Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in the commune of Sio, Mopti Region, Mali Boubacar El Hadji Ba, Consultant and Baba Ba, International Livestock Research Institute August 2025 CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 INTRODUCTION 5 CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION 6 METHODOLOGY 8 FINDINGS 10 Natural resource dynamics over the past decade and their impacts on livelihoods 10 Changing dynamics in agricultural production systems, transformations and tensions 10 CASES OF FARMER‑HERDER CONFLICTS IN SIO 13 Land tenure conflict in Sare‑Mala 14 Description of the conflict 14 Stages of the Sare‑Mala conflict according to different narratives 14 Stakeholders Involved in the resolution of the Sare‑Mala conflict 16 The conflict over the Soufouroulaye‑Diaby plot 18 Description of the conflict 18 Actors Involved in conflict resolution efforts 19 Conflict over the use of the rice‑growing area in Sare‑Mala 23 Description of the conflict 23 From an agropastoral conflict to an intercommunal conflict 24 Conflict resolution efforts and involved stakeholders 25 History and socio‑spatial evolution of the conflict area 26 Conflict over the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor 28 Description of the conflict 28 Actors involved in the conflict resolution efforts 29 Reconfiguration of transhumance routes due to insecurity 31 Conflict over the pastoral route of Kona, Neima, and Sare‑Mala 32 Description of conflict 32 Stakeholders engaged in the conflict resolution process 34 Land conflict in the scheme area of Kouna 36 Conflict description 36 From a land dispute to a spiral of security‑driven violence 37 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CFA West African Franc (1 CFA = 0.0018 USD at the time of writing) CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research FGD Focus group discussions KII Key informant interviews ODEM � Office de Développement de l’Elevage (Livestock Development and Management Office) ORM Office du Riz de Mopti SPARC Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent Crises LOCAL INITIATIVES TO EASE FAMERS‑HERDERS CONFLICTS 39 CROSS‑CUTTING ANALYSIS 40 Agropastoral conflicts: multiple, intertwined causes in shifting contexts 40 Between the race for resources and the erosion of trust 41 Disruption of livelihood resources and threats to local food systems 41 CONCLUDING REMARKS 43 REFERENCES 44 page 4 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Agriculture, livestock, and fishing are the main sources of livelihood for communities in the commune of Sio, Mopti Region Mali. Agricultural practices in the area take two primary forms: irrigated farming in developed rice plots and rainfed agriculture focused on dry cereal crops. Livestock production is predominantly pastoral, although it is often integrated with farming through agropastoral systems. This study, conducted in the commune of Sio in the Mopti Region of Central Mali aimed to analyze the root causes and impacts of conflicts between farmers and herders. This agropastoral territory is significantly affected by profound socio‑spatial transformations, increasing pressure on natural resources exacerbated by climate variability and a persistent security crisis. The interaction of these factors has intensified rivalries among rural communities, undermined social cohesion, weakened livelihoods, and posed serious threats to food security. The research combined semi‑structured interviews and focus group discussions with a wide range of community members. The findings highlight the interconnection of structural, circumstantial, and climatic factors that fuel a complex conflict dynamic, with profound consequences for local production systems and livelihoods in a context marked by multiple vulnerabilities. Far from being mere resource‑use tensions, these conflicts are rooted in historical, institutional, economic, and security dynamics. The erosion of local governance, the limited effectiveness of state justice, the weakening of traditional authorities, and the growing influence of armed groups all contribute to maintaining a climate of conflict that cannot be resolved through purely technical or ad hoc solutions. The perceptions gathered reveal a deep loss of trust in public institutions and a growing concern over the parallel regulatory systems imposed by armed groups. In this fragmented landscape, customary arrangements have proven inadequate for managing current complexities, while formal mechanisms struggle to gain legitimacy. This situation calls for a rethinking of regulatory frameworks, promoting hybrid approaches grounded in local realities but supported by the state and development partners. The commune of Sio thus illustrates the major challenges of shared natural resource governance in the Sahel. To prevent further escalation of violence, it is essential to restore inclusive spaces for dialogue, strengthen local institutions, and support the resilience of both farming and pastoral systems. Such an approach, based on recognizing the interdependence between actors and resources, is key to restoring social cohesion and promoting sustainable solutions to farmer‑herder conflicts. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 5 INTRODUCTION The rural commune of Sio, located in the Inner Niger Delta, constitutes a prime agropastoral and fisheries zone. It is characterized by significant ecological diversity and the coexistence of production systems that are both complementary and competitive (Trianneau 2013, 2015; Brondeau 2013). The commune’s territory comprises two ecologically distinct but closely interconnected zones. The first is a flooded zone, where rice cultivation in irrigated plots, recession farming outside of irrigated areas, rainfed crops, fishing, and bourgoutières strategic pasturelands predominate. The second is a non‑flooded zone, mainly used for pastoral grazing and rainfed crops such as millet, sorghum, maize, and groundnuts. In both areas, pastoral activities play a central role in the local socioeconomic organization. Livestock mobility follows seasonal patterns and resource availability, reflecting the strong dependence of production systems on hydrological and climatic variability (Coulibaly et al. 2017). Historically, the complementarities between agriculture, livestock, and fisheries shaped an economic and social model based on the joint and balanced use of natural resources (De Noray 2003). Herd mobility, rice farming in irrigated plots, and fishing practices were governed by customary arrangements and shared community norms, providing a form of local regulation (Deridder 2021). However, this interdependence, once a source of stability, has become increasingly fragile. The coexistence of multiple production systems is now a driver of tensions, amid growing pressure on resources (Bagayoko et al. 2017; Abdoulaye et al. 2022). Competition over access to land, grazing routes, and fishing areas fuels latent conflicts and threatens social cohesion (De Noray 2003). Tensions are particularly acute around irrigated rice developments, which often encroach on traditional pastoral tracks and transhumance corridors (Benjaminsen et al. 2009). Such encroachments reduce the space available for pastoralism, both in flooded and non‑flooded zones and have led to an increasing number of incidents involving livestock straying into cultivated fields. page 6 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR CONTEXT AND JUSTIFICATION Mali has been experiencing a multidimensional crisis for over a decade, characterized by the gradual collapse of governance and the proliferation of armed groups (Gaye 2017). This situation, compounded by deteriorating climatic conditions, has profoundly affected the dynamics of access to and control over natural resources, as well as the relationships among their various users (Mbaye and Signé 2022). In Mopti Region, these vulnerabilities converge to create a climate of chronic insecurity, where competition over land, water, and pasture has become particularly intense (Konaté 2019; Kodio 2023). The Inner Niger Delta represents a strategic space where multiple production systems agricultural, pastoral, fisheries, and forestry coexist alongside a diversity of spatial practices (Barrière and Barrière 2002). Historically, this coexistence was governed by seasonal complementarities and customary arrangements. Today, the growing scarcity of natural resources exacerbated by climate variability and demographic pressures fuels tensions and frictions among communities (Brown and al. 2022; Djohy and Crane 2024). These rivalries are increasingly exploited by armed groups, including jihadist movements and self‑defence militias, which use local resource‑based disputes as entry points to consolidate their presence and extend their influence in rural areas (Benjaminsen et al. 2019). The rural commune of Sio, which is the focus of this study, is a compelling illustration of these complex dynamics. Characterized by significant ethnic diversity and a strong dependence on agropastoral and fisheries activities, the commune has faced a deteriorating security situation since 2012. This crisis has resulted in massive population displacements, the weakening of customary authorities, and an escalation of violence. These developments have profoundly affected relations between farmers and herders, contributing to social fragmentation and an erosion of trust between communities. It is within this fragile and unstable context that the present case study is situated. Conducted under what was then CGIAR Research Initiative on Fragility, Conflict, and Migration, the CGIAR Science Program on Food Frontiers and Security, and the Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent Crises (SPARC) programme and is part of a broader research effort involving three case studies in Sudan, Nigeria, and Mali. The overarching objective is to analyze and understand the root causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in the Mopti Region and to assess their impacts on food production systems, social cohesion, and the livelihoods of local communities. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 7 The specific objectives are as follows: • To identify the structural causes, triggering factors, and dynamics fuelling these tensions; • To analyze the consequences of these conflicts on agricultural and pastoral production systems, as well as household food security; • To explore the roles, challenges, and coping strategies of women and youth in relation to these conflicts. By achieving these objectives, this study aims to contribute to ongoing discussions on peaceful coexistence, food security, and the governance of natural resources in fragile contexts. page 8 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR METHODOLOGY This study is based on a qualitative approach aimed at gathering in‑depth information from local communities. Particular attention was given to the diversity of participant profiles, including farmers, herders, and other key informants involved at various levels in the conflicts or in conflict resolution efforts. The methodology combined focus group discussions (FGDs) with key informant interviews (KIIs), allowing for the triangulation of perspectives, identification of underlying factors, and detailed analysis of conflict dynamics. The research process was structured into two main phases: a preparatory phase and an operational phase. The preparatory phase involved organizing information sessions with local administrative authorities, traditional leaders, community representatives, and local organizations. These meetings helped present the study’s objectives, gain stakeholder buy‑in, and coordinate the mobilization of participants. A local outreach agent was appointed to disseminate information at least 48 hours before the start of activities, facilitating effective participation. The data collection phase took place between January and February 2025 in the village of Soufouroulaye, the administrative centre of Sio Commune. In total, twelve FGDs and eight KIIs were conducted. The FGDs were organized separately to