... ·~L i , o; ! ,j . '-~ ' Pi r!@í(~Ji] (.,e y o -, MAR. Z004 r' """"1' y U;¡fiAo c~ r rd, " '.1:" 1 L .... l,;t/ ... ," I;'~j(,!;~ (OLECCJON HISTORKA D.C. Nowell, i["" S¡utherlcmu, editegPy d G Allard F.J. Morales ~n . __ ~~~ .... FU T U R E _ il. f ..... _.::.::..-=t=W'i H A R'>!EST ~"" __ -- 2 FAO/lPGm Technlcal Guldelines for the Safe Movement o. Gennplasm Previously Published Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm nlesc guidelilws describe lechnical procedurcs Iha! minimize the risk of pest introductions with mOVClllent o( germplasm for rcscareh, erop improvernent, plan! brceding, explor,l lion oreonservation. The recommen- da lions in theseguidelines are in tcndcd forgermplasm for rL>Seareh, eOllscrvíl tion and basic p lant brct.>d ing p ro- gramml-'S. Recolllmendations for eommercial eonsign- ments are not Ihe objectivc of these guidelines. Cocoa 1989 Edible Aroids 1989 Musa (1st edition) 1989 Sweet Patato 1989 Yam 1989 legumes 1990 Cassava 1991 Citrus 1991 Grapevine 1991 Vanil1a 1991 Coconul 1993 Sugarcane 1993 Smal1 fruits (Fragaria, Ribes, Rubus. Vaccinium) 1994 Small Grain Temperale Cereals 1995 Musa spp. (2nd edil ion) 1996 Slone Fruits 1996 Eucalyptus spp. 1996 Allium spp. 1997 Potala 1998 Acacia spp. 2002 No. 21 . Pmus spp. , CONTENTS \ lntroduction ............. . . .............................. .. , Guideline update .............................. .. .......................... 6 Technical reoornmendations .................. _ .................. IO l. 5eines supply many valuable prooucls, inc1ud ing lumber, pulpw$t Resca rch lns tjl utc P.O. Box 18 Vantaa 01301 Finland Tel: +358 9 85705410 I:ax: +358 9 8572575 E-mai l: timo.kurkcla@rnctla.fi Dr Hemán L. Pereda Universidad Austral de Chile Facultad de Ciencias Fo restales Ins tituto de Silvicultura Casilla 567, Valdivia Chi le Tcl: +56 63 221740 Fax:+5663UI230 E-mail: hpcredo@valdivia.uca .uach .d 8 FAOJIPGRI Technlcal Guidehnes far the Safe Mavement af Germplasm Dr Zdenka Prochazkova Forestry and Carne Managernent Research Institute Rcsearch Station Uherské Hradiste 686 04 Kunovice Czech Republk Tel: +42632-5491l5 Fax; +42 632-549119 E-maiJ: vulhmvs@bm.pvtnet.ez 1ng. Agr. Cracicla Romero Forest Depa rtment, Fae. Agronomía A v . Garzón 780, Montevideo Uruguay Fax; +598 2 6'19779 Dr Ruixíang Shen Fores! Protection Depl. Beijing Foreslry University Beijing 100083 Pcople's Rcpublic of China Te!: +86 10 6205441 1-2672 Fax: +86 10 62555276 Dr Jyoli K. Sharma Kera la Foresl Research Inslitute Peechi, 680653 Thrissur Oislrict Kerala Sla le, India Tel: +91 487782061 Fax: +91 487782249 Dr JackSulherland Applied Forest Science 4417 Bennetl Rd. R.R. # 1 Victoria, OC Canada V9C 3Y3 Tel: +12504788358 Fax: +1 250 478 2430 E-mail: jsuther®islandncl.com Dr YaSllO Suto Shimane Prefecture Foresl Rescareh Centre Shinji-cho Vatsuka-gun Shimane 699-04 Japan Te!: +81 852660301 Fax: +81852660302 E-ma il : KFCOOO77@niftyserve.or.jp No. 21. Pinus spp. 9 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS • Where possible, pest-risk analysis (PRA) should precede the movement of pJant germplasm. • Refer to the FAO (1996) publicabon Intemational Standards for Phytosanitary Mea- sures (ISPM) No. 2: Guide/illes for Pest Risk Allolysis. • pJant germplasm should be obtained directly from the nearest source of healthy mate- r ial consistent with technical objectives. • Upon receipl, all material should be kept in isolation from other planling material, and planted under conditions condudve for sy,mptom expression, with sufficienl time allowed for potential pests to appear. • Planl germplasm should undergo inspection and testing for presence oí pests, and appropriate treahnenl applied as necessary or requested. • Plant germplasm should nol be released inlo Ihe field unless il is confinned lO be pest- free. If nol ~t free, the germplasm should be treated lO make it pest free, or destroyed logether wlth the pests delected . • Movemenl of seed1ings, seioos aod olher rooled ma terial is not recornmended because this ma terial poses a high risk of traosmitting pests. • AIl packaging material used in ¡he movement of germplasm should be destroyed . 10 FAO/lPGRI Technlcal Guidehnes for \he Safe Movement of Germplasm TECHNICAL RECOMMENDATIONS The seleclion of Ihe melhod of plant germplasm transfer shou ld meel Ihe technic.ll objec- lives of Ihe germplasm use, e.g. eonserva tion, evaluation, genetie improvement, etc. 1. Seed • Always extraet seeds fTOm pine eones prior lo shipment. Never ship pine eones con- taining seed beca use Ihe eones may also harbour potenlially damaging pests. • Do not colled pine eones or seeds for germplasm exchange írom the foresl floor or ani- mal caches. • Seed s torage facilities should be routinely san itizcd using suitable/available disin- festants. • Sced lols inlended for slorage or shiprnent should be fret'of debris, especially soil par- lides and remnanls of pille eones al'1d foliage. Sced should be air-dried lo a moisture conlenl recommended lo maintain long lerm viability. • If chemical lrealmenl oí seed is required prior lo shipment, use malerials and proce- dures thal are currenlly approved and recommended for that purpose. It should be noted Ihat seed trcalmen! forpest control maynotcomplelelr eradicate Ihe target pes!. • Seed trea.lmenl with certain peslicides may affecl secd viabihty. Should seed trealmenl with SUdl pesticides be reqllired, ilshouldbedone irnmediately prior tosowing. Befare Ircalmen! of Ihe seed, it is imporlanl to check lO see whether the pesticides used are regislercd and/or acceptcd in Ihe counlry of deslinalion. • Seeds should be germinated in a slerile subslralc. 2. In vitro material • 111 vitro material should be derived fromhealthy sources. • 111 vi/ro material should be shipped in sealed, transparen! conlainers and visual1y inspected before dispatch and immediately lIpon receipt al destination. ldeally, ill vi/ro material should be indexcd for Ihe presence of syslemic palhogens. lnfected or conl- aminated material shou ld be deslroyed . When explanls mus! be moved, they sholl ld be moved in a sterile medium. 