ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 21 February 2022 doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.813933 Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice Cultivars in Bangladesh Md. Abdur Rouf Sarkar 1*, Mohammad Chhiddikur Rahman 1, Md. Shajedur Rahaman 1, Mou Rani Sarker 2, Mohammad Ariful Islam 1, Jean Balie 3 and Md. Shahjahan Kabir 4 1 Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh, 2Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Philippines, 3 International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines, 4Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh Agrarian Bangladesh relies heavily on rice. Since independence, many varieties have been released and targeted to increase productivity, farmers’ income, and food security. However, few gained widespread adoption. Moreover, farmers in the border regions are adopting exotic cultivars, and it’s gradually spreading throughout the country. But, the reasons for adopting exotic rice cultivars are still unexplored. Using field data from 1,260 farm households and 42 focus group discussions, this study analyzes farmers’ preferences for domestic and exotic rice varieties and identifies the factors of adoption linked to design national breeding programs and farmers’ welfare. Findings show, exotic Edited by: varieties (69%) monopolized the area coverage in the dry season, whereas in the wet Mohammad Jahangir Alam, season, domestic varieties (58%) dominated. Farmers select exotic varieties for their Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh better yield and price, low production costs, high grain quality, resistance to pests Reviewed by: and diseases, and ability to withstand stresses. Risk analysis shows domestic varieties Heru Irianto, adoption is riskier with lower returns. The empirical findings indicate that household Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia characteristics, access to institutions and infrastructure, varietal characteristics, and Ismat Ara Begum, Bangladesh Agricultural weather condition, all play a significant role in adoption decisions. National breeding University, Bangladesh should focus on developing rice varieties in response to market demands and farmer *Correspondence: preferences toward sustainable food security in Bangladesh. Md. Abdur Rouf Sarkar mdrouf_bau@yahoo.com Keywords: adoption drivers, endogeneity, farmers preferences, rice, risk analysis, varietal traits Specialty section: This article was submitted to INTRODUCTION Land, Livelihoods and Food Security, a section of the journal Adoption of new agricultural technology lays the groundwork for long-term agricultural Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems growth and increasing food security (Chandio and Yuansheng, 2018). Technology adoption is Received: 12 November 2021 heavily influenced by farmer access to inputs and receiving an adequate return on investment. Accepted: 27 January 2022 Irrigation, improved seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides technologies collectively known as the “Green Published: 21 February 2022 Revolution,” have long played a key role in the intensification of agricultural production in Citation: Bangladesh (Hazzel, 2009). In the early 1970s, Bangladesh faced a severe food shortage. Millions Sarkar MAR, Rahman MC, of people died of starvation and malnutrition in the 1974–75 famine (Muqtada, 1981). However, Rahaman MS, Sarker MR, Islam MA, the situation was averted through the adoption of green revolution-era technologies. Bangladesh Balie J and Kabir MS (2022) Adoption has made significant progress in rice production due to farmer adoption of high yielding varieties Determinants of Exotic Rice Cultivars in Bangladesh. (HYVs) (Ahmed et al., 2016). In this context, the country has achieved rice self-sufficiency in 2008 Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:813933. and contributed to the nation’s food security (Kabir et al., 2020). Indeed, in Bangladesh, “Rice doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.813933 security” is equated with “Food security” (Brolley, 2015). Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 1 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice Bangladesh is the third-largest rice producer in the world (Pathaichindachote et al., 2019). Also, domestic rice cultivars (Rahman et al., 2021). Rice is the leading staple food in are valuable genetic resources for future varietal improvement Bangladesh, accounting for more than 80% of total food supply, programs intended for the agro-climatic environment. Moreover, and provides 66% of total protein requirements for daily food the informal trade of varieties may not have been subjected to intake (Rahaman et al., 2020). Rice is grown on 11.4 million plant quarantine, posing a risk of pest and disease transmission. hectares of land, accounting for 77% of total cropped area It also does not ensure compliance with national seed standards and yielding 36.6 million tons of rice per year (BBS, 2020a). such as quality, purity, and minimum germination rate. The three rice growing seasons, known as pre-monsoon (mid- Therefore, it is critical to provide cultivar reference information March to mid-July), wet (mid-July to mid-December), and dry for future national rice breeding plans and related policies to (mid-December to May), account for ∼8, 39, and 53% of total prevent genetic erosion. rice production, respectively, and have nearly supplied the rice This study aims to establish guidelines for national rice required to feed 169 million people in Bangladesh (Agricultural breeding programs for the development of new varieties, with an Diary, 2020; BBS, 2020a). emphasis on the traits of exotic varieties that farmers prefer in Farmers in Bangladesh grow a wide range of rice varieties, Bangladesh. Despite the issue being important for its implications including exotic varieties. Exotic varieties contribute a significant for domestic varietal security and local biodiversity conservation, portion of the country’s rice production, and the aggregate there have been few studies on it (Kabir et al., 2019). We contribution of rice to the national economy is about 4.5% have addressed the gap that previous studies overlooked. The (BBS, 2020b). In fact, exotic varieties account for 15.39% of study first looks at the adoption status of both exotic and total rice production (DAE, 2021). Poor documentation and domestic varieties in the study areas. Second, identify the primary proper recognition of the contribution of exotic varieties remain drivers affecting farmers’ preferences for exotic and domestic rice research gaps, which this study aims to fill. To date, 134 varieties. Third, determine the factors influencing the adoption rice varieties have been developed, with 106 developed by the intensity of exotic rice varieties using an econometric model. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), 22 developed by the Finally, the study made policy recommendations to assist the Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA), and six from national breeding program in developing and disseminating different universities (BINA, 2021; SCA, 2021). However, due to future domestic rice varieties in Bangladesh to increase farmers’ many constraints, such as proper seed distribution to farmers, welfare and ensure food security. rice production in the country is limited to a few varieties (Siddique, 2016). Farmers in the border region of Bangladesh MATERIALS AND METHODS have been cultivating exotic varieties since 1999 (BRRI, 2016). The adoption rate of exotic varieties has increased because Study Area and Sample Distribution of population growth, rapid human mobility, environmental This paper is based on field survey data collected in 2019– change, and the exchange of more goods and materials (Bryan, 20. Sampling was done using multistage random sampling. In 1996; USBC, 2001). the first stage, a purposive sampling technique was used to In 1998–99, the government of Bangladesh decided to import select the study location in Rangpur and Bogura districts of hybrid rice seeds from abroad for on-farm trials to increase farm Bangladesh, where the adoption intensity of exotic rice varieties productivity. In response, about 600metric tons of