encourage open dialogue and account for specific sensitivities. They included farmers, herders, young individuals from both groups, members of management committees for irrigated fields, dryland areas, and pastoral spaces, as well as women engaged in agricultural and pastoral activities. Each group typically comprised six participants, with one or two additional individuals occasionally joining, which enriched the diversity of perspectives and experiences gathered. Participants were selected based on their direct or indirect experience with the conflicts, long‑term residence in the area, knowledge of local issues, and membership in key socioeconomic groups. Over half the individuals consulted had been directly involved in disputes or in mediation initiatives. The individual interviews targeted agricultural and pastoral producers, village chiefs, elected officials, customary and religious leaders, technical agents from state services, members of land commissions, and representatives of professional agricultural, pastoral, and fisheries organizations. These interviews complemented the group discussions and provided deeper insights into local social relations and the governance of natural resources. Due to the unstable security context, all discussions were held at the town hall, a location considered safe and conducive to confidential exchanges by both participants and local authorities. The field team was composed of five members: two facilitators (including one woman), two note‑takers, and one supervisor. All team members had received prior training on data collection tools, principles of neutrality, and compliance with ethical protocols. Discussions were conducted in Fulfulde and Bamanakan, the two most widely spoken languages in the study area. Consent forms were systematically translated to ensure clear understanding and informed consent from participants. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 9 All exchanges were carefully documented in real time. After each session, a summary report was drafted to assess the quality of the data collected, ensure adherence to sampling criteria, and support the ongoing analysis of information. This approach enabled the collection of rich narratives and viewpoints essential for understanding the root causes of the conflicts, their triggers, and their effects on social cohesion and livelihoods. To present preliminary results, a rigorous coding system was implemented to ensure the confidentiality of participant responses and the protection of their identities. This method also ensures the traceability and reliability of the information. Data from the FGDs are referenced using the prefix “FGD,” followed by initials representing the relevant socio‑professional group and the subgroup consulted (e.g., FGD_GS_S). Similarly, data from the KIIs are referenced using the prefix “KII,” followed by the initials of the interviewee’s group affiliation and the first letter of their first name (e.g., KII_IG_P). This system not only safeguards respondent anonymity but also ensures the consistency and credibility of the qualitative data analysis. page 10 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR FINDINGS NATURAL RESOURCE DYNAMICS OVER THE PAST DECADE AND THEIR IMPACTS ON LIVELIHOODS The natural resources in Sio primarily consist of farmland, grazing areas, forests, and fisheries. These resources form the foundation of local livelihoods (KII_FM_B). However, in recent years, they have come under increasing pressure due to socio‑spatial transformations that are reshaping agricultural, pastoral, and fishing activities. Agropastoral dynamics are undergoing profound changes driven by a combination of factors (KII_FM_B). Demographic pressure is reducing land availability and intensifying competition among user groups, while ecosystem degradation exacerbated by climate change is weakening production systems. In addition, land tenure arrangements, which are often informal, have become a recurring source of disputes. The gradual erosion of traditional mechanisms for managing and regulating access to natural resources has further diminished local capacities to prevent and resolve conflicts. Together, these changes are reshaping social relations and deepening rivalries over the access to and control of natural resources. CHANGING DYNAMICS IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS, TRANSFORMATIONS AND TENSIONS The evolution of agricultural dynamics in Sio is strongly influenced by three main factors: modes of land access, increasing demand for farmland, and climatic variability particularly declining rainfall and weakened flood pulses (FGD_FM_M; FGD_PM_M). Relationships between land users are often shaped by the ways in which land is accessed. In some cases, land is granted through informal loans that can extend over one or two generations (FGD_MF_M; KII_MF_N). While these customary arrangements have long sustained local livelihoods, they have become a source of tension when original landowners seek to reclaim their land. Conflicts tend to escalate when the descendants of long‑established land users are unaware that they are not the legitimate owners of the land (FGD_PM_Y). Having grown up and farmed these plots, they often resist attempts by rightful owners to reclaim them. This lack of awareness or rejection of ownership rights has led to recurring land disputes, many of which end up in local courts (KII_FGD_PM_M). “The shortage of cultivable land is a serious issue for us. For years, we’ve been farming the same plots our fathers used. Today, they are no longer sufficient to feed our growing families. My household of eight has only 0.5 hectares. Our extended family, comprising ten households, was allocated just five hectares by the Mopti Rice Office in 1999. At the time, there were about ten of us. Now we are 80. How can that possibly be enough? Every year, we submit requests for more land, but they go unanswered.” (KII_MF_M) CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 11 “The variability of rainfall and the insufficient floodwaters are impoverishing us day by day. Agriculture and fishing are our main activities. Forty years ago, the riverbed extended all the way to the edge of the village. The river never dried up, and we had fish all year round. Today, it has receded, and there are no longer enough fish.” (KII_MF_B) In Sio, pastoral activities play a central role in both the livelihoods of local communities and the spatial organization of the territory (FGD_PM_M). The areas historically dedicated to livestock rearing and transhumance are characterized by ecological diversity closely tied to the hydrological regime of the Inner Niger Delta (FGD_PM_M). These spaces include permanent grazing areas in the non‑flooded zones, seasonal pastures in flooded zones such as bourgoutières, depressions, and alluvial plains as well as pastoral corridors connecting campsites to water points and grazing areas (FGD_PM_O). However, these resources are now undergoing significant transformations due to the combined effects of climate variability, land pressure, and insecurity. Changes in flood regimes have reduced the surface area of inundated zones, leading to a substantial decline in forage productivity. Recurrent droughts, soil degradation, and the scarcity of water points have weakened pastoral systems and increased herders’ vulnerability to climatic shocks (FGD_PM_M). At the same time, the progressive expansion of agricultural land driven by demographic growth and the arrival of new farmers has intensified competition over land access. This dynamic fuels tensions between pastoral lineages with historical usage rights and farmers from the non‑flooded zones or nearby localities who increasingly encroach on traditional grazing routes. The cultivation of formerly pastoral lands and the development of rice‑growing schemes have disrupted land‑use balances and caused recurrent frictions. These transformations are reshaping social relations and fuelling increasingly frequent conflicts between sedentary agricultural groups such as the Malinké, Soninké, Bozo, Dogon, and Bambara and indigenous pastoralist families, particularly the Peulh Ferrobé and their allies (FGD_PM_M). Competition is not limited to interactions between farmers and herders; it also exists among different categories of herders. On one side, native pastoralists from the flooded zones seek to maintain their priority access to ancestral grazing areas, particularly the bourgoutières. On the other, transhumant herders from the Séno Region are increasingly moving towards the delta in search of pasture during the dry season. These seasonal movements, once governed by tacit agreements and customary arrangements, are now perceived as intrusions (FGD_PM_O). They have sparked disputes over access to bourgoutières, usage fees, management of water points, and occupation of resting areas (FGD_PM_M). page 12 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR Lastly, the deterioration of the security context has profoundly affected pastoral practices. The presence of armed groups and self‑defence militias in formerly grazed areas has forced many herders, especially younger ones, to modify or restrict their transhumance routes to avoid attacks, cattle theft, violence, and the risk of forced recruitment into armed groups. This situation increases pressure on local resources and raises the likelihood of livestock encroaching on cultivated fields (FGD_FM_M). Moreover, the pervasive fear and erosion of trust limit herders’ ability to negotiate access to resources with other users, leading to growing isolation and the fragmentation of the pastoral system. “Rural areas used for farming and pastoralism used to be very large in the past, and there were not as many people. Some household heads could have two or even three fields. Today, the available space has significantly decreased due to family growth and the arrival of outsiders. Even the village chief ’s clan, which used to allocate land, now finds itself facing a shortage.” (KII_MF_H) CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 13 CASES OF FARMER‑HERDER CONFLICTS IN SIO Nine cases of conflict involving various natural resource users were identified during the discussions. These fall into the following categories: • Land tenure conflicts, arising from competing claims over agricultural and pastoral spaces; • Conflicts over transhumance corridors and pastoral tracks, whose access is increasingly restricted or obstructed; • Disputes around agricultural schemes, particularly village irrigation perimeters that encroach upon traditional grazing routes; • Conflicts between farmers and fishers, concerning the use of ponds and wetlands where farming and fishing activities overlap. Of these, six directly oppose farmers and herders, highlighting the frequency and intensity of tensions related to access, management, and the sharing of natural resources in the area. We will consider these farmer‑herder conflicts separately; however they all interact and intertwine at various levels, often feeding off each other or influencing each other, resulting in a highly complex, constantly changing, unsettled and insecure situation. These cases underscore the complexity of local dynamics. They reveal how the entanglement of land tenure issues, socio‑spatial changes, environmental transformations, persistent insecurity, and the weakening of customary authorities sustains a climate of tension among natural resource users. This situation, as observed in Sio, reflects broader conflict dynamics throughout the Inner Niger Delta. Figure 1: Location of the case study conflicts in Sio Commune Case study conflicts: 1. Land tenure conflict in Sare‑Mala 2. Conflict over the Soufouroulaye‑Diaby plot 3. Conflict over the use of rice‑growing areas in Sare‑Mala 4. Conflict over Hamdallaye livestock route 5. Conflict over the Kouna, Neima and Sare‑Mala livestock routes 6. Land conflict in the scheme area of Kouna 6 4 2 5 3 2 4 56 1 page 14 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR LAND TENURE CONFLICT IN SARE‑MALA Description of the conflict The area of the conflict is located east of