Strengthening Producer Organizations, Communities, and other Local Actors in Entrepreneurship and Management. December 2025 Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 1 of 20 CGIAR Table of Contents List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 4 Sorghum contract farming model ........................................................................................................... 5 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 6 Results and findings ............................................................................................................................... 7 Summary statistics of participants. ...................................................................................................... 7 Driving factors for contract farming ..................................................................................................... 7 Benefits and successes from contract farming ................................................................................... 9 Proposed Solutions for strengthening the Value Chain ..................................................................... 11 Integration of Agroecological Farming Practices ............................................................................... 12 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................... 15 CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 2 of 20 List of Tables Table 1. Summary of the 2024/2025 Contract package ......................................................................... 6 Table 2. Summary statistics of participants ............................................................................................ 7 Table 3. Level of integration of agroecological principles ..................................................................... 13 List of Figures Figure 1. Driving factors for farmers’ participation in the sorghum contract farming model in Mbire district. .................................................................................................................................................... 8 Figure 2. Contracted sorghum plot in Ward 2 in Mbire district. .............................................................. 9 Figure 3. Sorghum grain threshing in Ward 3, Mbire district. ............................................................... 10 Figure 4. Success and areas for improvements in the sorghum business model. ................................ 11 Figure 5. Appropriate mechanization for sorghum threshing within inclusive sorghum production systems................................................................................................................................................. 12 Figure 6. Heatmap showing the relative prominence of the 13 HLPE agroecological principles practiced by farmers under sorghum farming, arranged from highest to lowest score. Darker tones denote stronger integration across practices. ...................................................................................... 13 Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 3 of 20 CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. Farmer Experiences from the Sorghum Contract farming model in Zimbabwe. Authors: Taurai Zingwena, Mark Manyanga, Hambulo Ngoma, and Moti Jaleta CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 4 of 20 Introduction Background and context In the face of mounting environmental and economic pressures, smallholder farmers and local producer organizations remain the backbone of rural landscapes. Yet, they are often excluded from viable market opportunities, constraining their livelihoods and undermining their participation in viable value chains on which they depend. Area of Work 3 (AoW3) of the CGIAR Multifunctional Landscapes (MFL) Science Program is designed to break this cycle. It works directly with communities to co-create prosperous and sustainable economies within MFL. AoW3 envisions market actors collaboratively generating knowledge on markets and consumer preferences and co-developing inclusive business models and financial mechanisms that enhance the viability of MFL solutions. By focusing on the financial and economic dimensions of landscape approaches, AoW3 strengthens the resilience of livelihoods while promoting sustainability. The initiative advances its vision through improved market and non- market incentives and innovative financing schemes that enhance landscape multifunctionality and expand access to sustainable products. A central focus is the promotion of territorial markets, vibrant local hubs for fresh, healthy diets and green business opportunities that monetize ecosystem services. Under Sub-AoW3, communities are engaged to envision and identify livelihood opportunities and trajectories, assess capacities, prioritize needs, and co-design vision-to-action strategies through back-casting approaches. These processes are complemented by continued engagement with regional and national platforms to co-develop business models for multifunctional landscapes, participate in business events, and facilitate partnerships with private actors and entrepreneurs. Building on these broader efforts, AoW3 in Mbire district, Zimbabwe, provides a concrete entry point for translating landscape-level aspirations into actionable, market-driven solutions. In this context, agroecology and inclusive business models converge, creating opportunities to address long-standing market failures while grounding interventions in local ecological and socio-economic realities. The sorghum contract farming business model was identified as a strategy