seed from four is higher. The study thoroughly covered all Upazilas in both varieties in India and one variety in China were imported via districts to ensure that the data was statistically representative public-private partnership (Husain et al., 2000). Farmers in the (Supplementary Table 1). In the second stage, as a result, two northwest region unofficially adopted some Indian rice cultivars unions were randomly selected from each Upazila, and from through cross-border seed exchange (Kabir et al., 2019). Swarna, each union 30 rice farmers were selected by random sampling. for example, was developed in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 1982 Therefore, a total of 1,260 rice farmers were interviewed and is being gradually adopted in the Rajshahi district since 1999 (Figure 1). (Tiongco and Hossain, 2015). According to BRRI (BRRI, 2020), Before conducting the farmers’ survey, we consulted with exotic varieties accounted for approximately 6%, 10%, and 22% the Upazila extension personnel about the seasonal adoption of total pre-monsoon, dry, and wet season rice areas in 2019– status of existing rice varieties in two districts. Based on the 20, respectively. Questions arise, such as why exotic varieties are higher adoption intensity of exotic varieties, we chose Rangpur being adopted at such a rapid rate. What factors influence the district for wet season, and Bogura district for dry season data acceptance of exotic cultivars? collection. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative Exotic varieties, without a doubt, contribute to food security research methods, such as questionnaire surveys and focus and farmer welfare in Bangladesh; however, domestication of group discussions. A semi-structured questionnaire was used these cultivars poses a direct threat to the security and stability to survey 1,260 farmers. To validate the survey results from of national varietals. In the United States, for example, exotic each union, 42 focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted. species (corn, rice, wheat, soybeans, etc.) are consumed by Ten stakeholders from each union were randomly chosen for nearly all people due to rapid domestication and are subject to the FGDs. These stakeholders included peer farmers, local environmental and economic costs (Pimentel et al., 2005). The representatives, teachers, and Non-Government Organizations replacement of native cultivars by non-native cultivars leads to (NGOs) personnel. The survey covered a wide range of variables a dramatic decrease in the genetic diversity of domestic crops related to socio-demographics and input usage patterns. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 2 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice FIGURE 1 | Sampling distribution in the study areas according to location and survey methods. KII and FGD denote key informant interview and focus group discussion, respectively. Upazila is an important unit in the administrative system, which is formed with a few unions. Union is the lowest administrative unit in the rural area. Rice Cultivars and generating cumulative probability distribution functions for Total 37 rice cultivars are reported by the farmers the gross margin of rice farmers (Hardaker et al., 2004). In this (Supplementary Table 2). During the wet season, a total of case, the study is incorporating the distribution of yield and price 23 cultivars are grown, with the majority being domestic by the best, typical, and worst seasonal yields, and maximum, varieties. In contrast, 14 varieties are grown in the dry season, most likely, and lowest prices of two types of rice varieties. In with nine being domestic and only five being exotic. total, 10,000 iterations were run for the simulation to ensure the stability of the distribution of risk and return trade-off (Lien, Conceptual Framework 2003). Factors influencing rice adoption can be farm-specific, variety- Empirical Econometric Approach specific, or location specific. According to the literature, Aside from theoretical understanding, this study also presents farmers’ choice of adoption is influenced by yields, price, an econometric model of factors affecting farmers’ adoption household, and economic characteristics (family size, income), decisions on exotic rice varieties. Before performing any grain quality, production risk, transaction costs, consumption inferential analyses, we ran diagnostic tests on the regression preferences, marketing requirements, use of new technology (e.g., model. There was no evidence of severe multicollinearity in modern variety), institutional program and market factors (e.g., the model, as the mean variance inflation factor was 2.32. To credit availability, extension service), environmental conditions determine the effect of independent variables on the adoption (climatic, pest, and agronomic characteristics), etc. (Bose et al., intensity of exotic rice varieties over domestic, we use a 2000; Mottaleb et al., 2014; Ghimire et al., 2015; Laborte et al., fractional logistic regression model originally proposed by Papke 2015; Tiongco and Hossain, 2015; Ahmed et al., 2016; Chandio and Wooldridge (1996). When the explanatory variables are and Yuansheng, 2018; Kabir et al., 2019). Figure 2 depicts a fractional in nature (have values between 0 and 1), a linear model stylized representation of the drivers of rice varietal adoption is ineffective (Papke and Wooldridge, 1996; Mullahy, 2015) for based on information gathered in the study areas. Farmer’s examining the farmers’ adoption decisions. Aryal et al. (2018) decision is influenced by six major factors: yield, price, input cost, and Branca and Perelli (2020) analyzed farmers’ adoption of profitability, varietal security, and socioeconomic aspects. Also, new technologies and practices in agriculture using a fractional two link factors, varietal traits and input use, directly influence regression model. However, the frictional logistic regression the main factors of variety adoption decisions. Formulating automatically removed the heteroscedasticity problems in the a national breeding program by incorporating these varietal model by giving robust standard errors. adoption drivers is an important instrument for increasing The conditional expectation of the fractional response variable farmers’ income and ensuring a sustainable food system. The model proposed by Papke and Wooldridge (1996) has the details of the factors are discussed in the results section. following structure: Analytical Technique E (Yi | Xi) = G (Xiβ), i = 1, . . . ...,N (1) Risk Assessment A stochastic simulation was built for assessing the implications Where, 0 ≤ Yi ≤1 indicates the dependent variable, Xi is of uncertain events such as predictable and unpredictable a set of explanatory variables and G(.) is a known function externalities, and market uncertainties of rice farming to satisfying 010 and significant at 1% level (Table 5). the northwest region. Following 2016, farmers began to lose faith That means, our instruments in the model are valid and strongly in domestic varieties and start to heavily adopt exotic varieties. correlated with the endogenous variables. The details of Upazila wise current adaptation status are in Supplementary Figures 1, 2. Descriptive Statistics Table 1 lists the variables used in the econometric model, along with their units of measurement. As observed, the average rate of adoption of exotic rice varieties was 52%. The average age Drivers for Adopting Exotic Varieties: A of the rice farmer was 43 years, and they had an average of 7 Cognitive Approach years of education. Farming was the only source of income for Yield Advantage 39% of respondents, and on average, 2.21 persons per family In wet season (Figure 4), the domestic hybrid Dhanigold (5.45 were involved in farming. The respondents’ average family size t/ha) has the highest yield, followed by Hira-2 (5.05 t/ha), ACI (4.58 no.) was close to the national average of 4.5. Around 35% (4.93 t/ha), Guti swarna (4.54 t/ha), BRRI dhan49 (4.41 t/ha), of respondents were small farmers, while the remaining farmers BRRI dhan52 (4.38 t/ha), and so on. However, the exotic inbred were classified as medium, and/or large. Nearly 39% of farmers, Guti Swarna (38.91%) had the highest adoption rate followed