COX-SC’LT.4TI\-E GR0I.P ON ISfERS.-I\TIOS.\L

XGRICULTUR.-IL

RESEXRCH

19 April

1982

FROM:

The Secretariat

ICW/82/5

Consultative

Group Xeeting

Nay 24 - 26, 1982 Agenda Item 6

Attached is a copy of a Letter from the Chairman of the Technical Advisory Committee to the Chairman of the Consultative Group transmitting a copy of the report of the Study Team engaged by TX on Xater Xanagement Research and Training (XGD/TXC:LW82/4). ALSO attached is a copy of T&Z's "Conclusions and Recozzendations on Water Xanagement" and extracts from the reports of the first and second meetings of the TX Steering Group on Xxter Management Research and Training. Water managemen: will be considered Consultative Group Fleeting in Xay. under Agenda Item 6 at the

Attachments Distribution CG Members TX Chairman Dr. Cumings TX Secretariat Chairman of Center Chainan of Center For information:
TX M-b L -L. 2rs

Chairmen of Center Center Directors Board Chairen Directors

Boards

CONSULTATIVE
FOOD

GROUP ON JXTERNATIONAL l-ECHh!ICAL
AND Via dcjlc Tc,rx Cabks: FOODAGRI

AGRICULTURAL CO322WXTEE
OF -I-HE U?T;ED NATlONS

RESEARCH

ADVISORY

AGRICLZTL’RE’ORGAP;IZATION

di Cr?rz,=l!!a, CXJlKl Rcz-c, Itely RO.VE - Tclcx: 61181 FOODAGRI -r&cphme: 5797

Return Address: 812 Rosemont Avenue Raleigh, NC 27607 5 April 1982

Hr. Warren C. Baum, Chairman Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Dear Mr. Baum: I am forwarding herewith, on behalf of the Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR, its report and recommendations concerning the Irrigation Eanagement proposal for establishment of an International The major features of the proposal, as recommended by the Institute. TAC, are as follows: 1) The establishment Institute. of an International Irrigation Management

multidisciplinary staff of approximately 2) A headquarters, 15 to 20 full-time professionals supplemented, where necessary, . by shorter term consultants and contracted professionals. 3) Location in a developing country vicinity to a living irrigation operational research. 4) A modest diagnostic facilities. installation laboratories, in the close or immediate system in which it will conduct

of buildings to house staff offices, shops, warehouse, and necessary

support

5) Involvement of an interdisciplinary team at headquarters in actual operational research in nearby living irrigation systems, as well as providing coordination and support to a network of cooperating operational research and training units based in national systems. 6) Small teams of professional staff outposted irrigation operational research units which above network. 7) In-service training of professional researchand assistance in broader ing countries. in selected participate national in the

teams engaged in operational training programmes in cooperat-

l:‘r . Warren C. Baum 5 April 19S2 Page 3

8) These operational research activities in real life conditions of irrigation systems should serve as a basis for the methodologies and experience of advancement of knowledge, wide applicability in the rational management of irrigation systems, to achieve maximum returns from water supplies and enhancing the productive capacity of irrigated lands, making full use of the complementary talents of diverse relevant disciplines and institutional mechanisms to this effect. 9) An estimated annual operational budget, when fully operational $4 .to 5 million. A nonafter 3 to 4 years, of approximately recurring capital investment estimated at approximately 2.5 to 3.0 million US dollars. These recommendations are elaborated further in the minutes the 27th TAC meeting which are appended herewith and commended for careful study. of

While the TAC is convinced that a new international initiative in irrigation management research along these lines is urgently needed, it is recognized that this would-require the mobilization of additional funds over and above those necessary for the efficient functioning and impact of the institutions already financed by the system. TAC is unable to recommend any new major initiative which would be undertaken at the expense of the activities of the present system, some of which are now seriously underfunded. Thus, if the CGIAR agrees with the TAC analysis of the need and the general line of approach, a sub-committee of CGIAR members who have an active concern for the subject would need to consider additional measures for financing the activity and specific me'asures for its implementation. Sincerely yours, _

Ralph W. Cummings Chairman, TAC (through RWC:aa Attachments: (1) i2j (3) Minutes meeting Report and recommendations on irrigation water of the Study Team of the Steering 1481

PIarch,

1982)

of the 27th TAC management

Summaries of the two meetings Committee held October 15-16, and February 11-12, 1982

. ,-

TAC Conclusions

and Recommendations

on Water Management "

TAC confirmed that, among diverse possible new initiatives which the CGIAR could undertake, research and training in the field of irrigation management remains the subject area given the highest priority by the There was also a consensus within the Committee to reaffirm Committee. that a substantial increase in the international efforts in this field would not have the necessary focus, impact, visibility and support if it were implemented within one or several existing international institutions of the CGIAR, which have important activities in water management, but which also cater principally for research and/or development activities in other any new international initiative in this field should fields. Nevertheless, take due account of these ongoing activities and be closely related to them so as to allow for their full implementation and their mutually supportive interaction and thus avoiding duplication of efforts. TAC is convinced that in line with the principles established in its priority paper 21 a new initiative.in the field of irrigation management research and training requires the mobilization of sufficient additional funds over and above those necessary for the efficient functioning and While the impact of the institutions already financed by the system. Cptittee would not recommend the funding of this new initiative at the expense of the activities of the existing system, some of which are already underfunded, it would also advise against a reduced level of funding for this new proposal leading to its fragmentation, the postponement of the implementation of some of its elements, and/or their execution by parallel activities. TAC is convinced that the proposal must be a coherent whole which has the required minimum size to make sufficient progress and have significant effects on the improvement of irrigation management of developing countries. TAC noted that careful examination of the report of the Study Team has enabled the Committee to advance its own thinking, obtain supporting evidence and gain a wider understanding of the problems, needs and opportunities for an international initiative in irrigation management. The Committee commended the work of the Study Team for the comprehensiveness and the depth of their analysis, and in particular for the major progress made in the identification of some of the research areas which deserve international attention. TAC also noted that there is a large degree of coincidence between its earlier proposal and that presented by its Study Team as regards the multidisciplinary/whole system approach, the importance the objectives,

_. :

:.

L/ 21

Extract paras.

from the Draft 92 - 97. Rev.

Report 1, pp. ii

of the

27th

TAC Meeting paras. 7(i)

(SGD/TAC:IAR/82/15), and (ii).

AGDfTAC:IAR/79/1

and iii,

.

2 of conducting research in the-real life conditions of several irrigation the close cooperation with national systems in different regions, These aspects were elaborated programmes and the mode of governance. further by the Study Team in a most useful and convincing way and are fully endorsed by TAC. TAC also identified some differences between its earlier proposal for an international institute and the institute proposed by the Study were more in terms of degree, format Team. In some cases, these differences and.nuances, whereas there were also others which related to some more basic and substantive aspects. It was noted that within the Study Team, among the members of the Steering Group and among the TAC members themselves, some of these differences were expressed and that some would have to be addressed and resolved during the subsequent stages of the consideration of the proposal by the CGIAR and of its implementation under specific conditions of funding, location of headquarters and the practical arrangements for cooperation and provision of facilities with the countries which would host Several of these questions the headquarters and the field activities. should, therefore, be left for solution during these subsequent stages -l/. c some differences of a more substantive There are, nevertheless, nature between the earlier proposal of TAC and that of the Study Team. TAC recommends that these differences be resolved by keeping in mind the following guiding principles:
(i>

The programme of the institute must be innovative and imaginative in its conceptual approach by which it will address complex problems in a comprehensive and integrated manner, in close collaboration with national programmes but with relatively limited means in terms of staff and facilities. It would differ considerably.inthis respect from the existing model of international centres. It will also differ from it by the nature of its output which will be essentially in terms of methodologies and know-how in management of present and future The expected impact of this initiative should be irrigation systems. measured in terms of expected improvements in the adjustments of policies, institutional structures, management practices of irrigation systems and increased competence and effectiveness of the national professionals involved in irrigation management. The impact of the institute in these areas, mostly through promotional and catalytic action, should nevertheless have considerable multiplying effects on the overall improvement of the output of irrigated agriculture and on the cost/benefits of existing and future investments in irrigation development. Similarly the proposed institutional model is expected to be different in its approach from that of ISNAR or of the field programmes and projects of FAO, UNDP, the World Bank and several bilateral programmes, in that it would not be merely responsive to requests but would have a research and training programme of its own, _. ------ ..-... , _ .- '_ I >.... _Namely the decisions for the establishment to be taken by the CGIAR, by the executing agency of the institute, by the Board and the Centre Director

l/

3 the scope of which would be determined by the overall common priorities of developing countries rather than local requirements. (ii) demands and by specific

While it is essential that a large part of the research progamme of the institute should be implemented in the real life conditions of irrigation systems and in close collaboration with other national and international institutions, it is equally essential that the staff of the proposed institution retain a sufficient degree of control and independence in the direction of their research. It is, therefore, important that, wherever necessary, this international staff can have sufficient means and facilities of their own both at headquarters and in the field to carry out their research and training programmes in line with the general mandate and objectives of the proposed institute, with the efficiency and standards expected from similar activities in the CGIAR system; In this regard the experience and mode of operation of the water management programme of IRRI may be considered as a prototype of research activit_ies closely associated with a national programme, which the proposed institute would seek to promote and replicate in diverse ecological and socioeconomic conditions. -It will, however, not ordinarily engage staff in specific sectoral component research but should enlist the cooperation of other research national and international institutions to this effect. TAC noted that this emphasis on complementarity and its multiplying effects is fully in line with the basic terms of reference of the CGIAR and the recommendation of the last CGIAR Review. The Committee stressed that there might be some cases, however, where the institute may have to engage itself in some critical aspects of component research, and a sufficient degree of flexibility should be accorded to the Institute in its operation both at headquarters and in the field to this effect. TAC, therefore, recognized that this flexibility and the principle of a close association with national programmes should require both a headquarters of a sufficient size as indicated in (vi) below and some mobility in the outposted staff of the institute proposed. TAC agreed, therefore, with the Study Team that, with this approach the Institute should not require several field stations of its own (satellites) as initially envisaged . TAC also generally supported the views of the Study Team as to the different possible levels of involvement and cooperation of the outposted staff with the national programmes. TAC wished to and research methodologies the institute. should enable research. A not merely to emphasize the importance of the phase of investigations (both multi-disciplinary and disciplinary) in the proposed by the Study Team for the field activities of The analysis of the irrigation systems as a whole the'identification of key constraints which call for large part of the work of the institute should be devoted problems diagnosis and diagnosis methodologies but also

(iii)

, 4 ‘.

to research aiming at-making major advances, actually improving the management of irrigat\ed areas in practical terms and monitoring the The headquarters staff, which will be involved in effects thereof. the comparative analysis and compilation of results from action research in the field, should therefore be themselves in close contact with the realities of the field problems so as to avoid the development of trends towards academic intellectual studies in an ivory tower. To this end it will be essential that the headquarters be placed in a location where there are ample opportunities for research by all relevant disciplines. It should, therefore, be placed where members of the institute's core staff and their national counterparts have immediate access to the irrigated areas where they will carry out field research.
(iv>

TAC therefore,recommended that the headquarters of the proposed institute be located in a developing country. TAC also approved of the other criteria proposed for the headquarters location, noting that they generally correspond to those used for other CGIAR initiatives. It also supported the idea of an interchange at appropriate intervals (2-3 years) between the core staff carrying out research on methodologies and training at headquarters and the core staff outposted in the teams conducting action research in different regions. Moreover, the headquarters staff should have an active participation in some of the field activities not only in the vicinity of its headquarters but also by making regular visits to the outpostkd staff in other regions. While there is a general agreement with the Study Team that the size of the headquarters staff should be relatively limited, the above considerations lead TAC to recommend that an action research project with the requisite interdisciplinary team should be included in the headquarters and should work in an irrigated area. The number of headquarters staff should therefore be slightly larger than that proposed by the Study Team and in the range of 15 to 20 senior professionals, supplemented where needed by shorter-term consultants or contractual specialists. A staff of this size would permit more adequate attention to agricultural aspects of irrigation management. The size of the outposted staff may also depend on the opportunities offered by the diverse locations selected for action research. It was noted that, beside the staff which will be outposted for relatively long periods (2-3 years), headquarters staff, consultants, contract specialists, research fellows and other visiting scientists may join for shorter periods the outposted staff. Moreover, as indicated already, an interchange of headquarters and outposted core staf-f at appropriate intervals (2-3 years) is recommended. Nevertheless, TAC felt that in some cases the outposted staff, if spread as proposed by the Study Team, may not be sufficient to create the necessary critical mass and impact at one location, even though they will mostly have a catalytic role and work within national research teams. TAC would,

.

(v)

5 recommend that, therefore, while agreeing the outposted staff (about 10 professionals) stages, they should be deployed in groups (vi) on the proposed size of at least in the initial of three to four.

The involvement of the proposed institute in dissemination of knowledge by means of publications, seminars and training will evolve with time as the research progresses and this in the same way as for other IARCs. It should be stressed, however, that the trainingprogrammes at headquarters are likely to be relatively limited and mostly include workshops and seminars (of the type conducted by IFPRI, ILCA and ISNAR). whereas larger training programmes are expected to develop through the national institutions in which the institute staff will make critical inputs in terms of curricula development, organization, in-service training, and training of the trainees. Here again, the institute is not expected ordinarily to involve itself heavily in specialized training on system components and sectoral aspects, but focus its attention to the overall methodologies of irrigation system management. Here again also, it is expected that the institute will play an important role not only in strengthening the national programmes directly but also in facilitating the mobilization of other sources of expertise and assistance for training and in developing methodologies for wider applicability for the professional development of managers and irrigation systems and for a closer cooperation and a better communication among professionals of diverse disciplines (engineers, agriculturists, social scientists, management specialists, etc.) within the national institutions. Although there is wide agreement on the modest size of the headquarters facilities, TAC stressed the need for the headquarters to have a modest amount of land and buildings of its own is preferable to the use of rented accommodation as proposed by the Study Team. This may, of depend on the opportunities offered at the site of the selected course, However, TAC would see the need for facilities which would location. be close in terms of size to those initially suggested in its earlier proposal. The need for training hostel facilities, guesthouse, and staff housing would, however, depend on the location. These may not be necessary if the site is close to a major city but in the vicinity of suitable irrigation areas. The mode of operation of the institute both at headquarters and in the field clearly indicates the critical role which the headquarters agreement and agreements with the countries hosting outposted staff will It tiill be essential that the agreements prevent the risks for play. the core staff, both at headquarters and outposted, to be unduly involved in actual day-to-day operational and managerial activities of irrigation systems which are normally incumbent to their national counterparts and which would be outside of the objectives of their own research. Their role should also be clearly different from what

(vii)

(viii)

6 is normally expected from the staff of technical assistance agencies, It should concentrate and construction firms. consulting engineers, on management research and training activities which have relevance to the general objectives of the institute as spelt out in the Study engaged in field At the same time, the core staff Team proposal. research should have the possibility to be actively associated with They should not be involved the management of irrigation systems. nor in-specialized training, unduly in sectoral component research, although they should have some opportunities to maintain their expertise and competence by carrying out some specialized activities TAC would, there.fore, reoommend in their respective disciplines. that special attention be given.to these points in negotiating the agreements with the host countries. A broad consensus emerged as a result of the above discussions and observations and on this basis the Chairman recapitulated the observations and recormnendations of the Committee as follows: Recapitulation General
1)

on Irrigation

Water Management

Observations

The TAC reiterates its full and strong conviction, previously expressed that irrigation management is and fully supported by the Study Team's report, a subject of highest importance and priority, justifying international attention through the CGIAR. . The TAC gives its very high commendation to the work of the Study 2) Team, reinforced by advice of a widely representative steering committee, which has assisted greatly in advancing TAC's thinking on the particular role which an international initiative in this field, supported by the CGIAR, should fulfill. The Team has brought together a rich background of supporting evidence regarding the problems, needs, opportunities, and unique research and training opportunities which the International Institute should address. It has also stressed and further analysed the complementarity of the contributions which other agencies and organizations can and need to make in relation to this effort. The TAC wishes to recognize the very substantial contributions in funds, 3) personnel, and other support which several members of the Group have made toward the recent work of the Study Team and its Steering Committee, particular1 the Ford Foundation, the World Bank, the USAID, the United Nations Development The Program, the Netherlands Government'and the Federal Republic of Germany. earlier study by the team under Sir Charles Pereira, supported by the International Development Research Center (IDRC) as well as contributions and .. suggestions, too numerous to mention individually, from FAO, IBRD, LINDP, the

7 individuals and organizations Ford Foundation, at various stages are acknowledged with sincere bjor ----.Features of the Proposal of many nations appreciation. contacted

as Endorsed --I_riL-_- bv TAC Irrigation Management Institute.

1)
2)

The establishment

of an International

A headquarters' multidisciplinary staff of approximately 15 to 20 full-time professionals supplemented, where necessary, by shorter term consultants and contracted professionals. Location in a developing country 3) to a living irrigation system in which in the close or immediate it will conduct operational vicinity research. diagnostic

A modest installation of buildings to house staff offices, 4) and necessary support facilities, laboratories, shops, warehouse,

Involvement of an interdisciplinary team at headquarters in actual 5) operational research in nearby living irrigation systems, as well as providing coordination and support to a network of cooperating operational research -and training units based in national systems. Small teams of professional staff outposted in selected national irrigation operational research units which participate in the above network.
6)

In-service training of professional 7) research and assistance in broader training countries.
8)

teams engaged in operational programmes in cooperating

These operational research activities in real life conditions of irrigation systems should serve as a basis for the advancement of knowledge, methodologies and experience of wide applicability in the rational management of irrigation systems, to achieve maximum returns from water supplies and enhancing the productive capacity of irrigated lands, making full use of the complementary talents of diverse disciplines and institutional mechanisms to this effect. An estimated annual operational budget, when fully operational after three to four years, of approximately $4 to 5 million. A non-recurring capital investment estimated at approximately 2.5 to 3.0 million US dollars.
9)

Recommendations

to the CGIAR new international initiative in the field of and training along the above lines is urgently mobilization of sufficient additional funds for the efficient functioning and impact of

TAC is convinced that a irrigation management research needed. This would require the over and above those necessary

.

8 , the institutions already financed by the system. Further, while not being able to recommend the funding of such a new initiative at the expense of the seriously underactivities of the existing system, some of which are already funded, it would also advise against a reduced level of funding for the new proposal in irrigation management which would lead to its fragmentation, the and/or their ineffective postponement of important and essential elements, execution. TAC is convinced that the proposal should be considered as a coherent whole w'nich has the required minimum size to enable it to make sufficient progress and have significant effects on the improvement of irrigation management of developing countries.

,

AGD,'TAC:IAR/82/4 Restricted

THE CONSULTATIVE GROUP ON INTERNATIONAL AGRIClLTURAL RESEARCH

REPORT OF THE TAC STUDY TEAM ON WATER MANAGEMENT RESEARCHAND TRAINIKG

TAC SECRETARIAT FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS April 1982

Dr.

R. Cummings Technical Advisory Committee Agricultural Research Group on International

Chairman, Consultative

Wageningen, The Netherlands February 23, 1982

Dear Sir, I take report Final review changes, the pleasure draft, not in transmitting because it minor the Study appreciates corrections you herewith the final draft of the

of the TAC Study but because and introduce by its of training

Team on Water Management an opportunity

Research

and Training.

Team contemplates and amendments the Study

any substantial to make a final if necessary.

As instructed the aspects rent that activities

Terms of Reference, and research not range. carry

Team has identified water Curwater Instead come and attention. it was recognized review. which needs

activities receiving related

on irrigation sufficient to irrigation

management which management the we have closest covering To fill small ing cover

are presently in research an enormous Team could concerns not on those

and training out

From the outset

Study in their major these

a comprehensive and programmes to meeting major

concentrated

institutions

and activities

gaps in irrigation gaps the Study

management. an international network proposal through responsibility efforts. be If spin-off can best its initiative with recogniza

Team recommends

in irrigation that

management, improvements irrigation that

organized

as an international systems performance, a national efforts

headquarters.

The Study management, concerned, outside

Team has developed is primarily support

on irrigation requiring of research,

improved It

of each country was concluded in approached properly effects

a multiplicity to national training should needed.

of national and information.

the fields

implemented on improved are almost

such activities institutional universally

have favourable which,

arrangements,

as the Study

Team noted,

rage

L

In view report

of a serious

time.constraint, the Study that, It

no full

account

is

given

in

the

of the discussions Team also cover feels

Team had with

numerous

organizations the scale effect

and individuals The Study report irrigation the structure The Study does not

in a number of countries. due to the same time detail the subject that this unlikely constraint, of small would in sufficient is however effort. the main within thrust of its Terms of Reference, of the CGIAR. require is is of of

development.

of the proposed line with

Team, in

has based its As the report early nantly that mostly

practical demonstrates action.

proposals

the frame work of irrigation an organization problem therefore

the problems The CGIAR is A practical a field is universally

management with

and adequate agricultural irrigation needed, is

a predomiaction support

focus. management, almost

to be faced

where multidisciplinary dominated done will need the active

by the disciplines

engineering, professionals The concern studies an international performance The Study decide ing

and that of that

whatever discipline.

of the CGIAR has manifested this level of irrigation Team feels that the report,is to deal systems a point task described with

itself

in

several Appropriate

inquiries action in

and on the

of which

the most recent. the worldwide is urgently that or, it has been reached

deficiencies that it

required. the CGIAR must by supportnot drop should Either

how to complete herein unless

has assumed. failing sponsor that,

the approach

the matter sibility. On behalf gratitude support

and until

some other

has taken

on the respon-

of the Study to the Steering in carrying

Team I should Committee task.

like

to acknowledge

our

debt for

of their

and the TAC Secretariat

out our *

Yours sincerely, TAC Studyfi earn on Water Management,

:t,':

Ir.

F!E.

Schulze

Teamleader.

TABLE OF COKTENTS

Srmrmary Definitions 1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 Introduction The Importance Objectives Food Production The Social The Scale Production The Potential Performance Gauging Current Physical Farming Institutional 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 Potentials Current Research Training for Efforts for Future Production Systems Needs of Irrigation of.Irrigation and Significance and Significance of Irrigation and Acronyms

. . . 111

Vlll

...

1

6 10 I4 14 16

of Irrigation

Performance Deficiencies works systems arrangements Better *

System operation Management Management 18 22 22 24 25

to Improve Efforts

The Range of Current

4.4 4.5

Information Multi-activity FAO-ISP CGIAR-IRRI

Exchange (International (International

and Professional Support Rice

Networks

26 29

International

Programmes Programme) Research Institute) Project) Synthesis

TJSAID-WXSP (Water Management 4.6 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Annex 1 Conclusion Further Action Research Training A Balance Alternatives Requirements Alternative Approach Governance Closing Comment Needs for Research on Practices for Professional Selected between Activities for Research,

31 Training and Information 33 33 34 Management Development Information 36 38 39 40 42 Initiative 42 44 46 50 52 53 53 Requirements 55 56 58 Group on Water Management Research 59 TAC Study Team on Water 60 62 62 Research 101

Introduction

Disseminating

and the Proposal of a New International Institutional Recoranended Arrangements

Means of Operation Staff Other Requirements Operational Location

Headquarters Cost Estimate TAC Steering and Training

Annex 2

Terms of Reference, Management, Research

and Training Countries

Annex 3

Current Index

Situation to Annex 3

in Selected

Annex 4

A Note on Action

SUMMARYOVERVIEW

The Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has commissioned a 3-person Study Team to report on water management research and training. Its terms of reference include investigating current research and training, identifying gaps and needs, and if appropriate, proposing action. Countries visited include France, Mexico, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Senegal, Beside national departments Sudan, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.A. and agencies, the Study Team has also consulted representatives of a number of international organizations, private organizations and numerous individuals. The proposals which follow have been developed through these discussions, but are the responsibility of the members of the Study Team serving in their individual capacities. alone, The importance of irrigation and drainage is indicated by its current scale and associated agricultural production, by projected increases and Of over 200 million hectares investment, and by its social significance. irrigated in the world in 1979, over 70 percent were in 22 developing countries. The livelihoods of 800-1000 million people in developing One estimate is that countries depend directly on irrigated agriculture. in Asia, investment in new irrigation in the next decade could be of the Sri Lanka, India and Mexico are among the order of $75 to $100 billion. countries projecting a doubling of irrigated area by the end of the century. Moreover,. irrigation has enormous social significance. With poor management, it can have severe adverse effects, especially through waterlogging, salinity, and the spread of waterborne and water-related diseases. With good management, it can have an immense impact on production and welfare - increasing output, raising incomes, employment and wages, reducing farmers' risks, and restraining migration to overcrowded towns. The production potential from irrigation is indicated by current yields and efficiencies. Country-wide average yields of paddy (rough rice) in the range from 1.5 - 3.0 tons per harvested hectare reflect rainfed conditions and irrigation with inadequate control, while averages of 5.0 - 6.0 reflect almost complete coverage by irrigation, and advanced water management Irrigation efficiencies, defined as the amount of water delivered practices. to the root zones of the crops as percentage of the amount diverted, have systems have been found to average about 30 percent only, while well-managed efficiencies of 60 percent or more and also allow for higher cropping intensities. Poor performance is often linked with severe deficiencies in irrigation management. These arise from inadequate planning (withnarrowobjectives, and neglect of non-irrigation aspects), from defects in lack of realism, design (neglecting requirements, for flexible operation, on-farm development, and drainage),and especially from deficiencies in operation and maintenance iii

-

(including farmers' maintenance).

participation,

the distribution

of water,

and financing

Good irrigation management specialisation leads away training and professional neglect and undervalue the

requires a multidisciplinary approach, but civil engineering In particular, from this. formation reward and value construction and vital activities of operation.

Actions are underway in most countries to remedy the deficiencies but must be greatly strengthened and accelerated if the essential food and social targets which can be achieved through irrigated agriculture are to be met. Many current deficiencies in irrigation management are linked with institutional problems. Institutional changes are a national concern and responsibility but outside support can encourage and catalyse change in conditions favourable to collaboration and where this is acceptable. Many of the current efforts in research, training, and information for irrigation management have the narrow focus of a single discipline or group of disciplines. Thereare.notable exceptions but these do not, and cannot be expected to, cover all the gaps and needs for research, training and information in their full multidisciplinary and international scope and range of aspects. Three principl'es management: underlie an effective not just approach parts; w to improving irrigation

analysis of whole multidisciplinarity; field orientation.

systems,

Against this background the Study Team has identified the following areas where an international effort has a key roie in supporting national activities as well as activities applicable to all countries rather than to a single country. These are: support to and cooperation with in existing irrigation projects; national agencies in action

research

reseazxh on practices for irtigation management, including diagnostic analysis, information systems for monitoring and for system management, water scheduling and delivery, institutional development, and planning and design; trcrining irrigation for professional development;

.