the village of Sare‑Mala within Sio Commune. For several years, Malinké farmers, Rimaïbé, and Fulani herders had coexisted peacefully on this land based on informal social consensus. However, the expansion of new rice irrigation schemes initiated by the Mopti Rice Development Office (Office Riz de Mopti‑ORM) disrupted local dynamics and introduced tensions. These new developments encroached on land traditionally reserved for grazing and animal resting areas (FGD_PM_O). Consequently, farmers began cultivating the area (FDG‑MF‑M). This version of events is contested by some farmers, who offered a different narrative. According to them, herders deliberately waited until harvest time to let their animals into the fields, causing significant damage to rice paddies and to dryland and flood‑recession crops (KII_MF_N). These incidents heightened tensions and sometimes led to confrontations between farmers whose fields had been damaged and the herders guarding livestock. The herders, for their part, accused the farmers of violating long‑standing customary agreements regarding the shared use of grazing areas and transhumance corridors (FGD_BS_M). The situation became further complicated when Fulani herders from the Ferobé lineage (Sidibé family) based in Manaco, a neighbouring commune, asserted ownership over the contested land in Sare‑Mala. Although the grazing area is located in Sio, the Ferobé claimed exclusive traditional rights to the land as early as 1999. The Rimaïbé, however, contested this narrative, rejecting the Ferobé’s claims to exclusive land ownership in the area of Kounari. The conflict escalated into violence, resulting in the death of two individuals and injury to four others, all members of the Ferobé pastoralist community of Kounari. These clashes prompted state intervention, beginning with security forces, followed by the gendarmerie, who seized the harvested crops, and eventually judicial proceedings. In the end, the court ruled in favour of the farmers. Figure 2 illustrates the spatial distribution of resources and activities in the Sare‑Mala conflict zone. Agricultural lands are concentrated around the village of Mandio, while grazing areas are located to the east, accessible via a designated livestock corridor. In Kouna, land use is more fragmented, with agricultural fields spread across the east, south, and north of the village, and pastures situated to the west. Grazing areas are also found to the east of Soufouroulaye, with rice fields in the western section and some millet plots to the north and south. This spatial arrangement reflects the often‑delicate coexistence between agricultural and pastoral uses, contributing to heightened competition over natural resources. Stages of the Sare‑Mala conflict according to different narratives The conflict originated in 1992, at the beginning of the rainy season. After discussions with the village chief of Sare‑Mala regarding the organization of the farming season, the farmers began preparing and cultivating plots located in the disputed area. Despite objections raised by the herders, agricultural activities continued. At harvest time, the farmers transported their produce to the village, as was customary. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 15 Figure 2: Spatial distribution of agropastoral resources in the conflict area Source: Output from participatory mapping exercise in Sio Commune, January 2025. However, this stage triggered an attempt by the herders to seize the harvest, which escalated into a violent clash resulting in the death of two members of the Ferobé family and several injuries. Following this tragic incident, the farmers participated in initial reconciliation efforts encouraged by the authorities and other local actors. As the situation persisted, the dispute was brought before the judiciary. At the conclusion of the legal proceedings, the court convicted the farmers for the loss of human lives but partially upheld their right to cultivate the disputed lands (FGD‑FM‑O). The conflict is rooted in the failure to respect community rules governing the use of this traditionally pastoral area by farmers. At the onset of the rainy season in 1992, the herders said that they warned the farmers against any agricultural activity in the area without formal agreement, emphasizing that it was part of designated grazing land. Despite these objections, the farmers proceeded with cultivation and disregarded repeated warnings. At harvest time, the herders attempted to prevent the transport of agricultural products out of the area, viewing it as a clear violation of their rights. This intervention escalated into a particularly violent confrontation, resulting in the deaths of two herders and several injuries among their group. Following these events, the herders agreed to the reconciliation efforts initiated by local and community authorities. They also brought the matter to court in an effort to have their exclusive customary ownership of the land officially recognized. The ruling confirmed their rights, while also condemning the farmers for the violence and deaths that occurred during the incident (FGD‑PM‑O). Soufouroulaye Saré Mala Mandio Kouna Millet and sorghum Rice growing Livestock routes Grazing area Conflict zone page 16 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR It should be noted that the causes and drivers that exacerbated this conflict vary depending on the narrative. From the perspective of the herders, some of the actors involved in the negotiation process, particularly communal authorities, administrative officials, representatives of technical services, and the judiciary, contributed to escalating tensions instead of resolving them (KII‑BD‑M). According to them, each of these authorities benefited from the agricultural fields by receiving portions of the harvest as allocations. The lack of foresight, corruption, and the politicization of the conflict also appeared to deepen the divide. From the farmers’ point of view, the arguments put forward by the herders during the conflict were misleading. They argued that the herders’ claims relied solely on historical references to pastoral dominance over an agricultural community. According to the farmers, there was an underlying attempt to control and subjugate them through a feudal mindset that disregarded their long‑standing rights to land use and the long history of coexistence between the communities (KII‑BD‑M). Stakeholders Involved in the resolution of the Sare‑Mala conflict Farmers and herders were the primary actors directly involved in the land conflict. Efforts to resolve the dispute brought together various categories of stakeholders. Local elected officials, customary and traditional leaders, the municipal conflict management committee, the village chief of Konna, and a traditional Fulani leader from the village of Sare‑Mala were all engaged in seeking a solution to this dispute. Figure 3: Actors Involved in the conflict and the nature of their relationships Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. One-way Reciprocal Strengthened Conflictual Witness Justice Key Informant Herders Village Chief of Kouna Village Chief of Saré-Mala Municipal Council of Sio Communal Conflict Committee Farmers Herders CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 17 Figure 3 illustrates the main actors involved in managing conflicts between farmers and herders in the Kouna and Sare‑Mala area, as well as the nature of their relationships. It highlights a complex network of formal and informal interactions involving traditional authorities (village chiefs), institutional bodies (municipality, judiciary, communal conflict resolution committee), witnesses, and representatives of the concerned socio‑professional groups. The strengthened relationships, particularly between the village chief of Kouna, the witnesses, and the judiciary, reflect the central role these actors play in conflict resolution. However, the figure also shows the prevalence of conflictual relationships between farmers and herders, fuelled by competing resource use and a loss of mutual trust. Reciprocal ties appear fragile, while simple or one‑way relationships dominate the interactions, revealing a lack of structured dialogue and effective coordination among actors. This configuration underscores the coexistence of traditional and administrative influences, as well as the limitations of current mediation mechanisms, which struggle to contain the escalation of tensions surrounding natural resources Figure 4: Land tenure conflict tree of Konna and Sare‑Mala Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune January 2025. Land disputes Competing land claims by multiple communities Lack of consultation and communication Development of rice irrigation schemes Disagreement over land-use allocation Climate change Erosion of social relationships Loss of human life Household separationViolence, loss of livestock and farmland page 18 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR The land dispute in Sare‑Mala originates from competing claims over land use, the development of rice irrigation schemes carried out without prior consultation, and a lack of communication between communities. These root causes have fuelled a conflict over land appropriation. The dispute has had severe consequences, including the breakdown of social cohesion, violence resulting in the loss of livestock and cultivated land, household separations, and loss of human life; factors that have deeply undermined community resilience and cohesion. THE CONFLICT OVER THE SOUFOUROULAYE‑DIABY PLOT Description of the conflict This conflict involved the village communities of Soufouroulaye and Orgno, which are predominantly agricultural, and those of Ségue and Horé‑Guendé, which are primarily pastoral. The disputed area was originally an agricultural plain jointly cultivated by these communities. However, following the major droughts that struck the Sahel in the 1970s, the area gradually became unsuitable for farming, forcing agricultural communities to relocate to other plains converted into rice irrigation schemes by the Mopti Rice Office (ORM). In 1984, following consultations between the ORM and the Mopti Livestock Development Office (ODEM), the area was officially reclassified as a pastoral zone due to significant soil degradation (FGD‑MF‑M). At the time, the farmers agreed to the reclassification of the area, given the substantial decline in agricultural yields (FGD‑PM‑M). This decision was respected for nearly two decades. However, in 2002, low rainfall resulted in an insufficient flood in the large neighbouring rice field, making it difficult to cultivate. In contrast, the pastoral zone received better flooding that year and appeared suitable for rice farming. Farmers then decided to reoccupy the pastoral area for rice cultivation. This decision was strongly contested by herders, who referred to the official designation of the area as a pastoral zone, as defined by ODEM. Despite their opposition, the farmers began plowing the land. In response, the herders reported the matter to the sub‑prefect of the Sio Commune, who deployed law enforcement. Several farmers were arrested and detained for about a month (FGD‑PM‑M). Nevertheless, despite the prohibition, farmers continued to cultivate the rice field, sometimes clandestinely (FGD‑PM‑O). A second wave of arrests followed, including that of the village chief of Orgno, a symbolic figure among the region’s farmers. To prevent further escalation, and on the recommendation of legislative authorities, the Mopti court was petitioned to settle the dispute definitively. The case reached its conclusion in 2009, when the Mopti High Court ruled in favour of the farmers. Despite appeals lodged by the herders and an initial favourable ruling from the appellate court, the Supreme Court ultimately upheld the decision in favour of the farmers (FGD‑FM‑M). CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 19 Figure 5: Spatial distribution of resources and activities in the conflict area Source: Output from participatory mapping exercise in Sio Commune, January 2025. The village of