3. Scions • Where seion material is ;needed lo meel germplasm managemenl objectives, a thor- ough pesl risk analysis (PRA) should be made prior lo sh.ipmenl. Appropriate pest management procedures suggesled by Ihe PRA analysis should be followed. No. 2t . Plnus spp. 11 • Tools used for making cultings (secateurs and other cuUiog 1(015) should be cJeaned and surface disiniecled between each cu t, such as by dipping in a 05 -1.0% sodium hypochlorite solution. • Cultings should be ti'lken from Irees Ihal sho\\' )lO vis ible symploms or s igns of pesl aclivity. • If seions received al Ihe final deslination sho\\' visual or laboratory evidence oí pesl aClivity, Ihey should be destroyed immediately. • Any maleria l not requ ired for grafting should be deslroyed. 4. Pollen • Although sorne pine germplasm js moved as poJlen, Ihere is Httle information avaH- able on pesls associaled wilh pollen or praclical experience on how lo conlrol poten- tial pesls associaled with pollen . Allhe very leasl, Ihe pollen should be examined by Iighl nucroscopy for Ihe presence of visible peslS. Contamioated or infccled pollen should be discardcd . INTERNATIONAL DISTRIBUTlON OF GERMPLASM • Movement of gennplasm should comply with the reguli'llory requiremenls ofboth the exporling and receiving counlries. • A descriplion of tests thal have becn performed lo assess Ihe health of Ihe gennpl,"lsm should accompany the shipmeot. • If germplasm is r~xporled, copies of Ihe original documents should accompany Ihe shipmenl, together with additional descriptions of any acHons laken during Iransil thal could af(ee! Ihe health o r quality of Ihe consigmllent. 12 FAOIIPCiRI Technical Guidehnes for the Safe Movement of Gennplasm OISEASES ANO OESCRIPTIONS OF PATHOGENS There sarc identified us ing standa rd taxonomic keys, e.g. Nel- SO[l el al. (1983). Since spore characleristics are important in identification, simply plac- ing diseased tissues in a hum idity chamber lO induce sporulalion may suffice. Traps, such as p ieces o f hosl tissue, ca n " Iso be placed in soil and Ihe FUSlIriuIII subsequently isolated from them. 5ecds suspected o f harbouring fusaria could be platee! directly anta selective media. Increasing ly, mo lecular biology techniques are used for detecting and idcntifying FllsariUIII spp. 16 FAO/IPGRI Teehnlcal Guldellnes for the Safe Movement of Gennplasm Seed o( cold fungus Ca usalorganism Úl/oscypltn flllge/Is (Pers.) Soud .; anamorph: Gellicu/ooe/ldroll pyriforme 5.,11. Hasts Seeds oí matly pine species, including P. resinosa and P. contorta (Eggcr and Paden 1986) and olhcr ronifers, especiaLly spruce (PiCt'tl spp.) (fhomsoll el al. 1983). Ceographical distribution 11lc leleornorph is known from Norlh Arnerica, the United Kingdom and Norway, indi- ca ting tha! the fungus may be prcscnt throughout the orth Tempcrate Zone. ln North America. Ihe tcleomorph releilscs ascospores between March and July. whereas rones {or seed production ate usua lly harvcsted In Ihe aurumn (Pa.denet al. 1978). Significa ncc 111C p..lthogcn was found lo be set."CIboOlC in Callada and Ihe USA. This sccdbomc fungus atlacks and kills sceds under coa!, rnois! rondi- tions (p..lr!icularly seeds on Ihe ground). espe- cia lly during stratification or after sawing in the nll rsery. As an inhabitant of foresl duff, il may kiIJ seedsduring n.ltural regencration o r follow- ing direci seeding. The funglls docs not attack seedlings. Syrnploms 3nd signs 111e rungus oflen fornlS hard, whitish rnycelial rnasscs on seedcoots (Fig. 3). Thc hyphae are com monly present on secds fo llowingstratifica- lion (Fig. 4). Secds fai! lo gcrminate. thdr con- Icnts are mumrnified, bu! nol rotted, and on cut seeds an ¡ndigo pigmen! may occur on the integumcnl (Hg. 5). The !eleomorph, producing Fig . .) hop). Wh.ilish myceiial mass on seed 00.11 of conifer sccds a(foclt,,;! by lhe seed or cold funsus Ülloseyr"" fu/S(·u , . (Dr J. Suthcrl;lIld. Applicd Foresl~. Vicloria) FIg. 4 (bollonl). r.,·lyccHum of CaloscypJlIlfJ/18(1r~ on conifcr s.x..;ls following stralification. (Dr J. Suthcrlnnd. Applit-d FOIl.'SI Scicncc. Vidoria) No. 21. Pinus spp. 17 an apothecium with an orange hymenium, frequently occurs on foresl duff shortly after spring snow melt, especially in motultain fo rests. BioJogyand lransmission The fungus is a natural inhabitanl of forest duff, thus seecllots m osllikely to be contami- nated by the pathogen are those originating from grotuld-mllected eones, such as from squirrel caches or eones picked {rom fogging s lash in contact wjth the foresl floor. Seedlots from non-serotinous species (whose cones open when mature), e.g. P. resinoso, are more likely lo be inJected than are seeclJots of scrotinous species, such as P. COI//or/a, which are seldomjf ever infested. Even 10\\1 levels of seecllot infestalion are important, sincc the ftul- gus spreads during cool, moís! conditions, particuleks al 15-20"<:, d uring which weekly obscrvations with ti slereomicroscope reveats Ihe characleris lic indigo-coloured, verru- cose, right-angle-branchin!;t hYEhae of Ihe fungus growmg from diseased secds (Fig. 6). Sulherland (1987) givesspore and cultural chólractcristicsof Ihe fungus. Fig.. S (Iop). lndigo-oolOl.J.n>d Olycclium of Calo;;cypJrn flllgt."s growing 011 wa tl'( agar. (Dr j . Suthcrland, Applicd f"OrCSt ScicJ'tC('. Victoria) fig.. 6 (bOllom). Mya>ijum of Caloscyp1rn fll/giJIs g rowil1g from an infedoo conifer SCl'd. (Dr J. Su thcrland, App lied Forest Scil'Oa>, Victo r ia) 18 FAOIIPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm Foliage diseases Charcoal rool rol Causa l organism MacropllOlllilla plwseofilla (Tassi) Goid . .Hosts Numerous plant species are altackoo, induding conifers. M osl pine species are suscep- tible. P. radwta (Old 1981; Magnani 1979), P. palula, P. ellioUii (De la Cruz and Hubbell 1975), P. taeda and P. palllstris are severely affected in the USA (Bamard 1994). P. pillasfa, P. IIwricata, P. ponderosa, P. eellinafa, P. brllfia (Reuveni and Madar 1985; Khalisky el al. 1981), P. earibaea and P. la/llberful1Ia Oamaluddin and DadwaI1984) havealso been report- ed as susceptible to M. phaseolilla. Fig. 7, Decayed roots and yellowing of needJes follow ing in fe..:: tion wi th Mncro,IIU)lIIílla IJ/Ulst'OlÍlra. (Dr H.l'crcdo. Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdi\'¡a) No. 21. Pinus spp. 19 Ceographical dis tribution Paot ropical and subtropical. Sorne reports 011 pines inc1ude: Norlh America (Barna rd 1994; Smith 1%9; Seymour and CordelI1979); Israel (Reuveni and Madar 1985); India Uamalllddin and DadwaI1984); lraq (Kha lisy el al. 1981); Auslralia (Old 1981); and Italy (Magnani 1979). Sign ificance Losses oí nursery s tock {rom premature plant dcalh and culling may be high in heavily infested soiJ . Damage foIlowing planting of diseased nursery s tock can be qu.ite high, whereas losses causro by iniection in planlations i5 usually low. Symptoms and signs Infectiol1 occurs Ihrough fine fceder rools ilnd Ihen progresses lo larger roolS, impair- ing water uplake. TIUs process results i.n wilting and yeUowing of foliage (Fig. 7). lnfccled rools decay, bccollle coveroo wilh a dark-brown mycelial crusl, and when advaoced Ihe bark sloughs off. Small, black sclerolia form in decayed rools, especially on Ihe su(- face of Ihe slele. Evenlually Ihe host dies, bul it mily Sllrvive for a prolonged period if infcctioo is ligh!. Biology aod transmission The disease develops from sclerotia in nursery or plantation soil, leading lo ¡nfection and subsequenl1oo1 decay. The palhogen can be introduced inlo new arcas 00 diseased seed lings. Sclerotia, produced 011 decayed roots, may remain dorman t for many years aod caused isease under favourableconditions. The pathogen has bren delected 00 pine seeds (Dr J Sharma, pers. cornm.). Detedion Symptoms and signs indude wilting and yellowing of foliase, and black sclerotia on rools, respect ively. 20 FAOIIPGRI Technlcal Guideltnes fer the Sale Movement of Gennplasm Diplodia shoot blight and re/ated diseases Causalorganism Sphaeropsis sapillea (Fr.) Dyko & Sutton, syo. Díplodia pillea. Hosts Over 33 Pilll/s spp., as well as olher conifers, are susceptible: e.g. Pillll$ IHlllksialla 3nd P. resillOSll (Blodgctt el al. 1997a,b; Blodgett and Stanosz 1997; Stanosz el al. 1997); P. slroblls, P. syfveslris, P. edlllis, P. mugo, P. "igra, P. ponderosa (Slanosz el al. 1996); P. eliottii (Fraedrich el nI. 1994); P. radin tn nlld P. palllln, P. fnedn, P. virginiann (Swart el ni. 1991). Geographical distribution Cosmopolitan. Reported 00 pínes in North America: C rea! L.lkes regioo (Blodgett el ni. 1997); west-, Victoria ) 32 FAO/IPGRJ Technical Guldelines for the Safe Movement ot Gennplasm Stem diseases Pi/eh canker Causalorganism Fllsarilllll slIbgllllimU/s (Wollenw. & Rein k.) Nelson, Tousson & Maras.,s f.sp. piniCarroll el al. (also referred l o as: FSP or F.s. pini), syn. F. mOflififor/ll1! varo subglutilltms. Hosts Many pine species, such as PillllS radiata (Hoover el al. 1996); P. faeda (Carey and Kelly 1994); P. patilla (Viljoen el al. 1995); P. elliottii, P. amarit'llsis, P. halepellsis (CorreU el al. 1992); P. serafina (Kuhlmanand Kade 1985); P. virginialla; P. echillala; P. slroblls (Dwinell el al. 1985) and P. ¡xrlllstris (Runion and Bruck 1988) have been found lo be naturaUy infected with p itch canker, wrule others .1rC susceptible lo artificial inocula lions (McCain el al. 1987). Geographical dis tribution Pitch canker is native to the USA (McCain el ajo 1987), particularly in sou theaslem USA (Dwinell el al. 1985; Runion and Bruck 1988), bul il severe ly attacks pines in California (Correll el al. 1992), particular l}' the Monle rey p ine, w hich is on Ihe verge oí extinclion due lO lrus disease (McCain el al. 1987); it has also been reported from Canada (Hoover et al. 1996), Haiti (Hepting and ROlh 1953), ]apan (Kobayashi and Muramuto 1989), Mex· ico (Santos and Tavor 1991) and South Africa (Viljoen el al. 1994). Fig. 15 {lefll. Pitch Cllnket symptorn on the tnmk of a pifle tre.:>. (Dr T. COlltinho, Uni\'crsity of the Free 5mtc, BJoemfontcin) Fig. 16 (rightl. Pitch sooked acea around a cilnker. (Dr T. COlltinho, Uni\'ersi ty of the FrceStlltc, Bloemfontcin) No. 21 . Pmus spp. 33 Significance Pitch canker isa scrious threal in nurseries, seed orchards, plantationsand natural stands. Sinee lrus pathogen Ihrives lUlder a wide rangeof environmentaleonditions, jt is impor- tan! to p revent its spread inlo new geographieal arcas. Symptoms and signs lOe pathogen infecls bolh vegetative and reprod uetive structures oE p ines al any stage of their development. The charaeleristie symf,oms are resinous, slighlly depressed cankers on the tnlllk or large branehes (Fig. 15 and shool dieback in Ihe upper crown. Large amounts oE piteh accumulale on andbelow Ihe cankers. Wood benealh cankers is deeply pitch soaked (Fig. 16), oflen lo Ihe pith. No swellings or eallus deve10p on or around Ihe canker. These characteristics dístinguish piten canker from other canker dis· eases. This pathogen also infects eones, wh ieh lend to be deformed and smatler than nor- mal (Barrows-J3roaddus 1987) and can cause a scverc aod extens ive roo! discase of seedlings (Blakeslee el al. 1981; Viljoen el al. 1994). Biology and transmission The pathogen is opportunistie, relying on wounds for infection.lnsects such as lps spp., Pityophtllonls spp., Pissodes spp. and COllophtllOruS spp. are reportedly associaled \Vllh piteh canker. Conidia areair-borne and maximum dispers.11 occurs during precipitation and turbuJent air cond itions. The fungus is a lso so11-, waler- and secdbome. Delection In Ihe case of root dise,1se, d irecl isolation on sl.lndard and selective culture media is an effective meansof delection.lmported seeds should a lways be assayed Jor piteh canker. The d istinguishing eharaeteris tics of the fungus are production oE mieroconid ia in fa lse heads on polyphialides (Fig. 17) and absence of chlamydospores. fjg. 17. FIISIlrium subglulinaN$ f. $p. "iNi: production of microconidia in l"alse heads on poIyphial ides. (Dr T. Coutinho, Univcrslty of the Free Stat(', Sloemfontcin) 34 FAOIIPGRI Technlcal Guidelines lor the Safe Movement of Gennplasm Scleroderris canker and shoot blight Causal organism Gremmeniella abieli/ln (L1.