Animal A iiculttike in ub-Saharan SF -Africa i ASSESSMENTOF Winrock International Winrock International Institute’for Agricultural Development Route 3, Box 376 Morrilton, Arkansas721lo-9537 USA 1992 Contents Abbreviations ................................................................................................... Foreword ....................................................................................................... Executive Summary ........................................................................................... 1. Introduction ................................................... . ............................................. 2. Population PressuresWill Lead to Mixed Crop-Livestock Farming ............................. 2.1. Growth of Human Populations .................................................................. 2.2. Population IncreasesNegate Economic Growth .............................................. 2.3. Urbanization ........................................................................................ 2.4. Rural Population Growth .......................................................................... 2.5. Population Growth Will Fuel Intensification of Agriculture ............................... 2.6. -Role of Livestock in Intensification under African Conditions ............................ 2.7. Crop-Livestock SystemsAre More Efficient than Specialized Systems................. 3. The Place of Livestock in Sub-SaharanAfrica.. ................................................... 3.1. Overview ........................................................................................... 3.2. Composition of the Sub-SaharanAfrican Livestock Herd ................................ 3.3. Contribution of Livestock to the Economies of Sub-SaharanAfrica.. .................. 3.4. Contributions of Animal Products to Food Supply and Nutrition ...................... 3.5. Role of Livestock in the Sustainability of Agriculture.. ................................... 3.6. Study Vision of the Future of Sub-SaharanLivestock Production ...................... 4. Environmental Determinants of Animal Agricultural Development ........................... 4.1. Arid Zone.. .......................................................................................... 4.2. Semi-arid Agroecological Zone ................................................................ 4.3. Subhumid Agroecological Zone ................................................................ 4.4. Humid Agroecological Zone.. .................................................................. 4.5. Highland Agroecological Zone.. ............................................................... 4.6. Environmentally IndependentAnimal Production .......................................... 5. Prospectsfor Meeting Demand for Meat and Milk ................................................ 5.1. Forces Shaping Demand for Meat and Milk ................................................. 5.2. Recent Trends in Meat and Milk Production ................................................ 5.3. Growth Targets for Meat and Milk Production ............................................. 5.4. Study Analyses of Prospectsfor Future Production ........................................ 5.5. Competitivenessof Animal Agriculture ...................................................... vi vii ix 1 3 .4 .5 .6 ‘7 .7 .8 .9 11 11 12 12 16 17 17 19 22 24 24 25 26 27 29 29 30 31 31 33 .. 111 . .. 6. Constraints to Increased Livestock Production and Productivity ............................... 6.1. Technical Constraints and Opportunities ..................................................... 6.2. Adequacy of Available Land Resources...................................................... 6.3. Policy Constraints and Opportunities ......................................................... 6.4. Constraints Related to Agroecological Zones................................................ 6.5 Institutional Constraints.......................................................................... 7. Priorities and Strategiesfor Livestock Development.............................................. 7.1. Elements of an Animal Agriculture Development Strategy ............................... 7.2, Priority Actions for Development of Animal Agriculture ................................. 7.3. Strategiesfor Production Systems............................................................. 7.4. Strategiesfor Species............................................................................. 7.5. Animal Agriculture Development Projects: Past and Future ............................. 8. Strategiesfor Research.................................................................................. 8.1. Feed Supply. ....................................................................................... 8.2. Animal Health ..................................................................................... .‘........................................... 8.3. Genetic Improvement.. ............................... ............................................................. Crop-Livestock Farming Systems 8.4. 8.5. Livestock Management .......................................................................... 8.6. Natural Resources................................................................................. 8.7. Policy Research ................................................................................... 9. Institutional Strategy for Research ................................................................... 9.1. National Agricultural ResearchSystems...................................................... 9.2. Regional ResearchPrograms and Centers in Sub-SaharanAfrica ....................... 9.3. International Agricultural ResearchCenters ................................................. 9.4. New Perspectiveson Agricultural Researchin Sub-SaharanAfrica.. .................. 10. Strategy for Extension, Education, and Support Services....................................... 10.1. Agricultural Extension Services ............................................................. 10.2. Animal Health Services ....................................................................... 10.3. Land Management.............................................................................. 10.4. Sectoral and Rural Organizations.. .......................................................... 10.5. Education and Training ....................................................................... 10.6. Role of Regional and International Organizations.. ...................................... 11. Priority Actions for the Next 10 Years ............................................................. 11.1. Priority Actions for Agroecological Zones.. .............................................. 11.2. Priority Actions for Production Systems................................................... 11.3. Priorities for Research......................................................................... 11.4. Policy Research................................................................................. 11.5. Institutional Strategiesfor Research........................................................ 11.6. Priorities for Extension, Education, and Support Services............................. .......................................................................... 11.7. Concluding Statement 37 37 52 53 56 59 61 61 62 65 68 70 73 73 75 77 80 80 80 82 85 86 92 95 104 l-11 112 119 122 126 129 135 137 137 139 140 142 142 144 145 Annexes .. 147 A. Environmental IssuesRelated to Animal Agriculture .................................... 153 B. List of Study Work Group Papers .............................................................. .:;. ........ 154 C. List of Regional Workshop Papers ................................................. Bibliography .................................................................................................. iv 156 Tables 2.1. PopuIation projections for sub-SaharanAfrica, 1990-2025................................ 2.2. Gross national income per capita, sub-Sahran Africa ..................................... 2.3. Urban populations, sub-SaharanAfrica ) ....................................................... 3.1. Sub-SaharanAfrica livestock population, 1988 ............................................ 3.2. Livestock in sub-SaharanAfrica-Tropical livestock units, 1961-88................... 3.3. Value of agriculture and livestock products in sub-SaharanAfrica. .................... 4.1. Agroecological zones of sub-SaharanAfrica. ............................................... 4.2. Distribution of ruminant livestock by zone and region. ................................... 5.1. Annual percentageincreasein livestock populations................... ..k................. 5.2. Estimated livestock population and meat output, 1988 and 2025. ....................... 5.3. Estimated dairy cattle population and miIk output by zone............................... 5.4. Meat and miIk.production, imports, exports, and consumption.......................... 6.1. Cattle: Major constraints and opportunities ................................................. 6.2. Small ruminants: Major constraints and opportunities .................................... 6.3. Poultry: Major constraints and opportunities ............................................... * 6.4. Pigs: Major constraints and opportunities ................................................... ............................................................. 6.5. Projected feed requirements, 2025 6.6. Total forage supply, sub-Sahran Africa .................................................... 6.7. Ruminant carrying capacity and livestock population by zone. .......................... 6.8. Livestock population 1986-88 and 2025, projected ........................................ 6.9. Production of crude protein from forages by agroecological zone. ..................... 6.10. Metabolizable energy and crude protein requirements .................................. 6.11. Concentrate requirements for poultry and pig feed ..................................... .5 .6 7 13 14 15 22 23 32 32 33 34 39 41 43 44 45 46 47 47 48 48 49 V Abbreviations AIDS APHIS CEDEAO CEEAC CFA CGIAR CIAT CIDA CILSS CIMMYT :&ES ECU FAO GDP GIS GNP IARC IBA& ICARDA ICIPE ICRAF ICRISAT IEMVT IFPRI IGADD IITA ILCA ILR4D IMF INSAH ISNAR km Meal NARS NGO OAU OIE SACCAR SADCC SPAAR jr AC TLU USAID USDA WARDA Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Communaute 6conomiquedes Etats de I’Afrique de 1’Ouest CommunautC&onomique des Etats de 1’Afiique centrale Franc de la Coop&ration Financike en Afrique Consulative Group on International Agricultural Research Centro Intemacional de Agricultura Tropical Canadian International Development Agency Comit6 permanent inter-Etats de lutte contre la s6cheresse dans le Sahel 8 Centro IntemacionaI de Mejoramiento de Maiz y’Trigo Centro Intemacional de la Papa Centre International de Rechercheset Dbeloppement sur I’Eievage en Zone Subhumide r European currency unit Food and Agriculture Organization Gross domestic product Geographic Information Systems Gross national product International agricultural research center ’ Inter-African Bureau of Animal Resources International Center for Agricultural Researchin the Dry Areas International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology International Council for Researchon Agroforestry International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Institut d’Elevage et de M&Iecine VCdrinaire des Pays Tropicaux International F&d Policy ResearchInstitute Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development International Institute of Tropical Agriculture International Livestock Centre for Africa International Laboratory for Researchon Animal Diseases International Monetary Fund Institut du Sahel International Service for National Agricultural Research Kilometer Megacalorie National agriculture research system Nongovernmental organization Organization of African Unity Office of International Epizootics Southern Africa Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research Southern African Development Coordination Conference Special Program for African Agricultural Research Metric ton Technical Advisory Committee Tropical livestock unit U.S. Agency for International Development U.S. Department of Agriculture West Africa Rice Development Association vi Foreword This report stemsfrom the common recognition of developmentagencies,the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research,and international animal agriculture researchcenters in Africa that an assessment of animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica was neededand that it could best be done by pooling resourcesin a single, unified effort. The sponsorsand governing body for this study are CIDA, World Bank, ILCA, ILRAD, Rockefeller Foundation, TAC, and UNTIP. Winrock International was selectedto manageand conduct the study. The purposeof the study is to recommenda strategy and program actions that will enable animal agriculture to contribute to the optimization of food production and human development in sub-Saharan Africa on an equitable, sustainable,and environmentally sound basis. The prospectiveusersof this study are African countries, international developmentagencies, the international researchcommunity, and the private sector. A broad range of animal agriculture specialistshas assistedWinrock International in completing this study. Twenty-one African leadersparticipated in regional workshops and presented, discussed,and formulated their individual and collective viewpoints on needs, priorities, strategiesand actions for animal agriculture in their regions (Annex C). An experienced multidisciplinary study work group of 10 personspreparedpaperson major topics and parbcipated in the initial drafting of the study report (Annex B). A IO-member expert advisory committee composedof personswith extensivedevelopmentexperiencein Africa has participated in all stagesof the study process: William R. Pritchard, Chair, University of California, Davis J. J. Doyle, ILRAD Hank Fitzhugh,ILCA Ceesde Haan,World Bank JohnLynam,Rockefeller Foundation Ian MacGillivray, CIDA Walter Masiga, OAU/IBAR John Peberdy, World Bank Abdoulaye Sawadogo, University of Abidjan GeorgesTacher,IEMVT Many animal agriculture development specialistshave been interviewed and an extensive review of the developmentliterature hasbeencompleted. Ned Raun‘servedas study director, Ole Nielsen as senior study associate,and DougIas Gollin as program associate.StevenBreth servedas editor. Delby Allen and Vera McLaughlin contributed in countlessways through long hours, careful work, and infinite patience. Special acknowledgementis made to Francis C. Bymes for organizing the regional workshop papers, to Will Getz for participating in the Nairobi meeting to define the content of the Study report, and to Valerie Lamont and Harlan Vinnedge for catalogingbibliographic materials. vii ASSESSMENT OF ANIMAL AGRICULTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Executive Summary The Setting Growth of human populations The stark reality facing the countries of sub-Saharan Africa is that in less than 35 years, the population will increase2.6 times reaching 1,294 million, almost equal to China’s projected population in 2025. This amounts to nearly 800 million additional people to feed, clothe, house, educate, and employ in a very short time. Twenty-five years ago there were fewer than one-half as many people in the region. The population currently is increasing by 3.1 percent a year, the most rapid rate of growth of any region of the world. In the 198Os,population expansion coupled with slow growth of GDP (1 %/year) resulted in a decreasein per capita GDP of 2.2 percent per year. Urban populations are growing more rapidly than the general population. In 2025 nearly 55 percent of the region’s people will live in towns and cities as contrastedto 30 percent today. Urbanization will force the commercializationof agriculture and increasethe demandfor foods of animal origin. Population growth will drive economic development Between 1990 and 2025, enormous demographic and social changeswill sweep subSaharanAfrica. Population increase, urbanization, and income change will profoundly alter the prospectsfor sustainedeconomic development.The driving force for changewill be a near tripling of the population. Population growth will be accompaniedby a dramatic migration of people from rural to urban areas, which will create new patternsof food production, marketing, and consumption. If livestock production grows no faster than it did between 1962 and 1987 (2.6% a year for meat and 3.2% for milk), the region will face massivedeficits in supplies of meat and milk by 2025. Already 11 percentof the total milk consumptionis imported. Clearly, strategiesmust be formulated that will foster the expansionof food production to feed growing populations in a sustainablemanner, support the economic developmentof the region, increase incomes, and promote the welfare of rural people, and protect the environment. x Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca Population Growth Will Transform Agriculture Population growth will lead to mixed croplivestock farming Increasedpopulation pressureson a finite land basewill spur intensification of agriculture. Growing competition between crop and livestock farmers for land leads to the evolution of mixed crop-livestock farming systemsas the most efficient and sustainablemeans of increasing food production. When population density is low, specialized crops and livestock production is the most efficient meansof producing both crops and livestock. When population densitiesare high and markets, technology, and inputs are not readily available, intensity of land use increases, and mixed crop-livestock production becomes the most efficient and sustainablemode of food production becauseof complementaritiesbetween crops and livestock raising. Key elements in the contribution of livestock to intensification are traction (power), manure(fertilizer), and enhancedincome (cash)per unit of land. As a direct consequenceof increasedpopulation pressure on agricultural land, both crops and livestock have essentialand interconnectedroles to play in the future developmentof agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Crops and livestock can no longer be viewed as separate and inevitably competitive enterprises.If food production is to be increasedto the level neededto feed the region’s growing populations, if greater agricultural sustainability is to be achieved, and if adverse environmental effects of cultivation are to be minimized, livestock must be properly utilized in agricultural developmentprocesses. Animal agriculture development strategy The basesfor the strategiesproposedby this study for the developmentof animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica can be summarized as follows. The population is growing rapidly and will continue to do so. There is a finite base of both arable and grazing lands. Population pressureswill lead to intensification of agriculture. In areas suitable to both cropping and grazing, agricultural land pressureswill lead to the evolution of mixed crop-livestock farming systemsas the most efficient and sustainablemeansof producing food. Productivity gains in crop-livestock systemseventually will level off unlessimproved technology and inputs are employed. A further stageof evolution of agriculture is respecializationof crop and livestock production using advancedtechnology and high levels of inputs. Intensive commercial systemsthat are developing around major cities representthis stage. The energy to drive the evolution of the system and to increasethe productivity of crop-livestock systems is best provided by incentivesto farmers awarded by the market functioning in a policy environment fair to producersand consumers. The vision of future livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa developedby this study entails intensification of agriculture and widespreadadoption of mixed crop-livestock farming in the higher potential areas-the subhumid agroecologicalzone and the wetter portion of the semi-arid zone. Mixed crop-livestock farming, which already is widespread in the highland zone, must be made more productive through improved technology and expandeduse of inputs. A significant increase in productivity of the rangelandsin the arid zone and the drier portion of the semi-arid zone is not economically feasible. Stratification, that is, movementof Executbe Summary xi animals to areasof higher productivity for fattening is amring, and in time it should increase off-take from the rangelands. Livestock production is not encouragedin the forested humid zone for environmental reasons.An expansionof intensive commercial.production of poultry, pigs, and dairy is envisionedparticularly around population centersthroughout the region. The Place of Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa Livestock contribute substantially to the economies of the region Agriculture dominates the economiesof sub-Saharan Africa where today 70 percent of the people live in rural areas.For the region as a whole, agriculture contributed 32 percent of GDP in 1988. Output of livestock commodities- meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides and skinsaccountedfor 25 percent of agricultural domestic product. These calculations are basedupon both marketed and subsistenceproduction. If nonmonetized contributions (traction and manure) are included, the livestock contribution to agricultural domestic product would be increasedby 50 percent, bringing the livestock component of agricultural domestic product to about 35 percent. Livestock make a significant contribution to nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, providing 17 to 18 percent of the dietary protein in human diets. Especially for very young children, high quality animal protein is important in balancing diets heavily weighted to cereals and root crops. Two of the most significant contributions of livestock are to the processes of intensification of agriculture and to sustainability of crop production. Animal manure replenishessoil fertility by restoring part of the nutrients that crops remove. Animal traction is especially important in increasing the productivity of smallholdings, providing power for plowing, hauling, pumping, transportation,and harvesting. ‘Livestock significantly improve the stability of farm enterprises.They are living banks of capital, providing financial reservesfor periods of economic stress, and a buffer against crop failure, storing protein and energy that can be consumed in periods of food shortage. They are the primary sourceof cash income on farms where they are raised, enabling farmers to purchaseinputs, food, and other needs.They provide a meansto profitably use farm labor during periods when it is not neededfor growing or harvestingcrops. Environmental determinants of animal agricultural development Sub-SaharanAfrica is endowed with diverse agricultural environments determined by climate, natural resources,and human population density. Agroclimates coupled with cultural preferences,diseaseconstraints, and economic incentives influence the distribution of animals throughout the region. Sub-Saharan Africa has been classified into five agroecological zones-arid, semi-arid, subhumid, humid, and highland-on the basisof rainfall, altitude as it affects temperature,and length of annualplant growing period. Ruminant animals are more strongly influenced by agroecological conditions than are nonruminants. The arid and semi-arid zones, which together have 54 percent of the land area of sub-Saharan Africa, account for 57 percent of the ruminant livestock measuredin tropical livestock units (XIX). The humid zone, making up 19 percent of the land mass, has 6 percent xii Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Afica of ruminant TLUs. The largest share of goats (38%) and sheep (34%) and nearly all of the camelsare found in the arid zone. Most cattle tie in the semi-arid zone (31%) and the subhumid zone (23 %a>. Pigs are mostly found in the humid and subhumid zones. Poultry are evenly distributed over all zonesexcept the arid zone. Pigs and poultry also are produced in intensive commercial livestock systemswhich are influenced more by proximity to population centers and ports than by agroecologicalconditions. Meeting Future Demand for Meat and MiIk Prospects for meeting future demand -. The demand for meat and milk will be influenced by population growth, urbanization, and income growth. Considering thesefactors, the World Bank has set a goal for sub-Saharan Africa of a 4 percent annual increasein food production. Growth at this rate would be sufficient to feed growing populations, improve nutrition,. and progressively eliminate food imports into the region. This study has accepted4 percent as the target for future growth in production of animal products. This study conducteda detailed analysis (study analysis)of the prospectsfor production of animal food products in sub-Saharan Africa and the feasibility of achieving a 4 percent annual increase in the production of meat and milk. Projections of future animal populations, levels of productivity, stocking rates, and feed requirements were made by agroecological zone. The study analysis estimated achievable levels of increasesin productivity based upon increasingintensification and feasible future increasesin the use of technology and inputs. The forecast of future production of milk matchesthe 4 percent growth target, however, ruminant production of meat falls 8 million tons short of requirements. It is assumedthat poultry and pig meat (white meat) will make up this deficit, which is deemedfeasible. A computer model . was used to calculate feed requirements(metabolizableenergy and protein and concentraterequirements) for projected ruminant, equine, poultry, and pig populations. Based upon 4 percent annual growth in production of meat and milk, meat production would reach 19 million tons and cow and goat milk production would reach 43 million tons. Ruminantswould provide 60 percent of the meat and all of the milk. It would be necessary for meat production from ruminants to increase 3.4 percent a year (compared with 1.9% in the past 25 years, and 1.1% in the 198Os),reaching 11 million tons by 2025. Poultry and pig meat production would have to rise 5.2 percent per year in order to supply the remaining 8 million tons. The calculations do not include contributions made by fish, which will remain small except for localities near the ocean, lakes, and rivers. On the basis of the study analysis, an increasein the production of milk and meat at the rate of 4 percent per year to 2025 is judged to be ambitious but achievable, provided substantial progress is made in the use of improved technologies,input use is increased,and an environment favorable to agricultural development (economicpolicies and institutions) is achieved. . . r i!cwwbe summa?y Supply and demand in eastern and western Africa Xl11 . .. Supply of and demandfor animal products differs in easternand western Africa. Eastem Africa (including southern Africa) is self-sufficient in meat and milk production and has the potential to meet its future needsand possibly to develop a meat surplus for export. Cattle will remain the dominant species,but small ruminants wiIl grow in importance as a sourceof red meat. Poultry and pigs will produce an increasingproportion of total meat, mostly in intensive commercial systems.MiIk production in easternAfrica will continue to expand, with a likely quadrupling of production in the next 35 years. Expansionof milk production will occur mostly on small crop-livestock farms. In contrast, some countries in western Africa, notably Cote d’Ivoire and Nigeria, have dependedheavily upon imports of milk and meat. Imports peakedin the mid-1980s. The level of future imports will depend upon national income growth, foreign exchangereservesand rates, and the ability of farmers in western Africa to produce meat and milk at competitive prices. The subhumid agroecologicalzone and higher rainfall portions of the semi-arid zone in western Africa have considerable potential for increased production of ruminant meat and milk, especiallyin crop-livestock systems. Imports of meat and milk Once a net exporter of beef, sub-Saharan Africa becamean importer during the 1960s. Currently the region (but principally West Africa) imports about 140,ooOtons of meat annually, worth $200 million. Those imports are 3 percent of the total meat consumption. African countries also import about 11 percent of the milk they consumeat a cost of about $500 million annually. If production trends do not improve, meat production in 2025 would be about 12 million tons, only 65 percent of the production growth target, and cow and goat milk production would be about 32 million tons, only 75 percentof the production growth target. This scenariowould lead to imports of 7 million tons of meat and 11 million tons of milk at a cost of $16 billion annually. That level of imports is beyond the realm of economic feasibility. Constraints to Increased Livestock Production and Productivity Feed requirements The livestock production projected for 2025 will require substantialquantities of feeds and forages. The annual forage consumptionof ruminants and equines(measuredin metabolizable energy) will rise from over 800 Meal x IO9 currently to approximately 1,500 Meal x 109 in 2025. Actual energy (forage) availability must be larger than this to make up for seasonal and geographic shortfalls and low efficiency of feed utilization. Estimates of the forage currently available to livestock in sub-Saharan Africa (excluding the humid agroecologicai zone, which is not accessibleto livestock) range from 1,400 to 1,500 McaI x 109. Therefore the neededoutput cannot be achievedfrom current forage production. Current protein suppliesare in even shorter supply than total energy. Ruminantsand equineswill require 63 million tons of Xiv Animal Agricuinue in Sub-S&ran Aji-ica %. I crude protein, but only 50 million tons are available, and the shortfall is magnified by seasonal variations in the protein content of forages. There are large differences in potential carrying capacity among agroecological zones. The rangelandsof the arid zone are near maximum production, and opportunities for increased production are minimal. In the highland zone, feed resourcesare almost completely utilized, however there are good opportunities for farmers to raise production by increaseduse of technology and inputs. The moderatestocking pressurein the semi-arid zone (espe&lly the higher rainfall areas) and the good potential in the subhumid zone provide the opportunities to produce the additional feed required for an expandedruminant and equine population. For poultry and pigs, feed grain requirementsare expectedto increase lo-fold by 2025 and oilseed meal requirementseven more. At presentmost poultry and pigs are farmyard scavengersand are fed little grain, but in the future, a large proportion will be raised on concentrate feeds in small-scale intensive systems on crop-livestock farms or commercially in confinement operations. To support a 5 percent annual growth in white meat production in sub-Saharan Africa, concentrateneededto feed poultry and pigs would increasefrom 2.5 million tons (in maize equivalents)to about 25 million tons by 2025. If sub-Saharan Africa’s grain and root crop production were to increase4 percentannually (2 % from increasedyield and 2 % from increasedharvestedarea), land planted to cereals,oils&s, and root crops in 2025 would be 173 million hectares.Of this area, about 15 million hectareswould be required to produce 25 million tons of feed grains and root crops (dry) and 6 million tons of oilseeds. This is an achievablegoal. If the 25 million tons of feed grains were to be imported, they would cost $4 billion on international markets. Serious efforts are warranted to enable African growers to capitalize on this immensepotential market for feed grains. Animal health Disease sharply reduces the productivity of livestock in all agroecological zones and production systems.Annual lossesof $4 billion representapproximatelyWone-fourth of the total value of livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. The most important animal diseaseconstraints to livestock productivity in sub-SaharanAfrica today are the parasitic and viral diseases,mainly vector transmitted, that are widely distributed, and whose severity is strongly influenced by the environment. No effective and easily administered vaccinesor chemotherapeutic agents exist for these diseases.The most important diseasesin this group are trypanosomiasis,theileriosis, cowdriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosis,dermatophilosis, and African swine fever. Epidemic diseasessuch as rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, and peste des petits ruminants are regionwide threats that, unless controlled, make livestock raising too risky for governments or farmers to invest in improvements. On-going cooperative efforts between African governments and international agencies are effectively controlling these diseases. As development progresses,a large group of infectious, parasitic, and noninfectious diseases associated with intensification will become more important constraintsto productivity. The inability of many countries to maintain effective surveillance and control measuresand Execl#ive hlmaly xv lack of effective means of delivering veterinary services throughout sub-SaharanAfrica are major impedimentsto effective animal diseasecontrol. Genotype Poor genotype imposeslimits on the productivity that is being achievedin high potential zonesand on the potential for increasesfrom new technologies. In ruminants, indigenous sourcesof resistance or tolerance to diseaseare poorly characterizedand inefficiently used in breed improvement programs. Available stocksof dairy cattle often lack the genetic capability to achievethe milk production potential of their production environment. Farming systems There is an inadequateunderstandingof the dynamics of crop-livestock farming systems, which involve a great variation in cropping patterns, market opportunities, livestock alternatives, labor, technology, and inputs. This constraint is particularly important in the subhumid zone where crop-livestock farming is in early stagesof evolution and will be of major importance in the future. Farmers’ inadequatelydeveloped skills in managing new croplivestock systemsand using new technology are btiers to raising the productivity of the livestock sector. Policy COxMraints , The livestock sector has long been subjectedto a wide variety of inappropriate govemment policies that have seriously hamperedthe developmentof animal industries in the region. Governmentpolicies tw often have favored urban consumersat the expenseof the rural producer. Foreign exchangeand trade policies have seriously distorted markets, while excessive regulation, monopolistic behaviors, and unfair competition have stifled production, and malfunctioning institutions and inadequateinfrastructure have limited producers’ accessto input suppliesand