-

-

disseminating
concluding of irrigation

selected
management;

information,

and exchange for

of experiences more rapid

in

studies to determine priorities potentials world-wide.

realization

iv

Special attention is proposed to action research as a vehicle, mechanism Action research involves diagnostic and spur for other activities. identification of interventions, benchmark studies, experimental analysis, treatments with monitoring, deriving lessons and solutions, and then extending these more widely. The benefits from good action research in the Philippines, Pakistan and elsewhere have been high, and the,methods deserve rapid development and dissemination. To promote and implement the activities, the Study Team recommends an organized along the lines

International

Irrigation

Management Insti$ute

of an international network. The support of the Institute to national activities would be both indirect and direct. Indirect support includes an information network, a network to link together existing action research, and workshops and seminars. Direct involvement and support would include variously funded action research, and staff support for national institutes of irrigation management and for regional training. Indirect support would be relatively quick and easy to mount, requiring a minimum of reconnaissance and negotiation, and is strongly recommended. But in itself it is unlikely to achieve the desired impact. Direct support is therefore recommended to countries that request it. The Study Team proposes that a particular country's involvement can be at a number of different levels, according to whether it participates in an information and/or action research network, whether funds or staff are provided for action research, and whether a national institute or regional training are supported. Six possible degrees of involvement are shown in the attached chart. For a particular country, the degree of involvement would be largely according to the desires of that country, subject however to negotiation and agreement with the Institute, The degree of involvement could also increase and develop over time. To carry out its tasks, the Institute would have a small interdisciplinary 'core staff' of some 8-12 professionals plus a field staff which would be built up gradually, depending on agreements reached with a number of participating countries. The core staff would be on a travel status during about a third of their time. The headquarters of the Institute, would consist of offices only without any further physical irrigation facilities, in which respect it differs from the existing centres of the CGIAR system (except for ISNAR, IBPGR, and IFPRI). THis is so since action research would be carried out on actual irrigation systems. the command area covered by action research In practice, will often be in the range of, say, 100 to 10,000 hectares. The governing Board of the Institute would include: (a) the principal donor organizations; representatives lb) irrigation developing countries; and (c) professionals representatives of of leading in their personal

.

,

capacity who have had pertinent experience in planning, research, training Since the Governing Board might have or operation of irrigation systems. for it to meet more than as many as 20 members, it would not be feasible It might therefore be advisable to have a Program Committee once a year. It might be possible of say 6 members made up of persons as under (c). for these persons to serve both on the Governing Board and the .Program Committee. would amount to 4.5 million US once in full operation, The total costs, 1982 dollars per annum. In the Study Team's view the approach proposed will no doubt have to be The approach is not without risk, but improved and modified over time. since the costs of delay are also very high, it is a risk which should be taken. >

vi

Increasing levels involvement

of

I

II

III

IV

v

VI

Information, seminars, workshops Action research network Action research supported Training partially funded
-~

x

x

x

X

x

x

in X actively X X -x x X X x x

X

x

x

Regional

Training

X

c-1

Support for national irrigation,management centge International visits in residence staff: x x X o-2 X l-2 x 1-3

X

x 2-4

The number of outposted international staff in each country involved The number could, however, be would thus vary from none to four. raised if funding and agreements were forthcoming.

vii

DEFINITIONS

AI4D ACRONYMS

Definitions

'Irrigation'
may also

throughout include flood

includes control, for if

drainage works realisation

(surface to prevent the

and sub-surface) or reduce Team's flood emphasis not benefits.

and dam-

age are considered

essential

of irrigation Study

'Ir,tigation
that improved of water, in irrigation in in the

management'
irrigation of irrigation but

is used to reflect performance systems of people

depends - both

on the management including farmers besides the central, which of canals, and those water. water

only

as a whole, inputs

the management who work As managenot the and the canals,

of information indicated ment' exclusive, Study on-farm

and controls, organisations, the terms terms 'water

and of other management' water

and 'irrigation

of reference,

remains analysis between outlet, the

though

focus

of attention.

'Main sy.dkrn mzd on-farm
Team adopts system. The main and minors of India, in Egypt.

system'.
system is

In the

follows, branch

the normal

distinction

the main system

the network

distributaries chak in parts head ditch) controlled mally connnunals,

down to the

known variously canal often system

as the usually noras

the mogha in Pakistan, The outlet separates organization, On smaller controls community

and the meska (farmer's system

by an irrigation by farmers. farming the

and the on-farm

controlled

systems,

described

the whole

system.

Vbll

*..

Growing

seasons to April.

and rice-growing Cool period crops: Rot period Important rice, rice; already.

schedules crops. wheat, crops9 Irrigation barley. withor.:t: irrigation rice. without Deep water irriOften where sorghum, required

Rahi season:
because

October

of low rainfall.

Important

Khrif
Aus:

season:
Transplanted

April-Qctoher. are adequate. or broadcast or transplanted much earlier rice,

monsoon rains irrigation, rice gation

crops: March August Without

Cotton, to mid-June.

otherwise

supplemental. to mid-November. or with usually supplemental fully irrigated.

A?nan: Broadcast sometimes only. Transplanted

Boro:

December-February,

Acronyms ART1 BRRI CADA CGIAR CID
: : : : . .

Agrarian Bangladesh Consultative Consortium Western State,

Research Rice

and Training Research Institute

Institute (India)

(Colombo)

Command Area Development for International Davis

Authority

Group on International Colorado, California, de Mejoramiento (India) Institute

Agricultural Utah, Riverside Oregon,

Research of Washington

Development

(a consortium California, (a

US Universities: Arizona, International Mexico) Commission Use Project Varieties Agricultural by the (Pakistan) for Plan Water Water Idaho)

Texas Tech, CIMMYT CWC DRIP EWUP FAO HYV IARC IBP IBPGR ICID IDRC
:

Centro Central Drainage Egyptian

de Maiz y Trigo

CGIAR center,
: : : : : :

and Reclamation

(Pakistan)

(WRC + CID)

Food and Agriculture High Yielding International centers Indus agency, Basin

Organisation Research CGIAR) . Plant Genetic Resources (a CGIAR Center (one of the

supported

: :

International Rome) International International

Bureau

: :

Commission Development

on Irrigation Research

and Drainage Council (Canada)

ix

IFPRI ILRI IRRI ISNAR ISP MO1 NIA ODA ODI PARC SCARP TAC UPRIIS USAID WAPDA WMSP WRC

:

International

Food Policy

Research

Institute

(a CGIAR and Improve-

:

agency, Washington D.C.) International Institute for ment (Wageningen) Rice Research for Support International Philippines) International Research

Land Reclamation Institute Support

:

(a CGIAR center, to National for Agricultural

:

Service

(a CGIAR agency, (Rome)

the Netherlands) Programme Farm Water

:

FAO's International Management Ministry National Overseas Overseas Pakistan Revised Salinity Technical (Philippines) of Irrigation Irrigation Development Development Agriculture Action Control Advisory

: : : : : : . . : :

(Egypt) Administration Agency Institute Research (UK) (UK) Council Project Irrigation (Pakistan) Rome) System Development Ltd., New Delhi (Pakistan) (a CID activity) (Philippines)

Programme

(Pakistan) (a CGIAR committee,

and Reclamation Committee Integrated for

Upper Pampanga River United Water Water States Agency

:

International Services Authority Project

WAFCOS :
: : :

and Power Consulting and Power Development Synthesis Center

Water Management Water Research

(Egypt)

,_. : * ‘.,

‘. -,

X

INTRODUCTION

Water management first national warded meeting

has ,been a subject 1971. Kesearch Centre

of discussion reports (IDRC) early

by the TAC since prepared by the InterCanada)

its

in January

Several

Development

(Ottawa,

were forNeeds on manage1979. As by the With the for

to and discussed

by the TAC in the in 1976. g needs in in

seventies. on Research of water in July elaboration for this a proposal

At the request A report ment, Sir

of the TAC, PA0 prepared and trainin was discussed in the proposal to establish

a review

Water Use and Management on research for Pereira, prepared Charles

the field

the TAC by an IDRC team of consultants, the TAC meeting further required

headed by

a number of points TAC, it the help Research This International October water sultative proposal, reasons 1980. was decided

a Sub-committee the TAC formulated Institute for

purpose.

of the Sub-committee of an International was forwarded Centres In the meeting deserves but doubts high and Training.

establishment proposal

Water Management CGIAR during that its in

to and discussed general priority to its agreement for

by the

Week and Consultative

Group meeting emerged consideration

in Manila irrigation by the

management Group,

Con-

were expressed

as to the concept institutional are mainly it model.

of the Two main

particularly were given:

in respect

the problems recognizing should activities.

of irrigation the need for

management increased national

location-specific; that this international

effort,

was felt

be met by strengthening

and on-going

The Consultative to assist tutional In its specific sible This but models. meeting

Group suggested

the formation

of a small

specialist

team instifor 20, more pos-

the TAC in its

consideration 1981,

of appropriate the TAC agreed, with meeting

alternative but asked on July water within

in February/March from
To

guidance commitments.

the this

CGIAR donors, end an ad-hoc

an indication was held

of their

1981 in Washington. meeting there confirmed the CGIAR interest the modest for type a new international activity in irrigation of organization initiative. requiring were discussed (see Annex Team, guided management, the CGIAR dollars was no consensus.on for a comparatively terms of reference that

system support a year.

to implement

There was a pressing 3-5 million

The draft line ing with The study The Study October Study sulted Because account gestions taken Study into Philippines,

a study

and amended in I). by a TAC Steer-

the consensus was entrusted Team started meeting

had been reached Study (for composition

to a 3-person it:

Group on Water Management with

work on 5 October the Steering of countries and Mexico. constraint it

-. 1981 at the TAC Secretariat place on 15 and 16 the The India, 1982. In between

see Annex 2).

in Rome. A first Team visited

Group took including In addition is not

and a second meeting a number Senegal time Sudan, of a serious of all which

on 11 and 12 February

Pakistan, the Study

Team cona full and sughave been The

a great

number of national the discussions in formulating the proposal in their

and international and of the very Study the proposal remains,

organizations. possible valuable presented with to give remarks these herein.

have been made to the for

Team, although

account

responsibility

however, capacities.

the members of the

Team, serving

individual

2

THE IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION

This current justice.

chapter

discusses

the significance contribution

of irrigation,

and of its production and social

and potential

to agricultural

2.1

Objectives objective of irrigation, of life, systems distribution; as of all especially this of water;

-

The fundamental improve poorer. conditions

development, for those

is

to

and quality irrigation of water to maximise

who are through

On individual

can be achieved

enhancing improving maintaining other

prociuctiviti~, equity
long-term

particularly en.vironmentaZ positive and potential

stabilitg;
and minimise of irrigation, negative effects on Team

measures

the qu.aZity In reviewing takes these

of life.
the importance the Study as central.

objectives

/4

-

2.2

Food Production Food Policy consumption

Needs Research Institute levels growth would according (IFPRI)' has estimated countries growth: tons of of production 374 million level based

The International the zero, 1990 food on expected continue, income

requirements increases that

in 36 low-income rates produce

population these countries then as follows

and three present 2.1) tons): deficits

of income

low and high.

Assuming

(see Table have food (in million

of food but would growth

to their

Consumption Zero income Low income High income growth growth growth countries

Deficit

385 430 448
would vary in

11 56 74
severity increases with results even under in deficit. Africa/Middle rainfed as can be seen in food the produc-

_ Deficits from Table The IFPRI tion Table growth from

in individual 2.1. report irrigated Two major countries

goes on to estimate and from rainfed points (in emerge. will Asia many countries

possible areas First, remain than

as shown in low-incomeSecond, East) agriculture. will the have

2.1.

projection

most populous

and North rather

to depend mtich more on irrigated

2.3
The benefits farming risk, tivity

The Social of adequate

Significance and reliable rainfed

of Irrigation irrigation water The contrast and low-risk, supplies between high-producto poor high-

families low-productivity irrigated

are difficult agriculture is

to overstate. agriculture often dramatic.

With well-managed

1

Peter

Oram, Juan Zapata, by 1990, Institute,

George Alibaruho, for

and Shyamal 10, International 1979.

Roy, Invest-

ment and Input Income Countries
Policy Research subsequently

Requirements

Accelerating
Report

Food Production

in LouFood to

Research

Washington, 1979.

September

Referred

as IFPRI

Table

2.1.

Production

and

consumption

in 36 low-income Projected

countries

in metric

tons

X 1000 Increase in production

_

Production I990 Present Zero
income

1990 Consumption Low income
growth

Deficit Nigh income
growth (5) 25,367 9,686 190,399 44,858 4,437 24,367 13,508 ,3,675 316,297 (4; (2) (5) (7) 12,435 2,642 71.673 21,059 1,355 II,443 6,402 2,260 129,277 , (2)

to ___----_----1990 (a) From irrigated
areas From 1990

1974-76

growth

rainfcd
areas (9) 3,059 3,813 14.181 10,518 1,170 I.085 2,653 591 37,070

Total
(8) + (9)

Food situation --

Actual Asia Bangladesh
Durma

rate

growth
(3) 22,456 0,574 169,680 35.215 4,339 21.086 11,981 3,161 276,492

(1)
12,932 7,044

(2)
16,643 8,734 176,344 37,470 3,552 27,066 12,140 2,450 287,219

(‘1)
23.412 9,084 185,103 42,814 4,376 23,727 13,276 3,534 305,326

(6)
10,480 2,040 66,371 19,015 1,294 IO,R03 6,170 6,127 118,306

(8)
6,224 1,778 67,661 10,614 1,100 0,735 2,601 1,136 99,849

(10)
9,283 5,591 8l,842 21,132 2,270 9,820 5,254 1,727 136,919

(II)
Deficit Surplus Surplus High growth Surplt1s Low growth No growth Deficit

India Indonesia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Total North Middle Africa/ East Lanka

,

118,726 23,199 3,082 12,924 7,106 1,407 187.020

Afghanistan

4,370 7,756 3,741 15,867

5,081 10,928 6,345 22,354

6,626 13,324 4,931 24,881

6,788 13,929 5,456 26,173

7,106 14,102 5,614 26,822

2,418 6,713 1,715 10,306

2,736 6,346 1,873 10,955

1,987 3,404 2,545 7,936

647

2,634 3,404

Iiigh Deficit.

growl11

Eswt
Sudan Total
West and East

2,493 3,140

5,038 11,076

Surplus

Africa Total Latin Haiti Total

(23 countries)
52,197 65,259 81,958 96,137 102,437 43,940 50,240 I 1,710 36,539 38,249

America
858 ,746 1,604 971 2,188 3.159 1,469 1,029 2,490 1,677 1,073 2,750 1,746 1,165 2,911 819 327 1,146 800 419 1,307 70 7; 141 665 317 902 735 388 1,123 Low growth

Bolivia

lligh

growth

36 country

total (a) From proposed Source:

256,688

377,991

385 , 829

430,386

448,467

173,698

191,779 -

109,636

77,731

187,367

Low Growth

investments 8979: 26-29.

in irrigated 86-87.

and rainfed

agriculture.

IFPRI

irrigation than shorter

come sharp season intervals.

increases a year, is of food less separation, entails. from

in food the farm shortage,

supplies gains

and income. food

With

more at

one crop

family

and income

Risks There family often

indebtedness seasonally

and impoverishor to suffer education

ment are reduced. the disruption, which tunities technology. For those irrigation families. reliable related migration

need to migrate and obstacles And reliable effects partly higher

to children's

irrigation

opens up oppor-

to benefit

the synergistic or who live and often redistribution

of new agricultural by labouring, wages. reliable

who are landless, brings entail employment land

New irrigation of landless which receive agriculturalby wellmigration irrigation areas by and amenities. systems areas outmigration are and into Counter

schemes often

and settlement for

The visible irrigation

prosperity demonstrates

of many of the areas the opportunities generation lasting employment.

and non-agricultural livelihoods areas, can also not only both discourage be attracted the rural on urban occur,

The improved the thus irrigated helps

and employment urban from poor, seasonal

provided settlement.

managed irrigation migration reducing Adverse poorly erished pressure work members. conditions. verse ning health

migration and for cities. but also

and promote Well-managed the poor

in urban

the pressure effects managed. through also

employment

opportunities irrigation and whole forcing Sometimes

especially and salinity, may place

where

Livelihoods waterlogging by irrigation planned through

may be impaired

even impov-

on employment For example, Poorly effects

and wages elsewhere.

the additional on family healthy such in less for

generated

excessive

burdens

women may have to work harder or managed irrigation the breeding of vectors

schemes can have addiseases through domestic good planuses.

as schistosomiasis benefits from

and malaria.

These can be reduced and other

and good management, irrigation,

and provision such as washing

can be made for

non-agricultural

2.4 For national includes relative

The Scale economies, security

and Significance the significance from larger

of Irrigation of production buffer

and Production from crop stocks irrigation

food

and more reliable

production; of food;

ease in developing

and maintaining

savings imports; general The scale tion per cent drainage included.' The major indicated

of foreign foreign support for

exchange exchange economic

otherwise earnings

required from

for

food

and fibre exports; and

irrigation-based 2.2 (from is

diversification,and to Table ha worldwide This facilities of irrigation than in developing by region of irrigation are given increase or more hectares Asia but

development. 1980 FAO Produc15 areas with if are countries cent China. of 2.3. Asia in is of the in '19?9 representing higher no irrigation to developing countries,

of irrigation, of the area and flood relative by Table ha) with

according cultivated.

Yearbook),

was 206 million protection importance 2.2. No less countries are located 1 million for of South 2/3 of

percentage

152 million

ha (74 per including

206 million Grouping area, leading 1962-1980 those

the developing

and according on.production in Table 2.4. in cereal

to extent in several For South production

are shown in Table

Some statistics countries over as a whole,

the effect

the production

has been due to irrigation.

” !’ , -,

'

According 150 million

to R. Darves-Bomoz, ha, see Journal

President, of iiydrauZic

ICID,

this

may amount

to

Research

19 (1981) No. 4.

Table

2.2.

Irrigation

in

the World

051.3181

.GL‘C

MEI

lDO0”.

SW

AGaICOLE

AQocn*

SUP

AcaICnLA

AOOQNA

,.,,I
LBlQI5 7449 / 193763 7775 313 I 1%: :? :. / 2ObSlr I

I 213 10
2 5 : a*: 55 20 IS 5 20 29 2855 I i;,q 5Fj 5q ,3;;i 39oFi bF/ 804 15“7 3asq 2:F 42 ’ 2 IJSF 430F 8Fl son 8 I 15.1 445FJ 6BFi IF 24 ZOF’ 30oFi 136 : 1 2 1

336
19F 2F 5. : 3 285OF 55F 3OF 22F lo, 26F

F

969-71

1973

,NDONES 1 A iar* lilA0

ISRAEL

JAPAN
JOR0.N I.NPU‘“E* 094 KOREA OPP. G-LREI REP &“YI. 11 LAO LEBAWN II&LAYS 1L nnNGOL 1A HEPAL PAXISlW PnlLICPIHES SAUD1 ARAB14 591 ,.N&. svn11 IrlbI LAND IUilCEI ” I EWIRI7ES VIE, *AH YEwEN AL Yfr(EN OE?l EUROPE

6371 ; slew 16776 I69 3312P 61 (19 SOOF 993F

1
II 70 213 8OF

1
281+F 1 55F 23 2ff

J

Lib
12904 830 3,OF 43b +91 1965 1783 5 Pill% 21OF *of

1
131 337 . 63 1: 3*0 6‘ b :z b

+bF 3F 140F
4bOF

1OF
lOOF F ‘& 500 68F 8F 3bF 25F Bf 1,:: 6 lb52

QTOOF 55OOF 1530F 170 3295F b7F E&9* 7OOF 102OF I 3Of a58 290 IN 117 1363+ 9801 37oi 427 619 23001 195or 5 9001 22z.r *a1

4900

i

5840 / 16QOF’ 181
3276 a9F 1000. 1082

536i 59oi 173’ 18’

326x

8 to::
I16
7a 36

1 5OF 85F
33w 25F 19OF 13630 1156 39OF +83F Sk1 2+48 ZOOOF 59 115OF 230 55F 13118 350F +m: 9M 201 c5 819

2: 1445 I2b 39 55 2:: 205 8.68 24

656
bF 22F 15 i :I

1205b
309’ ,’ I’ 1070 901 ,+a 301 7101 1551 2961 856 311 2LSOl 1 2601 +i 208 62 51 1255

861; 3i

UBANIA
AUS7RI4 bELGIU”-LJX PAlJLGAPiA

t 1rGq 16:: 1017 l.Cl
2b.I SOF, 31OW 4 1 L, 3E’ SOF, 22lb9 / I lbSF, 4F, IbSF,

I”LN3. SEhEGIl

1,: 3 lb3 999 1250 2+ l b 3 90 5

11: 3:

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,550F 2bF’ 55F. 3133F, 4 t*; ZF! .F SSF’ 23234 I

lO.?OF
I 1OOF 1 30 b.?F7 BF 160 5d SF 5 SF 60F 23193 ZF 5OOF za900 1*5F 102 ZF bbF 1rP :s 4 SIOW

bEL IZC ‘IN.0. COSIA PICA CJBA OO*lNL LAN IF
EL SALY.OOI( GUAOELWPE WI, EII.L. NA1II MNOURAS J.R. IC.

1 620 Zb 453 125 20 2 51 60 69 2b

1 I HOF’ 26 I 53OF!

13Ofi 33 I 2 I 604 70 I I5Y
30F $12: / 55a ::‘j :I

I 2’ 48OF! 26*; 050F! 135F/ 30 4 I : 62FI

FINLIMO FR..*CE GERMAN OS FK GEP”AN” GREECE WNGIII” IIILY NALT. NElnERLAWS NOPUll POL .HO POlluGlL nn111N, I SPAIN SYEDEY SriY,?ERLr**O w vUGOSL4vI4 OCEANIA AUSTnAL* * FIJl NPY LEALIJIIJ iJSSP OEY.PEO II E

1bOf
310 * 939 320 27SOf

178
2560 1 2101 6, 210 622 773 2l7b 33 25 (19 133

1 266
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1729
2852 II’ 254 91 12* lb60 1675 14

2736
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1:: 1606
1670#

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1SM
1474 I’ 109

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108, 80F
32Fi 2l 4816 70 I 235 39 i

13: 12746 31697 16950

lb+

.AN.U
PUERTO L IL0

3611 Zd
39 1 I
I5 16002 5462 12BO I:: I

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11033
305+2 Lb*22 BOSB 1563 +479 E 82354

lff
20F 39. 1. 1. 2oF

32+13 17174 9120 lb39 *aa

SAI *r L”‘, * 51 VINCENT IIIN1OAO rob USA IOU1 II ARER IL
LKEHI bOLIYIA I*,

1.’ l(1F:
16510 622 LI 1 13BOFi 100 : 11OOC~ 1238 ! 2654 / I 2;F

Y AWEIIICA I E”lllJPE OCELHIA orn OEV.PEO OEY.Plffi 6

bbL0
lb05 MO2 61317 2040 llCL7 17207 57542 1 1 61131 45207

106% 6755 :
147.7 ::p3$

lb697
7233 ISbOF 125C , YOOF 1252F 30% 520F 122F 55F IlOaF *F*,C* LIT AMERICA *t** EAST F.P E&S, OIH OV.PINi ‘EMTR PLAtMO

1811 10248
1632I 53970

2259 12615 179‘7 CL,66

11soq
zsoq CL8 115 1095 27 49 2?9 1 113129 23+ d , 105: b19

1 67162
LTBb4 1929s

285Fj
5lOFj

WOFi
12OF’

57272 l 3579 13b93 6235 125933

le
I

122h
556 115OFl 3OY

50 1 LZOF
3oq 55F1 29OF 1191a9 2~00 129: *90 435oolj i I !

L5l.N
t

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lb I++ *Ye.1 133604

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lC2052

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si
311ro ‘I /

* = unofficial F = FAO estimate

figure

1980 FAO Production Yearbook, vol. 34, Rome, 1981. table 2, page 57

Table

2.3.

Developing

countries

with

over

1 million

hectares

irrigated

East Asia China Vietnam Korea Republic Korea DPR South Asia India Pakistan Bangladesh Southeast Asia Indonesia Thailand Philippines Burma Middle East and North Iran Eizn r Afghanistan Turkey Iraq Sudan Latin America Mexico Brazil c Argentina Chile Peru
5.1 1.7 1.6 1.3 5.4 2.6 1.3

49.2 1.7 1.0 1.0

1.0 Africa
5.9

2.9’
2.5 2.1 1.7 1.7

1.2

'Data

on irrigation land the year

relate flooded stated.' this

to ar'eas purposely water is for crop area irrigated

provided production several

with times

water, or pasture or only once

including during

by river

improvement,.whether

FAO Production

Yearbook,

1980.

.-

I”

-

Table

2.4.

The Contribution Asia

of Irrigated

Lands

to the Production

of Rice

and Wheat in South

% of Cultivated (1979)
(----

Area

% of Production (1978-1980)

% of Production Increase (1961-1980)

----

per

cent----------p)

Rice Bangladesh Burma India Pakistan Sri Lanka South Asia Wheat Bangladesh India Pakistan South Source: Asia World Bank Staff, 54 65 77 67 1982 72 81 87 82 75 93 91 91 12 13 42 98 62 36 22 18 55 99 70 46 66 29 67 99 74 62

2.5

The Potential

for

Future besides 1975 to

Production the orders of magnitude for increases required from would of of 11 million cent of the inThe long in East as a of in their the and irrigabe tons were 137 million in in

The IFPRI

1979 study, from countries. those 73 per 71 per

food production 36 low-income tion (both contrasted responsible tons in Asia, Africa period in North creased gestation shortages West Africa major food and fibre with for

1990, estimated increases agriculture. increased but only

the investment in production of old irrigation) Irrigation production production 4 per

Projected from cent cent rainfed of the East,

new irrigation,

and improvement

of the increased tons

and the Middle 38 million before

productibti.\,of of trained (except needs.

in East

and West Africa. why countries agriculture proportion exists

prqduction cannot

can be achieved two reasons look to irrigated for irrigation

from new schemes and

manpower are Sudan) future

means in

the near

to meet a substantial potential

A large

East its areas.

and West African increased agricultural

region,

but

for

the next will have

two decades,

almost

all

production for future irrigation

to come from rainfed in new irrigation which in scenario. and supports

Requirements ?he rehabilitation and confirms costs other as $ 52 billion

and proposals the orders for water

investment of the IFPRI development, both

of existing production to support Commission (1975 prices)

are on a scale by IFPRI irrigated irrigation 1978-1993, rice

of magnitude resource

The capital 1975 dollars for and rainfed Food Task Force investment for thirteen of consumption

of additional investment1

were estimated and complement

and $ 47 billion North-South

agriculture. of $52.6 Asian billion

A 1978 report

of the Trilateral proposed over

to the Trilateral countries2

cumulative the periode growth,in

to meet estimated irrigation development

annual

3.4 percent. The projected production vestment, Trilateral 65 billion rough e investment consumption. proportion development, ment, The scale in FAO's normative 2000 implies the projections Korea) (including scenario a cumulative in of around are in atleast of food growth in for inthe $60 growth 1980-90, report in Agriculture: in the Far East plus with Toward

13 countries

Japan and North IFPRI's size (1979) of the

and South

(1975 prices). in irrigation The sheer of production indicate of proposed which

These aggregate required growth

agreement

on the order to meet projected investment importance are being countries

of magnitude

involved, of irrigation set.

and the high irrigation developfrom Study (for

projected which from

to come from

the critical targets investments

and of the high

and of the potential visited

benefits by the

them can further Team or with more detail '

be illustrated

members of the Study

Team have familiarity

see Annex 3). (IFPRI 9.1; 1979:139) 7.2; road 0.3; research improvements 1.6; $ 9.9 billion; fertilizer 4.2; animal 1.4. draft

The breakdown rural 0.9; manufacture storage

w2s

electrification

disease

eradication 1.6;

seed industries

mechanisation

and drying.4.5; D.G. Johnson,

and extension

2

U. Colombo,

and T. Shishido, North-South Tokyo, Cambodia,

Reducing Malnutrition
Food Task Force Paris, India, Sri 1977, Indonesia, Lanka, Thailand to the Laos, and

in

Devbloping east,
Report Trilateral were Asia, Malaysia, Vietnam..