to address the structural market imperfections and price volatility within the sorghum value chain. Commercial sorghum farming is a promising and viable business model to improve smallholder livelihoods and food system resilience. Producer organizations are central to this model, yet their success is often constrained by governance, market access, and management capacity. However, it is often not clear how producer organizations can be strengthened to better participate in and benefit from selected value chains. To gain insights on this, we engaged with sorghum farmers contracted during the 2024/2025 season to understand the opportunities, challenges, and successes of the sorghum contract farming model in Mbire district. The goal was to identify opportunities to strengthen producer organizations, integrate agroecological principles, and design more inclusive and sustainable value chains and market systems that answer the core research question: What innovative market mechanisms can be co-designed and implemented, and in what ways can they harness consumer preferences for nutritious biodiversity-based goods and services while promoting agroecology, landscape restoration, and sustainable livelihoods? This assessment had two objectives: 1. To analyze the key drivers, successes, and challenges within the sorghum contract farming business model. 2. To assess the extent and impact of agroecological principles of integration in the sorghum business models. Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 5 of 20 CGIAR The sorghum contract farming model has emerged as a critical institutional mechanism for linking smallholder farmers to formal markets, improving access to inputs, and stabilizing incomes in rural economies (Kimbi et al., 2024; Ncube, 2020; Zingwena et al., 2024). Yet, farmers’ decisions to participate in such arrangements are shaped by a complex interplay of economic, social, and institutional factors. Understanding these drivers is essential for designing inclusive and sustainable contract models that balance commercial objectives with farmer welfare. In rural contexts such as Mbire, where agricultural production is highly vulnerable to rainfall variability and market fluctuations, contract farming offers both opportunities and challenges. Farmers often weigh the potential benefits against perceived limitations, including risks, unequal bargaining power, and dependency on contracting firms. Participation therefore reflects not only individual economic rationality but also broader livelihood strategies, social norms, and trust in the institutional arrangements. This section examines the key drivers influencing farmers’ adoption and continued participation in the sorghum contract farming scheme. It explores how factors such as access to resources, risk perception, household decision-making, previous market experiences, and the perceived reliability of the contracting firm shape farmers’ engagement. The analysis provides insights into what motivates farmers to join or remain in contract arrangements and highlights the enabling conditions necessary for scaling inclusive, market-oriented models in Zimbabwe’s semi-arid smallholder systems. Sorghum contract farming model The Contract farming package Agrowth trading as Paperhole Investments (PHI) introduced an input-based sorghum contract farming model that engaged forty-five farmers, each cultivating a 1-hectare plot, to produce commercial red sorghum for beer manufacturing since the 2023/2024 season in Mbire district. PHI operates within Innscor’s Buffalo Breweries value chain as the primary off taker for sorghum used in opaque beer production. A total of fifty hectares were secured under contract during the 2024/2025 farming season. The model provides farmers with an input package that includes certified red sorghum seed, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, transport support, and technical advisory services (Table 1). These inputs deliver substantial agronomic and economic benefits: fertilizers and crop- protection chemicals boost yields on nutrient-depleted soils, while herbicides and pesticides reduce labor burdens and minimize losses from weeds and pests. The addition of transport and extension support lowers transaction costs that typically constrain rural producers and enhances compliance with recommended agronomic practices. Most critically, PHI guarantees a ready market at a pre-agreed price, offering farmers assured market access and shielding them from price volatility and uncertainties associated with local grain buyers. This combination of input support, technical guidance, and guaranteed offtake strengthens farmer confidence, encourages productive investment, and enhances income stability. This in addition to sorghum being a competitive and climate-resilient commercial crop in Mbire’s semi-arid environment, makes the value chain attractive. In addition, Agrowth provides insurance packages to all farmers in cases of natural disasters and other unforeseen circumstances. On the other hand, farmers should provide all other costs of production and comply to deliver 1400 kg or more of their grain. CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 6 of 20 Table 1. Summary of the 2024/2025 Contract package Item description unit Unit price Quantity Cost (US$) (US$) Seed Kg 4.10 10 41.00 Fertilizer: Basal Kg 0.549 100 54.90 AN Kg 0.684 100 68.40 Atrazine Litres 5.80 2 11.60 Glyphone 700 WDG Kg 8.50 1 8.50 Carbaryl 85 WP Kg 19 1 19.00 Packaging Bags Units 0.35 50 17.50 Transport to farm (140km)1 Km per ton 0.17 1 23.80 Transport from farm (140km) Km per ton 0.17 2.5 