1109© The Author(s) 2026 E. M. Ibeagha-Awemu et al. (eds.), African Livestock Genetic Resources and Sustainable Breeding Strategies, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_27 27Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa Samuel E. Aggrey, Richard Osei-Amponsah, Donald R. Kugonza, Raphael A. Mrode, Romdhane Rekaya, and John E. O. Rege Abstract Africa is home to a rich diversity of farm ani- mal genetic resources which play major roles in poverty alleviation, food, and nutritional security as well as helping meet various socio- cultural needs. These valuable animal resources range from the major species such as pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, came- lids, poultry, aquatic resources, and bees to micro-livestock such as guinea fowl, grasscut- ters, and cavies. In line with the Global Plan of Action on Animal Genetic Resources, there is a need for Africa to sustainably manage these resources and help ensure their conservation. Genetic improvement of Africa’s animal resources will be key to breeding resilient, productive, and climate-adaptive animals for the current and future generations. Unfortunately, Africa continues to lag behind in both the institutional and human resource capacity for animal genetic resources manage- ment, including improvement. This chapter presents a brief overview of human resources capacity challenges,  limitations in animal breeding and genetics and subsequently sug- gests how to turn some of the challenges into opportunities. The basic concepts and miscon- ceptions in animal breeding, lessons learned from past capacity-building initiatives, and the need to improve agricultural education in pri- mary and secondary schools are covered. Additionally, we review post-secondary tech- nical education and graduate education in ani- mal breeding. Finally, we highlight the need to embrace good collaborative partnerships to enable Africa to boost its human and institu- S. E. Aggrey Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA R. Osei-Amponsah (*) Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana e-mail: ROsei-Amponsah@ug.edu.gh D. R. Kugonza Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Makerere, Kampala, Uganda R. A. Mrode Department of Animal and Veterinary Science, Scotland Rural College, Scotland, UK International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya R. Rekaya Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA J. E. O. Rege Emerge Centre for Innovation-Africa, Nairobi, Kenya Centre of Excellence for Livestock Innovation and Business, Egerton University, Egerton-Njoro, Kenya http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_27&domain=pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_27#DOI mailto:ROsei-Amponsah@ug.edu.gh 1110 tional capacity in order to take advantage of current and emerging innovative technologies in animal breeding education. Keywords Animal agriculture · Breeding · Genetics · Human resource development 27.1 � Introduction Animal genetic improvement can be viewed in general terms as the science of increasing the genetic merit of the progeny population through the selection and the appropriate mating of genet- ically superior parents. Increasing the genetic merit of animals within a population can lead to significant improvements in traits that are directly or indirectly under selection pressure. Mastering this know-how requires the acquisition of a diverse set of skills and knowledge. This is a multi-level education and training process that integrates knowledge from quantitative genetics, population genetics, statistics, and computer sci- ence. This chapter reviews the current status of animal genetic improvement education in Africa, identifies gaps and deficiencies, and makes rec- ommendations to strengthen the existing capacity. As clearly articulated in the next chapter (Chap. 28, Sect. 28.2), the importance of animal genetic resources (AnGR) to the attainment of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Livestock Development Strategy of Africa cannot be overemphasized. This calls for concerted stakeholder actions to ensure sustainable use, improvement, and con- servation of Africa’s AnGR.  National animal genetic improvement programmes that have a significant and continuous impact on animal pro- duction systems in Africa are, at best, scarce, but generally non-existent. While there are several reasons that explain the lack of successful genetic selection programmes in Africa, this chapter focuses on issues pertaining to animal breeding education. Among other things, the scientific and technical knowledge of locally trained personnel in charge of planning, implementing, and manag- ing farm animal improvement and conservation programmes is abysmal in the whole of Africa. Without adequately trained personnel to develop and implement efficient and sustainable animal improvement programmes, Africa will continue to be a net importer of farm animals and animal products. Continuous importation is not only unsustainable but also provides no path towards long-term animal protein food security and self-sufficiency. 27.2 � Concepts and Misconceptions of Animal Genetic Improvement The definition of ‘animal genetic improvement’ is implicit within the phraseology. It means posi- tive changes in the productivity of animals within a population resulting from genetic selection. Genetic improvement usually applies to a popu- lation; therefore, the change must increase the genetic merit of that particular population. Selection pressure will lead to changes in the phenotype of traits defined within the population, as well as the population’s genetic composition and parameters. To effect genetic improvement, a breeding scheme needs to be in place. The breed- ing scheme may include the following: (i) the breeding goals, (ii) trait measurement and data analysis, (iii) selection and mating, and (iv) genetic evaluation. The purpose of a breeding scheme is to efficiently integrate all components to achieve the optimum genetic gain in the prog- eny generation of a population. The basic under- standing of what genetic improvement is should guide how