appropriatetechnologies. Constraints related to agroecological zones Arid zone. The productivity of the rangelandsand the viability of pastoral production systemsis being threatenedby expansionof cultivation. Traditional land use systemsenwurage cropping becauserights to use land are gamed by cultivation, but not by grazing. An evolving constraint is the growing use of livestock as a store of capital by urbanites, making risk avoidancea more important goal than increasedproductivity. Diseaseand inadequateveterinary delivery systemsreduce productivity. Efficient use of the rangelandsis hamperedby scarcity of information on condition of grazing lands and the absence of early warning systems during droughts. Semi-arid wn~ Declining soil fertility, inadequatedry seasonfeed, scarcewater, lack of effective veterinary services, poor infrastructure for transportation, processing, and marketing, and lack of technology all are constraintsin this zone. Subhumid zone. The low fertility, fragile soils of this zone; seasonallypoor quality forages; insufticient suppliesof coarsegrains, root crops, and oilseedsfor livestock feed; animal diseases and ineffective delivery of veterinary services;a shortageof trypanotolerant livestock; xvi Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica l . . lack of adequateinfrastructure for transportation, processing,and marketing; low productivity livestock; a lack of improved forages and legumes, high yielding cereals, and oilseeds; low nutritive value of crop residues; lack of adequatestorage for forages; and poorly developed agricultural supply servicesare the major constraintsof this zone. Highland zone. The major constraintsto increasedproduction are the lack of improved technology, inputs, and services,e.g., fertilizer, agricultural power, high yielding forages and feed crops, improved breeding stocks, feed industries, veterinary services, and input supply services,and effects of population pressureon degradationof natural resources. Humid wne. Animal diseases;a shortageof trypanotolerant breeding stock; poor quality feed; infrastructure; and infertile, fr;gile soils and climatic conditions unfavorable to livestock all are constraintsto livestock production in this zone. Institutional constraints Research. NARS in sub-SaharanAfrican countries are not generating sufficient new technology to fuel animal agricultural development..Researchproductivity ratios when measuredin output per unit of land, labor, and fertilizer are the lowest of all regions of the world. Exrension. Extension agenciesare not effective in taking new knowledge to farmers becauseof deficienciesin the structure of extensionsystemsand in functions of extensionagents, lack of cost-effective means of technology transfer, and weak linkages with research institutions. Animal health services.The presentgovernment-operated veterinary servicesare unable to provide the comprehensiveanimal health servicesneededto support animal agricultural development. Staff numbers have grown faster than the overall budgetsand many governmental servicesnow find themselveswithout the meansto operate. Still there is an increasedneed for veterinary servicesas livestock increasingly move into more humid areas with higher disease challenge, as livestock are increasingly kept by crop farmers with no traditional knowledge of livestock raising, and as livestock production intensifies. SectoraZ organizations. Producer organizations of all kinds are poorly developed, resulting in a lack of empowerment of farmers. The absenceof farmer participation in input supply, marketing, savings, lending, processing, and similar activities reduces farmer influenceon agricultural services.Effective, locally managedgrazing and water-user organizations are much needed. Eiucafion and training. Primary and secondary education does not provide farmers with knowledge and skills relevant to agriculture. Middle-level training does not preparegraduates for the changing roles in agriculture. University-level education in animal scienceand veterinary medicine’is not well focused on contemporary needsof animal agricultural development. Post-graduateeducation is not preparing researchworkers for development-oriented agricultural researchin NARS Adequacy of available land resources There are 200 million hectaresof arable land being used for food crops in sub-Saharan Africa, which will increaseto about 300 million hectaresby 2025. It curdly is croppedat an intensity of about 54 percent, therefore, nearly half the arable land lies fallow each year. The Executivesummary xvii most likely way of achieving a 4 percent growth rate is through a 2 percent a year increasein yields and a 2 percent a year increasein the land planted in cereal, oilseed, and rwt crops. In this scenario,land planted to thesecrops will increasefrom 83 to 173 million hectaresby 2025 of which 15 million hectareswould be devoted to production of feeds for poultry and pigs. There must be significant increases in the use of inputs and technology for both crops and livestock, and the productivity of both sectorsmust increasesubstantially in order to meet both food crop and animal feed needson the available land in 2025. Priorities and Strategies for Animal Agriculture Development The specific strategiesfor developmentproposedby this study are basedupon the principle of supporting, .accelerating,and helping to direct the natural forces of intensification of agriculture and the evolution and maturation of mixed crop-livestock farming systemsthat will make agriculture more productive and sustainable,while at the sametime improving the social and economicconditions of people. Strategies by agroecological zones The subhumid and wetter pom’on of the semi-arid zone. The greatest opportunity for expandingagricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa lies in the medium rainfall region-the subhumid agrcecological zone and the wetter portion of the semi-arid zone. The subhumid zone is in transition from slash-and-b;m crop farming and grazing to mixed crop-livestock farming, while much of the wetter portion of the semi-arid zone already has made the change. Development strategiesfor these zones should help acceleratethis process and increase the complementarity between crops and livestock. More expeditious meansof resolving growing conflicts betweenlivestock grazersand cultivators over land use rights are needed.High priority *shouldbe given to measures to increasesoil fertility including leguminous crops and means to encouragedevelopmentof local phosphatedeposits (including subsidies)for use as fertilizer. The substantialpotentiaI of these areas for producing animal feed from improved pastures, cultivated forages, grains, root crops, and oilseedsshould be better exploited. Effective meansto control dermatophilosisand tick-borne diseases and sustainablemeansof controlling trypanosomiasisare needed. Means to more rapidly multiply trypanotolerant breeds of cattle for the region would be particularly useful. Improvement of indigenous breeds of livestock, developmentof higher yielding varieties of cereals,rwtcrops, and oilseeds,and improved cultural practicesare important researchgoals for this zone. Infrastructure, especially transportation, processing, and marketing, are high priority needs. Fiscal, incentive, and institutional policies supportive of agriculture are essential elements in development strategies for these areas. Highkznds. In most parts of this zone, agricultural systemshave reacheda high level of intensification and crop-livestock complementarity. Increasedproductivity will depend upon use of better technology and increaseduse of inputs. Becausethis will be one of the main milk-producing areas, the needs are higher yielding forages and feed crops; improved land management;better animal health strategiesespecially for tick-borne diseases;improved animal health delivery systems; more fertilizer, feed additives, and pesticides; and genetic im- ... xwlll Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica . provement especially through cross-breeding with exotic breeds for dairy production. Improved transport, processing,and marketing infrastructure must be given a high priority. Arid zone and drier portion of the semi-atid zone. Lower priority is given to the arid zone and the drier portions of the semi-arid zone. Little can be done to economically increase the production of vegetation on the rangelands. High priority should be given to sustaining production and to preventing degradation. Controlling the expansionof cultivation into this region through improved land use systemsis an important element in the process. Establishment of locally controlled grazing and water managementsystemsis important to both sustainability and productivity. Geographic information systems for managementand monitoring of the e rangelandsuse are needed.Encouragementof outmigration of people to reduce human popula- -.. tion pressures is desirable. ‘The humid zone. This study does not support the expansionof animal agriculture in the forestedportions of the humid zone. Livestock are not important to crop agriculture in the humid zone at present, and animal production is limited by animal diseases,adverse climatic conditions, and poor quality forages. If ruminant animals are to be raised in this zone, environmentally compatible crop-livestock-treesystemsshould first be developed. -s Strategies for production systems Mixed crop-livestock systems. Support the evolution and developmentof mixed farming systemsby improving means for resolving conflicts between cultivators and graLers; develop high yielding legumes, forages, cereals, and root crops; improve the quality of crop residues as feeds through genetic means; increaseresistanceof livestock to diseasesand parasites; improve productivity of indigenous livestock; establish effective input (e.g., fertilizer) and support services (e.g., veterinary delivery systems)for these enterprises; establish infrastructure (e.g., roads, processing and marketing facilities); strengthen governmental institutions; and develop supportivefiscal, incentive, and trade policies for smallholder farming. Pastoral and agropastoral systems. Provide land use rights for grazing as well as for cultivation, and institute locally managedland and water managementsystems.Establish geographic information systemsto improve the managementof the rangelandsand to provide early warning of drought. Establish practical animal health delivery systemsbasedupon the use of auxiliaries and appropriatetechnology. Intensive commercial systems. Focus on feed supply, infrastructure, policies, and credit. Increasedproduction of feed grains, root crops, and oilseed crops and the use of byproducts and residuesare needed.Establish commercial feed industries with good quality control. Infrastructure needs include transportation and processing and marketing facilities. Policies that encourage local production of feed, protect local livestock production from dumping, and Permit importation of inputs are needed. Wildltj2 and integrated wildlijblivestock production. Expand the use of wildlife to increasefood production and income from the rangelands. Support the exploitation of wildlife and integrated wildlife-livestock production systemsfor tourism and safari hunting to increase ‘income generation. Involve local communities in control and shareincome with local people. Develop markets for game meat. , I AExecufive summary Lessons from animal agricultural development projects xix Livestock developmentprojects in the past have had both successes and failures. Most of the successfulprojects have been mixed crop-livestock projects, such as smallholder dairy development (Kenya), animal traction (West Africa), smallholder systems of fattening (Cameroon, Nigeria, and Senegal), and epidemic diseasecontrol (sub-Saharan Africa). Most of the disappointmentshave occurred as a result of efforts to increasethe productivity of the rangelandsand the off-take of animals in pastoral production systems.Most of the latter projects were baaed upon an insufficient understandingof African rangelands and the pastoral systemsthat utilize them. Thus many of the projects were improperly directed. Lessonsfrom theseprojects and recent advancesin the understandingof livestock production in the region will allow future projects to be better targetedand more successful. Strategies for research Feed supply. In the arid zone, low rainfall precludes significant increasesin biomass production. The emphasisshould be to sustainpresentproduction levels. Monitoring systems are neededto forecast forage production to assistin timely introduction of drought relief, and low-cost grazing managementsystemsshould be identified to ensurelong-term sustainableresourceuse. In the semi-arid and subhumid zones, low protein and energy content and seasonal fluctuations in supplies of natural forages are the critical issues. Researchis neededon improved fodder crops, leguminous trees, and forages for pastoral and crop-livestock systems; improving the digestibility of lignccellulosic feeds; protein nutrition (nonprotein nitrogen, bypass protein, and protein supplementation); mineral nutrition and supplementation; and improved methodsof storing high protein fodders. These priorities require increasedattention to the physiological basisof nutrition. In the highlands, researchshould concentrateon overcoming the growing shortageof feedstuffs by developing high yielding and more nutritious forage and protein crops and improved production practices. For poultry and pigs, researchon the strategiesand technologiesto produce the coarse grains, root crops, and oilseedsis neededto provide feed for white meat production. Animd health. The highest priority for animal health researchis to develop sustainable meansto prevent and control the environmentally related diseasesincluding trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosis,cowdriosis, and dermatophilosis. Researchis neededto improve available vaccines and diagnostic technologies, to develop thermostable vaccines to replace today’s thermosensitivevaccines, to identify sourcesof genetic resistanceto diseases and parasites, and to develop strategiesto minimize the effects of diseasesof intensification under the unique agroecology, production systems, and managementstrategiesfound in subSaharanAfrica. Researchon improvement of the delivery of veterinary servicesto all production systemsis needed. Genezic improvement. Researchis neededon characterizationof indigenous livestock breeds, the genetics of adaptation to environmental stressessuch as heat and water balance, f xx Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca diseaseresistance,and means to utilize these characteristicsin the improvement of livestock using methodsranging from conventionalbreeding to biotechnology. Farming systems and livestock manugemeru.Researchon improvement of the productivity of farming systemsin different agroclimates with different cropping patterns, livestock species,production technologies,production goals, and marketing opportunities is neededfor mixed crop-livestock farming systems throughout sub-SaharanAfrica. Farming systems researchmust be highly site-specific. Livestock management researchis particularly important in newly evolving production systemswhere traditions of livestock managementare not well established. Nanual resources. High priority must be placed upon researchon managing infertile and fragile soils of the region, adapting to changing ecology causedby widespreadintensification of agriculture, and protecting tropical rain forests. Researchon the ecology and use of the rangelandsis neededto develop sustainablemanagementstrategiesfor this important resource. Policy research. Livestock policy researchis required to provide African decision makers with well-founded policy alternatives and to document the important role of animal agriculture in the economy in order to marshal1political support for the sector. Key priorities are the developmentof indigenous capacity for data collection; researchprograms that addresskey policy changesneededto ensure economically feasible livestock development, to support appropriate technology, to protect fragile lands, and to develop sustainableproduction systems; and to analyze the effects of major macroeconomicadjustments(exchangerate, trade, and subsidy policies) on the sector. Institutional strategy for research The quality and effectivenessof the institutions that conduct the research,educationand extensionin Africa more than any &her element in the processwill determine how well this region feeds its people. The agricultural research system of sub-SaharanAfrica comprises IARCs, regional institutions, and NARS. The NARS are the focal points of the system. They identify researchable problems, conduct research,and provide the primary linkages with extension services,educational institutions, the private sector, NGOs, donors, and international organizations. NARS as a group are not generating sufficient new technology to fuel agricultural development.Their improvement must be given a high priority. Regional structuresare evolving that have promise of fulfilling important roles in agricultural researchin sub-S&ran Africa. Becausemost African countries are confronted with so many problems and demandsand the amount of researchneededto propel animal agriculture toward a more productive mode is so great, cooperation and collaboration on a regional basis may be the only fiscally viable way to conduct the animal agricultural researchneededto increasethe productivity of the sector. Internation& agricultural research centers. The CGIAR provides the organizational framework for funding and management of 16 international agricultural researchcenters, 11 of which have locations in sub-SaharanAfrica. IITA, ICRAF, WARDA, ILCA, and IL&AD have their headquartersin the region. IFPRI and ISNAR devote a high proportion of their researcheffort on sub-SaharanAfrican problems. ICRISAT, CIP, CIMMYT, and CIAT work with NARS on their target crops from satellite basesof operations in Africa. IARCs conduct ExecutiveSummary xxi strategicand applied researchon problems of an international character,Their chief clients are NARS, which utilize and adapt the findings of IARCs. ILCA conducts strategic and applied researchon animal production and management relevant to the needsof the livestock industries in sub-Saharan Africa. It has defined factors that influence the output of indigenous livestock systemswith particular reference to pastoral systemsand has designedinterventions to increasethe productivity of crop-livestock farming throughout sub-Saharan Africa. ILRAD conductsresearchon diseases of livestock. It has concentratedon immunological aspectsof the control of trypanosomiasisand theileriosis and on bovine immunology. IFPRI conductsresearchon food production, trade, and food security issues, while ISNAR devotes 50 percent of its effort to strengtheningNARS in sub-Saharan Africa. ILCA has a cooperative program with ICRISAT and stations scientists on the IITA campus. For the future, ILRAD’s researchagendashould be broadenedto include strategic and applied research on diseasesassociatedwith the environment with particular reference to vector-borne and associated diseases, i.e., trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis,cowdriosis, and dermatophilosis. It also should conduct researchon genetic resistanceto diseaseand parasitesand strategicresearchon diseases of intensification as needed. ILCA should continue to focus on strategic and applied aspectsof animal production, however, its program should move upstream. ILCA’s research agenda also should include studieson feed supply, utilization of lignocellulosic feedstuffsand protein metabolism in ruminants, characterizationof indigenouslivestock breedsand the utilization of desirablehealth and productivity traits in genetic improvement programs, resource managementissues, and livestock policies. There is need for a researchstation located in the subhumid zone to conduct strategic and applied researchof an international character on crop-livestock systemsin this zone. This program should be developed at IITA through cooperative arrangementswith ILCA, IFPRI and ISNAR should continue their important efforts in sub-Saharan Africa, and ICIPE should continue to conduct researchon sustainable and environmentally sound meansof controlling tsetse, ticks, and other vectors of animal diseases.ICRAF should expand research involving multipurpose tree speciesin crop-livestock-treesystems. Strategic redirection of plant-oriented IARCs Most IARCs were establishedwith a commodity focus, and all commodity-oriented centers except ILCA and ILRAD were devoted to food crops. The objective of the CGIAR now has been broadenedto include (among other things) income generation as well as food’ production. Livestock play an important role in income generationin Africa, especially for the rural poor. Also crop-livestock production systemsare the most efficient and sustainableagricultural systemsin densely populated areasin which markets, technology, and inputs are not readily available-a condition characteristic of much of sub-SaharanAfrica. If the CGIAR systemis to respondto this broadenedvision of its role and the changing nature of agriculture in Africa, plant-oriented IARCs should modify their programs to take animal feed into consideration when they conduct researchon target crops. Nonruminant animals are becoming an increasingly important sourceof food throughout sub-Saharan Africa. There is need to improve xxii Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica the quality of feed for these species,particularly root crops, oilseeds, cereals, and their byproducts. In view of these changes, it is appropriate to consider a strategic redirection of all plant-oriented IARCs, so that attention is given to animal nutritional needs, particularly of residuesand by-products of target crops and the production of feed for monogastric animals. There is need, too, to consider how the efforts of all the IARCs operating in Africa can best contribute to an overall strategy of sustainableagriculture built upon crop-livestock systemsas well as on food crop production. New coordinating mechanisms betweenIARCs are needed. New perspectives for agriculmrd research in sub-Sah~ranAfica. The problems confronting animal agricultural developmentin sub-Saharan Africa are numerousand complex and their solution will require new technology, new genetic stocks, and new understandingof technological, social, and economic relationships. Much of the researchon specific technologiesto be used by farmers must be. generated by NARS. Animal-oriented NARS in sub-Q&u-an Africa are having difficulty maintaining productive and relevant researchprograms and probably cannot conduct the needed research independently. A comprehensiveregional approach may be the only fiscally soundway that it can be accomplished. It is recommendedthat a collaborative approach, built upon a series of regional compacts, such as SACCAR, be consideredas the primary meansby which donors attempt to help NARS prepare for the challengesof the 21st century. This is the approach that SPAAR has taken, SPAAR, however, does not have the authority to institute a single strategy for institution building and researchsupport representingthe joint efforts of all donors. To this end it is recommendedthat SPAAR be strengthened or, if that is not feasible, that a Council for Agricultural Researchfor Sub-Saharan Africa (CARSA) be establishedto provide a mechanismby which donors can join forces, pool resources,and together establisha single, coordinated, coherent strategy supporting NARS, and in cooperation with African countries establish a longterm commitment to strengtheningthe researchcapabilities of NARS. Strategy for extension, education, and support services Successfuldevelopment depends upon improving human capital and establishing the conditions under which knowledge can be used. In sub-Saharan Africa, all of these functions are hamperedby weak national institutional structures. Animal agn‘cultural extension. Agricultural extension in the region has had mixed results, however there are examples of successfulprojects. Although there is much general knowledge to extend, a major constraint is the limited amount of new technology generatedby NARS. Specific groups such as smallholdersand women have receivedtoo little attention from extensionand must be specially targeted. Extension systemsshould be structuredso that extension agents are more responsiveto farmers and to NARS and more closely linked with research workers. All livestock production, range management,and animal health extension should be placed under a single agricultural extension service and extension personnel should limit their activities to education. Extension agentsshould draw upon farmer innovations as a sourceof improved technology in addition to traditional sourcesof information. Specific extension programs must be designed for pastoral-agropastoralsystems, mixed crop-livestock farms, and intensive commercial enterprises. I , Becufive Swnmary’ .. . xxlll Animal health services.The effectivenessof animal health care has seriously declined in the last two decades because governmentscannot effectively provide all the neededservices. Veterinary services that directly benefit individual producers should be privatized. Govemments should only provide servicesthat have a broad public benefit. New veterinary delivery systemsthat more extensively utilize auxiliaries are needed.Diseasediagnosisand recording is inadequate, creating numerous problems in diseasecontrol. Improved diagnostic capability, particularly through the use of low-cost field tests, is needed. . Animal vaccine production in Africa must be better rationalized and privatized as much as possible. Quality control must be improved and provisions made for testing and licensing recombinantvaccines. Sectoral and rural organizations. Farmer empowerment must be a major objective of agricultural developmentin sub-Saharan Africa. Farmers have little influence over policy, research,extension, or education issuesthat directly affect their welfare. Farmer organizations, cooperatives,and professional organizationsare not well developedand their formation needs to be encouragedby governments and donors. Farmer organizations can be important as sourcesof inputs and for servicessuch as in marketing, savings, and credit and as sourcesof feedback regarding the efficacy of government services. Grazing managementorganizations are critically neededto managecommunal grazing lands. Water user associations,whenever possiblelinked to land management organizations,are needed. Governmentsand donors should encouragethe developmentof the private sector as an essentialcomponent of the agricultural developmentstrategy for the region. Marketing, input distribution, processing, credit, and many other services are best provided by the private sector. Education and training. Great strides have been made in education in the region since independence.Early rates of growth, however, have not been sustainedin the 1980s. Improvement in the quality of output of all levels of education, primary, secondary,and tertiary, are important to animal agricultural developmentand will assumegreater importance as intensification proceedsand agriculture grows in sophistication. All countries need to review training requirements in agriculture. Primary and secondary schools,which educatemost agricultural workers, should provide introductory levels of understandingof agriculture, livestock, and food. Farmer training for specialized skills needs to be expanded and middle-level training reviewed in view of the changing needs of agriculture. University-level educationin animal production and in veterinary medicine needsto be reviewed to determine how best to educateanimal production and health graduatesto meet the rapidly changing needsof the region, and how educationalinstitutions can best cooperateand collaborate to achieve this goal in the most cost-effective manner. Post-graduateeducation in animal production and in veterinary medicine needs to be better focused on agricultural development. xxiv Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica Environmental Issues Relating to Animal Agriculture I . As world populations increaseand industrialization expands, there is growing concern about the impact of human activities on the global environment. What effect might the development of animal agriculture, as recommendedin this report have upon the environment? Desemjbrion. Livestock have been charged with wholesale devastation of African rangelands-irreversible destruction of the soils (desertification) and adversebut reversible effects on soils and vegetativeresources(degradation).The preponderanceof scientific evidence has failed to show that widespreaddesert&&ion has occurred, although areasaround human habitationsand water points have been severelydamaged.Heavy grazing has changedvegeta- ’ tive cover, but has not seriously decreasedthe productivity of the rangelands. The greatest : threat to this region wmes from growing human populations and expansionof cultivation. It is arguable whether or not the Saharais moving southward. Whatever the case may be, there is no solid evidencelinking livestock to this process. Desrrucrion of tropical rain forests. Population growth leading to the expansion of shifting cultivation is the principal causeof destruct& of African tropical rain forests. Livestock are not important componentsof rain forest agricultural systems,and thus are not an important factor in regard to destruction of Africa’s tropical rain forests. Disease, climatic conditions, and poor quality of forages make the humid agroecological zone unfavorable for livestock production. WiZdZij2 resources. There is an on-going reduction in Africa’s wildlife resourcesresulting from human population growth, expansionof cultivation, and overexploitation. Unless population pressuresdecrease,the processwill continue. Livestock and wildlife are compatible in most of the African rangelands. Greenhouse gases. African livestock are a very minor factor compared with other causesof increasesin greenhousegases.Through methaneproduction, African livestock contribute only 0.3 percent of the annual increasein potential global warming summing up The rapidly growing human populations of sub-SaharanAfrica are driving major demographic, social, and economic changesand will transform agriculture in the countries of the region. There are excellent possibilities for increasing production of foods of animal origin with the most promising being (1) the expansion of crop-livestock farming in the subhumid zone and adjacent wetter portions of the semi-arid zone, (2) increased productivity in the highland zone through expandeduse of technology and inputs, and (3) expansionof intensive commercial poultry and pig production systems.The analysis conducted in this study reveals that the 4 percent annual increasein the production of animal products neededto provide adequate food for the growing population is feasible, provided good progress is made toward increasing feed supplies, controlling animal disease, genetic improvement of livestock, strengthening institutions, and establishing an enabling environment in regard to economic policies. Assessmentof Animal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa 1 Introduction The human population of sub-Saharan Africa is growing at an unprecedented rate. The 49 countries in the region currently have a population of 500 million-up from 250 million in 1965. According to the World Bank, the population is expectedto reach 676 million in 2000 and 1,294 million by 2025. Sub-Saharan countries, cirrently hard pressedto provide their citizenswith food and other basic necessities of life, are confronted with the overwhelming challenge of providing for 800 million additional people in the short span of 35 years. Their work is doubly difficult becausemost of thesecountries are just beginning the complex task of economic development, institution building, and human resourcedevelopmentrequired of modem states.Widespreadeconomic stagnationand poverty, political unrest, and declining per capita agricultural production seriously complicate the picture. Unless decisive actions are taken to reveise these trends, economic decline will lead to severe social and poiitical problems and environmentaldeterioration of monumentalproportions. In developing strategiesto support agricultural and economic developmentin sub-&haran African countries for the coming decades,many factors that wiIl directly impact upon food demand, agricultural productivity, rural development,and environmental quality must be considered. These include population increases, income growth, urbanization, technological advances,and environmental deterioration, to name but a few. Many of the economic and demographic changes occurring in sub-SaharanAfrican countries are generating increasing demand for f&s of animal origin and exerting pressuresfor expansionof animal production that cannotbe ignored. What then is the role of animals in economic development in the region? Much has been learned in the last 2 decadesabout the place of animals in economic and agricultural development in sub-Saharan Africa; about the critical role that they can play in the intensification of agriculture and in the developmentof sustainableagricultural production systems,and about their impact on the environment. It is essentialthat this information be understoodand taken into account when planning and implementing agricultural and economic development schemes.In no sector of sub-Saharan agriculture is the need to replaceold paradigms with new principles more important than it is in the animal sector. This report has two purposes:first, to provide an integrated, coherent, over-archingassessmentof the place of animals in agricultural and economic development in subsaharan Africa and, second,to recommendstrategiesand program actions that will enable animal agriculture to contribute to the enhancementof food production, economic development, and hu- 2 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica . man welfare in sub-SaharanAfrica on an equitable, sustainable, and environmentally sound basis. The assessment begins with a review of population growth in sub-Saharan Africa and a discussionof how population pressureswill lead to intensification and the expansionof smallholder mixed-crop-livestock agricultural systems(Chapter 2). The roles that livestock play in, and their contributions to, the people of the region are explored (in Chapter 3), followed by a description of the animal production context-the agr~logical zones of sub-SaharanAfrica (Chapter 4). Future demand for foods of animal origin are quantified and the feasibility of increasing animal production at the level required to accommodatethe expanding population is investigated,taking into account the demographicand income changesthat have been projected (Chapter 5). Constraintsto increasedproduction are explored (Chapter 6), as are strategiesfor livestock development (Chapter 7) and for research (Chapter 8). Institutional strategies directed toward strengthening research (Chapter 9), technology transfer, and support services (Chapter 10) are described and recommendationsmade. Finally high priority actions for the next 10 years are enumeratedin the context of needsuntil 2025 in Chapter 11. The main environmental issuesrelating to expansionof livestock production are reviewed in the appendix. The primary force generating change in sub-SaharanAfrica during the next 35 years will be the expansion of the human population which will greatly increase the demand for food. Population growth, both rural and urban, will drive intensification of agriculture and the evolution of mixed-crop-livestock systemsin much of the region asthe most efficient and sustainable means of food production. Increasing demand for food by greater numbers of urban dwellers will stimulate the commercialization of agriculture. Expanding demand for food will be met by increasing use of inputs and technology in the production processesas dictated by economic considerations.The major constraintsto greater livestock production are year-round feed supply and animal health followed closely by institutional, natural resource, land use, and policy issues. Strategiesfor developmentshould be basedupon support and accelerationof the evolutionary processes of intensification, expansionof mixed crop-livestock farming, and increasing the output of these systemswith improved technology and inputs. If decisive stepsare taken, the World Rank goal of a 4 percent annual increasein food production can be met in regard to meat and milk, and animals can contribute more to the sustainability and productivity of crop , production. Providing production systemsare intensified and that soil and water conservation practicesare applied, there is sufficient land in sub-Saharan Africa for expansionof both crop and livestock production. Requirementsfor the generationand transfer of new technology can be met provided changesare made in researchand extension institutions. It is clear that a productive and economically viable animal agriculture can contribute much to economic development in the region. J 2 Population Pressures Wiil Lead to Mixed Crop-Livestock Farming Between now and 2025, enormous demographic and social changeswill sweep subSaharanAfrica. Population growth, urbanization, and income changewill stimulate the intensification of agricultural systems and profoundly alter the prospects for sustained economic development. The driving force for change will be a near tripling of human population. Population growth will be accompaniedby a dramatic migration of people from rural to urban Population Growth Leads to CropLivestock Faming Africa is growing rapidly and will continue to do 1. The population of sub-Saharan so in the foreseeablefuture (Bulatao et al. 1990). 