59.50 Total before charges 304.20 Interest charges (8 %) 24.34 Management fee Equivalent to 150 kg sorghum/ha - AMA Registration fee 1.00 Insurance (11.8%)2 36.12 Total Including charges 365.65 Break-even yield 1400 kg/ha Methodology Study Context The study was conducted in Mbire District, located in Zimbabwe’s agro-ecological Region IV, characterized by semi-arid climatic conditions with average annual rainfall of 450–650 mm and frequent droughts. Despite these climatic constraints, Mbire offers favorable conditions for sorghum production due to sorghum’s high drought tolerance, short growing cycle, and adaptability to sandy and low-fertility soils. These biophysical attributes made Mbire an ideal site for piloting and studying sustainable sorghum production models such as the Agrowth scheme. This study employed a qualitative approach through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with participating smallholder farmers engaged in sorghum contract farming under Agrowth in Ward 2 and 3 in Mbire District, Zimbabwe. A total of 45 farmers, each contracted to cultivate 1 hectare of sorghum, participated in the sorghum contract farming over two growing seasons (2023/2024 and 2024/2025). We selected FDG participants from among those contracted by Agrowth to ensure that the discussions reflected the perspectives of those directly involved in sorghum contract farming. The use of FGDs was justified by the need to explore collective experiences, shared meanings, and social dynamics that influence participation, trust, and performance in contract farming schemes. These dimensions are often difficult to capture through quantitative surveys. This method was particularly suitable for understanding how farmers negotiate risks, price, benefits, and obligations under contract arrangements in 1 Transport costs were calculated as $0.17/km/tonne × 140km 2 Insurance was calculated as Insurance premium (US$) = Premium rate (%) × Sum insured (US$) Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 7 of 20 CGIAR smallholder settings. The second part of our engagement introduced a participatory scoring exercise to systematically assess the degree to which agroecological principles are integrated into local farming systems and business models. Rather than treating agroecology as a set of discrete technologies, the approach operationalizes agroecology as a gradient of practice intensity, consistence, and spatial coverage, as advocated in recent agroecology and sustainability transitions literature. Each principle was assessed using a four-level ordinal scoring scale, with clearly defined criteria to minimize ambiguity: high - 75% of land under the practice; done regularly and correctly; medium – 40 to 75% of land under the practice; some steps skipped or done irregularly; low- < 40% of land under the practice; low consistency; not practiced- 0% adoption; no awareness or interest). Each principle was assessed at the farm level, depending on the scale of the business model or intervention. Results and findings Summary statistics of participants. On average, just 13.33% of participants were female, and most of the farmers were married (Table 2). The average total land area was 5.43 hectares, with a range of 2.50 to 10 hectares. Participants harvested an average of 2,504.55 kg/ha of sorghum, of which 2,081.82 kg were sold, and 343.18 kg were retained for domestic use. The mean unit price of sorghum was USD 0.32 per kg. Approximately 86.36% of families hired labor, whereas around 40.91% utilized manure or compost. Farmers, on average, utilized 10.00 kg of seed, 98.86 kg of basal fertilizer, and 62.55 kg of top dressing per hectare, indicating considerable variation in input application among households. Table 2. Summary statistics of participants Variable Mean SD Male respondent (%) 86.67 34.37 Married (%) 91.11 28.78 Age of respondent 49.09 8.84 Total land size (ha) 5.43 2.61 Total sorghum yield (kg/ha) 2504.55 1109.80 Amount of harvest sold (kgs) 2081.82 1095.61 Price per Kg of sorghum 0.32 0.00 Harvest kept for home use (kgs) 343.18 568.06 Hired any labour (%) 86.36 35.13 Used manure or compost (%) 40.91 50.32 Seed quantity (kgs/ha) 10.00 0.00 Basal fertilizer (kgs/ha) 98.86 27.25 Top dressing (kgs/ha) 62.55 34.20 Number of observations 45 Driving factors for contract farming The group discussions highlighted that farmers’ participation in the sorghum contract farming model was driven by short-term economic and risk-reduction incentives rather than the concern for the agroecological benefits (Figure CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 8 of 20 1). The most influential drivers were guaranteed market access secured through contract off take agreement, favorable and contract value, and pre-agreed producer prices. In addition, supporting economic factors included the prompt cash payments and the inclusion of climate-risk insurance that safeguarded farmers against total loss in the event of crop failure due to drought. These incentives addressed the structural constraints that undermine smallholder commercialization such as price volatility and exploitative middlemen. The contractual incentives reflect strong instrumental and relational logic that shapes farmers’ decisions under conditions of uncertainty. Although the model incorporated certain elements that align indirectly with agroecological principles, for example, the provision of drought tolerant hybrid varieties or improved post-harvest efficiency, farmers seldom interpreted these as ecological innovations. Figure 1. Driving factors for farmers’ participation in the sorghum contract farming model in