academic and non-academic educa- tion and training are conducted, and how animal genetic improvement programmes are designed, executed, and evaluated. Classically, genetic improvement relied heavily on quantitative and population genetics. More recently, new fields of knowledge, including molecular genetics, micro- biology, physiology, statistics, bioinformatics, phenomics, and artificial intelligence are playing increasingly important roles in the implementa- S. E. Aggrey et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec2 1111 tion of genetic improvement programmes. To improve the accuracy of genetic predictions, geneticists have sought to include genetic mark- ers and sequence data, microbiome, and metabo- lites information, and they are on the verge of adopting sophisticated analytics tools, including artificial intelligence and machine learning for data analysis. Thus, animal improvement professionals have welcomed inputs from other disciplines to advance their cause. Why then are there misconceptions about ani- mal genetic improvement and why are they important? At the very minimum, one progeny generation is required to evaluate the success or failure of a genetic improvement programme. Reproducing an offspring generation from the parental generation can be synonymous with the term ‘breeding’. It is common that animal geneti- cists in pursuit of livestock improvement are referred to as breeders; the same label (title) is assigned to personnel performing animal mating and reproduction who are also called breeders. The layman does not know the difference. By definition, a breed is a group of organisms with distinctive appearance or characteristics. Whereas beef and dairy producers use predominantly dis- tinct animal breeds, poultry, and pig producers often use breeds, strains, lines, or ecotypes. Comparisons among breeds for different goals are important for decision-making on different levels. However, mere breed, strain, or ecotype comparison for performance or other non-genetic criteria is not breeding and the practitioner of such activity does not meet the general expertise and qualification of a geneticist. The inability to distinguish between the different definitions of ‘breeders’ can be consequential in education and training as well as in the implementation of national animal genetic improvement pro- grammes. According to the Career Explorer web- site, ‘There is no educational requirement for animal breeders—anyone can become a breeder with extensive knowledge of animal breed’ (https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/ animal-breeder/how-to-become/). Such miscon- ception can go a long way to affect the develop- ment of personnel for animal genetic improvement. Under these circumstances, non- geneticists who are erroneously labelled as breeders may be chosen to lead an important genetic improvement programme. Genetic improvement can be simplified to mean the increase in the frequency of favourable alleles and a simultaneous decrease in the fre- quency of unfavourable alleles in the progeny population based on the traits defined in the breeding goal. The education of animal genetic improvement geneticists should encompass the fundamental principles of population genetics, quantitative genetics, computational science, and an understanding of the other critical comple- mentary disciplines such as molecular genetics, statistics, microbiome, metabolomics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. It is impera- tive to understand the core and supportive drivers of modern breeding for the successful implemen- tation of an animal genetic improvement pro- gramme. The study of genetics encompasses several disciplines or specializations. Specializations could include cytogenetics, molecular genetics, molecular ecology, veteri- nary genetics, microbial genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, and evolutionary genetics, to name a few. Thus, scientists educated and trained in the relevant expertise areas within a well-defined structure and by competent per- sonnel should lead genetic improvement pro- grammes on the continent. Genetic improvement is a component of the overall animal production system, and when executed properly should con- tribute positively to the overall performance of farm animals. The genetic gains together with the appropriate management of genetic resources should translate into positive economic, nutri- tional, and environmental impacts for the citizenry. Genetic improvement education should be viewed in the context of the projected future demand and supply of animal protein, the nutri- tional requirements of the population, input resources for animal production, technological changes, genetic diversity (including conserva- tion), climate change, and the appropriate strat- egy for the broader agro-ecological and socio-cultural environments in the continent more generally, and the productions systems of 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/animal-breeder/how-to-become/ https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/animal-breeder/how-to-become/ 1112 the specific countries. The graduates of animal genetic improvement education must be able to balance the aforementioned factors in an eco- nomic, socio-cultural, and environmentally sus- tainable manner. 