Countties:
Commission, Bangladesh, Nepal,

Increasing
New York, Burma,

Rice Troduction

in South and SouthThe countries

of the Trilateral

Pakistan,

Philippines,

India
this gated for ping), current

already conditions foodgrains, irrigation rice

has some 60 million ha are irrigated with (Table from irrigation are low by world combined provides grains Plan production

ha 'commanded' (1981). standards (only wheat plans to

by irrigation, yields about production to increase this is 1.7 tons of double

and of in irriper ha crop-

some 45 million

Although low degree

a surprisingly 2.4). India

81% of current 120 million works. cent

and 55% of overall tons investing cent is is 14 its during about for

production the current $ 3 billion new irrigation projected million irrigated that its established In Pakistan, gated largest 'the cated 2.1),

of food Sixth

150 million 90 per

(1980-1985), and 10 per new irrigation full potential are well

and towards for India managed, country.

per annum in projects, to come under ha. By the area, irrigation to its

Of this,

rehabilitation. the Plan plans India period ha.

The area

during

end of the century, systems

to have doubled should become

of some 113 million

Provided

as a stable of the for

food-surplus

cropped

area of 20 million

ha,

14 million irrigation as in India, are low.

are irrisystem, yields, During the

accounting

90% of production. commands 12 million cropping Plan

The Indus ha but,

in the world, of double Five-Year Plans. will

the extent current

and water-use (1978-83) according sums will

efficiency subsector be required projections

the water to IFPRI

has been alloin future (see Table by 1990. to drainage and loss of about for is about a of

$ 1.7 billion it

but much larger Even then,

Five-Year

be difficult

to meet food-production ha of so-called since completion are being 'Old Lands' through population

requirements have converted Dam in a massive growth to reach envisaged

In Egypt, year-round ing rising program. cropping land million marginal rehabilitation

2.4 million
irrigation watertables

of the High

1969. Result-

controlled

Much more work remains must be increased quality, followed Reclamation 2000.

to be done while of additional

yields lands,

and multiple generally

to keep up with -by irrigation, The rate

to urbanization. ha by the Year per year. India,

is planned of expenditure

of the Old Lands and reclamation

of new lands

$ 500 million

Mexico,
century, about

like a fourth

plans

to double ha to

its

irrigated ha,

area by the to rehabilitate to increase

end of the and drain

from 5.5 million

II million

of the area presently

irrigated,

water-use

efficiency extensive per year

mainly

through

land-levelling zone (about this

and to begin 4 million Mexico plans

development through

of its drain-

tropical-humid control. duxing 1982-1990,

ha) mainly during

age and flood (1980 dollars).

To achieve

to spend $ 3 billion 1990-2000

and $ 4 billion

per year

Bangladesh
Its irrigated the year bination ity

has a subtropical area, now about deltaic the very 2000.' of flood soils Owing to soils embankments, and the

humid

climate

with ha, is

a pronounced expected required low-lift density, intensities (most of the

dry country

season. by is in

1.5 million plain), drainage high

to triple are a comirrigation

and topography works,

the Brahmaputra-Ganges and tubewells. of the vailing, control limited for 0 these opment, Although people, East Other pockets also for Given

the works

pumps fertil-

population

the high

low yields

and cropping of irrigation;drainage Recent

now preand flood although of a devel-

accelerated in Bangladesh extent ends. thus

development far, would

are imperative. substantiate remain figures in countries

successes, further

the need for even with

investments

Note from Table

2.1 that, a food-deficit should with

accelerated

Bangladesh

country. with caution, what of poor of the Middle in irrigation. have large are the bulk their these irriare which based they the is they

the foregoing is that especially countries that very

be treated large Asia

do establish and North

concentrations and parts are projected Mexico, rapid

in South Africa,.massive are not large with

and Southeast investments so poor, like

but which urbanization, but

of poverty

and are experiencing investments some countries twenty years. thrusts in investments are for

very

planning

irrigation. rehabilitation, planning countries, to double

Some of the planned new irrigation, area in agricultural major benefit small gated central feasible will livelihoods. can be realised

the next

In several of agricultural additional are vast;

development farmers

and are seen as the most production agriculturally management .

investments The potential depends

in forms benefits on the level

and generate

but to what extent

of irrigation

and per-

formance

that

can be-achieved.

.

'

IFPRI 75.

projects

this

as happening

by the year

1990.

See IFPRI

1979 p.

-

14

-

3

PERFORMANCE OF IRRIGATION

SYSTEMS

3.1 As explained leading goals. not, prospects Chapter 2? To provide ed several
.

Gauging

Performance irrigation systems failing very future answers previous that is already, in many countries, of social should? are the in If as they and what described Study the

in Chapter-2, in agricultural extent are they

factor to what

production performing

and in achievement as well targets the

But are irrigation of meeting.the preliminary countries through is clear

to meet targets ambitious

to these visits existing

questions, and studies. irrigation poorly, the is 'area potentials

Team visiton these and of this of in

(see Chapter in Annex 3.

1) and drew on knowledge

other

countries

The results systems, whether created irrigated' are universal. changing waterlogging although

work are presented From Annex 3 it vital terms less importance, of planned in the the than

are in general targets systems.

performing

measured

or production Intensities

by the physiis much low. MalWater crop and inirriga-

cal works distribution delivered water salinity, vestments tion serious.

In many systems, and tailends problems, concern. there negative

'area between

commanded'. headreaches badly Environmental growing for

of irrigation almost with and timing With

corresponds

in quantity

requirements. proposed is

especially respect will is danger aspects and water of irrigation that

are cause for

to the massive unless become more are reflect2.1)

new systems, these

management

improved, in system

These common defects ed in poor follows: achievement

operation

delivery

of the objectives

(see para

as

I. Productivity.
reasons, areas irrigated,

The productivity water inadequate, consequently yield of food

of irrigation high unreliable cautious crops average

systems and untimely of crops land to 6 tons

is

low for small

many

including

wastage,

transmission

losses, water in India but

deliveries is o?ly in 25-

and farmers' The average 1.7 tons Japan. are in 2. Eqzkty. ers. the yields at the fer receiving having access research

choices on irrigated close
almost

and practices. per hectare only Asia generally farmof 350 sufand less by Iraq,

per hectare, (Annex inequity 3),

compared with and for 20-50%. is water gradients

Water efficiencies the range Sharp of only

70% in Taiwan, and Southeast headreach in Egypt in India

40% in India

South

common between distribution of deprivation Project cereal

and tailend A study

For inequitable shows the declined tail.' less lower 180,000

see Annex 3. Recent has found that tailenders fashion, that

to be steep.

ha Mahanadi from Research deprivations water, yields,

Reservoir in Sri less

1935 kg/ha

at the head down to only those less in the headreaches, timely lower incomes,

Lanka has revealed and in to labour,

multiple

compared with reliably returns influence, Productivity especially in countries of life little is

lower and less

to services

3. EnvironnentaZ
environmental are very Egypt 4. Quality tivity, ity. and Peru.

sta&iZity.
problems, problems Quality rather

and equity waterlogging

are both and salinity.

affected These India,

serious

such as Pakistan, adversely affected

of life.
inequitable In addition,

by low producand salinto

distribution

of water attention Health,

and waterlogging has been paid nutritional understood. malaria It is

the

effects

of irrigation impacts are often aspects some adverse

on women and children. health effects, than especially they

and family In particular, that these

of irrigation much worse receive greater

need to be better need be.

and schistosomiasis, imperative design and man-

attention projects.

in the planning,

agement of irrigation

.

'

Data from Water Delhi.

and Power Consultancy

Services

(India)

Ltd.,

New

3.2 Current discussion, deficiencies physical farming system institutional

Current deficiencies which works, systems, operation,

Deficiencies can be grouped is based largely according in various to: ways. In the following

on the findings ,

in Annex 3 the

are grouped

arrangements. is seen that deliver of water do not is in general: water delivery inequitable receive faulty their causing in an adequate suffers fair in amount or in a the same manner; and often of water; of water and and do not system farmers plant

From Annex 3 it a. main systems
timely

manner; delivery smaller land is moreover preparation growth; rising watertables are causing waterlogging since,tailenders share wastage

b.
C.

the on&farm water the

d. on-farm inhibited salinity.

e. in some systems,

Physica 2 works
With regard insufficient absence if insufficient inadequate measuring better better farmers; better land preparation all) (land shaping and land with levelling). in the main system in onimprovements In many (but must either not cases , physical or at least systems so that improvements the latter field division properly to the main system, control of canal lining phased); communications or poorly.maintained system devices needs: and better boxes serving outlet structures of the outlet farmers from the main system; of downstream structures; or small groups (roads and telecommunications); drains. structures physical deficiencies (to the include: extent practicable and

and measuring

devices;

and automation

The on-farm

channels

individual

precede

be concurrent

farm water-delivery

can function

properly.

-.

Farmhg
Agricultural inadequate, logging for development, improved labour, influence culture. practice inputs of irrigation it and for systems unreliable for or saline

systems
interlock with farmers irrigation water of irrigation crops water is only water supplies, ditches one input: credit, has allowed the adoption supply. and with for fertilizers other marketing, of irrigated the factors prices agrisignificance when in With wateron-farm or and -

and untimely

conditions, the maintenance of high

have low incentives and varieties,

and drains,

the adoption practices.

yielding

Irrigation practices of farming

farm roads, farmers' A lack water is usually

fertilizers,-pesticides, and the productivity system research input for

as a leading investment.

to be under-recognized,

a precondition

and use of other

on-farm

System operation
Operational permissive shortages water deficiencies misallocation at tailends; especially according irrigation phasing at night; responses to broad water and zoning facilities to rainfall; rules of thumb without patterns close attenrequirements; of cropping and procedures and planting managers to on main systems with include: excesses to headreaches and

of water

wastage

slow or non-existent distribution tion times; lack of monitoring to crop inadequate

to enable

know how their inadequate unwillingness mined lack Operational absence lack lack ability. quantities of two-way

systems or inability

are performing; to deliver with water times; farmers. level include: ':: 1, to outlets in predeter-

maintenance; and at predetermined communication rotation; of channels and drains; of crops to fit water availand phasing at the on-farm

deficiencies of organized

of maintenance of synchronisation

Institutiona
With respect to main

colrdngements
systems, a gulf . IS common between controlling or Departments level. not but the Ministries or of water usually engineers are or agrias a for for are subor are abundant, is unreirrigasystem.

Departments

of Irrigation, the outlet in design while best.

usually

distribution

on main systems, engaged below trained culture. second in design Careers or'third

and Ministries and construction

of Agriculture, Irrigation are considered in operation

at the on-farm and construction irrigation-system of staff

usually

more glamor-

ous and prestigious good performance maintenance ject weak. liable. tion to local Rotations

management are frequent. Funds water. often where farmers' distribution

is regarded Incentives resources systems

Transfers

are weak or non-existent. pressures level, to misallocate farmers'

and other

are inadequate.

Those who manage irrigation organizations in headreaches

At the on-farm and difficult

do not

exist, is supply

are unnecessary

where water the water groups

to organize in tailreaches c Communications are poor between staff who control water

and the

management

on the main

3.3 If

Potentials the more significant will 3.1,

for

Better

Management deficiencies attained vary a proportion Yields tons for water can be moderated yields between of paddy or over(rough) tons and

of these be large: country-wide reflecting control.

come, the gains rice in a number with supply under that inputs. carried

As shown in Figure per harvested irrigation of water yields suggest extending other over A survey

of developing inadequate and drainage figures

countries

1.5 and 3.0 conditions full under

hectare,

of rainfed obtained management 10 tons. production

control while

and advanced

practices hectare, through use of all low These figures

show country-wide

of 5.0 - 6.0 conditions exists

per harvested

experimental a great

even exceed raising

potential

irrigation

and good irrigation out by ICID and ILRI' that with

management on 91 irrigation

and proper projects

the world,

has indicated although

irrigation considerable

efficiencies variation,

are very

and on the average, '

of the order International 19, 1978.

M.G. Bos and J. Nugteren, Institute for

On I&g&ion

Efficiencies,

Land Reclamation

and Improvement,

Publication

Fig.

3.1.

Country-wide

paddy production

levels

in

some selected

countries

JFLUENCE the degree of water control

INDICATION

OF

the use of other inputs

experimental conditions

field

experimental over 10 tons/ha I

4

optimum advanced
water

Japan 6.0

use of inputs and
c

management practices

cultural practices ,I f rep. Korea 5.0

full control of water supply drainage and

increased fertilizer; improved seed and pest control 1 W. Malaysia 3.0 Sri Lanka 2.9 low fertilizer appfication rep. Vietnam / Pakistan 2.4 Phailand 2.0 2.5

watertable control drought elimination flood prevention rain fed, Jncontrotied flooding 0.1 2

I

Burma 1.7 dem. Kampuchea 1.5

5 6 7 8 4 country-wide attained yields (tons of paddy rice per ha harvested) 3

Ref':‘ FAO (1979) The On-Farm Use of Water. Committee on Agriculture

-

zu

-

.

of only Pakistan water Studies irrigation

30%. The efficiencies confirm diverted carried these out findings. is delivered

as described In India crop,root (Annex to the

in Annex 3 for only about zones 30%. irrigation there was for through is 47) also (Annex

India 3 para

and 3).

25% to 40% of the show overall projects a considerable concluded improvesupplies of increaswho otherwise for area is efficienof managethe preaverage of replica30 million into having

in Pakistan figures with

3 para

efficiencies of these efficiencies for cost only improvement per 56). Programme

of the order

of only

Comparison irrigation potential Action that ment is (Annex ing would benefit another ties. According irrigation ment reform dominantly production assumption, tion, tons Unlike doing both small this the

well-managed

of SO-60% shows that at relatively in Pakistan of water it

low costs. saved

From the Revised instance watercourse new water

(RAP) study acre-foot

one fourth in irrigation area water.

of the cost efficiencies and extending by stretching

of developing opens irrigatiori there in the water improvement

3, para

Improvement not

the possibility to farmers is a potential a larger intensities over

the irrigated receive

On many systems An increase by the study

creasing

the production a larger opportunity

population. offered

cropping

of irrigation

to a comparative projects, involving rice which would growing increases

of the management by the World of water be capable cent; for

and organization irrigation in should, very

commissioned areas

Bank,'

the redistribution of Asia, 20 per of rice of rice. a large tons of at least contained

of generating the effects of about

on this

conservative

discount

mean an increase

production

of paddy or 20 million the green little production and poor revolution, for and equity the family farmers,

criticized the poor, at the economies

for water

helping

larger

farmers is

but

or nothing

redistribution The opportunity of millions agriculture.

can achieve to find their of people

same time. and others

ways to transform livelihoods

of tens

labourers,

- who depend for

on unreliable

and unproductive

tailend

I

Anthony tion

Bottrall,

Comparative Projects,

Study World

of

the Management Working

and OrganizaPaper No. 458,

of Irrigation

Bank Staff

May 1981.

--

Competition regions demands. stance). Finally, ingly already less There falls funding existing ahead for will projected production and if is within

for

scarce nations,

water

is

increasing be moderated water

between to the

nations, urban, extent

between and industrial that more can in116 for is

and between should

agricultural,

These conflicts with

be produced

the same or less performance projects.

(see Annex 3, para irrigation investments and easier systems sought, irrigation for

improved required

on existing large The cheaper

increashave

to justify

the very Those that especially

and needed, sites are short198Os, of go will of dollars

in new irrigation and less

been developed. attractive, concern already for

are now appraised at current agencies investment levels

funding

of performance. of the projects existing

among funding will

at the recurrent climate unless

of performance. new projects irrigation political for current future poverty

In the harsher systems and other better investment. is improves. reasons. to justify

become difficult

the performance systems if

Some suboptimal But generally, the tens new investment

hav_e to perform

of billions increases

And that

is needed

and livelihoods

are to keep pace with to be substantially

in population

reduced.

-

Lb

--

4

CURRENTEFFORTS TO IMPKOVE MANAG?XENT

4.1 Removal cies) for wide

The Range of Current of the deficiencies a multiplicity key countries of activities for the right

Efforts in Section efforts. difficult that 3.2 (Current variations efforts, Deficienand the a brief although

surmnarized of current involved it is

involves several range

These are described to present current inadequate

in Annex 3. Owing to local observation up. works described

summary except some are in strengthening

a general direction,

are seriously

and need much

and speeding

As to deficienciesefforts Pakistan, well studies receiving itierested with respect Egypt,

in physical to on-farm The Philippines in countries and improvement planning attention

in Section programmes

3.2,

current canal as to respect

development

in India, countries the analyses, are not generally are more

and elsewhere where for since they

are on limited up in these exist. systems needed With

commands. These activities as initiated and project adequate rehabilitation

need to be stepped of existing physical

do not main works

most irrigation

agencies

in construction effects efforts

of new systems. and salinity and implementation are not management, however major many large groundwater systems. are widely sufficiently For example, drainage water) recognized to coorthe improveare not

The dangerous .and important deal with dinated combined ments, being

of waterlogging in planning These efforts level use for water (of

are underway

the problem. at a national effects

of on-farm integrated.

and conjunctive adequately

and surface systems

As to farming

and agricultural

LJ

inputs in India cerned farmers limited farming Section the vailing delivery practices. Farmers' terest project role for least in

and practices,

a major

on-going

effort Authorities

has been the (CADAs).

establishment conof bein to A prewater in

of Command Area Development in more detail physical better partly -operation with for improvements because

As described

in Annex 3, the of on-farm systems. of institutional topic needing experiments is, of the

CADAs have been mainly systems and organization but also The CADAs have had only weaknesses attention with and,pilot lack system, in better

success, systems 3.2.

cause not

enough attention Pakistan

has been given experimented

to development

of appropriate as mentioned similar programs.

a research has also

arrangements

CADAs and is planning difficulty in both will from the main

further countries risk system not

again,

of adequate without which agricultural

to the on-farm investments

most cases farmers

involvement water of the farmer (planning,

and use of agricultural delivery, design, and many other participation construction are well means farmers' in the performance

inputs factors.

depend on better Increasing stages the of a in all

and in-

more reliable

and operation). of irrigation known and generally on these

The decisive systems lines and the need at farmers' have been for accepted,

of the farmer farmers' in theory. in

participation, In practice projects.

the main efforts of larger

some small-scale

Not much has been done so far systems. in the however,

participation

the management efforts Pradesh

In most countries main tighter received distribution As is current stitutional arrangements evident efforts systems control attention is examples. In Andhra

to correct scattered. in India Main distribution

deficiencies There simple are,

operation

of and

are at best of water

some encouraging rotations led to sharp fsolated system water

systematic

are reported system management the extent

to have has for

improvements cases serve,

in performance. however, still . the

some years

in The Philippines. to emphasize neglected. foregoing described place

These and other to which

usually main

from

discussion, in Section

many of the inadequacies can be traced 3.2. countries, to the weak inin Improvements

in these

to eliminate are taking

deficiencies in several

arrangements

in some at an

acceptable nature vention local training Research, should Actions efforts sponsored Current irrigation recognized review. which needs in

rate should

and in others from within, for concentrate are receptive.

too slowly. the the Study time

Since being in

improvements that on approaches fields if of this properly taking

of this interwhich about chapter. implemented

must occur agencies

Team feels

outside

These are in the as discussed activities effects moreover arrangements

of research,

and information, training these have favourable fields by international of institutional by such agencies. activities that Instead

the rest

and information spin-off should financing

on institutional be planned in , particularly connection

arrangements. into those with account aimed at projects

agencies

improvement

in research, cover the Study in their major

training not

and information range. carry From the out institutions

related outset, it

to was

management

an enormous Team should concerns

a comprehensive and programs major to meeting

we have concentrated

on those

come closest and covering

and activities

gaps in irrigation

management.

4.2 Much current disciplinary continue Component system sciences specialized organized hydraulics,

Research research lines. to be, in relative - is best along which between which these research is emonenf; Valuable are not which isolation undertaken for as its research which for follows the conventional Study soils Team. science, social and usually physical,

contributions concern

have been and will of an irrigation

a primary - whether

studies

one or a few aspects in engineering, individuals engineering,

agronomy, institutions

agricultural

or one of the in many countries, with its including dimensions,

by specialized such work lines. the whole exist

or teams;

disciplinary can confront institutional these;

We are more concerned system,

a. research
agricultural, linkages b. research ance. There reports is

and operational and significant to improvements analyses are usually whole

and the and perform-

can illuminate which research can lead which

gaps in knowledge in management systems.

understanding little purport

Some.consultants' institutional and

to do so, but

weak on the

operational fairly ing recent, Hashim Ali, Institute, Institute Institute, institutions. standing management In countries Egypt cies This control

side. T.K.

Analyses Jayaraman

of institutional and others), Institute 9 Stissex, major Studies

aspects the Agrarian the

of irrigation administrators Research Manila,

are (Syed and Trainthe and human

and have been carried Colombo, the Asian

out by Indian

of Management, Overseas

of Development London, of irrigation aspects. with large Cornell Despite

Development individuals in their the under-

University, efforts,

and some other gaps remain and especially

these

systems

as wholes,

irrigation research

systems, projects or lack concerning assistance in Annex 3).

such as India, of various Because of coordination level for irrigation in establishing

Pakistan, kinds are under-

and Mexico, involved situation there

numerous is

way or planned

(see description duplication points

of the many agenof efforts. guidance, and this. management,

to the need at the national
of research

and monitoring

the possibility A&ion IRRI also Project several Within but the c all of the research include

of international is a recent Irrigation NIA's and Training Lanka;

development

in irrigation (NIA)

management. work of ines i; The Philipp University and

Examples

(see Annex 4) the Mona Project Administration programme Institute the Egyptian

in Pakistan;

and the National in The Philippines Research

on communal irrigation and Cornell Water Use Project;

systems;

the Agrarian

on Gal Oya in Sri projects the broad share interventions, are is Team, action a scale, in India. term

'action

research'

there their

are various the In effects. system. approach

approaches, introduction In all cases, of and on far the view

a diagnosis live

to determine

interventions,

and then monitoring research, a promising though practical of irrigation

interventions

ones on an existing scattered

the Study too small overcoming

and occurring to identifying

many of the problems

management.

4.3 in assessing the Study on secondary

Training the coverage of training on its courses to training in irrigation management, opinion, in France,

Team has relied sources

previous

knowledge,

on expert

and on visits

institutes

- 26 -

India, ing social courses

Mexico, courses major

Pakistan,

The Philippines, with continuing engineering are a large aspects

Senegal

and Sudan. agriculture;

Most

train-

are specialized,
areas -

divisions

between training

each of and the

the three

and hydrology; of irrigation, sense there

sciences.

There

number of specialized

on the more technical management 6 in

On irrigation source1 lists are in Europe, the Pacific, detail water ning five-year

in a broader which States,

are fewer. courses, As described in-service

An FAO of which 3 in Asia in more training during also planguidpolicies) in a 9 and

25 organizations the United 2 in Africa is being (1983-1988) training

run relevant America. for of

3 in the Near East,

and 2 in Latin a major considered with efforts. concerning facility

in Annex 3 in India management period significant

at a cost USAID support. In both training

$ 50 million Pakistan is national-level personnel

cases, (also

ance in manpower planning is a priority. Without said with covered training scale. jects training, short a detailed authority somewhere. falls Too little covered of that far usually required review that short training

of current any aspect of what involves style

training of irrigation is,

curricula training however, in style, field

it that

cannot is not current

be

Our general

conclusion in-depth

is required,

content scale falls

and of far

exposure. And the

The sub-

neglect the

management and content

practices. whole

even where

are appropriate,

to reorient

and retrain

bureaucracies.

4.4

Information

Exchange

and Professional

Networks

1. The Internationd The ICID engineers, tries Delhi journals. gress 1 only concerned with with Its is held.

Comtission
national irrigation which council

on Irrigation
association, in join.

and Drainage.
mainly but not other entirely professionals in New over 200 a conof 78 countries. Its volumes In some coun-

is a professional engineers

committees can also meets annually, publishes

can be members; has 20,000

in others,

headquarters and takes three bulletin years

house- a library

and every

The ICID 1981

a bi-annual

and an annual

Document W/P272X,

h,

bibliography. which orates tion mation is being
with

It

has working set

groups concerning

on specialized water

subjects, ICID

one of collab-

up o.n irrigation and agriculture.

management. is promoting for

FAO in matters irrigation

the dissemination ICID centre data

of informaa proposal and infor-

about

to set up an international on research 2 . The Irrigation

documentation drainage

on irrigation,

and flood

control.

Maxagement PJetiork of the Overseas Development
Development Institute, is one. a non-government Unit This which runs network from

Insti-

tute,

London.
organization, three networks, 600 memof disciplanning, econMembership papers, and time its gap of Administration management 50 countries. Members include with including

The Overseas which bers oping plines design omists, is free contribute management basis worth. would for Its irrigation

has an Agricultural in more than countries.

has about range

The majority people

of members are in devela wide irrigation agriculturalists,

and experience and management, anthropologists,

a common interest.in engineers, sociologists newsletters through during

and administrators. and discussion . by one person it be linked with correspondence. which not

and members receive to the network network about future so far. five years

The irrigation on a part

has been operated must to some degree

has amply prpved a serious

the manager who

has run it

Were the network

to continue, Asian Regional

be left.

3. !l%e AgrieuZturaZ Co7mnmication
This Asia. details manager ing network, It

Development Netiork.

Cow&Z's

Imigction
focus circulating Since its pendto operate on

based in Singapore publications to the United replacement.

has had a geographical free it

has distributed of recent returned

a newsletter States,

to members,
has ceased

and of research

in progress.

a possible is

4. Z%e Irt$emationaI
The IIIC lishes abstracts, tional sprinkler approaches, a quarterly in its its

Irrigation
newsletter, and not gives

Infomation
for information I~ZY&WS, for special limited it

Centre,
about together information. to high-capital

near TeZ Aviv.
irrigation. with quarterly intemaand water-sparing in drip While It pub_

a clearinghouse and. replies scope, location

to requests

competence

irrigation.

- 28 -

5. Professional Bangalore.
This field search range unit

Interchange
promotes

&it,

Indian
between It

Institute
professions

of Management,
and disciplines, sciences, of current across from India, is in the of rea

interchange management.

including information

the engineering,

agricultural includes

and social publishes recent descriptions

of irrigation and references of disciplines.

W~DXLYU, a bulletin
publications

and comment, which Although

to significant circulation. information with International (AGRIS), Research

much of the material

Wsmana has an international

6. 0the-n Information
A great subjects ment. Sciences (UNISIST), Permanent Communities Information (CAB), Articles sources, least articles Useful bines though all the

Systems.
systems cover a wide range of some relevance the World Information Research Guide the for to irrigation Science System Projects European Information (USDA/CRIS), in Association manageSystem the of Bureau

number of other and disciplines These include the and Technology the Current Inventory Services

System for

the Agricultural

of Agricultural (EUSIDIC), Agricultural management fields sciences,

the European

(AGREP), the Database

Commonwealth Library

Agricultural

and the National about irrigation in the

of the USA (AGRICOLA). in a wide variety reAt

7. I)erio&cals.
are published management from time of irrigation and systems of periodicals of agriculture, which engineering, sciences to time natural etc. publish

economic 40 periodicals dealing all

and social with certain information

can be listed

aspects

management. are, none comnecessary to and is:

these

sources the is

characteristics management. these in with current passing scope; . improving

which efforts, on only

Study

Team considers in addition

now in irrigation complementing highly international cross-disciplinary;concerned focussed directly able backed selective,

What is now needed, what

an information is most useful;

system which

the management in developing findings ensure from

of irrigation where research;

systems; small farmers

on conditions linked-in with

countries action

are involved; to pick out and report which on improved management practices;

by resources

good coverage

and continuity.