2. 3. Population pressures on agricultural land drive agriculture toward intensification (Boserup 1965, 1981; Pingali et al. 1987). Where both crops and livestock are raised, technologyis low, inputs scarce,and marketspoorly developed,population pressures lead to the evolution of croplivestock systemsas the most efficient and sustainablemeansof increasingoff-take from a fixed land base(McIntire et al. 1992). Productivity gains from crop-livestock systemslevel off, but can be further enhancedby the use of technology and inputs (McIntire et al. 1992). Growth of population and urbanization will increasethe demandfor foods of animal origin (PA0 1986d:11). 4. 5. areas, which will create new patterns of food production, marketing, and consumption. The outlook for future income growth and economic activity is unclear. If African economiescan repeat their performanceof the 196Os,living standardswill rise; if the slow economic growth of the 1980scontinues, human welfare will suffer. In either event, large additional quantities of food will be needed. Importing sufficient food to fill the demand is not feasible. It would Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAjiica Annual additions to the population of sub-Saharan Africa MllllOtb4 3sr Population: Sub-Saharan Africa and China, 1990 and 2025 Milllonr Chlna 30 - 2.2%/vr : :,. 26 3,l%/yr i ,. 20 3.,$,yr 16 - 1. : -:r : : ‘::I. : .. ;.:, ..I..: . :.:I 10 2.6%/yr 6k ii* 1970 1990 2000 2025 exhaust foreign exchange reserves, discourage agricultural and economic development, and IikeIy would be beyond the economic reach of the poorest and most nutritionally deprived segmentsof the population. 2.1. Growth of Human Popdatiow The stark reality facing the economies of sub-SaharanAfrica is that in less than 35 years, the population will increase2.6 times, reaching 1,294 million (table 2.1), almost equal to China’s projected population for 2025. This amountsto nearly 800 million additional people to feed, clothe, house, educate, and employ in a very short period. Twenty-five years ago, there were fewer than half as many people in the region. Sub-SaharanAfrica has the most rapidly growing population of any region of the world. Average annual population growth was 3.2 percent in the 1980s. It is projected to be 3.1 percent in the 199Os,2.7 percent between 1990 and 2025, and 2.2 percent by 2025. In comparison, the annual population increaseduring the 1990sfor South Asia is projected to be 1.9 percent; for Latin America and the Caribbean, 1.8 percent; and for the developing world as a whole, including sub-Saharan Africa, 1.9 percent (World Bank 199Oc:159).The population growth projections imply that by 2025, sub-Saharan Africa still wiIl be adding over 28 million people per year-an increasegreater than the population of Canadain 1991. Popdiuion Pressures TABLE 2.1 Population projections for sub-Saharan Africa, 1990-2025. YeOr 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 Population (millions) 498 580 676 784 902 1,028 1,159 1,294 Annual growth rate (4%5-year peril) 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Source: Derived from Bulatao et al. i990. The spreadof AIDS is forcing demographers to reexaminepopulation projections. Way and Staneclci 1991:11-12) .estimate that AIDS may reduce population growth rates in subSaharanAfrica by 0.4 percentagepoint by 2015. That suggeststhat the population of subSaharanAfrica could be as much as 50 million less than expectedin 2015. Even so, a drop of that magnitude will not materially alter any of the projections relevant to this report or the economic developmentof the region. The population growth of recent decadeshas already brought about major changesin sub-Saharan Africa countries that are drastically influencing natural resourceuse, social change and economic development. Population increases,along with other demographic, social, and economic changesresulting from theseincreases,will define the nature of agricultural development in the region over the coming decades. 2.2. Population Increases Negate Economic Growth Sub-SaharanAfrica has had slower economic growth than other major regions of the world in recent years. During the 198Os,the gross domestic product (GDP) in sub-Saharan Africa grew by 1 percent per year, comparedwith 4.3 percent in all developing countries and 3.0 percent in industrial countries. As a consequence of rapid population growth, however, the per capita GDP in sub-Saharan Africa decreased 2.2 percent a year during the 1980s (World Bank 199Oc:16). Thus, over the decade, per capita GDP in the region fell by nearly one fourth. Reducedper capita GDP has resulted in lower personal incomes (table 2.2), curtailed infrastructure investments, and major increasesin public debt. Yet, becausethe worst economic problems of the 1980sare believed to have moderated, the World Rank projects a 0.5 percent annual increasein per capita GDP for the 1990s (World Rank 199Oc:16).Slight improvementsin economic performance will not, however, correct the deficiencies created during the 1980s(Gilles 1991). Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Aji-ica TABLE 2.2 Gross national income per capita, sub-saharan Africa (in 1980 US dollars). YKU 1968 Sub-Saharan Africa 420 490 540 570 480 470 450 440 Excluding Nigeria 400 1970 19’35 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 410 380 380 350 350 340 340 Source: World Bank 1990b. The World Bank estimatesthat sub-Q&ran African economiesmust expand by 4 to 5 percent annually to “achieve food security, provide jobs, and register a modestimprovement in living standards” (World Bank 1989:xi). With population growing at 2.75 percent a year, a 4 to 5 percent economic growth implies significant increasesin per capita income. Becauseagriculture is such a large component of the GDP of most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, it will be greatly affected by the stateof the economiesand, at the sametime, a major determinant of the economic welfare of the countries of the region. 2.3. Urbanization As elsewherein the developing world, cities in sub-Saharan Africa are growing much faster than the overall rate of population increase. Between 1980 and 1988 the region’s urban population increasedat 6.9 percent a year, or over twice as fast as population growth (World Bank 1989:278). Urban areas now account for nearly 30 percent of the population of subSaharanAfrica. By 2025, however, more than one-half of the population (table 2.3) or approximately 700 million people are expectedto live in urban areas. At present the urban population of sub-Saharan Africa is not concentratedin a few of the largest cities. Only 36 percent ‘live in their country’s largest city and 41 percent live in cities of more than 500,000 persons ,(World Bank 1989:278). Urbanization will have a profound effect on agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica. It will changepatternsof food demandbecausecity dwellers produce little of their own food. Thus as a larger proportion of the people live in urban areas, the demand for food will create markets for produce and encouragecommercialization.of agriculture. As farming moves from subsistence toward a commercial mode, greater specialization in production, transportation, and marketing will occur, making these processesmore efficient. Another influence on demand will be the tendencyof urban populations in Africa to have larger incomesthan do rural people (FAO 1986b:16). People with higher incomes tend to purchasehigher quality foods including Population Pressures 7 TABLE 2.3 Urban populations as a percent of total, subSaharan Africa, 1960 to 2025. 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 2000 2010 2025 Source: United Nations 1985. 11.8 13.7 15.9 18.8 22.0 25.4 29.0 36.3 43.5 54.2 fresh fruits and vegetables,meat, eggs, and dairy products (PA0 1986d:12). Thus the demand for foods of animal origin will increaseas urbanization progresses. 2.4. Rural Population Growth In 1990, 354 million people, 71 percent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, lived in rural areas. Despite substantialmigration to urban arm, the rural population of the region will rise more than 68’ percent by 2025 reaching 592 million. Arable land will be cropped more intensively, and the proportion of the arable land devoted to fallow and pasturewill decline significantly. Thirty percent of the people in sub-SaharanAfrica are classified as being extremely poor (less than $275 annual consumption in 1985 dollars), which is the highest proportion of any region of the world (World Bank 199Oc:28-29).The extremely poor overwhelmingly live in rural areas: 96 percent in Kenya; 86 percent in C6te d’Ivoire, and 80 percent in Ghana (World Rank 199Oc:31).Although this pattern is similar to that of SoutheastAsia, it is in stark contrast with Latin America where only 12 percent are classified as extremely poor. Rural areas have 66 percent of the extremely poor in Guatemala,59 percent in Panama,52 percent in Peru, 37 percent in Mexico, and 20 percent in Venezuela. Agricultural development will preferentially benefit the economic statusof the extremely poor in sub-Saharan Africa (Gilles 1991). 2.5. Population Growth Will Fuel Intensification Agriculture of The pattern of the-rapid population increasein sub-SaharanAfrica- expanding rural populations subsistingon a fixed land baseand growing urban populations creating marketsfor 8 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica -will inexorably lead to intensification of agriculture. Intensification inagricultural products volves more intensive cultivation of the land base, use of more labor, improved technology suchas genetic stocksand traction, and more inputs such as fertilizer and chemicals in order to gain more output from a unit of land. The alternativesare outmigration of people or starvation (Lele and Stone 1989:9). Although some of the pressureon land is being relieved by migration to cities, the agricultural land pressurethroughout sub-Saharan Africa will grow substantially. The rural population of the region increasedat 2.2 percentper year in the 1980s. Population pressure,by creating a scarcity of land and increasing the price of land relative to that of labor, results in more intensive use of land (Boserup 1965, 1981). Thus increasing population densities will favor the adoption of intensification-oriented technologies such as animal traction (Pingali et al. 1987:5). Although population pressure itself will not causeincreasedoutput per unit of land or of labor input, it greatly assiststhe processif conditions are favorable for growth. 2.6. Role of Livestock in Intensification of Agriculture African Conditions under Animals are an important component of the processes of intensification of agriculture under sub-SaharanAfrican conditions. Mcintire et al. (1992:23-46) have characterized the evolution of crop-livestock interactions as follows: livestock enter into the farming system when population pressureexpandsthe use of land to grow crops and reducesfallow and pasture to the point that farmers seek substitutesto maintain fertility. As an initial responsein climates suitable to livestock, farmers paddock animals on cropland or otherwise collect and use manure. As population pressuresincreasefurther, farmers find they must use more intensive technology including heavier application of manure and fertilizer in order to increaseproduction. To obtain more manure for crops, they shift from paddocking to systems of collection, processing, and incorporation. Herders in the meantime depend more and more on crop residuesas a sourceof feed, and they also begin to grow crops. The next step is a shift from livestock systemsthat are basedon field grazing of crop residuesand pasturesto systems in which animals are confined and more and more of the residuesare harvestedand preserved, resulting in more intensive use of theseproducts and more efficient use of animal wastes. Finally hand labor is replaced by animal traction and mechanization, which have become economic becauseof the high intensity of land use that has been achieved. As a further but less common step, farmers begin to grow legumes and forages specifically to enhancethe productivity of their livestock enterprises,which in turn increasessoil fertility and crop productivity. Examples of smallholder farming systems in which ruminants are held on the farm year-round come primarily from countries that have scarcearable land, such as Japan,Taiwan, parts of India, and the Kenyan and Ethiopian highlands (Delgado 1989b:353). “This leads to the general hypothesisthat mixed farming is a practice that permits higher labor inputs per unit of land in a profitable manner,” Delgado observes. Key elements in the contribution of livestock to intensification are traction (power), manure (fertilizer), and enhancedincome (cash)per unit of land. In Burkina Faso the net crop income per peak labor hour of farmers using animal traction was 28 percent higher than the in- ‘ . Popularion PressUres 9 come of farmers using hoe cultivation (Delgado 1989b:355). Net crop income for total labor hours was the samefor both groups becauseof the labor required for care of animals. Most of labor for care of animals, however, comesat times when it is not required for crop production. 2.7. , CropLivestock Systems Are More Efficient than Specialized Systems Observationsreported by McIntire et al. (1992:25-28) reveal that as population pressurescauseanimal agriculture systemsto become more intensified, mixed crop-livestock systems become more efficient than specializedsystemsof crops and livestock production. These investigators found that under low population densities and low disease stress, specialized herding and cultivation is cheaperthan in integratedsystems.This is true becauseuse of fallow is cheaperthan manure as a meansof enhancingsoil fertility. Fallow requires less labor, and hand tools are cheaperthan animal traction in fallow-based systems.Open grazing of pasture and fallow is the sourceof animal feed, and crop residuesare unimportant when land is plentiful. There also are important economiesof scalein specializedlivestock production. McIntire et al. (1992:28) provide evidencethat as population pressureson land grow, cropping increasingly replacespastureand fallow, and manure and crop residuesboth become more valuable. These authorsplotted animal production costs, feed, labor for animal care, and information costs associatedwith animal mobility against level of intensity of farming. They report that the costs of producing a tropical animal unit decrease as farming intensity rises. Increasedefficiency results in part from having the manure and residueson the farm where they are used, thus transportationcostsare minimal. At high levels of intensification the trend is reversed. Efficiency gains from intensification eventually plateau. Attaining higher levels of productivity requires greater useof technology and inputs. 3 The PIace of Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa 3.1. Overview For centuries, livestock have played an important role in the lives of the people of subSaharanAfrica, providing sustenance,transport, and protection against a harsh environment. In the drier areas not suited to crop production, where weather patterns are highly variable, pastoral and agropastoralsystemsevolved as the most effective ways to utilize the vast rangelands of the continent. In these systemsherders coped with changing weather conditions by moving animals to areas where feed could be found. Over time the livestock populations of these areas grew until they came into relative equilibrium with the carrying capacity of the range. Mortality in herds is extensivefollowing severedroughts, but animal numbers are built up during periods of adequatemoisture. Pastoral systems,and agropastoral systemsin which cultivation is combined with herding, havechangedIittle over the centuries. In the higher rainfall regions, the subhumid and humid agroecological zones, livestock raising did not flourish becauseof the presenceof the diseasetrypanosomiasis,which is transmitted by the tsetsefly. In the portions of the subhumid zone most hospitable to people, bushfallow crop farming becamethe dominant form of agriculture. It was at the margins between the wetter and the drier areasand in the highlands-areas that have high productive potential but are less threatenedby animal and human diseases -where human population pressureson agricultural land increasedand mixed crop-livestock farming systemsevolved as a result. Today, the integrity of the rangeland systemsof livestock production in the arid and semi-arid zones is being threatenedby high human populations, increasedcultivation, and the cutting of trees for fuel. Not only is livestock production affected, but potentially severeland degradationis occurring as well. In the subhumid zone as human habitation, control measures for tsetse, and chemotherapyreduce the risk of trypanosomiasis,livestock production is expanding and mixed crop-livestock agriculture is evolving. In the highlands, rising agricultural population pressurescontinue to drive intensification and the adoption of mixed livestock-crop farming systems.In some highland areas, improved technology and the use of off-farm inputs is resulting in higher levels of productivity. Around major cities, especially in coastal areas where imported feed grains are readily available, commercialized systemsof intensive poultry, pig, and dairy production basedupon modem technologiesand inputs have sprung up in recent years. 12 Animal Agriculmre in Sub-SaharanAfrica 3.2. Composition of the Sub-Saharan African Livestock Herd The large numbers of animals in sub-Saharan Africa indicate that domesticatedspecies play an important role in supporting human populations in the region and in generating income and economic activity. Sub-Saharan African livestock comprise 162 million cattle, 127 million sheep, 147 million goats, 13 million camels, 11 million pigs, 8 million donkeys, 3 million horses 1.5 milIion mules, and 631 million chickens (FAO 1989). The distribution by country of thesespecies, except for camelsand equines,is provided in table 3.1. In order to expresslivestock numbers in terms that reflect the large disparity in body size of different species, livestock biomass can be aggregated into tropical livestock units (T’LU). A tropical livestock unit is the equivalent of an animal of 250 kilograms liveweight (Jahnke 1982). On this basis, sub-Saharan Africa has 168 million TLUs (table 3.2), or 0.37 TLU/person. The density of livestock per person is higher than that of many other regions. Using the same factors to aggregatelivestock populations, Asia has 0.20 TIN/person. West Asia and North Africa has 0.33 TLU/person. The Latin American and Caribbeanregion, however, has 0.67 TLU/person. The world as a whole has0.30 TLU/person. Over the past 25 years, the numbers of all the major domestic animal speciesin subSaharanAfrica have increased.Total TLUs rose from 112 million in 1961-63to 168 million in 1986-88, an averageannual growth rate of 1.7 percent (table 3.2). However, some speciesexperienced more rapid growth than others. The number of ruminants-cattle, camels, sheep, and goats-grew at 1.6 percent a year, poultry at 3.6 percent, and pigs at 4.0 percent. Despite rapid growth in inventories of poultry and pigs, these speciestogether accounted for only 5 percent of the total TLUs in 19,86-88. Both poultry and pig production, for which good technology is available for commercial operations, grew faster than human populations over the 25year period. 3.3. Contribution of Livestock to the Economies of SubSaharan Africa r Agriculture dominates the economies of most countries in sub-SaharanAfrica where today 70 percent of the population lives in rural areas. For the region as a whole, agriculture contributed 32 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP) in 1988 (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1990). Livestock commodity output-meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides, and skins-was worth $11.8 billion in 1988 (measuredin 1979-81 international dollars) (table 3.3). These calculations are basedupon both marketed and subsistence production. Thus livestock production in the region constituted 8 percentof total GDP and 25 percent of agriculturaI domestic product. Within sub-Saharan Africa, 10 countries accountedfor about 70 percent of the value of animal production and 5 countries, Sudan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania, accounted for one-half. Conventional GDP calculations do not consider the farm-level value of draft power or of manure. Including their value would raise livestock’s share of agricultural domestic product by half (ILCA 1987:19), bringing it to about 35 percent of agricultural domestic product. . . llte Place of Livestock TABLE 3.1 13 SuMaharan AT&a livestock population, 1988 (selectedcountries and animals). countly hgola Benin Botswana Burkina Faao Cattle (thousands) 3,400 Sheep (tllousancls) 265 860 220 2,972 350 2,897 120 2,245 64 1,500 414 23,400 84 200 2,500 460 7,300 GO& (thousands) 975 960 1,100 5,198 750 Pigs (thousands) 480 648 9 500 80 1,237 382 12 48 450 E 154 13 750 50 102 72 chickens (millions) 6 23 914 2,350 2,809 340 4,471 2,313 4,060 70 960 70 31,000 9 300 1,300 1,800 9,800 525 42 10,600 1 21 4 16 3 4 Burundi Cameroon Central African Rep. Congo C&e d’koire Djibouti Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia GhlUU Guinea 2,906 1,159 2,245 186 1,500 500 ( 17,500 63 200 3,000 460 8,500 1,030 235 1 16 55 2 z Kenya Lesotho 1,440 240 611 210 5,500 4,100 Liberia Madagascar ’ Malawi Mali Mauritania Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan Swaziland Tanzanja . Togo Uganda Zaire Zambia 1WO 4,738 1,080 950 5,500 3,200 375 2,500 7,550 26,000 140 1,400 210 60 13 23 1 4 21 8 19 4 21 1 17 1,250 1,360 2,050 3,500 12,200 660 2,608 330 5,ooo 22,500 650 13,500 290 119 6,400 3,500 13,200 360 3,792 330 13,500 18,500 35 4,700 l,ooO 1,740 880 80 580 126,668 160 48 37 1,300 92 470 50 1,200 1,150 180 20,ooo 13,500 320 190 1 11 6 3 29 I 30 3 15 10 I9 184 300 440 800 180 190 11,096 6,@30 900 2.800 3,040 420 1,650 147,382 3,910 1,400 2,684 5,700 162,463 19 15 Zimbabwe Total 10 631 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization 1989. Animal traction and manure make substantialcontributions to the profitability of farming systems. Alternatives to those animal products- fossil fuel, tractors, chemicaj.fertilizers, and other inputs-must be purchased. Becausemost sub-SaharanAfrican countries do not manufacturetheseproducts, they must be imported with important implications to foreign ex- 14 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica changeholdings. According to ILCA, in 1975 the value of animal traction and manure was 34 percent of the total value of livestock production (ILCA 1987:19). ILCA estimatesthat 10 to 15 percent of the farmers in sub-SaharanAfrica use animal traction (ILCA 198759). The value of traction in 1975 was placed at $2.0 billion, secondonly to meat at $3.0 billion (INCA 1987:19). Livestock make a wide variety of other contributions to the agricultural economy. Domestic animals serve as a reserve, readily convertible to cash, to cushion farm enterprises against a changeableclimate and unstable commodity prices, and they provide an outlet for damagedgrains, root crops, and other crops that are not marketableor neededfor human consumption. Animals also provide a meansof converting surplus food crops to high value commodities in years of plenty, providing food gram producers with an alternative source of income. In addition ruminants can utilize lignocellulosic biomass, which includes crop residues and by-products and which has little other value except as an addition to soil organic matter. The nutrients and value of theseproducts would largely be lost if they were not consumedby livestock. Therefore livestock serve to transform feeds into food and marketable products, adding value to farming enterprises, increasing income, and enhancing the biophysical and economic viability of agriculture. TABLE 3.2 Livestock in sub-Saharan Africa-Tropical 1961-63 to 1986438. 1961-63 Million TLU % livestock units (TLU) by species, and growth rates, 1979-8 1 Million TLU RWDiIlXlts 106.5 11.3 13.2 11.6 142.6 Nonruminants 4.8 1.7 2.4 0.5 2.6 12.0 154.6 % 1986-88 Million TLU % annual increasea 5% Avg Cattle Sll@Zp GO& camels Subtotal 77.5 7.8 9.9 7.9 103.1 69.4 7.0 8.8 7.1 92.3 68.9 7.3 8.5 7.5 92.2 113.7 12.4 14.5 13.2 153.8 67.6 7.4 8.6 7.8 91.4 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.1 1.6 Poultry Pigs Horses Ml& Subtotal Total 2.4 0.8 1.9 0.9 2.5 8.6 111.7 2.2 0.7 1.7 0.8 2.3 7.7 3.1 1.1 1.5 0.3 1.7 7.8 5.9 2.2 3.2 0.4 2.8 14.5 168.3 3.5 1.3 1.9 0.2 1.7 8.6 3.6 4.0 2.2 -3.4 0.4 2.1 1.7 Source: Data derived by Simpson (1991) from FAO data tapes. u Compound annual growth, 1961-63 to 1986-88. The Place of Livestock I5 TABLE 3.3 Value of agriculture and livestock products in 41 countries in sub-Waran Africa, 1988. Value ($ millions) Country Agriculture 3,261 9,780 3,243 2,202 2,837 709 1,765 2,840 835 667 1,137 300 1,419 554 632 671 817 527 D 796 188 2,740 2,644 1,321 554 363 121 535 831 645 95 193 739 326 300 113 182 241 78 99 155 86 47,541 Livestock 1,901 1,749 1,299 826 642 514 472 404 368 314 260 245 224 216 201 183 172 169 160 158 143 136 121 115 115 107 101 98 70 66 47 42 37 35 25 24 22 19 15 15 9 11,839 Livestock share of agr production (%I 58 18 40 38 23 72 27 14 44 47 23 82 16 39 32 27 21 32 20 84 5 5 9 21 32 88 19 12 11 70 24 6 11 12 22 13 9 24 I5 10 10 25 !&l&U Nigeria Ethiopia Keaya T&a Somalia Madagascar Uganda Mali Niger Zimbabwe Namibia Cameroon Angola Burkina Faso Senegal Zambia Mozambique Mauritania Zaire C&e d’lvoire Ghi3lM Benin C-em-a1 African Rep. Botswana Guiim Malawi Rwanda Lesotho Swaziland Burundi Togo Sierra Leone Guinea-Bissau Mauritius Liberia Reunion Gambia, The Congo Gabon Total Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture 1990. o Based on total output of agricultural and livestock products (meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides and skins); calculated at international prices based on IMF and FAO data. Values are given in terms of 1979-81 international dollars. 16 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica . These indirect benefits from animal agriculture are not included in national income accounting becausethey do not appear among internationally priced agricultural products that form the basis for calculations of gross domestic product. As a consequence,the livestock componentof GDP and agricultural domesticproduct may be understated. Livestock provide opportunities for the productive use of labor that otherwise is not available to farmers. A number of studiesreveal that farmers engagedin mixed crop-livestock production eam half or more of their cash income from animal products (ILCA 1987:18). Gryseels (1988:130) reports that livestock provide a dominant part of the cash income and gross margin in smallholder cereal-livestock farms in the Ethiopian highlands. Thus animals e provide a ready means to acquire cash that can be used to purchase farm inputs needed for _ crop production such as pesticides, seeds, and fertilizer. This leads to synergisms through ‘.. which cash income from animal agriculture supports greater investment in crop production, which in turn generateshigher levels of farm output from both crops and livestock (Brumby 1986). In other instancescrops may provide essential inputs to animal production, requiring continued integration of crops and livestock in one enterprise. In Zimbabwe smallholders who combine crop and livestock production have twice the income of smallholders who only raise subsistence crops (Gittinger et al. 1990:14). Mellor (1989:7) statesthat expansion of animal agriculture enables smallholder producers to intensify their agricultural efforts even on lowproductivity resources,and it has vast potential for providing income and employment to the poorestfarmers. 3.4. Contributions of Animal Products to Food Supply and Nutrition Animals are a significant sourceof food, particularly of high quality protein, minerals, vitamins, and micronutrients, for the majority of African people. Meat, milk, and eggs provide 17 to 18 percent of the dietary protein in African diets (FAO 1977, Winrock 19828). Animal products are of much greater importance to the diets of pastoral peoples and among groups with high animal-to-people ratios. The value of dietary animal protein goes beyond its proportionality in diets, becauseit containsamino acids essentialto human health that are deficient in cereals. Thus the consumption of even small amounts of animal products corrects amino acid deficiencies in human diets that are largely cereal-based,permitting more of the total protein to be utilized. This is of particular importance to very young children. A major finding of a U.S. Agency for International Development nutrition program was that “quality foods such as those derived from animal sourceshave major importance for optimizing human performance in chronically mild- to moderately malnourished populations” (Diaz-Briquets et al. 1992:ii). Animals also make indirect contributions to human nutrition in sub-SaharanAfrica (Shapiro 1991). Cattle are the primary sourceof cash income that pastoralistsuse to buy food grains. Livestock also have an important role in food security. When crops are poor, animals can be sold to buy grain, a strategy that is effective unless grain deficits are widespreadand long lasting. c ?he Place of Livestock 3.5. Role of Livestock in the Sustainability of Agriculture 17 As componentsof mixed crop-livestock farming systems,livestock will have a critical place in the development of sustainableand environmentally sound agricultural production systemsin sub-Saharan Africa. The use of livestock fosters intensification, as a meansto increaseproduction. Intensification is an alternative to expandedcultivation of marginally productive lands that may be vulnerable to degradation. Livestock contribute directly to the sustainability of farming systemsby providing manure, which is the principal soil amendment and fertilizer available to large .numbersof African farmers. Manure is among the most important contributions that livestock make to intensification (Grove 1991, Shapiro 1991). Although it cannot replace all of the soil minerals removed by harvestedcrops, it recycles a significant proportion and adds organic matter that contributes to the tihh and water-holding capacity of soils. In addition, as agriculture becomeshighly intensified, legumesgrown to feed livestock also provide nitrogen for crop production. At forest margins in the humid tropics, planting of legume-based pasturesand leguminous trees as forage for ruminants could provide economic alternativesto slash-and-bumcultivation and easepressureto move into the forest. Sanchez(1991:29) estimatesthat because of higher productivity every hectareput into sustainable soil management technologieswould annually save5 to 10 hectaresof tropical rain forests from clearing. Becausefarmers engagein slash-and-bumagriculture becauseit is cheaperthan other alternatives (McIntire et. al. 1992), strategiesto encouragemore intensive farming will require that constraintsbe placed upon farming within rain forests. 