27.3 � Lessons Learned from Past Capacity Strengthening Initiatives Most institutions in Africa with the mandate for human capacity development in genetic improve- ment of animal resources lack the expertise in all disciplines in breeding and genetics. This has led to limited trained personnel, both in terms of numbers and skills. Even for those trained, the rapid increase in new knowledge and technologi- cal advances in tools for executing animal genetic improvement requires continuous education at all levels of the human capital involved in animal breeding and genetics. Capacity gaps in animal breeding training were recognized on the African continent about 40–50 years ago. As far back as the mid-1980s, the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) would organize training for the national agricultural research scientists (NARS) by hosting about 25–30 scientists at a time train- ing them on the analysis and interpretation of data from on-station and on-farm breeding pro- grammes. ILCA (which was headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) which was headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, merged to form the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in 1995. Since its formation, ILRI has been the primary institution operating at the continental level to support significant programmes producing new MSc and PhD cadre personnel as well as a retool- ing of practising animal breeding/genetics pro- fessionals in both research institutes and universities. ILRI has also worked extensively with both national and international partners in areas of biotechnology for genetic characteriza- tion and improvement in farm animals, and in the process has trained/mentored a number of profes- sionals in these disciplines. Capacity strengthening in animal genetics and breeding was implemented under two main cate- gories: (i) instruction only, and (ii) research and instruction. ILRI alone or in collaboration with African National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) provided training for graduate students, group training courses, and individual short-term training. ILRI also offered fellowships and hosted fellows for part of their graduate research or post- doctoral research. These fellows were mentored with assistance from national and international networks of experts. In addition to pursuing train- ing to meet their specific research goals, these fellows also participated in diverse programmes related to the work of ILRI and hence had signifi- cant international exposure. In addition to ILRI research programmes, the Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (BecA) hosted by ILRI has also contributed significantly to the training of students and scientists at all levels in modern bio- science applications in agricultural sciences, including animal genetics and breeding. ILRI has trained many MSc and PhD students in genetics and breeding, either through fellow- ships or in collaboration with NARS where ILRI hosted the fellows. Since 2004, the BecA-ILRI facility, especially the genomics and bioinfor- matics platforms, has been a major means of delivering high-quality training, including expo- sure to cutting-edge research facilities and meth- odologies (Rege et al. 2021). Many of the BecA fellows subsequently became research leaders in their own institutions, and some have retained intensive collaboration with ILRI and other inter- national institutions. Consequently, many among the current generation of leading livestock genet- icists in ILRI have trained an estimated 200 BSc, over 69 MSc, and more than 66 PhD graduates, as well as over 35 postdoctoral fellows in live- stock genetics and breeding. This training model is one that can be built upon by all stakeholders. In 1999, ILRI and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with funding from the Swedish International Development Agency partnered to provide capacity building on the sus- tainable use of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR). The focus of this partnership was on ‘training the trainers’ to translate concepts and S. E. Aggrey et al. 1113 knowledge to students, researchers, and policy- makers (Ojango et al. 2011). The objectives for the ILRI-SLU project were as follows: (i) strengthen subject knowledge and skills of NARS scientists in teaching, research, and supervision of animal breeding and genetics, (ii) strengthen communication skills of these teachers and researchers, (iii) catalyse curriculum develop- ment, review of course content, and use of new and expanded teaching methods in university education, (iv) develop computer-based training resources relevant for use by NARS teachers and researchers, (v) stimulate contacts and exchange of experiences and ideas among teachers/ researchers from developing countries on research and training of students in animal breed- ing and genetics, and (vi) strengthen the human capacity base for work on animal genetic resources in developing countries. Between 2000 and 2010, the ILRI-SLU project trained 138 uni- versity lecturers and researchers across 46 coun- tries in Africa and Asia in animal breeding and genetics (Ojango et al. 2011). After the training courses, 13 and 5 participants from Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, respectively, enrolled in PhD education in animal breeding and genetics. Despite these efforts by ILRI and those by national governments and other development partners, capacity in animal genetics and breed- ing remains well below what is expected across Africa. While rapid advances in the last decade in molecular and high throughput technologies have made it possible to accelerate farm animal genetic improvement, not much progress can be made in the absence of skilled professionals, especially in the areas of quantitative genetics, statistical genomics, and bioinformatics. Geneticists with the competency to combine classical and modern molecular tools to rapidly improve farm animal productivity and to develop and evaluate improve- ment programmes are a scarce commodity even in better-endowed African countries. Between 2015 and 2017, the BecA-ILRI facility, SRUC, and the University of Georgia organized training in quantitative and molecular genetics for 45 field personnel from 14 countries in Africa. The course was highly received, and the post-course reviews clearly pointed to a significant need for broader and long-term institutionalized training in Africa to build capacity in farm animal genetic genom- ics. In March 2022, the African Animal Breeding Network (AABNet) organized capacity training in Animal Breeding for 49 personnel from 25 countries representing all regions in Africa (West Africa, North Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa). There are other short-term projects with animal breeding training content in Africa. One example was the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna, Austria, which led the training in the design of community-based breeding strategies for indige- nous sheep breeds of smallholders in Ethiopia between 2007 and 2011. Farm animal genetic improvement and con- servation are not the responsibility of only tech- nical personnel. Field technical staff conducting inseminations and collecting phenotypes, as well as laboratory technicians processing biological samples are equally important. Computational specialists and bioinformaticians are equally cru- cial for the successful implementation of animal breeding and conservation programmes. To that end, the ILRI livestock genetics team has trained a large number of support personnel from various Sub-Saharan African institutions. The BecA- ILRI facility has hosted large numbers of NARI scientists and technical associates undertaking non-degree related training in research methods, molecular laboratory skills, and bioinformatics. 