PERSPECTIVE
published: 03 March 2022
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.816936
One Size Does Not Fit
All—Addressing the Complexity of
Food System Sustainability
Mary Ng’endo 1*† and Melanie Connor 2†
1 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 2 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los
Baños, Philippines
Food system sustainability has been highlighted as one of the major strategies to ensure
healthy diets. A plethora of approaches to stabilize food systems have been suggested,
including agroecology, climate-smart agriculture, and other forms of sustainable
agriculture. However, a disconnect between sustainable production and consumption
exists, which may hinder further progress toward achieving Sustainable Development
Goal 2. This discourse was needed to connect these intersectional perspectives. To
meet this need, we bring together the disconnected socio-environmental pillars and show
how together they contribute to the food system sustainability agenda. We discuss the
complexity of food system sustainability to cater to different geographies, building on
Edited by:
Donald C. Cole, evidence from development projects worldwide. We account for factors such as the need
University of Toronto, Canada to incorporate intersectionality factors, food-system-related policy issues, food waste,
Reviewed by: food injustice, and undernutrition. While these intersectional inequalities can be solved
Morufu Olalekan Raimi,
through various human interventions, policy implementation, and dietary choices, we
Niger Delta University, Nigeria
Isaac Luginaah, found that connecting the different policymakers remains a significant challenge for a
Western University, Canada sustainable food system. We propose implementing specific food system sustainability
*Correspondence: strategies that will be useful for policymakers and other stakeholders to enable the
Mary Ng’endo
mariangendo@gmail.com inclusion of a socio-environmental perspective for food systems that connect agricultural
production with consumption.
†These authors have contributed
equally to this work and share first Keywords: food security, nutrition security, food system, sustainability, missing middle
authorship
Specialty section: INTRODUCTION
This article was submitted to
Land, Livelihoods and Food Security, Since the global COVID-19 pandemic, the urgent need for enhanced food system sustainability
a section of the journal through a major shift in mindsets is irrefutable (Webb et al., 2020). The overriding message is that
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems
the trajectory of our global food systems is unsustainable and that multiple actions are needed
Received: 17 November 2021 urgently to amend this imbalance. Therefore, the need for transitioning food systems to ensure
Accepted: 04 February 2022 sustainable and healthy diets with minimal environmental impact has become one of the most
Published: 03 March 2022
prominent goals of several local and international organizations. The novelty in our work lies in our
Citation: contribution to this agenda by discussing and linking hitherto disconnected socio-environmental
Ng’endo M and Connor M (2022) One pillars that pose barriers to change when considered in an isolated fashion and showing how
Size Does Not Fit All—Addressing the
together they contribute to the food system sustainability agenda.
Complexity of Food System
Sustainability. The food system encompasses activities involved in producing, processing, packaging,
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:816936. distributing, retailing, and consuming food (Ericksen et al., 2010) that form the basis
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.816936 of the four food security pillars of availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability
Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 816936
Ng’endo and Connor Complexity of Food System Sustainability
[GLOPAN (Global Panel on Agriculture Food Systems for While gender is the most often used lens to assess inequalities,
Nutrition), 2020]. Undertaking these activities leads to several especially among women and girls, its sole use masks other
outcomes that contribute to food security and relate to equally pressing intersecting identity variables that could oppress
environmental outcomes (Ingram, 2011). It is acknowledged certain groups of people (Lokot and Avakyan, 2020). There is a
that sufficient global food production is not synonymous with need to move beyond a focus on women and youth (Tavenner
guaranteed food security for all (Bebbington, 1999). Food and Crane, 2019) to examine intra-gender differences that shape
security, as commonly used in the development discourse, people’s realities (Ravera et al., 2016). Explicit recognition of the
emphasizes food quantity over food quality. Hence the term social and geopolitical forces shaping people’s lives includes not
“nutrition security” is now commonly used to capture the quality only poverty, displacement, and conflict but also structural and
dimension (Smith et al., 2013). In addition to the aforementioned systemic factors impacting people’s capabilities, opportunities,
pillars of food security, Webb et al. (2020) present four priority and agency in political, social, and economic aspects (Lokot and
policy actions to transition food systems toward healthy diets Avakyan, 2020).