4.5 Several research, The World Water

Multi-Activity international training,

International organizations

Programmes have been active exchange institutions in India, research in promoting management. such as the visited on irrigation and many The by

and information

on irrigation

Bank has helped

to set up training

and Land Management Institute the Study Team, and has sponsored action research, change. institutional Indonesia initiatives and interchange. Foundation, part, as have bilateral to these programmes

at Aurangabad and supported visits Foundation, research,

management, relevant Philippines, pioneering training Rockefeller their weight activity Irrigation Management

international The Ford

by key officials, in India, and supported and professional

and elsewhere, in research, Other and the Asian donors. funding

has encouraged action organizations Development At the risk efforts, we wish

such as UNDP, the Bank, there have also are three played due multiIRRI's Water of failing to give

and recognition international

and other to which

to draw attention:

FAO's International-Support Water Management Synthesis

Programme for Programme; Programme.

Farm Water Management;

and the USAID-supported

1. F.&~'S Interruztionul
in December designed assistance small level overall with parties all 1980,

Sqport

Program for

Fccm Water Manugement (ISPI.
Development It Division is for professionals. needs and use of water more food The focal area

The ISP was established to respond better

in FAO's Land and Water of three increasing to producing distribution. of farm-level imperative irrigation to.the

and has a staff

of governments and achieving is

in improving farm strong

the distribution income

among the the farm

farmers but the

as a prerequisite dependence

a more equitable system's physical at all

management for system, The first of pilot is

on the

management makes it components levels with involved areas of the in

the ISP to deal and all at the farm

their

management. improvement to farmers technology, the build-up coordinate and of the build-up and

The ISP has two major and village projects and field The second strengthening guide level, cum training assistants, is

of activities. This

the implementation programs. farmers' participation, materials government capacity programs.

emphasises‘&$istance low cost and resources. level, to support, This includes with

and the use of local

manpower,

at the national of the national level

the farm/village

- 30 national institutional Extension through water training research Services, the introduction management institutions. the years and will to discuss stress in organized 1982-1983 Philippine of the field undertaken interest designed for 20 national organize experience projects workshops with on farm water seminars irrigalevel is on two international small-scale capacity to handle field level problems, educational programs and vocational promoting capacity in

arrangements

such as the or strengthening universities,

establishment of teaching colleges

of Irrigation

and the build-up at selected

of national

FAO has over management, in Manila tion While projects.

the main level, to that.

at national

the farm limited water training eers priate support level nal

farm water and training Of particular

management,

and farmers' and proposed is a project to establish agriculturalists field is undertake

participation, by the ISP is not for integrated and engincourses also training at approto provide of lower information and natioan integrated

the research

management course locations to promote irrigation water seminars. on a pilot

in Indonesia, on water area; in other improved management

management provinces. farm

and to develop

related

The project systems, staff,

and agricultural

and disseminate publications

on improved

systems

through

IFXI its

has pioneered Department

action

research area,

on irrigation IRRI

systems. has only

Although with to the studies on reserorganisaand outside and methods and to . the con-

of Irrigation working in this Irrigation

Water Management Administration international work in this system management.

two senior

professionals Philippines tribution, potential IFLRI's in voir tion. water not from

has collaborated attention field

National least

to make a major

in drawing main irrigation of irrigation studies

improved for studies yield

continuing storage, Economic for

and projected

includes based farmer alternatives, studies effective water

the Philippines

system management and for continuing management national to develop of irrigation management are also two water with

pump system management,

use and rice IRRI

or projected. research

In addition, the Philippines government of improving

has initiated

and in collaboration in Bangladesh, and distribution allocation

institutions:

test other yields IRRI

the effects crops

of optimum'levels better intensity simple a g-week

of soil,

water irrigation the

and crop management of rice water and to high training national relevant water. and

on yields;, increased also

and in Indonesia, through cropping

to increase use of available and to study irrigation irrigation

the production constraints management in the

in selected conducts a core with

systems. water in the participating of irrigation

course, agencies concepts

the purpose group

of developing for efficient

of personnel

knowledgeable management

and procedures

3. USAID's Water Management Syntkesis This sities University the project. research Earlier ject, jointly Nile lated the constraints delivery action with Valley program is implemented for State - the Consortium and Utah and training. research the Egyptian (see Annex 3). to improved practices It is the lessons for for system. was carried and Oregon This

APmject.
of United Development. serve as lead States UniverState for action. Colorado

by a consortium International University

universities

Iwo main activities

of the program out State

are farm-level

in Pakistan Universities Centre research optimal with for

on the Mona Proare involved sites in -the and reoperation participation training Innovative These multi-discicourses are onof

and now Colorado

Water Research action water management,

at three seeks irrigation farmers' on-site

to identify

agronomic

at the farm also learnt. develops improving professional

level,

and optimal

concerned materials water

and extending In training, courses, site fully courses plinary planned. held training in

the program and manuals courses several

management. development

have been success-

countries, participants

most recently in detailed of problems.

in India. on-field Further

have involved investigations

and diagnosis

4.6

Conclusion multi-activity

l

These and other tinue FAO's International and national

international Program is

programs primarily

promise

to constrengths.

to make useful levels

contributions. Support and has links

Each has its focussed agricultural with

particular institutions.

on the farm The

IRRI

program

covers specialized

both

main system management on rice Project level. but all full cultivation is The Study recognizes international concentrated

and on-farm in they for certain

area manageUSAID's and and trainof countries these

ment and is and also others cannot ing aspects.

in the humid Team considers that

tropics.

Water Management stresses be expected

Synthesis the farm

to be valuable to, in

efforts, cover their

do not, research, and range

the gaps and needs

and information

scope

FLJRTHERNEEDS FOR RESEARCH, TRAIXNG

AND IN-FORNATION

5.1 Current terms

Introduction efforts, of scale for valuable and volume, should, our purposes, activities as many of them are, They cannot as their efforts and certain although these cannot priorities leave largely absolute. and do not fully

meet the needs of the

situation.

and do not meet them in are recognized, More untouched of research, But as we are so great, is required. in more resources. aspects

they =Y,
pointedly, certain training shall

as they

do more and receive

key management and information. argue in this is done,

These gaps are rarely that further special

Chapter,

the needs and opportunities attention

and so little One approach current First, often includes sions, is only efforts. taking there is

is to note

lessons

of weaknesses three as the principles: initial

and strengths

some

These suggest the whole prior with stage,

system

unit

of analysis. system

Quite here dimensystem initially

overconcentration attention agricultural, system's while

on one aspect to the whole. operational environment. interventions

or area The whole

of an irrigation

system without together to parts

physical,

and institutional Appraisal often have to apply

of the whole

a necessary

of systems, Narrow of any major hydrology, and management) disciplinary discipline soil science, can generate perspectives, or group agronomy, misleading and the agricultural diagnoses

Second, omission (especially

muZtidiscipZinarity.
of the concerns engineering, sociology,

of disciplines

economics,

- 34 -

I of irrigation are also left

-

and ineffective unilluminated . Third, a fiez

prescriptions. as gaps between orientation.

Some aspects disciplines. Analysis

and activities

to improve

irri-

gation management must be rooted in field realities. Diagnostic analy. SIS, planning, design and operation must all be practical, field-tested, and implementable These three are analysed, field-based partial ing. * general conclusion irrigation support point, that already institutional are best training in institutional there initiative for are major touched stated in Chapter 4, is often from within the Study a major but impedithat given the constraints often of the real implemented only. but mainly world. Whole systems These

principles but diagnoses

are not

together. below

by one or two disciplines are undertaken, leave gaps in diagnosis,

Multidisciplinary the outlet. and understand-

analyses

prescription,

A further Team's ment in outside

arrangements, approached and information

systems, in research, improvement

can be effective

in stimulating Against equately special forward. selected this

arrangements. activities which cost-effective research are inada for way

background,

covered, international

or scarcely

at all, research;

and where we consider on practices

to be the most development;

These activities training information.

are action professional

management;

and disseminating

5.2 The Study sion vo.lve system ha, ' several

Action

Research research all as a prime term system, means of giving 'action Action or part research' research or 'a branch on conditions list of action of a large canal. exprescovers can in-

Team sees action three principles. but approaches,'

to these a small

The broad are field-based. large

communal or a whole a minor, may usually be less

such as an outlet, covered it could

a distributory, between

The area though

be in the range or more depending and a preliminary

100 and 10,000 and needs. research

For further projects

description please

see Annex 4

Action tion with six

research, and testing activities:

as currently of interventions analysis and the

understood, on live choice

requires irrigation

the

choice,

introductypically

systems,

diagnostic benchmark action monitoring identifying extending it

of interventions

surveys and evaluation lessons the involves staff. other It with learning is to others iterative and elsewhere learning interventions procedures, moving incentives, for into between farmers, able researchers, in water imstructures. con$itions. and of a training. in part patterns, and adaptive, and minor to move through collaborative easier

taking

Ideally

and project

stages,
scheduling, provement, farmers' Action It It potentials also

starting

such as changes in cropping to local

management staff for

infrastructural

and subsequently organizations, allows a learning points

to changes

and organizational tailored understanding

research

interventions laboratory

can provide presents

the problems

of irrigation may later and problems understood, experiences.' contact

management of entry

and for

use in management of changes system. action

a sequence the whole

system which The methods becoming to share researchers experience, of different ventions; project multiple action researchers

come to encompass of irrigation and action with

management

research

are

better their into

researchers and others have begun . But much more is needed in bringing action one another, methods training for data; in collating drawing action analysis overcoming inputs; through and sifting on the research. to select the pilot between including the use of including techniques Questions inter-

in developing disciplines, include with problems syndrome causality;

replicable and in methods

to be addressed

of diagnostic reliable special problems cuts

of ensuring unmonitored staff; possible

relationships modelling; and questions,

and project

of interpretation,

short other

research

as a way into

activities

'

For example, Research organized

in September _' College for

1981 an International
Improved of Agricultural Coimbatore. Irrigation

Seminar

on Field was

Methodologies by the

Systems Management at the Tamil

Engineering

Nadu Agricultural

University,

- 36 -

training tions Action for all effective

and institutional which

development; tested.

and the replication

of interven-

have been successfully \ is a high-risk it to improvin

activity with a realistic, high potential practical payoffs, and costand

research its

difficulties, approach

appears

g irrigation

management.

5.3 Both flowing to identify, with irrigation received wishes

Research from

on Practices

for

Management action research, for research which the is needed associated have to Team Study

and complementing and improve or which benefits.

analyse less attention, bring high

practices

key activities are those that others activities:

management.

The most important are so central Without

improvements

them should

excluding of five

to draw attention

to the potential

LXagnostic
existing and then analysis studied system. Project praisals of his rarely velop wide ments.

anuZysis.
analysis system, of interventions often carried as an activity 4.5), is used to include analysis out, of problems but has rarely own right to this, but to improve in its the appraisal of an irrigation choice is quite and opportunities, Diagnostic ever for its been a whole Synthesis main focus most apthe remedies are to defor improveare often analysis if

The term diagnostic

performance.

and developed The work (see Section and diagnoses own discipline. included, and test

of the USAID-supported has been close system level. than

Water Management In practice, and prescribing and insights diagnostic

has been at farm rather each predisposed

are carried Agricultural is, drawing

out by one or a few specialists, economics on existing and mixes and management experience, of feasible

to seeing and farmers' new methods optimal

the problems perceptions of cost-effective sequences

neglected.

The need here

use to identify

Infomation
The priority peatedly often do not

systems for
of improved stressed to the know what

monitorirg
monitoring Study is happening

and

for

system management.
has been resystems of their of irrigation parts

and communications on different

Team. Managers

systems responses cult the right on crops

or how well to rainfall person planted

they

are performing. in information time. water

Quicker localized needed

and more accurate demand are diffiis not on water available deliveries, and exinformation practices, water distribuand to data no reliable

and to changes when the

or impossible

at the right and their production. to pinpoint capacity

There

are often

requirements, on water with Managers

on the equity find cannot tion. it difficult fully

of water

distribution,

deficiencies inadequate

ces ses , or on crop

and change they

inefficient

use the

have to control

3) Water sck&Zing
Operational is not yet projects often pressures with governed rather for a major

am? delivery.
about water distribution attention familiar. rules needs distribution attention systems. of small and interest Water and equity. to achieve But water in most training The need is farmers; of water on main systems is focus of professional Team is conventions, water on most of the scheduling of thumb, and local a better scheduling curricula on systems fit

decision-making which than

the Study

by established

by agricultural

The impera-

tive
with for

more fine-pointed requirements receive

crop water those

needs no emphasis.

and delivery existing where provements, management

negligible for scheduling numbers it with

who manage irrigation techniques

to compare inr _

and delivery

clients

are large
raising and investing

and to devise system prestige. water

the status

of main

more professional

4) In.st~-hitionaZ
A neglected management nization, involving which ment. First, wards, area,

okvelopment.
dimension of people. of the management Irrigation ones involving systems organization. need comparative of irrigation are complex There systems is the in human organand all levels at

the methods

larger

a dispersed

bureaucracy, are three analysis

farmers

and their

of management

and develop-

the management facilities, this

of irrigation personnel

staff

themselves. incentives pointed research

This

includes and rethese

administrative and system

procedures,

policies,

and training, '3 performance. Although little

and the relationships frequently systematic

between

to as a problem and development.

has received

- 38 Second, attention, understood the Third, needs water farmer participation muck.is and organization. at the level supply between This farmer has received More needs participation to farmer staff. to which they more to be and groups. Much of farmers' in have

though about

of rhetoric. delivered

the relationships of the water between upwards

characteristics the interface

farmers

and irrigation extent confidence

the efficiency deliveries.

of a system

can depend on the and on the arrangements understood.

are communicated are insufficiently and design. with which

The different

and dynamics

of this

interface 5) Planning lack stress look tutional economic, disappointing quire cost, farming

The frequency

poor

performaflce and design

is

traced

back

to errors Team to to overand instilimited to reat high in relation

or

of foresight or ignore factors, financial

in planning crucial physical,

prompts

the Study Tendencies operational

the need to improve

their

methodologies. agricultural, narrow project targets, neglected operation

and to adopt For

objectives, have planning in contributed

to

and production to factors losses;

performance. attention availability, and farmer

the future,

and design the past facilities;

stronger water systems;

such as transmission

requirements on farm

to crops,

and rainfall; participation.

5.4 Much current realities. reoriented training ing activities

Training training While by field materials which and useful

for

professional in

development the classroom it rather than for in field and trainthe use of and for

is based work exposure. derived take place

classroom

is needed, field

has to be offset experience,

There

is much to be said situations.

from recent in field

Realistic development research tion istic

training training

can take many forms. device, programme

Diagnostic used for in India. a wealth and for

analyses on-farm Action on realin of informachanges

by multidisciplinary projects,

teams are one excellent as field which laboratories tool

in a recent

in Gujarat

, generate Simulation for learning

and insight information,

can be shared.

games, based

are a powerful

awareness. devised insights themselves practices ciplinary including methods farmers' design; for

In Sri into

Lanka recently,

for

example,

an action awareness

research and develop

group

and used a simulation the problems training most badly

game to enhance to be faced needed for for understood whole is

in a rehabilitation in management and developed,

programme. practices which those These include multidismanagement and staff; and system

Some of the

are imperfectly which the are priorities analysis scheduling diagnostic monitoring for

research

and development: main to small

systems; of water with

and delivery and control; communications action research.

farmers,

the management farmers;

of irrigation planning

organizations; and methods is

One way forward proach, tices, c velop they combining simulations new training

a composite, action research, and on-field methods,

evolving, improved training. and materials trainers.

field-based, irrigation for this

experimental management should curriculum and proved, the only

appracde-

Such an approach use in is not irrigation are developed

and new materials While

development. proach, it

As good methods looks a fairly

can be used in training

ap-

direct

route

to better

management.

5.5
Irrigation it ary

Disseminating management that is

selected a rapidly irrigation decade it

information evolving explosion managers will field, is attracting gathering more and momentum. As

more attention, becomes clearer understanding, In

and an information so also

must have

a multidisciplinrelevant difficult same time, will which to them for highbe on the

the amount

of information be increasingly At the

increases. professionals yielding developed five deserve selective. intellectual of information nate only

the next

to keep abreast locally in different listed known.

of developments. already exist, places. For these the Research reasons, out

innovations

in management

and others methods

and development

key activities to be widely A group rigour, that that.

above should.also

generate

dissemination
disciplinary the small and then only help;

must be
range, percentage to dissemi-

is needed with and courage is

competence,

to pick

good and a practical

- 40 The valuable information special jects, effort countries, work of the ICID, sources is cannot required regions, A new initiative networks research site the excellent network of ODI, and other need. proand A

be expected to accelerate and disciplines,

adequately mutual

to cover learning

this between

and between chosen makers, proven

researchers fields such as managers,

practitioners. action

is needed: in carefully policy practices; project techniques and promto advance

a) to set up specialized b) to organize and others ising c) to promote understanding visits

and system management to enable at first research,

to learn selective

hand about workshops

innovations; and conferences and dissemination.

5.6

A balance

between for This

activities improving irrigation between management activities Points but sequences. by country validity, diagnostic Activities be improved here should are and some of to

Some of the key activities presented entry which will there in Figure differ. will 5.1. of the more important Ke have selected the priority of existing water through

shows linkages and possible will vary balance

connections The best which exceptions.

and by project. and projects, analysis like at once under-

priorities be local

have some general for others,

For some countries to improvements. can sometimes Nothing said

may be planning projects leading

and design; straight reforms.

distribution, obvious

or rehabilitation, and dependable

mine such efforts. But there search, training, pursued they prospect be realized. is also much that is new that practices, selective the energy, the full needs information imagination effort potential to be done. Action refor that is no will

research with that

on management like like

new methods

and content

and disseminating anything Unless anything

are none of them being and resources is mounted, of those there activities

deserve.

a good international

Figure

5.1.

Some principal

linkages

between

key areas

and activities

ti r I I I

I

I

Institutional Development -

< i-4 I

I ;

Pinning and Design

non1 Koiring D Communicatron: 5% -*a- LontroL ana

.,~

--

Improved

Irrigation

Management

Motes: (a) = of existing systems and for rehabilitation applies most if points not of existing to a22 areas all systems and activselected will information occur along (b) = for ities. 2. Feedback 3. Relative point. flows of the Jinkages. will vary by country be a common starting priorities, and optimal Diagnostic analysis of entry, new systems

1. Disseminating

,and by project.

may, however,

.

-

4x;

-

6

ALTEFQJATIVES AND THE PKOPOSAL

6.1 In Chapter for fields Besides nature (i)

Requirements 5, it

of a New International that outside

Initiative support to national be approached efforts in the

was concluded of irrigation training efforts,

improvement

management

can best

of research, purely

and information. several activities of an international as for management, s from action in

national to identify, monitoring,

are essential research diagnosis, etc.;

as a supplement. analyse water

These are: and improve

methodologies
institutional

scheduling,

(ii)

means of exchanging, research; required liaison pertinent studies of irrigation to national these five in have at least Team by senior initiative with international

among countries, training institutions seminars, centres in host irrigation priorities wgrldwide.

of experiences in irrigation and study

(iii)establishing close (iv) topics (VI tion Support cluding would Study nal conducting conducting

management tours on

countries; management; for and realizaindescribed yet to the

workshops

to improved to determine potentials efforts activities four this report officials

more rapid and information nature just

in research, additional but in contribute

training

of an international positive they the countries to national

effects. visited.

These have not

been mentioned

were repeatedly efforts:

stressed

An intematio-

can further

I. by supporting ment, promotion,
A point nal ation

activities
made‘to

in irrigation
the Study It can, for

management through
Team was that role, so that example, agencies

encourageextercan of collabor-

and catalysis.
a sensitive new activities facilitate (such Whether for longer. which including to us that for up nationally. of imigation irrigation of irrigation is neglected or poorly to the would Study raise its make it adequate there is and the new ideas, values action activities as Ministries government through disand which research can have an enabling

repeatedly

initiative between

more easily Agriculture agencies cuss1ons, training, otherwise Nationally difficult social need for 3. by ra<sirq and balanced

be undertaken. disciplines and Ministries and university participation, it can help would there

and between of Irrigation, research or flexible to legitimate

or between funding

institutes). and catalyze and take

be more difficult are often

2. by assembling

an adecpate

m-k of disciplines.
institutional range of engineering, or forcing be difficult rigidities of disciplines, argued house to set agriculture

to assemble sciences. a sort It which

a wide

representation of think-tank, would

has been convincingly

and approaches,

the professiond
difficulty does not and training, It attention and professional staff for irrigation

status
in promoting

mrd interest
improved

ment.
A widespread is so that education techniques. international prestige calibre it the low status accorded attract to the management the most able stressed operation

.

manage-

management systems, in understood Team that status, higher

staff,

and has under-developed to system

has been repeatedly satisfaction,

and help

to attract

system management.

4. by promoting intern..ationaZ,

confidence

among decision-makers, investments.
adequately confidence were being training, and arguments however, needs

both national
mounted and staffed, that

wzd

in irrigation
initiative, the probiems to raise to justify

A new international should gation should serve help management

of decision-makers adequately large adressed. investments

irriThis

the needed very research, evidence form,

(see Chapter projects. Study Team

2) in rehabilitation, In the light the Its of all optimal

and new irrigation presented, initiative careful the

considers whelming.

case for

a new international

to be overconsideration.

- 44--

6.2 Our terms action. views

Alternative of reference light

Institutional require of the

Arrangements five alternative to this courses point, our of

us to weigh argument

In the

and evidence

are as follows:

AZ-ternutive
'No involvement international The Study We do not CGIAR is propose. reputation requires carry clearly alternative The CG is practical almost whatever discipline. out from support Team, in feel There fully line

a
the Consultative for irrigation with the main within Group other water thrust than encouragement of management' of its terms to what the the of reference, extent initiative established management it have is not able to to do so, to deterthis focus. A is the we

has based its

practical

proposals competent

a framework and oversee including

of CGL4.R support.

to make a judgement
advantages, CG. the problem If since the

the appropriate are obvious has tried and organization early with

body to initiate strong of the to show, action.

As the report

of irrigation CG decides would

and adequate action, CG support.

the needed agency further.

some other

agency

However,

we are in no position to consider

mine which

and on whaT terms, with

we are unable

an organization problem therefore

a predominantly is that by the discipline active support

agricultural irrigation of engineering, of professionals

to be faced

management and that in that

universally is done will

dominated

need the

ALternative
'Formation TAC's of an institute

b
as set forth in TAC's 1980 proposal' the knowledge, design, operation levels. will The startto managein at various and a political water and other was to result

1980 proposal

was for

an institute for and drainage

to develop improving systems makers the national

principles ultimate ing with give

and expertise of irrigation objective a better

required

and management

was to create awareness priority involvement institutions to the

independent improvement of national in this

competence,

among policy

sufficient

of irrigation universities field. This

ment and a growing research and training

a national both where As far principal range zones. nent

capacity

to field and drainage

multidisciplinary of irrigation are important. the

water

management in

teams

in research irrigation as its unit, of irrigation The institute buildings

and in management

systems

countries

structure located production,

was concerned, and which Ultimately, in located

institute

was to have a was a major concern two to a wide ecological in perma-

in an area where

irrigation the institute

in agricultural or more satellite

provided substantially

easy access different light investment

problems. units, would and require agrees difference

was to have

have a relatively an area with is of about

IO ha of land. formulated for the objecoverthan is The 10 be a and for to i

The Study institute. tives. smaller centralised. an institution ha of land distraction support fore research. existing

Team fully The only Contacts very from for the

the objectives to the Study

over the means to achieve
within a larger

those rather IARCs.

The 1980 proposal ntrmber of field at headquarters field national Offices irrigation

appears situations

Team to be somewhat What is required which would with land

and work are desirable different from implies orientation which there that the major on-station

and conditions.

crop-oriented research collaboration The Study with

and close are essential. should

efforts are all

Team theregood access

does not

recommend that systems.

be any headquarters combined

is required,

AZtemtive
'A model using in This would not along the lines the facilities

c
of an international countries' ex+ent the operational with requirements national schemes, range of the we service, operating irrigation in, and at a limited number of selected systems

a few participating model stress just fits

to a large

activities

seen as priorities to use the involvement management facilities in a wider situations.

by the Study of selected rather than

Team. Here again, and support irrigation more limited

however, efforts, and the of local

the need to collaborate

need for irrigation

- 46 AZternative 'Feasibility ecological of existing environment

d
IARCs undertaking and the extent water management this might in their not to which or might

meet the requirements'
1~~1's

efforts

in irrigation valuable which from

management contribution. tanks, does,

have shown that ICRISAT has also and on small however, crop

an existing undertaken

IARC

can make a very useful ment.

work on aspects The emphasis management centres.

of small we place

watershed serve

managethan what

on irrigation

management orientations work should

rather

water
existing with part

(see definitions) IRRI's irrigation organization. on irrigation for

to distance fit

we see as needed any irrigation

the predominantly initiative

of most of the in well become and such from staff irriit may be to and . point at existing which it

management Other

management

by the

CC, and could service exist, Precedents a home for sort should however, the full activities its that

of a decentralized staff Details management if it is having working at CIAT,

IARCs might

support another. out. gation deserves centres,

management. providing of this forcefully, to receive centre, other with centres. for

as CIEMYT staff The Study

one centre assistance to stress

of possible Team wishes cannot only part

be worked

*be expected for funds it

attention

of an existing of those

or lodged

to compete concerns

more focal receive countries here is governance. that

to the

Nor could irrigation

be expected in host

the direction Those with

and advice responsibility also

needs without involved. own separate

own leadership management crucial

must of course the effort

be closely

But the funding

must have its

and unique

and recognizable

governance.

AZternutive
'Any other The approach with approach which

e
might by the be suggested Study as a result of the study' exactly of b

recommended overlook

Team does not d, though it of d.

correspond has elements

any of the alternatives

a through

and c and does not

some possibilities

6.3 In view in

Approach

Recommended in Section into account 6.1 also and the probable alternative fund selected limitations,

of the requirements 6.2, but taking

Section

the Study agement would through disciplinary This research link

Team recommends organized national and training, efforts staff, would

an international with a small in selective especially The beadquarters

initiative headquarters. irrigation support would

on irrigation The network management for them,

manaction partly multiand

as a network

and provide

outposted mass.

have a critical of a service, institute, Institute

initiative

combine

elements Irrigation

of a network, the title Management

of a headquarters. to be called

We therefore

recommend

the whole (IIMI).

the International

Leve Zs of NationaZ
Considering requirements ingness possible matrix: the great but also variation with

Invo Zvement
among countries,not for international the Study only as to needs and willsix following and

as to desires

support Team proposes the

to cooperate levels

such support,

of international

involvement

as shown in

Increasing levels involvement

of I X II X X III X X X IV X X X X v X X X X X VI X X X X

Information, seminars, workshops Action Action research network in

research actively supported

Training partially funded Regional training

Support for national irrigation management centre International staff: visits in residence X X X X X

X X

O-2

1-2

1-3

2-4

The number of outposted would if thus vary funding and agreements

international

staff

in each country could, however,

involved be raised

from none to four.

The number

were forthcoming.