27.4 � Education in Animal Breeding—A Case for the Introduction of Agriculture Education in Primary School Curricula Education in Animal breeding has to be viewed in the broader context of Agriculture Education in Africa. Whereas most disciplines including languages that are even foreign to Africa are taught in primary schools, agriculture is offered as part of electives in some High School pro- grammes. Agriculture education has become either an after-thought, an add-on, or the quintes- sential orphan child of STEM (Science, 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa 1114 Technology, Engineering and Mathematics). Yet, it is an established fact that agricultural education contributes to poverty reduction (Wallace 2007). This therefore begs the question, why is agricul- ture not taught in primary schools in Africa? The knowledge needed for agricultural productivity within the socio-cultural environment and agro-ecological regions of Africa should start at the Primary School. Concurrent progression in advanced knowledge in STEM along the educa- tional ladder can only create innovation in agri- culture and shift the focus from agriculture as a means of food production to the broader goal of rural or suburban development. On the contrary, agriculture education is common in elementary, middle, and high school in countries in the global North, including the United States (Phipps et al. 2008). Incorporation of agriculture in elementary schools in rural America significantly spurred achievement and improved other STEM skills (Education 2011). There are relatively few agri- cultural high schools and agricultural colleges in most African countries, however, most universi- ties offer agricultural science degrees with differ- ent specializations, such as Animal Science, Crop Science, Soil Science, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness, and Agricultural Extension. The mere expansion of agricultural education at all educational levels may not improve productivity or alleviate pov- erty. Rather, agricultural education should be backed with a national strategy, infrastructure, both public and private sector investments, and research. Even though Malaysia and Ghana both gained their independence in 1957, per capita income in Malaysia is significantly higher than that of Ghana because of heavy investments in agricultural research and education among other areas (Diao et  al. 2019). The development of incentives for retaining scientific and support personnel will help reduce brain drain. Such a strategy was pursued in Brazil. Public sector investments in the Brazilian Agriculture Research and Development Organization (EMBRAPA) have resulted in significant development of live- stock and poultry in the country. 27.5 � Post-Secondary Technical Education in Animal Breeding Educational training at the post-secondary level is generally very important for a successful and progressive agriculture that is capable of identi- fying bottlenecks and applying the appropriate technological solutions in terms of advances in farming techniques, management, and technolo- gies. The curriculum at this level is therefore aimed at producing individuals who have the practical knowledge of farm management and technical skills to be proficient in addressing practical problems. In terms of animal breeding, some of the essential post-secondary skills needed to support breeding activities include heat detection, design- ing mating plans to avoid inbreeding, understand- ing artificial insemination, understanding the concept of estimated breeding values, and there- fore the skill to select superior animals as parents of the next generation. Data is primary to every farm operation including breeding activities. Therefore, additional skills in the use of ICT to identify individual animals, record the perfor- mance of livestock on the farm, use summary sta- tistics to undertake projections, and advances in reproductive physiology technologies such as the use of oestrus synchronization to produce calves targeted for a particular market or season should be part of such post-secondary training. In general, these courses could be of short duration; for example, one-year duration leading to national certificates or diplomas in specific fields or part-time training for two years and should be very hands-on. These courses could be work-based learning (such as Modern Apprenticeships) and short skills-based training courses in an institute with the appropriate infra- structure. Throughout the course, students should be given the opportunity to develop independent learning skills and teamwork skills using a mix- ture of classroom-based activities and practical hands-on training on modern and progressive farms in local contexts. Several Agricultural col- S. E. Aggrey et al. 1115 leges and Institutes offer a number of these short certificate or diploma courses with some content on activities related to animal breeding. For example, the Technical and Vocational and Training Authority recognizes the Kenyan YMCA College of Agriculture and Technology middle-level agricultural and technology courses that are needed to improve the overall work- force in Agriculture. The Zambia College of Agriculture (https://www.zcamonze.edu.zm/) is another example of colleges in Africa offering certificate and diploma courses in General Agriculture, both on campus and through Distant Learning. The Kita College (https://kitaghana. org/) is also a private agricultural college in Ghana that offers a wide range of technical and vocational training in Agriculture. 