that are produced sustainably, that is availability, accessibility, The imbalance and unsustainability in food systems are
affordability, and desirability. There is a need to link these policy not only a consequence of over-reliance on nature or lack of
actions, which can be done by explicitly showing the disconnect access to nature by vulnerable groups. There are also broader
between food production and consumption, which has been policy issues, such as limited or lack of access to subsidized
referred to as the “missing middle” (Veldhuizen et al., 2020), and farm inputs and high dependence on manual labor, especially
then making practical suggestions on how to close this gap. The in developing countries. In Malawi, for example, a recently
missing middle refers to the paradox of persistent hunger despite implemented subsidy program, the 2020 Affordable Inputs
growing global food availability. Asmore food is not synonymous Program, has been heavily criticized for its poor implementation,
with the right kind of food, there is a need for improvements in transparency, and sustainability since it is unlikely to impact its
food access and changing consumer behavior. target beneficiaries positively and has not served Malawi’s most
Given the multifaceted nature of food security, especially vulnerable and growing population (Phiri, 2021). Such short-
in the context of global environmental change (Ingram, 2011), term local solutions, which lack long term political support, risk
solving food insecurity needs to center on comprehension of plunging their target populations into disarray (Prosekov and
complex interactions. Various stakeholders have utilized food Ivanova, 2018), and coupled with rapid population growth (Maja
system concepts to enhance interdisciplinary work on the two- and Ayano, 2021), will exacerbate the inequalities in food and
way interactions between food and nutrition security efforts and nutrition security, even if natural resources are available.
global environmental change (Ericksen et al., 2010). However, Furthermore, about a third of the food produced globally
there is a need to contextualize an integrated food system is either lost or wasted at different stages of the value
approach that accounts for interconnected inequalities to ensure chain (Corrado et al., 2019). In the developed world, this is
food security. predominantly at the consumption stage, while in the developing
world, this mainly occurs at the immediate post-harvest stage
(Parfitt et al., 2010). Most studies assessing post-harvest losses
INTERCONNECTED INEQUALITIES IN have been conducted in India and with cereal crops such as
FOOD SYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY maize. Little is known, however, about other crops and especially
Sub-Saharan Africa (Stathers et al., 2020). Food waste in the
While food systems are dynamic and complex, they also have global north can be reduced through consumer behavior change
national boundaries (Webb et al., 2020), with no single dietary measures to enhance the consumption of discarded edible food
pattern or food system that could be applicable globally. In or more frugal food purchases (Visschers et al., 2016). Bolstering
line with Cadieux and Slocum (2015) and Paganini and Lemke the financial, managerial, and technical aspects of post-harvest
(2020), we argue that to achieve food system sustainability, mechanisms can significantly reduce food losses in the global
it is essential to address socio-environmental inequalities south (FAO, 2011). A reduction in food losses along the value
alongside agricultural transformation. Therefore, this perspective chain also means that the sustainability of food production will
employs a descriptive methodology that interrogates a range be increased since food production is associated with greenhouse
of food system transformations measures that are needed and gas emissions, especially for staple crops such as rice (Socialist
that collectively underpin socio-environmental local contexts, Republic of Vietnam M.o.N.R.a.E., 2017). Therefore, reducing
nutritional habits, livelihoods, and ecosystems. post-harvest losses could be one of the main contributors to food
Intersectionality factors determine how people adapt system sustainability.
