approach (Conservation, Cultivation, Consumption and Commerce) ● Introducing agronomic and post-harvest processing and value-addition technol- ogies to improve productivity and reduce drudgery ● Raising awareness on the consumption of small millets ● Building the skills and capacities of wom- en in preparing value-added products by building community assets Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 13 Sl.No. Name of the CSB and loca- tion Core objectives Specific strategies ● Linking them with markets by enabling the production of diverse products ● Expanding their institutional linkages and exposure ● Mainstreaming CSB services as part of the FPO service ● Raising awareness on farmer’s rights 15 CSB - Koraput, MSSRF Revive the cultivation of traditional paddy variet- ies suitable to the region and promote on-farm conservation of genetic diversity and house- hold food security of the farmers ● Adopted the 4C approach (Conservation, Cultivation, Consumption and Commerce) ● Followed participatory varietal selection and quality trials with farmers to raise awareness ● Promoted post-harvest processing technol- ogies and reduced the drudgery in pro- cessing ● Embedded the CSBs with women SHGs and FPOs 16 CSB, Srushtid- nyan Promote the cultivation of traditional paddy varieties ● On-farm demonstrations of traditional paddy varieties ● Raising awareness and building the capac- ities of farmers in cultivation ● Promoting organic farming and networking among farmers Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 14 3.3. Governance structure and operations of the CSBs The CSBs differ in their governance structure, op- erational boundaries, and gender profiles. In terms of governance, a majority of them (142 out of 144) followed both group-based (predominantly SHG) and farmer-collective (FPO) models embedded with seed-saver/user networks. Such models largely depend on social capital for effective functioning. However, two of the 144 CSBs (in Ker- ala and Rajasthan) adopted the nodal/individual farmer approach (Malik et al. 2013). The in-depth case studies revealed that all CSBs had initially adopted an SHG/FPO-based group approach that helped them map diversity, access quality seeds, and regularly transact with farmers (both giving and receiving). Although in the initial years, such an approach facilitated the building of farmers’ networks, as they matured 3 of the 10 CSBs changed their operational structure to nodal farmer-based models. Discussions revealed that cultivating traditional varieties of millet/ paddy/other crops by the farmers was main- streamed into their farming systems. There has been a notable behavior change towards such traditional crop cultivation, and individual farmers were committed to maintaining seed sources by themselves. Farmers who did so were recognized as lead farmers and seed savers in the farming community in that region. One of the promot- ing the organization of the CSBs stated that the on-farm conservation of such valuable traditional varieties/landraces had been taken over by the farmers themselves. However, it is important to note that such farmers are mostly men, as was observed in the case studies of Kudumbam, TEDE Trust, and Goa Biodiversity Board. In terms of operational boundaries, of the 144 CSBs, 45% are village-centric with operations confined to farmers within the village and 55% have been serving a cluster of villages in the region. The participation of women was greater in village-centric CSBs than in those with a wider geographic ambit. Based on the geographical location and focus crops/varieties of the CSBs, it was inferred that those agroecosystems are unique (covering rainfed/drylands and margin- alized hilly agroecosystems) and focus on small and marginal farmers. The case studies showed that CSB operations are confined to marginal- ized agroecosystems - 5 out of 10 focus on hilly ecosystems, 3 on semi-arid regions (2 on rainfed and 1 in irrigated), and 2 on coastal agroecosys- tems. Three CSBs work with tribal farmers, 4 with rural farmers, and three cover both. Eight out of 10 CSBs focus on traditional paddy varieties/land- races, of which 3 additionally cover millets, and 2 exclusively focus on sorghum and small millets. As part of their governance and operations, CSBs have a management committee that defines operational terms and conditions. There may be a few exceptions where the promoting organiza- tions take a lead in facilitation, as was observed in Kerala and Rajasthan. Almost 60% of the seed banks are governed by women’s groups while 40% have both men and women members in the committees. The number of women in the com- mittees and their participation is higher, since this is linked to their group meetings. Women’s deeper knowledge of different landraces/varieties, seed selection skills, and meticulous management practices at both postharvest and storage stages are making them better managers of CSBs (as demonstrated by CSBs from Odisha, Kolli Hills, and Wayanad). In CSBs, seeds are normally stored in a common facility for a short duration (rang- ing from one season to three years) depending on the quality and crop. In the meantime, seed stocks or core collections are replenished collec- tively through seed exchanges. Hence, returning borrowed seed with that which meets quality (physical and genetic) standards is crucial for the success of CSBs. Eight of the ten CSBs mentioned that they re- ceive back only 60% of the seeds borrowed by farmers (Odisha, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala). They emphasized that engaging with such farmers is crucial to sustain networks. This requires a platform to meet (once or twice a year) and networking among them, where social capital serves as an important trigger. The case studies revealed that this works fairly well with wom- en’s groups since they are part of the women's SHGS/interest groups, but is not common among men farmers. In addition, women’s participation in community seed fairs and festivals enables the sharing of experiences and knowledge in crop management, the returning of borrowed seed with pride, and to build ties among them (Wayanad, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat). Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 15 In terms of seed production and seed exchange, the management committee is responsible for ensuring their quality, procurement, fixing the seed rate, and record management. Some seed banks appointed a seed bank manager to over- see the functions. The case studies showed that the majority of CSBs (6 out of 10) are managed by women farmers, two have mixed membership, and two are managed by men farmers. The seed exchange protocol varies among CSBs. Seed fairs and community seed festivals are the main pathways for seed transactions. In the majority of farmer's collectives, these events are organized twice a year; before the sowing season and after harvesting. It is done to facilitate the borrowing and returning processes (Ramanjane- yulu et al. 2015; King et al. 2015; Puskur et al. 2021; NESFAS 20213 ; Vernooy et al. 2022). There are two models of transactions adopted by CSBs: 1. Seed loan - return double the quantity of seed borrowed and here there is no cost transaction involved. If there is any crop loss, farmers compensate with the equivalent value of seed of other varieties they have; and 2. Fixed price – Cash sale (normally less than the market price). The first model is common among CSBs, where lo- cally adapted varieties/landraces are priority. The initial seed stock is locally mobilized from farmers who have special skills and interest in maintaining seed stocks and replenishing them from the har- vest during the exchange process. Table 6. CSBs adopting seed exchange as a practice to provide access to seeds. 3 https://nesfas.in/community-seed-banks-and-community-seed-fairs-reaffirming-seed-sovereignty/ 4 Shadangi, S.K., and Misra, S.S. 2023. Community Seed Bank: Beyond Preservation And Conservation, https://www.oxfamindia.org/ featuredstories/community-seed-bank-beyond-preservation-and-conservation, Aug 2023 5 https://www.navdanya.org/climate-change/seed-of-resilience Table 6 shows examples of CSBs adopting seed exchange as a primary mode of enabling access to seeds, mostly those of food crops. Interac- tions with a few CSBs as well as the case studies revealed that women are the main stakeholders/ borrowers accessing seed from CSBs. CSBs Reference study Main crops covered MSSRF-promoted Koraput Odisha Shrestha et al. 2013 Finger millet and traditional paddy landra- ces SDMC-promoted CSBs in Odisha Shadangi and Misra 20234 Finger millet and traditional paddy landra- ces Navdanya-promoted CSBs across several states Navdanya5 Traditional paddy landraces, millets, pseudo cereals, and pulses CSB-Sanjeevini in Andhra Pradesh Duthie-Kannik- katt 2019 Millets and pulses WASSAN- promoted CSBs in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Odisha Nagubandi et al. 2021 Millets, oilseeds, and pulses Seva mandir CSBs in Udaipur, Ra- jasthan Vernooy et al. 2020 Maize, wheat, black gram, sesame, rice, mustard, wheat, Bengal gram, green gram, and vegetable seeds Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 16 Table 7. CSBs adopting a price-based model. CSBs Reference study Main crops covered BAIF-supported CSBs in Palghar, Maharashtra Vernooy et al. 2020 Notified varieties of paddy, vegetables, and small millets ASA-promoted CSBs in Madhya Pradesh Vernooy et al. 2020 Notified varieties of wheat Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh Reddy et al. 2006 Notified varieties of groundnut Raichur district, Karnataka Lokesha et al. 2016 Notified varieties of groundnut A CSB in Madhya Pradesh Vernooy et al. 2022 High-yielding seeds of wheat to migrant workers who returned to their hometowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic A village seed bank in Karnataka Reddy et al. 2007 Notified varieties of groundnut multiplied and marketed – truthfully labelled seeds among farmers From Table 7, it is evident that the second model is followed in CSBs that promote high-yielding varieties of both food and commercial crops and the main borrowers are men. The CSBs sourced foundation seed from reliable institutions, trained a cadre of farmers in seed production, and sold them to local farmers as truthfully labelled seed. The main objective here is to improve the vari- etal/seed replacement ratio for higher produc- tivity. Such models need an initial investment to procure seed from the market. Such a model was effective and sustainable in providing more secure and timely access and availability of seeds of improved varieties of groundnut (Red- dy et al. 2006; Lokesha et al. 2016). The study by Vernooy et al. (2022) pointed out the challenges of this model. Its main advantages to farmers are the low seed price compared to the market, timely access, availability throughout the sea- son, and quality seed without admixtures. In the event of post-sowing problems in germination or emergence, they could quickly report and get alternate solutions. However, the short shelf life of improved varieties, high susceptibility to storage pests, and significant decline in seed germination percentage after two years were also reported. The case studies showed that all the CSBs ad- opted the seed exchange model in the initial period of establishment and focused exclusively on traditional landraces/varieties of crops, largely food crops. However, recently three CSBs (TEDE Trust, Kudumbam and Thanal) shifted to the custodian farmer model and adopted the price model for seed transactions. These CSBs deal with traditional paddy landraces/varieties which have gained market demand among consum- ers and