27.6 � Graduate Education in Animal Breeding According to the African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AUIBAR) (2019), the perceived complexity of courses in animal breeding and genetics, including biometrics, has been a contributing factor to low interest among potential students. Furthermore, some universi- ties train students in animal breeding and genet- ics only at the PhD Level. These bring to the fore the need to introduce the subject in the early lev- els of university education. The pedagogic approach in training the next generation of ani- mal breeders and geneticists also needs to be fine-tuned by revising the curricula and mode of teaching while making available technological tools including appropriate software to help stu- dents enjoy the uniqueness of animal breeding and genetics. The theory of both population and quantitative genetics hinges on a good under- standing of statistics. Therefore, statistical genet- ics should be introduced to students of agriculture at the undergraduate level. Most graduate students specializing in animal breeding first obtain a bachelor’s degree in Animal Sciences or related degrees. Historically, the overview of genetic improvement is taught at the undergraduate level as Animal Breeding. However, at the graduate level, the specialization is often referred to as Quantitative or Statistical Genetics. Advances in molecular and high throughput technologies in the omics (e.g. sequences, transcriptomes, metabolome, and microbiome, bioinformatics, and artificial intel- ligence have made it possible to accelerate ani- mal genetic improvement. However, in order to harness these technological advances for animal genetic improvement applications, highly skilled professionals and appropriate infrastructure are needed. Geneticists with the competency to com- bine classical and modern molecular and artifi- cial intelligence tools to rapidly improve farm animal productivity and develop and evaluate improvement programmes are a scarce commod- ity even in the most developed countries. Based on current and emerging opportunities and needs, a well-grounded animal breeder should acquire competencies in the following: 1. Population genetics 2. Quantitative genetics 3. Principles of selection and breeding strategies 4. Computational and programming skills, including artificial intelligence and machine learning 5. Setting up a breeding programme 6. Management and analysis of sparse and complete data 7. Understanding family relationships and esti- mation of genetic relationships, inbreeding coefficients in pedigrees 8. Evaluation of breeding programmes for genetic gain, diversity, and environmental impact 9. Understanding of traits and estimation of genetic parameters 10. Dissemination of improved genetics to end-users As alluded to above, African research institu- tions generally lack opportunities for developing skills of both research staff (scientists) and sup- port staff, including technicians and administra- tors. Inadequate numbers of staff with appropriate levels of research skills, science communication, 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa https://www.zcamonze.edu.zm/ https://kitaghana.org/ https://kitaghana.org/ 1116 project and team leadership, and management, coupled with poor staff retention continue to be- devil the continent. Efforts for generation-long skilling and capacity development are generally lacking and instead, there are piecemeal ad-hoc training interventions not institutionalized and connected to clear long-term strategies. Higher degree training overseas that does not provide a conducive environment for return home is not of much help either. It is highly unlikely that an Animal Science department in an African University can offer courses or programmes to cover all the required competency areas given some of the aforemen- tioned limitations. As such, graduate-level ani- mal breeding education in Africa should be re-imagined. Animal breeding education can be achieved through collaboration among institu- tions offering complimentary programmes or through well-designed programmes at regional hubs. Graduate-level education in animal breed- ing in Africa should also consider the heteroge- neous production systems, socio-cultural value of animals, existing and future infrastructure, cli- mate change, and the multipurpose goals for ani- mal production in different countries, production systems, and economic situations. Animal breeding education should explicitly cover the conservation of animal genetic diver- sity. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2007) recommends strengthening training and technology transfer programmes, and information systems for the inventory, characterization, and monitoring of trends and associated risks; sustainable use and development; and conservation, particularly in developing countries and countries with econo- mies in transition. Furthermore, Africa needs to strengthen collaborative networks of researchers, breeders and conservation organizations, and other public, civil, and private actors, within and between countries, for information and knowl- edge exchange for sustainable use, breeding, and conservation. Internships achieve several objectives includ- ing enabling students to obtain hands-on experi- ence. They provide an opportunity for students to implement some of the theoretical concepts they have studied. Internships also provide an oppor- tunity for students and their academic staff super- visors to interact with the stakeholders and potential employers to appreciate practical field situations. A typical internship programme that combines formal instruction and an opportunity to learn less formally, or more informally while serving in a particular community in order to pro- vide a pragmatic and progressive learning experi- ence is termed as ‘service learning’ (Nonnecke et  al. 2015). This kind of internship ought to properly connect traditional classroom experi- ences with out-of-class or ‘real-life’ learning that results from the service. The need for a continen- tal broad-based stakeholder strategy leveraging on higher learning and research institutes (HLRI) as well as networking in livestock breeding and genetic improvement in Africa has also been rec- ommended (Refer to Chap. 28, Sect. 28.3) and must be pursued as a matter of urgency. 