Mbire district. Farmers production choices prioritized arrangements that offered profitability, cash flow reliability, and reduced downside risk, even if the agroecological benefits of sorghum (such as drought tolerance, lower input demands, and soil resilience) were secondary considerations. In this light, the contract farming model functioned not merely as a production support mechanism, but as a stability-enhancing institutional arrangement. Acceptance of contract farming among smallholder farmers in Mbire is strongly influenced by the availability of technical support and post- harvest mechanization services embedded within the contract scheme. Farmers value the regular extension visits, agronomic guidance, and field-based training provided by buyers and partners, which improve their confidence in managing the crop and reduce the risks associated with adopting new production practices. Equally important are the post-harvest mechanization services (such as access to multi crop threshers and shellers) that significantly reduce labor demands, shorten turnaround time, and improve grain quality. These services address a major bottleneck in sorghum production, where manual threshing is labor-intensive and leads to substantial post-harvest losses. This pattern suggests that the design of the contract farming model prioritized economic pragmatism over agroecological transformation. Without intentional incentives that reward practices such as soil stewardship, intercropping, mulching, or organic nutrient management, participants have little motivation to associate contract farming with ecological improvement. Future contract farming arrangements aiming to advance agroecological transitions may therefore benefit from integrating sustainability criteria into pricing mechanisms, input packages, Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 9 of 20 CGIAR training modules, and performance assessments shifting ecological outcomes from incidental co-benefits to explicit program objectives. Figure 2. Contracted sorghum plot in Ward 2 in Mbire district. Benefits and successes from contract farming Contracted farmers revealed a consistent pattern of positive outcomes, demonstrating the model’s potential to generate meaningful agronomic and livelihood improvements (Figure 4). Across the wards, farmers reported notable increases in sorghum yields, driven by timely access to inputs, high-yielding and short-season sorghum variety, and good agronomic practices. From the 2024/2025 season, almost 95% of the contracted farmers achieved more than the breakeven tonnage of 1.4 tonnes per hectare. Beyond yield gains, the model also strengthened crop–livestock integration, as farmers repurposed sorghum residues into valuable livestock feed for the dry-season. Income generated through the scheme supported household asset accumulation, with some farmers making transformative investments such as solar-powered water systems for domestic use and small- scale irrigation. These investments not only improved household resilience but also reflected the income-stabilizing effects of having a guaranteed market. Food security also improved; farmers retained grain for home consumption while using revenue proceeds to diversify diets and purchase additional foods, thereby enhancing year-round food availability and nutritional access. Collectively, these successes illustrate the broader livelihood dividends that contract farming can deliver when key production and marketing constraints are addressed. While the model demonstrated several positive outcomes, the discussions identified opportunities to further strengthen operational clarity, transparency, and farmer confidence. The most frequently cited concerns related to contract implementation and inclusive decision-making power over costs and prices. For example, farmers highlighted that they were not involved in determining and reviewing the final selling price. Strengthening mechanisms for farmer engagement and participation during price reviews could improve transparency, align expectations, and enhance trust in the pricing process. Furthermore, farmers noted challenges in fully understanding certain contractual provisions, especially where informal explanations provided during mobilization differed from the written contract documents. This underscores the importance of simplifying contract language, reinforcing key clauses through structured pre-season briefings, and ensuring consistent messaging across all field staff. CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 10 of 20 Figure 3. Sorghum grain threshing in Ward 3, Mbire district. For instance, there were ambiguities in understanding of insurance cover for crop under contract farming. Several farmers indicated that they were unclear about the scope, conditions, and activation procedures of the insurance product, particularly in cases of crop failure. Farmers indicated that insurance arrangements could be strengthened to more effectively cover germination failure, particularly in cases where replanting is required. Farmers suggested that, under such circumstances, the cost of replacement seed could be absorbed within the insurance or contract risk-sharing mechanism rather than being charged directly to farmers. Transaction transparency and record-keeping systems present another opportunity for improvement in the business model. Farmers reported that sales, input deductions, and net payments were often communicated through consolidated summaries rather than individual transaction statements. Introducing individualized farmer statements clearly detailing quantities delivered, gross value, deductions, and net payments would strengthen transparency, enable farmers to independently verify transactions, and reinforce confidence in the model. Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 11 of 20 CGIAR Figure 4. Success and areas for improvements in the sorghum business model. Lastly, the high cost of input packages significantly eroded profitability for farmers. Farmers highlighted that input prices were inflated and even higher than the market prices for the seasons in question. Overall, these challenges highlight issues in contract enforcement, communication, and fairness. They suggest a need for better transparency from contracting firms and greater support for farmers to understand and negotiate contract terms. Therefore, establishing a platform for farmers to raise and resolve these concerns would support timely issue resolution and reinforce mutual accountability between farmers and the contracting firm. Proposed Solutions for strengthening the Value Chain During the evaluation, farmers and facilitators discussed improvements to address challenges with contract farming. The following solutions were proposed to strengthen the business model: • Formalization of the sorghum producers’ group beyond contract farming: A central recommendation from farmers across all wards was the need to formalize a sorghum producers’ group that extends beyond the current contract farming arrangement. Farmers emphasized that while the contract model created immediate economic opportunities, its long-term sustainability requires stronger collective organization, clearer representation, and enhanced bargaining power independent of the contractor. Moreover, farmers believed that a formal group would open pathways to diversify markets, secure better input prices through bulk purchasing, access group-based financing, and receive consistent training on contract literacy and agronomic practices. Ultimately, formalization would empower farmers to build a resilient, transparent, and market-ready producer organization capable of sustaining the gains of contract farming while driving broader livelihood and agroecological improvements. • Flexible Input Packages: Rather than a one-size-fits-all input bundle, farmers advocated for a flexible contract. This allows farmers to collectively choose the critical inputs which they cannot access or afford, for example, the specific seed type which the contractor/ market need. Therefore, tailoring contract packages to farmer needs may reduce costs and promote efficient utilization of inputs. • Improvement on Mechanization: Farmers highlighted the need to expand access to mechanization services to address labor bottlenecks and improve both productivity and grain quality. Mechanized land CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 12 of 20 preparation and planting would enable timely establishment of sorghum, which is critical in Mbire’s short and unpredictable rainfall window. Integrating mechanization into the contract model or through a formal producers’ group would significantly enhance efficiency, reduce drudgery, and strengthen the overall viability and competitiveness of sorghum production. Figure 5. Appropriate mechanization for sorghum threshing within inclusive sorghum production systems. Integration of Agroecological Farming Practices In the concluding section, we presented a participatory scoring exercise on how farmers in contract farming have integrated agroecological practices at their farm. Firstly, we allow farmers to highlight the principles they are using on their farm. The heatmap in Figure 5 illustrates the relative prominence of the 13 HLPE agroecological principles practiced by farmers in the sorghum contract farming model. The findings reveal that while several principles such as biodiversity are partially integrated into the current business model, others like land and resource governance remain weakly expressed. These variations highlight both the progress made and the opportunities that exist to deepen agroecological integration within the system. The integration of agroecological principles within the sorghum business model demonstrates a mixed but promising landscape, where certain principles are well embedded while others remain underdeveloped or absent. The most strongly integrated principles include recycling, economic diversification, and connectivity, each of which aligns naturally with existing farmer practices and the structural features of the contract scheme. Farmers routinely recycle crop residues and livestock manure, thereby reducing dependence on external inputs, which is an important agroecological leverage point. Likewise, diversified livelihood portfolios, such as combining sorghum with sesame, livestock, and poultry, reinforce economic resilience and illustrate an elevated level of alignment with agroecological thinking. The contract model itself enhances market connectivity, guaranteeing producer prices, timely payments, and structured input delivery, which collectively strengthens farmer participation in formal markets and reduces transaction risks and costs. Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 13 of 20 CGIAR Figure 6. Heatmap showing the relative prominence of the 13 HLPE agroecological principles practiced by farmers under sorghum farming, arranged from highest to lowest score. Darker tones denote stronger integration across practices. However, the integration of other principles related to ecosystem-based management remains limited. Practices that support soil health are partially adopted, and the core tenets of conservation agriculture (soil cover, mulching, and reduced tillage) are inconsistently practiced. Equally, the principles of functional biodiversity, natural pest management, and synergy are weakly represented. Farmers' dependency on chemical herbicides and pesticides as promoted for higher yields by the contractors highlights the absence of ecological pest control strategies, such as botanical pesticides, push–pull systems, or habitat manipulation. This indicates a need for targeted extension to transition farmers towards more ecologically grounded forms of pest and weed management. Table 3. Level of integration of agroecological principles Agroecology Principle Level of Integration Justification 1. Recycling High Integration Farmers actively recycle crop residues (e.g., sorghum stalks) as manure or soil cover, and livestock manure is commonly applied to fields. These practices close nutrient loops and reduce dependence on external inputs. 2. Soil Health Medium Integration Organic manure use is common and improves soil structure and fertility. However, mulching and soil cover practices remain limited, and minimum tillage is only partially practiced. Soil moisture retention and biological activity could be improved. 3. Biodiversity (Crops & Livestock Diversity) Medium–High Integration Farmers grow diverse crops (sorghum, sesame, maize, cowpeas) and keep livestock (goats, cattle, chickens). This diversity spreads risk and supports resilience, although biodiversity is not managed intentionally as an agroecological strategy. CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 14 of 20 Agroecology Principle Level of Integration Justification 4. Biodiversity (Ecosystem & Functional Diversity) Low Integration While crop diversity exists, functional biodiversity for ecosystem services (pollinators, natural enemies, shade trees, field borders) is not intentionally promoted. Ecological habitats are limited and not explicitly managed. 5. Synergy Medium Integration Some natural synergies exist e.g; livestock manure supports cropping systems; sorghum’s drought tolerance complements local conditions. However, deliberate design of multi-functional interactions (trees–crops– livestock synergies) is missing. 6. Economic Diversification High Integration Farmers have multiple income streams (sorghum, sesame, goats, poultry). This diversification helps buffer shocks and strengthens household resilience. It is a major strength in the local livelihood system. 7. Co-creation of Knowledge Medium Integration Technical support from Agrowth, PHI, AGRITEX, and NGOs expose farmers to new agronomic knowledge. However, knowledge flow is mostly top-down; farmer innovations are not systematically captured or co-developed. Potential exists for strengthening participatory learning. 8. Social Values & Diets Low Integration While sorghum supports food security, the contract model focuses primarily on commercial grain production rather than nutrition-sensitive agriculture or diverse diets. Limited intentional integration of local food culture, healthy diets, or value addition. 9. Fairness & Social Equity Medium Integration The contract provides equal access to inputs, insurance, and markets, addressing credit constraints. However, gender and youth-specific barriers (decision-making power, access to land and inputs) persist and were noted by communities. More equity-focused targeting is required. 10. Connectivity High Integration The contract model strongly links farmers to formal markets via guaranteed buyers, known producer prices, and timely payments. This reduces transaction costs and strengthens market participation, a key agroecology principle. 11. Land & Natural Resource Governance Low Integration Contract farming does not currently address community-level governance of land, water, or grazing resources. Issues such as soil degradation, deforestation, and wildlife conflict remain outside the business model’s governance mechanisms. 12. Circular & Solidarity Economy Medium Integration Input provision, collective marketing, and producer organizations reflect elements of solidarity. But broader circular economy elements, e.g., local processing, community-owned enterprises, shared equipment ownership, remain weak or absent. 13. Responsible Governance Low–Medium Integration Producer organizations exist but face governance challenges including leadership, accountability, and negotiation power. While the contract model improves structure, governance remains weak and limits farmer's influence over pricing, contract terms, and dispute resolution. The social and governance-oriented principles also reflect moderate to low integration. While producer organizations create entry points for shared learning and collective action, the principle of co-creation of knowledge is not fully realized. Information flows top-down, with insufficient space for farmer-led experimentation or knowledge exchange. Similarly, responsible governance and resource governance show weaker alignment, as farmer organizations continue to face leadership, negotiation, and accountability challenges. These constraints undermine farmers’ ability to influence contract terms or advocate for favorable conditions. Gender and youth equity, although indirectly supported through equal distribution of inputs, remain insufficiently addressed in practice, indicating the need for more intentional, intersectional approaches to fairness within the business model. Finally, the principles related to healthy, culturally rooted diets, solidarity economy, and circular economy are the least addressed, reflecting the commercial orientation of the model. The