Ségue is located between the two main areas: one designated for pastoral use and the other for rice cultivation. Following the court ruling, the pastoral area was progressively converted into agricultural land. It was subdivided into plots and sold for 35,000 CFA francs per hectare to farmers from other localities, to the detriment of Ségue’s residents despite their direct proximity to this strategic area. The local population did not receive any land allocation, either for farming or for grazing purposes (FGD‑PM‑M). Beyond this situation, perceived as discriminatory, the conversion of the area for agricultural use has severely affected both the daily and seasonal mobility of livestock. Cattle corridors, particularly for dairy cows, as well as return routes from transhumance, were significantly disrupted. This has further intensified tensions and sparked new conflicts between farmers and herders over the use of the Soufouroulaye‑Diaby rice‑growing area. According to some accounts, revenues from the land sales may even have been used to influence judicial decisions (FGD‑PM‑M). Actors Involved in conflict resolution efforts The process of resolving the land conflict surrounding the pastoral block of Soufouroulaye‑Diaby mobilized a range of actors, each playing a crucial role in the management and outcome of the dispute. The following were involved: • Herders from the villages of Ségue and Horé‑Guendé, who were the main stakeholders advocating for the continued pastoral use of the area; • Farmers from Soufouroulaye and Orgno, who claimed the right to use the land for agricultural purposes; • Local administration, represented by the sub‑prefect of Sio, responsible for mediation and the enforcement of administrative decisions; • Judicial authorities called on to rule on the legality of the claims and provide a definitive resolution; • Legislative representatives, including members of parliament from Djenné and Mopti, who intervened to facilitate the search for a compromise; Out-of-scheme cultivation areaBoussoura Segué Diaby Soufouroulaye Large rice-growing area Disputed area page 20 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR • Women and youth from the affected communities, who were directly impacted by the tensions and actively participated in reconciliation efforts. Among the key mediators was a member of parliament from the Mopti Region, approached by the farmers to support a negotiated resolution. The discussions led to a compromise in which the herders agreed to withdraw their legal complaint, on the condition that the farmers cease all cultivation of the disputed area. This agreement enabled the release of those who had been detained. Following mediation, the public prosecutor issued an official decision prohibiting any form of land use by either party, with the aim of defusing tensions and preventing further confrontations. Table 1: Summary of the key stages of the conflict over the Soufouroulaye‑Diaby pastoral area PERIODS / DATES MAJOR EVENTS 1984 Cessation of rice cultivation due to soil degradation; official conversion of the area into a pastoral zone following consultation between ORM and ODEM 2002 Severe drought Limited cultivation in traditional rice paddies Clandestine resumption of plowing in the pastoral zone by farmers (night plowing) 2004–2005 Prohibition of cultivation in the pastoral zone by technical and judicial authorities Arrest of certain agricultural leaders from Soufouroulaye for violating the decision 2005–2006 Filing of a complaint and initiation of legal proceedings at the court of first instance, followed by an appeal before the Court of Appeal 2007–2008 Continuation of the judicial proceedings on appeal 2009 Supreme Court ruling issued in favour of the farmers of Soufouroulaye 2010 Resumption of community and political mediation efforts to ease tensions. 2011 Conciliation attempt by political mediators, including members of parliament and hometown associations based in Bamako Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Table 1 outlines the evolution of this latent conflict, which eventually became structural through eight major stages. In 1984, the area, originally designated for agriculture, was officially converted into a pastoral zone due to soil degradation, with the consent of all stakeholders. This initial compromise was broken in 2002, during a period of acute drought, when some farmers clandestinely resumed cultivation, taking advantage of favourable flooding in the pastoral area. This marked the onset of active conflict. Between 2004 and 2006, the dispute escalated: administrative and judicial authorities banned cultivation, arrests were made, and the conflict entered the legal system. A lengthy legal process unfolded, culminating in a 2009 ruling by the Supreme Court in favour of the farmers. Despite this legal victory, social tensions persisted. From 2010 to 2011, community‑based and political mediation efforts were initiated to restore peace, involving elected officials and hometown associations. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 21 This chronology illustrates a conflict where climatic, legal, and sociopolitical dynamics are deeply intertwined, exposing the limitations of institutional regulation in addressing the complexity of local land‑related issues. Figure 6: Actors involved in the conflict and the nature of their relationship Source: Output from group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Figure 6 illustrates the complexity of interactions among the actors involved in the attempts to resolve the conflict surrounding the pastoral perimeter of Soufouroulaye‑Diaby. A strong polarization is evident between farmers and herders, characterized by an ongoing direct conflictual relationship. Each party relies on distinct support networks. The farmers are backed by their lawyer, local administration, the judiciary, and members of parliament, while the herders also engage their own legal counsel and maintain interactions with the deputies, ODEM in Mopti), and ORM. In this conflict, the deputies played a central mediating role by maintaining connections with all parties, although some of these ties are considered weak or occasional. ODEM and ORM also appear as key technical institutions, each indirectly supporting one of the parties based on their sectoral mandates (livestock and agriculture, respectively). The judiciary and local administration are shown to be more strongly aligned with the farmers, reflecting a high degree of judicial involvement in the conflict, an aspect often perceived by herders as a form of institutional bias. This mapping of relationships also reveals partisan alignments and a strategic interplay of actors structured around alliances, tensions, and often competing or contested institutional interventions. Farmers Herders ODEMORM Administration Herders’ lawyers Farmers’ lawyer Justice Members of Parliament One-way Reciprocal Weak/mediation Conflictual page 22 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR Figure 7: Conflict tree for the pastoral perimeter of Soufouroulaye‑Diaby Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. The conflict tree illustrates the various dimensions of the dispute by identifying the central issue, the root causes, and the consequences for the communities involved. Among the underlying causes are the degradation of natural resources and the failure of authorities to enforce decisions. The lack of communication between resource users and the unilateral decision by farmers to reoccupy the pastoral area are also identified as immediate triggers of the conflict. The conflict surrounding the pastoral zone of Soufouroulaye‑Diaby has had significant repercussions on both herders and farmers. The herders from Ségue were forced to extend their transhumance routes, travelling long distances to reach grazing areas, which increased the cost of livestock maintenance due to the scarcity of forage (FGD‑PF‑M). These tensions also led to the progressive exclusion of pastoralists from grazing lands, fuelling a sense of injustice and contributing to the rural exodus of young herders. The conflict has further resulted in widespread impoverishment of communities, mainly due to the financial burden of legal proceedings, including lawyers’ fees and collective contributions made by women from pastoralist households (FGD‑PM‑M). Disagreements over the use of a space (pastoral block) Non-compliance with decisions by the famers Poor land management Degradation of natural resources Decision to cultivate the pastoral block by farmers Lack of communication Exclusion of herders High cost of livestock maintenance Forced displacement of livestock over long distances Loss of financial resources Rural exodus of young herders CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 23 On the farmers’ side, several individuals were imprisoned following their involvement in the disputes (KII‑MS‑M). Beyond the economic losses, this conflict has deeply affected social cohesion between communities, undermining long‑standing ties of solidarity and coexistence in the area. CONFLICT OVER THE USE OF THE RICE‑GROWING AREA IN SARE‑MALA Description of the conflict This conflict involved communities in the village of Sare‑Mala, particularly farmers and herders, who shared the same space located within the perimeter of the rice‑growing area. In this area, farmers cultivated rice, while herders grazed their livestock along well‑established pastoral routes, which had existed since the time of the Dina of Sékou Amadou, the Fulani theocratic empire of Macina. In 1972, the Malian government developed these lands as part of the Mopti Rice Operation, later known as the Office du Riz de Mopti (ORM). Village management committees were established to oversee the governance and use of the rice paddies. However, these developments encroached on pastoral areas and resulted in the obstruction of two transhumance routes crossing the Sare‑Mala territory: the “Kouna– Neima–Sare‑Mala” route and the “Perempé‑Hamdallaye‑DjiguinéSaré‑Mala” route. These paths were traditionally used by herders during seasonal migration or to access the bourgoutières vital for dry‑season grazing. Figure 8: Spatial distribution of activities in the conflict area Source: Output from participatory mapping exercise in Sio Commune, January 2025. Perempé Soufouroulaye Saré-Mala Neïma Kouna Hamdallaye Saré-Mala irrigated rice scheme National road Villages Pastoral corridors Millet fields Blocked pastoral corridors page 24 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR The outbreak of the conflict stems from the herders’ reaction to the rice development schemes, which obstructed traditional pastoral routes. Frustrated by these changes and no longer recognizing the boundaries of newly cultivated plots, the herders resumed use of their traditional transhumance paths. This led to herds passing through agricultural zones, causing the destruction of rice crops and fuelling tensions with farmers. As the disputes escalated, mediation efforts were launched to find a compromise between the parties. In this context, beginning in 2018, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) intervened at the request of local stakeholders to demarcate the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor, facilitating the return of herds from transhumance. However, this initiative was quickly contested by farmers due to disagreements over the corridor’s layout. According to several accounts, the demarcation was carried out without consulting agricultural representatives, which sparked feelings of exclusion and accusations of bias in favour of the herders. Farmers denounced a breach of consultation principles, claiming that some of the markers encroached on cultivated plots belonging to several farming families (FGD‑FM‑M; FGD‑FM‑Y). Despite several reconciliation attempts, no satisfactory agreement was reached. Consequently, MINUSMA removed the installed markers and withdrew from the conflict resolution process. From an agropastoral conflict to an intercommunal conflict With the rise of insecurity in the region, the initially agropastoral conflict around the Sare‑Mala rice paddy has gradually evolved into an intercommunal conflict involving additional actors. Some herders, particularly certain Jowro, frustrated by the ongoing obstruction of pastoral corridors and the failure of mediation efforts, aligned themselves with jihadist armed groups in an attempt to reclaim traditional access to their grazing routes (FGD‑FM‑M). At the same time, self‑defence militias known as “Donzo” were established in several predominantly agricultural villages to protect communities and defend local resources. Checkpoints were installed in Somadougou (a predominantly Bambara village at the entrance to the commune of Sio) and in Konna (a village with a majority Malinké population), marking a symbolic demarcation line between the two camps (FGD‑PM‑M). In retaliation, jihadist groups locally referred to as “bush men” and operating from nearby forests banned the populations of Somadougou and Konna from cultivating land in the Sare‑Mala rice paddy. This was in response to their alleged collaboration with the Donzo militias. The ban affected approximately 600 hectares of paddy, rendering it inaccessible to these villages since 2018 (FGD‑FF‑M). These armed groups also forcibly displaced several villages, including Djiguiné, Déra, and Mankamou. However, following negotiations led by administrative and communal authorities, most of these villages, except Djiguiné, were allowed to return to their original locations. Despite these agreements, fault lines remain. Farmers are perceived as being aligned with the Donzo militias, while herders are often associated with jihadist groups. This polarization of allegiances continues to foster an atmosphere of distrust and widespread tension, making any attempt at reconciliation particularly complex. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 25 Conflict resolution efforts and involved stakeholders Attempts to resolve the conflict mobilized a wide range of actors, reflecting the scale of the efforts deployed to promote dialogue and prevent violence. Among the stakeholders involved were: • The management committee of the rice paddy; • The president of the Chamber of Agriculture, who is also the village chief of Kouna; • The sub‑prefect of Sio; • The municipal council of Sio; • Youth representatives; • The Coordination of Women’s Associations and NGOs (CAFO); • The chiefs of the affected villages; • Locally recognized resource persons known for their moral authority; • Religious leaders, particularly imams; • The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue; • The Regional Reconciliation Support Team; and • The agreement follow‑up committee. Each of these actors contributed, in their own capacity, to mediation efforts, the strengthening of intercommunity dialogue, and the search for sustainable solutions to the conflict. Figure 9: Actors in the conflict and their relationships Farmers Farmers’ lawyers Herders Women herders Mediators ODEMORM Administration Herders’ lawyers Young hearders Justice Members of Parliament One-way Reciprocal Weak/mediation Conflictual Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune January 2025 page 26 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR Figure 9 highlights the complexity of the relational fabric, where divergent interests, historical frustrations, and the fragility of regulatory mechanisms intersect. It reveals significant polarization between farmers and herders, each mobilizing different networks of support lawyers, institutions, and political representatives. Members of parliament play a strategic role in arbitration and conflict resolution efforts, although their involvement appears asymmetrical across the parties. ODEM and ORM serve as institutional reference points, yet their positions do not seem balanced or perceived as neutral. Ultimately, the fragility of the mediation process underscores the difficulty of building a consensual framework for dialogue. Table 2: Key historical milestones of the conflict surrounding the Sare‑Mala rice scheme PERIODS / DATES MAJOR EVENTS 15th Century  Conquest of the area by the Ferrobé families from Kounari 1818 – 1864 Organization and settlement of pastoral communities under the Dina code 1972 Creation of the Mopti Rice Operation, later transformed into the Mopti Rice Authority (ORM) 2018 Involvement of MINUSMA in the demarcation of transhumance corridors, suspension of the project due to disagreements between farmers and herders, and MINUSMA’s subsequent withdrawal from conflict resolution efforts 2022 Involvement of jihadist groups and local Donzo militias in the conflict Recent period (without specific date) Management of the agricultural paddy by terrorist armed groups and prohibition of access by farmers from Somadougou and Konna Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Table 2 highlights the historical evolution of land dynamics and conflicts in the Sare‑Mala area, from the conquest by the Ferrobé families to the recent militarization of the territory. Initially characterized by customary management of pastoral areas reinforced under the Dina of Macina, the region underwent a profound transformation with state‑led agricultural developments beginning in the 1970s. The attempt to reconcile agricultural and pastoral uses through the demarcation of livestock corridors met with persistent local tensions. From 2022 onward, these conflicts have been exacerbated by the intervention of armed groups that now impose their authority over agricultural lands, further deepening community divisions and undermining mediation efforts. The territory has thus become the stage for a de facto land governance system exercised by non‑state armed actors. History and socio‑spatial evolution of the conflict area The Sare‑Mala rice‑growing area was a multi‑use zone, shared between cultivated land exploited by farmers from several villages in the commune of Sio and pastureland used by herders from villages such as Guirowel and Manako (in the commune of Kounari), as well as Horé‑Guendé (in the commune of Socoura). According to several historical sources, these communities hold long‑standing customary rights over the agro‑sylvo‑pastoral lands located in the commune of Sio. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 27 Coexistence between farmers and herders was governed by customary rules inherited from the Dina of Macina (1818–1864), which structured the use of natural resources. This balance was gradually disrupted beginning in the 1970s with the development of the rice‑growing area by the Malian state through the Office du Riz de Mopti (ORM). Successive development projects throughout the 1980s and 1990s led to the obstruction of several transhumance corridors and livestock routes in the Sare‑Mala area, which is part of the leydi of Kounari, a recognized socio‑ecological pastoral territory. Since 2012, the security crisis has profoundly reshaped access and land management dynamics in this region. Marked by the emergence of radical armed groups on one side and Donzo self‑defence militias on the other, this crisis has imposed new power dynamics over the control of resources. The violence and abuses committed by these armed actors have resulted in significant loss of life in multiple villages. Many women have lost husbands, fathers, or sons (FGD‑FF‑M; FGD‑PF‑M), leaving them as sole heads of their households. As a result, there has been a significant increase in the number of widows facing heightened economic and social insecurity, while also assuming new responsibilities within their communities (FGD‑FF‑M; FGD‑PF‑M). Figure 10: Conflict tree for the Sare‑Mala rice‑growing area Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Land conflict over a collectively used area Desire for dominance by armed groups Poor land management Prohibition of rice field exploitation by certain groups Obstruction of livestock routes by rice fields Revival of past disputes Erosion of the social fabric Loss of human lives Breakdown of social links Physical violence Crisis of trust and mistrust Poverty and famine Insecurity in the commune Kidnapping of individuals Loss of financial resources page 28 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR CONFLICT OVER THE HAMDALLAYE PASTORAL CORRIDOR Description of the conflict The Hamdallaye pastoral corridor dates back to the era of the Dina, a period that marked the first territorial structuring of the Inner Niger Delta by Fulani pastoralists. This organization was based on their social systems, lifestyles, and reliance on recession pastures (FGD_PM_M). Historically, the corridor served as a major transhumance route for herds originating from the villages of Girowel (Dabbodji), Mamourou (Wouromakadji), Horé‑Guendé (Kombankodji), and Sare‑Mala (Soulalinkodji). It crossed the villages of Perempé, Hamdallaye, Djiguiné, and Sare‑Mala, all located in the commune of Sio (FGD‑PM‑M). Over time, the corridor became increasingly obstructed by the expansion of cultivated lands, impeding herd mobility during seasonal transhumance. This obstruction led to rising tensions between farmers and herders, particularly following the destruction of crops in a field in the village of Koloni by returning livestock. The conflict escalated when a herder physically assaulted the mayor of Sio during a mediation attempt initiated by the latter. This incident significantly heightened tensions among stakeholders. A new conciliation initiative in 2001 led to consultations involving farmers, herders, municipal authorities, and technical services to demarcate and formalize the corridor. It was agreed that a 50‑metre buffer would be maintained on either side of the track. However, during the marking process, an additional encroachment of 10 metres into a cultivated field beyond the agreed 50 metres rekindled tensions. Farmers condemned this overreach as a breach of prior agreements. In response, a second meeting was convened at the Sio town hall later that year, bringing together all parties involved (KII‑FM‑H). The meeting served to ease tensions and reaffirm the agreed boundaries. The corridor markers were reinstalled according to the established standards. Figure 11: Extent of the pastoral corridor at the heart of the conflict Main corridor Secondary corridor Cereal fields Villages Saré-Mala Djiguiné Hamdallaye Youré Soufouroulaye Kigna Segué Ngouli Ouddi Saré-Guida Perempé Source: Output from participatory mapping exercise in Sio Commune, January 2025. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 29 Despite these efforts, stakeholder commitment remains partial. Some farmers continue to reject the current delineation, claiming that their land interests were not adequately considered. As a result, the consensus on the corridor’s development remains fragile and incomplete. Actors involved in the conflict resolution efforts Attempts to resolve the conflict surrounding the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor involved a diverse array of local actors from various social, institutional, and community spheres. This broad mobilization reflects both the significance of the conflict and the collective willingness to find a sustainable solution through inclusive dialogue. The actors involved included both traditional authorities and formal institutions, notably: Jowros, traditional custodians of pastureland governance; • Farmers and herders, the primary stakeholders directly concerned with the use of the corridor; • Village authorities, engaged in local mediation; • Municipal authorities, responsible for territorial governance; • Administrative authorities, including the sub‑prefect, the prefect, and the regional governor; • Office du Riz de Mopti, responsible for rice development schemes in the area; • The Soufouroulaye Agreement Monitoring Committee, in charge of monitoring and enforcing previously reached agreements; and • The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, which acted as a neutral facilitator in the consultation processes. The involvement of these actors helped to structure the dialogue, channel tensions, and initiate mediation mechanisms, although disagreements still persist regarding the demarcation of the corridor. Table 3: key stages of the conflict over the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor PERIODS MAJOR EVENTS 19th century Initial territorial structuring of the pastoral area with the mapping of transhumance routes, identification of resting points and bourgoutières Organization of the territory based on the needs of Fulani pastoralists 1970‑1990 Drastic decrease in rainfall and limited flooding Degradation of natural resources Development of rice‑growing plots and expansion of agricultural land Gradual obstruction of pastoral tracks and transhumance corridors 2018 Intensification of tensions between farmers and herders Restrictions on livestock movements Forced modification of transhumance routes Attempt to formalize (mark out) the pastoral track 2020–2024 Support for local dialogue and consultation initiatives by HD Mediation support Signing of peace agreements between community actors Efforts to prevent conflicts and secure pastoral corridors Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. page 30 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR This table traces the evolution of socio‑spatial dynamics and conflicts surrounding the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor. It highlights the initial structuring of the agropastoral space as early as the 19th century, which was gradually challenged by climate variability, agricultural expansion, and rice development schemes between 1970 and 1990. These transformations led to the obstruction of pastoral routes, resulting in growing tensions between farmers and herders. From 2018 onward, the intensification of these tensions disrupted livestock mobility and triggered contested attempts to demarcate the corridors. The period from 2020 to 2024 marks a phase of relative calm, supported by Humanitarian Dialogue’s facilitation of mediation processes, community dialogue, and the signing of peace agreements Figure 12: Nature of relationships between stakeholders involved in the conflict Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Figure 12 illustrates the actors involved in the management of the conflict surrounding the pastoral track, as well as the nature of their relationships. It highlights the central role of the mayor, who maintains multiple connections with all other stakeholders. However, tensions between farmers and herders remain, as shown by the red wavy line indicating a persistent conflictual relationship. The Jowro, customary representatives of the herders, play a key mediating role, although they are also involved in the tension. Structures such as Humanitarian Dialogue, the Monitoring Committee for the Agreements, and the administrative authorities maintain strengthened relationships, reflecting their commitment to facilitating dialogue and seeking sustainable solutions. Finally, the ORM is connected to several actors, notably the mayor and the farmers, underscoring its major role in agricultural planning. Overall, the diagram reveals a complex network of cooperation, conflict, and mediation in a multi‑actor governance context. One-way Reciprocal Mutually strengthened Conflictual FarmersHerders Dioworos Administration HD Village chief Monitoring committee for agreementsMayor Mayor Farmers Villages chief HD ORM Diowros ORM CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 31 Figure 13: Conflict tree for the Hamdallaye pastoral route Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. Reconfiguration of transhumance routes due to insecurity The deterioration of the security context has significantly altered the transhumance routes traditionally used by herders. Beyond the constraints related to expanding cultivated fields, other factors have contributed to the progressive abandonment of the Hamdallaye pastoral route. Under the persistent threat posed by the Donzo militias stationed in the village of Sirakoro, herders have gradually shifted away from this historical path in favour of alternative routes perceived as safer, particularly the Ségue embankment. Herds originating from the villages of Girowel in the commune of Kounari, Mamourou and Horé‑Guendé in the commune of Socoura, as well as Sare‑Mala in the commune of Sio, now follow different itineraries. From the village of Perempé, the animals pass through Orgno, Soufouroulaye, Youré, and Hamdallaye before crossing the river. From there, the herds from Horé‑Guendé (Kombankodji) access their bourgoutière directly, while those from Girowel (Dabbodji), Mamourou (Wouromakadji), and Sare‑Mala (Soulalinkodji) continue to the Kounsé River. This table traces the evolution of socio‑spatial dynamics and conflicts surrounding the Hamdallaye pastoral corridor. It highlights the initial structuring of the agropastoral space as early as the 19th century, which was gradually challenged by climate variability, agricultural expansion, and rice development schemes between 1970 and 1990. These transformations led to the obstruction of pastoral routes, resulting in growing tensions between farmers and herders. From 2018 onward, the intensification of these tensions disrupted livestock mobility and triggered contested attempts to demarcate the corridors. The period from 2020 to 2024 marks a phase of relative calm, supported by Humanitarian Dialogue’s facilitation of mediation processes, community dialogue, and the signing of peace agreements Figure 12: Nature of relationships between stakeholders involved in the conflict Source: Output from Group discussion in Sio Commune, January 2025. Figure 12 illustrates the actors involved in the management of the conflict surrounding the pastoral track, as well as the nature of their relationships. It highlights the central role of the mayor, who maintains multiple connections with all other stakeholders. However, tensions between farmers and herders remain, as shown by the red wavy line indicating a persistent conflictual relationship. The Jowro, customary representatives of the herders, play a key mediating role, although they are also involved in the tension. Structures such as Humanitarian Dialogue, the Monitoring Committee for the Agreements, and the administrative authorities maintain strengthened relationships, reflecting their commitment to facilitating dialogue and seeking sustainable solutions. Finally, the ORM is connected to several actors, notably the mayor and the farmers, underscoring its major role in agricultural planning. Overall, the diagram reveals a complex network of cooperation, conflict, and mediation in a multi‑actor governance context. One-way Reciprocal Mutually strengthened Conflictual FarmersHerders Dioworos Administration HD Village chief Monitoring committee for agreementsMayor Mayor Farmers Villages chief HD ORM Diowros Obstruction of Hamdallaye pastoral corridor Cultivation of resting area Noncompliance with livestock entry and exit Lack of communication between land users Lack of consideration for pastoral routes and transhumance corridors in land use Crop destruction by herders Famine and poverty Physical violence Destruction of social cohesion cohesion sociale Livestock displacement Loss of wealth/impoverishment page 32 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR The herds from Wouromakadji enter their bourgoutière upon reaching the Kounsé River, whereas those from Soulalinkodji and Dabbodji cross the river to reach their respective bourgoutières. This extended route is punctuated by five stopover sites (gîtes d’étape): Djiguiné, Ngouli‑Ouddi, Kounsé, Sirabéré, and Siwoye. Among these, the stopover site of Sirabéré is particularly contested by farmers, thereby intensifying tensions over the occupation and control of pastoral resources. CONFLICT OVER THE PASTORAL ROUTE OF KONA, NEIMA, AND SARE‑MALA Description of conflict The Kouna, Neima and Sare‑Mala pastoral corridors are located outside the rice polders in the territories of Kouna, Neima, and Sare‑Mala. It is an ancient transhumance route dating back to the 15th century, similar to the Hamdallaye track. Long used without difficulty by herders, it was gradually obstructed, first by cultivated fields and later by the development of rice paddies by the Mopti Rice Operation (ORM) beginning in 1972 (FGD‑PM‑M). According to information gathered during focus group discussions (FGD‑PM‑M; FGD‑PM‑O), the ORM had initially planned for a 100‑metre easement on either side of the dikes to facilitate livestock movement. However, this provision was never respected. Farmers extended their cultivation right up to the edge of the dikes, making livestock increasingly difficult (KII‑FM‑H). With the advent of decentralization, herders approached the commune authorities, the ORM, and local farmers to advocate for re‑opening the track (FGD‑PM‑O). The ORM considered the request legitimate but conditioned any intervention on the prior agreement of all concerned parties (KII‑FM‑H). Once informed, the Prefect of Mopti instructed the commune to initiate consultations to reach a consensus before any deliberation by the communal council. However, some farmers from Neima, one of the villages crossed by the track, categorically refused to give up their fields. Two council meetings were convened on the matter, but neither reached the required quorum as only six of seventeen council members were present. This deadlock was reportedly due to some council members being bribed by farmers opposed to the re‑opening (FGD‑PM‑O; FGD‑PM‑M). A final attempt at mediation involved the village of Tongorongo in the commune of Socoura, known to have strong influence over Malinké communities in Sio, as well as five Bambara villages (Perempé, Ornio, Somadougou, Youré, and Karamani), to persuade Neima to release the contested fields. Unfortunately, this initiative was interrupted by the deteriorating security situation and the rise of armed groups. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 33 Figure 14: Spatial distribution of resources and activities along the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala Source: Output from participatory mapping exercise in Sio Commune, January 2025. Table 4: Timeline of events related to the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala pastoral corridors PERIODS / DATES EVENTS KEY DEVELOPMENTS 15ᵗʰ century Territorial organization of the delta area by the Dina Establishment of the Kouna pastoral routes From 1972 Development of rice paddies by ORM Progressive obstruction of the pastoral route by cultivated fields Post‑1990s Non‑compliance with the 100 m buffer zones planned by ORM Encroachment of cultivated fields on the pastoral route 1990–2000 Strengthening of decentralization Herders request the re‑opening of the route from the commune and ORM 2000–2005 Consultation phase Consultations organized by the commune under instructions from the Prefect of Mopti 2005–2010 Institutional deadlock Refusal by farmers in Neima; a lack of a quorum during commune council sessions 2010–2015 Attempt at local mediation Involvement of Tongorongo and five Bambara villages to convince Neima to release the land 2015–2020 Recent security crisis Interruption of mediation efforts due to the intervention of armed groups and Donzo militias Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. page 34 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR Stakeholders engaged in the conflict resolution process As with all other conflict cases analyzed, the resolution of the dispute surrounding the Kouna–Neima‑Sare‑Mala pastoral corridor involved a wide range of institutional, community, and technical stakeholders. Key actors included village chiefs from the commune, representatives of farmers and herders, the mayor, the prefect, the governor of the Mopti Region, as well as the Chamber of Agriculture and the ORM. Figure 15: Farmers who oppose the re‑opening of the pastoral corridor Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. Figure 15 clearly illustrates the complexity of relationships among the various stakeholders involved in the process of re‑opening the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala pastoral route, a process marked by intense tensions and polarized positions. Two groups of