27.7 � Retention of Animal Breeding Labour Force Among the many constraints for efficient human and institutional capacity building for animal breeding development (Chap. 28, Sect. 28.3.2) are the lack of skilled personnel, facilities, inap- propriate curricula, and teaching methods, as well as inadequate targeted research and collabo- ration among stakeholders. A recent assessment of African research organizations (universities, public and private research institutions, not-for- profit organizations) by the African Development Bank posited that the major hindrances to reten- tion of animal breeding personnel are insufficient and irregular funding, high staff turnover due to low remuneration, and financial instability. The assessment presents a gloomy picture. Despite numerous efforts to strengthen capacity, knowledge-based institutions in sub-Saharan Africa remain small in size, scope, and influence. If Africa’s capacity is to be transformed, these and other stumbling blocks need to be lifted or else, the status quo will remain for the foresee- able future. There should be an increase in fel- lowships for the labour force to upgrade their S. E. Aggrey et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec10 1117 skills and obtain new tools. Fellowships take dif- ferent forms, however, those that are designed to enable selected graduate students to undertake advanced studies at a university or research insti- tution could be more impactful. Well-designed fellowships enable the strengthening of linkages and collaboration between research institutions and or universities. There are only a few countries with some form of grant system or a national strategy for animal genetics resource improvement. Scientists should be encouraged to take advantage of the current existing and emerging opportunities. For exam- ple, the current seed grant for new African princi- pal investigators under the World Academy of Sciences supports early career returnees with grant support for equipment start-up, consum- ables, degree training, international conferences, industrial link, collaborative mobility, open- access international publication, skills-building workshop, and female scientist-after-child grants. 27.8 � Proposing a Collaborative Animal Genetics and Breeding Graduate Training Model for Africa More often than not, the agricultural education system does not align with the agricultural indus- try. In some cases, agricultural science and ani- mal breeding graduates in particular do not have the skills required by industry. At the same time when skilled graduates are produced, the industry does not have the capacity to hire new graduates. This among many other factors has contributed in part towards graduate unemployment in Africa (Ogege 2011). For animal breeding education to contribute towards development, linkages between the education and local animal industry should be developed. The curricula need to be current and connected to the economy. In addi- tion to the scientific and technical knowledge, the animal breeding entrepreneur and business value chain (opportunities) should be part of the overall curricula. The Institute of Agribusiness Management Nigeria (IAMN) (https://agribusi- nessnigeria.org/) has taken the lead in training organizations, business executives, farmers, agri- culturalists, researchers, consultants, practitio- ners, etc., on the advancement of trade, capacity, and enterprise activities with the agribusiness industry in Nigeria. Animal breeding education should interface with a similar type of agribusi- ness education to spur growth and productivity in the animal industry. Vice Chancellors (VCs), Deans, and Head of Animal Science Departments in Africa should form strong collaborative net- works with all stakeholders in order to obtain support to train relevant Animal Breeders for the African context. National Governments, interna- tional research organizations, and their donor partners should strategically support human and institutional capacity development for improved animal breeding that is able to take advantage of modern innovative approaches to enhance animal genetic resource development and improvement in Africa. In pursuit of context relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability, several collabora- tive models have been tried for MSc and/or PhD training in various fields of agriculture in Africa. Box 27.1 presents a case example—the Collaborative Masters in Agricultural and Applied Economics (MAAE). Given the capacity challenges that continue to constrain animal genetics and breeding and considering the fast pace of developments in disciplines critical for shaping genetic improvement of livestock, Africa needs a well-articulated set of collaboratives involving key institutions in each sub-region of the continent—Eastern, Southern, Central, West and North—building on experiences from these case examples. The trend towards joint degree programmes offers an opportunity for quality training and enhancing collaboration instead of competition (Adipala et al. 2010). Through networking oppor- tunities, universities in countries where political or economic conditions are unfavourable can be kept operating at the highest possible standard. This strategy can also be refined and developed to help participating universities adapt to change and expand their role within the National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES). 