contract primarily incentivizes grain production for the market rather than local food sovereignty, nutrition diversity, or local value addition. Opportunities Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 15 of 20 CGIAR exist to strengthen these principles through community processing, development of sorghum-based food enterprises, and integration of nutrition-sensitive objectives. Overall, the integration of agroecological principles within the sorghum contract farming system in Mbire reveals a landscape of partial but meaningful progress, characterized by strong market connectivity, robust recycling practices, and diversified livelihood strategies that enhance household resilience. These strengths demonstrate clear entry points for advancing agroecological transformation. However, the model remains only weakly aligned with principles that require deliberate ecological design, such as functional biodiversity, natural pest regulation, responsible governance, and nutrition-sensitive production, highlighting significant gaps between current practices and a fully integrated agroecological system. The variability in adoption across farms further underscores the need for more tailored extension support, capacity building, and farmer-led innovation platforms. Strengthening these underdeveloped principles represents a critical opportunity to transition sorghum production from a primarily commercial model toward one that more holistically enhances ecosystem services, equity, and long-term sustainability within Mbire’s multifunctional landscapes. Conclusions In summary, the sorghum contract farming initiative in Mbire District has delivered tangible benefits in yield improvement and market assurance for participating farmers, validating the potential of contract farming to bolster production of climate-resilient crops like sorghum. Farmers gained from a guaranteed buyer, input support, and improved agronomic practices, which translated into better harvests and some positive livelihood outcomes (including enhanced food security and income for assets). The integration of other livelihood activities and sustainable practices (such as manure use and crop diversification with sesame) further strengthens the farming system, making it more robust against climate and market fluctuations. However, the evaluation also uncovered critical challenges that need to be addressed to ensure the long-term success and fairness of the contract farming model. Key issues include the need for greater transparency and trust between farmers and the contracting company (honoring agreed prices and terms, providing clear documentation, and following through insurance claims). Farmer understanding of contracts must be improved through better communication and written agreements on all terms. Furthermore, financial aspects like input cost structure should be revisited so that farmers are not overburdened by debt or unfair deductions. The proposed solutions, ranging from offering flexible input packages and multi-crop contracts to enhance mechanization, provide a roadmap for refining the model. Implementing these will require cooperation and innovation on the part of the contractor and support organizations, but they promise a more equitable and farmer- centric approach that can attract and retain growers in the program. Going forward, strengthening agroecological practices within the contract farming system could yield dual benefits: increasing productivity sustainably and improving farmer satisfaction. For instance, encouraging intercropping or rotation with legumes (instead of prohibiting it with certain herbicides) could improve soil fertility at low cost, and promoting mulching could enhance yields under drought conditions. Such practices, combined with continued support for market access and input, would make the contract scheme not only a commercial success but also an environmentally sustainable and resilient model for the community. In conclusion, the sorghum contract farming model in Mbire has shown promise, but to fully realize its potential, adjustments in implementation and a focus on trust, transparency, and sustainability are crucial. By learning from the first seasons’ experience and integrating the farmers’ feedback, stakeholders can develop a contract farming CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 16 of 20 business model that is profitable, fair, and resilient, benefiting both the agribusiness off-taker and the smallholder farmers who are at its heart. References Kimbi, T.G., Sieber, S., Akpo, E., Magomba, C., Mishili, F., 2024. Key drivers behind contract farming engagement decisions in Tanzania: empowering sorghum farmers. Cogent Soc. Sci. 10, 2396957. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2024.2396957 Ncube, D., 2020. The Importance of Contract Farming to Small-scale Farmers in Africa and the Implications for Policy: A Review Scenario. Open Agric. J. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874331502014010059 Zingwena, T., Debello, M.J., Ngoma, H., Dorcas, M., Chimonyo, V.G.P., Dawes, M., Mushongachiware, R., 2024. Agroecological business model diagnostics and upgrading plan for sorghum contract farming in Mbire District, Zimbabwe. Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 1 of 20 CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. Farmer Experiences from the Sorghum Contract farming model in Zimbabwe CGIAR Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. | Page 2 of 20 Strengthening Producer Organizations in Multifunctional Landscapes. Farmer Experiences from the Sorghum Contract farming model in Zimbabwe