farmers stand in opposition: those in favour of re‑opening the route and those opposed. The latter maintain conflictual relations with herders. These tensions reflect a broader climate of distrust that undermines consensus‑building efforts. Despite the involvement of multiple actors including communal authorities, village chiefs, the local administration, the Chamber of Agriculture, and the ORM, all mediation and re‑opening attempts have failed. According to focus group discussions (FGD_MF_M and FGD_PM_Y), the main source of the deadlock is the persistent reluctance of the village of Neima, which refused to cooperate despite numerous intervention efforts. This refusal was decisive in the failure of the re‑opening process. One-way Reciprocal Mutually strengthened Conflictual Herders Farmers opposed to re-opening of pastoral corridor Famers in favor of re-opening the pastoral corridor ORM 11 Municipal councilors opposed to pastoral corridor opening Mayor + 5 municipal councilors Village chiefs Administration Chamber of Agriculture Administration Village chiefs  Herders Weak CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 35 The Chamber of Agriculture occupies a central position within the network of actors, maintaining strong interactions with the ORM, pro‑re‑opening farmers, herders, and other institutions. Although its role as a potential mediator is clear, it appears to be underutilized. The ORM, for its part, is also a strategic actor, actively engaged with groups in favour of re‑opening. The municipal council, however, appears fragmented: the mayor and five councillors support the initiative, while eleven oppose it, weakening the council’s collective capacity for action. Meanwhile, the local administration and village chiefs, although involved, were unable to shift the balance of power. The consequences of this conflict extend beyond the blockage of a single project, as it has significantly eroded social cohesion among village communities. The case of Neima exemplifies how localized refusal within a poorly managed conflictual context can paralyze an entire collective process. Figure 16: Conflict Tree of the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala Pastoral corridor Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. The land conflict in the off‑scheme area of Kouna has gradually evolved into a multidimensional crisis, intertwining territorial, religious, security, and economic claims. The unfolding of events reflects an escalation of tensions fuelled by community alliances, armed reprisals, significant economic losses, and deep social impacts particularly on the youth. Poor communication between ORM and farmers Opposition from Neïma farmers to opening the pastoral corridor Decline of soil fertility Obstruction of pastoral corridor by crops fields No compliance with legal and social agreements Worsening crop damage Change of corridor and increased pressure on alternative pastoral routesDisagreement between farmers and local elected officials Blocking of pastoral routes and pastoral corridors Obstruction of the Kouna-Neïma-Sare Mala pastoral corridor Family division and disruption of social cohesion Opposition from Neïma farmers to opening the pastoral corridorDecline of soil fertility Obstruction of the Kouna-Neïma-Sare Mala corridor No compliance with legal and social agreements Poor communication between ORM and farmers Obstruction of pastoral corridor by crops fields Stakeholders engaged in the conflict resolution process As with all other conflict cases analyzed, the resolution of the dispute surrounding the Kouna–Neima‑Sare‑Mala pastoral corridor involved a wide range of institutional, community, and technical stakeholders. Key actors included village chiefs from the commune, representatives of farmers and herders, the mayor, the prefect, the governor of the Mopti Region, as well as the Chamber of Agriculture and the ORM. Figure 15: Farmers who oppose the re‑opening of the pastoral corridor Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. Figure 15 clearly illustrates the complexity of relationships among the various stakeholders involved in the process of re‑opening the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala pastoral route, a process marked by intense tensions and polarized positions. Two groups of farmers stand in opposition: those in favour of re‑opening the route and those opposed. The latter maintain conflictual relations with herders. These tensions reflect a broader climate of distrust that undermines consensus‑building efforts. Despite the involvement of multiple actors including communal authorities, village chiefs, the local administration, the Chamber of Agriculture, and the ORM, all mediation and re‑opening attempts have failed. According to focus group discussions (FGD_MF_M and FGD_PM_Y), the main source of the deadlock is the persistent reluctance of the village of Neima, which refused to cooperate despite numerous intervention efforts. This refusal was decisive in the failure of the re‑opening process. One-way Reciprocal Mutually strengthened Conflictual Herders Farmers opposed to re-opening of pastoral corridor Famers in favor of re-opening the pastoral corridor ORM 11 Municipal councilors opposed to pastoral corridor opening Mayor + 5 municipal councilors Village chiefs Administration Chamber of Agriculture Administration Village chiefs  Herders page 36 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR LAND CONFLICT IN THE SCHEME AREA OF KOUNA Conflict description The disputed farmland lies in an off‑scheme area located beyond the Konna River, in a site known as “Konna Hindé,” which translates to “old Konna site” in Fulfulde. According to administrative boundaries, this area falls under the jurisdiction of the commune of Soye. It was settled long before the era of the Dina by Bozo fishers who migrated from the village of Ngomi in the commune of Socoura. In line with the principle of first occupancy, they claimed ownership over the cultivable land and conducted fishing activities along the riverbanks where they had settled. Although ethnically referred to as Bozo or Somono, these groups were later linked administratively to the village of Kouna, established across the river in the commune of Sio. The cultivable land in this off‑scheme zone is exploited not only by the site’s original inhabitants who hold ownership rights but also by farmers from Kouna village who use the land on a borrowing basis. Due to worsening insecurity in the area, the original residents of the site crossed the river and took refuge in the village of Kouna, settling in a neighbourhood known as “Somono Kin” or the Bozo/Somono quarter (FGD‑MF‑M). In 2019, Jihadists groups operating in the area demanded that farmers pay zakat on their harvests. Initially, the farmers refused but eventually complied out of fear of retaliation. A local commission was formed to collect and distribute the zakat. The conflict was triggered when the armed groups changed the designated site for zakat collection. Instead of distributing it on the farmland, they ordered that the harvest be delivered to Sarébeydari village and insisted that the son of Kouna’s village chief be present at the handover (FGD_FM_M). Figure 17: Spatial distribution of resources and activities in the conflict area Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. Area proposed by the jihadists for the sharing of harvests Area of conflict CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 37 Telephone conversations reportedly took place between the armed groups and the chief of Kouna, who firmly refused to involve his son, arguing that the latter had no role in the farming or the committee. In response, the armed group threatened: “If your son doesn’t come, there will be no more farming in this area.” Since that ultimatum, no agricultural activity has taken place in the area. Farmers from all surrounding villages have been barred from accessing the land, and the 2019 harvest remains under the control of the armed groups (FGD_SK_M). From a land dispute to a spiral of security‑driven violence The conflict over the use of the non‑irrigated lands of Kouna goes far beyond a simple opposition between farmers and herders. It has evolved into a multidimensional crisis, driven by a severely deteriorated security context, where land tenure disputes are entangled with armed dynamics and politico‑identity tensions. Initially, the disagreement centered on access to unplanned rice‑growing areas. However, the situation quickly escalated with the involvement of armed groups and local militias. Young herders from the Diowro families particularly in the villages of Guirowel and Manako were accused of joining armed groups active in the Kouna area, who began imposing the payment of zakat. This radicalization further intensified an already volatile environment. The establishment of checkpoints by Donzo militias in Somadougou and Kouna exacerbated the violence. These posts triggered retaliation from armed groups, leading to kidnappings, restricted access to farmland, targeted attacks on civilians, loss of human lives, and economic devastation. Notable consequences include the seizure of 666 sacks of rice from the 2019 harvest and the abandonment of approximately 2,000 hectares of rice fields since 2020. The assassination in 2020 of a herder suspected of collusion with jihadist groups, followed by violent retaliation against residents of Kouna, marked a critical turning point in the conflict. The attempted assassination of a local elder, combined with the theft of over 25 million CFA francs and eight kilograms of gold, reflects both the economic stakes and the fierce struggle for influence in the area. Stakeholders engaged in the conflict resolution process The attempt to resolve the conflict related to the use of the off‑scheme area of Kouna mobilized a wide range of actors, reflecting the complexity and sensitivity of the situation. The stakeholders involved in the mediation and dialogue efforts included: • The Prefect of Mopti • The village chief of Kouna • The village chief of Neima • Other village chiefs from the commune of Sio • Coordination of Women’s Associations and NGOs • The communal youth • The Jowro page 38 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR • The Municipal Council • Defence and Security officials • The Regional Reconciliation Support Team • The Somadougou Monitoring Commission • The Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue • Religious leaders • Local resource people Figure 18: Conflict tree surrounding the Kouna–Neima–Sare‑Mala pastoral corridor Source: Output from discussion group in Sio Commune, January 2025. Installation of Donzo checkpoint in Kouna No compliance with agreements surrounding the Zakatt Change of Zakatt distribution site by Jihadist group Closure of the Samadougou police post Influence of armed groups on natural resources management and control Degradation of naturel resources station in Kounaation in Kouna Resurgence of old conflicts Forced population displacement Breakdown of social links Loss of human lives Rural exodus Forced recruitment into armed groups Ban on the exploitation of the Kouna Hinde Off-Schema area Decline of agricultural and pastoral production Impoverishment and vulnerability of communities CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 39 LOCAL INITIATIVES TO EASE FAMERS‑HERDERS CONFLICTS Since 2020, various mediation processes aimed at resolving conflicts related to access to natural resources have been initiated in the commune of Sio and its surrounding areas. Among the key initiators of these efforts is the NGO Humanitarian Dialogue. These interventions primarily target disputes between farmers, herders, and village communities. The NGO facilitates these processes through the creation of dialogue spaces, the organization of consultation frameworks, the strengthening of local capacities, and the hosting of inter‑ and intra‑community fora. This process has led to the conclusion of several key agreements and commitments: A peace agreement in 2020 between Fulani herder communities and Donso (hunter) militias from Somadougou (communes