~erb .) Morc1et; syn. Sclt.,oderris lngerbcrgii, Crlllllellllla ahietilln; anamorph: BrJ/I1c1lOrstia },mea (P. Karst.) v. HOhn. By fatty acid and sterol profiles, as well as DNA-rnethods, il has l>cen dernonstrated thal G. abietilla cornprises Iwo "a rielies and G. abietinu varo abietilla has three races, one North American, one European and one ]apancse (Asian raee) (Hamelin and R.1.ill997). n,e raceconcept has also l>cendiscusscd by other workers (Harnel in el al. 1993; Müller el nI. 19(4). Hosts In Europe, p. sylveslris (Hansson 1996; Ranta and Nellvonen 1994; Kurkela 1983) and P. lIigra (Slephan el al. 1984) are Ihe Illain hosls. The Norlh Allleric.lfl taCE' occurs main.ly on PimlS [l(/l1ksiQ/u/ and P. contorta (Ha lllelin and RaiI1997), but P. resi/tOSll and P. strolms are also susceptible (Anderson and Mosher 1975; Karlman et al. 1994; Marlinsson 1984; Laflarnme el al. 1996). Other susceplible pine s~ies indude P. cembra (Donaubauer 1984), P. l1i~ra (Rosnev and Pelkov 1990), P. riglda, P. mugo P. wnllicJ¡jQ//(/ and P. pillea (petrini el al. 1990). Sorne Picea, Lnrix, Pselldolsllga, and AI¡ies species may also be affected (Llf1anune el al. 1996; Skilling el al. 1984). Geogra phical dislribulion On PiIlIISSpp., Ihediseaseoccurs in Ihenorthcentral nnd norlheastern USA (O'Brien and MiIler-Weeks 1982; Ski1l ing el al. 1984), in Ontario (Dorworlh and Davis 1983), Quebec (Lachance 1984) and Ihe Maritime Provinces (Magasi 1984) o( Canada, and in northem Europe: e.g. Sweden (Hat1SSOn 1996; Petrini el nI. 1990), F'mland (KaUio el al. 1985; Capretti 1984), Bu lgaria (Rosnev and Petkov 1990), Non"ay (Solbraa and Brunvalne 1994), and Austria (Breitenbach-Dorfer and Cech 1996). In Jaran, Ihe Asian mce affecls Abies sachaliellsis (J-I amelin and Rai ll (97). Significance 111e fungus kills pine seedlings and Iransplanls jn nurseries, and damages plantation trees and older pine stands. Symploms and signs On nu rscry sccd.lings, Ihe first signs oí Ihe disease appear after spring snow melt and indude d rooping and very loosely atklched m~edles al Ihe shool terminal. Laler the api- ca l bl1ds and shool ba rk become necrotic (Fig. 18). With nursery seed lings, discoloration begins al the need le base while thedistal part remains green. Shoot damage on saplings and older trees may occur on Ihe lateral branches and upper crown. In Ihe fores t, stem and branch cankers are common on affected pines (Fig. 19). 111e fungus causes a per- sistent green discoIoralion of Ihe woocl of cankered tissues and infccted shools. No. 21 . PiIlUS spp. 35 Fig. 18ltop Idll. Infcction wirh Gr,'Iu/I"',,il'lIlIlIbit'ti,,1I 011 Scuts pine shoor in cady spring. 1hc rlNdles al'la, Fi.misil Fo1\'Sl Research ¡nSlllu!e, VantM) Fig..l9 ttop righl). A (;mur caused by Grmwlt'Jul'llR o/lit1mo. Woad s urf.ce in lhe e.mm js Iypically ylL'llowish-S~'en. (OrT. !'urkelil., Finnish Forcst Re;.eiurn Ins r;!ulc, Vanl.la) Fig. 20 (righll.l'ycnidia ol G'<"ru/llt'IIi<'i/1l Ilb,(tlllll in a on.. .. year-Qld Smis pi~ ~'I.'\lIing. (Dr T. Kurkel.l. Fimush Fon>st ~Jrch Inslllul .... VJn' .... ) 36 FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Gennplasm Biology and lransmission Conidia or ascospores infect braets of short shoots or bud scalcs. The pathogen remains latent until the next spring, whcn the first symptoms appear and oonidia production begins in pyOlidia (Fig. 20). Conidia are mainly spread by splashing rain, while ascospores, produced from midsummec 10 autumn, in apothecia (Hg. 21), are aie-bome. The disease can be readily spread by infected, symptomless nUr5ery seedlings. Detection Conidia acc spindle-shaped, hyaline, s lightly eurved and 5-celled (common European oc lowland race) oc mostly 8-celled (alpine or northcm race). The fungus can be readily isolated on malt extraet agar, where the myceHum has a greenish oc brownish cast. Typ- kal conidia aee formed on spedfically enriched media (Uotila 1983). Fig. 21. Apothecia of Grtllrll/tll iello obielina on the bark of Scocs pille. (DI" T. Kurkela, Finnish rorest Research lnstitute, Vantaa) No. 21. Pi1JUS spp. 37 Terminal crook disease Causal organism Col1elolric¡'um nculntllm Sirnmonds f. sp_/lillen Dingley & Gilmou{. Hos!s Pillus COI/ torta, P. elliottii, P. pil/aster and P. radinfn (Nair el ni. 1983; Pereda et 11/. 1979). Geographical distribution Australia (Anonymous 1 %7), Chile (Peredoet al. 1979), Kenya (Gibson and Mtmga 1%9), and New Zealand (Nair and Corbin 1981; Vanner and Gilmour 1973). Significance Usuallya nursery disease. Symptomless plants may ca rry the pathogen lo planta tions, where the disease develops and seedlings do not compete agamst wceds. Symptoms and signs C. aculalum aifeets the terminal bud oi nurscry seedlings. Diseased tips become erosie r- shaped, affected tissues lum pink and the stem usually thickens betow the lesion. Dis- eased seed lings are stuoted, often less than half normal size, thicleset, very rigid, and have numerous lateral shoots. Under moist conditions, viscous massesofsalmon-orange spores develop on killed stems and needles. Biology and transmiss ion Primary ¡noculum for infection of seedJings is soilbome, surviving as dark h yphae and chlamydospores on p lant debris, and under iavourableconditions producing new infec- tions the following year. Seedlings older than 9-10 monlhsam resistant. Sporulation and ¡;rowth ill vitro oceur at 17-28°C and 8- 31oC, respectively. Warm temperature favours infection. Detection The palhogen sporulates readily on potato dexlrose agar (PDA), producing a carmine pigment and brightly coloured sporodochia. Conidia are typically cylindrical to fusi/o rm, 9.5-15 11m x 3-4 11m in size. Conidiophores usually form sporodochia or acervuli wilh or without brown setae 25- 64 flm long. Under moist cond itions, viscous masses of salmon--orange spores form on killed stems and needles. 