Level There national only is no direct level. of the

I involvement The country system, of an international concerned may wish and seminars, initiative to limit workshops, itself etc. on the to use

information

Level The country international for there effort. the benefit is no direct

II to link in order country to other involvement its ongoing to facilitate itself, countries. but Apart research the also activities exchange to make its from from occasional an international into an

may wish network

of information own experivisits

of the

ence more accessible

of and support

Level In order may wish staff side support. to.facilitate to ask for

III the implementation support could of action through be part staff research partial of the a country and/or and outinternational

international of international specific studies,

funding

support. contracts

Visits for

and consultants,

Level Action ment. port, for research International visits action research is

IV combined support as well with could staff, as for national include training partial in irrigation funding, and outside training. staff kntige,) sup-

of international

consultants field-based

contracts

Level International training, provides courses efforts which for in

V in a certain (internationally setting preferably -for country would include action regional with regional research training

involvement means that a possibility irrigation this field.

supported) linked

up and supporting

management,

national

Level If a certain with

VI decided

country

to set up a national
to deal which other with all could kinds act for

irrigation of problems as a focal could national such as: methods

management related point (and/or improvement for of diagnostic and personon be chan-

centre

a broad mandate
management, level only for training for through action and for

to irrigation
the national nelled, regional) standards analysis nel policies; not

such a centre research studies; but

international

support

also

key activities cost-effective efforts. improvement of research

feasibility

of on-go&g

projects;

of institutional

and coordination of involvement country would might gradually

The levels particular level action might

of the international be subject to negotiation be low at first, including over time. other

support in starting for

desired each case. instance

by a The with it

of involvement research be phased but

activities;'equally

down or out

Headquarters
At the headquarters a multidisciplinary ation. The activities conducting setting assisting research support

Activities
of a core in close international and other staff with

we recommend the establishment group which with would group work together include: desiring of this would

collaborsupport; networks of action lessons, in involved;

negotiations up and managing in

countries arise

an action

research

network,

as the need and opportunity the preparation, and in projects, of and close

(see Annex 4); and evaluation practical agencies of their

implementation the spread with

collaboration

the national

--conducting realisation identifying, ities; assisting monitoring organization of training staff in setting their up national including studies

50 -priorities worldwide; methodologies for key activcentres for more rapid

,

aimed at determining potentials and developing

of irrigation analysing

irrigation

management

and in and with

performance; the development in (or field); through especially networking, concerning on key manand media, seminars questions; close of curricula

of training methods;

the establishment of existing institutions the selection newsletters, the management

of training irrigation working

centres systems in this

collaboration with

subcontracting

those

already and other

and dissemination publications of irrigation of workshops, and training

of information systems;

-

the organisation agement, research

and conferences

6.4
Three different

Governance levels of governance and Working are considered: Governing Board,

Programme Committee a) Governing nature

Groups.

Board
Board should and its be selected dependencies be expected very carefully, on activities to serve in due to the which their or their are personal employ-

The Governing considered capacity ing Three

of the effort basically and not different

as a national as instructed

responsibility.

The members of the Board would agencies. categories responsibility The main reasons

members of governments should for for field be presented irrigation their knowledge conditions is presence

on the Board: management on the in developing are of countries; to give the coopfor on the Board question in developing results and third, necessary

- Those having countries. 0 threefold: irrigation second, effort. the effort eration

First,
they Their

their

personal under

management presence

are the main beneficiaries on the Board utilizer of irrigation the required

of the therefore

of the

orientation;

of those

in charge

management

is required

the all,

implementation but subsequently on action systems. category capacity) presence they

of the programme; at the level research consists

at the national of implementing training (but There certain or link or with could promote

level

first

of

an international in existing serving in their may

network irrigation - A second personal for wish efforts forts. their

and field-based of representatives organizations. First, to an international to coordinate effort

from donor directly may wish

are two reasons agencies bilateral efmuch an efficiency among of new would to be broad the as proposed;

on the Board.

donor effort their very other

to contribute with Their

and second,

an international presence effort would broad of experience

bilateral to the from

on the Board to improve consist

interchange of the overall - A third persons irrigation approaches be important. As compared relatively cularly categories major as an order The major cerning

and as such contribute irrigation of members .selected in and knowledge to consider multidisciplinary size

management. of problems and conceive boundaries have three

category with

experience across

development. and to think to existing large of its network zones, of

The ability

IARCs the character. above, but a number

of the Board would of the effort to cover in the

as a result

of the nature In order also

and parti-

mentioned

to include

the Board

irrigation duties

of 20 members should consist to long of approving term policy

be considered work promatters con-

of magnitude. the Board would guidance institute. of the and give

gramme and budget the activities

6) Progrcmune Co&t-tee The Programme Committee the work programme Governing selected It is Board. should be responsible of the institute professional for the preparation should be of to the and budget of their to be submitted Committee knowledge. Committee activities. national programme, activities of should This programmes from the Pronational

The members of the Programme that those support

on the basis advisable exclude direct involved

the members of the Programme

not be, directly does not receiving participating

in implementing
in charge from the

of implementing international in the felt.

in an advisory

capacity

gramme Committee,

when the need is

-

3.f

-

4 Working Groups
The possibilities should duties seriously or tasks. groups groups of creating be considered, Three for different the preparation related subjects of the art working groups for different deserve training management; irrigation with management, assistance and from programme purposes certain mention: centres, as a means of performing possibilities of regional in to irrigated reports, with the

- working seminars - working the

or workshops

on specific of state groups programme;

the preparation international. working matters - regional regional

to discuss in

international management.

and activities

irrigation

6.5

Closing

Comment many years is been rightly in concerned with the inadequate that two and and .

The CGIAR has for performance improved meeting decades; promoting other social preventing more effective being studies task that planned of which it equity

of irrigation performance forecasted food

systems the key to:

developing deficiencies

countries, in

given

production distribution

the next

in income

and work irrigation the

opportunities, systems;

benefits; deterioration and quicker by national the present of the results existing from itself is enormous investments inquiries The point action on an in the efforts this over high, Chapter.
time

governments. in several and now the report the most recent. appropriate

The concern

of CGUR has manifested

seems to have been reached has assumed, level of irrigation 4 and 5, current deficiencies the but no doubt risk; international performance In Chapters correct approach approach not without worth taking. to deal

when CGIAR must decide namely, with systems. national to take the worldwide

how to complete

deficiencies

and international is described modified is very in

to An This a risk

present will

were shown to be seriously

inadequate.

to correct

inadequacies the cost

have to be improved, since of delay

and is is

it

MEANS OF OPERATION

Professiond
As the irrigation quarters mentioned mix is at least In addition international activities, projects, should required. activities the be kept effort

core staff
will size small.

at headquar$ers
cooperation laboratories core to cover however with will staff the and support be existing at headearlier

emphasise field

to national

and as the

of the professional In order manner, the which with with staff a civil

in an adequate

a minimum multidisciplinary should as possible therefore include: background background comprise

to the Director-General 8 to 12 professionals engineer engineer economist farming in training for information officer systems

should

one irrigation/drainage one irrigation/drainage one agricultural one agriculturist, one rural sociologist one specialist one specialist one management one senior as well)

engineering

an agricultural

and publications

specialist disciplines, worked all core staff (this applies with teams, preferably to field proven for a involving

administrative of their should

Irrespective
.

staff

have a multidisciplinary
on multidisciplinary in developing level.' preferable. Team considers that

orientation colmtries, A practical

experience international substantial orientation 1

through period will

having

collaboration be highly Study

at professional

and operational

One member of the should be required

a minimum

of ten years

- 54 -

The possibilities consultants should

for also

covering be kept

certain in mind.

disciplines

through

part-time

Supportkg
The headquarters and administrative given the professional Tentatively the professional would

Stcff
also

at Beadquarters
have staff recruited locally technical that might for staff secretarial be to assist to

assistance. core-staff think staff. core

In addition, recruited in desk research of a total

consideration

should be needed. assistants

to the possibility one might

of locally

of five'technical

Professionat
The major light field tasks of the

Core Stuff
outposted that basically in field

&&posted
staff tasks should be considered should of to The role and geared in the the

of the basic staff will staff training, irrigation 6, different according core a balance

principle be performed therefore

the

to be performed institutions.

as

much as possible strengthening Outposted national national Chapter tinguished strike of professional 10 outposted

by national

be complementary combinations and possibly

national will

capabilities. be involved of action research, of in to training the establishment can be disIn order and

regional levels between staff staff

management

institutes.

As has been explained involvement country. staff

of international core it

to the wishes
professional outposted members.

of a particular seems reasonable

at headquarters

to assume a number

CorLsuZtants

In order posted Another action

to keep the professional at the reason research lowest possible action but

staff still

at headquarters viable level,

as well use should required

as outalso be

made of consultants.

is that
of prevailing

research

and procedures in irrigation

to define appraisal will

programmes

on the basis conditions

of a multidisciplinary projects

or diagnosis

require expertise

short-term should basis, core

high

level

expertise should

in

specific

fields.

Some of the of part-time on a more or their input. 20 profes'

then be mobilized to guarantee staff of 4 man-year

through a certain

the recruitment be involved in continuity per

consultants. less With able regular a total although

Such consultants

preferably

(headquarters not excessive

and outposted) proportion.

of about

sionals,

a total

consultancies

annum seems a reason-

certainly

7.2

Other Gutside

operational contracts

requirements

A

considerable

amount of highly on the which

specialized international

expertise of the <world, level, irrigation from

is but

available instead be

in

existing should tapped tion Outsihe specialized operational variety

institutions not be duplicated and mobilized

in many countries according are a powerful

Such expertise the identificasuch highly also cover to increase a wide

to needs resulting constrain tool proper not only

of those

problems expertise flexibility.

management. but

contracts

to mobilize may also

to the benefit Such outside of general interest.

of the effort, contracts

of subjects

Cdoperative
Partial agreement regional bility engaged The funds funding with training would in action of action the

reseaivh
research considerably

programme in the framework combined increase for with the of a cooperative national or flexistaff operational

institute could

, possibly

of the effort. help provide support projects salaries limited of key national physical research and for facilities

and equipment.

Training,
Training study irrigation irrigation and exchange tours is management. management

fe 2 lowships,
of information part in Efforts and not

seminars

and workshops
workshops to improve on aspects of and

by means of seminars, of an international this field should specialized effort focus subjects.

an essential

on highly

7.3 As no physical some flexibility agricultural based

Headquarters research research

location facilities the centres, agro-climatic of other be located world. to the matter, factors to be weighed and the in legal conditax matters, of the institute especially observations in is irrigation a basic will time. are required location. Unlike the headquarters zone either. factors. near the One of centre at headquarters the international have factors to be is that of location of irridoes not those there is

in choosing

in a particular should

The choice of gravity

can be made on the basis the headquarters gated include tions offered areas In giving further in the

developing consideration

the operational posed and privileges by the host these a wide This for of air factors range

efficiency government.

and immunities, the following activities headquarters part also of their in terms factors based is of conditions,

Concerning cluding effort. status terms services 2) Research

can be made: management, characteristic have inof the in

I) Participation

in national means that an important travel but are therefore and comparative from all research aspect would over Proximity

staff

to be on travel telex, and postal in locating from of in

Good communications

of telephone,

important studies

to be considered on information another bases like, cost important would as generally and retain of living; services,

the headquarters. collected activity available staff. climate schools, accorded of local language in developing experiences the institute. universities, 3) A special and health availability to international 4) Operational'flexibility man-power, services 5) Location countries, Regarding One opinion headquarters this technical and good printing Among the items the world

to good data institutes be the ability here amenities

and the are:

be an advantage.

to attract medical

to be considered

conditions; staff.

(housing,

of goods and services); is also

privileges

and immunities

affected

by the availability good English areas

as well

as secretarial, facilities. of irrigated

near the centre
as already last factor, location access

of gravity the Study in to live

mentioned. Team has divided country systems. opinions. prepared This to give enable

favours staff

a developing irrigation

would

the

staff

to maintain insights, national so that their

a practical with staff, not approaches,

field-orientation, national and/or and liaison, responsibilities Board. of whether be left the if will staff staff access staff and management would

and to have necessary practices. of protect fully. for

the developing

multidisciplinary generalisable of responsibility staff core could balance would for staff

interaction among core collaboration they activities would international

Divisions 'outposted' the ttme and and of

the addition

become over-involved

nationally A proper

perform

of these be monitored opinion

would

be managed by the Director-General

by the Governing is that the question country

The other should until in the

or not open for five

the headquarters the time being systems experito of core the many irrigastaff have been

be in a developing the practical explored. immediate

should staff important staff

possibilities Headquarters is not and since vicinity

considering

factors irrigation

adequately ence criteria the field staff tion would under might headquarters

to live

meet minimum to travel the time

(IO years) frequently. not

be expected to protect

Use of outposted country, would in local

be workable. problems, agro -climatic

The main disadvantage particularly that rather problems be the danger and socio-economic

of locating one with than conditions headquarters

in a developing

management differing

become too involved

in problems also.

7.4

Cost Estimate experienced budget in similar for the organizations, institute the Study Team conof

Based on cost templates US$ 4,500,OOO

an annual

once in full

operation as follows.

per annum (1982 dollars),

composed somewhat

US$ per annum Core staff Staff Consultants Research Travel Outside Seminars, Board, Contingencies at Headquarters (10) 40 months) core staff (appr. assistants of headquarters contracts research workshops, (5%) .- , programmes fellowships Working . Groups maintenance (10) 1,200,000 1,100,000 600,000 200,000 200,000 100,000 200,000 300,000 250,000 150,000 200,000 4,500,000 also for contemplates expenses. local travel, for secrefor outposted

Rent and office Cooperative

Programme

Committee,

The budget tarial core etc. staff

for

core

staff services

at headquarters and operational provision

and clerical outposted

The budget relocation,

includes

TAC Steering

Group on Water Management

Research

and Training

Dr. W. Treitz, Federal Republic of Germany, Chairman (October meeting only) Dr. R.K. Cunningham, Chairman (February meeting only) Dr. L. Barraza, Inter-American Development Bank (October Dr. N. Collins, Ford Foundation (October meeting only) Dr. P. Cros, France Dr. R.W. Cummings, TAC Chairman Dr. A. Hardan, Iraq Dr. H.M. Horning, FAO Dr. F. Hotes, World Bank Dr. H. Idris, UNDP Dr. K. Kanungo, India Dr. G.J. Koopman, Netherlands Dr. Amir Muhammed, Pakistan Dr. D. Seckler, Ford Foundation (February meeting only) \ Dr. F. Williams, USAID (later ISNAR) Dr. M.S. Zehni, TAC Member Dr. J.H. Monyo, FAO observer P.J. Dieleman, FAO observer P.J. Mahler, TAC Secretariat L.H.J. Ochtman, TAC Secretariat

meeting

only)

TAC Study F.E.

Team on Water Management

Research

and Training

Schulze, Director, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, Netherlands (Team leader) ' Dr. R. Chambers, Social Scientist, The Ford Foundation, New Delhi, India Dr. M. Dagg, Agricultural Scientist, ISNAR, The Hague, Netherlands (October 1981 only) P. Kirpich, Irrigation Engineer, Consultant of the World Bank, Athens, Greece

- 60 -

ANNEX2 TERMS OF REFERENCE TAC Study Team on Water Management

Research

and Training

I The primary of individual

Objectives objectives irrigation to be conducted of the study, experts, are as follows:

.. by a team comprised

1. On the basis of available reports (and additional information to be to identify the extent to which training and research in collected), irrigation water management are now being performed by: a) existing IARCs; b) existing principal water resources research institutes of universities in developing and developed countries; such as FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, CEFIGRE in c) existing institutions, France and ILRI in the Netherlands; and d) other organizations making significant contributions to training or research. 2. To determine the aspects of training and research activities in irrigation water management which are not receiving sufficient attention, which could provide significant improvements in irrigation water management in developing countries and which might be addressed more effectively through international - as contrasted to national - efforts in this area and to specify the contents of the research and training programmes which might be needed under various alternative courses of dction as indicated below. alternative courses of action for CGIAR support in this 3. To formulate area and indicate the pros and cons of these alternatives such as the following and to identify the specific types of problems which would be addressed in relation to each: a) No involvement from CG - other than encouragement of international support for irrigation water management. b) Formation of an institute as set forth in TAC's 1980 proposal. c) A model along the lines of an international service, operating in and using the facilities of a limited number of selected irrigation systems in a few host countries. d) Feasibility of existing IARCs undertaking water manaiement in their ecological environment and the extent to which this might or might not meet the requirements. e) Any other approach which might be suggested as a result of thestudy. 4. To indicate activities how the above courses of action of other agencies concerned with would be complementary this subject. to

5. In the event that no involvement from CG is recommended (Item 3 a to identify present training and research efforts which above), should be continued or expanded, and to suggest new activities or steps which could be undertaken to improve and support irrigation project performance in developing countries. 6. It should be noted that 'irrigation water management' includes activities from upstream at the point of diversion or storage disposal point of on-farm use, and downstream to the poin-t-nf the irrigation areas, and perhaps to the sea. II Procedure all to the from

J

1. To recruit and assemble a study team comprised of one or two agrione engineer and one social economist, all experts in culturists, irrigation projects and with multi-country experience, under the Group, which in particular would supply guidance of a Steering expert knowledge of the CGIAR system and objectives. The Steering Group would include representatives of the main interested parties which were present at the ad hoc meeting of the CGIAR members on water management held on July 20, 1981. 2. The Study Team will assemble at FAO Headquarters for about two weeks for briefing, desk studies and formulation of preliminary observations. The Steering Group will meet with the Study Team at the end of these two weeks. * 3. A briefing index of relevant documentation would be made available to the Study Team prior to their first meeting. At the-first meeting a schedule would be prepared of visits to various institutions and operational irrigation systems in developing countries to obtain needed information not readily available otherwise. During these visits informationpertinent to the first five objectives outlines .above would be obtained specifically. 4. Field visits would be carried out to selected developing countries, some by part of the Study Team jointly, and if considered necessary, some by individual members of the team. Visits to some institutions in developed countries may also be arranged as required by the Steering Group and/or the Study Team. 5. The Study Team would re-assemble at FAO Rome following the field visits for discussion and drafting of the final report to TAC to be submitted by the Study Team leader to the Chairman of TAC by January 15, 1982. 6. The final report of the Study Team would 27th Meeting, March 9-14, 1982. be presented

to TAC at the

- 62 -

AKNEX 3 CURRENT SITUATION IN SELECTED COlJNTRIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Introduction INDIA 2 6 7 19 24 27 36 38 41 43 45 . Background Current Physical and Operational Inadequacies

Needed Improvements Needed Improvements Monitoring Manpower Planning Information Research Irrigation Need for International PAKISTAN Exchange

in Main System operation in On-Farm Systems

Gaps and Research Development a National Support

Coordination

Strategy for Irrigation Management

Institute

46 60 67 70 76 77

Background Needed Improvements Waterblogging in Main System Operation

and Salinity in On-Farm Systems Arrangements
,

Needed Improvement Changes in Institutional Manpower Planning

84 89 90 92

Research Information Long-Range Need for EGYPT Exchange Planning a National Institute for Irrigation Management

94 96 98
101

Background The Old-New Lands On-Farm Water Distribution Modernization in the Old Lands System

of the Intermediate of the Main System the System

103 Modernization 106 Operating 111 Drainage I14

System

The New-Naw Lands

116 MEXICO 120
SUDAN

122 PHILIPPINES 127 Main System Management 128 129
On-Farm Development Communals and Participation Change

130 Institutional 131 The Future 132 PERU 135

.

SENEGAL

-

b4

-

Appendix I of Annex 3 Physical and Operational Inadequacies (as cited by Indian officials) Main System Inadequacies On-Farm System Inadequacies Faulty Faulty Faulty On-Farm Practices Drainage Farming and Road Systems Systems

in

the

Canal

System

ANNEX3 CURRENT SITUATION IN SELECTED COUNTRIES

INTRODUCTION
1)

This annex describes the current situation with respect to irrigation management in several countries that the Study Team visited _. and studied during preparation of this report or that they had knowledge of through previous visits and studies. Emphasis is given to problems still needing solution, what is being done currently to solve these problems and what remains to be done. INDIA Background

2)

India has 60 million ha of irrigated land (Commanded Area), more than any country in the world except China. India's accomplishments since Independence in construction of irrigation works has been phenomenal with almost one million ha added per year on the average. About half of the irrigated area is in large and medium public schemes of over 2,000 ha; the remaining half is in so-called minor schemes, mostly small privately owned shallow wells. About twothirds of the wells are equipped with electric pumps and the remainder with diesel, animal or human-driven pumps or lifting devices. The figure of 60 million ha represent the 'irrigation potential'; the area actually irrigated is about a fourth less or 45 million ha. The yield from this reduced area is moreover low compared with world standards. For example, the yield of irrigated foodgrains in 1950 was 0.9 tons per ha and, although there has been a substantial increase up to a current yield of 1.7 tons per ha, it is still low compared with world standards. Moreover, despite the rapid increase in irrigation potential achieved in the past three decades , per capita annual increase in agricultural production has averaged only 2.25%. An overall objective of India's Sixth Plan (1980-1985) is to increase food production to about 150-155 million tons from the present level of 120-130 million tons. Apart from other inputs, this is to be achieved by increasing the irrigation potential by 14 million ha and through more efficient utilization of the potential already created. The latter would be accomplished by modernizing the older irrigation systems and by adopting better water management in these systems. The fact that only about 252 to 40% of the water diverted is delivered to crop root zones illustrates further the very large gap between the irrigation potential and what might actually be achieved through better water management.

3)

.

4)

A major part of the small-scale irrigation development to date has been in the form of private shallow wells, mainly in the Gangetic plain where about 12 million ha are presently irrigated from this source. The groundwater resource in this plain is more than ample to permit doubling of the area irrigated except that lack of energy and the many smallholdings are primary constraints. Although hydrothese are of high cost while inelectric sources could be tapped, ternational complications present difficult obstacles, again indicating that most of the additional agricultural production attainable through irrigation in the next several decades will have to come from modernization and from improved yields (including double cropping to the extent practicable) in the areas already irrigated. The low present output of the Indian irrigation systems (not only according to yield but also according to the limited extent of double cropping despite favourable year-round growing conditions) has resulted, since the mid-1970's, in a substantial effort by _ Indian authorities to eliminate deficiencies. The main feature of this effort has been the setting up of 44 Command Area Development Authorities (CADAS) covering 74 major irrigation canals and serving 15 million ha. The CADAs, which had as a major objective improvement of on-farm water management, have had limited success. The reasons for lack of success, generally tJel1 understood by leading Indian officials, most often concern faulty enterprise-managementtypepractices but of equal or greater importance are faults in the main system (untimely or insufficient water supply), lack of drainage and roads, and lack of advice on appropriate farming systems for use by individual farmers. Current Physical and Operational (as cited by Indian Officials) Inadequacies and gives referwere cited.

5)

6)

Appendix 1 of this Annex ences to the publications Needed Imnrovements

lists these inadequacies wherein the inadequacies in Main Svstem Oneration

7)

Addition
either erated occur. escape

of reguZating structures: In general, the canals are run completely on or completely off. The-canals are seldom opat less than full capacity so as to save water when rains To prevent overtopping of canal banks when rains occur, channels are opened which causes waste of water.

8)

Operating engineers are giving thought on how operations can be improved to conserve water. In the Upper Canga system in Uttar Pradesh, the Study Team was told that a detailed feasibility study is under preparation regarding the addition of structures, mainly cross-regulators, to enable improved operation. The additional hardware needed would include an improved telecommunication system.

9)

Addition

of teZecomnunications: The need for improved telecommunications is a typical deficiency in Indian irrigation distribution systems. Indian officials are well aware of the inadequacy and consideration is being given to the formation of a task force to determine inter azia whether the problem should be attacked nationor as part of remodelling schemes for individual wide, statewide, systems.
Creation of separate operation and rnaBnte-ncznce tin+sf As indicated senior Indian officials have recommended in Appendix 1, item B-1.3, creation of separate operation and maintenance wings in the State Irrigation Departments. However, implementation of these recommendations is thus far being realized only in Maharashtra and in no other State.

10)

11)

Addition

of roads: Lack of farm-to-market roads is often a serious drawback. A road plan should be included during preliminary planning of irrigation projects since it is difficult to add roads after the system is completed. The larger canals do have maintenance roads but the intermediate size canals need such roads also. The maintenance roads can be gradually upgraded to permanent roads. Similarly, when constructing drains, the excavated materials can be used to form embanbents for the adjacent roads. The Superintending Engineer in charge of the Jayakwadi project in Maharashtra said that he was gradually convincing his colleagues to add maintenance roads along canals and to gradually upgrade them to permanent roads.

12)

Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water is already widely practised in the States of Punjab and Haryana. Exploitation of groundwater is mainly by small farmers employing shallow wells financed through agricultural credit schemes. In the newer projects in South India where water is as yet plentiful, waterlogging is occurring due to over-irrigation of rice but the waterlogging is being controlled through installation of shallow wells again by individual farmers with financing through agricultural credit. The pumped water is being used in the rabi season to supplement water that is not always available at that time from the canal system. In one such case visited by the Study Team, the impression was gained that, in view of the high energy cost for pumping, a horizontal system might solve waterlogging more economically. CanuZ lining: Another element of the conjunctive-use problem concerns whether major canals should be lined in order to reduce seepage losses in cases where the seepage can be recovered through groundwater pumping. In flat terrain, lining is more practicable since a parallel lined canal can be constructed and the old canal abandoned. However, in cases, such as many in South India where the main canals are located in relatively sloping terrain (so-called 'contour canals'), construction of parallel canals becomes diffi'cult and recovery of seepage through groundwater pumping then seems more attractive.

13)

-

00

-

14)

Automation

as a means of circmenting

manageria% difficulties:

Because of institutional difficulty and lack of training staff, thought has been given to hardware improvements that circumvent‘. project in Uttar Pradesh these constraints. For example, a tubewell financed by the World Bank features push-button-operated wells that supply buried pipe systems equipped with hydrants to serve individy and maintenance requirements are thereby ual farms; operation greatly simplified. Another hardware improvement in some systems might include the installation of automatic float-operated gates for maintaining constant levels in canals. The latter possibility is expected to be under investigation in the near future by French consultants.

15)

Improved project

The need for improved project planning, planning: capability is realized in some of the State Irrigation Departments but not all. Typically, a department has a Design Directorate and a Construction Directorate. The Construction Directorate usually assigns specific geographic areas to Divisions which carry out Almost none of the State Irrigaoperation and maintenance as well. tion Departments have Planning Directorates. An exception is the State of Gujarat where a new Planning Directorate is being set up to handle planning for the large Narmada basin development. A development of recent years is the formation of a consulting institution devoted to 'WAPCOS (, which is a quasi-government group, preparation of feasibility reports for specific projects and sometimes final design as well. WAPCOSis also doing some consulting work outside of India. The Central Water Commission, an agency of the central government, also does a certain amount of project preparation work based on specific requests from State governments. In general, however, private or even quasi-public consulting firms to carry out project preparation are lacking in India. This places too much load on the State Irrigation Departments and is one reason why projects in India suffer from poor preparation. Before an irrigation project goes forward, whether for a system serving a new area or for improvements to an existing system, a 'feasibility study' is required. Feasibility studies of proper standards need to be based on adequate. 'project planning' concepts. In this connection, the following quotation from the comprehensive 1972 report of the second Irrigation Commission is pertinent. 'Many of our existing irrigation works, which were by all standards a creditable performance at the time when they were executed, are now proving too inadequate to meet the exacting demands of the new high yielding varieties of crops. These crops require not only timely irrigation but also irrigation inthe required quantities.' Planning and design standards have changed in the last two decades and they can be expected to continue to change as further development,o:.f HYVs takes place including short-duration varieties for which planting dates become more critical than before. The shortduration varieties might require less water but are more exigent regarding timeliness and peak water requirements, thus putting further constraints on planning and design of the distribution system.