have become a commercial crop with a niche market focus. The gender analyses in these two models of transactions indicate that the ‘seed exchange’ model is pro-women. Mainly women and social- ly marginalized sections of farmers adopt it as there is no initial investment required for seed and location-specific adaptable varieties/landraces can be accessed. The ‘price-based’ model calls for an initial investment by farmers on seed and varietal types that are generic to the region. In the seed exchange model, the primary stakehold- ers, both as users and enablers at the grassroots level, are women farmers. The initial support to set up infrastructure, nurturing women’s group activ- ities to continuously build and strengthen social capital, need-based capacity building to improve their knowledge and skills on the management of CSBs, regular meetings and interactions among management committee members, organizing seed festivals and fairs to receive and exchange fresh seed evolved as practical strategies. This is illustrated in the case study of CIRHEP CSB (Box 3). Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 17 As stated above, the preference for the crop and variety accessed from CSBs is gendered. Wom- en prefer seeds of landraces/varieties based on their knowledge about their suitability to their land conditions and other functional requirements (fodder, shorter duration, nutritional quality, etc.). Although there are concerns about the quality of seed, women trust seed obtained from fellow farmers, as they have observed their performance in their fields and received informal certification from other farmers (cases from Tamil Nadu, Karna- taka, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Kerala). 3.4. Building capacities to manage the seed banks The seed exchange model focuses on seed mobi- lization from select farmers in the village who are locally known among communities for their seed management skills (Shrestha et al. 2013; King et al. 2015), whereas the price model adopts a partic- ipatory approach to produce quality seed from local farmers, as per the guidelines of the notified varieties (Reddy et al. 2010; Vernooy et al. 2020). In both models, building the capacity of seed bank committee members and operators is crucial for effective functioning (Table 8). Table 8. Key capacity building strategies adopted by a few CSBs. CSBs Target members Specific strategies Source Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu Managers of seed banks ● Promotes participatory quality seed production among selected farmers ● Builds capacities of seed bank managers on quality control mechanisms to ensure optimum germination rate and physical purity of the seed material loaned and returned ● Regularly monitors seed stock for pests Case study Women play a key role in making decisions related to mixed crops, planting, harvesting, and utilization. Their voices and decision-making are further strengthened through capacity build- ing programs on quality seed management and other production technologies ranging from pre-production to value addition. As women are key players in ensuring household food and nutrition security, during one of the FGDs, an elderly woman stated, “We are telling young wom- en in our villages that in agriculture women should not depend on men, and that women should have the necessary knowledge and skills to raise food crops, including ensured access to quality seeds”. Women should be self-reliant both in terms of knowledge and resources, including seeds. An internal survey conducted has shown that 47% of the women farmers in the region are now practising millet-based mixed farming systems and 80% of the production is for household use. Regarding the consumption pattern, the survey showed that about 30% of them consume mil- let-based food once a day and 26% eat food made of millet twice or thrice a week. Millet avail- ability at the household level results in regular consumption. Women play a key role in deciding crop combinations and regularly monitor the fields and harvest the crop at maturity. Some of the farmers have intercropped flowers with millets. The women farmer groups noted that CSBs are key to facilitating the revival of mixed cropping systems and millet consumption. Besides, such innovations provided complete independence for women farmers from the formal seed system, where such crops and varieties were not given importance and were often neglected. (Source: Primary data, CIRHEP) BOX 3 IMPACT OF CSBS ON WOMEN Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 18 CSBs Target members Specific strategies Source ● Regularly monitors seed stock for pests ● Maintains registers and ensures the availability of seed stock in the bank ● Discusses relevant matters in group/FPO/com- mittee meetings Mahbub- nagar district, Andhra Pradesh Village Seed Bank (VSB) manage- ment committee members ● Conducts participatory trials to identify suitable varieties for specific geographies ● Trains a cadre of farmers as seed producers ● Procures selected varieties and store in the village seed banks ● Fixes seed procurement price based on the market price. ● Selects the right seed producers, seed procure- ment, and fixes both procurement and selling price ● Promotes VSB as seed enterprises through investments from seed bank members, commit- tee office-bearers, and SHGs Reddy et al. 2010 CIRHEP, Tamil Nadu CSB management committee – women’s group ● Training on identifying good quality seed, tradi- tional drying, and storage technologies ● Maintains registers ● Reports in the SHG federation meeting ● Identifies potential seed contributors Case study Gram Vikas, Karnataka CSB management committee – women’s group ● Maintains seed quality and tests germination percentage ● Identifies varieties relevant to the region ● Keeps records ● Raises awareness among members Case study