38 FAOIIPGRI Technlcal Guldelines 'or the Safe Movement of Gennplasm Pine rusts Pine twist rust Causa l orga nis m Melampsora pillitorqua (A. Braun) R05tr. causes pine twist rusl. TIlis fungus belongs lo a complex spcOes callese spols, and Ihey are followed by aceia in a few days. Aecia produce an orangc-<:oloured mass ol aeciospores. En rly infeclion usually causes twisling or dying of shoots (Fig. 22). Lale infection wlth aecia l d cvelopmenl causes only wounding of shools. During Ibe following w inler, damaged shoots may brc.lk under Ihe snow load. Biolagy and Iransmissia n The fungus ovcrwinters in Ihe lelial s lale on aspen leaí Hlter. Basidiospores (Hg. 23) are disperscd during moisl weather al Ihe time of pine shool clollgatiot,. Succlllent pinc shoots may be symplomless for up lo one week after in fection. During thal w(.'Ck, Ihe diseasecan be Irm,smitted in seion material. Aecia devclopon Ihe infeclcd shool in 10- 14 days. Aeciospores disperse on aspen lenves, on which several uredial cydes may devcl- op during Ihe summcr. Aeciospores and urediniosporcs disperse in drycondilions. The fungus assumes Ihe telial stale wilh Ihe Dosel of aulumn (KurkcJa 1973). Delection lnfectioll on succulenl shools can be delectcd whcn ycllow Icsions wlth spermogonia appea r on Ihe 5hool 5urface. Fig. 23. 1J..,sid iosport'$ of MrloIIII=r¡. I'iui/(m¡ua. (Dr T. Kurkc)a, Fiooish Fort'St Rt~arch Insli lu te, Vaolaa) ... _____________ -' .... '-__ 40 FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidehnes lar the Sale Movement 01 Gennplasm Stem and needle rusts Causal organisms There are abou l1 5 species of Cronartium and fourof EndocrOllartium "'1USing the most darn- aging s tem rusts o( pine in the world . Pine needle rusts are caused. by Coleosporium spp. S~ies of Peridermium are aedal forms of Crollartium spp., with the exception of P. /Jethe- /jJ Hedgec. & Long ruld a part oí the P.filamelltosul1l complex (Hiratsuka 1995). Hosts and Geographical distribulion The details on hosts and geographical distribution oC Ihe most important rusts are given in Appendix 1. In generaf lenns, stem rusts are caused by fungi o( the genera CrOllarl;um and Endocronartilll/l (anamorph Per;derm;III11), excepl for pine Iwis! rust, which is caused by Melampsora pinitorqua. White pine blister rus!, Cronartillrtl ribicola, is a native lo Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America (APS 1997). In Asia, it has been reported from Pakistan altack- ing Pillus toollichiana (Z1 kaulla ii 1994) and China, on P. koraiensis (Cheng-Dongsheng et al. 1998) and P. takallflsii (Xue-Yu 1995). ln Europe, P. strobus, P. cembra, P. monticola and P. too/Uchianfl are infecled in Rumania (Blada 1989; Borlea 1992). ln Poland, P. cembra, P. rigi- da and P. MI/ksiflna showed different levels of susceptibility Oanczak 1997). The fungus is also important in Finland, Sweden and Haly (Kasanen 1997). In North America, e ribico- la attacks PillllS lambertiana in California (Kinloch and Dulitz 1990), P. fllbicflulis in north- em Jdaho (Tomback et al. 1995) and westem Monlana (Keane and Amo 1993) and P.jlex- ilis in NQ.rth Dakota (Draper and Walla 1993). In Can.1da, white p~e blister rust has becn reported lo affect Phllls StrobllS (L.wallee 1992) and P. /l/onticola (Hunt 1994). Pinyon blister rust is caused by Crollarliu /II occidcnfale and affects mostly PillllS edlllis and P. mOllopllylla in southwestem USA (APS 1997). Fusiform rust, caused by erol/artium q/lercUlmJ f. sp.fusiforme, attacks primarily Pillus taeda and P. elliottii in southeastem USA (APS 1997; Powel.'S et al. 1993). Pmlls c1al/SIl and P. vir- giniana have been reported lo be susceptible to the (proposed) f. sp. virginia/me of C. q/ler- CI/WII in the USA (Powers el al. 1991). Crollartillm qllerclIlIlII f. sp. oonksimlfl causes the pine (Pil/us/xmksia/m) disease known as 'Eastem gall rus!' in eastem North America (APS 1997). Weslem gaU rust of PillllS wnksiatlfl, P. contorta, P. ponderosa, P. nmricata, P. radiata , P. /l/ligO, P. IJigra, P. pinaster and P. sylvestris occurs across northem North America and south lo Vir- ginia in the east, and lo northem Mexico in the west. This disease is caused by Elldocrollnr- tium IlfImessii (anamorph: Per;dermilllllllllrkllcssil) (APS 19(7). In Canada, Weslem gall rust has been observed in Pinus contorta (Kamp 1994) and P. banksiana (Hills et al. 19(4). The 'resin 10p' diseasc is another type oí rusl caused by Cronartilllll jlaccidwn (monocyclic rust Pt."idenn ¡l/m pini, a Iso known as E I/docrO/lflrl; 11m l,im). This disease affects Pinus IUllepm- No. 21. Pinus spp. 41 sis, P. ml/go, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. pillea and P. sylvestris Ihroughoul Europe (APS 1997). The disease has been reported from Russia (Fedulov 1992), Finland (Pappinen and Weissenberg 1994), Scotland (Greig and Sharpe 1991), Italy (Moricca and Ragazzi 1996) and Germany (Majunke el al. 1997), mostly affecting P. sylveslris. Comandra blisler rusl, cause('S sp. (DI' R. Andel'SOlI, USOA Foresl s.;.rvice, Ashcville) Fig. 29 !righil. Ycllow-or~ng .. uredinial pusluJes of C rOlll/rlill1ll qlurCIIllm f. sp. fJ/~iform(' un lhe .,1t"lTIah? hosl QII<'fCIIS sp. (Dr R Anderson, USOA Foresl Scrvkt>, A.~h(. ... ' iIl(·) 44 FAOIlPGRI Tec:hnlcal Guidelines tor the Safe Movement ot Germplasm Biology and transmission As an example, the life cyde of the heteroecious rust Crotlartium ribico/a is as follows: branch and stem infections are initiated by hyphal growth from the needles. One to sev· eral years Jater, in summer through autumn, spennogonia appear on the bark of atEcet· ed tissues and jn the following spring conspicuous aceia are produced on the bark oí cankered, or swollen slems or branches, or both, where spennogonia occurred. Aeciospores infcet alterna le hosts (Ribes spp.), where uredinia are formed . On pines, after aceiospore dispersal, the blister aOOa grndually dry and disappear, and Ihe rust survives as hyphae in fhe bark surrowlding the lesion oc canker, where it sporulates annually. Urediniospores oontinue to be produced on alternate·host leaves and perpetuate and íncrease the rust on these hosts. In late summer through early autumn, urediniospore Fig. 30 (lop). Browll hair-like telia oí Crol!