of Sio and Socoura), Djenné (Fakala commune), and Bandiagara (communes of Pignari Bana, Pignari, Bara Sara, and Timiniri). The agreement focuses on the management of transhumance and the use of agricultural, pastoral, and fishing zones in Kounari. A 15‑member monitoring committee was established to ensure its implementation. A commitment among Malinké leaders from the villages of Soufouroulaye, Konna, Diyo, Koloni, and Neima to prevent intra‑community conflicts. These tensions stemmed from the rise of local militias (Donsos) and jihadist groups (Katiba Macina), as well as land disputes related to the Sare‑Mala rice field, the management of fisheries in the Kouna rice area, and access to the Somadougou market. A commitment in 2023 for the prevention and management of conflict around the Sabé pastoral corridor, involving the villages of Sabé and Gnimitongo, as well as several other villages in the communes of Fatoma, Kounari, Bassirou, and Socoura. A 15‑member monitoring committee was also established. An agreement in 2024 between the village communities of Badiongo (Fatoma commune) and Kermoye (Kounari commune), concerning the peaceful exploitation of the resources of the Yamé River, which borders both villages. A 20‑member monitoring committee was set up to support this agreement. These initiatives highlight the importance of local dialogue mechanisms in the prevention, management, and resolution of conflicts between resource users. They also demonstrate that endogenous solutions, supported by neutral actors, can foster collaborative and sustainable management of natural resources in a context marked by multiple tensions. page 40 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR CROSS‑CUTTING ANALYSIS AGROPASTORAL CONFLICTS: MULTIPLE, INTERTWINED CAUSES IN SHIFTING CONTEXTS Agropastoral conflicts in the commune of Sio reflect a complex interplay of structural and contextual dynamics that go far beyond simple disputes over land use. They are rooted in long‑standing historical arrangements, exacerbated by climate variability, demographic pressure, declining resource availability, and institutional weaknesses. The competition over access to floodplains, the obstruction of pastoral corridors, and divergent land‑use strategies by farmers and herders are major sources of friction. At the same time, the erosion of traditional authority, the inadequacy of formal justice mechanisms, and the growing presence of armed actors further complicate the regulation of disputes The analysis of qualitative data collected through FGDs and KIIs reveals that these tensions are not the result of isolated events, but rather the outcome of cumulative and overlapping processes. Farmers expand cultivation areas to cope with declining yields, often encroaching on traditional grazing routes. Herders, affected by pasture scarcity and insecurity, modify their transhumance patterns, leading to increased pressure on agricultural zones. These adaptive strategies, though rational individually, contribute to heightened competition and fuel local conflicts. The herders interviewed describe a process of continuous agricultural land expansion, progressively encroaching on traditional grazing routes. This phenomenon is exacerbated by climate variability and demographic pressure. A closer analysis of participant narratives highlights that climate change and population growth function both as triggers and accelerators of conflict. From the farmers’ perspective, the discussions also point to a number of similar factors, but several specific concerns are raised as well. These include the increase in pastoral mobility, the disregard by transhumant herders from the Séno Region for the agreed‑upon seasonal calendars regulating access to the floodplain, and above all, the growing interference of jihadist armed groups. Both groups, however, converge on the view that the violation of traditional norms and social agreements is a major factor fuelling tensions. Pastoral migrations, which began in the 1970s following major droughts, also remain a structural factor. Although these movements are decades old, they have left a legacy of unresolved social tensions. Herders from Séno who settled in the delta several decades ago are still perceived by some local communities as “outsiders,” with contested user rights. This perception reinforces distrust and friction surrounding the sharing of natural resources. Adding to these classic causes is a growing aggravating factor: the security crisis. Both jihadist groups and local militias exploit farmer‑herder conflicts to expand their influence, manipulating identity‑based grievances and positioning themselves as armed arbiters. This militarization of disputes has led to a rapid erosion of traditional mechanisms of mediation and regulation, while contributing to the breakdown of social ties. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 41 Understanding these intertwined factors is essential for designing context‑specific, inclusive, and durable responses that can reconcile agricultural and pastoral livelihoods while restoring trust between communities. The impacts of these tensions are manifold. Social cohesion has been deeply affected (FGD‑FM‑M; FGD‑PM‑M). The local economy has also been weakened due to reduced pastoral mobility, the loss of livestock and crops, the abandonment of farmland, and disruptions in local markets. Between the race for resources and the erosion of trust The analysis of the collected data reveals that conflicts between farmers and herders have significantly intensified in recent years, driven by the combined effects of climatic, demographic, and security‑related factors. Disruptions in rainfall patterns have led to the depletion of natural resources, reducing both pasture availability and soil productivity. Herders, who are particularly vulnerable to these environmental changes, have been forced to modify their transhumance routes, increasingly moving into lowland areas and onto intensively farmed agricultural land. Farmers are also adapting their practices to cope with climate variability and soil degradation that are impacting crop yields. In an effort to secure better productivity, they expand their cultivated areas, annexing new spaces perceived as more fertile. These expansions often occur near or within pastoral routes and grazing zones, thereby intensifying competition over fertile land and fuelling tensions between the two groups especially around rice‑growing areas and pastoral tracks. The rapid expansion of rice fields, the unregulated occupation of livestock corridors, and the multiplication of fish farming developments have contributed to the shrinking of grazing zones (FGD_PM_M). These changes have disrupted long‑standing land‑use arrangements and exacerbated rivalries. Meanwhile, growing insecurity exacerbated by the presence of non‑state armed groups fosters distrust and deepens intercommunal divisions (KII_ FM_H). Herders are frequently accused of damaging crops and are sometimes suspected of collusion with jihadist groups, which reinforces suspicion and tension (KII_FM_H). The gradual erosion of traditional authority in land governance and the declining legitimacy of community‑based mediation mechanisms further complicate conflict resolution. Some armed groups have exploited local grievances to present themselves as alternative sources of protection and justice, thereby undermining social cohesion and destabilizing long‑standing community agreements (FGD_FM_M; FGD_PM_M). DISRUPTION OF LIVELIHOOD RESOURCES AND THREATS TO LOCAL FOOD SYSTEMS In Sio Commune, livelihoods are primarily based on three pillars: agriculture, livestock, and fishing. These productive systems are currently shaped by a combination of structural and contextual factors, including climate change, environmental degradation, increasing competition over access to resources, and the intensification of insecurity. These dynamics have major repercussions on food security, social cohesion, and the viability of local livelihoods. page 42 | Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali CGIR In agriculture, these factors have contributed to declining yields, thereby undermining food security and weakening household economies. While one hectare of rice used to produce up to 60 bags a decade ago, the same hectare now barely yields 10 to 15 bags (FGD‑FM‑M). This deterioration is further exacerbated by insecurity generated by armed groups (notably Katiba), which impose forced levies (zakat), restrict access to land, and foster a climate of threat and instability (FGD‑MF‑M). In the livestock sector, conflict has led to the spatial displacement of herds to more remote areas, particularly in the commune of Socoura. This relocation results in additional logistical costs for animal milking, especially during the flood season when herders are forced to use boats (FGD‑PM‑Y). Reduced access to grazing lands, combined with land pressure and the risk of livestock theft also affects the resilience of pastoralist communities and pushes youth towards rural exodus. From a socioeconomic perspective, the disruption of production systems has led to a deterioration of social cohesion, characterized by intercommunity tensions, narratives of mutual accusations, and a loss of trust among resource users. Massive internal displacement, estimated at over 2,400 households, exerts increased pressure on the resources of host areas, exacerbating the risk of latent conflicts. Rural markets are also affected by the abandonment of certain production areas, the decline in commercial livestock flows, and access constraints to collection points, leading to a contraction of the local economy and destabilization of marketing networks. Agropastoral tensions are compounded by reduced pastoral mobility and restrictions on transhumance, often imposed by armed groups or local militias. The disappearance of rituals and festivities traditionally associated with pastoral movements once key instruments of cohesion and cultural exchange further contributes to the erosion of the social fabric. Women and youth are among the most vulnerable groups: the former despite their involvement in peace initiatives bear an increased burden due to rising insecurity and the breakdown of family structures; while the latter are exposed to forced recruitment by armed groups. In Sare‑Mala, farmers from the villages of Somadougou and Kouna have been denied access to over 600 hectares of rice fields, with direct consequences for their livelihoods and food security. CGIR Causes of farmer‑herder conflicts in Sio, Mopti Region, Mali | page 43 CONCLUDING REMARKS The case study conducted in the commune of Sio highlights the complexity of conflicts between farmers and herders in a context marked by multiple vulnerabilities. Far from being mere resource‑use tensions, these conflicts are rooted in historical, institutional, economic, and security dynamics. The erosion of local governance, the limited effectiveness of state justice, the weakening of traditional authorities, and the growing influence of armed groups all contribute to maintaining a climate of conflict that cannot be resolved through purely technical or ad hoc solutions. The perceptions gathered reveal a deep loss of trust in public institutions and a growing concern over the parallel regulatory systems imposed by armed groups. In this fragmented landscape, customary arrangements have proven inadequate for managing current complexities, while formal mechanisms struggle to gain legitimacy. This situation calls for a rethinking of regulatory frameworks, promoting hybrid approaches grounded in local realities but supported by the state and development partners. The commune of Sio thus illustrates the major challenges of shared natural resource governance in the Sahel. To prevent further escalation of violence, it is essential to restore inclusive spaces for dialogue, strengthen local institutions, and support the resilience of both farming and pastoral systems. Such an approach, based on recognizing the interdependence between actors and resources, is key to restoring social cohesion and promoting sustainable s