to various socio-ecological changes (Erwin et al., 2021), Lastly, food (in)justice is an often neglected but growing
which in turn differentially shape their food and nutrition field in both the developed and developing world that aims
security experiences (Williams-Forson and Wilkerson, to understand how inequalities of race, class, and gender are
2011). Intersectionality is an approach to understanding replicated and contested within food systems (Glennie and
the interconnectedness of multiple and overlapping identities Alkon, 2017). Food justice and its underlying factors have
(Lokot and Avakyan, 2020). These include socioeconomic status, been well-documented in developed countries, whereas socio-
age, race, nationality, language, religion, caste/class systems, economically disadvantaged areas are linked to greater food
disability, and place-based identities such as location and gender. injustice (Hallum et al., 2020). In the context of food system
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Ng’endo and Connor Complexity of Food System Sustainability
sustainability, especially in the global south, we argue that food rabbits, and goats (Rota and Urbani, 2021). These are affordable,
justice is an important concept not to be neglected. D’Odorico offer both macro-and micronutrient adequacy, and a possibility
et al. (2019) discuss food injustice in the context of the human to enhance asset ownership, especially by women, who suffer
right to food. Inequalities in access to food are a result of the from multiple forms of malnutrition (Adesogan et al., 2020).
rural-urban distribution of populations, availability of natural This, in turn, will benefit childhood nutrition and is also likely
resources, and the productivity of its use. Food injustice often to improve the first critical 1,000 days ‘window of opportunity’
results in multiple forms of malnutrition. Over-nutrition coexists of a child’s life (Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN),
with under-nutrition in both urban and rural areas, especially 2015).
in the global south. This nutrition transition is leading to an Smallholder farmers often face exclusion from global markets
increase in overweight and obese adults in many countries in and commercial-oriented value chains, which leads to inequality
rural Africa (Madise and Letamo, 2017) and Asia (Mishra and but can also increase post-harvest losses significantly due to
Khokhar, 2020), caused by the consumption of cheap energy- insufficient storage capabilities.While there is a lot of evidence on
dense but nutrient-poor westernized foods (Keding et al., 2013). technology interventions that reduce post-harvest losses, there
These inequalities can be targeted through human actions such is a lack of interventions beyond technologies and handling
as agricultural, rural, and urban development as well as policy practice changes. These include finance, infrastructure, policy
implementation and dietary choices. and market interventions (Stathers et al., 2020). In addition,
there are smallholder-driven solutions that could be presented
to policymakers to pave alternative ways for co-creating positive
DISCUSSION change. This has been shown for the Githunguri dairy farmers’
cooperative society in central Kenya that has grown into a
The recommendations on needing to change production and significant market player outcompeting large-scale dairy systems
consumption patterns rely heavily on behavior change (Gwozdz through a local social finance model (Ojong, 2015). Similarly,
et al., 2020), which, while necessary, needs to be expounded the support of smallholder farmers by international organizations
upon contextually—for example, how andwhich behavior change has facilitated changes in the dairy (Makoni et al., 2014) and root
models can be used to facilitate food system sustainability (White crops value chains in Tanzania (Lekule et al., 2014). Such local
et al., 2019)? Also, to what extent does behavior change work? The solutions could also benefit from the rigor that science provides
difficulties with behavior change have been well-documented, to offer improved replicable innovative solutions. This approach
for example, in the case of scaling agrobiodiversity. It has been aligns well with the need to build partnerships in the food systems
shown that agrobiodiversity is beneficial for smallholder farmers agenda through emerging opportunities. One example is the G-
to attain all the pillars of food security and produce sustainably soko (“soko” is Swahili for “market”) online platform for regional
utilizing locally available resources. However, agrobiodiversity trade that has gained popularity in the East African Community
has been challenging to scale up, even with the support of lately. The platform connects farmers and grain buyers and has
multiple partners. One of the reasons for this is that behavior gained popularity during COVID-19, facilitating regional and
change is not easy for all stakeholders in the value chain national grain trade. Furthermore, east and southern African
thus resulting in isolated success stories, such as increasing governments have started to harmonize measures to ensure
agrobiodiversity of various cereals in rural Europe (CERERE, continued trade across borders. This needs to continue beyond
2019), traditional rice varieties in India (Bisht et al., 2020) COVID-19 by learning what is and is not working.