/lrtiulII qUfrcuum í. $p. fusifonne on the lower surface of Quercu5 sp. (Dr R. AndCfSOIl, USDA FOn'St Service, Asheville) Fig.31 (bollom). Telia of CroIJartiunr quernmlll f. sp.fusiformt among uredillial pustules on ¡he lower surface oí Quercus sp. (Dr R. Andeoon. USDA Forest Se .... 'ice, Ashe\'ille) No. 21. Pinus spp. 45 infeetions resull in p roduction o( hair- or horn-like telíal columns, alone or arnong Ihe urediniospores. Basidiospores are liberated fro.m Ihe teliospore horns and dispersed by wind to pi"es, where they infee! young needles. The Iife cyde of autoecious rusts such as ElldocronllrliUII1 IlIIrkncssii and sorne Perider- mil/m spp. is cornpleted on pine, i.e. noaltemate host is inyolved. Howeyer, under sorne conditions, auloecious rusts seern to behave as facu llative heteroecious (Gibbs el 01. 1986; Moricca el al. 1996). Detection Look for Ihe Iypical syrnptolns and signs described aboye. Fig. 32 {leftl . Jack pi lle (PilJI/:> t-l llksiatra) seedlings a ffecled by weslem galJ rusl (ElldocrMllrlirmr /wknessir), heal thy seedling on right. (Dr J. Suthcrlond, Appli .. -d Forest Sden«!'. Victoria) Fig. 33 {rightl . Aecia o f needli! rus t Co/ro:;/",rium sp. on pine ncedl~. (Dr R. Anderson, USDA Forest Service, Asheville) 46 FAOIIPGRI Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement 01 Gennplasm Nematode-caused disease Pine wilt disease Causalorganism BlIrSllpIJelelldms xy/op/lillls (Steillcr & Buhrer) Nickle. Hosts Ma ny PillllS spp., including P. ('cMl/a ln (Uni! and Kinn 1996); P. Ineda (Dwi.nell el nI. 1995); P. dmsiflom (Nakamura et nI. 1995); P. tll1ll/bergii (Jkeda and Ki}'ohara 1995); P. mnssoll- imm, P. slroblls, P. Imfllslris (Suga el al. 1993); P. sylveslris (Sikora and Malek 1991) and other Pin"ceae. Geographical distribution North Americ" (Unil and Kinn 1996; Futai and Su lhcrland 1989), mainland Ch ina (Baojun and Qou li 1989; Zhu and Yao 1992) and Taiwan (Province of China), Japan (Ishida el al. 1993; Fujiha ra 1996), Ko rea (Cho; and Moon 1989). Sjgnificance 1his diseasc kills pine tTecs in foresls and landscape planti ngs. Pil/IIS specics var}' iJl Iheír susceplibility lo the diseevia Ihe feeding wounds. Dead trecsare colonizoo by an arrayof {ungi, particularly blue-stain fungi , u pon which Ihe nematodes feed and multiply. Female bee- tles then ov iposit in dead Irees where Ihei r larvae feed on Ihe s.1 pwood. Pine wilt dis- case is most prevalenl in areas with warm tempcra lures, as Ihe J1cmalodc completes ils Ji{ecycle in 12, 6and 3 daysat 15, 20 and 300 e, respecti vel}'. Long-dis tance spread OCCllrs wilh vedor-infesled logs. Since there may be a lateney period betwcen nematode in fes- tation and symptom exprcssion, germplasm materials sueh as scions eould also eonlain the nematode. Delection Presenecof wilt symplomsand trce mortal ily. Thc nemalodeean beeasily obtaincd from pinewood by using B.,ermann funnels and propagaled in Ihe laboralory 011 eulturf'S of fungi such as Bolrytis cinerea. Fig. 35. Fourth-stagl' la rvóle (daucrl.¡rvac) of BI'ffóJpJrdl'1rdl1"~ x.I/IOfmi/U$ within and oulside uf Irólchc.l of Mllnlldul"ms n/ti nJatIlS. (Dr. Y. Suto,Shirnnne Pwff'Clure Fore:.1 R~arch CenIT(', Y.l tsuh·gun) 48 FAO/IPGRI Technlcal Gurdellnes lor the Sale Movement 01 Gennplasm INSECTS ANO SOME EXAMPLES RELEVANT FOR GERMPLASM MOVEMENT Innumerable insects utilize pines as host material. Many pille feedJng insects can be extremely damagingand many species have been accidentally introduced intoareas where pines do not occur naturally and have becomc important {orest plantation species (e.g. Australia, eastem and southem Africa, New Zealand and South America). There are severa! records oí accidental insect introductions with pine gennplasm. The introduction of the European pine shoot moth, Rltyaciollia lmolialla, into the northeastem USA C.l. 1941 was with pine seedlings imported {rom westem Europe (Miller 1967). This insect has subsequently become a serious pest of yOlmg pine plantations throughout the northeastem and north central USA and adjoining portions of Canada. The introduction ofthis insect intowestem Oregon and Washington (USA)and British Columbia (Canada) Fig. 36. PÍlru5 n:hillata 00f'I(' showing seeds damagcd by seedworms (Cydill tort uta) and overwinlenng larval ga llent'li. (Dr W.M. Cit'lila. Foresl Heallh Managcmenllntcmatiol'lo1l, Fort Collins) No. 21. Pmus spp. 49 during the 1%Os is the result of within-rolUltry movemenl of nurscry stock (Fumiss and CaroUn 1977). lntroduction of the pine woolly adelgid, Pille!ls boem eri, into Kenya and Zimbabwe during the 19605 resttlted from the introduction of in.fested scion material for lree improvement programmes (Varma 1996; Bames el al. 1976). In 1988, a loblolly pine scale, OraceUa acula, was introduced with scion material into southem China from its nal- ural range in thesoutheastem USA (Sun el al. 1996). This insecl is a potcotial trueat to exten- sive areas of exotic pine plantations io soulheastem China. Small insects pose the greatestrisk ofbeing moved to new Ic.x:ations with germplasm, espe- cially members of the insect arder Homoplera (e.g. aphids, mea lybugs, and scales). As they feed on pine shoots, they may be introduced accidentalIy with germplasm in Ihe form of scion malerial. Another graup of pine insects worth mentioning are those attaeking seeds and eones, e.g. Dioryctrin spp. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), EIlCQSma spp. (Lepidoptera: Olelhreutidae), Conoplztl/Oms spp. (Coleoplera: Scolytidae) and Cydia sr p. (= Laspeyresia spp.) (Lepjdoptera: Olethreutidae) (Fi~. 