Koraput, Odisha CSB management committee ● Recognizes different varieties of seeds, handles pest and disease infestations, and postharvest handling, including drying and secure storage Case study Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 19 Table 9. Inclusion of women and tribal communities in CSBs. The Kolli Hills CSB has adopted a seed exchange model where the involvement of women in man- agement positions enables them to improve their capacities to govern and coordinate the bank’s activities, and build their leadership, negotia- tion, and organizing skills in addition to technical knowledge on seed quality profiles. Similarly, the CSBs of CIRHEP and Gram Vikas have imparted basic skills in scientific seed management and record keeping among women members. It was observed that price model-based CSBs largely benefited men although both women and men participated in seed bank management committees. In the VSB promoted at Mahbub- nagar district, Andhra Pradesh, a cadre of farmers was promoted as seed producers, their capacity on seed certification was built, and they received truthfully labelled seed certification of the crops/ varieties of their interest. Discussions further revealed that men take the lead in coordination and delivery/sale of seeds to its members, as it happens in other technologies. 3.5. Inclusion of women and tribal communities Documentation on the role of women in manag- ing informal seed exchange networks, including CSBs, has been increasing. Such CSBs are largely promoted in rainfed/hilly and other marginalized agroecosystems targeting women and tribal communities (Table 9). CSBs Inclusion status Reference study ASA, Madhya Pradesh Has a fairly equal number of men and women, both active members and participants in seed production. Vernooy et al. 2020 Seva Mandir, Rajas- than Shareholders of the FPO are women who participate in capacity building events along with Village Re- source Persons and other shareholders of the FPO in CSB management. Vernooy et al. 2020 Village Seed Banks, Andhra Pradesh VSB committees supported the empowerment of women farmers by transforming them into seed pro- ducers (especially those in SHGs) and turning them into small-scale seed entrepreneurs. Reddy et al. 2010 70 villages in Andhra Pradesh and 20 villag- es in Maharashtra CSBs graduated into the Seed Growers Association as demand for quality seeds increased. The promoting organization ensured that an equal number of wom- en and men farmers participated and trained in seed production of paddy, red gram, soybean, and chick- pea and expanded their market networks. Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015 Although many of the studies featured in this review highlight the importance of incorporating tribal knowledge into seed systems to promote Table 10. CSBs among tribal communities. CSBs Inclusion status Sanjeevini, Andhra Pradesh Integrated tribal farmers’ knowledge and practices into the day-to-day operations of CSBs to create self-sufficiency. Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu A cadre of 35 traditional millet farmers from the Malayali6 tribal commu- nity were encouraged to establish CSBs. Now they are part of the seed and knowledge exchange network. The group is composed of tribal groups with 70% women and it helps institutionalize CSBs as a communi- ty resource. agrobiodiversity, only a few studies have elabo- rated on their specific role in CSB management. The few specific cases recorded from the litera- ture review are described in Table 10. Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 20 6 Malayali, meaning rules of hills, is the predominant traditional tribal community in Kolli Hills. They are an agrarian community spread across 16 Gram Panchayats in the Hills. 7 https://keystone-foundation.org/community-seed-bank-tubers-at-godavary-tribal-settlement-thalappuzha/ 3.6. Gender and CSBs The studies do not explicitly mention gender dimensions and social inclusion or their im- pacts and challenges. However, the operational geography comprises largely of marginalized agroecosystems. Most of them rainfed and other vulnerable agroecosystems including coastal and remote hill landscapes, where women play a key role in food systems. Such systems are largely subsistence oriented. Also, the crops and vari- eties cultivated and conserved here are mostly underutilized and neglected by mainstream seed systems. Informal seed systems function in CSBs cover crops such as traditional landraces of small millets (little millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, barnyard millet); paddy varieties; grain legumes (lab lab, horse gram, moth bean, winged bean); vegetables and oilseeds (sesame, castor). In addition, women’s role in maintaining such crops and varieties is unique and exclusive as they are directly linked to their household food and nutrition security. Nevertheless, from the details of the studies and the institutional background, it is evident that in the process of building, many of the promoting organizations have adopted and mainstreamed a pro-women approach in designing strategies and harnessed the role of women in seed man- agement. This has built women’s leadership and agency in managing and accessing benefits from the CSBs. However, 30 per cent of the agencies have adopted the gender-sensitive and social- ly-inclusive approach in the process. There is a gender dimension in CSBs based on the crops they deal with. Of these, traditional varieties of paddy and wheat are largely handled by men, while women are associated with mil- lets, pulses, and oilseeds which are mainly grown under rainfed conditions and for subsistence food needs at the household level. Gender was found to have significantly impact- ed access to seeds of crop species and farmers' dependence on seeds from CSBs. A preliminary analysis of the 144 CSBs shows