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa https://agribusinessnigeria.org/ https://agribusinessnigeria.org/ 1118 Africa can also make good use of its external partnerships particularly to expose Animal Breeding personnel to the current state-of-the-art technologies in the subject. In this regard AU-IBAR and national governments should encourage scientists, particularly students and faculty of animal breeding, to take advantage of opportunities such as the Australia Awards Africa Graduate and Post-Doctoral Training Fellowships (https://www.dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/ australia-awards/australia-awards-scholarships) among others, to train a critical mass of skilled personnel in Animal Breeding and Genetics at all times. In this regard, we need to encourage North-South and South-South collaborative Capacity Building Programmes which have some bias towards animal breeding training and devel- opment in Africa. Best Practices and Lessons Learnt in past and ongoing programmes should be brought to bear on any future capacity-building programmes in Animal Breeding and Genetics Training in Africa. Other such useful capacity- building opportunities for Animal Breeding and Genetics in Africa include: European Master in Animal Breeding and Genetics (EMABG) is a two-year MSc pro- gramme provided by six EU groups/universities and recognized by the EU as an Erasmus Mundus MSc programme. More information on this pro- gramme is available at https://lohmann-breeders. com/de/lohmanninfo/european-master-in- animal-breeding-and-genetics-international- collaboration-to-face-future-needs/; EU-funded Masters (MSc) Scholarships in Animal Breeding and Genetics available for developing country nationals https://www.advance-africa.com/MSc- Scholarships-in-Animal-Breeding-and-Genetics. html. A few Animal Science graduates have already benefited from these programmes but annually many are unsuccessful because of the intense competition. Therefore, we suggest that similar models should be put in place by the African Union for African students to help train many more Animal Breeders and Geneticists for Africa. Finally, and as recommended in Chap. 28 (Sect. 28.3.3) training of stakeholders through people-centred livestock community-based ini- tiatives, training of trainers, and continuous edu- cation should be pursued. In all these, the roles of the AUIBAR, Pan African University, and the African Animal Breeding Network (AABNet) (Chap. 28, Sects. 28.3.4 and 28.3.5) will be cru- cial to ensure sustainable human and institutional capacity development for the improvement of animal genetic resources (AnGR) in Africa. Box 27.1: Collaborative Masters in Agricultural and Applied Economics (MAAE) CMAAE builds the capacity to conduct policy research in agricultural and applied economics to address food security, agri- cultural productivity, and environmental management. The specific programme objectives are to: • Produce graduates in agricultural and applied economics with the knowledge and skills for transforming the agro- food sectors and the rural economies of the region in an environmentally sus- tainable fashion. By doing so, helping to fulfil the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and addressing the per- sistent problems of food insecurity and poverty in Africa. • Upgrade the teaching and research capacity of departments currently in the CMAAE Programme while initiating planning for a system to scale out the programme to other regions of Sub- Saharan Africa. • Strengthen the research network to pro- mote agricultural development. The typical degree programme takes 18–24  months and is divided into three components: (a) Core Courses In the first year of study, students are required to complete eight core courses and one common course in Institutional and Behavioural Economics all scheduled for semesters 1 and 2. S. E. Aggrey et al. https://www.dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/australia-awards/australia-awards-scholarships https://www.dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/australia-awards/australia-awards-scholarships https://lohmann-breeders.com/de/lohmanninfo/european-master-in-animal-breeding-and-genetics-international-collaboration-to-face-future-needs/ https://lohmann-breeders.com/de/lohmanninfo/european-master-in-animal-breeding-and-genetics-international-collaboration-to-face-future-needs/ https://lohmann-breeders.com/de/lohmanninfo/european-master-in-animal-breeding-and-genetics-international-collaboration-to-face-future-needs/ https://lohmann-breeders.com/de/lohmanninfo/european-master-in-animal-breeding-and-genetics-international-collaboration-to-face-future-needs/ https://www.advance-africa.com/MSc-Scholarships-in-Animal-Breeding-and-Genetics.html https://www.advance-africa.com/MSc-Scholarships-in-Animal-Breeding-and-Genetics.html https://www.advance-africa.com/MSc-Scholarships-in-Animal-Breeding-and-Genetics.html https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec11 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec12 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92076-9_28#Sec13 1119 27.9 � Conclusion and Future Opportunities Genetic improvement of Africa’s animal resources will be key to breeding resilient, productive, and climate-adaptive animals for the current and future generations. Unfortunately, Africa continues to lag behind in both the institutional and human resource capacity for animal genetic improve- ment. Scientific and technical knowledge of locally trained personnel in charge of planning, implementing, and managing farm animal improvement and conservation programmes is abysmal in the whole of Africa. Most institutions in Africa with the mandate for human capacity development in genetic improvement of animal resources lack the expertise in all disciplines in breeding and genetics. Livestock Genetic improve- ment requires skilled knowledge in quantitative and population genetics, molecular genetics, microbiology, physiology, statistics, bioinformat- ics, phenomics, and artificial intelligence. Thus, scientists educated and trained in the relevant expertise areas within a well-defined structure and by competent personnel should lead genetic improvement programmes on the continent. At the same time, Africa has relatively few agricultural high schools and agricultural colleges although