16)

17)

18)

Not only

will canal capacities have to increase; it will also be necessary to find ways to add in-system storage and/or meet peak requirements through conjunctive use of groundwater. Needed Improvements in On-Farm Systems

19)

Authorities The purpose and scope of the command Area Development that the (CADAs) was described in Para. 5. It was also mentioned CADAs have had less success than anticipated. A leading Indian Administrative Service official who had been in charge of the CADAs in Andhra Pradesh and with whom the Study Team spoke felt strongly that the main system has to be improved first to ensure adequate and timely supply of irrigation water, without which the establishThere are however cases where ment of CADAs may be premature. partial improvements of the main system can be carried out selectively without waiting for improvement of the entire system which will ordinarily take a long time. Reasons for ineffectiveness of Improved institutional arrangements: many of the CADAs can also be traced in large measure to faulty policies as already secog-institutional arrangements and personnel nized by Indian officials; see Appendix I, part B. In a project in Maharashtra that the Study Teamvisited, the CADA has been placed under the responsibility of a Superintending Engineer who operates the main system as well. This follows an institutional arrangement that had been recormnended by a leading Indian official (Item 1.2., this seems to be the only case of Part B, Appendix I); however, such an institutional arrangement.

20)

-

-

21)

Adoption

of rotationa water supply: The warabandi (rotational water supply) system is well established in Northern India, especially Punjab and Hariyana, where it has evolved and has been in effective operation for a long period of time. Warabandi is a means of achieving equitable distribution of water according to size of landholding so that water is shared equitably even when in short supply. Elsewhere in India, warabandi is rarely practised or is not carried out as effectively.

22)

Various improvements in warabandi operation are proposed such as: (a) maintain the regular turns of individual farmers but throttle down the chak outlet when water supply is short (this would require an adjustable gate on the chak outlet plus added labour for operation) and (b) rotation of the minor canals as already practised in Haryana. The adoption of such modifications requires a form of action research within individual canal commands involving considerable evaluation and trial and error. In the newer projects in South India where extensive rice and sugarcane cultivation is practised in the upper parts of the canal commands, the introduction of such modifications would be further complicated since farmers at the upper end of the Canal commands have developed a vested interest in the copious supplies of water that they now enjoy.

- /u 23) , '\ On-@r?n irrigation practices in India leave much to be desired. The typical method in use is flood irrigation, with plot-to-plot disin rice-paddy areas. Borders and tribution common, especially furrows are hardly ever used. The recently established Water and Land Management Institute at Aurangabad in Maharashtra has begun to experiment with borders and furrows and will be preparing a manual dealing with the subject. Among the many constraints which tend to prevent adoption by farmers of better on-farm irrigation practices, that there is no practical way for charging for two are: first, water volumetrically and second, that the farmers do not have appropriate implements with which to construct borders and furrows making use of the power available to them, namely, bullocks. A kind is needed to help solve this problem. of 'component research' Monitoring 24) Monitoring of individual irrigation systems is not carried out in improved methodologies for India in an effective manner. Although monitoring are needed, pending their development there are some obvious monitoring tools that could be put into practice. For exto require for each irrigation system the ample, it would be useful publication and printing of an annual report listing production and equity targets and the degree to which such targets were achieved. Reasons could of course be given as to why such targets were not achieved or were over-achieved. In addition to individual annual reports for irrigation systems, a A possible summary report, probably by States, would be useful. model is that of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of Mexico which prints such a summary annually. For each of the approximately 100 irrigation districts in Mexico, a 3-page summary is presented giving the cropping pattern, the crop yields, the total production of each crop and the water consumption in cubic meters.

-

25)

26)

iiapid

appraisa%: From 1975 to 1980 but mainly until 1978, a team set up by the Central Water Commission conducted a series of rapid appraisals of existing projects and issued a report 'Recommendation of Central Team on Water Utilization on 24 Existing Projects'. This document contains veryshort summaries, usually three page long, describing the constraints on the effective operation of the project examined. The time spent by the team on each project was about a week. The Study Team got the impression that the procedure used, one of quick appraisal, could be highly effective but it does not seem to have been followed up. Part of the problem seems to be that the CWC report was not taken seriously by the individual State Irrigation Departments.

Manpower Planning 27) India's irrigation engineers (there are 70,000 TersonneZ po%icies: presently employed) have shown a remarkable talent and ,qapability in harnessing the gigantic rivers of the country by means of large regulators and major canal systems. The and small dams, headworks, same proficiency and dedication has not however been shown as yet in the field of irrigation water management (in order to derive full benefit from the irrigation potential created), a situation to faulty personnel policies. which is due, at least in part, Promotion is mainly by seniority and motivation for high performRotation of personnel is often very ance is generally lacking. frequent. Irrigation engineers generally prefer to engage in construction rather than operation and maintenance; that is why leading officials have suggested the establishment of a separate cadre for operation and maintenance and to adopt regulations whereby engineers cannot transfer from the operation and maintenance cadre to the construction cadfe (see Appendix 1). Perhaps this idea will have a chance of success since in many States construction will now have to slow down (owing to budgetary restrictions and since in some States there are few irrigable zones left) so that the higher yields and double cropping must now be realized from existing irrigation projects. .On the other hand, since the central government and many States still plan to proceed with construction of new systems on a big scale (see below under Strategy of Development), the chance of success in setting up a separate cadre for operation and maintenance may not be bright. As was indicated in Appendix 1, Item B-3.1, a lack of facilities for in-service training in water management is well understood at a high level and steps are underway for creation of an in-service training institute in water management to be located at a site still.to be chosen not far from Delhi. Training offered will be primarily for in-service engineers although non-engineering subjects will be included. The institute will be sponsored by the Central Water Commission's 'Water Management Wingt whose name is being changed from 'Water Research Wing'. USAID is expected to participate in a substantial way in the financing of the new training institute. USAID is presently organizing a study team that will examine the question during a period of several months together with Indian officials in order to establish the scope and duration of the training to be offered and to prepare preliminary designs and cost estimates of physical facilities needed. The physical facilities would be limited to buildings since it is planned to use actual irrigation projects as training workshops. The order of magnitude of the cost envisaged is $50 million over a five-year period beginning in 1983. An obvious need to be fulfilled by the new training centre will be to prepare a manual on on-farm water management that has to be in non-technical language easily understandable by field staff many of whom will be diploma holders rather than university graduates.

28)

29)

7kainirq:

30)

31)

32)

Pending establishment of the new training institute, some efforts for in-service training in water management have proceeded. At a Water and Land Management Institute Aurangabad in Maharashtra, has been operating for two years with financial support from the World Bank. Two types of courses have been presented: long-term, IO-12 months and short-term, 8 weeks. Facilities are available for 60 long-term-course and 120 short-term-course participants, all of A matter to clear up is whether agricuithe Irrigation Department. ture extensicn personnel of the Agriculture Department should receive training in water management at the Institute. the University of Roorkee has long been a At university level, world leader in training of hydraulic engineers and now is giving more attention to micro hydraulics and to problems of on-farm water management. The curriculum is also being widened to include more economics and sociology. Agriculturists courses on agriculture, rather than only engineers will also be admitted to courses at Roorkee although it is realized that the response from agriculturists is likely to be weak since training in water management is thus far of little value in advancement of their careers. The University of Baroda in the State of Gujarat is also giving attention to development of a curriculum in irrigation water management for which it has assistance from USAID. Since projects of any kind, including irrigation projects, require effective leaders who can in fact come from almost any irrigationrelated‘discipline (economics, management and agriculture as well as engineering) thought has to be given on how to educate and stimulate effective project leaders. Part of the reason for the scarcity of such leaders can be traced to defects in the university training presently available which is often overly focussed within engineers with a particular discipline. For example, outstanding ambition to become managers should receive some training in some of the related disciplines such as management, administration and _ economics, and in the humanities such as sociology. A fairly effective device that has been employed recently with World Bank assistance has been to send irrigation engineers on visits to selected irrigation projects in various countries including the Philippines, Korea, Morocco and United States. Engineers with whom the Study Team spoke said that the trips were very valuable in broadening their thinking regarding alternative ways of dealing with water management. Still, what is remarkable is that even the various approaches utilized within India, which are often quite different, are not shared among the irrigation engineers of the respective States. Information Exchange

33)

34)

35)

36)

Seminars are a good means of exchanging information and these have been conducted with good results on many occasions in India and nearby countries. To be most valuable, seminars must be adequately prepared, a task that should be coordinated and arranged by the new in-service training institute.

37) \

-

Another task for the institute should be issuance of a publication The publication should be of high on perhaps a quarterly basis. standard and should include a review of current literature on is irrigation water management. Since the volume of such literature the review should concentrate on literature judged to very great, be of early practical application. Research Caps and Research Coordination

38)

There are many on-going research efforts in India but these are not being effectively planned and coordinated. A recent list of research needs in irrigation prepared jointly by the Ford Foundation and the World Bank described 21 such items in four groups (enginadministration and socio-economics) for eering, system operation, which research, if properly planned and coordinated, could be . carried out by Indian universities and by Indian institutes of management or research. In order to plan and coordinate the on-going and proposed research efforts, the central government has recently set up a coordinating panel to be chaired by the Vice-Chancellor of the University of of the task, it is doubtRoorkee. However, in view of the enormity ful whether a coordinating panel that meets once in three to six months will be effective. The agencies involved include the Indian Council for Agricultural Research, various institutes (approximately 35 in number) that conduct crop research but also deal with soil/water aspects, the National Institute of Hydrology at Roorkee, the Water Technology Centre at Pusa near Delhi (supported by -the Ford Foundation), and others. If the additional tasks in research proposed by the Ford Foundation and-the World Bank are to be addressed, a large number of universities, technical institutes and management institutes will be involved, making the task of planning and coordination even more complex than it is already. Three additional research gaps that came to the attention of the Study Team include: - Development of appropriate farming systems inciuding choice of optimum cropping patterns. Such research is needed to cover both the situation under existing conditions (which take account, of current deficiencies in the water delivery system) and under improved conditions (with some or all the deficiencies removed). The farming systems need to be examined from the farmer's point of view, take into account his capability. to overcome the physical and other constraints., - Development of an appropriate cropping system for black cotton soils of which there is a very large total area in India. Many of these black cotton soils are in zones of relatively high monsoon rainfall which make them difficult to cultivate when wet (they are then highly plastic) or when dry (they are then very hard). the black cotton soils are not cultivated In many parts of India, at all during kharif. - Development of implements to enable the farmer to form borders and furrows using bullocks; see paragraph 15.

39)

. 40)

Irrigation 41)

Development

Strategy

The year 2000 target mentioned by many Indian officials is to reach an irrigated area of 113 million ha which compares with the presently irrigated (commanded) area of 60 million ha. During the sixyear plan period 1980-1985 it is proposed to spend $15,000 million on irrigation of which only 10% would be devoted to modernization such a target would re(in an area of 14 million ha). Achieving quire an annual rate of expansion some 50% greater than that achieved in recent years (about 2 million ha annually), which itself is more than double the rate achieved at any time until in view of budgetary and man-power constraints, the 1974. Moreover, wisdom of devoting 90% to new projects and only 10% to modernization is open to question. The strategy-for irrigation development is of course a subject for the central government Ministry of Planning. There should however be in place what might be called a 'long-range conceptual unit' 0 whose primary objectives would be to define future irrigation performance criteria in terms of expected needs, to analyze alternatives and requirements for meeting these 'performance criteria, and to determine hardware, software and training implications of various alternatives. Need for a National Institute for Irrigation Management

42)

43)

The planning, design, construction and implementation of irrigation projects in India are matters dealt with by the separate States with limited guidance from the central government, mainly through the Central Water Commission (CWC). From the foregoing paragraphs, it can be seen that there are moreover at least nine major areas of irrigation management that are currently not receiving adequate attention at the national level, as follows: Standards for feasibility studies leading to improved project planning (paras 13-18); Monitoring (paras 24 and 25); Institutional policies (paras lO.and 20); Rapid appraisal of on-going projects (para 26); Personnel policies (paras 27 and 28); Training (paras 29-35); ' Information exchange (paras 36 and 37); Research coordination (paras 38-40); and Macro planning (paras 41 and 42). In conversations that the Study Team had with leading officials it was indicated that, although the Central Water Commission (CWC) would seem to be‘the suitable body which could be adapted to take on the tasks required, as presently constituted CWChas insufficient participation from pertinent disciplines other than engineer. . lng, I.e., economics, agriculture and sociology and that CWC is fully occupied with day-to-day tasks of reviewing and vetting mainly structure designs prepared by the State Irrigation Departments.

44)

International 45)

Support

The officials with whom the Study Team spoke indicated a strong desire for international support, possibly through a national yet to be clearly formulated. The support needed would institute, 'action research' (see main text) and through advice and be through assistance to the national institute as provided by high-level in the varrous phases of irxjo :oation management described e*qerts above. PAKISTAN Background

46)

Because of low rainfall and high temperature, irrigation in Pakistan is required for most agricultural production. Of the cropped area of ha are irrigated, accounting for 20 million ha, 70% or 14 million The Indus irrigation system, the 90% of agricultural production. largest in the world with a culturable command area of 12 million ha, makes up about 85% of the irrigated area of Pakistan. A thumbnail sketch of the Indus system as given by an official of the Ministry of Agriculture is as follows: There are three major storage reservoirs, 19 barrages and headworks, 43 canal commands and #9,000 project outlets supplying farm watercourses having a total length of 485,000 km% This vast system was started in 1854. No drainage system was provided at that time since the watertable was 100 feet below the ground surface. Today the watertable has risen to within 10 feet of the surface in 7.5 million ha and within 5 feet of the surface in 2.5 million ha of which l/3 is saline. During the previous several decades, 200,000 tubewells have been installed of which 180,000 are private with a capacity of about 1 cusec. The remaining wells are public with a capacity of 3 cusecs. The efficiency of the canal system is low - about 30% overall, not considering recovery of water by wells. Losses are about 25% in the main canal system, 35% in watercourses, and 10% on-farm. (The . foregoing sketch 'does not agree in all particulars with other accounts especially in regard to losses, as described further below.) An important constraint on the system is limited canal capacity, which almost uniformly amounts to 3-6 cusec per 1000 acres + 20% as compared with a usual design rate outside the subcontinent Ef 1 litre/sec/ha which is equivalent to 14 cusecs per 1000 acres. The present mode of operation of the canal systems is not conducive to conservation of water. The canals are generally run at full capacity during six months of the summer period and for 20 days a month during five months of winter period with one month allowed for shutdown for maintenance. The canals are occasionally run at less than full capacity but never at less than 75% capacity as there is fear that they would silt up if the discharge were made lower than this rate. The silt content is measured periodically at the barrages to govern operation. Lining the canals to increase their capacity would be difficult as the supply would have to be interrupted.

47)

48)

49)

Despite the completion of two major storage dams (Mangla and the Indus system still lacks adequate reservoir capacity Tarbela), to enable full use of-the flow of the Indus river basin so that a considerable portion still goes to the sea. Of the total flow of the flow to the sea is 39 million acre-feet. 152 million acre-feet, An optimization model which could be used to assist in operating the system has been under development for some years with the assistance of the World Bank but has not yet resulted in a practicable operating tool. and so7.inity continue to be serious problems in the Indus valley. Current information is however somewhat conflicting. the waterlogged area (depth to watertable According to one version, in Punjab and 3.2 3 m or less) amounts to 7 million ha, 3.8 million million in Sind. With respect to salt-affected area, according to there are 8.8 million ha affected of which 5.1 the same origin, million in Sind and 3.7 million in Punjab. A second version, based on a soil-salinity survey undertaken in the late 1970s covering an area of 9 million ha, found substantial improvement in surface and profile salinity as compared to information, from a similar sumey made in the early 1960s. Much of this improvement was attributed to the leaching effect of additional water supply from surface and groundwater delivered to the irrigated areas. The late 1970s survey determined that about 60% of the soils were salt free, 9% saline, 4% sodic and 26% saline sodic. Assuming by extrapolation that, of the 14 million ha irrigated area -40% is salt-affected, would give a figure of 5.6 million ha rather than 8.8 million ha (according to the first version). Y?ze SLXL?S: During the 60s and the 70s the so-called SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) projects were undertaken with the basic concept being to install large public tubewells to lower the watertable to reduce waterlogging and at the same time develop additional water supply for irrigation. Covering a total of 7.6 million acreas in areas varying in size from 30,000 acres to 1.8 million acres, there are 14 SCARPs in fresh groundwater areas involving 12,875 wells with a total capacity of 35,270 cusecs. In saline groundwater areas there are 6 additional SCARPs covering 1.9 million acreas involving 2,016 wells with a total capacity of 3,598 cusecs; in these cases, the pumped water has limited use for irrigation. The SCARPs were designed and constructed by the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) and are gradually being turned over to the Irrigation Department for operation and maintenance. There are presently 178,000 tubewells in operation in the Indus valley of which 167,000 are private. The prime movers are primarily diesel (107,000), the remainder being electric driven. Public tubewells are generally of high capacity, 1.5 cusec or more. Concern was expressed to the Study Team regarding the lack of control of the private wells and the team heard on several occasions that many private wells have run dry.

50)

Waterlogging

51)

52)

53)

A draft report 'Revised Action Program (RAP) for Irrigated AgriculMay 1979, prepared by the Perspective Planning Division of ture', WAPDAwith financing by UNDP and with the World Bank as the Executing Agency, has pointed out that the public tubewells in the SCARPs are deteriorating and that adequate operation and maintenance would be easier to achieve if the number of smaller, private wells were expanded so as to gradually replace the public tubewells. The needed institutional' arrangements have yet to be.worked out including provisions for monitoring gronndwater movements so that the private wells can be adequately supplied and so that waterlogging and salinity effects are mitigated. On-j5zt-m watercourses: Chaks are subcommands below project outlets of which there are 89,000 as previously mentioned. The chaks vary in size from 200 to 700 acres (average about 450 acres) each coverpasses through a ing about 20 to -50 farms. Flow to a chak first 'mogha' which is a contraction in the project outlet designed to pass an approximately constant proportion of the flow in the parent canals. Downstream of the mogha, there is a cormnunal watercourse whose capacity is ordinarily between 1 to 3 cusecs. The distribution of water within a chak is by a time-rotation procedure called 'warabandi', with each farmer holding a specific time period in proportion to the size of his holding. Flow is diverted to various branches of'the watercourse by constructing small earth dams at junctions, and to farms by cutting the banks of a watercourse. The boundaries of the chaks and the alignments of the communal watercourse are established by the Provincial Departments of Irrigation which also establish the official warabandi schedules. The construction, operation and course and other channels in the farmers. Because of poor farmer cal assistance, many watercourses excessive delivery losses. As a reaches considerably less water maintenance of the communal waterchak are the responsibility of the cooperation and inadequate technihave deteriorated resulting in result, farmers in the mid and tail than their planned share.

54)

55)

'56)

In 1973, WAPDA undertook a water management research project at the Mona Reclamation Experiment Station. The project was funded by USAID with expatriate research staff provided by Colorado State University and others. Further studies were carried out during preparation of the Revised Action Program (RAP) mentioned above. The Mona and the RAP studies reach some important conclusions with respect to water losses in the on-farm system as follows: a) about 40% of the water entering the watercourses is lost before reaching the field; b) the loss was found to be 37% in Sind Province and 51% in Punjab province with little variation between the kharif and rabi season. Based on 1973-1974 irrigation deliveries, 40 million acre-feet more water will be required for d,efivery at the mogha to meet the crop water requirement than if effi$iencies were increased to 67%, which could be attained through watercourse improvement. It was concluded as part of the RAP study that the cost per acre-foot of water saved through watercourse improvement is only a fourth the cost of developing new water supplies.

.

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10

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57)

Field application water efficiency is low causing excess percofrom The mean loss as estimated lation and surface-drainage losses. in areas served a 1978 survey was 56%; 41% and 43%, respectively, by public tubewells, by private tubewells and from canal systems (see 'On-Farm Water Management Project', Water Management Wing, Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Cooperatives; Islamabad, September 1981). The low field application efficiency is ascribed to unlevelled fields, lack of properly formed furrows and borders, and constant rate of supply of canal water irrespective of crop water demand. With the large irrigation system, favourable for year-round cropping and generally good soils, crop yields should be quite high in Pakistan. However, the prevailing constraints cause crop yields to be far below their potentials: wheat yields are 1.2 tons per ha, rice 1.5, cotton 0.3 and sugarcane 40. Substantially increased yields as well as more double cropping are attainable through improved extension services and inputs of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides; however, adequate water management is a prerequisite.
climate

58)

Futme

potential:

59)

Pakistan's Fifth Five-year Plan (1978-1983) calls for a 6% annual rate of growth. Water supplies are to be increased by 11 million acre-feet or 2.4% per year leading to an estimated 4.8 million acre increase in the cropped area; a 'substantial beginning' is to be made to improve water management in the Indus system as well as on the farms;- the flood proteition program is to be completed; special attention is to'be given to the expansion of irrigation by fractional tubewells. The agricultural sector is scheduled to receive $642 million annually (about 22% of the planned total) of which $342 million is for the water subsector. The water subsector allocation for the Fifth Five-year Plan is as follows: Allocation in million dollars WAPDA Drainage reclamation Irrigation Reservoirs Research Federal Flood Commission Tarbela, Indus Basin Plan (IBP) Other Federal Agencies Provincial Irrigation Depts. 663 157 66 39 177 229 96 295 -i-m % 38.7 9.2 3.9 2.3 10.3 13.4 5.6 16.6 100

.

3

With reference to the above tabulation, actual expenditures for Tarbela/IBP during fiscal years 1978-1979 and 1979-1980 generally equalled that allocated for the entire plan period and it would appear that expenditures for Tarbela & IBP will be roughly double that envisaged for the plan period which would mean sharp curtailment of public expenditure for non-Tarbela/IBP water sector projects and programs. As a result, government officials are indicating greater favour for new schemes that have low investment cost per acre and benefit many people. The financial situation thus further emphasizes the need for effective irrigation water management.

Needed Improvements 60)

in Main

System Operation

Within the constraints of the system as now designed and under the the system seems to be delivering operating system using warabandi, water in an equitable basis (to farmers in proportion to their area) even though the water so delivered is less than what would be required if the farmers cultivated their entire holdings and if they double cropped. In areas with favourable groundwater condi-the inadequate water quantity delivered by the canal system tions, is being made up by pumping from wells. Further major efforts to increase the total water available by making use of the flow still going to sea (39 million acre-feet), will require major expenditures as discussed above. There would seem nevertheless to be ways to increase water availability without major expenditure since the present water canal system, although in an effioperated in an equitable manner, may not be operated cient manner. One way to improve efficiency might be to vary the flows in the canals since at the present time they are operated only at full capacity or not at all. To operate at part capacity will require more cross-regulators in the system, a subject that would need detailed study and design, with subdivision of the system into command areas (see dicussion below). Such studies are included in a project now proposed for World Bank financing, Other methods would be to go in for crop zoning and staggering, including rotation of water supply between adjacent areas. If the system had better telecommunications it might be possible to operate the system more efficiently so as to conserve water when rains occur. Conversations that the Study Team had with various officials indicated widely varying perceptions regarding the problems of operating the systems. In general, engineers with the Provincial Irrigation Departments who are presently in direct charge don't seem to feel that there are many problems. They say that since the storage dams have been completed, they run the canals full at all times except for fixed closure dates for maintenance (in January), and that the farmers get delivery on time without problems. Other officials have a remarkably different preception and that-is why some of the expedients regarding operation of the systems, described above, are receiving serious consideration and will be subject to study in the near future. One operating engineer did say that, since it it realized that the of flow in the capacity of the canals is too low, the duration minor canals should be increased in order to make up for the lack of capacity. He said that the canals run full dhring the six summer months and 20 days per month for five winter months. Also that changes in operation of the canals in the upstream systems (in the Punjab) might have to be changed, thereby increasing water availability to the Sind, in the lower part of the.Indus valley system. The Provincial Irrigation Department's staff pointed out that funds for operation and maintenance are seriously inadequate; in constant terms, these are perhaps no more than 20% of what was available five years ago. As a result, what often happens is that accumulated operation and maintenance work, instead of being provided for in current budgets, are shifted to development budgets.

61)

62)

63)

64)

65)

Some technicians say that improving efficiency of the canal system is not urgent in Pakistan since most of the seepage goes to the groundwater where it can be recovered through pumping. Although much of this may be true, the growing cost of energy and the capital investment required for pumping facilities needs to be taken surface flows According to WAPDA, 25% of the diverted into account. are lost in the distribution system above the mogha through deep percolation and evaporation (see 'Revised Action Programme for Irrigated Agriculture'). manner Comau?d Area Approach: In order to deal in a comprehensive that specific porwith canal system management, it is now thought tions of the canal system ('canal commands') need to be selected for development planning and implementation. WAPDA and its consultants are presently preparing a feasibility study for several such selective canal cormnands varying in size from 50,000 to 100,000 acres. According to the terms of reference for the study which the Study Team received, not only would operation of the canal system be determined but also other water control aspects such as drainage and conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water, adequacy of farm-to-market roads, requirements for tubewell electrification, needs for public sector support and private sector participation in watercourse improvements and tubewell installation through cred.it, improved cropping patterns and in general a complete agricultural plan for more intensive development of the command area. Priority would be given to areas where major agricultural constraints can be removed at relatipely low cost per acre. For example, in the selected areas, the watertable should generally to the distribution be lower than 5 feet and major improvements system should not be required; the areas should be generally free of sodic soils; and land ownership and tenancy should be comparable to the general pattern for the province with priority given to subproject areas where the majority of benefits will accrue to farm holdings of 12.5 acres or less. Funds for the studies will be available from an existing IDA credit. The total area to be studied will be about 1 million acres. The study would be carried out during calendar year 1982. Waterlogging and Salinity

66)

67)

Although waterlogging and salinity problems are apparently not getting worse, the situation requires constant vigilance and monitoring so that this does not happen. Moreover, major benefits could .be obtained if ways to eliminate the existing waterlogging and 'salinity could be accomplished in an economic manner. Further groundwater development through conjunctive use, already accomplished in a substantial manner, needs to be continued. There isconcern that, since adequate monitoring of private wells has not been carried out, there are dangers that some of these wells may either become saline or run out of water. The questions are quite complicated technically and, although technologies are available for both monitoring and analysis, they have still to be applied.

68)

A major constraint to further groundwater development is ability of energy, whether through electricity distribution use of fossil fuels. Specific problems needing waterlogging and salinity crop and how to eliminate Needed Improvement

the availor by

69)

research include: the extent to which control is needed to improve the cotton sodic conditions in an economical manner. in On-Farm Systems

?a

to improve on-farm water management has been 'Action research' underway in Pakistan since 1973, as described above. Currently, underway or about to start. The first three programmes are either programme, 1976-83, which has USAID support in the amount of $32 million, involves improvement of 1500 watercourses and precision land levelling in 425,000 acres. The second programme, which is about to start with Asian Development Bank financing ($37 million), involves improvement of 1250 watercourses and installation of 950 private tubewells. The third programme, also just about to start, has IDA and IFAD financing to the extent of. $53 million with additional domestic financing amounting to $59 million (equivalent); 2,065 watercourses will be improved and 16,500 watercourses will be renovated and precision land levelling will be carried out on a demonstration basis in 37,000 acres.