3.6. Study Vision of the Future of Sub-Saharan Livestock Production The vision that this study has developedof future livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa is basedupon the premise that increasedpopulation pressureswill drive the intensification of agriculture toward more widespread use of crop-livestock farming systemsin higher potential areas. This will have its greatest impact in semi-arid and subhumid agroecological zones.These systemswill optimize the complementarity between crops and livestock to maximize, in the context of smallholder systems,the off-take of agricultural products per unit of land. Mixed crop-livestock systemsin these zones and in the highlands will be made more productive through the use of new technology and much greater use of inputs such as commercial fertilizer. A commercial feed industry and efficient private support serviceswill evolve. Governmentscan assistthe processof intensification by improving markets, infrastructure, and credit, by establishingprice and trade policies favorable to agriculture, and by supporting the generationand transfer of new technology through researchand extension. In the dry rangelands,there is little prospect for greatIy increasing the off-take of livestock at this time. The spreadof cultivation into dry areasis environmentally dangerousand is severely limiting the mobility of pastoralists, which could greatly reduce the productivity of pastoral livestock systems. As agriculture in the high potential areas intensifies and as feed production increases, infrastructure is improved, and markets evolve, there is potential for greater stratification of livestock production (that is, the movement of livestock from the I8 Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Afn’ca . rangelandsto be sold to farmers in high potential areas for fattening) than occurs today. We see an expansion of intensive commercial production of poultry, pigs, and dairy particularly near the cities. These production systemswill use a combination of home-producedfeeds and forages and, near coastal cities, imported grain. Intensive commercial systems also will develop around population centersin the interior as feed production increases,demanddevelops, supporting infrastructure is created, and policies fair to agriculture are promulgated. The movement of livestock production into the forested portions of the humid agroecological zone is mot envisioned and should not be encouragedby government policies. The humid zone is not an environment hospitable to livestock production, and becauseof poor soils, animal diseases,and lack of infrastructure, the economicsof livestock production are unfavorable except in peri-urban intensive commercial settings. Production in the subhumid zone, in the highlands, in the wetter portion of the semi-arid zone, and in intensive peri-urban operations (which are independentof agroecologicalzone), if properly developed, can support the needsof the growing populations of sub-Saharan Africa for the foreseeablefuture. The use of livestock in intensive crop-basedsystemswill make them more productive, more efficient, and sustainable.The vision recognizesthat as intensification evolves predominantly traditional systemswill change into systemsthat are more heavily dependentupon increasedinputs and improved technology. The evolutionary processes will take time, and much of the specific technology that will eventually be required to increaseagricultural productivity to an optimum level still must be developed.It recognizesthe centrality of governmentpolicies to the processes of developmentand the importance of infrastructure. It recognizesthat private enterprisedevelopment will lead the way to intensified livestock production and investment in new technology. Most of all, this vision of the future of animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa recognizesthat sustainability must be the test of all measuresdesignedto improve agricultural production and productivity in the region. It is clear that livestock have an essential role to play in the agriculture of the future in sub-Saharan Africa. 4 Environmental Determinants of Animal Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-SaharanAfrica is endowed with diverse agricultural environments determined primarily by climate, natural resources,and human population density. The actual use that humansassign to land resourcesdependsupon the comparativeproductive advantageof alternative usessuchas crops, livestock, or forestry, or other advantages such as the environmental benefits of tropical rain forests. Agroclimates coupled with cultural preferences,diseaseconstraints, and economic incentives influence the distribution of animals throughout sub-S&ran Africa. To define agroclimates, ILCA (1987:10) has drawn upon previous classifications (Jahnke 1982:17) dividing sub-SaharanAfrica into five principal agroecological zones: arid, semi-arid, subhumid, humid, and highland. The basis of this classification is the amount and distribution of rainfall, altitude as it affects temperature, and length of annual plant growing period. Most of West Africa, Central Africa, and southern Africa has a single rainy season (ILCA 1987:9). In the more humid areas, this seasonis long enough to grow two or more crops in relay on the samepiece of land in a single year. In parts of East Africa there are two distinct growing seasons.Table 4.1 defines the zones and shows the proportions of the land area each zone occupieswithin sub-Saharan Africa. The arid zone covers over a third of subSaharanAfrica and the semi-arid, subhumid, and humid zone each occupy about 20 percent. Highland areasmake up only about 5 percentof the region. Dry areas(arid and semi-arid zones)cover about 50 percent of sub-Saharan Africa and are important in every geographic region except Central Africa. East Africa contains 70 percent of the highlands and Central Africa has nearly 75 percent of the humid zone (ILCA 1987:11). The subhumid zone is important in all geographicregions. Becausenatural resources and human and livestock populations vary from zone to zone, researchand developmentprograms must be tailored to their different needs. Estimates of the distribution of the human population by agroecological zones suggest that about 25 percent live in the semi-arid zone, 25 percent in the subhumid zone, 20 percent in the humid zone, 15 percent in the highlands, and perhaps10 percent in the arid zone (INCA 1987:12). Population is believed to be growing faster in the subhumid zone than in the arid, semi-arid, or humid zones. Five percent of the total population is estimated to be pastoxalists, who are concentratedin the arid and semi-arid areasof East and West Africa. 20 Animal Agricui(ure in Sub--Saharan Africa- AGROKWX~GICAL Length of Growing Period ’ a0 . =@ ,170 $$g$g >:...;:. .Y #$z$ S”(.“lJM,D ““MlD lssa _--- HIGHLANDS lmm4noNu BWNDN1ES Environmental Determinants Regions of sub-Saharan Africa The distribution of ruminant speciesis more strongly influenced by agroecologicalconditions than is the distribution of nonruminants. The arid and semi-arid zones, which together have 54 percent of the land area of sub-Saharan Africa, accountfor 57 percent of the ruminant livestock (including camels), measuredas tropical livestock units (TLUs) (table 4.2). In contrast, the humid zone makesup 19 percent of the land mass,but accountsfor only 6 percent of ruminant TLUs. Among the individual species, the largest share of goats (38%) and sheep (34%) are found in the arid zone. Most cattle are found in the semi-arid zone (31%) and the subhumid zone (23%). In contrast, more pigs are found in the humid and subhumid zones (Gollin 1991). Poultry are rather evenly distributed over all zonesexcept the arid zone where numbers are low. Pigs and poultry often are produced in intensive commercial livestock production systemsbased upon purchasedinputs, which are influenced more by geography and human population than by agroecologicalconditions. East Africa hasover half the ruminant TLUs, with West Africa accounting for the next largest share. Central Africa, which is largely in the humid zone, accountsfor only 5.8 percent of the total. Following is a brief overview of the characteristics of eachagroecologicalzone. 22 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SahuranAfrica 4.1. Arid Zone 1 . The arid agroecological zone re&ives 0 to 500 millimeters of rainfall annually, with extreme annual variations from one part of the zone to another. It has less than 90 plant growth days. It is properly suited only for grazing, although substantialcrop encroachmentoccurs in the 300 to 500 millimeter rainfall range. The low and variable rainfall precludescropping in most years except in oasesor areasunder irrigation. Vegetation types are short annual grassesand legumes that wither at the end of the rainy SeaSOn, but new plants quickly emerge when the rains begin. Scatteredshrubs and trees are present, but they are beiig excessively harvestedfor fuel. Ten percent of the population of sub-SaharanAfrica, or about 45 million e people, live in the arid zone. The characteristicsoils are shallow, saline, calcareous,and gypsiferous, low in organic em matter, and coarse-textured.Shifting dunes exist at the margins of the Sahara desert. The question of whether or not the Saharais moving southward into this region is unsettled (Dodd 1991). In some recent years, the desert has retreated(Tucker et al. 1991). Serious degradation of land has occurred around water points and areasof permanenthuman habitation. Long-term studies using sensitive measuring devices will be required to determine whether irreversible changesare occurring. Ruminants are the only practical meansof transforming pastureand browse forage into food and income. The arid zone has 34 million cattle, 42 million sheep, 55 million goats, and 13 million camels (ILCA 1987), amounting to 30 percent of the ruminant livestock of subSaharanAfrica (table 4.2). The ruminant density is 1 TLU/person or 17 ha/TLU. The carrying capacity is 30 ha.iTLU in areas with less than 250 millimeters of annual rainfall and 10 ha/TLU elsewhere.Diseasesare less of a problem in the arid zone than in the wetter areas. Of all agrcecological zones, the arid zone has the lowest capacity to supply food, housing, and other necessitiesfor humans(human support capacity). Consequentlythis zone is TABLE 4. I Agroemlogical zones of subSaharan Africa. AreJl(%I Zone Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Humid HighInn& Total Definition” 270 pgd < 2o”c Rainfall =w (=) O-500 mo-loo0 1000-1500 1500+ ma. west Africa 54 20 16 10 0 100 7.3 Central Africa 1 7 29 59 4 100 5.3 East Area Southern AfTiCA TOtA Africa 52 18 16 2 12 100 5.8 of zone area 96 (million km*) 36 18 22 19 5 100 7.7 4.0 4.8 4.1 1.0 21.6 20 34 38 7 1 loo 3.2 Total area (million km*) Source: ILCA 1987 (after Jahnke 1982). u pgd = plant growth days. b Defined as areas within the semi-arid, subhumid, and humid zones where the mean daily temperature during the growing period is less than 20°C. Environmental Determinants 23 thinly populated, and infrastructure of all kinds is poorly developed. Lack of roads limits accessto markets and reducesthe availability of inputs and consumergoods. Governmentalservices are not readily available and, becauseof the low livestock and human density and deficient infrastructure, are very difficult to provide. Traditional nomadic and transhumantpastoral systemsbased upon communal grazing prevail in the arid zone. They are well adaptedto the characteristically sharp annual and seasonal variations in rainfall, requiring mobility among pastoraliststo move where forage may be found. Traditional pastoral systemsmake efficient use of the vegetative resourcesof the zone. With traditional grazing practices, the productivity of the grasslandsof this zone are at least equal to the productivity of comparable rangelands in North America and Australia (Bremen and de Wit 1983, Cossins 1986). But the rangelandsare stocked near capacity and there is only limited jxXem.ial for increasingoff-take. The arid zone has a high proportion of sub-SaharanAfrica‘s wildlife resourcesand some of the best opportunities for developmentof productive wildlife-livestock systems(Ellis 1991). A number of countries are exploiting theif wildlife resources for tourism and fee hunting. Among the most serious problems facing this zone are human overpopulation and the spreadof cropping, particularly in areas critical to dry seasongrazing. Uncontrolled grazing TABLE 4.2 Distribution (%) of domesticruminant livestock by agroecological zone and geographic region, sub-Saharan Africa. htion Cattle ShtYp Goats Camels All domestic rumin;mtso Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Humid Highland Total 20.7 30.6 22.7 6.1 19.9 100 Agroecological Zone 33.7 38.2 26.3 22.9 14.4 16.5 8.3 9.4 20.8 9.6 100 100 Geographic Region 34.2 42.3 4.1 6.4 59.5 46.2 7.2 5.2 100 100 98.4 123.8 122.6 144.9 100 0 0 0 0 100 * I 29.8 27.1 19.6 6.1 17.4 100 24.8 6.6 54.1 14.5 100 15.2 0.0 84.8 0.0 100 11.1 13.2 26.3 5.8 56.3 11.6 100 137.3 153.8 Number,millions, 1979 1986-8S6 144.5 162.5 Source: ILCA (1987), after Jahnke (1982). o Calculated from tropical livestock units. b Source: FAG data tapes. 24 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica around water points and near villages and the cutting of trees for fuel are leading to range degradation(Dodd 1991). 4.2. Semi-arid Agroecological Zone The semi-arid agroecological zone receives500 to 1,000 millimeters of rainfall annualIy and has a plant growing season of 90 to 180 days followed by a 7- to 9-month dry season. Soils in the semi-arid zone are generally low in plant nutrients. High temperaturesaccelerate the degradationof plant organic matter, which reducesthe water-holding capacity of the soil in a zone where moisture is exceptionally precious. The lower rainfall areasof this zone (XXI-750 mm) are best suited for grazing, although substantialareasare already cropped. In the higher rainfall areas, crop farming and crop-livestock systemspredominate. The main crops are miilet, sorghum, groundnut, maize, and cowpea. Irrigation is rare except for a few locations where cotton, sugarcane,and rice are grown. Although the human support capacity at low levels of inputs is lower than for any zone except the arid zone, the semi-arid zone has 120 million people, one-fourth the population of sub-Saharan Africa. Population density is high in the wetter portion of the zone. Densities of 250 to 300 people per squarekilometer are found in the main West African river valleys, such as the Senegal,Niger, and LogoneKhari, and around the major cities in northern Nigeria. Livestock provide much of the value of agricultural output. In the drier areasthey exist in nomadic and transhumant systems. The descriptions of arid-zone husbandry practices and rangelandproduction apply as well to the’drier portion of the semi-arid zone. The main difference is greater interaction with crop farming and larger scale intrusion of cropping into the rangelands.Game farming‘and livestock-wildlife mixed enterprisesare well suited to this part of the zone. In the higher rainfall areas, livestock are raised mainly as componentsof smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems. This portion of the semi-arid zone provides much dry seasonsubsistence for pastoral herds. Livestock have a strong comparativeadvantagein the semi-arid zone becauseof the absenceof trypanosomiasis,abundantpastureof good quality, and the complementarity between rainy season pasturein the more northern portions of the Saheland the dry season pasture near river basins (Wilson et al. 1983). Overall the semi-arid zone has over 25 percent of subSaharanAfrica’s ruminant livestock: 50 million cattle, 28 million sheep,and 38 million goats (table 4.2). The ruminant density is 0.35 TLU per person and 10 ha/TLU. The averagecarry- ing capacity for the zone is 4 to 8 ha/TLU. Infrastructure is better developed than in the arid zone and governmental servicesare more widely available, particularly in the wetter portions of this zone. 4.3. Subbumid Agroecological Zone The subhumid agroecological zone has 1,000 to 1,500 millimeters of annual rainfall and a growing period of 180 to 270 days. Rainfall is less variable than in drier zones, making crop production less risky and pasturespotentially more productive. A wide variety of crops is grown in the subhumid zone, including cassava,yams, maize, fruits and vegetables,rice, mil- Environmental Determinants 25 let, ‘groundnuts, and cowpeas. Because of the development of better pest control, cotton growing is expanding thus increasing the potential availability of high protein feed. The zone also is suited to soybeansand leguminous forages. There is almost no irrigation. Farms are generally small, reflecting the productivity of the zone. Mechanization with enginesor animal power, while rarer than in the semi-arid zone, is growing rapidly, according to McIntire et al. (1992:15). Pastoralistsincreasingly are moving into the subhumid zone for dry-seasongrazing. The ruminant livestock population consistsof 37 million cattle, 18 million sheep,and 24 million goats (ILCA 1987), giving a ruminant density of 0.25 TLU/person, or 16 ha/TLU. The ruminant carrying capacity of the zone under natural conditions is 3 to 6 ha/RX. Forages are of poor feeding quality becausethe soils are poor. During the dry season,the protein content of the mature forages often falls below 5 percent (Mohamed Saleem and Von Kaufmann 1991, Onim 1991). The native vegetation of this zone, which is largely perennials, is more susceptibleto degradationas a result of mismanagementthan the predominantly annual vegetation of the more arid zones. There still are large areasof thinly settled land in the subhumid zone. Human population density is lower than that of the semi-arid zone becauseof human diseasepressure.Livestock density is also low, primarily becauseof trypanosomiasis.But the situation is changing rapidly. In West Africa, pastoral&s from the north are moving into the zone, as are coastal peoples from the south. Population increasesand the associatedcultivation and habitation are altering the zone’s ecology, reducing the tsetsepopulation and trypanosomiasispressure.Consequentlylow-cost tsetse-controlmeasuresand chemotherapyare becoming practical for controlling trypanosomiasis,although this is not a sustainableoption for the long term. Farmers are beginning to raise cattle in areaswhere previously they could not be kept (Provost 1991). Trypanotolerant cattle such as the N’Dama and the Baouli are more desirable at this time than the more-susceptible zebu, however not enoughanimals are available to meet increasingneeds. As the human population density of this zone rises, land scarcity particularly in the most desirable areasis increasing frictions between livestock grazers and crop farmers. Conflicts over use of crop residues,fallow land, accessto dry seasonforages, and to water are accentuatedby the influx of migrants who lack rights to the land. Yet over a wide area, crop farmers and grazersare finding it profitable to establishcontractsfor paddocking, and they are reaching agreementon equitable ways to make use of crop residues,take care of animals, etc. As the processesof intensification driven by population pressures proceed, mixed croplivestock systems will evolve as the dominant farming system, allowing smallholder farmers to capitalize on the complement&y between crops and livestock. The most efficient croplivestock production systems, considering the wide variety of crops grown in the subhumid zone, still must evolve. Infrastructure in the subhumid zone is poorly developedexcept near the coast. 4.4. Humid Agroecological Zone The humid agroecological zone, has over 1,500 millimeters annual rainfall- and a growing period of 270 to 365 days. Consisting of rain forests and derived savannas,it generally is lightly settled except in West Africa. Around major cities and in areas such as eastern 26 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica Nigeria, human population densities may be very high. Ninety million people, or nearly 20 percent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, live in this zone. The soils suffer from high levels of iron and aluminum and low levels of phosphorus,calcium, sulfur, and numerousmicronutrients. Their organic matter content is low, and they are fragile and easily degraded when the vegetativecover is lost. The zone has small ruminant numbers: 10 million cattle, 10 miilion sheep,and 14 million goats. The ruminant livestock density is 0.1 TLU/person. Native vegetation has very low nutritive value for livestock. The major factor that has limited ruminant livestock production is trypanosomiasis.A high proportion of the cattle are of trypanotolerant breeds(Shaw and Hoste 1987). Crop livestock interactions are low. pigs are more commonly raised in this zone than in any other (Chigaru 1991). Intensive commercial poultry and pig production has developed in peri-urban settings. This study regardsexpansionof livestock production in the humid zone as undesirable, but unless constrainedit likely will expand. The forests have a vital ecological function, and clearing forest for cattle production is not likely to be biologically or economically sustainable. The derived savannas are suited for livestock, but disease,environmental factors such as high temperatureand humidity, and high cost of pasture managementmake cattle raising in these areasan economically marginal enterprise. 4.5. Highland Agroecological Zone The highland agroecological zone is defined as the area in which the mean daily temperatureis less than 20°C. Approximately half of this zone is in Ethiopia. A favorable climate, relatively moderate diseaseand pest problems, and high production potential make the highlands attractive to people and a favorable environment for livestock. Highland soils include many deep and fertile vertisols and nitosols. Becauseof the wide range of elevations and microclimatesin the highland zone, diseases can be a severeproblem in someareas. Rainfall is bimodal and there are two growing seasons(Rwanda and Burundi have three) facilitating perennial pastures.Forage production is intensive, and a wide range of vegetable matter, including cultivated forages, is used for livestock feed. Highlands have the greatestdensity of livestock and people in sub-Saharan Africa. Although covering only 5 per. cent of the region, the highland zone has 68 million people, or 15 percent of the population. The ruminant population- 32 million cattle, 26 million sheep, and 14 million goats-gives a ruminant density of 0.4 TLU/person, or 4 ha/TLU. The ruminant carrying capacity is 2.5 to 3.5 ha/TLU and stocking rates are higher than those of other regions. The highland zone is a net exporter of meat‘&d live animals to other agroecologicalzonesand a small net importer of milk. The most common farming systemis smallholder crop-livestock farms. Animal traction is widely used in Ethiopia and Madagascar, common in Kenya, and hardly used at all in Rwanda, Burundi, and easternZaire becauseof farm size and cropping patterns (M&tire et al. 1992:17, 56). Infrastructure is not well developed outside the major cities. Increased production must come from further intensification of crop-livestock farms. ‘ r Environmental Determinants 4.6. Environmentally Independent Animal Production 27 Intensive commercial systemsrely heavily on investment in technology and inputs and tend to be little affected by agroecologicalconditions, particularly for poultry and pigs. Periurban dairying has become economically attractive except in the humid zone. In all agroecological zones, intensive commercial systemshave evolved as demandfor me&, milk, and eggs has outstripped the supply available from pastoraland less-intensivestall-feeding systems. The successof intensive commercial production systemsis dependentupon favorable trade and foreign exchangepolicies and the availability of feed and credit. Consistencyin the policy arena is particularly important becausethese enterprisesusually require sizable iongterm capital investments.The mounting demandfor concentratefeeds from intensive commercial systemsprovides a major opportunity to foster increasedproduction of feed grains, root crops, and oilseed meals in sub-S&ran Africa. Technology and inputs can be imported, but managementskills must be developedlocally. Adequateinfrastructure such as poultry slaughtering facilities, dairy processingplants, and feed manufacturinginstallations also is critical. 5 Prospects for Meeting Demand for Meat and Milk 5.1. Forces Shaping Demand for Meat and Milk If livestock production in sub-SaharanAfrica’ fails to expand faster than it did in the past (2.6% a year for meat and 3.2% for milk between 1962 and 1987), the region will face a massivedeficit in meat and milk suppliesby 2025. Already more than 10 percent of total milk consumptionis imported. The population of sub-SaharanAfrica will increaseby 2.75 percent a year between 1990 and 2025, resulting in an additional 800 million people to feed. Of that number, 557 million will live in cities and large towns and will be dependentupon others to produce their food. The growing urbanization of Africa will further amplify the demand for fti because urban dwellers usually have higher incomesthan rural residents. The major uncertainty is the future stateof the sub-Saharan African economiesand its effect on personal incomes. Per capita incomes have declined in the 1970sand 1980sbecause of rapid population growth and sluggish economic conditions. Policy and structural reforms implemented in the last decadehave, however, changed the economic environment in many countries. Some of the factors that have most severely distorted markets and trade are being corrected, such as overvaluedcurrency exchangerates, market restrictions, and price controls (World Bank 1989). These changespromise to improve economic growth and incomes. The World Bank has estimatedthat sub-Saharan economiesmust expandby 4 to 5 percent annually “to achievefood security, provide jobs, and register modest improvementsin living standards” (World Bank 1989:xi). Higher individual incomes will profoundly affect demand for animal products. As Africans .eam more, they will spend much of the increaseto improve their diets (Mellor and Delgado 1987). Meat, milk, and eggs will be prominent on African’s shopping lists because .their income elasticities of demand for theseproducts are high: meat, 0.79; milk, 0.68; eggs, 1.05 (1975 data); comparedwith cereals,0.20 (Sarmaand Yeung 1985). (An income elasticity of demandof 1.0 meansthat an income increaseof 1 percent is accompaniedby a demandincreaseof 1 percent.) For tropical Africa, Jahnke(1982) reported the following income elasticities: meat, 0.98; milk, 0.82; and eggs, 1.10; and cereals, 0.22. The high income elasticities of demand for animal products aIs0 imply that if incomes decline, as they did in the 198Os, demandfor animal products will fall sharply. 30 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica Demand response when incomes in sub-Saharan Africa rise 10% 5.2. Recent Tl’ends in Meat and Milk Production In sub-Z&ax-anAfrica from 1961-63 to 198688, livestock inventories, measuredas tropical livestock units (TLUs), grew by 1.7 percent a year (table 3.2). Total meat production during that 25-year period increasedat 2.6 percent annually. Production of red meat (from cattle, sheep, and goats) increasedat 1.9 percent annually, while production of white meat (from pigs and poultry) expandedby 5 percent (Gollin 1991). During the economic downturn of the 198Os,growth in total meat production slowed to 1.9 percent. Growth rates slipped to 1.1 percent for red meat and 4.1 percent for white meat. By 1986-88, meat production in subSaharanAfrica consistedof 71 percent red meat and 29 percent white meat (Gollin 1991). Net imports of carcassmeat rose from 95,000 tons in 1984 to 175,000 tons in 1986. With the cessation of imports by Nigeria and a decline in other countries, net imports of sub-Saharan Africa fell to 140,000 tons in 1989. Milk production (from cattle and goats) rose 3.2 percent a year over the 25 yearperiod, and during the 1980s its growth rate appearsto have accelerated,but consumption grew even faster. Annual milk imports peakedin 1985 at 2.5 million tons and declined to 1.6 million tons in 1988. In 1989 milk imports fell to 1.2 million tons, or 11 percent of consumption (Gollin 1991). Demandfor Meat alto Milk 5.3. Growth Targets for Meat and Milk Production 31 Supplies of livestock products will have to grow to meet escalating demand resulting from rapid population growth combined with at least mode&improvement in incomes. A 4percent annual increase in food production is the World Bank goal for sub-SaharanAfrica. This “would be enough to feed the growing population (2.75 %/year), improve nutrition (l%lyear) and progressively eliminate food imports (0.25%/year) between 1990 and 2020” (World Bank 1989:7). The World Bank (1989:8) considersthis food production target to be ambitious, but achievable. This study acceptsa 4-percentannual increaseas the target for growth in production of meat and milk in sub-Saharan Africa to 2025. At that rate of growth, total meat production would reach 19 million tons by 2025 and milk production would reach 43 million tons (36 million tons of cow milk and 7 millioti tons of goat milk). Obviously climatic uncertainty and economicinstability could severelyaffect the actual production levels attained. 5.4. Study Analyses of Prospects for Future Production Drawing upon available information and extensivedevelopment experience, the study made a general assessment of the current statusand past trends of animal agriculture in subSaharanAfrica. Then future livestock inventories, animal productivity, and meat and milk production were estimatedby agroecologicalzones, along with the feed requirementsfor each livestock species. The total future meat production and the proportion of red and white meat were estimated under the premise that ruminant population growth would be rather inflexible, but that poultry and pig production would be more responsiveto demand. Thus, first, an estimatewas madeof the future production of red meat, and then the balancewas calculatedfor white meat. For red meat production, likely growth coefficients for population numbers and offtake were estimated for each speciesand for each agroecological zone on the basis of best judgment of the experts involved in this study. Past performance(table 5. l), maximum carrying capacity of each agroecologicalzone and available and pipeline technology were the main criteria used. This exercisegives a projected production in 2025 of 11 million tons, or a 3.4 percent annual increasein red meat production. This is the result of a 1.3 percent increasein ruminant livestock numbers(TLU basis)and a 2.1 percentincreasein the production per head. The individual coefficients for each zone and speciesare provided in table 5.2. Thus, the study’s estimatesresult in a slightly lower ruminant population growth but significantly higher off-take per animal than has been achievedover the last 25 years (table 3.2) and a major improvement in the coefficients of the last 10 years (table 5.2). The balanceof production neededto meet the target of 19 million tons of meat annually would have to come from poultry and pigs. The 5.2 percent annual growth this would imply (4% annual growth in numbers and 1.2% in productivity per head) is feasible in view of past pelfOMl~C42. 32 TABLE 5.1 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAjFica Annual percentage increase in livestock populations. .1%2-87 Cattle 1980-87 0.7 1.3 1.5 3.5 3.2 Estimate 1988-2025 l.lU 2.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 Sheep Goats Pigs P&try 1.5 1.9 1.6 4.0 3.6 Source: Study Analysis. a Growth rates in agroecological zones: Subhumid/semi-tid, lands, 1.0%; arid, 0.2%. 2.2%; high- The results of this exercise point to a significant shift in the type of meat that will be available in the 2025. While in 1988 more than 70 percent of meat consumedwas red meat, in 2025 only 60 percent will be red meat. For milk production from cattle a similar approachwas taken. First the more inflexible growth factor was analyzed (milk production in all tropical lowlands), and then it was determined whether the balance could be supplied by the more responsive area (the highlands). TABLE 5.2 Estimated livestock population and meat output, 1988 and 2025. 2025 1988 Inventory Number Incrd (millions) (96) 1.1 0.2 2.2 1.0 2.0 output Off-take Carcass Amount Increa& (%I Morg) (@ot) (%> 13 11 14 1.5 50 181 180 170 200 20 5,613 1,782 2,451 1,380 5,620 11,223 2.4 1.1 3.9 2.6 4.9 3.4 Species and agroecological zL)ne Cattle (total) Arid/semi-arid Subhumidlhumid Highlands Sheep and goats Subtotal Inventory Off-take Carcass Output (millions) (W) wt (kg) (000 1) 162 84 46 32 270 10.4 137 10 140 10 130 12 140 25 14 Red Meat 2,312 239 1,176 90 598 103 538 46 945 562 3,257 White Meat 900 2,600 348 50 1,248 All Meat 4,505 Poultry Pigs subtotal 630 11 110 79 1.3 40 3.9 4.2 148 100 1.5 45 5,772 2,250 8,022 5.2 5.2 5.2 Total Source: Study Analysis. a Compo&d annual growth rates 1988 to 2025. 19,225 4.0 Demandfor Mear and Milk 33 TABLE 5.3 Estimated dairy cattle population and milk output by agroecologikal zone, 1988 and 2025. 1988 Milk output Agroemlogical . ZDne Atidhtmi-arid Subhumidhmid Highlands Total IllVMtory lllVMt0~ 2025 Milk output Quantity IncrerrseO PJ 1) (%I 9,oco 5,600 21,000 35,600 2.7 3.8 5.0 4.0 (millions) 13 7 5 25 250 200 700 330 3,300 1,400 3,500 8,200 Number Increase+’ Lactation (millions) ( W) or&c) 18 16 14 48 0.9 2.3 2.8 1.8 500 350 1,500 740 Source: Study Analysis. u Compound annual growth ram 1988 to 2025. Thus, on the basis of past performance, available and pipeline technology, and the estimated size of cattle populations, potential milk production in the less responsivearid/semi-arid and subhumid/humid zone was estimated by this study. An increaseof 3.1 percent per year was consideredpossible, mainly basedon an iqcreasein the lactation yield per cow (seetable 5.3). To make up the balancein the highlands wouldthen require an increaseof 5 percent per year, which will require a major effort, but which in principle is consideredpossible. While the individual factors will be discussedin the following chapters, it should be stressed that the proposedgrowth coefficients are extremely ambitious. With limited additional land available for development (except in the subhumid zone, which is therefore the major contributor to the increasein numbers), the production growth is heavily basedon higher productivity per head. This will require major technology developmentand transfer over the next 20 years, breakthroughs‘in feed and diseasetechnology, and major applications required in breed improvement, especially in dairy production. A computer model was used to calculate the feed requirements (metabolizable energy and protein, and concentrate requirements for poultry and pigs) for the estimated livestock populations in the year 2025 (Chapter 6). The computer model was also used to compare four production growth scenarios: a continuation of trend, 2 percent annual growth, 3 percent annual growth and 4 percent annual growth (Gollin 1991). 