36). Th..is graup of insecls is wel dcx:wnented for North America (Hedlin el al. 1980) bul IS I€SS well known elsewhere. Should sced and rone insccts be introduced inlo oew locations, they eould potcntiaJly devastale pine seed pro- duction. Consequently, il is importanl lo never ship eones conlaining seeds across inter- national boundaries. AJways extract seeds prior to shipment. Examples of insects, which either have been documented lo move, oc have the potential lo move, with pine germplasm, are dcscribed in the following sections. 50 FAO/IPGRI Tecl1nical CuidelJnes for the Safe Movement of Cennplasm Homoplera Giant conifer aphids Causalorganisms Ci"ara spp. (Homoplera : L,chnids, shoots or stcms of p ine and cause shoot dcformity and loss of height growth. Exccss plant juice excrcled by adelgids as honeydew is a favourable med ium lor grow th of black sooty moulds on foliage. shoots and slems. Biology Some species are holocyclic, alternating thei r hoslsbetween Picea and PiIllIS, tocomplete a cyele wilh seven life s tages over two years. Sexual forms on Picea produce galls on branches. Asexual forms on either PillllS or Picen occuron fo liage, shoots or bark (excep- tion: P. flbietitllls on Abies spp.). For other species. e.g. P. boemeri, P. sfrvbi, only Ole asex- ual form is known . Adlll ts ofpinc-infcsting forms arecovered witha conspicuollS white, flocculent w001 (Fig. 41). TIley can be moved with seion ma teriaL Once established, air currents easily spread them. Detection Presence of foliage or s tems covered with white, waxy masses; deformed shOOls; and black sooty mOll ld . 60 FAO/lPGm Technlcal GUldellnes tor the Safe Movement of Gennplasm Lepidoptera Pine shoot moths Causal organism Rhyaciollia spp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Hosts PillllS spp. (summa rized in Appendix 111). Geographical d istribution Europe, Japan, Norlh and Cenlral America (Appendix 111). R. Imo/ül/1a has been inlro- duccd intoNorth AmerÍCa and Argentina,Chileand Uruguay inSouth America (Abgra ll and Soutrenon 1991; 6rowne 1968; Drooz 1985; Kobayashi 1962; Cibrian Tovar 1995; Pu r· niss tlnd Carolin 1977). ):ig. 42. Piml$ /at'dll showing shoot damase by RJlyaciollill [ros/nl/Ul (Nantuckct pille tip moth). (Dr W.M. Ciesl~. Forest Hc~lth MlIl1,.1gE'rncnl Intemlllion.ll, Forl Collins) No. 21. Pinus spp. 61 Significance The European pine shoot moth, R bllolialla Denis and Schiffermüller, is a majar pest a f saplings. young Irces and sho(t-rOlation pine plantings (e.g. pulpwood and Chrislmas trces). This jnsecl has becn inlroduced into North and South America, where it has become very damaging. JI recentLy appeared in Chile and is spreading rapid ly through that country's extensive industrial Pilll/s radiata plan tations (Beeche Cisternas el al. 1992). Nantucket pille tip moth, R. {rIIs lrunu (Comstock), is a pest of young pine plantations in Ihe easlern USA. Subtropjca( pine tip moth. R.. subtropica Miller, has caused serious losses of grafted P. e/Jiottii seions in lree improvemellt prograntmes in Ihe Southeastem USA. Damage Buds and shootsof pine t(cesa re in{ested,causing deformity and reduced height growlh . Infested shools llave rcddisn-brow.n m.>ed les (Fig. 42) and dead, frass-filled buds. afien conta ining larvae and pupae. Biology Adulls have an averagewingspan of about15-20 mm. Forewingsaremarked with rusty. orange-red Or brick red palches. liead, body and appendages are covered with grey seales (Fig. 43). Mature larvac are 9- J2 mm long aud .range in colour from dark red- brown toyellowish with black heads (Fig. 44). Reddish-brownpupae typjcaUy protrude from damaged shoots prior lo adult emergence. Fig. 43. European pine shoot moth (RhyadoniR buoliRna) adult. (Dr D. lanFranro. Universidad Austral de Chile. Valdivia). 62 FAOI1PGRI Technical Guidelines for the Sate Movement of Gennplasm R. IlIIoliono has one generation per year, with moths flying in mid surnmer. Eggs are laid singly or in pairs on buds, needlc sheaths or shoots ofhosls. Yowlg larvae mine in buds, making silk lined tunnels. Surfacc of buds may a lso be covered with silk. Larvae over- winler in buds and shoots. They bccoml' voracious feeders the following spring, mov- ing from bud tobud. Pupationoccurs in mined lissues (Browne 1968). Some Norlh Amer- icd with frass, larvile or pupal'. Fig. 44. European pine shoot moth (RhYllrionia ¡moJi/IIII1) larva in I'illus radiata shoot. (Dr D. LanFranco, Uni,'ersidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia). No. 21. Pinus spp. 63 Coleoptera Pine shoot beetle Ca usalorganism TomiCIIS pilliperdn (L.) (= B/nslopl/ngIl5 pilliperdn (L.) (Colroplera: Scolylidae). Hosts Primarilya pest of P. sy/vestris in Europe (Mazur and Perlinski 1992; Langslrom and Hel- Iquist 1993), northern A.sia (Kolomiets and Bogdanova 1992), and N. America (Czocaj- lo el ni. 1997). Geographical distribution Conifer forests of Europe and northern Asia (Kolomiets and Bogdallova 1992). Recenl- Iy inl roduced i.nlo North America and .now established over a large area of Ibe north cenlral USA and adjoining Ca nada (Haack el ni. 1993). Significance A majar bark hect!e pesl i.n Eu rope, élnd il has subsequently bcen introduced i.nlo Norlh America (Haack and L.1wrence 1995). Damage Adu lts feed in shoots of pine Irccs and olher conife rs prior lo averwintering, ma.ting and reprod uction. 64 FAOIIPGRI Technlcal Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Germplasm Biology and spread Adu lts are small, cylindricaL dark browll lo black beetlcs, 3.5- 5 mm long, w ilh c1ubbed antennCle. There is one generation pcr yea r; Cldulls ny in earl y sp ring. Breeding occurs in the cambium of weCl kened and / o rdyi.ng conifers, stumps, logs or down trces. Emerg- ing adu llS feed in lips and shools of matu re pine trees and olher ronifers prior to mal- ing and rcproduction (matura tion feeding). Overwinlering occurs in thick bark al base of pine trees. Adu llS fceding in shoots could be moved with scion material. Ad ults are s trong nicrs and spread rapidly once esfablished in a )lew area. Detection Shoots with discoloured foliage, resin and boring duSI; adult bectles in shoots (Fig. 45). Fig. 45. Pifle s hoot infestetles in shoot. (Dr B. Lnng:;;trom, Swed is h Uni\'(·n¡ ity o ( Agricu ltu ra] Sciences, G.1r]X'nbcrg,) No. 21. Pinus spp. 65 BIBLlOGRAPHY General references Agrios. C.K. 1988. Pliml PathoJogy. 