that 54% of them were accessed frequently by women while 46% were by both women and men. Commercially important crops like groundnut, wheat, HYVs of paddy, and certain preferred landraces/tradi- tional varieties of paddy were accessed by men, whereas women primarily accessed seeds of red gram, green gram, major and small millets, vegetables and traditional landraces of pad- dy. The FGDs revealed that women follow the terms and conditions of the CSBs more careful- ly than men farmers (Kudumbam, Gram Vikas, CIRHEP, and Koraput). The key indicators for this were the higher proportion of seed returned to the seed bank by women than men to replenish seed stocks and their participation in the com- munity seed festival and seed fairs. From the discussions, it was clear that women prefer the exchange model to access seeds that does not involve financial resources, thereby helping them start sowing operations without depending on men. They stated that market-dependent seeds usually the costs are high, they don’t have con- trol over access, availability, affordability, varietal preference, and quality, and overall, there is no CSBs Inclusion status Koraput, Odisha Bhumia and Paroja are tribal communities from Koraput, Odisha. Eighty tribal women millet farmers from eight CSBs were trained, of which 70% are women members and they are active seed champions in that region. Koraput region of Odisha Over 2000 economically poor and vulnerable tribal women farmers were organized into Women Farmer Producer Groups, building the capacity of a cadre of women as custodian farmers to produce quality seeds. Western Ghats region of Kerala Promoted tubers among the tribal community in the Western Ghats where women from nine SHGs (covering 50 households) were trained and facilitated to produce elephant foot yam7, ginger, and greater yam and exchange the bulbs with other farmers in the villages. Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 21 https://keystone-foundation.org/community-seed-bank-tubers-at-godavary-tribal-settlement-thalappuzha/ seed sovereignty with them. They stated that CSBs enable easy access to preferred varieties/ landraces. Given the social norms of restricted mobility, curbs on interaction with men outside the family, and access to finance to purchase seed, women prefer CSBs as they can make decisions inde- pendently. Women source seeds through seed exchange, seed loans, labor exchange, and grain exchange. In one of the CSBs in Odisha, women described how in the past they would depend on men to choose the variety and purchase seed from the market either by cash or on credit, and compared it to how CSBs allowed them to access seeds, decide the variety/landraces, and prepare for sowing. In addition, CSBs enabled the ex- change of knowledge and promoted communi- ty-based labor-sharing practices among them. The approach that promoting organizations adopt in ensuring gender dimensions in the CSBs was noted as an important area of concern. A gender-responsive approach has been adopted while promoting CSBs. The CSBs that have fo- cussed on commercial crops (such as wheat and pulses in Madhya Pradesh, and paddy and pulses in Tamil Nadu) were also included women farmers. The women farmers were also given opportunity to gain new skills on seed production and pro- moted them as seed entrepreneurs adopting collective approach (Dixit et al. 2006; Reddy et al. 2010; Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015; Puskur et al. 2021). However, divergent approach was also observed in a few CSBs, where men were given focus in seed production, reviving cultivation and developing a short value chain (such as tradition- al paddy and other crop varieties in TEDE Trust and SASTRA CSBs). Given the men’s prevailing ac- cess to productive resources including land own- ership, training, technology, institutional linkages, and other opportunities necessary for successful engagement in seed production and value chain, this enabling support promoted them as individ- ual seed entrepreneurs. Although women play a crucial role in the selection and maintenance of seeds, they operate only at the subsistence scale, have limited access to productive resources and decision-making authority, and cannot harness commercial opportunities to move up in the seed value chain (King et al. 2015; Puskur et al. 2021). Most importantly, women farmers from such mar- ginalized ecosystems were also culturally trained to focus on ensuring household food and nutri- tional security due to patriarchal values, gender roles, and social norms. 3.7. Effective communication and branding Effective communication applies both within each CSB and between CSBs and other organizations to share knowledge on preferred seeds. Most importantly, promoting organizations in partner- ship with CSBs organize regular community-level meetings (seed festivals/fairs/food festivals, etc) to promote and raise awareness about seeds available in the CSBs and facilitate discussions on them among the participants through videos/ posters and exhibits. The case studies have shown that the transac- tions of the CSBs are discussed at the regional level in their federation/FPO meetings. They also indicate the gendered sources of seed infor- mation. The informal, horizontal social network through individual visits, group meetings, and workspaces as community labor-sharing prac- tice (common in the tribal and geographically isolated landscapes among women in CIRHEP, Gram Vikas, TEDE Trust, Kudumbam, Shrustidnyan, Kolli Hills and Koraput CSBs), community seed festivals, and seed fairs are the main sources for both women and men farmers (except the CSB promoted by Goa Biodiversity Board). Women are confident to reach out to these informal channels on their own but need the facilitating organi- zation’s input to link and connect with external stakeholders. On the contrary, men needed the initial support from facilitating organizations to build linkages, but moved forward as they estab- lished their own social networks through mobile phones, agro-input dealers, agriculture depots, group meetings, and meetings at NGOs (CSBs in Odisha, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu) (Table 11). Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 22 Table 11. Communication/dissemination strategies of the CSBs. Sl.No. CSBs Communication/dissemination strategy Reference study 1 Seed saver group in Palghar district, Maha- rashtra Organize seed exhibitions, wild food fes- tivals, and visits to seed banks to expose local farmers to new crop options. Vernooy et al. 2020 2 Sanjeevini in Andhra Pradesh, Kolli Hills in Tamil Nadu, and Koraput district in Odisha Conduct community seed festivals, melas, and fairs with the support of promoting agencies. Shresta et al. 2013; King et al. 2015; Duthie-Kannikkatt 2019 3. Kudumbam CSB Conduct a community seed fair before sowing and melas after harvesting to get back the seeds. Discuss and share seeds of varieties with like-minded CSBs promoted by NGOs in the region (TEDE Trust/Kudumbam). Women share the performance of the vari- eties and seed availability in the workspac- es. In the recent past, men started sharing information about seeds through mobile phones/social media. Case study 4 Shristidyan CSB Conduct seed fairs before sowing and seed festival coinciding with the village festival. Organize a meeting at the demonstration plots where different traditional varieties are grown. Case study 5 Kolli Hills CSB, Tamil Nadu Conduct a millet fair with seeds and val- ue-added products, aligning with a local festival. Discuss progress made and challenges in SHG/FPO meetings. Case study 6 CSBs in Koraput, Odisha Annual exhibition organized by the Depart- ment of Agriculture and regional-level seed fairs. Case study Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 23 3.8. Conducive policy and legal environment Among the several policies governing seed sys- tems in India to ensure the use of quality seed are the Seed Act (1966), Seed Rules (1968), Seed (Con- trol) Order (1983), New Policy on Seed Develop- ment (1988), Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of Import into India) Order (1989), National Seed Policy (2002), Seed Bill (2004) and draft Seed Bill 2019. Informal seed systems are not covered under the seed policies which only mention notified and registered varieties of seeds. The Seed Act of 1966 allows the free flow of unbranded seeds among farmers through commercial and non-commercial transactions. This allows seed exchange among farmers and the free flow that is facilitated through CSBs as informal systems. However, there is no provision to recognize such seeds legally. The seed policy promotes seed banks to enable access to improved varieties of crops suitable to the context in disaster prone regions. The primary objective of such seed banks is to support farm- ers in the event of a major disaster as a response action strategy (backup facility). So far, 22 such banks have been set up by the Government of India8 under a formal seed system with notified varieties. Subsequently, the PPVFR Act 2001 ensured farm- ers’ rights over the seeds conserved by them, as stated in its objectives to “recognize and protect the rights of farmers in respect of their contribu- tions made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resourc- es for the development of new plant varieties”. The PPVFR Act enables CSBs to follow multiple ways to manage crop genetic resources; they can operationalize the clauses governed in the PPVFR Act 2001, namely, the “right to save, use, exchange, and sell farm-saved seed and prop- agating material; the right to protect traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; the right to an equita- ble share of benefits arising from the use of these resources; and the right to participate in deci- sions, at the national level, on matters related to the conservation and sustainable use of such resources”. While not much progress has been made on the latter two aspects, CSBs have facil- itated the other processes. This has revealed two common approaches practised -- ownership and stewardship – to protect genetic resources. The ownership approach uses tools such as intel- lectual property rights (IPR) and benefit sharing to protect farmers’ varieties, though there hasn’t been much evidence of this approach. There is more evidence of the stewardship approach which pursues the protection of farmers' custom- ary rights to save, use, exchange, and sell seeds through documentation and recognition, opting for tools such as recognizing the contribution of farmers in the innovation of crop genetic resourc- es and documenting crop varieties in biodiversity registers (Ramanna and Andersen 2022). A couple of CSBs together with their respective facilitating organizations have enabled their members to gain recognition for the conservation of traditional seeds under the PPVFR Act under both community and individual farmer catego- ries (Vernooy et al. 2020). So far nine community awards, of which two are in the name of CSBs and 62 individual awards/recognition were pro- vided by the PPVFR Act. Of the 62 farmers, only 4 were women who were recognized for conserv- ing varieties/landraces. MSSRF has used both approaches to help protect farmers' rights with CSBs. For ownership, it has claimed IPRs by reg- istering farmers’ varieties. For stewardship, it has attempted to collect, characterize, and evaluate seed material from various seed communities (King et al. 2015), established a Community Gene Bank, and facilitated linkages with the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) to safeguard ex-situ collections of those genetic resources. While developing such databases, it ensured