most universities offer agricultural science degrees with different specializations, such as Animal Science, Crop Science, Soil Science, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Economics, Agribusiness, and Agricultural Extension. Unfortunately, the mere expansion of agricultural education at all educational levels may not improve productivity or alleviate poverty. Semester 1 (13–15  weeks): Microeconomics, Statistics, Mathematics, and Issues in Agricultural and Applied Economics. Semester 2 (13–15 weeks): Production Economics, Econometrics, Macro- economics, Research Methods, Computer Applications, and Institutional and Behavioural Economics. (b) Shared Facility for Specialization and Electives (SFSE) During the third semester covering four months, students from all the accredited universities converge at an SFSE to teach foundation and elective courses by visiting professors drawn from all over the world. Each student is expected to take one foun- dation course in his/her chosen field of spe- cialization from the following four areas: Agribusiness Management, Agricultural and Rural Development, Agricultural Policy Analysis, and Environmental and Natural Resource Management. In addi- tion, students take one common course and at least one elective course in the specific cluster/area of specialization. Over the years, SFSE has been held at the University of Pretoria (UP) in South Africa. This is based on the fact that UP has a world-class facility with an environment that is condu- cive to learning. (c) Thesis Research The last part—thesis research—starts at the SFSE where students present their con- cept notes during weekly seminar sessions. The concepts are developed in line with the four areas of specialization. The students return to their respective accredited univer- sities to write their thesis. All students are required to complete a thesis and undertake an oral examination in their fourth and fifth semesters. Thesis supervision is provided by a designated supervisor, with the assis- tance of an additional thesis committee member, from within or outside the home university, providing specialized guidance. Upon completion, all CMAAE gradu- ates are encouraged to belong to an alumni association. To facilitate the association, the Programme runs an interactive alumni page which provides alumni with an oppor- tunity to network and exchange ideas and experiences in their career path. https://aer- cafrica.org/training/cmaae/ 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa https://aercafrica.org/training/cmaae/ https://aercafrica.org/training/cmaae/ 1120 Implementation of the Global Plan of Action on Animal Genetic Resources for sustainable food security, wealth creation, and enhanced live- lihoods will require the training of a critical mass of Animal Geneticists. We therefore recommend that agricultural education should be backed with a national strategy, infrastructure, both public and private sector investments, and research. To fully characterize, sustainably use, and conserve its animal genetic resources, Africa needs to pri- oritize human and institutional capacity building in line with emerging and innovative technolo- gies. On its part, ILRI has trained an estimated 200 BSc, over 69 MSc, and more than 66 PhD graduates, as well as over 35 postdoctoral fellows in livestock genetics and breeding. Stakeholders led by the AUIBAR, and national governments should follow this good example and collaborate with appropriate institutions such as the Centre of Tropical Livestock Genetics and Research (CTLGH) to help train the next generation of livestock geneticists. Fellowships designed to enable selected graduate students to undertake advanced studies at a university or research insti- tution could be more impactful. Well-designed fellowships will also strengthen linkages and col- laboration between research institutions and or universities. In this regard, we need to encourage North-South and South-South collaborative Capacity Building Programmes which have some bias towards animal breeding training and devel- opment in Africa. Through networking opportu- nities, universities in countries where political or economic conditions are unfavourable can be kept operating at the highest possible standard. Models such as the European Master in Animal Breeding and Genetics (EMABG) and Erasmus Mundus MSc programme can be replicated in Africa based on international collaboration between countries. Finally, there is a need for the African Union to encourage and motivate national governments on the need to provide sustainable funding schemes for Graduate Programmes in Agriculture in general and Animal Breeding and Genetics in particular. References Adipala E, Blackie M, Woomer P (2010) Enhancing graduate training and agricultural research in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa: lessons and new thrusts. In: Second RUFORUM Biennial meeting 20–24 September 2010, Entebbe, Uganda AUIBAR (2019) State of farm animal genetic resources in Africa. 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Aggrey et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198845348.001.0001 https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198845348.001.0001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2006.08.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2006.08.003 1121 Open Access   This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. 27  Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 27: Capacity Strengthening of Animal Genetic Improvement Education in Africa 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Concepts and Misconceptions of Animal Genetic Improvement 27.3 Lessons Learned from Past Capacity Strengthening Initiatives 27.4 Education in Animal Breeding—A Case for the Introduction of Agriculture Education in Primary School Curricula 27.5 Post-Secondary Technical Education in Animal Breeding 27.6 Graduate Education in Animal Breeding 27.7 Retention of Animal Breeding Labour Force 27.8 Proposing a Collaborative Animal Genetics and Breeding Graduate Training Model for Africa 27.9 Conclusion and Future Opportunities References