5.5. Competitiveness of Animal Agriculture Sub-SaharanAfrica, once a net exporter of beef, began importing during the past 25 years. By 1989 the region (but principally West Africa) was a net annual importer of 140,000 tons of carcassmeat (table S-S), worth $200 million. Those imports were 3 percent of the total meat consumed.In addition, despitetheir economic difficulties, African countries import about 11 percent of the milk they consumeat a cost of about $500 million annually (FAO 199Ob).If livestock production trendsdo not improve, meat output in 2025 will be about 12 million tons, only 65 percent of the production growth target, and cow and goat milk production will be 32 million tons, only 75 percent of the production growth target. This scenario would lead to 34 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SoharanAfrica . imports of 7 million tons of meat and 11 million tons of milk at a cost of $16 billion annually. Food imports on such a scalewould be ‘an enormousdrain on foreign exchange. Little information is available on production costs for animal products in sub-Saharan Africa, however local production appearsto have a competitive advantagein most local markets. Levels of meat imports are low relative to total consumption-2 percent in easternand southern Africa and 4 percent in western and central Africa in 1989 (FAO 199Ob).Although western and central Africa imported 34 percent of total milk consumption, mainly in mtal cities, only small quantities were imported into easternand southern Africa (5% of consumption). The modest levels of meat and milk imports, even though few countries have significant c barriers (aside from anti-dumping regulations) that would impede them, indicate the competi- _ tiveness of local producers. Moreover their advantageis growing as developed country sur- :. plusesshrink and commodity prices rise (Shapiro 1991). In generaI, the only markets affected by subsidizedimports from outside Africa have been the port cities of West Africa. Meat imports have harmed Sahelian livestock producers who traditionally move animals to coastal cities for *sale.Transportation costs to inland areas have been high enough to render imports uncompetitive relative to local production in most ar., TABLE 5.4 Meat and milk production, imports, exports, and consumption in eastern and western sub-Saharan Africa, 1989. Consumption Commodity Production (W t) 2,111 547 2,658 8,566b Net impor@ (W t) Eastern Africa 16 48 Total w@ t) 2,127 595 2,722 9,062 Per capita Or& 8.0 2.3 Red meat white meat TOtid 64 496 Western Africa 39 37 76 10.4 34.7 Milk Red meat white mat Total Milk 1,141 750 1,180 787 5.6 3.7 1,891 1,435b 1,967 2,164 Africa 3.307 9.3 10.2 729 Sub-S&ran Redwhite meot Total Milk 3,252 55 7 1,297 4,549 10,OOlb 85 140 1,225 1,382 4,689 11,226 2.9 10 23.8 Sources: FAO Production Yearbook 1989; FAO Trade Yearbook 1989. a Milk imports are fresh equivalents. b Cow milk: 8.2 million tons; goat milk: 1.8 million tons. Demandfor Adearand Milk 35 eas. A few interior cities, such as Bamako, have been affected by dairy imports (or dairy food aid), but not directly by meat imports. Other countries such as Madagascarhave been hit by food aid. In fact, Del&o (1991) writes, “it is striking that West Africa is virtually the only region of the world where cattle can live that doesnot have a viable local dairy industry.’ The conditions that led to large imports of milk are rapidly changing. In Africa official price controls are being removed and exchangerates are being freed. These factors along with technological improvements and increasedavailability of high quality forages and concentratefeeds should strengthen the competitiveness of domestically produced meat and milk (Delgado 1991). 5.5.1. Regional differences There are large differences in production and imports between eastern and western Africa. Eastern Africa (including southern Africa) is largely self sufficient in meat and milk production and it has the potential to meet its future needsand possibly to develop a meat surplus to export. Eastern Africa has the advantageof a#@edominance of highland agroecological zones. The climate of highlands is unsuitable for the tsetse fly, so trypanosomiasisis not a constraint, and the moderatetemperaturesare favorable for dairy production. In contrast, the large coastalcities of western Africa are located in the humid or subhumid zones where tsetse historically has made the raising of ruminants almost impossible, except in highly controlled environments,and where dairy cattle productivity is reducedby climatic conditions. Some countries in western Africa (including Central Africa) have depended heavily upon imports of milk and meat. Foreign exchangegeneratedby agricultural commodity exports from Cbte d’Ivoire and oil exports from Nigeria supportedsubstantialimports of animal products until the mid-1980s. The volume of imports in the future will depend upon national income growth, foreign exchangerates, and the ability of farmers in westernAfrica to produce meat and milk at competitive prices. The medium rainfall region (the subhumid zone and the higher rainfall areasof the semi-arid zone) has potential for much greater production of ruminants in crop-livestock systems.When diseaseand feed constraintsare reduced, dairy production on crop-livestock farms and in per-i-urbansettings could expand, reducing the need for milk imports. The quantities of red meat supplied by pastoral areasare not expectedto grow materially. 5.52. Sahelian countries During the 198Os,climatic and market forces in western and central Africa caused changesin meat and milk markets, which affected countries of the arid and semi-arid zones that have the largest animal inventories. Drought disrupted normal movement of slaughter animals from the Sahel to the coast. Subsidizedimports of milk products and low quality meat cuts in coastal cities discouragedthe production of milk and meat. Overvaluation of the CFA franc affected comparativeadvantage.However despitethesedislocations, there is no evidence for any permanentshift in the comparativeadvantages of Saheliancountries. In fact, Delgado (1989a, 1990, 1991) argues that Sahelian countries remain competitive in the production of meat and milk (as well as cotton and groundnuts) relative to imported commodities and production in coastalcountries. 36 Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Afn’ca Delgado (1991) examined retail meat and other prices in Mali and in C&e d’Ivoire, a major market for Sahelian livestock, from 1969 through 1987. Although in 1987 Abidjan’s retail prices for West African carcassbeef were higher than prices for bonelessfrozen manufacturing beef of non-African origin, Delgado observedthat there were good prospectsfor Sahelian exports of animals to the coast and for expanded production of livestock in coastal countries. He concluded, however, that progress would depend upon lowering the costs of production of meat and milk in the Sahel and improving, the availability of high-energy feeds for livestock, particularly poultry and pigs in per&urban settingsin coastal countries. Delgado warned that these objectives probably could not be achieved unless the CFA franc was substantially devaluedrelative to the currenciesof the Sahel’s trading partners-especially Nigeria and Ghana. This applies as well to the currenciesof other importing countries (Shapiro 1991). One reasonfor the inflated cost of cerealsfor livestock feeding, according to Delgado, is protectionist policies for cereals, which have also provided unwise incentives for the cultivation of cerealsin low rainfall, fragile rangelandareasthat are easily degradedwhen natural vegetation is removed. Historically, the Sahel has b’eena low-cost supplier of meat to coastal West African cities, and in the long run, the best potential markets for meat remain the coastal cities. Consequentlyin&a-regional trade prospectsfor the Saheliancountries are closely tied to incomes of residentsof coastalareas(Delgado 1991). 5.5.3. West African coastal region The humid coastal regions of West Africa appear to have little comparative advantage in producing red meat. For many countries in this region, economic efficiency suggeststhat they should produce other agricu1tura.land nonagricultural goods and import meat and milk from elsewherein sub-SaharanAfrica (Delgado 1991). The picture is different, however, for production of poultry and pigs in intensive systems,particularly in per-i-urbanlocations. These production systemsare affected less by agroecology than by market accessand infrastructure. These systemscan effectively use feed grains and concentrates that can be readily and inexpensively transportedfrom rural areasto peri-urban locations. * Commercial poultry industries have emergedin West African countries basedon intensive modem technologies and imported inputs. Although these industries compete with local and Sahelian red meat production, to a larger extent they compete with imports of frozen poultry meat. Locally produced poultry suffers from overvalued exchangerates and competition from the low value poultry parts that are imported. Cunningham (1988) has argued that current price ratios for feed and meat transport alone make it more economical for developing countries to import feed grains for poultry than to import frozen meat. Using imported feed grains to support local poultry and pig industries, as an alternative to importing meat, would createjobs and stimulate additional development. In the final analysis, market forces will determine the extent to which this approach is adopted by farmers and entrepreneurs.As agriculture intensifies in the subhumid and semi-arid zones, farmers in theseareas should be able to meet future demand for feed grains, thus minimizing the need for imports from outside Africa. 6 Constraints to Increased Livestock Production and Productivity Achieving the expandedoutput necessary to meet prospectivedemand for foods of animal origin will be a daunting challenge. The most reasonablecourse of action is the intensification of agriculture and more productive use of sub-Saharan Africa’s resourcesthrough the introduction of improved technology supportedby more favorable policies for agriculture and by better infrastructure. Traditional systems, characterized by low-input and shifting cultivation, cannot generate the increasedquantities of crop and livestock products that are neededto feed a rapidly expandingpopulation. FAO (1986c:gl) has estimatedthat, if current levels of input use remain unchanged,the land area required to support the population in 2010 ’ would exceedthe total area of sub-%&u-anAfrica by over 100 million hectares,or 5 percent. The major constraintsto, and opportunities for, raising output from cattle, small ruminants (sheep and goats), poultry, and pigs in the five major agroecological zones of subSaharanAfrica are identified in tables 6.1 to 6.4. The analysis considersthe socioeconomic, natural resource,technical, and institutional factors that influence the productivity and sustainability of animal agriculture. The grave fiscal condition of most national governmentsin sub-Saharan Africa is a serious complicating factor and a constraint. Governmentsplay a crucial role in the development processby making investmentsin research, development, and infrastructure. The burden of finding additional resourcesfor the developmentof animal agriculture will fall heavily on the private sector, nongovernmentalorganizations,and international developmentagencies. 6.1. Technical Constraints and Opportunities Feed supply, animal health, genotype, and livestock managementare the major technical production constraints. 6.1.1. Feed supply For livestock producers, inability to feed animals adequatelythroughout the year is the most widespreadtechnical constraint. In drier regions, the quantity of forages is often insufficient for the numbers of livestock carried; dry seasonfeed supply is the paramount problem. In wetter regions, feed suppliesare usually ample, but foragesare poor in quality, that is, their 38 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SahuranAfica protein and energy content is low. In both drier and wetter regions, the feed shortagesand nutrient deficiencies are more acute in the dry season.Also, crop residuesand agro-industrial byproducts that could be fed to animals are largely wasted or inefficiently used becauseinfrastructure for transporting, processing, and marketing feedstuffs is underdeveloped.Expanded poultry and pig production is hamperedby lack of a reliable supply of concentratefeeds and protein supplements. Feed availability and cost will be the most significant factors determining whether the targeted4 percent annual increasein animal production will be achieved. Overallfeed requirements There is a general agreementon the magnitude of future feed requirements. The computer model indicates that the amount of metabolizableenergy required to support all domestic livestock specieswill increasefrom 880 Meal x 10’ in 1986-88 to 1,600 Meal x 10’ in 2025 (table 6.5). Crude protein requirements will increase from 45 to 76 million tons. For ruminantsand equines, metabolizableenergy requirementswill increasefrom over 800 Meal x 10’ in 1986-88to nearly 1,500 Meal x 10’ in 2025, and crude protein requirementswill rise from 42 to 63 million tons. These estimates are roughly confirmed by earlier calculations by Fitzhugh et al. (1978) and Montgolfier-Kouevi and Vlavonou (1981). For poultry and pigs, met&&able energy requirementswill increasefrom 42 Meal x 10’ in 1986-88 to 134 Meal x log in 2025, and crude protein requirementswill increasefrom 2.4 million tons in 1986-88 to 12.5 million tons in 2025. Feea’ supplies for ruminurus Estimates of feed -availability all point to an energy deficiency for ruminants in subSaharanAfrica in 2025, especially if seasonaland geographic variability is taken into consideration (FAO 1986c). Various analyses(Fitzhugh et al. 1978:41-60, Montgolfier-KouCvi and Vlavonou 1981:77-84) show that in the agroecologicalzonessuitable for ruminants (that is, all zonesexcept the humid forest zone, where it is assumedthat the present livestock population will not increasesubstantially), total feed availability from range vegetation and crop residues is about 900 x 10’ Meal, or 40 percent below the 2025 requirements. Fitzhugh et al. (1978) include additional fodder resourcesfrom cropland and nonagricultural land in their estimates, . bringing total availability (excluding the humid zone) to about 1,500 x 10’ Meal, which approximates the required levels. Overall, however, the availability of feed will have to exceed feed requirements to cover imbalances and dislocations causedby drought and seasonaland geographic feed shortages.Details on these analysesare presentedin Gollin (1991) and are summarizedin table,6.6. It is clear that feed supplies must be increasedsubstantially if production targetsare to be met. Gmrraim TABLE 6.1 39 Cattle: Major constraints and opportunities affecting their potential to contribute to agricultural development. Significance by agroeculogical mne Arid NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Fragile scosystems soil infertiiity Water scarcity and variable zainfall Wildlife and awiro~tal conservation Opponunitiu Semi-arid Subhmid Humid” Highland ++ +++ +++ +++ I ++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + ++ + + ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Swtainable mixed crop livestock systems Sustainable pastoral systems (range mgt) Application of fertilizers Recycling nutrients with manure Sustainable livestock-wildlife systems Mixed crop-livestock systems under trees FEED AND FEEDING COlUtWhtS ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ Quality of pastures, forages, crop residues Quantity of pastures, forages, crop*residues Opjwrtunifies ++ +++ + +++ +-I-+ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + ++ +++ + +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Crop residue and by-product utilization Fodder banks stall feeding cultivated forages Leguminous trees and ailey crops Improved pastures Periodic suxpluses of grain and root crops Use of animal traction in crop production Mineral and protein supplementation ANIMAL Constraints +++ + ++ +++ +++ + +++ + + ++ +++ ++ ++ HEALTH Group I: Rinderpest Group II TrypPnosomiasis Tick-bome diseases Dexz&ophilosis Group III: Diseases of intensification Qtpmtnitics + +b + + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++-I+++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ + f +++ +++ +++ + ++ Tsatsecontrol for tick-borne diseases Vaccine developmmt for ttypanosomiasis Drug developmaIt for trypanosomiasis Health martagemnt aud services Vaccine developmeat +++ +++ ++ +++ , 40 TABLE 6.1 Animal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Afn’ca Cattle (continued). Significance by agroecological zOne -wry GENOTYPE GWWTtUhtS Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Humida Highland Limited numhers of disease-tolerant animals Limited milk production potential Opponnnitics ++ ++ + ++ + +++ +-I-+ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + +++ &? + ++ +++ Characterizing adaptive and performance traits Breading for tolerance to climate and disease Breeding for increased milk production AI and ET to amplify valuable germplasm Breeding for genetic resistance to disease Use of improved livestock SOCIOECONOMIC Conpaints ++ ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ + +++ 7.. + +++ + +++ +++ +++ Undeveloped market for young animals Variable, poorly accessible markets Trade policies and informal charges Poor transportation and market infrastructure Deficient agricultufpl inputs Price policies and tmuketing restrictions Macroeconomic distortions and inefficiencies Weak public institutions Transition in traditional land tenure Inefficiency in drug distribution Qqwmnitiw ++-I+++ ++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ +-I=+ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++i+++ -I-++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +-I-+ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ 9++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + + ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++i= + +-I-+ +-I-+ +++ +++ Stratification Improved transportation, infrastructure Services by farmer organizations, NGOs Meat and milk processing Improved understanding of traditional systems +++ i= + +++ +++ =veiyimportant; ++ = moderate importance; + = some importance; blank = no importance. a This report does not foresee significant expansion of livestock production in the humid mne and does not support clearing of forested land for agricultural uses. Priority levels are indicators of the magnitude of constraints and opportunity potentials for intensive peri-urban systems, for grazing in derived savannab areas, and for traditional subsistence crop-tree-livestock systems. b In camels Constraints TABLE 6.2 41 Small ruminants: Mqjor cotitraints and opportunities affecting their potential to contribute to agricultural development. Significance by agrwcological zone cptegory NATURAL RESOURCES conrnoints Fragile ecosystems soil infertdity Water scarcity and variable rainfall Wildlife and forest conservation Oppomnities SdIe Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Humida Highland ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + + ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ mixedcrop livestock systems Sustainable pastoral systems (range mgt.) Application of fertilizers Recycling nutrients with manure Sustainable livestock-wildlife systems Mixed crop-livestock systems under trees +++ +++ ,+++ ’ +++ +++ +++ + FEEDS AND FEEDING Constraints Qua&y of pastures, forages, crop residues Quantity of pastures, forages, crop residues Opportunities -t+ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ + -I-++ +++ +++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + ++ +++ + ++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ Crop residue and by-product utilization Fodder banks Stall feeding Cultivated forages Leguminous trees and alley crops Improved pastures Periodic surpluses of grain and root crops Mineral and protein supplementation ANIMAL HEALTH Constraints + + + + + ++ Group I: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) CCPP Group II Gastrointestinal helminthiasis Trypanosomiasis Tick-borne diseeaes ++ +++ + +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ +++ + +++ +++ ++ + +++ ++ +++ + + +++ +++ ++ + ++ ++ +++ + +++ +++ + +++ ++ +++ (Sa sectionI Sheq,pox Other diseeaesof intensification oppOrrwritics Vaccines against bacterial diseases Health management and services Continued +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +++ 42 TABLE 6.2 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica Small ruminants (continued). Significance by agroecological zone ~WwY GENOTYPE AND GERMPLASM G7~traints Low productivity African gumtypes poorly character OppomniticJ Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Humid’ Highland + +++ + +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +i=+ +++ +++ + +++ + +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ Adaptive, production, reproductive traits Breeding for disease resistsme SOCIOECONOMIC Constraints Lack of extension and health services Poor transportation and market infrastructure Deficient agricultural inputs Price policies and marketing restrictions Weak public institutions Transition in traditional land tenure Inefficiency in drug distribution Qvponunities +++ +++ + ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++ , +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ + +++ ++ + +++ + +++ + + + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ + ++ ++ Strong market potential Very flexible livestock re.wurce Low fixed production costs for meat and milk +++ =veryimportant; ++ = moderate importance; + = some importance; blank = no importance. a This report does not foresee significant expansion of livestock production in the humid zone and does not support clearing of forested land for agricultural uses. Priority levels are indicators of the magnitude of constraints and opportunity potentials for intensive peri-urban systems, for grazing in derived savannah areas, and for traditional subsistence crop-tree-livestock systems. Estimating feed supplies by agroecological zone Feed availability on a zonal basis, however, is more important than the supply for subSaharanAfrica as a whole. Becauseof limitations of data, projections of feed supplies by agroecologicalzone can only be approximate. The approachtaken in this study combinesliterature data with study analysis to arrive at an approximate assessment of carrying capacity. The assessment is based upon present technology levels and averagerainfall, and it takes into account the normal wet and dry seasonlimitations. For example, in the subhumid zone, the low protein content of forage in the dry seasonplaces limits on the maximum stocking rate, and this limitation has been a key consideration in the study’s feed estimate. The assessment assumesthat the daily forage consumption for each tropical livestock unit (TLU) will consist of 6.25 kilograms of dry matter containing 2 Meal of metabolizableenergy per kilogram of dry matter. For maintenanceand production,-1 TLU would therefore require 4,560 Meal per year. The conclusions are shown in table 6.7, which is derived from the following zone-by-zone assessment: Gmstraints 43 TABLE 6.3 Poultry: Major constraints and opportunities affecting their potential to contribute to agri<ural development. Sigdificance by agroecological zone Arid FEEDS AND FEEDING ConrnainS Semi-arid Subhumid Humid Highland Availability and cost of high energy crops AvaiIability sod cast of protein supplements Opportunities +++ +++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ii+ +++ +++ + + +++ +++ +++ +++ Expanded production of gxainandroot crops Use of by-products ANIMAL HEALTH Consrrainrs Newastle disease Diseases of intensification Opportunities . +++ ii +++ ++ +++ +A-+ +++ ii+ +++ ++ +++ + +++ ii+ ii+ ii+ Use of heat stable Newcastle vaccine Health management and services GENOTYPE Opportunities A dual purpose bird for small-scale units SOCIOECONOMIC Comtraints + + + + Capital required for commemial industry Opportunitirr ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ 94-i ii+ +++ ++ +++ + +++ ++ +++ +++ +++ Source of cash earnings for producers Demand for feed can stimulate crop sector Intensive commercial production +++= very important; + + = moderate impomce; b + = some importance; blank = no importance. Arid zone. In very arid areas (0 to 250 mm annual rainfall), this study estimates the carrying capacity at 30 ha/TLU. This figure is basedon the following carrying capacity estimates:Fitzhugh et al. (1978), 33 ha/TLU (calculated from their feed production estimatesof 139 Meal/ha), and Jahnke (1982), 15 ha/TLU, both for this band of the arid zone; Pratt and Gwynn (1977), 42 ha/TLU for Kenya; and Penning de Vries and Djiteye (1982), 14 to 42 ha!TLU for Mali. In the 250 to 500 millimeter rainfall band of the arid zone, this study’s estimateof carrying capacity is 10 ha/TN. This estimate is basedon Fitzhugh et al. (1978), 16 ha/TLU (calculated from their feed production estimatesof 293 M&ha), and Jahnke (1982), 6 to 10 ha/TLU, both for this band of the arid zone, and on Penning de Vries and Djiteye (1982)) 4 to 8 ha/TLU for Mali. 44 Animal Agrhlture in Sub-SaharanAfrica TABLE 6.4 Pigs: Major constraints and opportunities affecting their potential to contribute to agricultural development. Significance by agroemlogical mne Arid FEEDS AND FEEDING cbnsrrainrs Availability and cost of high energy crops AvailabiIity and cost of protein supplemeats opjKmlmiries Expanded productionof grains Exppnded productionof root crops Soys cultivation Use of by-products ANIMAL Conmaim Semi-arid Subhumid Humid Highland I9 + +++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ -I-++ +++ +++ + ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ ++ HEALTH ++ ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ +++ +++ ++ i-i-+ +++ African swine fever Diseases of intensification Opportunities Health management and services SOCIOECONOMIC Conmainfs Inadequate processing and infrastructure Extent of demand is uncertain High production costs in commercial systems Oppomniries ++ ++ ++ + ++ +++ +++ ++ +++ +++ -I-++ i-9-b ++ ++ +++ + 9 +++ ++ ++ ++-I+++ 9++ =t++ Intensification of smallholder systems Policies to support expanded feed production Urban centers will add to demand +++ = very important; + + = moderate importance; + = some importance; blank = no importance. b Semi-arid zone. This study estimatesthe carrying capacity of the semi-arid zone at l 6 ha/TLU. The estimate is based on Fitzhugh et al. (1978), 3.5 ha/TLU (calculated from their feed production estimates of 1,329 Meal/ha), and Jahnke (1982), 4 to 6 ha/TLU, both for this zone; on Penning de Vries and Djiteye (1982), 4 to 8 ha/TLU for Mali; and on Boudet (1975), 5 to 9 ha/TLU for the Sahel. (Boudet also estimated2 to 9 ha/TLU for the southernfringe of the Sahel.) Subhumid zone. This study’s carrying capacity estimate of 4.5 ha/TLU for the subhumid zone is derived from a wide variety of sources.Fitzhugh et al. (1978) estimatea feed availability of 2,066 Mc.al/hafor this zone, which is equivalent to a carrying capacity of 2.2 ha/TN, while Jahnke (1982) arrives at 2.9 to 3.7 ha/TN. Fitzhugh and Jahnke’s carrying capacity figures are significantly higher than thoseof Tacher et al. (1988), who estimatea potential livestock popuiation of Gmstraims 45 b b 80 million TLUs (or 6 ha/TLU) for the subhumid zone, and those of FAO (in Shaw and Hoste 1987), which estimates 140 million TLUs (or 3.5 h&TLU). The latter figures approximate those of Penning de Vries and Djiteye (1982), who, focusing on protein as the limiting factor, arrive at 6 haITLU for this zone. Humid wne. For ecological and economic reasons,this study foreseesno significant increase in the present livestock population of the humid zone. Thus, the study assumes the presenttotal population of 9 million TLUs will be maintained. Highland zone. This study estimatesthe carrying capacity of the highland zone to be 3 ha/TLU under present technology. This figure is based on Jahnke (1982), who estimated0.6 to 1.0 ton edible dry matter per hectare (equivalent to a carrying capacity of 2.3 to 3.8 ha/TLU ) and Gryseels’ estimate of 1.5 to 3.8 ha/TLU for the Ethiopian highlands (Gryseels1988). Like the analysis in table 6.6, the analysis in table 6.7 confirms that feed energy supplies will be barely sufficient in sub-Saharan Afriw in 2025. Under normal weather, the potential carrying capacity of about 270 million TLUs (table 6.7), would be just adequatefor the ruminant and equine population of 245 million TLUs that is projected for 2025 (table 6.8) But the situation would be precarious during a drought, when, as estimated by Penning de Vries and Djiteye (1982), carrying capacitieswould deteriorateto 42 ha/TLU in the very arid zone, 20 ha/TLU in the arid zone, and 15 halTLU in the semi-arid zone, lowering sub-Saharan Africa’s overall carrying capacity to about 205 million TLU, or 20 percent below the requirements. This analysis, too, revealsthat production of forages must be significantly increasedto support the targetedincreasein ruminant production. TABLE 6.5 PGjected feed requirements, 2025. Animal groups 1986-88 2025 Metabolizable energy (Meal x lo9 ) Ruminants J5piXK.S 793 44 Poultry Pigs Total 32 10 879 Crude protein (million tons) 1,405 65 102 32 I.604 RlUIliMntS E4piUCS Poultry Pigs Total 40.3 2.2 1.4 1.0 44.9 60.1 3.3 9.5 3.0 75.9 Source: Gollin (1991) using Simpson (1991) computer pr0g-a 46 TABLE 6.6 Anti Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica , Total forage supply (Mual x 10% &Saharan Authors Fitzhugh et al. Montgolficr-Kou&i and vlavonou Africa: A comparison of studies. Residues 155 156 F -.. Other 17 Total 1,802 Nonagricuhud Permanent pasture/meadow Cropland land 1,040” 789 265 325 sourceS: Fitzbugh et al. 1978; Montgolfier-KouCvi and Vlavonou 1981. 0 Includes 283 Mud x 10’ from humid ones that am not consider4 suitable for ruminant livestock pmductioxl. Protein supplies are in even shorter supply (table 6.9). Ruminants and equines will require 63 million tons of crude protein in 2025 (table 6.5), but only 50 million tons would be available. The imbalance is, of course, much higher, when seasonalvariations in the protein supply are considered. Also, assuming that 7 percent is the lowest protein content that will sup&t both maintenanceand minimal production by ruminants, this analysis underscoresthe quality of pasture forage grown in the arid and highland zones as well as the serious protein deficienciesof foragesgrown in the subhumid zone. For thesereasonszone-specificpolicies are essential.In the arid zone, rangelandsare at near maximum production, and opportunities for increased production are minimal. In the highland zone, the feed resourcesare almost completely utilized, however there are good opportunities for farmers to raise production by increaseduse of technology and inputs, including grain and concentrate feeding for dairy cows, forage cultivation, use of fertilizer, and improvementof pastures.The moderatestocking pressurein the semi-arid zone (especially in the higher rainfall areas) and the good potential in the subhumid zone provide opportunities to produce the additional feed required for an expandedruminant and equine population. In the semi-arid and humid zones, attention needsto be given to overcoming the severedeficiency of protein in pasturesand fodder crops to support higher production levels in intensified systems of production. At present the utilization of pasturesand forages in the subhumid zone is limited by tsetseinfestation (Jahnke 1982), however as land clearing reduces tsetse habitat and various methodsof tsetsecontrol are extendedover wider areasand more trypanotolerant animals are raised, the ruminant population will rise sharply. These conclusionswill form the key elementsfor the strategy for feed production for ruminants for the future. Feed forpouhy and pigs Becauseit is not possible for ruminant meat production to grow rapidly enough to satisfy the entire future demand for meat, poultry and pig production will have to expand enormously to make up the deficit (table 5.2). Consequently, total feed requirements for poultry and pigs are expected to increase three to five times by 2025 (table 6.10). However, most poultry and pigs in sub&&ran Africa exist as scavengers.They are fed little grain. In the future, most poultry and pigs will likely be raised in small-scalecommercial systemson crop livestock farms or in commercial confinement operations where they will be fed energy and + . Gmstraims 47 TABLE 6.7 Ruminant awrying capacity and livestock population by agroecological zone. Potential =JY’y d su) 30 10 6 4.5 3 Stock population (million TLU) Presetlf 1986-88 46= 42 30 9 27 154 Zone Rainfall (u&zha), 416 416 Potentiald 2025 14 42 67 108 9 33 273 Present population as 5% of Potential 82e 63 28 100 82 56 Arid Subhumid Humid Highlands Total O-250 250-500 Semi-arid 500-loo0 lCKIO-1500 1500 up 405 486 414 99 2,236 u Jahnke 1982. b Study analysis. c Derived from Jahnke’s 1979 figures for ruminants, extrapolated to 1986-88 assuming the same growth figure for ail ecological regions. d Derived from carrying capacity and arm for ruminants. c For entire agroecolbgicai zone. protein concentrates.Becausefeed grains, root crops, and oilseed meals will provide a large proportion of poultry and pig diets by 2025, concentraterequirements are expected to grow lo-fold and oilseed meal requirementseven more (table 6.11). 6.1.2. Animal health Animal diseases Disease sharply reduces the productivity of livestock in all agroecological zones and production systemsin sub-Saharan Africa. The epidemic infectious diseases such as rinderpest, contagiousbovine pleuropneumonia, peste des petits ruminants, and contagious caprine pieuropneumonia constitute a continent-wide risk and causehigh mortalities and severeeconomic loss. They are termed Group I diseases(Provost 1991). If not controlled, Group I diseases would preclude the further development of animal agriculture in sub-SAfrica. However, effective vaccinesand preventivecontrol measures exist, and thesediseases are gradually being brought under control by the combined efforts of national veterinary servicesand imer_ national agencies. TABLE 6.8 Livestock population 1986-88 and 2025, projected (million TLU). Type Ruminants EqUilleS Poultry Pigs Total 1986-88 153.8 6.4 5.9 2.2 168.3 2025 234.3 9.8 15.9 7.3 267.3 Source: Gollin (199 1) using Simpson (1991) computer program. 48 Animal Agricuinue in Sub-SaharanAfica TABLE 6.9 . 1 Production of crude protein from forages by agoecological zone. Dry matter production Protein content Zone Arid Semi-arid Subhumid Highlands Total Average &m4 187 508 720 757 Totala (million 1) 156 206 350 75 Averag& (46) 8 1 5 9 Total (million t) 12 14 17 7 50 a Source: Jahnke 1982 and calculations by study team. b Sources: Penning de Vries and Djiteye 1982, Onim 1991. The most important animal diseaseconstraintsto livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa today are the parasitic and viral diseases,mainly vector transmitted, that have a wide geographic distribution and whose severity is strongly influenced by the environment. These are termed Group II diseases(Provost 1991). No effective and easily administered vaccinesor chemotherapeuticagents exist for these diseases.Control of their tick or insect vectors with pesticidesis expensive,difficult to achieve, and not sustainablebecauseof the developmentof resistance.The most important diseasesin this group are trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, cowdriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosis,dermatophilosis, African swine fever, Nairobi sheepdisease, Rift valley fever, African horse sickness,bovine ephemeraldisease,and blue tongue. TABLE 6.10 Metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) requirements for poultry and pigs. 1986-88 Animal groups Poultry Layers Commercial Backyard Others Meat Broilers Backyard Others Pigs Commercial Backyard Total 32.1 1.6 19.2 0.6 0.5 10.0 0.2 9.5 0.3 9.2 41.6 (OK) 1,350 122 470 42 37 668 11 1,009 23 986 2,359 (MCE 102.9 36.6 5.6 0.4 52.9 6..9 0.5 31.7 18.2 13.6 134.7 2025 109) (&) 9,543 2,776 138 25 5,925 634 47 3,027 1,568 1,459 12.573 Source: Gollin (1992) using Simpson (1991) computer program 1 , Cbt.waim TABLE 6.11 49 Concentrate requirements (million tons) for poultry and pig feed, present and 2025. Maize equivalents? 