gender dimensions by recording both men's and women’s contributions. Such processes create evidence of the community’s stake (both men and women) in the management of crop ge- netic resources as well as access to the provisions of the policy frameworks. The PPVFR Act allows recognition for the contribution of both men and women farmers' roles and leadership in conserva- tion. In the absence of a gendered approach in such a process, women lose out on due recogni- tion for their contributions. Among the case studies, only the Odisha CSB has focused on linking with the National Biodi- versity Act. It has been recognized for its contri- 8https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/174/AU281.pdf?source=pqals Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 24 bution to the on-farm conservation of traditional paddy landraces under the PPVFR Act in mid- 2000. While only two promoting organizations in the case studies knew about linking efforts with recognition of farmers' rights, the other eight had no knowledge of either ownership or stewardship approaches. Table 12. Specific impacts of the different CSBs. CSBs Impacts Source CSB in Madhya Pradesh, promoted by ASA The integration of seed systems as one of the ser- vices in FPOs has increased farmers’ confidence and empowerment. FPO leaders were trained in develop- ing a business strategy for seed and women make up a majority of the FPO’s shareholders and are mainly involved in seed production. Farmers are chosen for the seed production program during village meetings. Standards to produce quality seed were followed in the trainings on field management practices in partnership with the Department of Agriculture. The new knowledge, skills, and institutional partnerships enabled women farmers to be recognized as seed producers. Although traditionally they possessed skills in seed management, the new knowledge and skills created an opportunity to be recognized as seed producers, providing them an identity and agency to function in this space. Vernooy et al. 2022 CSBs in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan Facilitated social networks and sharing of seed among farmers, improving their rights and ability to save, use, and exchange farm-saved seeds. CSBs serve as a base to realize farmers’ rights – the re- cords help to protect seeds that are adapted to local growing conditions and associated gendered tradi- tional knowledge. Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015; King et al. 2015; Puskur et al. 2021; Ra- manna and Andersen 2022; Vernooy et al. 2021; 2022 CSBs in Andhra Pradesh, Telan- gana, Odisha, Jharkhand, Ma- harashtra, and Rajasthan Serves as a backup for valuable germplasm of tra- ditional landraces and varieties of crops suitable to rainfed regions Nagubandi et al. 2021 VSB in Andhra Pradesh VSBs helped to increase the use of quality seeds of the improved varieties promoted in the region from 1.2 ha in 2002 to 142 ha in 2005; this led the Government of Andhra Pradesh to announce a scaling-up in 322 villages in partnership with ICRISAT. Reddy et al. 2006 3.9. Impact of the CSBs The CSBs increase farmers’ self-sufficiency and choice of seed varieties, leading to improved production and food security. In addition, they generate significant socio-economic impacts (Table 12). Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 25 CSBs Impacts Source CSB in Gram Vikas The CSB supported lead farmers in gaining recog- nition from the local government for on-farm con- servation efforts and expanded institutional linkages for seed access (Green Foundation). This led to the expansion of their portfolio. Case study Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu The management committee members stated that the new knowledge and skills in seed management imparted confidence in facilitating seed bank ac- tivities, promoting on-farm conservation, and the cultivation of small millets. Additionally, the local women are trained to produce value-added goods, including ready-made millet mixtures, rava, and malt, enabling them to effectively contribute to the seed sector by increasing the demand for millets. This has encouraged women to continue delivering quality millet products. At the same time, a cadre of custodi- an farmers was trained on quality seed production to ensure the regular supply of millet seeds in the region. Case study CIRHEP and Kudumbam in Tamil Nadu, PDMC Trust in Odisha, and Janajeevana MACS in Andhra Pradesh Besides serving as a storehouse of seeds, the CSBs serve as a horizontal network among men and wom- en farmers and play a vital role in reviving traditional practices, strengthening agro-ecological principles, and improving livelihoods for better food and nutrition security. They are facilitating mixed cropping systems with millets, pulses, and oilseeds in rainfed regions to ensure household food and nutrition security and dietary diversity. Case study 3.10. Important challenges faced by CSBs a. Sustainability: The performance of CSBs is often impacted by technical and operational challenges stemming from economic, institu- tional, social, and political factors. Many CSBs admitted to being quite effective during their initial years but had to face challenges once the promoting organization's support and monitoring were withdrawn (Ramanjaneyulu et al. 2015; King et al. 2015; Puskur et al. 2021; Vernooy et al. 2022). However, there are in- stances of CSBs having become sustainable as farmers became ‘seed savers’/’seed keep- ers’/’seed mothers.’ In Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, when the external support for CSBs diminished, a cadre of farmers took the lead in managing and conserving varieties by building their agency and leadership. This happens when seeds (of specific varieties and crops) have gained commercial value, as in traditional paddy varieties. Men are more likely to take the lead in the seed systems of these commercial crops. b. Deepening gender inequalities: An emerging trend of seed savers: When CSBs are not functional following the end of project sup- port or withdrawal of support by promoting organizations, a cadre of community lead- ership is evolving as seed producers/ seed savers/ seed mothers/ seed saviours/ seed custodian farmers. Again, there are fewer women than men in this sphere recognized for their contribution. This is evident from the data on the recognition of the PPVFR Act (re- fer sub-section 3.8). However, there is a set of farmers who constantly manage crop genetic resources in the marginalized agro-ecosys- tems across the country. Recognizing such farmers is crucial in sustainably managing crop genetic resources (Figure 2). Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 26 Figure 2. Evolution of informal seed systems c. Nurturing the social capital of the borrow- er group is crucial and is another challenge faced by CSBs. The seed exchange and banking concept in CSBs depends on the close horizontal network among farmers. Also, the management of the CSB by the commu- nity member-based committees depends on social relations and networks for its sustain- ability. These types of CSBs are built on the base of social capital, which plays a critical role in shaping the behaviour of farmers in terms of returning borrowed seeds. Annu- al community seed festivals and seed fairs provide a platform for them to return seeds to the bank. d. Programmatic/longer-term support: Although many farmers were satisfied with CSB initia- tives, they cited the lack of long-term funding and linkages to markets as constraints (Ver- nooy et al. 2020). Many smallholder farmers do not have the technical, financial, and organizational capacities to scale up seed production on their own. Though many farm- ers are excited by the market opportunities that CSBs offer, some initiatives are forced to shut down or tone down the level of opera- tions because they do not have appropriate connections to external stakeholders. e. Promoting organizations and the capacity to mainstream the gender dimension: Most CSBs have been promoted by NGOs/CBOs with grant assistance from development proj- ects. In the recent past, there have been few government institutions and research orga- nizations promoting CSBs. Of the ten CSBs studied closely, nine were promoted by NGOs and only one was facilitated by the Goa Bio- diversity Board. In this emerging trend, there is a need to ensure gender integration in CSB initiatives through appropriate policy guide- lines. f. Recognition of CSBs in national seed policies and national-level crop genetic resourc- es management systems: The current seed policies of the Government of India have not recognized CSBs as a community-based institution promoting seed access in informal seed systems. Similarly, the strength of CSBs in maintaining in-situ on-farm conservation of crop genetic resources is not fully main- streamed as a strategy in the plant genet- ic resources management framework. The recognition of such efforts at the policy level knowing its contributions will motivate and recognize such innovative actions. Research Report : Strengthening Community Seed Banks for Gender Inclusive Development in India 27 The successful interactions across the states proved that CSBs are a powerful platform/ap- proach to reach small and marginal farmers including women as well as to focus on traditional varieties/landraces, with the potential to revive diversified agro-ecological principles among small farmers. Observations from literature and studies on the institutional dimensions of gen- der relations in informal seed systems show that women’s involvement in the whole seed value chain, from seed selection to storage and ex- change, has been well established in the CSBs. Despite their contributions and roles, prevailing gender norms (ensuring household food security and low value of labor) drive women more to- wards a subsistence to semi-commercial scale of farming. However, women are gaining new knowledge and skills in seed management which enables them to take the lead in growing tradi- tional native seeds/neglected and underutilized crop species, referred to as future crops. Such constant support and enabling environment are needed for women for their active participation in the seed systems. There is evidence that the adoption of a gender-responsive approach is helping women gain new skills and opportuni- ties as seed producers/entrepreneurs. Currently, women farmers have limited recognition for their role in on-farm management of unique and valu- able crop genetic resources. This trend needs to be reversed. Similarly, informal seed systems are not fully recognized in the country’s seed policies; gender responsive action in this area can pro- vide equitable and inclusive support for women farmers. Community Seed Bank activities are shaped by the social capital and collective action among women farmers. Existing women’s groups/col- lectives are potential platforms for their active participation in the functioning and management of seed banks. Equally important are self-reliance and agency in ensuring household food and nu- trition security through improved access to seeds of preferred crops/landraces. The NGOs work- ing in this area have been adopting women-led initiatives and gender-sensitive approaches as per their institutional mandate. However, for the government agencies/institutions that promote CSBs, there is a need to develop detailed gen- der and social inclusion guidelines and integrate them as part of the schemes. Evidence and experiences from Andhra Pradesh and Sikkim, pioneers in natural farming and organic farming, respectively, have demonstrat- ed that women and women’s groups were the key forces behind transfo