3rd Edilion. New York, NY: Aeademie Press. Bakshi, B.K. 1976. Forrsl PatllOlogy: PrinápltSlllld Prac- lia in Forcstry. Dehra Dun, India: Forestry Res. 1051. and Colleges. Benyus, j.M. 1983. Gris/mas 1m piSl manual. USOA, Forest Senricc, North Central Forest Experiment Station, Broomal1, Pennsy]vania, and Nor1heast- cm Arca, Stateand Private Forestry, Washington IX, USA. Blanchard, O., &. Tallar, TA 1981. Firld amlLArorato- ry Gllidl' lo Tru Palho/(lgy. 1('\\, York, NI': Aead- emie Press. Cordell,CL. Anderson, R.L, Hoffard, W.H., Landis, 1.0., Smith, R.S., Jr., &. Toko, H.Y. (T€Chnical Coordinators). 1989. F(lfrsl Nursrry Pests. USOA AgricultuIl' Handbook, No. 680. Farr, D.F., Bi!ls, C.F., Chamuris, G.P., & Rossman, A.Y. 1989. FII/Igiol/ Plallls (//Id PJaut Products in Ilre Unilt'd Sta/es. SI I'aul, MN: APS Press. F A0. 1996. 1ntcmalional Standards for Ph~·tosani tary Measures. Referenc!' Standard. Clossary of Phy- tosanitary T erms.1SPM PJlblica/ion, No. 5. Ferreira, FA 1989. PatoJogia j/(lrl'Slal, 1/fiuciplas dot'/!- cas Jlorl'S/alais l/O Brasil. Viscosa MC, Brazi!: SIF. Gibson, lAS. 1979. Diw5l'S ~f FOft'5l Trt'l'5 Widdy Plan/al as Ero/ies jll I/J I' T ropies alld SoJllhem Hf/lli- sp/wrf. Par! JI. TI/I' g/'llllS pinus. Kcw, U.K: Com· monwealth Mycological lnstitute, and Oxford, UK: Commonwealth Forestry Institule. Hawksworth, D.L, Kirk, P.M., Sulton, B.e.. &. Pegler, D.N. 1995. Dictionary of /1It Frwgi. 8th edilion. Wallingford. UK: CAS [nlemaHonaL for [nler- national Myrologicat Instihrte. Hira tsuka, Y. 1987. FOfí'S/ In'/! distases of /h( Prairie ProvíllctS. lrúoml. RepI. NOR-X-286, Northem For. Centre, Canadian For. Serv., Edmonton. Canada. HiTatsuka, Y., 1..1ngos, D.W., &. Crane, J'.E. 1995. A Fi(/d Guid( lo Forí'SlllIs«Isand Dismsts of/lre Prairir Pr'QlIillcf'S. Special Report No. 3. Canadian Forest Servicc, Northem Foreslry Centre, Ho!liday, P. 1990.A DiclionaryifPilm/ Pa//¡aJogy. Cam- bridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Prcss. Ivor)', M.H. 1987. Diseasesaml Disordm of Pilles;/I t/lt· Tropics. CNcrseas Res. Publ., No. 31. Oxford Forestry Institutc, Oxford, UK. Sinclair. \V.A., Lyon, H.H., &. Johnson, W.T. 1993. Dís- east'S ofTm'S ami S}¡rubs.lthaca, NY: Comell Unj- I'ersity Press. Shurtleff. M.C, &. Averre, C.W., 111. '1997. Cfossary of PI~III-PatllOlogirnl T t'fms. SI Paul, MN: APS Press. USDA Forest Service. 1m. A Cuide /oCOlll7mm lusccts mIli DL<.¡'ases if Forest Tr/TS il/ Nor/llttlslem Uni/C/I S/alt'5. Forest Sen'ice, Northc,lstem Area, BroomaU, USA. USDA Forest Servicp. 1985. I/lSl.'Clsand DiseasesofTrm ;/1 Ihe Soulh. 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Fumiss, R.L, & Carolin, V.M. 1971. Wf$lern Fores/ lnsccts. USOA Mise. Pub. 1339. Kobayashi, F. 1962. Noteson Ihe biology of JUryaciolria duplmra simulata Heinrich (Lepidoplera: Eucos- midae). J. Japan Foreslry Sociely, 4;4: 111-115. Miller, W.E. 1967. Thc European pine shoot moth - Erology and conlrol jn lhe Lake Stales. Foresl $ci- me/' M(mograp¡ls, 14: l-n. Coleoptera Pine shoot beetle Czokajlo, D., Wink, KA., Warrcn, J.e., & Tealt>, S.A. 1997. Crowth reduclion of Scots pine, PillllS sylveslris, Cfllala, C. riclwdsonial1a and Geoca ulon lÍl¡idum (= C. livida) Canada, USA COl/1p/onia ptrrgril1a, Myri(Q galt. M. mifera, M. rorolillt'l1sis (anada, USA Ascltpias, CylIDnclmnl, El4plrrasia, /mpalims, Gen/imla, /..o6Si1, Melampyrwn, Nrnlt'Sia, Parol/ia. Ptdicu/aris, Rudlia. SclriZ¡lIIll!us. TnlJlI1eo/ul/1, Vtrbttm VillCt'loxícopsis spp. Europe and Asia (con1.) No, 21. Plnus spp. 85 Pathogcn 3nd common nam e Cnmarflum l'¡mala~lISt B.K. Bakshi syn. Ptridmnium llinwlllytnst dúr pln(' blister rus! Crollar/iwlI qutrrurll/J (Ber!.:..) Miyabe ex: Shirai syn. e w¡'/lrulIl. PeridernlÍ1ml gigarrlflwl, p. IIIrxicmllllll pine-ook gall rust, eastem gan rusl Crollarlium qutrrnum Miyabe ex Shirai f. sp.fusífomlf ~n. C. fusifonllf, Pmdmníum Jusiformt fusifonn rusl CrollilrtiUII1 ribico/a syn. e ribis, Ptridrrmium sIro/JI while pine blister rust Endocronilrlium hilrkness;; (J. P. Moore) Y. Hiralsuka syn. CrOllilrliulIl harhttsSii, Prridtrnrium cmbroidts. P. hilrkntssií westem gal! rusl Hosls P. rox/nlrgJrii and P. amllrimsis 1'. bmlksimlll, P. chihualwalla, P. r/OU:sis cu5pida/a, Europe,N. America, Japiln C~tallé'llspp. Pasamaspp. 'orth AIl1<'rica India Qurrcus spp. USA Grossulnriil spp .• Ribts spp., Ptdicu/aris spp. CaNda, Chin.t, India, lran, Jaran, Korea, Russia" Ta.iwan, USA dutocdous North AmcriCJ (rool. ) 86 FAOIIPGRI Teehnical Guldelines for the Sate Movement of Germplasm Pathogen and common name E"docronarlium ¡Ji"i (Pers.) Y. Hiralsuka, syn. Ptridrrmium pini EudocrOllartium salwanum [mazu and Kakish. Endocrollarlium yall1aocuSt ($;loo and Takahashi) Pad t Hosts P. lralt')lt"lSis, P. mugo, P. nigra, P.l'illilStrr, p. sy/wstris P. pumita P. pUlI1i/a COh>OSPOril/ll1 apIXyniJC(UIII Cooke P. /aeda, P. flliottii, P. píI/uslris Co/l.'lJ1jporium Q:lltrU III (Dietel) Syd. & P. Syd. red pille needle casi CoJrosporiwn bardaytn5e B.K. Bakshi Himalayan pine need.le ruS! (Q/tI)Sporium camptlnlllat Leb. ex Kickx. fil. Colrosporium CTOW!!lIii Curnmins s)'tl. Callou'IJya crowtllii Coll'OSl'0rium ddicalu/um Arth. P. banksimw. P. canlorla, P. COl/lltri. P. dmsif/ora, P. massoniana, P. ponJfTOSIJ, P. pungfns, P. rt'Sinosa, P. sy/V(Slris, P. larda, P. Ihllllbrrgii and P. ylmnanmsls P. griffilhii and P. uwlfichuma P. bank$i411Jl, P. dtlrsijlora. P. griffí.thii, P. )rigra, P. resin05ll, P. '¡glda, P. roxburglrii, P. sy/ves/ris. P./Inmbrrgii P. /lyaca/milt, P. CflIlbroidrs, P. pexilis, P. monlnl/mar p. echi/Ul/a, P. elliottii, P. nigra, P. po/llslris, P. Tesin¡,sQ, P. rigida. P. stTOtina. P. laeda Altemate hosts and geographical dis lribulion autoecious Europe auloeOoU5 JaPJn autoecious Japan AmsonillspP' Korea, Russia. Taiwan, USA Asltr spp., Sclidogospp. Bermuda, Chirtil, Europe, J