and agroforestry in Kenya (SNRD, 2018). Nevertheless, despite However, a significant challenge that remains for a sustainable
the existing challenges with scaling up agrobiodiversity, this food system is connecting the different policymakers. The
agroecological practice that emphasizes diverse crop and animal problem is that policies relating to agricultural production are
husbandry is leading to food and nutrition security in countries often at odds with policies for nutrition, and solving this
such as Malawi (Kansanga et al., 2021) and Kenya (Ng’endo et al., disconnect would address the “missing middle” (Veldhuizen
2018). et al., 2020). Moreover, the different actors needed to transform
Similarly, many papers discuss the need to change food the food system and nutrition patterns currently operate in silos,
consumption patterns by growing seasonal and vegetarian foods and many stakeholders speak different “disciplinary languages,”
locally with lower environmental costs (Vermeir et al., 2020). making it difficult for policymakers to engage and negotiate
While growing and consuming locally produced seasonal foods with these multi-disciplinary complexities. We, therefore, argue
is a valid suggestion, the recommendation to adopt a vegetarian that bringing existing scientific knowledge into practice is a far
diet needs to be evaluated considering geopolitical boundaries. greater challenge than pursuing the acquisition of new scientific
In most developing countries, diets are primarily vegetarian or knowledge. There is value and need to remove barriers between
limited to certain food groups due to a lack of finances to knowledge generation and its use by addressing how different
purchase meat, milk, and fish. In general, animal-sourced foods, stakeholders interact with the knowledge, mainly traditional and
especially from large livestock such as cattle, are expensive and indigenous knowledge. The nexus on how these changes are
unaffordable, especially in rural areas. While consumption of implemented is where knowledge generators can better interact
animal-sourced foodsmay need to be reduced in the global north, with policymakers to effect much-needed change. Where policies
we agree that this needs to be enhanced in the global south are available, they must be backed by the political will to catalyze
(Covic, 2019), primarily using small livestock such as chicken, stronger linkages across science, policy, and practice to gain
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Ng’endo and Connor Complexity of Food System Sustainability
increased momentum in addressing the complexities embedded to proliferate, evaluate and reflect upon ways of navigating
in food system sustainability. through behavior change barriers. For example, the inaugural
2021 pre-HLPF seminar series led by the United Nations
Specific Recommendations for Food Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD)
System Sustainability: promoted dialogue on navigating challenges in this
• Shocks to food systems such as the COVID-19 pandemic interconnected space and catalyzed solving the ‘missing
should also be viewed as valuable opportunities to middle’ by linking production and consumption actors.
closely examine the local solutions that could change this
unsustainability. This could be by increasing agrobiodiversity DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
with locally available resources such as vegetables and grains
that also include livestock production and consumption The original contributions presented in the study are included
(including fish) that is culturally and environmentally in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be
applicable, so as to proliferate the success stories showing directed to the corresponding author/s.
agroecology’s contribution to food and nutrition security.
• As opposed to relying solely on top-down approaches, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
there is a need to incorporate bottom-up approaches from
diverse geographies. This can be implemented by including MN and MC contributed equally to all aspects of this work,
emerging smallholder-driven solutions and integrating local conceptual development, and the writing process. Both authors
and indigenous farmers, which could catalyze systemic contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
thinking on similar or alternative ways to scale interventions.
This can be done by showcasing alternative and emerging FUNDING
successful local smallholder farmer-led food security solutions
that can be up-scaled and mainstreamed (for example, the The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support
aforementioned social finance models), especially in the for the research, authorship, and publication of this article.
regular high-level decision-making forums, such as the United Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s Accelerating the Genetic
Nations-led High-Level Political Forum (HLPF). Gains in Rice (AGGRi) Grant Number OPP1194925 and Swiss
• Increase international organization-led multi-stakeholder Agency for Development and Cooperation’s Closing Rice Yield
interactions for professionals across science-policy-practice Gaps in Asia (Corigap) Grant Number 81016734, which are
nexus to determine what can be done better or differently greatly acknowledged.
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