1986-88 2025 Poultry 0.35 1.00 7.95 0.29 0.09 1.99 Soybean oilmeal equivalent& 1986-88 2025 0.11 0.53 1.99 11.49 0.36 20.09 . Pigs 3.94 0.71 4.65 24.74 0.03 2.87 -4.86 0.12 Commercial Backyard Total Total 0.07 0.48 0.55 2.54 0.02 0.02 0.14 0.99 0.99 . 5.85 program. Source: Gollin (1991) using Simpson (1991) computer o Quantities of maize and soybean oilmeal required to meet concentrate requirements for metabolizable energy and crude protein, respectively. In addition to mai= and soybean oilmeal, other feed Sources would be utilized to meet these needs. b Commercial layers, broilers, and commercial pigs are assumed to be fed entirely on concentrate consisting of 80 percent maize and 20 percent soybean oilmeal. Backyard animals are assumed to receive 20 percent of their metabolizable energy from maize, with remainder from scavenging. Other animals are assumed to scavenge for all feed. Trypanosomiasisis arguably the single most important animal diseasein sub-Saharan Africa, as evidencedby the small numbers of ruminants in the tsetse-infestedsubhumid and humid zones.While thesezonesconstitute41 percent of the land mass, they only carry 26 percent of the ruminant population (Jahnke 1982:20, ILCA 1987:23). The tick-transmitted and tick-associateddiseases,together with those causedby internal parasites, are secondonly to trypanosomiasisin importance (de Haan and Nissen 1985:2). Diseases whose importance increases as production systemsare intensified are classified as Group III diseases(Provost 1991). These diseases,both infectious and noninfectious, are not generally associatedwith significant mortalities, except for those in neonatal animals, but they causeserious economic lossesthrough reduced productivity. Among the most important are soil-borne bacterial diseases(such as anthrax), infectious reproductive tract diseases (such as brucellosis), diarrheasand pneumoniasof the newborn, mastitis, sheepand goat-pox, Newcastle disease,internal parasites,and mineral deficiencies. Control measures for most of these diseases have been developedin industrialized countries. The prevalenceand severity of these 50 Animal Agriculncre in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca ‘ I diseases are greatly influenced by the nutritional status of the animals, their genotype, management practices, and environmental factors. As animal agriculture is intensified in subSaharanAfrica, these diseaseswill causegreater problems and will have to be controlled to assurefarmers that intensification will yield an adequatereturn on investment. One of the most important factors holding back sustainablecontrol of livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa is the inability of many countries to maintain effective diseasesurveillance and control by having an effective diagnostic capasity together with adequatevaccine production/supply facilities and functional veterinary services.In’ most countries nearly all veterinary setices are provided by government agencies.These agencieshave, for a number of reasons,been unable to maintain control programs for epidemic diseases,public health services, or provision of curative services(Cheneau 1985, de Haan and Nissen 1985, de Haan and Bekure 1991, Walshe et al. 1991, Provost 1991). Privatization of veterinary servicesthat directly benefit the livestock owner is just beginning (de Haan and Bekure 1991:26). Strengthening of animal health delivery serviceswill make an important contribution to the reduction of diseaseconstraintsto animal agriculture. Economic consequences of animal disease The broad array of animal health problems in sub-SaharanAfrica severely limits present livestock production and retards the introduction of more productive breeding stock and new technologies.The economic impact on livestock productivity has been estimatedin different ways. De Haan and Bekure (1991:1) estimated that the direct lossesdue to mortality are about US$2 billion per year and that an equal amount is lost indirectly through slow growth, low fertility, and decreased work output that result from morbidity. Annual lossesof $4 billion represent24 percent of total livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. De Haan and Bekure (1991:38), while recognizing the shortcoming of available quantitative information on the rellative importance of different diseases,estimatethat slightly more than half theselossesare due to diseases causedby internal parasites;such as helminths. The remainder are largely the result of diseases transmitted by external parasites,particularly ticks. Msellati and Tacher (1991) undertook a detailed analysis of the direct and indirect lossesfrom the major livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa and estimatedthe possiblebenefits if such diseaseswere to be controlled. There is a spectrum of direct economic impacts ranging from situations in which up to 90 percent of the animals are affected (morbidity) and mortality rates reach 80 percent, such as when rinderpest infects a susceptiblecattle population, to situations in which morbidity is high but transient, the mortality rates rarely exceed 10 percent, and life-long immunity results, such as tick-borne diseases in indigenous cattle. While mortalities obviously have severeeconomic impact, productivity lossesdue to morbidity are often underestimatedbecausethey are difficult to quantify in different epidemiological situations. These losseshowever are very significant and becomeapparentwhen fatal epidemic diseases are contained by vaccination or good managementpractices (de Haan and Bekure 1991:38). Subclinical diseasesoften lower productivity by up to 20 percent (Msellati and Tacher 1991, de Haan and Bekure 1991) and lossesdue to intercurrent infections are generally ‘additive. Weight losses, for example, due to trypanosomiasis in genetically resistant (trypanotolerant) indigenous N’Dama cattle can be as high as 20 percent as compared with f Chsrrainrs 51 uninfectedN’Dama cattle in the sameenvironment (Msellati and Tacher 1991, Dwinger et al. 1990). Concurrent helminth infections can causea further 10 to 15 percent reduction in weight gain in N’Dama cattle under 5 years of age (Dwinger et al. 1990). Also offspring of crosses betweenindigenous cattle and highly productive breeds may attain less than their genetic potential becauseof increasedsusceptibility to disease(Walshe 199l), especially tick-borne and tick-associated diseases (de Haan and Bekure 1991:38). Msellati and Tacher (1991) draw attention to indirect lossesother than mortalities and diminished production of animal products. Theseinclude the loss of potential crop production, reducedforeign exchangeearningsfrom exports of livestock products, difficulty in introducing more productive livestock genotypes to upgrade native cattle, and impaired human health. Human nutrition and hencelabor productivity can also be diminished when, as a consequence of livestock disease,animal protein is scarcein human diets. For trypanosomiasis,attemptsto estimatebenefits from control (Shaw and Hoste 1987, Tacher et al. 1988, Msellati and Tacher 1991) are basedon either potential stocking densities and productivities (Shaw and Hoste 1987) or on assumedequalization of stocking rates and productivity between tsetse-freeand previously tsetse-infested areas(Tacher et al. 1988). The most conservativeestimate(Tacher et al. 1988) is that eradication of tsetsefly and hence,it is assumed,trypanosomiasis,could lead to increasesof 16 percent in meat production and 18 percent in milk production from ruminants in sub-SaharanAfrica. Attempts have also been madeto estimatethe effect of tsetseeradicationon land useand agricultural production (Putt et al. 1980), but it is difficult to extrapolate the results since the constraints and opportunities vary so widely in different locations (Msellati and Tacher 1991). The effect of control of human trypanosomiasis on agricultural production is also significant (Msellati and Tacher 1991). It is clear therefore that improved control of diseases has a high potential for increasing livestock production to levels exceedingthe 4 percent annual growth required to sustain the rising human population of sub-Saharan Africa. 6.1.3. Genotype Poor animal genotype imposes limits on the productivity that can be achieved in the higher potential agroecologicalzones and from the new technologiesthat are becoming available. In ruminants, genetic sourcesof resistanceor toleranceto diseases and pestsand adaptation to harsh climates need to be combined with capacity for efficiently producing meat and milk. Low genetic potential is a critical issueparticularly for dairy cattle. Artificial insemination programs aimed at introducing high producing germplasminto dairy herds have not had a wide impact. In tropical countries, indigenousbreedsoften have specialadaptivetraits for diseaseresistance,heat tolerance, and ability to utilize poor quality feed. Genes for these breeds are rapidly disappearingdue to the use of imported stock in breed substitution and crossbreeding programsintended to accomplish more rapid increasein milk and meat productivity. Therefore conservation of indigenous germplasm must be a part of national breeding plans (TAO 1991:6). * 52 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanA..ca 6.1.4. Farming systems and animal management As croplivestock systemsevolve, inadequateunderstandingby farmers, researchers, and extension workers of various cropping patterns, market opportunities, livestock altematives, and use of labor, technology, and inputs is a major constraint to increasedlivestock productivity throughout sub-SaharanAfrica. This constraint’ is particularly significant in the subhumid zone. As intensification proceeds,knowledge of how to profitably incorporate new technology into farm-level production strategieswill becomemore and more important. 6.2. Adequacy of Available Land Resources b? The land area of sub-Saharan Africa is estimatedto be 2,200 million hectaresof which -.’ about 200 million hectaresis arable land, 1,400 million hectaresis grazing land, and 600 million hectaresis forest and woodland (FAO 1986c). The arable land throughout the region currently is cropped at an intensity of 54 percent (Alexandratos 1988). Therefore nearly half the arable area lies fallow each year. In 1986-88, the harvestedarea of cereals, oilseeds, and root crops was approximately 83 million hectares (FAO 1989, U.S. Department of Agriculture 1990). That area annually producesabout 60 million tons of cereals, 40 million tons of root crops (dry), and 7 millions tons of oilseeds. If cereal production grows by 4 percent a year, the harvestin 2025 would be 260 million tons of which 210 million tons would be coarse grains. At present, 3 to 4 percent of coarsegrain production is used for animal feed (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1991). If that proportion were maintained, the supply of grain concentrate in 2025 would cover a portion of the feed requirementsfor poultry and pigs (Gollin 1991). But without any increasein yields, achieving a 4 percent annual growth in the production of annual crops would require an expansionin the harvestedarea of cereals, oilseeds, and root crops to 368 million hectares,which, added to the area under other crops (bananas,plantains, pulses, vegetables),would bring the total harvestedland area to 434 million hectares. That would exceed the amount of land that could feasibly be developed for cultivated crops (Alexandratos 1988:128). While FAO (1986c:gl) and Alexandratos (1988:29) indicate up to 800 million hectaresof land may be potentially cultivable, much of this land will not be cultivated in the foreseeablefuture because of poor suitability and lack of technology for cropping. Scenarioson sub-Saharan Africa’s production potential developedas part of this study (see5.4 and 5.5) agree that 4 percent annual growth is a feasible goal. But views differ on the possibilities for putting more land into cultivation. The World Bank (1989:8) assumesthat arable land will expand at about the samerate as in the past, 0.7 percent a year, and productivity will have to grow at over 3 percent a year between 1990 and 2020. The basis for this productivity growth will be greater use of chemical and organic fertilizers, introduction of better varieties, the spreadof improved crop-livestock farming systems,better irrigation methods, and a policy environment that makesthesechangesprofitable to farmers. Seckler et al. (1989) foreseeboth harvestedarea and yields increasing by 2 percent a year between 1990 and 2010. They argue that many of the inputs that are necessaryto raise yields also alleviate constraintsto expansionof cropland: Constraints 53 Irrigation brings arid l,andinto productionandextends multiple croppinginto dry seasons. Improvedvarietiesallow cultivationof cropsin tight agroecological nicheswhereshort growing seasons, photosensitivity, andprecipitationpatterns are constraints. Inorganicfertilizer allows more fodder cropsto be grown and makes more crop residues available,which decreasethe amountof land needed for livestock.In addition, fertilizers can makethe systemof shifting cultivationunnecessary. If yields increaseby 2 percent a year as suggested by Seclcleret al. (1989), harvested land requirementsfor cereals, oilseeds, and root crops would be only 173 million hectares(an expansionof about 2% a year). Of this area, about 15 million hectareswould be required to produce25 million tons of feed grains and root crops (dry) and 6 million tons of oilseed meals (Gollin 1991). Such ratesof yield growth are not out of reach. Cereal yields in Asia rose 2.8 percent a year between the mid-1960s and 1989 (FAO 1987, 199Oa).Moreover Africa’s yields are still low, suggestingthat potential payoff from technological improvementsis high. For example in 1986-88, cereal yields in sub-S&ran Africa were 992 kg/ha. Asia, by comparison, had average yields of 1,100 kg/ha in 1965 and reached 1,900 kg/ha 20 years later (FAO 1987). Current fertilizer use in sub-Saharan Africa is about 12 kg/ha, a level comparableto South Asia in 1970 (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1990). Today South Asia’s fertilizer use is about 60 kg/ha. Attaining theseproduction levels will be a major challengefor agricultural researchand development. Intensification of production in better lands is essentiaIto meet future needsfor food, employment, and development. With an intermediate level of input use, Africa‘s lands could produce sufficient food for 3.4 billion people, according to a comprehensiveexamination of the agricultural sector by FAO (1986c74). The subhumid zone, in particular, has a large potential for increasing productivity that can be realized, provided markets for crops are established,inputs become available, and infrastructure develops..Fertilizers, seeds,chemicals, and a commercial feed industry are prime requirements to support increased livestock production. It is clear that land resourcein sub-Saharan Africa is adequateto support the increasein both food crops and animal products needed to feed growing populations during the period covered by the study. It will, however, require significant increasesin the use of inputs and technology for both crop and livestock production to achievethis goal. 6.3. Policy Constraints and Opportunities The livestock sectorprobably has suffered more than the crop sector from inappropriate governmentalpolicies. The most pernicious have been incentive policies that have favored urban consumersat the expenseof rural producers, excessivegovernment regulation and unfair competition that has stifled production, and malfunctioning institutional settings that have limited producers’ access to input suppliesand appropriatetechnologies. 54 6.3.1. Incentive policies Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica In recent decades,African governmentshave given priority to supplying urban consumers (their principal political base) with cheap meat and milk. The consequence has been economic distortions that have depressed local production and causedinefficient use of scarce humanand financial resources.Prices have beenkept low in severalways. Foreign exchange policies Artifi&lly high local currency values have been a major negative force in livestock development. For example, the high exchangerates in the CFA zone strongly encourageimports of milk and meat. In C&e d’Ivoire between 1985 and 1989, domestic production of red meat was stable at 14,000 to 16,000 tons a year, but imports of carcassmeat and offals increasedfrom 17,600 tons in 1985 to 41,450 tons in 1988 (Holtzman et al. 1991:99). Under realistic exchange rate regimes, CFA countries would be able to produce livestock products competitively (Delgado 1991). Livestock producershave also been hurt by limited availability of foreign exchange,which has restricted the imports of veterinary pharmaceuticals,feed additives, and other essentialinputs. Impon policies Unlimited entrance of subsidized meat from the European Community (EC) and milk products as food aid from the EC and the USA have directly depressed local livestock production in many countries. West Africa imports about 140,000 tons of meat annually from the EC, about equally divided between red and white meat (Eurostat 1991, Simier 1991). Red meat is especially heavily subsidizedat about 1 to 1.2 ECU per kilogram (USS1.20-l .50/kg) (European Community 1989). Thus the EC alone subsidizes meat exports to sub-Saharan Africa at a cost of about US%100million a year, an amount that is double the averageannual cost of World Bank livestock projects in Africa since 1987 (World Bank 1991). Price policies Direct price controls similarly have harmed local production. Price controls were popular in the 1970sand early 198Os,but they often were inadequatelyenforced, permitting parallel markets to emerge. The high transaction costs in such markets also penalized local production. Price controls often were advocatedto aid the urban poor, but there is increasing evidence that affluent urban dwellers have benefited most becausethey have better accessto the limited supplies that result from price controls and they tend to buy more animal products (Knudsonand Nash 1990). To compensatelocal producers for low commodity prices, many sub-S&ran govemments subsidizedthe provision of inputs such as veterinary and genetic improvement services, water, and credit. The subsidieswere often justified by the claim that Afri&n producers are unwilling to pay for such services(De Haan and Bekure 1991:8). However, subsidieshave led to misallocation of scarceresources,as, for example, when subsidized livestock credit is investedin other activities, the availability of free water leads to overgrazing, and free or subsidized veterinary servicescollapse becausedemandexceedsthe government’s ability to support them. Gmtrairits 6.3.2. Public sector involvement 55 Excessivegovernment regulations and unfair competition from the public sector have worked against livestock development in sub-SaharanAfrica. The heavy public sector involvement began in the 1960sand 1970swhen governmentwas seenas the engine of developmentand was believed to be able to supply goodscheaperthan the private sector. Excessive regukuion Trade barriers and internal restrictions have obstructedthe movement of livestock and livestock products and have led government officials to exact informal use charges from traders. A recent study (Holtzman and Kulibaba 19913) showed that such chargesconstituted up to 20 percent of the costsfor cattle transport in the “central corridor” between the Saheland Abidjan. Excessive regulation al? has held back the development of private input supply services. Monopolistic behavior The dominant role of the public sector has frequently stunted private-sector development, especially in production, trade, and processing.For example, the existenceof parastatal pig and poultry farms and dairy and meat processingplants have deterred private investments in such enterprises, and parastatal ranches have become a severe drain on public finances. Parastatalmeat marketing companies,which often were monopolies, have discouragedgreater off-take in traditional production systemsbecausetheir large bureaucracieswere unable to respond flexibly and efficiently to the complexities of livestock trade. The provision of free or subsidizedanimal health serviceshas retardedthe emergence of private veterinary services. 6.3.3. Institutional constraints Government and traditional institutions have been slow to adapt to rapidly changing economic and social conditions as population density increases and financial resources diminish. Jhnd use systems The traditional land use systemsof the arid regions, which once were quite capableof balancing grazing, water, and livestock numbers, are breaking down becauseof population growth. However, they are not being replaced by systemsthat provide flexibility in the managementof land and water and at the sametime conservegrazing resources.Flexibility in use, that is, the ability for grazers to move over wide areasas dictated by weather and the availability of feed, is crucial to the productive use of arid rangelands(Ellis 1991). In the higher potential areas, a shift from the common land use systemsto systemsmore sensitive to individual rights in land also is necessaryto facilitate investmentsin intensive prtiuction systems (Gilles 1991). Ownership systems In many African regions, livestock ownership is shiftJng from traditional producersto urban absenteeowners. Service and input supply institutions have not yet adaptedto this crucial changein decision making concerningherd and land management(de Haan 1990). 56 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica Input supply and service systems The supply of servicesby governmental agencieshas been seriously hampered by increasingstaff numberswithout a correspondingincreasein nonsalary recurrent funding and by governmentdiscouragementof private initiatives in the supply of livestock services. 6.3.4. Opportunities opportunities to correct policy-related problems, however, are beginning to appear. After initial resistance, African countries with the assistanceof donors, are implementing structural adjustment programs with the short-term objective of balancing budgets and a longterm objective of increasing efficiency of production. There is a growing realization among African decision makers that new policies and better functioning institutions are needed. Calls for support of privatization now emanatefrom almost every high-level meeting (for example the OAU/IBAR meetings of ministers of livestock in Addis Ababa in 1989 and Nairobi in 1991). The structural adjustmentprocessinitiated in many African countries is expectedto remove many of the foreign exchange,import, and price controls that have hampereddomestic production. At the sametime, many subsidiesare being abolished, which causeshardships,but leads to more efficient production systems. Privatization of services, while starting slowly, is gaining momentum. So far farmers demonstratewillingness to pay for competent services. Private basic herd-level veterinary health care has now been introduced in many African countries, and private professionalveterinary servicesare emerging in such countries as Cameroon, Kenya, Mali, Madagascar,and Guinea (de Haan and Bekure 1991:25), thus reducing farmers’ risk and inducing them to make the investmentsnecessary for intensification. 6.4. Constraints Related to Agroecological Zones 6.4.1. Arid zone The viability of pastoral production systemsand the productivity of rangelandsare being seriously compromised by the spreadof cropping into the rangelands.Traditional land use systemsencourageencroachmentby crop farming becauserights to land are gained by cultivation, while migratory users such as grazers cannot establish such rights. As a result, cropping systemsthat are less sustainableare undermining the sustainablepastoral production systems. Mobility is the essential element in the utilization of these rangelands, not reduced stocking rates, culling, or feed storage. The ability to move and yet retain grazing rights in critical areas is essential to the integrity of the system. Land tenure systemsmust provide livestock producers as well as cultivators with rights to land, particularly in critical dry seasongrazing areas. Becauseof low human density of theseareasand the inability of government to administer land policies on the use of parcels far from the national capital, land use management systemsmust be locally controlled (Gilles 1991) An evolving constraint is the growing use of livestock as capital. Becauseof the lack of savings and investment opportunities, livestock have become favored investmentsof farmers and urban dwellers alike. Use of livestock as savingstends to direct production strategiestoward.risk avoidancerather than to the maximization of productivity (Gilles 1991). Constraints 57 Diseaseand poor delivery of veterinary servicesis a constraint to the maintenanceof the productivity of the arid zone. More efficient use of the rangelandsby pastoral& is hamperedby the lack of information about where adequategrazing conditions exist. Information basedupon experienceon where to move herds to find grazing is institutionalized within pastoral communities, but when drought occurs, historical information may not be of much use. The grasslands of this zone probably cannot accommtite much of an increasein livestock numbers (table 5.2) or human population. Opportunities for outmigration will be required. The scarcity of fuel wood is a major problem for the inhabitants of this zone and a causeof range degradationthat requires attention. Population pressureon the rangelandshave becomeso intensethat productivity is being threatenedthroughout the zone. 6.4.2. Semi-arid zone The constraintsof the arid zone also apply to the drier portions of the semi-arid zone. Land use in this zone is moving toward crop-livestock and crop farming systemsin responseto increasedpopulation pressures.A declining proportion of the total arable land base is devoted to pasturesand to fallow. Forced by population pressures,cultivators are moving into marginal areastraditionally used as pasture. These changesare increasingly causing conflicts over land use, making land tenure issuesa constraint to the orderly progress of intensification in the zone. The most important technologicalconstraint in the wetter portions of the semi-arid zone is the provision of sufficient feed to maintain the productivity of livestock year-round. The feed shortageis most severein the dry Seifson.Declining soil fertility has becomea high priority constraint; a marked increasein the use of commercial fertilizer is needed.Diseasesand parasitesreduce livestock productivity throughout this zone, so the absenceof effective veterinary servicesdelivery systems,particularly farm-level preventive and therapeutic services, is an important constraint. The lack of technology to improve the output of crop-livestmk agriculture as practiced in this zone is a major constraint to the improvement of production and productivity. Inadequate infrastructure including transportation, marketing, services, credit, and agricultural input distribution systems,all constrain the developmentof animal production in this zone. Population pressures on agricultural land in portions of the semi-arid zone have become so great that productivity is being depressed and opportunities for expansionof the ruminant livestock population are limited. 6.4.3. Subhumid zone The subhumid zone is in a transitional stageof developmentfrom slash-and-bumcrop agriculture in relatively sparsely settled land to more intensive crop and livestock agriculture. Opportunities for expansionof livestock numbers are much greater than in other zones (table 5.2). However in the subhumid as well as in other zones, a greater increasein meat and milk production will be achievedthrough increasesin productivity per head than through increases of animal numbers (tables 5.2 and 5.3) Migration into the subhumid zone is occurring as pop- 58 Animd Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Afn’ca I * ulation pressures grow in the semi-arid zone and in coastal areas. As human habitation spreads,the ecology of the subhumid zone is changing, making control of trypanosomiasisincreasingly possible. Conflicts between crop and livestock production have grown as agricultural population pressures have increased. Animal diseasesare an important constraint in this zone. Although diseasepressure from trypanosomiasishas been reduced, the diseasestill takes a heavy toll in reducedproductivity (Msellati and Tacher 1991). The lack of ways to expand the use of trypanotolerant genetic stock more rapidly is an important constraint to increasedlivestock productivity. Other diseasesassociatedwith the environment, theileriosis, anaplasmosis,cowdriosis, babesiosis, + and derrnatophilosis,are seriousproblems. Parasites,both internat and external, and infectious _ -. diseases, are significant constraints. Feed quality is a primary constraint in this zone. Native pasture grassesare of poor quality and dry seasonfeeds are extremely low in protein. There is need to develop strategies for the provision of a year-round feed supply based upon native and improved pastures, residues and by-products of locally grown crops, cultivated legumes and forages, locally grown high protein feeds, and other feed crops adaptedto the subhumid zone. The lack of a commercial feed industry to supply poultry and pig enterprisesis a constraint to white meat production in the zone and to the development of intensive commercial systemsof livestock production. A fundamental constraint in this zone is the fragility and low fertility of the soil, which drastically reducesproductivity unlesscorrected. Lack of infrastructure, especially for transportation, processing, and marketing, is a major constraint in this zone. Although crop-livestock farming systems are evolving, established systems for profitable and sustainablecrop-livestock production based upon the unique ecology, patterns of crop production, diseasepressures,input availability, markets, and improved technology need to be developed. The natural processes of intensification could be greatly assistedby research on this subject. 6.4.4. Humid zone This study does not recommend livestock production in the forested portions of the humid zone. It recognizes, however, that there are livestock in this zone, and that unlessconstrainedlivestock numbersare likely to increase. Animal diseasesare major constraints. Trypanosomiasislimits ruminant production to trypanotolerant breeds of livestock but there is a shortageof trypanotolerant breeding stock. All of the diseaseconstraints identified for the subhumid zone also are present in the humid zone. Lack of concentratesfor poultry and pigs inhibits the expansionof white meat production in the zone. Lack of infrastructure of all kinds posesa formidable barrier to the expansion of animal agriculture. Gmstraims 6.4.5. Highland zone 59 The highlands are the most intensively farmed zone in sub-SaharanAfrica. Nevertheless the zone has potential to further expandproduction of meat and milk through increasesin animal productivity, feed production, and modest increasesin animal numbers (table 5.2 and 5.3). Further increasesin production and productivity will require utilization of higher levels of technology and increasing quantities of inputs and services. The availability of such technology, inputs, and services-fertilizer, agricultural power, year-round feeding systems,high yielding forages and feed crops, improved livestock genetic stocks, effective breeding services, agricultural supplies, etc.-is a major constraint to increasedproductivity. Lack of infrastructure such as transportation, marketing, processing, and water also has become an important impediment to agriculture development. 6.5 Institutional Constraints , 6.5.1 Extension The lack of cost-effective meansof transferring technology under current conditions in sub-Saharan Africa is a major constraint. Extension agenciesare more responsiveto govemmental bureaucraciesthan to the needsof farmers. Governmentalorganizationswith crop and livestock extension specialists situated in different departmentsand ministries have difficulty delivering integrated crop-livestock extension programs to mixed crop-livestock farmers. Ties betweenextension servicesand researchinstitutions that generatenew agricultural technology are weak, thus the two-way communication neededbetween researchworkers and farmers is poorly developedin most countries. 6.52. Animal health services Governmental veterinary servicesare not able to deliver adequateanimal health services. As a result, diseasesurveillance, vaccineproduction and epidemic diseasecontrol measuresare inadequate,farm-level curative and preventativeservicesare poor or nonexistent,and public health and extension servicesare weak. Veterinary service, with the exception of those _ servicesperformed primarily for the benefit of the public generally, should be privatized and workable animal health delivery systemsdeveloped. 6.5.3. Producer organizations Farmers have little or no influence over policy, research,extension, or educationissues that directly affect their welfare. Lack of farmer empowerment is an important constraint to developmentthat can be addressed in part through the establishmentof producer organizations. Farmer organizations that deal with input supply, marketing, savings, loans, and grazing and water managementalso are weak or nonexistentin many countries. There are few groups who can provide user input to extension services,NARS, and educationalinstitutions in the region. Lack of effective meansof empowering farmers to contribute to al! of theseactivities is an important constraint. 60 Animal Agriculture in Sub-&&ran Afn’ca 6.5.4. Education and training In primary and secondaryschools, lack of educationalprograms whose content relevant to agriculture is a general constraint to development.Middle-level education has not kept pace with changing needsof the agricultural sector. University-level education programs in animal scienceand veterinary medicine are not well focusedon the needsof agricultural development. Post-graduate educationdoes not prepare studentsfor development-orientedresearchcareersin NARS. 7 Priorities and Strategies for Livestock Development 7.1. Elements of an Animal Agriculture Strategy ,, Development This chapter outlines strategiesand actions to enhancethe contributions of animal agriculture to agricultural and economic developmentin sub-Saharan Africa, to increase the biophysical and socioeconomicsustainability of agricultural production systems, and to improve the social and economic statusof the peoplesof the region. The overall strategy proposed for the development of animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica is based upon the following premises: .l. The population of sub-Saharan Africa is growing rapidly and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future (Bulatao et al. 1990). 2. There is a finite baseof arable and grazing land to support the production of the food required to feed this growing popuJation(PA0 1986c). 3. Population pressureswill drive agriculture toward intensification (Boserup 1965, 1981; Pingali et aI. 1987). 