71)

of tmgets achieved: Targets under the first programme have been achieved only to the extent of one third with respect to the watercourse improvements and only about 10% with respect to precision land levelling. The reasons given for the shortfall includes shortage of graduate-level personnel, inadequate training facilities at three training institutes that were established at Lahore, Hyderabad and Peshawar, deterioration of improved watercourses due to inadequate maintenance by farmers, shortage of skilled extension workers capable of extending advisory assistance in irrigated agriculture and inadequate funds for procurement of required materials.
The first programme has been under execution by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives through a Federal Water Management Cell with implementation by On-Farm Water Management Directorates within each of the Provincial Departments of Agriculture. This has seemed to have worked satisfactorily except for insufficient involvement of farmers in Water Users Associations and, as indicated above, lack of adequately trained extension personnel (Village Level Workers). It is noteworthy that some of the methods and designs for improvement of watercourse development in Pakistan could well have application in other countries, especially India. The two features in particular that are noteworthy are: a) 'Pucca nuccas' which include pre-cast concrete panels and circular covers of about 12" diameter which can be easily handled and which enable rapid opening or closing of watercourses and farm-channel off-takes and; b) procedures for reconstruction of earth channels in stages so as to ensure ample stripping of organic materials and placement of clean, compacted soil in a controlled manner.

&tent

72)

73)

“L

74)

The inability to make much Rethinking needed on land levelZing: progress with precision land levelling requires rethinking of this aspect of the programme which involves development of an interless precise solution but one that still gives adequate mediate, benefits. Action research concerning land levelling should actually include proper cultivation practices suitable for irrigated agriThe method of irrigation universally practiced is flood culture. irrigation without borders and without furrows. As already mentioned, this causes considerable lowering of water-application efficiency and may also be detrimental to plants in not having adequate drainage during monsoon rainfalls which sometimes are heavy. Also plants may not get sufficient aeration. Part of the problem, is lack of suitable implements that can be drawn by as in India, bullocks in order to form borders and furrows. The University of Agriculture at Faisalabad is already embarked on studies of furrowbed land forming which they think could result in a 35% saving in water.

75)

Roads: With regard

to farm-to-market roads, field staff with whom the Study Team spoke thought that lack of such roads was a medium and long-term constraint and that roads should be planned in conjunction with improvement of distributary and minor canals and even watercourses, but that this might be difficult to achieve since roads were under jurisdiction of another provincial government department. Changes in Institutional Arrangements

.

76)

The Provincial Irrigation Departments are presently oriented to construction and operation and have little capability for planning, whether for new projects or for improvement of existing ones. It will be the intention under the command area approach described above to develop a continuing capability for this purpose. Actually, there is need for provincial and canal command coordination of all agricultural and irrigation inputs. The Revised Action Prograrme for Irrigated Agriculture outlines the proposed arrangements. It calls for the establishment of an Additional Chief Secretary for Agricultural Production, and Command Area Management Cells to integrate appropriate programmes of the Provincial Irrigation and Agriculture Departments. The latter recommendation is of particular interest since most planning is presently carried out by WAPDA, not by the Provincial Irrigation Departments. This appears to be a defect since it is thought that the actual rehabilitation will be carried out by the Departments, not WAPDA. Manpower Planning

77) 78)

Personnel
that

polities:
mobility

excess

Several leading Pakistani officials of personnel is a problem.

mentioned

tiaining:

To deal with on-farm water management, there are three Water Management and Research Institutes at Lahore, Hyderabad and Peshawar and additional training and research institutes are planned. Trainees thus far number 1600 government officials, 500 and 4000 tractor operators for land levelling. farmers,

,

79)

-

In order to carry'out the command area programme described above will require additional important training efforts, in all areas of water management, for.Provincial Agriculture and Irrigation officials. Training will have to cover determination of crop water requirements and methods of operating the irrigation system to better meet such requirements. Computer software programmes for irrigation deliveries and scheduling will have to be developed. Attention will thus have to be given to further development of either at the three training centres mentraining facilities, tioned, or at other locations. the so-called Centre of Excellence in Water At university level, Resources Engineering in Lahore was established in. 1977. Refresher courses are given in cooperation with WAPDA on project preparation and there are water management courses for Ministry of Agriculture the faculty was planned to personnel. According to the Director, number 22 but only 10 have been recruited so far. Further study is needed to determine the proper role of the Centre of Excellence in the training of university-level and post-graduate staff in water management. There are courses in Faisalabad, but they agricultural offer only engineering at the University a BS not an MS degree. Team that that agency research and training of

80)

81) 82)

Officials of USAID indicated to the Study would like to consider how best to assist efforts.

83)

It seems clear that a strong national institute for water management is needed to assist in guiding manpower planning with respect to both personnel policies and training. Research

84)

The Pakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC) is an autonomous for PARC do not follow agency now three years old. Staff working the normal civil service regulations, Funding for various research from USAID topics to be undertaken by PARC appears to be available and from IDA. PARC intends to establish a research farm 1,400 acres in extent located six miles from Islamabad. It will contain a block of precision-levelled land. PARC intends to create a social science division which will be multidisciplinary. The Director of PARC said that they wish to research topics involved in water management below, not above, the mogha. He said that WAPDA must deal with the larger works because of the power component involved in the planning and development of such works. Pakistani officials feel that a major research topic to be addressed is how to deal with waterlogging and salinity on a large scale. For this purpose some'negotiations have already proceeded with the government of Italy. What would seem necessary to work out with respect to a research programme for waterlogging and salinity would be how to interface with concurrent efforts in related aspects of water control such as increased storage through additional reservoirs, conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water, and improved operation of the canal system; in other words, waterlogging and salinity should not be studied in isolation.

85)

86)

Another research effort going on since several years is that of the Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Control Research Council of the Ministry of Science and Technology which is sponsoring a Drainage .and Reclamation Institute of Pakistan (DRIP) effort at Hyderabad involving a staff of 55 professionals which is supported by the Netherlands. Other specific topics for research that were mentioned to the Study Team include: how to deal with the 'regime canals' in order to farming systems under presavoid excess of siltation or scouring; ent water-control constraints including gradual modifications as stress under water some of these constraints are removed; and plant shortage. As in the case of manpower planning, there is a need for a national institute dealing with irrigation water management to guide, control and monitor research. Information Exchange

87)

88)

89)

Various officials complained about the flood of information regarding irrigation water management that is available on a world scale and that as a result many officials and technicians are confused since it is difficult for them to determine what part of the information is pertinent and what is not. To deal with this problem, suggestions as proposed earlier in this annex for India should be considered. Long-Range Planning

s

90)

Since the Revised Action Programme of WAPDA was issued in 1979, work has continued but on a greatly reduced basis. The official in charge of planning for WAPDA said that this reduction in effort is serious since the type of planning that was carried out in preparing the Revised Action Programme is of such a nature that, once such a perspective plan has been completed, it must then be continuously updated; however, adequate staff is not available for such work. The Revised Action Programme prepared in 1979 is actually the third such effort carried out in a space of about 15 years. For all three efforts, there was a major input of expatriate staff which has now departed but Pakistani staff able to carry on with the studies needed for continuous updating need training and technical assistance. Another need is for a long-range conceptual planning unit whose primary objectives would be to define future irrigation performance criteria, and to determine hardware, software and training implications of the various alternatives. Need for a National Institute for Irrigation Management

91)

92)

From the foregoing paragraphs, it can be seen that there are at least six major areas of irrigation management that are currently not receiving adequate attention at the national level, as follows:

Improvement in main system operation (paras 61-66); Monitoring of private wells (para 67); Improved institutional arrangements (para 76); Improved training (para 78-83); Improved coordination and monitoring of research (paras 84-88); Continued efforts in long-range planning (paras 90 and 91). 93) To provide Institute for India, guidance and direction in these areas, a National to the one suggested for Irrigation Management, similar would seem desirable.

and

EGYPT Background 94) Agriculture continues to be the largest sector of the Egyptian economy, contributing about 23% of GDP and employing about 40% of the labour force. While the country's overall rate of economic growth has accelerated since the mid-1970s, the expansion of agricultural output has averaged only about 2% a year, substantially below.the rate of population growth and income-induced increases in demand. Given its climatic characteristics, geography, and natural resource base, Egyptian agriculture has for several millenia been inextricably tied to irrigation. In the last century or so there has been considerable development of irrigation infrastructure which has permitted the introduction of intensive cropping techniques and use of progressively more modern inputs in an irrigated area of 5.8 million Feddans (2.4 million ha) - the so-called 'Old Lands'. The culmination of this infrastructural growth was the construction of the monumental Aswan High Dam, commissioned in 1969. It eliminated widely fluctuating Nile flows and enabled perennial year-round irrigation of the Old Lands. The Old-New 96) Lands

95)

The High Dam was accompanied by an ambitious programme to extend the irrigated area by over 900,000 Feddans (380,000 ha) by the mid70s in the so-called 'Old-New Lands'. This programme was rather unsuccessful since about a quarter of this area is only marginally productive while the balance, for the most part, is producing crops at sub-marginal levels or has been abandoned. As a result, the OldNew Lands, representing about 15% of the net irrigable area, produce only 3% of the agricultural GDP. Despite the current low output, it seems likely that the productivity of the Old-New Lands could be increased at a far lower cost than that of reclaiming entirely new areas in the 'New-New Lands' (described below), Especially on the western edge of the Delta, there are large areas in the Old-New Lands which require 'topping-up' investment, in the form of the provision of drainage or the improvement of existing drainage at either the project level or on-farm, the renovation of pumping stations and the rebuilding of water-control structures. The Government is currently attempting to turn some of these earlier projects into joint ventures with private companies

or to settle them with smallholders, as in called 'Mechanized Farm', whose rehabilitation IFAD under the West Beheira Project. 97)

the

case of the old is being funded

soby

One reason for delay in development of the Old-New Lands appears to be a diffusion of responsibility among ministries for their upkeep and the lack of clearly defined goals, both financial and productive, by which the managements of the public sector companies could be judged. Some of the companies come under the Ministry of Agriothers under the Ministry of Land Reclamation while the culture, Ministry of Irrigation is responsible for water supply and the maintenance of the irrigation system. On-Farm Water Distribution in the Old Lands

98)

On-farm water distribution starts at the mouth of the farm header which generally serves an area of ditch (commonly called 'meska'), 24-400 feddans (lo-160 ha). From that point on the farmer is responsible, with little or no institutional support, for management of the water and for maintenance of the farm ditches that vary in length from 150 to 400 m per feddan of irrigated area. As the public system provides water to the major portion of Old Lands about half a meter or more below the general ground level, water has to be lifted by the farmer. This is generally accomplished by the sakia, a water wheel worked by animal power, though the use of pumps is expanding. Inherent in this system are application inefficiencies as well as considerable costs to the farmers. Except in period of keen demand, the cultivator prefers to lift water from the canals only during the daytime. The costs and penalties associated with this practice include handling wate r wasted to the drainage system, the loss of productivity and increasing incidence of waterlogging. The fact that the farmers, during the rotational turn of their irrigation channel, are free to lift water as and when they like often leads to an inequitable distribution along the channel. Studies show that water per feddan decreases with the distance from the channel intake. In the Old-New Lands of the West Delta, the use of water, pumped to various heights currently approaching 50 m, is even more wasteful because of the interaction amongst some of the above practices, basin irrigation, and the sandy nature of the soils. Overall water efficiency in some of these areas is only about 25%, as compared to nearly 60% in the Old Lands.

99)

100) Current

.

'act:ion research': A common observation by the Ministry of Irrigation (MOI) is that farmers over-irrigate. The data indicates that more water is distributed than necessary apart from the three peak months. A considerable volume is used for pre-irrigation for animal power (fodder) cultivation, and there is a possibility of reducing releases in October and May as tractor mechanized cultivations increase. The whole question of on-farm water management is being studied by the Water Research Centre (WRC) of MO1 in the Egyptian Water Use and Management Project (EWUP) being carried out with assistance from Colorado State University (CSU). Among other things, these studies show that the irrigation rotation (generally 7 days on and 7 days off in summer) constrains yields due to moisture. stress, and contributes to overwatering since farmers over-

to compensate for the 'off' period. irrigate in the 'on' period Water could be saved and plant moisture stress could be reduced by shortening the duration of on and off periods in the canal rotation. There is also considerable wastage to drains at night when farmers do not commonly irrigate due to the problems of supervising at night the lifting of water by animal-driven sakias, The EWVP Project is also evaluating the CaequitabLe distribution of water among cultj.vators on a channel - the so-called 'tailender' problem. the project is providing unique Apart from the technical results, multidisciplinary 'field' training for Egyptian technicians. Modernization of the Intermediate System

101) Besides better on-farm water distribution, the 'intermediate sysneed improvetem' (mainly minor canals upstream of the meska) will ment and modernization. As water grows increasingly scarce, improvements leading to more efficient water use might well include one or more of the following: - raising the meska for gravity flow; - lining the meska, particularly in sandy soils; - pumping from the meska to the field; - pumping from the minor canal to the meska; c - raising the minor canal; - improving the control structures on the minor, or more senior, canals; - on-farm drainage and/or more senior drains; - farmer associations/farmer training. The strategy of such upgrading would be to work from the farm field outwards, doing all that was necessary to achieve farm-level control to-raise yields. Given that the 'tailender' problem is clearly of less importance in some areas than in others, and that the shortage of water in some commands in peak requirement periods varies from place to place, such improvement might already bring sufficient benefits in some areas to justify them under current cropping patterns. There is little research evidence as yet to make preliminary judgements as to which are the priority areas and whether such improvements would increase agricultural production sufficiently to cover the costs involved. 102) Although cropping intensity is already nearly 200%, it could move to still higher intensities with more rapidly maturing crop varieties and alternative forage systems for improved livestock. This sort of qualitative improvement, however, would require significant change in policies and practices now inhibiting appropriate incentives. A start has been made on collecting the needed evidence. Three canal commands have been analyzed by the so-called 'Water Master Plan Organization' which plans to complete an analysis of water distribution and use on the remaining canal commands. Modernization of the Main System

103) The area commanded (2.8 million ha in the Old Lands and the Old-New Lands) is served by a network of canals and irrigation channels, the tota. length of which has increased from 25,000 km in 1965 to over 30,000 km in 1980. The historic process of planning and design have determined the system's basic technology and its means of operation. The main limitations include: limited control in water

delivery system, which operates by channel levels rather than by command area water duty based on past observed flow measurements; diversions rather than matching crop needs; supply of water to the distribution channels on a,rotation system that alternates on-off time periods, varying seasonally with cropping patterns; and the rather than have water proneed for most farmers to lift water, vided by gravity flow. Aggravating the combined effect of these system characteristics is a huge backlog of deferred maintenance. Studies also show that.available water is not always equitably distributed. Also some canals, such as Bahr Yousaf and Bahr Saghir, have inadequate capacity to deliver peak period flow demand. 104) Although it appears that there is more or less enough water to support the existing agricultural production on the Old Lands under present conditions, future increases in production will be critically dependent on adequate supplies in the peak months and additional water will be required. It is not known whether canal capacity is sufficient to deliver the increased peak volumes. It is thought, however, that deliveries in the primary and secondary canals could be increased by IO-20% without problems, but that some of the structures would have to be rehabilitated to achieve this goal. The tertiary system would however need no physical modification and deliveries could be increased by lengthening the 'on' period in the canal rotation. 105) In sum, the main-canal system capability is not conducive to providing the Old Lands the correct amount of water to meet crop evapotranspiration needs; there is excess at time and at places, and deficiencies at others. The basic design, operation and inadequate maintenance place an upper limit on the performance levels which are achievable. The system has long supported an impressive effort in irrigated agriculture, but is increasingly proving a constraint for the needs of modern and future agriculture. Operating the System

106) Lake Nasser water is released according to a tentative schedule prepared prior to the irrigation season. The system for allocating water to various uses and for accounting losses and gains is derived primarily from experience. For agricultural use the water is prorated according to seasonal estimates of effective irrigable area and general water-use values and then adjusted for overall climate, soils, sugar cane and rice. The water requirements are not adjusted for micro-climatic factors. 107) A minimum release of 6 million m3 per day is made for navigation the canal closure period in January' and domestic use except during when daily minimum releases of 80.7 million m3 for hydro production are needed. Water distribution within a canal command is essentially controlled by the pattern of water supply diverted or pumped into the canal. The main water distribution objective at the regional level is to try to maintain equity of supply throughout the service area, especially to the tail reaches during periods of high demand. Together with the limited control and lack of flexibility within the canal system, however, this limits the scope for response to.variations in demand. ' Closed 'for cleaning.

108) The Ministry of Irrigation traditionally prepared information on system water requirements and water use by quantifying gross inflows and outflows to.and from cropped areas. Gross averages can however lead to inaccurate information and certainly incorrect There are varying estimates on conclusions for a specific area. what constitutes gross, net irrigable, irrigated and harvested areas for the entire Nile Basin or within it for a given canal command, The problems are grea.%er in the delta than in Upper Egypt. Data on drains emptying into the canals are not available, and the outflows from the Nile Delta are not fully tabulated. Precise information thus is lacking about how water is distributed and used within the overall system. 109) Although available data (crop consumption use, water duties, actual deliveries, etc.) indicate that overall water supplies are suffiexcept possibly in Fayoum canal command, cient on an annual basis, when monthly deliveries are taken into account, a different picture emerges. A shortfall is indicated of up to 25% or 1.5 billion m3 of the consumptive use requirement, affecting nearly 50% of the irrigated area during the peak water demand season (June, July, August). However, the observed effect on crops of water shortages during the peak season does not support a 25% shortfall in crop requirements since the existing level of yields could not be obtained if the c crops were actually 25% short., Some stress is observed in the peak growing season, nevertheless, particularly at the tail end of minor canals and the end of the meska. Of several possible explanations for the sharp difference between theoretical and actual irrigation the three most likely are: requirements, a) crops make up their requirements from the high watertable. This is probably for cotton, which is deep rooted, and could be important for other crops through upward capillary movement of moisture through the soil; b) factors other than water supply are limiting crop yield, e.g., low plant population in maize due to stripping of leaves and rem&al of plants to feed livestock; and c) the effect of urbanization (see below) and the loss of agricultural land are not fully reflected in the agricultural statistics, with the result that crop areas are over estimated and the crops receive approximately enough water even though the irrigation water duty is underestimated. 110) With the information available at present it is hard to say whether capital investment will be required to remedy this situation, for several reasons. First, of some 50 canal commands, detailed water balances have been prepared for only three. Data for the remaining commands are based on rough balances only. It would appear possible to modify the operation of the High Dam to increase releases from June through August to make good the estimated shortfall of about 1.5 billion m3 but without firmer evidence it may be better to conserve water in Lake Nasser for'peak hydro-electric generation in the winter. data is obviously a high Full analysis+ & the available priority, as is completion of the Nemec irrigation distribution model.' Also of interest is the possibility of reducing releases in October and May as tractor mechanized cultivations increase. A considerable volume of water currently is used for pre-irrigation for animal power (fodder) cultivation. ' 'A Mathematical Model James G. Nemec, 1976. of the Irrigation System in Egypt',

-

7v

-

Drainage

System

111) The drainage system for evacuating surplus water from cultivated lands comprises some 17,500 km of open drains serving more than five million feddans (2.1 million ha) and buried tube drains installed in an area of about 1.8 million feddans (0.8 million ha). The drainage operation requires pumping stations at numerous locations; their number has increased from 52 in 1964/65 to 96 in 1980. 112) In the Old Lands serviced only by open drains, the system is While by 1965 some five million neither complete nor efficient. feddans were provided with main and branch drains, farmers refrained from providing field drains mainly because they could not to lose IO-15% of their land to these channels. The design afford initially fixed at 1.5 m below depth of water level in open drains, the adjacent ground level, was increased to 2.5 m in 1940. As,a large number of drains still operate as originally constructed, the restrictive design and absence of field drains limit their capability to have significant effect on watertable. The huge backlog of deferred maintenance and profuse growth of weeds in most of the drains have reduced their efficiency furthe'r. 113) Decades of perennial irrigation, aggravated by wasteful use of surplus waters from the High Dam, have led to a rise in the watertable to the extent that potential crop yields in the greater part of non-tiled areas have been constrained from slightly to severely. Where tile drains have been installed and are maintained properly, analyses of crop data indicate yield increases of 12-16% resulting from improved drainage. Encouraged by these results, the government plans to provide tile drainage in most of the rest of the Old Lands. At the present rate of progress it would take another five years to complete the more than one million feddans still undrained within on-going projects and a further ten years to drain the remaining area in the Old Lands, let alone take care of the problem in the Old New Lands. The New-New Lands 114) A major constraint to increasing agricultural production in the Old Lands is the large and accelerating loss of irrigated crop land to non-agricultural, mainly urban uses. The amounts lost over the 17 years ending 1978 were 470,000 feddans, or about 940,000 feddans of annual crops, equivalent to about 8% of the cropped area. The annual rate of loss appears to be accelerating since estimates show that perhaps 35,000-60,000 feddans were lost annually in 1977-80. If these rates continue, some half a million feddans - more or less equivalent to one million feddans of annual crops - will have disappeared by the end of'the century. Thus the agricultural sector, on a reduced Old Lands base, must add some 16% (l/6) to current total output over the next two decades just to offset this loss. 115) Partly to offset the loss of land to urbanization but also for other reasons, Egypt plans further reclamation in the so-called 'New-New Lands' covering perhaps 600,000 ha located mainly in the Nile Delta bordering the Mediterranean or in Sinai. Since most of these lands have soils which are difficult to manage or are at elevations requiring relatively high pumping lifts and in view of

the limited success achieved in the Old-New Lands, a very premium is placed on adequate project selection, analysis, and implementation.'. \ MEXICO

high design

almost 5.5 million ha with yields and water-use 116j Mexico irrigates efficiencies generally above world-wide averages. Water is, howAs a result of rapid ever, in short supply in most of the country. urbanization, irrigation in the Central Plateau will have to be restricted and/or water-use efficiency will have to be substantially increased. On the Pacific Coast, expansion of the irrigated area is still possible although of high cost per ha. Mexico plans to double the area irrigated by the year 2000, to concurrently rehabilitate and drain about a fourth of the area presently irrigated and to further improve water-use efficiency mainly through land Mexico plans to spend $3 billion per levelling. For these purposes, year 1982-90 and $4 billion per year 1990-2000 (1980 dollars). 117) In the Gulf Coast, Mexico has an extensive tropical-humid zone with relatively good soils in perhaps 4 million ha. The development problems here concern drainage and flood control (supplemental irrigation would come in later), land settlement, farmers' organization, and adoption of appropriate technological packages and farming systems. Several pilot projects are underway to indicate solutions of these problems. 118) During discussions with the Study Team, Mexican officials stated they have welcomed international support in the past and would further welcome it in the future particularly as regards ways to . further increase water-use efficiency, avoid salinity and develop appropriate farming systems with water control in the tropicalhumid zone (thus far they have little experience in this kind of environment). 119) With respect to water-use efficiency, which now averages about 40 to 50% overall, Mexican officials are developing and adapting trickle systems for high-value crops but think that the biggest impact will come from incentives to farmers to conserve water on the much more extensive medium-value crops. The officials feel higher water charges will have only limited effect and would rather like to have ideas and results of research on other ways such as rotational water supply and possibly some sort of schemes for rationing of water. SUDAN 120) The Gezira scheme, 900,000 ha in extent and in operation over 50 years, suffers from major deferred maintenance and price policies that discourage farmers from growing the most valuable crop: cotdecreasing. Mechanicalton, the output of which has been steadily cultivation equipment operated by the Gezira Board also suffers from inadequate maintenance and lack of spare parts. On-farm water management is less than optimum causing low water-use efficiencies. Improved irrigation management is needed for both 'water management' and 'enterprise-type management'. A group of consultants in cooperation with Sudanese officials is preparing a rehabilitation plan for Gezira.

.

121) Another large scheme, Rahad, which is still under construction, will develop similar problems, unless remedial actions similar those for Gezira are undertaken. - PHILIPPINES

to

-

has been practiced for centuries but based on run-of122) Irrigation river diversions with single cropping of rice. The first storage of dam, Upper Pampanga, completed 1969, enabled double cropping rice for the first time. The areas served by this dam, 78,000 ha, give good yields but the project has not fully matured as yet so that adjustments have still to be made to ensure fully.equitable distribution and better drainage especially in lower portions of the canal command. Another major dam, Magat, in Northern Luzon is about l/2 built and will serve 100,000 ha.123) About 470,000 ha are served by national systems under the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) while some 550,000 ha are small communal systems operated by farm communities. Many of the small systems are now being upgraded through joint efforts of the communeed nals and NIB. This program seems to be going well but will monitoring to ensure continued operation and maintenance of upgraded schemes. 124) Largely as a result of its irrigation program, the country is now self-sufficient in rice (the main crop). The area, yield and production of rice increased from 1970 to 1979 as follows: 1970 Area (1000 ha) Yield (tons/ha) Production (1000 3,115 1.68 tons) 5,200 7,200 1979 3,470 2.07

125) Despite this good record, operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems is seriously deficient so that half of the national systems are in need of rehabilitation. To develop manpower to take on the task of better operation and maintenance of both main and on-farm systems, NIA in 1975 started training programs centered on the Upper Pampanga system and, later on, an input-output monitoring program for agricultural development plans in newly developed or rehabilitated systems. Both programs deal with critically felt needs and hopefully will continue to have priority and high-level support. In addition, a higher budgetary allocation to operation and maintenance, and to rehabilitation (rather than construction of new projects) would seem desirable. 126) A number of management special mention. innovations in The Philippines deserve

Main System Management 127) Joint action research by NIA and IRRI has been undertaken since the early 1970s (see e.g. Bhuiyan 1980, Early 1980, and IRRI Annual Reports and Research Highlights). Redistribution of water from head

coupled with increased responsives of water reaches to tailends, and increased reliability supply to rainfall (reducing flooding), of supply, led to increases in production for all farmers (Valera those in the head and Wickham 1976; Early 1980). This included although the gains in the tails were largest. This work reaches, was conducted in the Lower Talavera and Upper Pampanga Systems. The Upper Pampanga Integrated Irrigation System (UPRIIS) also has a monitoring system with an annual monitoring report produced by conUPRIIS system are well developed, with radio communicasultants. tions and regular reporting of local conditions to a coordinating The management innovations have not yet spread widely in centre. although they have been tried. One reason may be The Philippines, that extensive discussions with farmers before changes were introduced may account for the success of the action research, and may not have been adequately replicated. On-Farm Development .

128) On-farm (below the outlet) development work of NIA and IRRI has involved farmer participation, and comparis,ons of layouts of paddy including by farmers themfields as prepared by different methods, selves. The conclusion has been that farmers' layouts are generally superior to those of design engineers using contour maps. Three procedures have been found efficient and are now variously practiced: 1) involvement of farmers in appraisal and design from the outset. This includes farmers and engineers walking together through the area. The 'participationP in which a design prepared by engineers is presented to farmers for their comments or objections is not followed. 2) farmers are taught how to map their paddies, and prepare maps using simple measuring methods and a 'back board'. technique is used in design starting from the 3) a 'custom fit' tail of the outlet command area, and working backwards up towards the outlet. Communals and Particination 129) A highly participatory approach has been developed, and is now being extended, for the rehabilitation of small communal irrigation systems. This includes: a) community organizers. Specially trained community organizers live and work in the communals for some months before any works are undertaken. b) profiles. Socio-technical profiles of communals are prepared through methods of rapid appraisal (de 10s Reyes, n.d.). c) process docutientation. In some cases, detailed records are.kept of the process of participation, to generate practical insights, and to provide training materials for community organizers and engineers. d) initiative and control lie with the community. For example, the community leader signs purchase orders, and a community committee checks the quality of materials to be used in construction. The experience with this approach (Korten 1981) has been favourable. A longer period is required before construction begins, but after construction' the community has a sense of ownership and responsibility for the work, in contrast with earlier experiences without

- Y4 -

participation. The next stages, agement of the additional water will repay careful construction, Institutional Change

when attention shifts to the manprovided by rehabilitation and new monitoring.