by however, cultivate their own land. domestic varieties BR11 (17.59%), BRRI dhan52 (12.90%), BRRI About 33% of the respondents received rice production dhan49 (5.19%), and so on. training. On average, they cultivated 1.69 varieties per farm. The combined effect of yield and adoption rate is depicted The average distances from farm households to the extension in each zone of Figure 4. The adoption rate of Guti swarna, office and nearby markets were 8.68 and 0.96 km, respectively. BRRI dhan49, and BRRI dhan52 is higher in zone A, owing to Yield of exotic rice varieties over domestic was 0.48 ton/ha, comparatively higher yield given the rapid recovery stress, seed with a market price differential of 0.44 US$/quintal in favor of availability, and good taste. Conversely, the adoption of BR11 exotic varieties. Although the average price difference is low, the (Zone D) was higher than that of BRRI dhan49 and BRRI dhan52 coefficient of variation explained higher price variability. About (owing to good eating quality) despite the yield was significantly 47% farmers reported favorable weather for rice cultivation in the lower at only 3.85 t/ha. This is due to a genetic potential that study period. Nearly 38% farmers received rice price information decreased after being cultivated for a long time, a factor that is from the market. compounded by its susceptibility to sheath blight disease and Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) infestation. Other varieties had high RESULTS yield potential (Zone B), but a number of factors, including poor grain quality, farmers’ inability to save seeds for the following Ten Years’ Adoption Status of Exotic and planting season, and a scarcity of high-quality seed, slowed Domestic Cultivars adoption. The reasons behind the low adoption and low yielding This study investigates the last 10 years’ domestic and exotic varieties (Zone C) were long growth duration (that hinders early varieties’ adoption patterns. Figure 3 shows that the rate of Rabi crops), severe pest and disease infestation, and unavailability domestic varieties area coverage in wet season has decreased from of quality seed. 78% in 2011 to 58% in 2019. On the contrary, there has been a In the dry season (Figure 5) domestic variety was found to sharp increase in the area coverage of exotic varieties from 22 to dominate, BRRI dhan29 (6.90 t/ha) yielded the highest, followed 42% over the same time period. If the current trend continues, by BRRI dhan58 (6.71 t/ha), Zira (6.57 t/ha), BRRI dhan28 (6.24 exotic varieties will soon outnumber domestic varieties, which t/ha), Moazzem zira (6.18 t/ha), and so on. There is a significant is a major concern for domestic varietal security. Based on difference in the adoption of the exotic variety Zira (70.72%) FGDs, the exotic rice variety called “Indian swarna” was first compared to the nearest adopted domestic varieties BRRI dhan28 Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 5 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice TABLE 1 | Descriptive statistics of variables (n = 1,260). Variable Description Mean CV Max Min Adoption intensity Adoption percentage of exotic varieties 0.52 0.69 1 0 Household characteristics Age Age of the rice grower (year) 43.41 0.21 57 22 Education Education of the household head (year) 7.41 0.58 16 0 Occupation Dummy: 1 = if only farming, 0 = Otherwise 0.39 1.24 1 0 Household size Number of household members 4.58 0.19 7 3 Family labor Number of family member engaged in farming 2.21 0.37 4 1 Farm characteristics Farm size Dummy: 1 = small farm, 0 = Otherwise 0.35 1.38 1 0 Land type Dummy: 1 = if household has own land, 0 = otherwise 0.39 1.26 1 0 Institution and infrastructure Training Dummy: 1 = Farmers received rice production training, 0 0.33 1.43 1 0 = Otherwise Distance to extension office Distance from house to Upazila Agriculture Office (km) 8.68 0.56 16 0.50 Distance to market Distance from house to local market (km) 0.96 0.78 4 0.10 Varietal information and market Yield difference Yield of exotic rice varieties over domestic (t/ha) 0.48 5.74 5.91 −4.50 Price differences Price of exotic rice varieties over domestic varieties 0.44 27.88 25.66 −22.03 (US$/quintal) Cultivated varieties Number of cultivated rice varieties per farm 1.69 0.45 4 1 Environmental factor Weather condition Dummy: 1 = Good weather, 0 = Otherwise 0.47 1.07 1 0 Instrumental variables SD of yield difference Standard deviation of exotic and domestic rice varieties 0.12 2.20 0.66 −0.11 yields differences Received market price Dummy: 1 = Yes, 0 = Otherwise 0.38 1.26 1 0 information 1 US = 83.75 Bangladeshi currency (BDT). Data source: Field survey 2019–20. FIGURE 3 | Ten years (2010–11 to 2019–20) adoption status of wet and dry season rice varieties. “***” Denote 1% level of significance. Data source: Upazila agriculture office, Rangpur and Bogura, Bangladesh. (15.16%), BRRI dhan29 (4.76%),Khato-10 (1.36%), BRRI dhan58 BRRI dhan28, along with better grain quality and easy farm- (0.96%), and so on. gate transaction. However, the productivity of BRRI dhan28 Zira (Zone A) is rapidly gaining popularity for its higher has been declining over time due to its higher susceptibility average yield difference (0.33 t/ha) than the prior mega variety to blast disease and severe lodging problems. Although BRRI Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 6 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice FIGURE 4 | Interaction effects of adoption rate and yield of wet season rice varieties. Blue color dots indicate domestic cultivars, and red color dots indicates exotic cultivars. The English alphabet presenting “A, Higher yield vs. higher adoption zone; B, Higher yield vs. lower adoption zone; C, Lower yield vs. lower adoption zone; and D, Lower yield vs. higher adoption zone. FIGURE 5 | Interaction effects of adoption rate and yield of dry season rice varieties. Blue color dots indicate domestic cultivars, and red color dots indicates exotic cultivars. The English alphabet presenting “A, Higher yield vs. higher adoption zone; B, Higher yield vs. lower adoption zone; C, Lower yield vs. lower adoption zone; and D, Lower yield vs. higher adoption zone. dhan29 and BRRI dhan58 (Zone B) produced higher yields than but an inadequate supply of seed explained their low adoption other varieties, their lower adoption rate can be attributed to rate. Rest of the varieties in Zone C had lower yields with low a longer growth period, bold grain, and a lack of quality seed. adoption rates because of their high susceptibility to blast disease, Importantly, Moazzem zira and Khato-10 had yield potentiality, bold grain, and scarcity of quality seed. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 7 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice Price Variation has a higher price for its aroma and grain quality, but it has In wet season (Figure 6), the average farm-gate price for a lower adoption rate because the average consumer prefers domestic BRRI dhan34 was found to be the highest (43.50 non-aromatic parboiled rice. US$/quintal), followed by BRRI dhan49 (25.59 US$/quintal), The varieties Guti swarna, BR11, and BRRI dhan52 (Zones Guti swarna (25.15 US$/quintal), BR11 (24.71 US$/quintal), A and D) demonstrated higher market acceptance rates at the Mamun swarna (24.13 US$/quintal), and so on. BRRI dhan34 miller level for their medium bold type of grain and increased FIGURE 6 | Interaction effects of adoption rate and market price of wet season rice varieties. Blue color dots indicate domestic cultivars, and red color dots indicates exotic cultivars. The English alphabet presenting “A, Higher price vs. higher adoption zone; B, Higher price vs. lower adoption zone; C, Lower price vs. lower adoption zone; and D, Lower price vs. higher adoption zone. FIGURE 7 | Interaction effects of adoption rate and market price of dry season rice varieties. Blue color dots indicate domestic cultivars, and red color dots indicates exotic cultivars. The English alphabet presenting “A, Higher price vs. higher adoption zone; B, Higher price vs. lower adoption zone; C, Lower price vs. lower adoption zone; and D, Lower price vs. higher adoption zone. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 8 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice consumer demand in the southern part of Bangladesh. Besides, because it is highly susceptible to false smut disease. Although head rice and filled grain percentages for Guti swarna and BR11 Zone B varieties are low adopted, exotic varietiesMamun swarna are much higher. The higher price of domestic variety BRRI and Ranjit swarna have the potential to expand their coverage dhan49 (zone A) for its “Naizershail” (a popular consumer brand area due to their better grain quality and higher market price. with huge market demand) type grain and increased demand at Varieties in Zone C have low adoption and market price, which is the miller level. Also, rice processors were keen to supply milled primarily explained by their inferior grain quality (stickiness). BRRI dhan49 by the brand name of BR49, Pajam, andNazir after Figure 7 shows that during the dry season, the farm-gate price grading that would allow them to derive a price advantage of of exotic rice varieties Sampa katari (28.67 US$/quintal), Zira up to 5.97 US$/quintal. The adoption rate of BRRI dhan49 was (28.35 US$/quintal), and Moazzem zira (28.07 US$/quintal) is comparatively lower than that of Guti swarna (Zone A) mainly higher than that of domestic rice varieties BRRI dhan63 (26.83 FIGURE 8 | Interaction effects of yield and market price of wet and dry seasons rice varieties. Blue color dots indicate domestic cultivars, and red color dots indicates exotic cultivars. The English alphabet presenting “A, Higher yield vs. higher price zone; B, Higher yield vs. lower price zone; C, Lower yield vs. lower price zone; and D, Lower yield vs. higher price zone. TABLE 2 | Comparative varietal traits of wet and dry seasons rice varieties. Season Cultivar Positive traits Negative traits Wet Domestic (a) Medium to long plant height (a) Medium to long growth duration (b) Poor recovery capacity from any stresses (c) Management sensitive and needs intensive care (d) Medium to high disease infestation (e) Low to medium insect pest infestation (f) High probability of lodging (g) Low straw digestibility Exotic (a) Moderate growth duration (a) Comparatively shorter plant height (b) Less disease and insect pest infestation (c) Quick recovery capacity from any stresses (d) Low probability of lodging (e) Needs less intensive care (f) High straw digestibility Dry Domestic (a) Good taste to eat (a) Highly susceptible to blast (b) Moderate growth duration (b) Moderate lodging problem due to panicle weight and weak stem (c) Good quality straw (c) Susceptible to insect pest infestation Exotic (a) Comparatively less susceptible to disease (a) Long growth duration (b) Good taste to eat (b) Moderate lodging problem due to panicle weight and weak stem (c) Susceptible to insect pest infestation Other important traits such as shattering, grain size and shape, milling outturn, and amylose content had no influence on the adoption rate due to similar results irrespective of seasons and inbred varieties. For example, shattering is a disadvantage if crops ripen, and harvesting is delayed. With the exception of Guti swarna, the milling recovery did not change significantly. Both exotic and domestic varieties have the same amount of amylose and grain appearance that consumers prefer. We generalized the trait preferences here. However, actual traits vary depending on the variety. Variety-specific traits are supplied in Supplementary Tables 3, 4. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 9 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice US$/quintal), BRRI dhan50 (25.09 US$/quintal), and BRRI and dry seasons. Figure 8 (left-hand panel) shows that the yield dhan28 (23.88 US$/quintal). Despite the high price, farmers dispersion was much greater than the price dispersion during did not widely adopt exotic varieties due to their long growth the wet season. The domestic variety BRRI dhan34 appears as duration, high production costs, and the delays they generate in an outlier. During the dry season (right-hand panel in Figure 8), cultivating pre-monsoon season crops. however, both price and yield disperse significantly. Nevertheless, The interaction effects of adoption rate and themarket price of exotic varieties are found primarily in zone A during both Zira and BRRI dhan28 (Zone A) were higher, but there was a vast seasons, indicating a clear association between the level of dispersion between these varieties. This dispersion is mainly for adoption and higher than average market price and yield. By higher milling outturn, long slender type grain, and good taste. contrast, most of the traditional domestic varieties exhibit low Long slender grain domestic varieties BRRI dhan50 and BRRI adoption rates because they embody lower yield and a lower dhan63 (Zone B) obtained higher market prices, but they are market price (Zone C). susceptible to neck blast disease, resulting in a lower adoption rate. Both the market price and adoption rate of Zone C rice varieties were lower due to the relatively bold type grain, which Varietal Traits does not sell well in the Bangladeshi rice market. Agronomic, grain quality, and pest and disease resistance traits As previously stated, yield and market price are the two are paramount for variety diffusion and future rice breeding main drivers of exotic variety diffusion during both the wet programs. Although we mentioned some variety-specific trait preferences in the yield and price section, this section documents farmers’ generalized trait preferences for exotic and domestic varieties. Farmers in FGDs identified the advantage of cultivating TABLE 3 | Per hectare input use pattern of domestic and exotic rice varieties by domestic varieties in the wet season as long plant height, which seasons. yields more straw (Table 2). During the wet season, the main Input item Wet season Dry season reasons for farmers’ low adoption of domestic varieties are their susceptibility to the most common pests and diseases Domestic Exotic Domestic Exotic in rice, such as sheet blight, bacterial blight, and false smut. Domestic cultivars are also more vulnerable to rat attacks that Human labor (man-day/ha) 67 60 73 78 could result in severe crop damage. Under adverse conditions Hired 52 49 58 60 (cool elevated, submerge-prone, and drought-prone), domestic Family 15 11 15 18 varieties perform poorly. Domestic cultivars also have the Seed (kg/ha) 36 39 36 38 disadvantage of being unable to be used in cropping patterns due Fertilizer (kg/ha) 442 394 517 533 to varying growth duration, as well as the need for extra field care Urea 179 171 176 181 when exotics have the opposite traits. TSP 82 72 82 79 Farmers identified domestic varieties that are good in taste MoP 95 77 124 132 during the dry season; however, the taste of exotic varieties DAP 33 26 52 66 decreases when cooked rice becomes cold and hard. The straw Gypsum 49 41 72 69 quality of the domestic varieties is good, and it can be sold ZnSO4 3 3 7 3 for cattle feeding, providing farmers with extra income. In the Theovit 1 4 2 1 contrary, exotic varieties have a broader spectrum of disease Boron - - 2 2 resistance which is the main trade-off for adoption, though they TSP, Triple superphosphate; MoP, Muriate of potash; DAP, Di-ammonium phosphate; are susceptible to insect pests. A heavy panicle weight combined ZnSO4, Zinc sulfate. Data source: Field survey 2019–20. with a weak stem may lodging domestic and exotic varieties. FIGURE 9 | Comparative profitability of domestic and exotic rice varieties cultivation by seasons. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 10 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice Input Use Patterns is lower. However, domestic variety requires significantly more Rice production in the wet season is less costly than in the dry fertilizer, which accounts for a significant portion of the cost. season (Table 3). In wet season, domestic variety was found to be Turning to the dry season, exotic varieties demanded more more labor intensive than exotic. The seed rate for exotic varieties labor for farming operations due to longer field duration. Even was slightly higher than for domestic varieties. Approximately though domestic varieties require less seed than exotic varieties, 63% of farmers used domestic seed obtained from formal sources farmers used far more seed than the scientific recommended such as the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation rate (25–30 kg/ha) (BRRI, 2018). Exotic cultivars required more (BADC) and private companies. In comparison, roughly 76% fertilizer than domestic varieties. To sum up, farmers used fewer of farmers obtain exotic seeds from informal sources, such as inputs for domestic inbred cultivars than for exotics. According their own or neighboring farmers, whose germination capacity to FGD findings, farmers tended to invest fewer inputs altogether FIGURE 10 | Cumulative probability distribution of gross margin of domestic and exotic rice in 2019–20 at farmers perceived seasonal variation in yield and price. (A,B) denote wet and dry seasons, respectively. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 11 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice for dry season domestic rice varieties as they were losing interest (MOA, 2015) in the study areas. Small and marginal farmers in its cultivation due to higher environmental and market risk. are unable to collect seed because extension services are often biased toward large-scale farmers (Tiongco and Hossain, Stochastic Profitability 2015). A poor connection with the extension officer makes it Figure 9 shows that during the wet season, the cost of difficult to obtain timely information about farm operations. producing one quintal of domestic variety is 21.43% higher Lack of proper demonstration e.g., field day, leaflets, posters, than the cost of producing exotics. However, according to the pamphlets, and announcements limited farmers’ access to Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), exotic varieties are an economically proper information about newly released varieties. Late sharing appealing choice for farmers. Instead of incurring losses, of agronomic, grain quality, and pest and disease resistance many farmers continue to cultivate domestic inbred for traits frequently reverses adoption decisions. To summarize, home consumption. the spread of new varieties is dependent on farmers’ varietal During the dry season, the production costs of exotic and security in terms of accessibility, availability, connectivity, domestic varieties are roughly equivalent, but exotic varieties are and confidence. about 13% more profitable than domestic varieties. Notably, the BCR of exotic varieties is higher in the dry season (1.23) than in the wet season (1.16). The reason for this is that most farmers Determinant of Exotic Varieties Adoption: cultivate for commercial purposes in order to capitalize on higher An Econometric Approach exotic variety prices during the dry season. We used four different econometric models here to find out Although farmers’ adoption decisions are driven by profit the adoption determinants of exotic rice varieties (Table 5). maximization, they are frequently associated with taking Model I and II are the fractional logistic regression models, environmental and market risks to reap the benefits. Therefore, which contain endogeneity issues. However, we addressed we conducted a stochastic risk analysis and displayed the these endogeneity issues by employing two stages control estimated cumulative probability distribution functions (CDFs) function approach in Model III. For checking robustness, of gross margin over the last 5 years for domestic and exotic we bootstrapped the results with 1000 iterations in Model varieties in Figure 10. CDFs show that farmers have over IV. The findings in Table 5 indicates that Model III is the 95% chance of having a gross margin per hectare over 264 robust estimation. USD for the wet season and 290 USD for dry season exotic The results reveal that the level of education of farmers rice cultivation. The probability of domestic rice varieties has a negative impact on adoption intensity. A higher level having the aforementioned gross margin decreased to 65 and of education encourages farmers to adopt reliable technology 71% for wet and dry seasons, respectively. The risk analysis (domestic variety) along with increased access to information results indicate that the lower risk of adopting exotic varieties (TV, newspaper, radio, etc.) and the use of connectivity (seed explains the growing trend of exotic variety diffusion in both dealers, extension workers) (Guarini et al., 2018; Branca and wet and dry seasons under the current environmental and Perelli, 2020). As mentioned previously, exotic varieties require market conditions. less intensive care to produce, which means that farmers who work multiple jobs have less time in the field and are Varietal Security Factors more likely to adopt exotic varieties. Contrary to expectations, Farmers identify six major factors impeding the adoption of household members’ involvement in farming is associated with newly released rice varieties that are associated with production a decrease in the adoption intensity of exotic varieties. A risk (Table 4). The public sector’s distribution of new seeds possible explanation is that the cultivation process requires and quality seeds is insufficient in comparison to demand less labor. As a result, they are more eager to grow exotic rice varieties than domestic varieties, not only to reduce crop failure risk (Di Falco and Chavas, 2009) but also to gain a yield advantage. TABLE 4 | Drivers for slow adoption of newly released rice varieties. Farmer’s training as the institutional network has a negative and significant effect on the adoption of exotic varieties. This Group Reasons for slow adoption Responses (%) Rank is obvious, as training increased farmer access to information Availability Insufficient and delay seed supply 58.00 1 about the technologies and farming practices (Mariano et al., Connectivity Inadequate information 56.25 2 2012; Aryal et al., 2018) of domestic varieties, as well as increased Confidence Uncertainty about yield, pests and 43.08 3 integration with extension officers. On the other hand, farmers diseases, and market demand who live farther from the extension office have fewer contacts Connectivity Poor communication among 40.17 4 with extension personnel and receive less information about research, extension, and farmers domestic varieties, making them more likely to adopt exotic Accessibility Lack of farmer demonstration 31.58 5 varieties. This demonstrates the importance of regular extension Connectivity Delay in sharing feedback on 15.50 6 contact in encouraging farmers to adopt rice varieties (Ghimire demonstrated varieties et al., 2015; Chandio and Yuansheng, 2018). The distance to The summation of percentages is not equal to 100 because of the same respondent’s market as a proxy for infrastructure has a negative influence on multiple answers. Data source: Field survey 2019–20. exotic variety adoption decision. The shorter market distance Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 12 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice reduces the transaction costs associated with transporting seeds finding is strongly evidenced the current adoption nature of and inputs, increases access to market information (Mottaleb exotic rice varieties throughout the country. et al., 2014; Aryal et al., 2018), more access to new technologies, and facilitates the sale of products. As expected for varietal traits, increased yield (Laborte et al., 2015) and price variation have DISCUSSION a positive effect on varietal selection. The greater the yield and price, the higher the rate of adoption of exotic varieties, and Bangladesh is now self-sufficient in rice production. The vice versa for domestic varieties. A favorable environment has country has made remarkable strides in rice production since a negative effect on exotic rice varieties’ adoption decisions. independence, tripling output in the last four decades (Anas, That means stress environment increases eagerness to cultivate 2019). However, the researcher projected that the current exotic varieties. The current rice production environment in production would fall short of meeting future food demand. Bangladesh is more vulnerable to climate change (Ali et al., 2021), By 2050, the population of Bangladesh will reach 215 million farmers are affiliated to adopt stress resilience varieties. So, this (United Nations, 2017) necessitating