4. Human population pressureswill increasecrop and livestock interactions in areas where both crop and livestock production are sustainable.Increasing interactions will lead to the evolution of mixed crop-livestock production systemsas the most efficient and sustainable means of increasing off-take from a fixed land area (TMcIntireet al. 1992). 5. Growth in productivity and gains in sustainability in mixed crop-livestock agricultural systemswill ceaseunlessproduction technology is improved and off-farm inputs are employed. Productivity can be increasedwith the use of improved technology and inputs (M&tire et al. 1992). 6. The next step in the evolution of agricultural systems,after mixed crop-livestock systems, is the respecialization in crop and livestock production using advanced technology and substantialquantities of inputs (McIntire et al. 1992). 62 Animal Agricuhre in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca The energy to drive the system toward ever higher levels of productivity is best provided by incentives to farmers awarded by the market functioning in a policy environment supportive of agriculture. (FAO 1986a:40-41, World Rank 1989:9091). Different parts of sub-SaharanAfrica are at different stagesin the evolution of their agricultural productiori systems. For example, intensive mixed crop-livestock farming is widely practiced in the highland agroecologicalzone. In some areaswithin the zone, the productivity of these systemshas been strikingly improved by the adoption of improved technology and the heavy use of off-farm inputs. Other areas, for example much of subhumid zone, ’ are in early stagesof transition from slash-and-burnfarming and herding of livestock to mixed r, crop-livestock farming. Development of animal production enterprisesaround some cities representsthe fmal stageof agricultural development-intensive commercial livestock production systems. However, many intensive systemsare not internally viable becausethey are based upon the importation of feeds. Respecialization of agriculture is not likely to become widespreadin sub-Saharan Africa until industrializatidn occurs and population pressureon land is reduced. The strategy proposedby this study is basedupon the principle of supporting, accelerating, and helping direct the natural processes of evolution of agriculture in the region; taking into accountpolitical, social, and economic realities. It is not likely that the basic nature of this evolutionary processcan be greatly altered by developmentinitiatives, or that systemsof production from outside Africa can be successfullyadopted if they run contrary to the basic evolutionary model. There are, however, significant opportunities to shape the future of agriculture and rural development in sub-SaharanAfrica. Interventions should target componentsof the natural processes of evolution in ways that will accelerateintensification and make crop-livestock systemsmore productive. The goal of animal agricultural development efforts should be to elevate production and productivity, to improve the social and economic conditions of the people, and to enhancethe’sustainability of agriculture of the region. The common elementsof the proposed strategy are iruensi$cafiun of agriculture, inregmion of crop and livestock production, invesrmenrs in technology generationand transfer, in infrastructure, and in inputs, and the establishmentof public policies to support agricultural development. Private initiative and investmentsand agricultural enterprise development must spearheaddevelopment. For livestock development, the key areasfor public intervention are policy planning, regulation, control of epidemic animal diseases,food safety, research, education, technology transfer, infrastructure, and market development. 7.2. Priority Actions for Development of Animal Agriculture 7. Priority action programs that have the greatestdevelopmentpotential and strategiesdesigned to make sub-SaharanAfrica as competitive as possible in a rapidly growing world economyare presentedby agroeeologicalzones,production systems,and species. Establishmentof priorities is basedupon the following diiteria: Priorities and Strategiesfor L&stock Development 63 Potential of agr,oecological zones for agricultural developmentand increasedproductivity. Importance of production systemsand speciesacrossagroecologicalzonesfor producing food, other animal products, and income. Potential for significant increasesin productivity by interventions that fall within the resourcecapacity of producersat acceptablelevels of risk. 7.2.1. Zones of highest priority Medium rain&l1 region The greatest opportunity for expanding agricultural production in sub-&&ran Africa lies in the medium rainfall region (the subhumid zone and the adjoining higher rainfall areasof the semi-arid zone), where the annual rainfall is 750 to 1,500 millimeters. The potential of this region for producing animal feed-pastures, forages, and multipurpose trees for ruminants and grain, root, and oilseed crops for pigs and poultry~is substantially underexploited. Improved varieties of cereals, root crops, oilseed crops, and forages are needed, along with better cultural practicesfor thesecrops. Crop-livestock systems,which are already common in the semiarid zone, will be more widely adoptedin the subhumid zone as animal diseasepressuresare reducedand the processes of intensification proceed. To overcomethe low protein and energy content of foragesand to improve the poor soils of theseareas,high priority must be placed on soil building and conservationmeasures,crop rotations, use of leguminous forages and trees, feed supplements,and improved meansof storing and managing forages and fodder. Use of manurein combination with chemical fertilizer is an important element in the strategy. Development of local depositsof phosphates as fertilizer (perhapsencouragedby government subsidies) would significantly improve the productivity of thesezones. The potential for livestock production is high. Availability of crop residues and byproducts, coupled with the ability to grow foragesand field crops provides economic meansof providing feeds. Improvement of the productivity of livestock, particularly of trypanotolerant breedsis a feasible meansof increasingproductivity. Expansionof fattening, becauseof ready access to animals and markets, and efforts to encouragethe efficient use of animal traction are important elementsfor developmentstrategies. Animal diseasesand parasitesare major constraintsto animal production in the zone. Strategiesto reduce losses from the tick-borne diseases,dermatophilosis and other environmentally related diseases must receive high priority. The lossesfrom trypanosomiasisare moderating as human populations increase and change the ecology of the region. This disease, however, still causes very important reductionsin productivity. Improved control measuresfor this diseaseand strategiesto increasethe numbers of trypanotolerant cattle, sheep, and goats are neededto further decreaselossesfrom trypanosomiasis.Internal parasitesare another important causeof diminished productivity of ruminants. Intensification and the evolution of crop-livestock production systemswill be facilitated by developmentof improved meansto resolve conflicts over land use. The developmentof infrastructure, i.e., roads, markets, services, agricultural input distribution systems and processingfacilities, and meansof making credit more widely available to farmers and to agro- 64 Animai Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica , * industry, will have a very positive effect on intensification. Transportation is by far the major infrastructural problem, as it is throughout sub&hat-an Africa (Mellor and Delgado 1987, Shapiro 1991). High priority also must be given to the developmentof small-scaledairy processingcentersby the private sector (Walshe 1991:62). A supportive policy environment with emphasison realistic exchangerates, abolition of price controls, and free markets is needed.Processes of intensification will be greatly aided by studieson crop-livestock farming systemsthat take into account varying patterns of crop and animal mixes and technologiesthat will make them more productive. HighhuG Highland areas, the traditional bradbaskets for eastern and southern Africa, warrant priority attention. Despite high human and animal population densities, these areas have potential for further growth in livestock productivity and the advantageof strong and expanding markets for meat and milk. In most of the highland zone, agricultural production systemshave reacheda high level of intensification and crop-livestock complementarity. Further increasesin productivity will require improved production technology and greater use of production inputs. Improved technologiesappropriate to this zone include higher yielding grain and forage varieties, improvement of genotype for dairy production through expanded use of crossbreeding, improved cultural practices for forage production, better feed and fodder management, improved animal health technology particularly for tick-borne diseasesand diseasesof intensification, and more effective farm-level veterinary servicesthrough privatization and expandeduse of animal health auxiliaries (veterinary assistants).Increasedavailability of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals,pesticides, feed supplements and other inputs are needed, Improved infrastructure is a major need of the highland zone. The most importam is transportation, followed closely by input delivery systems;milk, meat, poultry, and feed processingfacilities; sanitation; water; and markets. A supportive policy environment for animal agricultural developmentis essential. 7.2.2. Second priority Arid zone zones Development strategiesat this time should be directed to preserving the productivity of the rangelands.Strategiesto control cultivation of areasunsuited for sustainedcrop production are needed. Governmentscan take an important step in this direction by providing livestock growers with land use rights and facilitating the establishmentof land and water management systemsbasedupon local control. Movement of excessanimals to higher potential areasis occurring and should be encouraged Geographic information systemsto improve management and to monitor rangelanduseand degradationare needed. Humid wne This study does not recommend livestock production in the forested portions of the humid zone. Neither traction nor manure currently make a significant contribution to crop agriculture in the humid zone. Crop-livestock interactionsare unlikely to play a significant role in the Priorities and Strategiesfor Livestock Development 65 zone unlesstrypanosomiasisis controlled (?&Mire et al. 1!392:188).Improved animal disease control.and strategiesto expandthe availability of trypanotolerant livestock will increaselivestock production. Policies that support the developmentof intensive commercial livestock production enterprises around large coastal cities, such as accessto foreign exchangeon reasonableterms and unrestricted imports of feedstuffs and other inputs, are required to meet the demand for animal food products for urban populations. Improved feed production strategies are also needed.The lack of infrastructure is an important constraint in this zone. If agriculture is to be developedin the humid zone, researchwill be required on integrated crop-livestock-treeproduction systemsbefore livestock production is encouraged. 7.3. Strategies for Production Systems The principal animal production systems in subSaharan Africa are: mixed croplivestock, pastoral-agropastoral, intensive commercial, 1 and livestock-wildlife systems. 7.3.1. Mixed croplivestock systems Developmental strategiesshould emphasizeactions that support the naturally occurring intensification processesand facilitate the transition from crop and livestock agriculture to mixed crop-livestock farming. For areasin which the processhas reacheda high level of complementarity, strategiesshould focus on developmentand implementation of improved technologies and the use of more production inputs. Development strategiesare needed to provide the meansto resolve the land use problems facing livestock producers throughout the vast areasin which mixed crop-livestock systems are evolving. High priority needsinclude the development, through farming systemsresearch,of technology packagesdesignedto enhancethe productivity of mixed crop-livestock systemsin different agroecologicalzones and marketsand with different cropping patternsand production practices. Improved technologieswill include improved varieties of food and feed crops, forages, legumes, and tree crops; improved genetic stocks of indigenous cattle, sheep, and goats; improved production systemsfor poultry, pigs, and small animals such as rabbits; and improved soil, crop, and livestock managementsystems.Improved strategiesfor technoIogy transfer and the establishmentof more effective extensionstrategiesare needed. The veterinary servicesto support mixed crop-livestock systemswill be more effective if they are based on private enterprise and if improved vaccines, better diagnostic tests, and other technology are widely available. Improved means of delivering veterinary services to smauholders are needed. Practical means of providing artificial insemination services are needed.Simple fresh sementechniquescould make artificial insemination more widely available than complex frozen semenprocedures,which have not proved very successful.There is need for improved infrastructure including transportation, marketing, water, and sanitary services and for governmentalpolicies that favor agriculture including realistic foreign exchange policies, price policies, and free markets. Development strategies that aim to raise the productivity of specific mixed croplivestock systemsmust carefully consider the stageof developmentof the target area in rela- 66 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica tion to intensification and the nature of crop-livestock interactions, availability of technology to improve productivity, availability and cost of inputs, and whether or not policies favor mixed crop-livestock farming. No one set of actions is applicable to all situations. 7.3.2. Pastoral systems Strategies for pastoral systems should focus on the acquisition of land use rights for grazersand the establishmentof locally managedand controlled land and water management systems. Becauseanimal diseases causeseriouslossesin the arid zone, the developmentof practicable and economic systemsof delivering animal health services,using a combination of private veterinarians and auxiliaries, would be highly beneficial. A monitoring system to better inform userswhere grazing is abundantor scarcewould help pastoral&s to use the rangelands more productively and warn them of impending feed shortagesdue to drought so they can promptly take stepsto mitigate the potential impact of drought on their livelihood. 7.3.3. Intensive commercial systems Increasing numbers of intensive commercial dairy, poultry, and pig production operations will develop as demand for meat, milk, and eggs expands. Most will be located in periurban areas.The availability of concentratefeedsand forageswill influence the speedat which these operations develop. Commercial systems will serve as important outlets for surplus grams in years of ample rainfall. They will provide an increasingproportion of the poultry and pig meat in the years ahead. Strategiesto encouragethe developmentof these systemsshould focus on feed supply, infrastructure, policies, and credit. Feed must come from local production, except in coastal areaswhere transportationis inexpensive.Consequentlystrategiesto increasethe production of feed grams, root crops, and oilseeds for use in animal feeds, and the development of a commercial feed industry are critical for the growth of intensive systems.The institution of sound quality control measuresare essentialto the establishmentof a commercial feed industry. Infrastructural needs include processing and marketing facilities and transportation for feed. Policies that encouragethe production of grain and root crops for feeding purposes,protect local agricultural production from dumping, and permit the importation of critical inputs suchas feed additives are needed.Credit to enable producersand processorsto make capital improvements is needed. Ranching schemesbased upon natural and improved pasturesare present in all agroecological zones and account for 5 percent of tropical livestock units in sub-SaharanAfrica (ILCA 1987:16). As they have in the highlands, commercial ranchesare expectedto decline in areassuitable for mixed crop-livestock farming as intensification proceeds. 7.3.4. WWife and integrated wildlife-livestock systems Integrated wildlife-livestock production systemshave the potential for making unique and important contributions to food production and income generation throughout sub-Saharan Africa. On a strictly biological basis, the population growth rates of some wild ungulates Priorities and Straregiesfoi Livestock Development 67 speciesare higher than those of domestic stock (Ellis 1991:13). In grazing systemswhere the primary speciesare cattle or sheep,the patternsof forage utilization by livestock and wildlife are complementary.Thus the incorporation of wildlife into a ranching schemeincreases overall production. In pastoral systemsinvolving goats or camels as well as cattle or sheep, wildlife does not have a comparativeadvantagefor range utilization and is more likely to be ‘competitive (Coppock et al. 1986). Wildlife cropping, the cropping of unmanagedpopulations on a sustainedyield basis, and gameranching, the management of wildlife populationson privately controlled lands, provide meansto exploit wildlife as a way of converting the primary production of rangelandsto valuable products. In wildlife cropping schemes,harvesting and processing the meat is the most difficult technical problem. Another problem is the availability of markets for wildlife products. Wildlife cropping no longer is economically attractive in easternand southernAfrica (Ellis 1991). Game ranching on private lands allows for the intensive managementof both wildlife and the range. It is widely practiced in southern Africa where many ranchesare operated as strictly wildlife enterprisesor as integrated wildlife-livestock farms. There were 280 exclusive game ranchesand 2,000 integrated livestock-wildlife ranchesin the Transvaal of South Africa in 1982. Game ranching also is a growing industry in Zimbabwe and Namibia. In Namibia land owners have full control of game animals on their lands, which has resulted in vigorous growth of game ranching in which safari hunting and tourism as well as the sale of meat provides income to the enterprise. The success of game ranching, with exception of some opemtions that have important niche markets, lies in the marketing of a variety of goods including hunting rights, tourism, and meat (Ellis 1991). The greatestopportunities exist for additional exploitation of game ranching and integrated wildlife-livestock systemsin arid and semi-arid rangelands.In West and Central Africa, unlike easternAfrica, game meat is highly prized and the market price may be twice that of beef (Ellis 1991). But in West Africa, game animal populations are small. A pilot game ranching project in Burkina Faso hasproven to be a successfulmeansof utilizing the resources of the Sudan-Guineansavanna(Lundgren 1990:141-150). When the project began, there was only a small residual wildlife population becauseof excessiveexploitation. In 10 years the wild ungulate population increasedfrom 1,000 to 12,ooO. Most of the income to the ranch came from saleof meat, somelocally, and from safari hunting. The most difficult problems associated with game ranching are harvesting, processing, and marketing of gameanimals. Modem harvestingand processingtechnologieshave been developed, but they are costly. The game meat market is fickle. Before commercial game ranching schemesare developed,much attention must be given to locating stable markets. It is important to involve local people in projects that include the managementof a free-living wildlife resource. Unless they receive a fair shareof the returns they will do little to make it a success. There is much potential for wildlife to provide economic benefits through tourism, hunting, and the sale of meat. No other region in the world has as great a potential for developing wildlife as sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural developmentstrategiesshould take this important resourceinto accountin areasin which wildlife exists: 68 Animai Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAflea 7.4. Strategies for Species 7.4.1. Cattle In the next 35 years, though cattle.will produce a smaller proportion of the total meat consumedin sub-SaharanAfrica (table 5.2), they will remain the most important single livestock species.They will be the major speciesin pastoral systemsin semi-arid regions and in croplivestock systemsin all zones. The semi-arid and subhumid zones have the greatestopportunities for increasedmeat production. Achieving sustainableincreasesin the production of cattle meat and milk will hinge largely upon increasing animal productivity through improved d! nutrition, health, breeding, and management. Higher meat production wilI result from in- r creasesin numbers of animals combined with increased productivity. In addition, the greater use of stall feeding, using farm-produced forages and surplus by-products and grain, will contribute to higher production. Strategiesto enhancethe usefulnessof animal traction in circumstanceswhere it can be successfullyemployed include improving implements, nutrition, and d health of draft animals (Gebrewold 1991). The principal opportunities for dairy development arise from a growing market propel&I by population growth and urbanization. Efficient production of milk will require a dependable year-round supply of high quality forages and supplemental protein and energy concentrates,high producing cows, and reliable herd health programs. The highlands have the best immediate potential for expansion, which will occur mainly in smallholder crop-livestock systems.West Africa is a major milk deficit area- strategiesto increasethe production of milk and milk products there need to be explored. 7.4.2. Sheep and goats Sheepand goats will gain importance as sourcesof red meat in the years ahead. These ruminants fit well into smallholder crop-livestock systemsbecauseof their small size and high off-take (compared with cattle). They are well-suited for arid, semi-arid, and highland areas and for grazing systems that include cattle. In subhumid areas, the introduction of animal health measuresto control infectious and parasitic diseaseswill raise productivity and foster more widespreaduse of small ruminants. Improved meansof selection for desirableproduction traits are needed. 7.4.3. Poultry Demand for white meat from poultry will soar in the next three decades as the deficit in red meat production widens. Although extensivefarmsteadand backyard systemswidely used t&y will continue, much of the increaseddemand for poultry meat will be met by small-scale intensive production on crop-livestock farms and by intensive commercial production in. periurban areas. Technology for intensive commercial poultry production systemsis readily available. The paramount needswill be processingfacilities and adequatesupplies of feed grains, root crops, and oilseedsat affordable prices. Priorities and Strategiesfor Livestock Development 7.4.4. Pigs 69 Lie poultry, peri-urban intensive pig production is destined to grow in sub-Saharan Africa becauseof the inability to meet demand through expandedred meat production. The majority of pigs are located in the humid and subhumid zones.They are kept mainly by smallholders where they subsist primarily by scavenging.Under this system of extensiveproduction, growth is slow and productivity low. There is potential for expanding indigenous pig production by smallholders. The principal need is to expandlocal feed production for growing and finishing. An even greater opportunity for expandedpig meat production exists through intensive production of pigs, using imported genetic stocks and technology. The primary requirement for intensive pig meat production is an adequatefeed supply, either locally produced or imported, infrastructure for marketing, processing, and transportation of feeds; animal health services,and a supportive policy environment. Pig operationsare likely to be located closer to feed sourcesthan poultry. They are less efficient convertersof feed to meat than are poultry, but they are capable of making better use of waste*and high moisture feeds. Cultural mores also influence the location of pig operations. 7.45 Camels The camel provides transport, milk, and meat to pastorahsts and is an essentialelement in pastoral strategiesfor survival in the dry rangelandssouth of the Sahara.Camels are subject to a wide variety of diseases.Trypanosomiasis, ecto-parasites,salmonelloses,and neonatal diseases are among the most prominent (Blajan and Lasnomi 1990). Reproductive inefficiencies are reported to be a major .constraint to camel production (Saint-Martin et al. 1990). Strategiesto provide health servicesto theseanimals would materially improve productivity. 7.4.6. Equines Trypanosomiasissharply restricts the rangeof livestock and donkeys in the sub-Saharan Africa. If tsetseand other transmitters of trypanosomiasisare controlled, equinescan become more important for transport of goods and people at least until such time as mechanizedtransport becomesmore widely available and cost effective. The technologiesin support of equines for transport-nutrition, health care, equipment- are available and transferable from outside sub-%&u-anAfrica. 7.4.7. Minor species The study recognizesthe importance of minor species,usually at the local level. The current and potential importance of aquacultureas a food source deservesparticular attention from researchand development efforts. The domestication of grass cutters and expansion of snail production in West Africa, and rabbit production throughout the region have promise for increasing the production of foods of animal origin in sub-Saharan Africa (Board on Science and Technology in Development 1991, Chigaru 1991). 70 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica Development Projects: Past and Future 7.5. Animal Agriculture Like most developmentprojects in sub-Saharan Africa, livestock projects have had both successes and failures. Even the disappointmentshave yielded information that will improve the prosp&s for livestock projects in the future. In East Africa, smallholder dairy development, which startedabout 1955, has been notably successful.Milk production from crossbredand grade cows reached2,200 million liters per year in 1989 (Wanyoike 1991). The numbers of smallholders keeping dairy cows (mostly crossbred) has increased from 300,000 in 1979 to 600,000 in 1989. As a result, milk consumption in Kenya (per capita GNP: $360) has now reached89 kilograms per capita, the same level as Mexico (per capita GNP: $2,010). A key factor contributing to that success is that returns from the labor put into milk and forage production have been consistently higher than the returns to crops like beansand maize (Stotz 1979, de Haan 1991). In the semi-arid zone of West Africa, where the introduction of animal traction began in earnestas recently as the 194Os,the number of dxen reached2.2 million by 1979 (Jahnke 1982:33) and now is estimatedat 3.5 million (Starkey 1988). The oxen are used to till 4 to 5 million hectaresa year. Important factors leading to this success were the availability of profitable cash crops (cotton and groundnuts) to finance animal traction and effective commodity organizations, especially for cotton in the francophone areas, that could organize the input supply, credit, and extensionservices(McIntire et al. 1992). A third example of success is the introduction of animal health technology in many regions and production systems (Agency for International Development 1982, Provost 1991), substantially reducing the threat of some important epidemic livestock diseasessuch as rinderpest and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Also basic steps such as using village vaccinators againstNewcastle diseasein Burkina Faso and PPR (pestedes petits ruminants) in Nigeria and C&e d’Ivoire have made animal health care available to the poorer groups of the society, reducing livestock losses,and increasingincomes. Some animal agriculture projects, however, have frustrated their sponsors.The success rate’ of World Bank-funded livestock projects and projects with livestock componentsin subSaharanAfrica between 1970 and 1983 was only 38 percent, which was lower than the success rate of crop projects (World Bank 1985). The key factors determining success and failure was how well the project design and technology fit the production system into which it was introducedand the macroeconomicenvironment in which the project operated. 7.5.1. Project design, production systems, and technology Among animal agriculture projects, range-livestockprojects have been the most disappointing. One reasonis that the efficiency of traditional range-livestock systemswas misinterpreted. Earlier range-livestockprojects were designedto replace traditional systemswith new production forms (ranches, industrial feedlots), and they failed completely (Ellis 1991). Also, the complexity of traditional production systemswas underestimatedand their importance in ’ Projects with an economic rate of return (estimated after project completion) of more than 10 percent. Priorities and Strazegies for Livestock Development 71 providing the framework for technology introduction was not adequatelyrecognized. As a result, rangeland improvement technology (reseeding,improved grazing systems, etc.) was introduced without the appropriate social and organizational framework and failed. The introduction of animal health and water technology, which themselveswere highly successful, producing adequatereturns and strong producer demand, ultimately proved unsustainablein the absence of a proper organizational framework. That led to overgrazing and resourcedegradation (Dodd 1991, Ellis 1991, Gilles 1991, de Haan 1990). Droughts have exacerbatedthese undesirableeffects. In croplivestock systemsin the medium rainfall areas, where more technological options are available, animal agricultural projects have performed better. The World Bank in an assessment of 125 animal agriculture projects implementedin sub-Saharan Africa from 1967 to 1983, concludedthat crop-livestock projects and other livestock componentprojects were more successfulthan pure livestock projects (World Rank 1985). A USAID evatuation of 104 livestock-related projects implemented between 1954 and 1981 reached similar conclusions (Agency for International Development 1982). ’ The success storiesin smallholder dairy production and animal traction are concentrated in the crop-livestock systems. More recently smallholder systemsof fattening cattle, sheep, and goats have been developed in Cameroon, Nigeria, and Senegal and are achieving economic rates of return of 21 to 33 percent (de Haan 1991). Another promising initiative is dualpurpose goat improvement in Kenya (Small Ruminant Collaborative ResearchSupirt Program 1990, Raun 1989). Disappointmentshave cxzcurred in developing efficient extension services(especially in the integration of improved technology and information for crop-livestock production), in introducing forage production outside the intensive dairy production areas, in encouraging manure utilization outside the intensively cropped areas,and in promoting animal traction outside the cash-cropareas(McIntire et al. 1992). Inadequatereturns to labor and more promising alternative opportunities in these systemsunderlies weak performance, which highlights the importance of good returns to farmers for capital and labor as an influence on technology adoption. Successes and failures in highland areas have followed the same trends in croplivestock production systemsdescribed above for the medium rainfall areas. The ineffectiveness of artificial insemination projects merits specific mention, however. Their poor performance stems from dependence on’ public sector organizations and the use of overly sophisticated technology according to Walshe et al. (1991:34). The same author also points to the poor returns from many dairy processingprojects. 7.5.2. Economic and institutional environment Animal agriculture projects also have suffered from the economic, political, and natural calamities that have buffeted Africa over the past 20 years. The economic basis for livestock projects have frequently been undermined by distorted prices, subsidies, and exchangerates designedto favor the urban consumerwith little regard for agricultural producers. Price amtrols for domestic production and overvaluedexchangerateshave permitted unfair competition from imports, which depresses project performance (Shapiro 1991). Subsidizedlivestock ser- 72 Aninuai Agriculture in Sub-Sahiuan Afica vices, for example the control of epidemic diseases such as rinderpest, have proved unsustainable because follow-up capacity deteriorated after projects were completed. Similarly, subsidizedinterest rates have causedcredit to be allocated through personal, nonmarket channels, resulting in inefficient allocation and neglect of the poorest producers. Many countries have relied too heavily on the public sector to advancelivestock programs and have repressedor discouragedthe private sector. Project planners have often’overestimated the planning and implementation capability of local institutions. Many animal agriculture projects have been too complex, too ambitious, and not wholly appropriate for local conditions. These difficulties have been aggravatedin integrated development projects by the high degree of technical and managerial skills neededwhile budgets have shrunk and the efficiency of governmentlivestock serviceshave declined. 