130) NIB has a long history of institutional innovation. It has developed an openness to collaborative learning - from farmers, and from for the approaches research - which may have been a precondition listed above. Some features deserve to be noted when considering replication: stability in post. In contrast with many irrigation organizaNIA staff are usually in the same post for several years tions, to transfers as a at a time. They do not appear to be subject result of pressures from outside the organization. consultative committees. Two committees, chaired by NIA but with participation from other organizations (University of Philippines), Los Banos, the Institute of Philippine Culture, the Asian Institute of Management, IRRI,.the Ford Foundation, and others), have been influential in developing new approaches. Systems ManageThe two committees are ISMARC (the Irrigation ment Research Committee) and CIC (the Communals Irrigation Committee). flexible funding to NIA from the Ford Foundation has been a key factor in permitting room for manoeuvre within the agency to support new approaches. long-term relationships. Those engaged, both within NIA and outside, have worked together over the years, developing mutual understanding and trust. None of the changes has come about quickly. The stability in post and personal attitudes of senior NIA staff has been a critical factor in success.

a>

b)

cl

d)

The Future 131) Irrigation in The Philippines is set on a course which promises further innovations. NIA, with collaborating researchers, is continuing to work on farmer organization and participation on larger systems, on communals management, and on monitoring and main system management. It has a business-management oriented Corporate Plan for 1981-1990 (NIA 1981). It proposes to set up a Systems Performance Evaluation Team to assess systems' operation, maintenance, financial, agricultural and other activities. It also has a consulting wing, NIACONXLT. The opportunities for people from other countries to visit The Philippines and learn systematically from the experiences, both positive and negative, of these various approaches, are not yet streamlined. In the view of the Study Team, there is enough of value to justify a special effort, either on the part of NIA, or in collaboration with an outside agency, to organize visits, both to minimize demands on the time of NIA staff, and to make the visits efficient. NIA is already undertaking training for personnel from other countries. At the time of the Study Team's visit, engineers from Sri Lanka were taking part in a course at Munoz, on the UPRIIS. The Study Team received a proposal from SEARCA (the South East Asian Regional Centre for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture),

which is headquartered at the Campus of the University of The of a Centre for Philippines, Los Banos, for the establishment Irrigation Management in Southeast Asia. For references see: References Bhuiyan, S.1, 198c1, !dater allocation, distribution and use criteria for irrigation system design and management: selected research findings, in IRRI 1980, ppO 139-157. Early, A.C. An approach to solving irrigation system management problems, in IRRI 1980, pp. 83-113. IRRI 1980. Report of a Planning Workshop on Irrigation Water Management, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. NationaL Capacity.to Develop Water Korten, F.F. 1981. Building Users Associations: Experience from The Philippines, World Bank Staff Working Paper. NIA 1981. NIA Corporate plan 1981-1990, National Irrigation Administration, Quezon City, Philippines. de 10s Reyes, R. n.d, Guidelines for Data Collection for Communals Profiles, typescript. Valera, A. and T. Wickham 1976. Management of traditional and improved irrigation systems: some findings from The Philippines, paper presented to the Workshop on Choice in Irrigation Manage'ment, September 1976, Overseas Development Institute, 10 Percy Street, London WIP OJB. PERU

Coast was irrigated even during 132) The Peruvian desert on the Pacific the total area involved being almost a milthe time of the Incas, lion ha. Water was obtained from steep rivers draining the west slope of the Andes'.
133) The major crop in the 20th century has been sugar cane of which Peru used to be a major exporter. A combination of growing salinity and disruptions in sugarcane-plantation management caused by landreform adjustments has caused drops in output during the past two decades. A rehabilitation program'covering six of the coastal valleys has been underway for several years and shows promise. Tinajones and Jequetepeque 134) With the exception of the Chira-Piura, projects in the north there are hardly any storage-dam possibilities on the rivers draining the Andean west slope and Peru is therefore undertaking trans-Andean tunneling on a large scale but at high cost in the so-called Majes scheme. The soils served are however of marginal quality. A major problem is how to allocate funds and manpower for rehabilitation of the coastal valleys (also Chira-Piura) vs. completion of Majes. Other trans-Andean schemes in progress are Olmos, Mantero River and Pampus River. SENEGAL 135) Two different Senegal: types of irrigation systems

are encountered

in

,”

.

- grands pErim‘etres irrigugs: roughly 100,000 ha under central management in which the responsibility for construction, operation and maintenance as well as for part of the agricultural operation is with a specially created government organization (Soci&!tG d'Interventions); - petits pErim‘etres villageois: roughly 3,000 ha in which the government assists local farmers organizations on a village level to implement irrigation projects varying in size between lo-50 ha on the average. Construction, operation and maintenance as well as all farming operations are the responsibility of the farmer or farmers organization. 136) Insufficient maintenance as a result of lack of maintenance funds is a serious problem in centrally managed irrigation systems. Systems which are designed, may be technically sound, but with a a subsequent level of management degree of sophistication requiring which cannot be realized in practice, leads to inefficient and unequal distribution of water. Salinity problems and problems with on-farm water distribution are to be mentioned as well. Of a more fundamental nature are the problems related to the integration of irrigated agriculture with the traditional 'agriculture farming system, based on rainfed, receding floods and livestock activities. Cultural practices on the major irrigated crop, rice, compete with these activities particularly during the beginning of the rainy season. 137) Due to the problems encountered in the management of the large systems, considerations are given to the possibilities of dividing the larger perimetres into smaller units, which are operated and maintained by the farmers, or farmers' associations. The same observations were made irr the Philippines.

-

Appendix of Annex
-

I 3

Physical (as cited

and Operational by Indian

Inadequacies

in Canal

Systems

officials) References * (see end of table) Numbers refer to respective page number

A. 1. 1.1

MAIN SYSTEM INADEQUACIES Faulty original design in is CBIP 8, 41, 44 SHA 14 GVKR 15, 17 CBIP 9 SHA 78 GVKR 17 CBIP 43 CBIP 43, 47

The present level of competence planning and preparing projects too low.

1.2

The system most often lacks sufficient control structures or control structures are not properly designed. Canals are often of inadequate in relation to peak demand. capacity

1.3 1.4

Discharge capacity of project outlets (chaks) often too low in relation to the irrigation stream that can be handled by farmers. Faulty operation and maintenance less than original owing poor maintenance.

2. 2.1 2.2 2.3

Canal capacity design capacity

CGIP 7 CBIP 40 CBIP 19 SHA I5

System operation often based on water availability rather than water demand. Head-end farmers ge& oversupply of water in initial years and resist later reduction of supply. Faulty modernization devices procedures often lacking

3. 3.1 3.2

Measuring

CBIP 7 SMC Resolution No.3

Phasing often unsuitable, e.g. overlooking that first effort should be to restore system back to original design capacity.

-

Yitr -

3.3

Techniques for introduction (rotational water supply) properly thought-through

of warabandi often not or implemented.'

‘CBIP 12, 43, SHA 15;47 GVKR 16 CBIP 2, 7, 8

47

3.4

Irrigation Dept. staff lack an adequate manual to guide them in diagnosis as a step in planning system modernization.

B. 1. 1.1

ON-FARM SYSTEM INADEQUACIES Faulty institutional arrangements CPIB 28 SHA 35

Lack of coordination among key agencies especially the Irrigation Dept., the Command Area Development Authority (CADA) and the Agriculture Dept. Failure (rather to appoint a head to direct than merely coordinate).

1.2 1.3

CBIP 44 2 SMC Resolution CBIP 48 No.3

Lack of follow-through on Central Government recommendation to create separate Operation & Maintenance Wing in the State Irrigation Dep$s.3 CADAs have inadequate powers. Faulty Executive personnel officers administrative

1.4

CBIP 48

2. 2.1 2.2 2.3

policies rotate too frequently. or career CBIP 5 GvKR19 CBIP 27 SHA 42 .

CADA administrators often too junior fail to have leadership qualities. The CADAs do not opportunities.4 provide adequate

The point is also made that, unless-and until the main system is improved so that supplies are reliable and dependable as to quantity and timing, it is useless to try to introduce warabandi (SEA 47). In this reference it is recommended that all activities not only below the project a iingle outlet person should direct but above as well.

In CBIP 3 and 11 and GVKR 13 and 17 it is mentioned that pressure from international funding agencies has been highly instrumental in focussing attention on this problem and on the urgency for introduction of warabandi. The Study Team was told that administrators are from the Indian Administrative Service without irrigation or agriculture. Such administrators engineers and agriculturists of the Irrigation usually generalists previous background in are often resented by and Agriculture Depts.

3. 3.1 3.2

Faulty

manpower planning for in-service management. on water and engineerCBIP 26 SMC Resolution GVKR 19 SHA 50 No.6

Lack of facilities training in water

Lack of adequate curricula management in agricultural ing universities. Faulty management practices

4. 4.1 4.2

Executive officers overloaded administrative tasks.

with

CBIP 8 CBIP 2, 49

Inadequate exchange within the country of lessons from experience reoperation of water users' cooperatives. Lack of c+ear managers. targets for guidance of

4.4

CBIP 29

C. 1.

FAULTY ON-FAXX PRACTICES Plot-to-plot practiced irrigation inefficient. as widely water CBIP 9, 38 CBIP 8 CBIP 9

is

2. 3.

Known technologies use are not being

of efficient applied.2

The States are slow in responding to Central Government's request to extend field channels at State expense to 5 to 8 ha blocks (rather than about 40 ha as at present).

1

targets should be in terms such as value In the Study Team's opinion, of agricultural production per ha or per m3 of water not:.merely in area commanded' or 'field channels constructed' terms of 'irrigation as at present. Where plot-to-plot irrigation is not is flood irrigation, also inefficient. to be used in India. practiced, .Borders the only or furrows other method seem hardly

2

I””

D and E 1. 2. 3.

FAULTY DRAINAGE AND ROAD SYSTEMS Drainage system often inadequately designed. Farm-to-market roads omitted often or GVKR II SHA 14 SHA 18 GVKR 11

lacking.

Conjunctive use not sufficiently considered as means'of reducing waterlogging and salinity while supplying supplementary irrigation water.

G.

FAULTY FARMING SYSTEMS Research is lacking (and therefore farmers are not receiving advice). on appropriate farming systems including choice of cropping pattern either under existing conditions (with deficiencies in the water system) or under improved conditions. CGIP 2, 5, 21, GVKR 17, 20 26

*

CBIP = Central Board of Irrigation and Power: 'Warabandi Agriculture in India', Pub. No. 146, Nov. 1980.

for

Irrigated

GVKR= G.V.K. Rao, Member, Planning Commission: 'Irrigation Deyelopment in India - Tasks for the Future', Indian Agricultural Feb. 1980. Research Institute, SHA = Syed Hashim Ali, Area Development' SMC = State Ministers IAS, 'Problems of Water Management Collected papers, 1980, Conference, Minutes, Sept. 1981. and Command

ANNEX4 A NOTE ON ACTION RESEARCH
- ,

The purpose of this action research.

note

is

to clarify

what

the Study

Team means by

The Study Team has had a lot of difficulty seeking a suitable term to describe the type of research activity which it recommends should have priority. It is similar to pilot projects but differs from them in having a stronger research and monitoring element. The term R and D has connotations of hardware technology which are misleading. 'Research" by itself is too passive and does not necessarily involve an active intervention. 'Action research' has the advantage that its two words emphadesigned to size the two parts of the activity: action - an intervention improve and find out more about a system; and research - objective investigation and monitoring. two examples of effective action research By way of illustration, already pioneered are: Initially this tested rotations at I. IRRI's work in The Philippines. the tertiary level. When this did not lead to significant improvements, main system management was identified as the primary problem and became the focus. Interventions included improved communications with farmers, more sparing issues of water at the head, rotations, and minor improvements to structures, with careful monitoring and measurement of effects. 2. Colorado State University work in Pakistan. This concentrated below the mogha (outlet). Research identified high transmission losses in field channels, and action research then tested different improvements to reduce losses, leading to continuing replication of successes. Some other action research, appendix to this note. in progress or proposed, is listed in the

Many methodological difficulties have been identified in action research, not least the problems of special treatment and of multiple causation. Nevertheless, rapid progress is being made in learning about and overcoming these problems. The number of action research projects, starting somewhat in isolation, is increasing. New ideas about methodology are being generated, through experience and through the interaction of the approaches of different disciplines. The next few months and years will be a formative period. A high priority is mutual exchanges between action researchers, the development and testing of cost-effective methods, and then their diffusion. The action research, as currently activities: 1. multi-disciplinary diagnostic tem and the choice of action understood, typically involves irrigation six sys-

analysis of an existing interventions;

-

‘“k

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

benchmark surveys; action taking; monitoring and evaluation; learning lessons from the experience; extending and diffusing those lessons.

The institutional and physical forms of action research will vary widely. At this stage it is not desirable to define them too tightly. involving researchers, irrigation staff, and Eclectic approaches, and variously using modelling, rapid appraisals, different data farmers, and different combinations of disciplines and of interventions, sources, will be best. One institutional form is to combine an action team those who manage an irrigation system, and a research team - a group from another institution which is responsible for research and monitoring. The experimental treatments can vary widely. Geographically they can involve a whole canal system, or part of it, or just the area below one outlet. Institutionally, they can, for example, involve changed distribution of water on the main system, methods of corununication between farmers and irrigation staff, farmer organizations, methods of monitoring and evaluation, and so on.

new control Physically, they can, for example, include rehabilitation, changes in the design and location of outlets, and/or onstructures, farm development. Truly multi-disciplinary diagnostic analysis will identify action research interventions which will differ system by system.
Action research is not the only point of entry for improving irrigation management, but it is a potentially powerful multi-purpose tool. As a precondition, it needs good methods of appraisal, diagnosis and prescription. Once it is well under way, it can serve as a learning and training laboratory for irrigation management staff, agricultural staff, researchers , and others. The data generated may be used, as has been done on the Gal Oya Project in Sri Lanka, to create.irrigation simulation games with immediate application in professional training and in on-going proggrammes. Its findings should feed back into improved management on a wider scale, and into planning and design. Above all, it has the great virtue of engagement with field realities, so that the outcomes should be of immediate practical use.

APPENDIX
Some

Examples of Action

Research

For the purpose of this note it includes This list illustrates the range of action research broadly interpreted. interventions on irrigation systems where there is a systematic attempt to monitor and/or evaluate the effects of the intervention. This includes cases where an irrigation agency monitors its own performance. The list is not a complete one.

Country Bangladesh

Project Ganges-Kobadak Project

Main Interventions not known

Agencies

Involved

Status

of AR

c

BRRI Water Dev. Board IRRI Water Research Centre Colorado State University

negotiating

Egypt

Egypt Water Use and Management Project (3 sites)

1ining B raising water courses9 field levelling, reducing field size, scheduling/night irrigation, etc. 8 ha outlets and rotation between them

continuing

India

Mahanad i Reservoir Project Uasdeo Bango Proj. General ‘Centrally Sponsored Soil & Water Management Pilot Projects’

Water and Power Consultancy Services, Delhi Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Dept. All CAD Authorities Central Government financing for 3 years (monitored by pilot project staff)

completed

India

On-farm development works Rotational Water Supply

completed1

Country India

Project Hissar

Main Interventions Monitoring the performante of large scale irrigation projects (warabandi, 70,000 acres) Construction and operation of small village level irrigation systems management of a branch canal

Agencies

Involved Dept. of Agr.

Status

of AR

Haryana Irr. Indian Inst. Statistics

To be finished June 1982

India

Sukhomajri

Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training

replication

India

Nagarjunasagar Right Bank, CADA Andhra Pradesh

Water Technology Centre, Delhi (FF) Nagarjunasagar RB, CADA A.P. Irrigation Dept. Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univ. Irrigation Dept., Tamil Nadu Indian Council, for Agric. Res.

continuing

India

Lower Bhavani, Tamil Nadu

Redistribution of water Lower water issues Eliminating waterless seasons Alternative management irrigation

continuing

India

Tanks, Tamil Nadu

Perarignar Anna University of Technology, Madras (FF) Jayakwadi CADA, Maharashtra

continuing

India

Jayakwadi, Maharashtra

Rotation of water supply within chak and on-farm development

continuing

a

/

,

I

/.

Country India

Project Mahanadi (delta) Orissa

Plain Interventions Rehabilitation and management of water distribution in a distributary and at farm level Warabandi management of distributaries and main system, Farmers' orgs.

Agencies

Involved

Status

of AR

Orissa Irrigation Dept., Orissa Agri, Dept. D World Bank consultant (Wickham) Sreeramasagar CADA Andhra Pradesh Irrigation Dept. World Bank, FAO Investment Centre Respective Command Area Development Authorities Andhra Pradesh Irrigation Dept. (All monitored by CADA)

continuing

India

Sreeramasagar (Pochampad), Andhra Pradesh

continuing

India

Nagarjunasagar Right Bank Tunghabadra

Rehabilitation above the outlet combined with redistribution of water through rotations to benefit tailenders in particular Not yet known d

continuing

India

Upper Ganga

Water Resources Devt. Training Centre, Roorkee UP Irrigation Dept.- (FF) Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur Kansabati Command Area Dev. Authority (FP) Central Gujarat Water Cormnission Irrig. Dept. (FF)

funded

India

Kangsabati West Bengal

Not yet known

funded

India

Mahi-Kadana, Gujarat

To be determined

awaiting government clearance

Country India

Project Tawa, Madhya Pradesh Tanks (West Central India) Sarda-Sahayak, Uttar Pradesh

Main Interventions To be determined II II II

Agencies

Involved

Status

of AR

Central Water Commission MP Irrig. Dept. (FF) IIM - Ahmedabad (FF)

awaiting government clearance awaiting government clearance

India

Not yet known

India

Not yet known

Planning, Action and Research State Planning Inst. Division, Sarda Sahayak Command Area Dev. Authority (FF) Ministry IRRI (FF) Colorado (USAID) WAPDA State University of Ag. Indonesia

awaiting government clearance

Indonesia

Sederhana Programme Several projects

Not known

negotiating

Indonesia Pakistan

Details

not known

Mona Reclamation Experiment Proj. Mona Reclamation Exp.eriment Proj.

. Below the mogha

completed

Pakistan

Below the mogha

continuing

Country Pakistan

Project Shahkot - field site of the WM Res. and Trg. Project for Rural Dev,, Univ. of 45.9 Faisalabad On-farm facilities study Communals Irrigation

Main Interventions Physical changes below the mogha Farmers8 organizations

Agencies Univ.

Involved

Status

of AR

of Ag. p Faisalabad

continuing

Philippines

Different levels/types of facilities Icarmers participation, structures, management

NIA IRRI MIA AIM (FF) IRRI NIA IRRI

1981 is last year of 4 year project continuing replicating

Philippines

Philippines

Pest control .through synchronous cultivation 'Irrigation System Management

Synchronous water supply and cultivation activities

first major 1982

test

Philippines

3 levels of intensity of staffing etc.

MIA IRRI

198% first year Undertaking benchmark Intervention started 1981 continuing

Philippines

Pump system in Bicol Region

Attempting optimal management

NIA IRRI

Country Philippines

Project Farmer organization above the outlet at the lateral level Five tanks

Main Interventions Farmer organization

Agencies NIA IRRI

Involved

Status

of AR
.

not known

Sri Lanka

Structural, institutional, cropping pattern, and water supply delivery Farmer participation

World Bank ODA Dept. of Irrigation Agrarian Research and Training Institute Cornell University (USAID)

Several years' experience

Sri Lanka

Gal Oya

continuing

(FF)

indicates

Ford Foundation USAID funding

funding 0

(USAID) indicates

Extract

from

"Report of the First Meeting of the TAC Steering Group on Water Management Research and Training 1/ (FAO Headquarters, Rome - 15-16 October 1931)" 2-/

"Conclusions

and Recommendations

The Steering Group confirmed the terms of reference and approved 33. the programme of the Study Team as amended in the course of the discussion to include visits to Asia, Africa and Latin America. The Steering Group supported the interdisciplinary approach which 34.. the Study Team proposed in identifying the priorities and focus of a possible international initiative in the field of water management research and training and agreed on the need to examine the irrigation The Study Team was also requested to give particular system as a whole. attention to:

(9

those key components in the system which do not receive sufficient attention by the diverse professional categories and disciplines concerned in irrigation water management; the identification of existing deficiencies and gaps in the compilation and dissemination of information, as well as-in the provision of recurrent and sustained services for irrigation system management; the analysis of the comparative advantages and complementarity of international and national activities in this field; the needs and possibilities of small farmers, implementation participation in the planning, aspects of irrigation systems. including their and management

(ii)

(iii)

(iv>

The Steering Group confirmed the request made 35, examine freely (as deemed appropriate and necessary) diverse alternatives among those indicated in paras. taking into account the terms of reference, .while

to the Study Team to the pros and cons of 3-a to 3-e of its following two points:

(i)

a majority of members of the Steering Group is inclined towards an option which would include elements of alternative 3-b (an international centre) and alternative 3-c (an international service); if financial support by CGIAR is reconrmended, it is likely to be limited and therefore the demands should be relatively modest. Whereas an operating budget of 3 to 5 million US dollars per year had been suggested at the 20 July 1981

(ii)

11 -2/

AGD/TAC:IAR/81/30 See list of participants in the consultants report

Page':

the Steering Group recommended that meeting in Washington, this should not be considered by the Study Team as a preestablished and fixed ceiling but as an indication of an order of magnitude to be used with flexibility in a conservative but realistic appraisal of actual requirements for diverse alternatives. 36. 1982, The Steering Group agreed to consider the final draft to meet again of the report in Rome on 11-12 February of the Study Team. the work the Study of the meeting full confidence

37. The Steering Group expressed full satisfaction for While referring to carried out by the Study Team so far. Team the observations and suggestions made in the course the Steering Group expressed as recorded in this report, in the successful completion of their task."

c

Extract

from

"Report of the Second Meeting of the TAC Steering Group on Water Management Research and Training (FAO Headquarters, Rome - 11-12 February 1982)" L/

"Comments

on the Draft

Report

(Chapter

by Chapter)

10. The Steering Group made a number of observations and suggestions regarding the contents and the structure of the draft report. These were noted by the Study Team. The Steering Group agreed that the Study Team should ultimately decide on the best mode of presentation of their report while taking into account the amendments and additions proposed by the Steering Group. The main observations and suggestions of the Steering Group as regards specific parts of the draft report are presented below. 11. The Group agreed that the first chapter should be an "introduction" rather than an historical review of the TAC proposals in this field. It should also be shortened. However, a section indicating why the report was commissioned should be included, taking into account that a number of donor-members of the CGIAR were not convinced of the need for an international initiative to support water management research and training. Several members of the Group stressed that the second Chapter 12, dealing with the "Importance of Irrigation" 21 was a key chapter which should be directed especially at the donors.Some of the data and required further scrutiny and checking. statistics presented, however, 13. Health and otherenvironment problems should be further highlighted in the report and the means of overcoming them should be presented as an design and management of the integral part of the rational planning, taking into account the discussions the Team had on irrigation systems, these subjects during their travels. 14. The analysis in Chapter 3 of the different categories of deficiencies in existing irrigation systems 3/ and of their causes amplifies the need for a multidisciplinary approach and should be presented in a general way while details of national case studies should be placed in in the report, an Annex. Deficiencies which call for a new international initiative should Rather than being presented in a separate be clearly identified as such. chapter, references to the general principles and the action required in rational irrigation management should be linked more closely with the analysis of the present problems and deficiencies. These should lead in turn to the identification of gaps in ongoing national and international activities. 15. While there was a general agreement on "The Principles" enunciated

L/ / i/

AGD/TAC:IARj82/13 Described Described also under in Chapter Section 2 of the 3.2 of the final final draft draft report report (AGD/TAC:IAR/82/4) (AGD/TAC:UR/82/4)

Y

Page 2 in Chapter 4 of the report l/, it was noted that the whole system approach mostly applies to appraisal-and diagnostic activities rather than to remedial action, which can be taken in specific sectors or areas of irrigation. It was also stressed that there was still a considerable need for innovations and development of appropriate technologies under local conditions, rather than mere transfer and adaptation of existing technologies. A close link between action research and training was essential. The proposed principle of multidisciplinarity should not only lead to closer coordination among institutions concerned, but also to joint action by teams of specialists in various disciplines. To this end, appropriate institutional mechanisms were required at national level, which may in some cases take the form of a national water management institute. 16. In Chapter 5 L/, it was essential that the report identify selectively those international actions which specifically require a new international initiative among the whole range of international support activities which promote and assist in the rational management of irrigation systems at national level. While noting that national policies and institutions were absolutely essential, the Steering Group confirmed that a case for a new international initiative would have a distinct comparative advantage, especially if it would concentrate on research, training and information exchange as regards the methodologies for appraisal, diagnosis and implementation of remedial action for improved management or irrigation systems. These activities were expected to trigger off and promote others which were equally important but were considered beyond the scope of a modest international initiative within this initiative, the financial limits as initially envisaged. L'ltimately, when its international competence and reputation are firmly established, may also play a role, when requested by governments, in the formulation and implementation of appropriate policies for irrigation management and development. 17. Having presented the case for a new international initiative in the previous chapter, Chapter 6 11 would describe a preference for an institutional approach which would include some of the features of an international research centre or institute with those of an international service; a large majority of the members of the Steering Group supported this approach. It would be necessary that the institution's headquarters have a sufficient critical mass in terms of professional expertise to be a centre of excellence. This would not imply major capital investment, however, since a large part of the research would be conducted in existing irrigation command areas. 18. Further the consultants report should present more convincing arguments in favour of a new international initiative under the umbrella of the CGIAR. Although a majority of the Steering Group members supported such an initiative, the report should not only explain why their proposal could not be implemented through one of the existing IARCs or other

-. -

l-/

The final draft report has undergone considerable re-drafting and rearranging to the extent that its chapters no longer coincide with those of the draft report discussed by the TAC Steering Group, referred to here.

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existing international institutions should function in a complementary activities.

but it should also describe how it manner with regard to existing

The consultants should develop criteria for the location of the 19, examine the pros and cons of headquarters of the proposed institution, a wide range of possible sites and make proposals for a short list. The proposed mode of governance of the new initiative could be 20, more briefly addressed in the report since it should not differ substantially from that of other institutions of the CGIAR system in terms size and functions. of composition, In the final Chapter 7 l/ a shorter presentation of the staff 21. In this context, requirements and cost estimates was also suggested. .it was stressed that the institutions of the CGIAR do not provide direct support through their core budgets in the form of grants to mandate and core programme, national programmes but can, as part of their engage in collaborative research activities as well as implement special projects with extra budgetary (non-core) funds. proposal was generally well 22. The summary of the consultantse received 2/. It was suggested, however, that it should be reviewed in in particular as regards the conthe light-of the above observations, sideration of ongoing activities. Conclusions and Recommendations

The Steering Group agreed to refer the above observations and 23. suggestions to the Study Team for further consideration in the finalization of their report. After redrafting, the Study Team should then submit their final report to TAC for discussion at the 27th meeting of the Committee (IRRI Headquarters, 9-17 March 1982). TAC should also receive at this meeting copies of the reports of the Steering Group (namely that of the first meeting, 15-16 October 1981, and in a. draft form the present one on the second meeting)."

L/ 2/

Refers

to the

draft

report

to the TAC Steering

Group.

a member of the Steering Group who could In a cable to the Chairman, not attend the second meeting expressed reservations on the proposal as presented in the summary, stressing that it did not adequately He, therereflect the views he had expressed at the first meeting. fore, doubted whether his agency would support the proposal.