the production of additional TABLE 5 | Quasi-MLE of endogenous fractional logistic regression for adoption of exotic rice varieties. Variable Model I Model II Model III Model IV Household characteristics Age 0.006* (0.003) 0.008** (0.004) 0.001ns (0.003) 0.001ns (0.003) Education −0.019** (0.007) −0.028*** (0.009) −0.039*** (0.013) −0.039*** (0.014) Occupation −0.285*** (0.061) −0.382*** (0.078) −0.201*** (0.057) −0.201*** (0.058) Household size −0.017ns (0.036) −0.008ns (0.045) −0.011ns (0.033) −0.011ns (0.033) Family labor −0.048ns (0.037) −0.092* (0.047) −0.028* (0.015) −0.028* (0.016) Farm characteristics Farm size 0.922*** (0.116) 1.435*** (0.118) 0.028ns (0.157) 0.029ns (0.170) Land type 0.189*** (0.046) −0.180*** (0.058) 0.025ns (0.055) 0.025ns (0.057) Institution and infrastructure Training received −0.265*** (0.073) −0.781*** (0.087) −0.300*** (0.092) −0.300*** (0.097) Distance to extension office −0.016** (0.007) −0.057*** (0.009) 0.016** (0.007) 0.016** (0.007) Distance to market −0.088ns (0.100) −0.536*** (0.107) −0.583*** (0.103) −0.583*** (0.108) Varietal information and market Yield difference 0.537*** (0.039) – 1.354*** (0.214) 1.354*** (0.238) Price differences 0.101*** (0.010) – 0.167*** (0.013) 0.167*** (0.013) Cultivated varieties −0.030ns (0.043) −0.058ns (0.050) 0.052ns (0.042) 0.052ns (0.043) Environmental factor Weather condition −0.525*** (0.061) 1.502*** (0.075) −0.929*** (0.179) −0.929*** (0.187) Constant −0.612** (0.302) −1.015** (0.341) −1.149*** (0.403) −1.149*** (0.433) Residual of yield difference from 1st stage - - −0.975*** (0.220) −0.975*** (0.242) Residual of price difference from 1st stage - - −0.087*** (0.008) −0.087*** (0.008) Diagnostic statistic Goodness of fit, Wald χ2 2285.02*** 1414.58*** - - Pseudo R2 0.418 0.272 - - Log Pseudolikelihood −507.340 −635.158 −351.202 −351.202 Wald test for endogeneity (Residual of yield difference from 1st stage) - - 19.62*** 16.23*** Wald test for endogeneity (Residual of price difference from 1st stage) - - 109.62*** 107.75*** Wald test for endogeneity (Joint test) - - 137.47*** 136.96*** Instrument relevance F statistic (Yield difference) - - 210.03*** 210.03*** Instrument relevance F statistic (Price difference) - - 19.05*** 19.05*** Akaike information criterion (AIC) 1044.680 1296.316 0.584 0.584 Bayesian information criterion (BIC) 1121.763 1363.121 −8772.585 −8772.585 Bootstrap replication - - - 1,000 Number of observations 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260 “***”, “**”, and “*” denote significant at 1, 5, and 10% levels of probability, respectively. “ns” means not significant. Dependent variable: Adoption percentage of exotic varieties; Endogenous variables: Yield difference and price difference; Instruments: Standard deviation of yield difference and market price information. Model I: Fractional logistic regression without addressing endogeneity issue; Model II: Fractional logistic regression excluding endogenous variables yield and price differences; Model III: Endogenous fractional logistic regression with control function approach (Clustered standard error); Model IV: Endogenous fractional logistic regression with control function approach (Bootstrapped standard error). Figure in the parentheses indicates robust standard error of Model I and Model II. Data source: Field survey 2019–20. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 13 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice 10 million tons of rice (Mainuddin and Kirby, 2015). Therefore, most relevant product profile concepts under environmental it is critical to select rice varieties that produce a high yield, have and market conditions during varietal development. good grain quality, low production cost, are resistant to pests and • Domestication of exotic varieties: Breeders may purify and diseases, and can withstand stresses (Mariano et al., 2012; Laborte select pure lines of the existing popular exotic varieties and et al., 2015; Kabir et al., 2019; Mainuddin et al., 2021). This study release them for the concerned areas through the certification demonstrated that exotic rice varieties have higher yields and of the national seed board for minimizing transboundary prices than domestic varieties. Given the fact that adoption of disease outbreaks. exotic varieties is increasing during both the wet and dry seasons. • The popular varieties can be traded between two countries According to a study conducted in Northwest Bangladesh, exotic through a seed exchange agreement. The “seed-without- cultivars have diffusion rate between 76 and 85% of total wet border” initiative sponsored by the International Rice season rice area. Farmers prefer cultivating exotic rice cultivars Research Institute (IRRI) and Bangladesh is a party provides to avoid yield losses due to abiotic and biotic stresses (Kabir et al., a useful and ready-to-use framework in this regard. 2019). Additionally, the low production costs and high profit • “Seed Village” at the farmer level recommended in Kabir margins enable farmers to switch (Mainuddin et al., 2021) from et al. (2019) should be established to accelerate quality seed domestic to exotic varieties. production and multiplication. Food security and household welfare are two avenues by • The client-focused extension services should be improved which the adoption of improve varieties may benefit farmers. by providing training to the farmers and extension Exotic varieties could provide farmers with the advantage personnel at the beginning of each season, enlarging for rice self-sufficiency and food security by increasing yield. effective demonstration programs, and ensuring updated Farmers received a higher yield hence more rice for household knowledge and information. members (Minten and Barrett, 2008; Mainuddin and Kirby, • A fair farm-gate price should be offered for 2015; Mansaray and Jin, 2020). Increased food consumption may market stabilization. benefit the food intake of the members, resulting in boost food security for the farm household. This may result in a decrease CONCLUSIONS in expenditure on rice and an increase in purchasing power for other required diets. According to a study of Malawian Farmers in the border region of Bangladesh prefer exotic varieties farmers, yield stability enables households to either escape or that have yield advantage, higher market price, less inputs endure stress conditions such as drought (Kassie et al., 2011). requirement, higher profitability, better agronomic qualities such Additionally, increased production rises farmers’ incomes from as lower risks of infestation by pests and diseases, a better surplus rice sales (Arouna et al., 2017; Islam et al., 2019) which aptitude to fit in various cropping patterns, quick recovery may enable farmers to provide adequate, safe, and nutritious food capacity from stresses especially drought, less labor requirements, to their families. and other socio-economic factors such as education, occupation, Drawing from literature, improved rice varieties have a and family labor. Unless new, improved domestic varieties positive effect on farmers’ welfare (Nguezet et al., 2011; Awotide can compete on these factors, exotic varieties will most likely et al., 2012; Islam et al., 2019; Mainuddin et al., 2021) that also continue to dominate. Researchers, policymakers, extension goes for the exotic variety. Income increases could be used to personnel, and farmers must collaborate to identify and develop lift households above the poverty line. Likewise, farmers may the most viable market-driven breeding alternatives to mitigate purchase farm assets such as machinery or livestock, enhancing the potential effects of an over-reliance on exotic varieties. These the farm household’s capacity to generate higher levels of future technologies could have remarkable impacts in accelerating farm income (Mathenge et al., 2014; Verkaart et al., 2017). farmers’ welfare and sustaining food security in Bangladesh. The Farmers who grow exotic cultivars may thus have the potential findings are also helpful for other rice-growing countries for the to become better off than they were earlier. same purposes. While exotic varieties contribute to farmers’ socioeconomic well-being, their widespread dissemination poses a threat to DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT domestic cultivars. Especially, the possible risks of unauthorized exotic rice variety adoption are- erode the genetic diversity The original contributions presented in the study are included of domestic varieties, low return on investment in varietal in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be development, transboundary disease outbreak, etc. These risks directed to the corresponding authors. could be mitigated by developing demand driven rice varieties by the national breeders. Therefore, it is urgent to incorporate identified exotic varieties adoption traits into the national AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS breeding program formulation. Keep this in mind, we provide MARS: conceptualization. MARS and JB: methodology. MCR policy intervention under four pillars: research, technology, and MI: formal analysis. MARS, MCR, and MSR: investigation. extension, and market for tailoring rice varieties adoption. MARS, MCR, MSR, MRS, and MI: data curation. MARS, • Transforming conventional breeding system into multi-stress MCR, MSR, and MRS: writing—original draft preparation. and market-driven breeding: Rice breeders must prioritize the MK and JB: writing—review and editing and supervision. All Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 14 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice authors have read and agreed to the published version of Agricultural University who did a tough and valuable job the manuscript. as enumerators. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL The authors are thankful to Mr. Md. Abdullah Al Mamun, Scientist of Agricultural Statistics Division, BRRI, for his The Supplementary Material for this article can be found support and comments regarding the statistical analysis. We online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs. also would like to acknowledge the students of Bangladesh 2022.813933/full#supplementary-material REFERENCES at: http://brri.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/brri.portal.gov.bd/page/ 6d86d7~2e_953c_4f74_9157_3cfeaa80c2b1/BRRI_Annual_Report_14-15.pdf Agricultural Diary (2020). Area and Production of Field Crops in Bangladesh. (accessed October 27, 2021). Agriculture Information Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of the BRRI (2018). Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. Modern Rice Cultivation. 21st People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Edn. Gazipur, Bangladesh. Available online at: http://knowledgebank-brri.org/ Ahmed, A. U., Hernandez, R., and Naher, F. (2016). “Adoption of stress-tolerant wp-content/uploads/2020/06/ADC.pdf (accessed October 27, 2021). rice varieties in Bangladesh,” in Technological and Institutional Innovations BRRI (2020). Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. Annual Report of Bangladesh for Marginalized Smallholders in Agricultural Development, eds F. Gatzweiler, Rice Research Institute 2019–2020. Gazipur, Bangladesh. Available J. von Braun (Cham: Springer), 241–255. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-257 online at: http://brri.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/brri.portal.gov. 18-1_15 bd/page/6d86d72e_953c_4f74_9157_3cfeaa80c2b1/2020-11-03-14-54- Ali, S., Ghosh, B. C., Osmani, A. G., Hossain, E., and Fogarassy, C. (2021). 7dc2bdb340e7ee58edc0826fabcb9cb0.pdf (accessed October 27, 2021). Farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies for reducing the risk of rice Bryan, R. T. (1996). “Alien species and emerging infectious diseases: Past lessons production: evidence from Rajshahi district in Bangladesh. Agronomy 11:600. and future applications,” in Proceedings of the Norway/UN Conference on Alien doi: 10.3390/agronomy11030600 Species, eds G. T. Sandlund, P. J. Schel, A. Viken (Trondheim: Norwegian Anas, A. Z. M. (2019). ADB Lauds Bangladesh for Self-Sufficiency in Rice Output. Institute for Nature Research), 74–80. The Financial Express. Available online at: https://thefinancialexpress.com. Chandio, A. A., and Yuansheng, J. (2018). Determinants of adoption of bd/economy/bangladesh/adb-lauds-bangladesh-for-self-sufficiency-in-rice- improved rice varieties in Northern Sindh, Pakistan. Rice Sci. 25, 103–110. output-1572258603 (accessed October 20, 2021). doi: 10.1016/j.rsci.2017.10.003 Anderson, J. R., and Dillon, J. L. (1977). Agricultural Decision Analysis. Iowa State Chavas, J. P., Chambers, R. G.;, and Pope, R. D. (2010). Production economics University Press. and farmmanagement: a century of contributions. Am. J. Agricult. Econom. 92, Arouna, A., Lokossou, J., Wopereis, M., Bruce-Oliver, S., and Roy- Macauley, 356–375. doi: 10.1093/ajae/aaq004 H. (2017). Contribution of improved rice varieties to poverty reduction DAE (2021). Department of Agricultural Extension. Weekly Crop (27 Crop) and food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Glob Food Secur. 14, 54–60. Production Report. Department of Agricultural Extension, Ministry doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2017.03.001 of Agriculture, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Aryal, J. P., Rahut, D. B., Maharjan, S., and Erenstein, O. (2018). Factors Dhaka, Bangladesh. affecting the adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural practices in Di Falco, S., and Chavas, J. P. (2009). On crop biodiversity, risk exposure, and food the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Nat. Resour. Forum. 42, 141–158. security in the highlands of Ethiopia. Am. J. Agricult. Econom. 91, 599–611. doi: 10.1111/1477-8947.12152 doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8276.2009.01265.x Awotide, B. A., Diagne, A., and Omonona, B. T. (2012). Impact of Improved Ghimire, R., Huang, W. C., and Shrestha, R. B. (2015). Factors affecting adoption Agricultural Technology Adoption on Sustainable Rice Productivity and Rural of improved rice varieties among rural farm households in Central Nepal. Rice Farmers’ Welfare in Nigeria: A Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE) Sci. 22, 35–43. doi: 10.1016/j.rsci.2015.05.006 Technique. Paper Prepared for Presentation at the African Economic Guarini, G., Laureti, T., and Garofalo, G. (2018). Territorial and individual Conference, Kigali, Rwanda. educational inequality: a capability approach analysis for Italy. Econ. Modell. BBS (2020a). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics. 71, 247–262. doi: 10.1016/j.econmod.2017.12.016 Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the Hardaker, J., Huirne, R. B., Anderson, J. R., and Lien, G. (2004). Coping With Risk People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. in Agriculture. Wallingford: CABI. doi: 10.1079/9780851998312.0000 BBS (2020b). (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics) Statistical Pocket Book Bangladesh. Hazzel, P. B. R. (2009). The AsianGreen Revolution. IFPRIDiscussion Paper 00911 Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the (Paper Prepared for the Project “Millions Fed: Proven Successes in Agricultural People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka 104–106. Development”), Washington, DC. BINA (2021). Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture. Release varieties. Husain, A. M. M., Hossain, M., and Janaiah, A. (2000). Hybrid rice adoption in Available online at: http://www.bina.gov.bd/site/page/48637d37-bdec-4301- Bangladesh: a socio-economic assessment of farmers’ experiences. Research 9dd8-90d1d703b47b/- (accessed October 27, 2021). Reports. Economic Stud. 15, 154–206. Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/ Bose, M. L., Isa, M. A., Bayes, A., Sen, B., and Hossain, M. (2000). “Impact of 10361/12492 (accessed November 01, 2021). modern rice varieties on food security and cultivar diversity: the Bangladesh Islam, M. A., Rahman, M. C., Sarkar, M. A. R., and Siddique, M. A. B. (2019). case,” in Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation, eds S. Peng, Assessing impact of BRRI released modern rice varieties adoption on farmers’ B. Hardy. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, Los welfare in Bangladesh: application of panel treatment effect model. Bangladesh Banos, Philippines. Rice J. 23, 1–11. doi: 10.3329/brj.v23i1.46076 Branca, G., and Perelli, C. (2020). ‘Clearing the air’: Common drivers of climate- Kabir, M. J., Islam, M. A., Rahman, M. C., Rahaman, M. S., Kabir, smart smallholder food production in Eastern and Southern Africa. J. Cleaner M. S., and Siddique, M. A. B. (2019). Diffusion of wet season (T. Produc. 270:121900. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121900 Aman) rice cultivars under changed environment in Northwest Brolley,M. (2015).Rice Security Is Food Security forMuch of theWorld. Rice Today. Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice J. 23, 81–106. doi: 10.3329/brj.v23i1. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Metro Manila, Philippines, 30–32. 46084 BRRI (2016). Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. Annual Report of Bangladesh Kabir, M. S., Salam, M. U., Islam, A. K. M. S., Sarkar, M. A. R., Mamun, M. A. A., Rice Research Institute 2014–2015. Gazipur Bangladesh. Available online and Rahman, M. C., et al. (2020). Doubling rice productivity in Bangladesh: Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 15 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933 Sarkar et al. Adoption Determinants of Exotic Rice a way to achieving SDG-2 and moving forward. Bangladesh Rice J. 24, 1–47. Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., and Morrison, D. (2005). Update on the environmental doi: 10.3329/brj.v24i2.53447 and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Kassie, G. T., La Rovere, R., Mwangi,W., Erenstein, O., Langiynato, A., and Sonder, Ecol. Econom. 52, 273–288. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002 K. (2011). Drought risk and maize production in Southern Africa-lessons for Rahaman, M. S., Sarkar, M. A. R., Rahman, M. C., and Kabir, M. J. (2020). Ethiopia. In: Paper Presented at the 13th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Drivers of adoption of BRRI cultivars in Boro season among farm households Economics of Ethiopia. of Mymensingh district, Bangladesh. J. Bangladesh Agricult. University 18, Laborte, A. G., Paguirigan, N. C., Moya, P. F., Nelson, A., Sparks, A. H., and 660–666. doi: 10.5455/JBAU.102132 Gregorio, G. B. (2015). Farmers’ preference for rice traits: Insights from Rahman, M. C., Islam, M. A., Rahaman, M. S., Sarkar, M. A. R., Ahmed, farm surveys in Central Luzon, Philippines, 1966-2012. PLoS ONE. 10:136562. R., and Kabir, M. S. (2021). Identifying the threshold level of flooding for doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136562 rice production in Bangladesh: an empirical analysis. J. Bangladesh Agricult. Lien, G. (2003). Assisting whole-farm decision-making through stochastic University 19, 243–250. doi: 10.5455/JBAU.53297 budgeting. Agricult. Syst. 76, 399–413. doi: 10.1016/S0308-521X(02)00079-3 SCA (2021). Seed Certification Agency. Approved Varieties of Notified Crops in Mainuddin, M., Alam, M. M., Maniruzzaman, M., Kabir, M. J., Mojid, M. A., Bangladesh. Seed Certification Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Government Hasan, M. M., et al. (2021). Yield, profitability, and prospects of irrigated boro of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Available rice cultivation in theNorth-West Region of Bangladesh. PLoSONE. 16:250897. online at: http://www.sca.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/sca.portal.gov.bd/ doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250897 publications/f53b6fda_6e1b_4b89_87ff_1cfbb3139d58/Approved%20varieties Mainuddin, M., and Kirby, M. (2015). National food security of %20of%20Notified%20Crops%20in%20Bangladesh..compressed.pdf (accessed Bangladesh to 2050. Food Security 7, 633–646. doi: 10.1007/s12571-015- November 01, 2021). 0465-6 Siddique, A. (2016). Rice Production Limited to a Few Varieties. Mansaray, B., and Jin, S. (2020). Do the determinants of food security differ in Available online at: https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/ improved rice variety adoption? Evidence from Sierra Leone. Open Agriculture 09/19/rice-production-limited-varieties?__cf_chl_managed_tk__= 5, 466–484. doi: 10.1515/opag-2020-0047 pmd_3992cdc5ec49413c5192c5c16c4dc704e2959fe6-1627671410-0- Mariano, M. J., Villano, R., and Fleming, E. (2012). Factors influencing farmers’ gqNtZGzNAvijcnBszQpi (accessed November 04, 2021). adoption of modern rice technologies and good management practices in the Tiongco, M., and Hossain, M. (2015). Adoption of Modern Varieties and Rice Philippines. Agricult. Syst. 110, 41–53. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2012.03.010 Varietal Diversity on Household Farms in Bangladesh. HarvestPlus Working Mathenge, M. K., Smale, M., and Olwande, J. (2014). The impacts of hybrid maize Paper, No. 22. seed on the welfare of farming households in Kenya. Food Policy 44, 262–271. United Nations (2017). The World Population Prospects, The 2017 Revisions: Key doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.013 Findings and Advance Tables. Department of Economics and Social Affairs, McCullagh, P., and Nelder, J. A. (1989). Generalized Linear Models, 2nd Edn. New Population division, New York, USA. York, NY: Chapman and Hall. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-3242-6 USBC (2001). Statistical Abstract of the United States 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Minten, B., and Barrett, C. B. (2008). Agricultural technology, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Government Printing Office. productivity, and poverty in Madagascar. World Dev. 36, 797–822. Verkaart, S., Munyua, B. G., Mausch, K., andMichler, J. D. (2017).Welfare impacts doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.05.004 of improved chickpea adoption: a pathway for rural development in Ethiopia? MOA (2015). Ministry of Agriculture. The National Seed Policy. Ministry of Food Policy 66, 50–61. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.11.007 Agriculture in Bangladesh: Dhaka, Bangladesh. Wooldridge, J. M. (2015). Control function methods in applied econometrics. J. Mottaleb, K. A.,Mohanty, S., andNelson, A. (2014). Factors influencing hybrid rice Human Resources 50, 420–445. doi: 10.3368/jhr.50.2.420 adoption: a Bangladesh case. Austral J Agricul Resource Econom. 59, 258–274. doi: 10.1111/1467-8489.12060 Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the Mullahy, J. (2015). Multivariate fractional regression estimation of econometric absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a share models. J. Econom. Methods 4, 71–100. doi: 10.1515/jem-2012-0006 potential conflict of interest. Muqtada, M. (1981). Poverty and famines in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Dev. Stud. 9, 1–34. Publisher’s Note: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors Nguezet, P. M. D., Diagne, A., Okoruwa, V. O., and Ojehomon, V. (2011). Impact and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of of improved rice technology (NERICA varieties) on income and poverty among the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in rice farming households in Nigeria: A Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE) this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or approach. Quart. J. Int. Agricul. 50, 267–291. doi: 10.22004/ag.econ.155535 Papke, L. E., and Wooldridge, J. M. (1996). Econometric methods endorsed by the publisher. for fractional response variables with an application to 401 (k) plan participation rates. J. Appl. Econom. 11, 619–632. Copyright © 2022 Sarkar, Rahman, Rahaman, Sarker, Islam, Balie and Kabir. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199611)11:6andlt;619::AID-JAE418andgt; This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 3.0.CO;2-1 Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums Pathaichindachote, W., Panyawut, N., Sikaewtung, K., Patarapuwadol, S., and is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited Muangprom, A. (2019). Genetic diversity and allelic frequency of selected and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted Thai and Exotic rice germplasm using SSR Markers. Rice Sci. 26, 393–403. academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not doi: 10.1016/j.rsci.2018.11.002 comply with these terms. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems | www.frontiersin.org 16 February 2022 | Volume 6 | Article 813933