7.5.3. L4issons learned Current strategiesfor developmentand project design in animal agriculture are taking past experiencesinto account. In the arid zone, more attention is being given to establishingan appropriate organizational framework before attempting to introduce technological interventions. Project objectives in this zone have shifted from greater production to resourceconservation and comprehensive natural resource management. The establishment of pastoral associationsthat managewater, grazing, and forestry resourcesnow is a feature of almost all range-livestockprojects (Gilles 1991, Shanmugaratnam et al. 1991). In the higher rainfall areas, activities that have proven successful,such as smallholder dairy and livestock fattening, are being expanded.There is growing interest in the integration of crop and livestock extension services, although much remains to be done. Resourcemanagementin the higher potential areasis increasingly organized on a village or watershedbasis. Exchange rates are being corrected.in many countries. Price controls are being abolished, and more and more countries are protecting their local production, and thus project performance, against unfair competition. Subsidiesare being minimized, and the sustainability of some critical input serviceshas improved, notably through the introduction of cost recovery and private farm-level animal health care systemsrun by farmers themselves. More emphasisis being given to pilot projects to help refine planned activities before a full-scale project is launched (Agency for International Development 1982). Most developing countries and the development community recognize the inefficiencies of centralized services provided by government agenciesand parastatals.The privatization of servicesand provision of inputs are now widely considered to be requisites for successfulprojects. Several African countries are developing private animal health care systemsbased on auxiliaries within producer organizations and community groups. These community groups are evolving into national producer organizations. For example a multidonor funded project in the Central African Republic has started to act as a national force to increasethe accountability of public sector livestock servies. Project implementation units are increasingly integrated in the normal administrative hierarchy, using more local staff, in order to improve after-project sustainability. Major problems still remain with the organization of credit delivery systemsand repayment schedules,particularly for smallholders. As livestock systemsbecome more intensified, croplivestock farmers, who are principally smallholders, will require greater accessto credit. 8 Strategies for Research The proposed development strategiesrely on researchto generateand assembletechnology, on extensionto transfer it to producers, and on educationto develop the basic knowledge and technical skills needed to support the development of animal agriculture. The researchprocessbegins with problem identification at the field level, followed by the evaluation of biophysical and socioeconomicconstraintsand potentials and the establishmentof researchpriorities. Criteria for the establishmentof researchpriorities include: impact of the constraint on production and income 9 availability of technology to overcomethe constraint or exploit the potential 9 probability that researchwill be successful(in resolving the constraint or exploiting the potential) and that sustainable benefits will be derived 9 social and environmental impact Researchmust also addressthe long-term needsof sub-Saharan Africa by ensuring the sustainability of production systems. As was made clear by the Brundtland report (World Commission on the Environment and Development 1987), and the public responseto it, sustainability should be an objective of all developmentefforts. Sustainabledevelopment means change“in which the exploitation of resources,the direction of investments,the orientation of technological development, and institutional changeare all in harmony and enhanceboth current and future potentiaI to meet human needsand aspirations” (World Commission on the Environment and Development 1987:46). The crucial areas for researchare feed supply, animal health, genetic improvement, farming systems,natural resources,and policy. 9 8.1. Feed Supply Year-round feed supply is a primary constraint to livestock production in sub-&&u-an Africa (Chapter 6). Overcoming this constraint will require a coordinated approach that addressesthe agronomic, animal production, animal health, and economic dimensions of feed production and feeding systems(Raun and Turk 1983). 74 8.M. Ruminants Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica Arid zone In the arid zone, ruminant production is limited by an inadequateoverall forage supply accentuated by more acute seasonalshortagesand large annual fluctuations. Low rainfall in the arid zone precludessignificant increasesin biomassproduction. The principal objective should be to sustainpresent production levels. Key researchtopics in this zone therefore include (1) developmentof monitoring systemsthat reliably predict interannual variations in rainfall and thus in forage production, allowing timely introduction of drought-relief measures;(2) identification of low-cost grazing managementsystemsthat protect the vegetation (emphasizing the * social and organizational requirementsfor achieving sustainablenatural resourceuse); and (3) -.. the developmentof higher potential sites, such as river valleys, for feed production. Semi-arid and subhumid zones The generally low protein and energy content of natural forage and the seasonalfluctuations in forage supply are critical issuesin the semi-arid and subhumid zones. The major task is to improve the utilization of natural forages and crop residuesand to introduce more nutritious fodder and pasturecrops. Researchis neededon: The planting and establishmentof improved fodder crops, leguminous tree crops, pastures, and specialty forage crops that will provide more energy or protein to ruminants in pastoral and crop-livestock systems. 9 Energy nutrition related to the use of chemical, mechanical, and microbiological interventions to improve the digestibility of crop residues,low quality forages, and other lignocellulosic feeds. 9 The use of nonprotein nitrogen, by-passprotein (protein that is not degradedin the rumen) , and other protein supplementsto correct dietary protein deficiencies and to improve protein digestion and metabolism. 9 Mineral supplementationneededto correct the major and minor mineral deficiencies of grazed forages, fodder crops, and crop residues. 9 Improved methods of storing high protein or high energy fodders and feeds harvestedin the wet seasonfor consumptionin the dry season. This set of priorities implies increasedattention to the physiological basis of rumen nutrition and a better appreciation of real protein and energy needsin the life cycles of animals. Much of the current researchin Latin America and Asia on fodder crops and tree-livestock systemsis relevant to the needsof these zones. New technologiesto increasefeed production must be carefully tested to determine their effects on land use sustainability, especially in the subhumidagroecologicalzone where the fragility of the soil is an important issue (seesections 4.2 and 4.3). 9 Highlands For the highlands, with their high human and livestock densities, researchshould concentrateon overcoming the mounting feed shortagethrough.greaterproduction of high yielding Strategiesfor Research 73 forage and protein crops. The soil conservationbenefits of various fodder and feed production systemswill also need to be tested. Most crop-livestock farms in highland areas, are smaI1and do not have accessto grazing land. Becausethese farms are largely crop-based,their livestock production options will depend heavily on f&r-m-produced feeds and the availability’ of by-product feeds. Researchis therefore neededon optimum feeding systemsthat use crop residues supplementedby forage crops, fodder from leguminous trees, surplus root crops, and by-products for semi-intensive dairying and for the fattening of cattle, sheep,or goats. 8.1.2. Poultry and pigs For poultry and pig production, the availability and cost of feed grains, root crops, and oilseeds are the primary constraints throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Feed gram requirements will increasefrom 3 to 25 million tons by 2025 and oilseed meal requirementsfrom 0.2 to 6.0 million tons (table 6.11). A major researcheffort will be neededto generatethe technologies and strategiesto produce sufficient coarsegrams, root crops, and oil& meals to meet feed requirements.Researchalso is neededon nontraditional crops such as leaf meals, azoila, and duckweed. Better diets using surplus root crops and grams supplementedby farm-produced leaf meals and other protein sources also need to be studied for small-scale production of poultry and pigs (Chigaru 1991, Onim 1991). 8.2. Animal Health Animal health is a major constraint to increasedproductivity. of livestock throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Researchis required to improve animal health technologies, particularly technologiesfor hot climates (Pritchard 1988). More information also is required on the economic consequences of animal diseases and control proceduresand the interaction of diseases, management,and environment in different production systems. Basic, strategic, and apphed researchare required for the developmentand application of new vaccines and diagnostic techniquesand to improve existing vaccinesand diagnostics. The application of control methods for diseasesof production requires adaptive researchto determine the most economic and sustainableuse of the available technologiesin the different agricultural environmentsand farming systemsin sub-Saharan Africa. . Group II diseases-trypanosomiasis,tick-borne diseases;such as theileriosis, cowdriosis, anapiasmosis,and babesiosis,and the tick-associateddiseasedermatophilosis-have been identified as the major barriers to increasing livestock productivity in sub-SahamnAfrica (see 6.1.2). Highest priority should be given to developing and applying improved meansof controlling these environmentally related diseases.Researchshould focus on developing, where possible, novel vaccinesthrough genetic engineeringbasedupon use of componentsof the infectious agent. Vaccines must be thermostableat ambient temperaturesand of high potency. Such an approachalso will facilitate the developmentof multivalent vaccinestailored for different environments and production systems. Rational development of vaccines will also require basic researchto determine how the various componentsof the immune system interact to mount protective responses against‘infectious agentsand how responses can be invoked by 76 Animal Apiculture in Sub&haran Africa . suitable vaccine delivery systems.The relation of genotype to the ability of various breedsof livestock to mount protective immune responses after immunization needs to be determined. The earliest age at which livestock can be successfullyimmunized using different vaccine delivery systemsin different epidemiological situationsalso needsto be elucidated. New diagnostics, basedon monoclonal antibodies and mmbinant DNA technologies, that identify the presenceof the infectious agent in an animal are required both for diagnosis with individual animals and for broadscaleepidemiological monitoring of diseaseto assess the needfor, and efficacy of, control programs. Continued and improved control of the major epidemic diseases(Group I diseases), such as rinderpest, contagiousbovine pleuropneumonia,and peste des petits ruminants, is also required if further improvementsin animal agriculture are to be attained. Better control can be achieved by developing thermostable multivalent vaccines to replace the existing vaccines againstthesediseases.Such vaccines,too, would be producedby genetic engineering basedon components of the infectious agent, and employing appropriate delivery systems. Disease surveillanceand monitoring of vaccineapplication n&d to be facilitated by the developmentof simple diagnostic tests that discriminate between infected and immunized livestock. Recombinant DNA and monoclonal antibody technologiesoffer excellent opportunities to develop such diagnostictests. For the diseasesof intensification (Group Ill diseases),the control techniquesalready available for gastrointestinalhelminths and infectious and noninfectious diseases of production must be adaptedfor economic use in different production systemsin the various agroecological zones of sub-SaharanAfrica. Attention must be paid to elucidating the causesof the high neonataI lossesthat occur as husbandry practices are intensified and suitable improved diagnostic techniques also are needed. The role of genotype in the acquisition of immunity to helm&h diseasesalso should be defined. The interaction between diseases,genotypes, management, and the environment in different production systems must be better understood so that integrateddiseasecontrol strategiescan be developed. The direct and indirect costsall forms of livestock diseases impose on agricultural productivity need to be better defined to support the creation of cost-effective strategiesfor rural development(Msellati and Tacher 1991). The basis for such efforts must be the collection of epidemiological and production data ranging from that representativeof sub-Saharan Africa as a whole to the farm level, depending upon the nature of the disease.The quality and quantity of epidemiological statisticswill be improved by the application of improved simple diagnostic tests. While there is a need for worldwide agreementon the key data essential for studies of veterinary economics(Msellati and Tacher 1991), analysis of such data would be facilitated by the developmentof computer models that integrate economic, production, and epidemiological data at regional, national, district, and farm levels. Such models should be based on GIS (geographicinformation systems)technologies(Dodd 1991), which can link physical, climatic, demographic, productivity (including crops, livestock, agroforestry, and forestry), and economic data to provide better information for planning improvementsin animal agriculture. There is need for methodological researchon the delivery of veterinary servicesin different production systems and different agroecological zones. The successof the current movement toward privatization will depend upon the identification of appropriate delivery “ Strategiesfor Research 77 systems.Systems used in industrialized countries are unlikely to be entirely appropriate for sub-Saharan Africa. In pursuing the& researchpriorities and strategiesto improve the control of livestock diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, there is need for researchactivities ranging -from basic to applied. Basic researchon mechanismsof protective immune responses and vaccine development is common to all potential new vaccines. Strategic and adaptive researchon the development of simple diagnostic tests has common elements for most diseases.Adaptive and applied researchfor diseasesof production will have common elementswith respect to production systems and agroecoiogical zones. The nature of the researchwill have an important bearing on the institutions that will be responsiblefor carrying it out. Thus wide-ranging improvements can be made in animal health care in sub-Saharan Africa that will result in significant gains in animal and hence agricultural productivity. fmprovementin animal health will require sustainedand improved control of the major epidemic diseases,the development and application of new and sustainablemeans of control of the vector-bornediseases,and the adaptationand application of the available meansof control of diseases of intensification to current and future livestock production systems. 8.3. Genetic Improvement During the evolution of the livestock speciesof sub-Saharan Africa genetic capacity for survival has taken precedenceover all other factors including production. As a result most indigenousbreedsare able to cope with the harshenvironmentalconditions of the region, but are not very productive when compared with animals raised in temperate climates. The research challengefacing animal breedersin sub-Saharan Africa is to improve the productivity of livestock without losing traits that are essentialto survival. Most animal breeding plans and technologiesthat are employed to improve livestock in developedcountries are appIicabie to the improvement of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Becauseof substantialdifferencesin production systemsand the need to consider the environment and health in strategies designed to improve performance, research on adaptation of these methods to African conditions is needed.There is also much potential within the developing technologiesof molecular geneticsand genetic engineering to identify genescoding for desirable attributes and to transfer them into the germplasmof other animals, henceby-passingthe long, laborious, and expensiveprocessof selectivebreeding. Strategic, applied, and adaptive research directed to the genetic improvement of cattle and small ruminants in sub-Saharan Africa will be required. 8.3.1. African genetic resources While the importance of Africa’s indigenousplant genetic resourceshas long been recognized, only recently has the comparableimportance of Africa’s domesticatedanimal genetic resourcesbeen widely appreciated.The characterizationof the substantially unknown indigenous resourcesis vital for improving animal production in sub-Saharan Africa. This work may also uncover genetic diversity of value for other developing regions and developedregions, as well. The sheepindustry of the Caribbeanand Latin American lowlands, for example, is based 78 Animal Agriculture in Sirb-SaharanAfrica on germplasm imported from West Africa beginning in the 16th century. In the past decade, Tuli and Boran cattle have been imported for breed improvement in Australia. Major efforts to identify and characterizeindigenouspopulations are being launchedby international organizations including FAO and ILCA. These initiatives should primarily involve contracting with national scientiststo use standardprotocols for phenotypic characterization. Standardprotocols will facilitate data analysis and the comparison of livestock populations within and across national boundaries Once a comprehensivebaseline is established, subsequent efforts should include both the consenation of genetic diversity-especially endangered speciesand strains-as well as utilization of indigenous populations in breeding for increasedproduction of food, fiber, and animal power. 8.3.2. Conventional breeding methods Conventional breed improvement involving selection, crossing, and multiplication schemesis most effectively undertaken by large-scale private breeders or associationsof smallholdersrather than by governmentagencies.However, large numbersof animals must be involved to make progress using conventional methods. To achieve sufficient numbers, open nucleusbreeding schemes could be establishedin which performancerecording is supportedby the national agricultural research system. Heritability and genetic correlations must be estimated. Although there is no pressingneed to estimateheritability of milk yield or growth rate, many traits important for production in Africa have not been studied elsewhere. It has only recently been documented, for example, that the heritability of ability to suppressanemia under severetrypanosomiasischallengejustifies selection for this trait within populations of trypanotolerant cattle. National research and extension institutions both have an important role to play in helping the private sector to establisheffective genetic improvement programs. Appropriate researchactivities for national institutions include estimation of genetic parameters,formulation of breeding objectives, establishmentof performancerecording schemes,and maintenanceand analysisof databases. 8.3.3. Strategic research on molecular genetics There is need for strategicresearchon molecular geneticsfocusedon improving the genetic potential for productivity of African livestock. Important opportunities exist in regard to diseaseresistance,water metabolism, heat tolerance, etc. Molecular genetic methods may be cheaperand more rapid than conventionalbreeding techniques. For example, mapping the loci conferring trypanotolerancewill allow each such locus to be associatedwith a particular set of genetic markers. This associationwill enable the trypanotolerance loci to be conveniently monitored, permitting breeding programs based on marker-assisted selection and introgression to be implemented. In this way it will be possible to achieve rapid introgression of desired traits into the N’Dama, while retaining trypanotolerante, and to achieve rapid introgression of trypanotoleranceinto other breeds. With this procedure, milk production and body weight of the N’Dama, for example, could be increasedby crossing to an improved Europeanbreed such as Holstein or Brown Swiss and going on to an F2 generation, or backcrossingto N’Dama. Chromosomal regions that contribute to high milk Straregies for Research 79 production and body size and that do not overlap the trypanotoleranceregions of the N’Dama would be identified in the F2 or backcrossgeneration. F2 or backcrossindividuals carrying thesechromosomal regions as well as trypanotoleranceregions would be intercrossed,and selection would be carried out for trypanotoleranccmarkers. If, for example, five milk-production and five growth-rate chromosomal regions were identified, comprising a total of 300 centimorgensof introgressedchromosomal material, selection would be carried out for donor markers that identify theseregions and againstall other donor markers. This procedure would require 10 to 20 years and should rapidly reconstitutethe N’Dama, with the exception of the introgressedchromosomal regions. These regions, however, can be expectedto make major contribution to productivity of the N’Dama-increasing productivity by 5 to 10 percentper locus, or about 25 to 40 percentper trait. Over the 20 years from initiation of the mapping program, gains of 300 to 600 kilograms of milk and 50 to 80 kilograms of body weight could be anticipated, or, in other words, yearly gains of 15 to 30 kilograms of milk and 2.5 to 4 kilograms of body weight. In contrast, Dempfle (1991) estimatedthe potential for simultaneously improving milk production and growth rate of N’Dama cattle with open- or closed-nucleus breeding schemes basedon classicalproceduresand found expectedgenetic progressin the nucleus herd to be in the range of 3 to 4 kilograms per year for milk production and 1.6 to 1.8 kilograms per year for body weight. Costs of the nucleus breeding schemewere estimatedat $1 million per year. Costs for the marker-assist& introgression program should be substantially lower. The IARCs in sub-Saharan Africa must be closely involved in the strategic researcheffort on molecular genetics. International collaboration in mapping the human genome has led to a similar international project to map the bovine genome, utilizing, insofar as is appropriate, technologiesdevelopedfor the human genome. ILRAD is in a position to provide leadershipin sub-Saharan Africa on thesetechniques. The opportunity for payoffs from gene mapping and other molecular genetic techniques including transfer of genetic materials between animals and speciesprobably is much greater for sub-Saharan Africa than for any other region of the world becauseof its unique climatic and ecological characteristicsand the impact of diseaseand environmental factors on animal production. Strategicresearchon molecular geneticsshould be given a high priority. 8.3.4. Multiplication techniques for trypanotolerant cattle Trypanotoleranceprovides an important tool for strategiesdesigned to deal with trypanosomiasisin a wide variety of environments. There are about 10 miIlion trypanotolerant cattle in Africa (Shaw and Hoste 1987:48). It is projected, however, that about 100 million could be accommodatedby the year 2025 if they possessed other characteristicsvalued by farmers, But an expansionof this magnitude would require a 7 percent annual growth, which is unrealistic. The estimatedgrowth rate for all trypanotolerantcattle in West Africa (19 countries) was 3.2 percent a year between 1975-77 and 1983-85 (the N’Dama increased4.5% annually during this period) (Shaw and Hoste 1987). If that rate of increasecould be sustained over the next 35 years, the trypanotolerantpopulation would be less than 40 million. There is need to devise strategiesto acceleratethe rate of increaseof trypanotolerant breeds. Modem technologiesof embryo manipulation including nuclear transfer and embryo 80 Animal Agriculture in SbSaharan Afica . . - splitting offer promise in regard to increasing the progeny of individuals possessinghighly desirable characteristics.Although embryo transplantationtechniquesare commonplacein industrialized countries and have been used in Africa, they could not be routinely applied under sub-SaharanAfrican animal production conditions. Research to develop simpler means of multiplication is needed. 8.4. CropLivestock Farming Systems In the evolution of mixed croplivestock farming systems,farmers empirically discover 6 productive cropping patterns, complementary livestock-crop interactions, and effective pro- _ duction strategiesfor their individual needs. The processcan be materialIy improved through :rigorous methodological researchon the farming systems. Farming systemsresearchwill be particularly useful as mixed crop-livestock systemsevolve in the subhumid zone becauseof the potential in this zone for growing a broad array of crops including legumes and forage crops. The objective of farming systemsresearchwould be to determine appropriate cropping patterns, livestock production techniques, use of technology, nature and level of inputs, and marketing strategiesfor mixed crop-livestock farmers. This researchby its nature is very sitespecific. 8.5. Livestock Management Researchon livestock management,organized around production systems,is neededto define the most productive managementstrategiesunder varying agroclimates, available technologies, feeds, inputs, and market demand. It is closely allied with farming systemsresearch and is generally site specific. For example, the development of livestock managementstrategies that avoid infections from diseasesand parasitesis the most effective means to prevent lossesfrom most of the diseasesof intensification. Food safety and sanitation also is best addressedby managementboth on farms and within the processingand marketing chain. NARS have a comparative advantagefor site-specific production research, but they should work closely with private entrepreneurswho are contributing to site-specific research by transferring pig, poultry, and dairy systems from developed regions and adapting these managementprocesses to local requirements. International centers, such as ILCA, can play a useful role through socioeconomicassessment of managerial interventions, such as comparing farmers’ opportunity costswhen they managecows to obtain a 12-, 18-, or 24-month parturition interval. In genera& researchers- whether in NARS or IARCs-benefit from thorough understandingof production systemsand of the various options for managerial interventions. Farming systemsresearchhelps educatescientistsabout management practicesfarmers use. 8.6. Natural Resources 8.6.1. Research to maintain the natural resource base Rapidly expanding populations will place enormous pressureson the natural resource baseof sub-Saharan Africa. The consequences will be more severeif they are exacerbatedby Strategiesfor Research 81 continued poverty and the lack of opportunity to intensify agricultural production on higher potential lands. If developmentleading to intensification and increasedproduction does not occur, farmers in their desperationto survive will be forced to cultivate marginal lands prone to degradation. Even if agricultural production is increasedthrough orderly progress toward intensification, the strain on the natural resourcebasewill be great. It is imperative that development strategiesfor the region carefully take into accountconservationand the sustainableuse of resources.Agricultural researchmust put high priority on meansto protect the soil, water, and vegetativeresourcesof the region. As developmentprogresses,the agricultura sector will be in continuing transition from traditional to more intensive systems.It is during transition from one stableproduction systemto anotherthat the dangerof resourcedegradationis the greatest. 8.6.2. Research for fragile environments Much needsto be learned about how to managethe infertile fragile soils and sensitive vegetationof the subhumid zone and how to make them maximally productive. The problems are even greater in the humid zone. Every effort must be made to protect the remaining tropical rain forests of the continent from exploitation. Their contributions to environmental stability and biodiversity are too important for humanity to permit them to be destroyed to create farm land poorly suited for agriculture. 8.6.3. Researeb on the wildlife resources The wildlife resourcesof the rangelandshave both esthetic and economic worth. AIthough much is known about the biology and ecology of African wildlife species,researchon strategiesto enable Tildlife to accommodateto different kinds of intensive production systems is needed.The ecology of sub-Saharan Africa will changegreatly in the next 3 decades.Unless preservationis a priority goal, wildlife resourceswill be in seriousjeopardy by that time. 8.6.4. Research on rangeland ecology and management Research is needed to increase understanding of the interactive effects of grazing, weather, and fire on extensively used rangelands.Information is neededon the influences of biotic and abiotic factors on control of rangelandvegetationand ecology and how management affects vegetative changes.It is important, too, to understandthe dynamics of nonquilibrial systemsand how managementof these rangelandsdiffers from the traditional equilibrial systems upon which most range managementstrategiesare based. Much can be learned about range managementby further study of successfulpastoral systems.Researchon meansto prevent expansionof cultivation in the rangelandsis needed.Whether or not there are important dimensionsof this matter requiring researchother than researchon land use needsto be determined. 8.6.5. Application of fertilizers in higher rainfall regions .. Expandedproduction of cereal, root, and oilseed crops to meet future demand for human food and for livestock feed will require simultaneousstepsto maintain and increasesoil 82 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SahuranAfrica fertility. Nutrients essentialfor plant growth will be provided by the use of manure and chemical fertilizers and by symbiotic nitrogen fixation by leguminous crops and trees. The highly weatheredsoils of high rainfall tropical regions are acidic, have high levels of aluminum, and are typically deficient in phosphorus, calcium, and nitrogen. In kaoiinitic soils, phosphorusdeficiency can be so severethat domesticatedplants ceasegrowth when the phosphorusreservesof the seedare exhausted.While the use of plant speciesand varieties tolerant to high levels of aluminum appearsto be an attractive a&-native, phosphorusand calcium supplies are often so low that supplies are exhausted after a few years of intensive production (Grove 1991). In alfisols of the Sahel, phosphorusand nitrogen deficiency limit the productivity of annual grassesas well as the efficiency of water use. Sub-S&ran Africa has rock phosphateand lime deposits that can be exploited to improve soil fertility. Liming soils reducesaluminum toxicity, supplies calcium, facilitates root proliferation in subsoils, and increasesuse of subsoil water. But capital investmentswill be required to mine and transport fertilizers. In addition the production or importation of nitrogen fertilizer will also require major capital investments.Researchis neededon meansto capitalize on sub-Saharan Africa’s phosphate and limestone resources and to promote application of fertilizer (for example through subsidies)where it is vitally needed. 8.6.6. Monitoring environmental change Inadequatedata on long-term trends in arid and semi-arid rangelandshamperslivestock researchand policy formation. Rangeland monitoring systemsshould be establishedincorporating remote sensing, GIS (geographic information systems), and simulation models (Dodd 1991, Ellis 1991). The purpose would be to monitor drought effects, develop early-warning systems, measurelong-term trends in vegetation structure and production, and determine the pace and extent of degradationand desertification. These monitoring systemswill also provide data on the environmental and production effects of global climate change, year-to-year variability in rainfall, new technical interventions such as water-developmentprograms, new range managementsystems, and altered land-use patterns. The databasewill also be invaluable for developing new conceptsand new managementsystemsfor tropical rangelands.When the reporting of climate data is improved, herders will be able to make better informed decisions about moving cattle. 8.7. Policy Research Livestock policy researchand analysis is essentialto provide African decision makers with soundly formulated policy alternativesand to document the important role of animal agriculture in the economy, which is essentialto develop political support for the sector. Still, few African governmentshave a reliable and up-to-datedata as the foundation for decision making, let alone the capacity to adequatelyanalyzealternatives. Thus, key priorities are developmentof: Strategiesfor Research 83 b b b 8.7.1. Fii Indigenous African capacitiesfor data collection to (i) document the contribution of livestock to agriculture, income and employment generation, and trade (Shapiro 1991) and to (ii) monitor vegetationchangesusing GIS. A researchprogram that (i) addresses the key policy changesneededin coming decadesto stimulate animal agriculture, such as fiscal, incentive, and trade policies to increase the efficiency of animal agriculture and institutional policies to promote technology generationand dissemination;and that (if) identifies appropriate policies for the protection of fragile lands and the development of sustainable production systems. Adequateland-useplanning capabilities. and incentive policies Of all policy instruments, fiscal and incentive policies potentially have the most significant impact and at the sametime are the easiestto manipulate. Consequentlylivestock policy researchers should give close attention to the effect of thesepolicies on livestock development. Key elementsthat such researchshould include are: b The effect of exchange-rate distortions, dumping, and price controls on local production, on the availability of livestock products for different income groups, and on the substitution for livestock productsby other sourcesof protein. The effect of subsidieson the quality of key livestock services,on the availability of livestock servicesto different producer income classes,and on the emergenceof private operators. Development of efficient and equitable d&t and indirect cost-recovery mechanisms for services(health, genetic improvement, water, grazing). Identification of subsidy systemsthat allow precise targeting of the subsidy and causeminimum distortion. policies b b b 8.7.2. Institutional The second area concerns the. identification of efficient and cost-effective public and private institutions for the transfer of technology. Key elementsto include in this area are: b b b De+inition of public and private-sectorroles in animal agriculture development. Identification of the mechanismsto establish effective and independentproducer organizations. Identification of mechanismsto get producers more closely involved in priority setting for researchand extension, the definition of optimal information dissemination methods for different production systems (including the special requirements of nomadic systems),and identification of owner income classes(including absentee owners). 84 b Animal Agriculture in Sub-Sa?aaran Aj-ica b Measurementof the impact of livestock researchand extension. Identification of incentives for privatization of animal agriculture services. 8.7.3. Policy requirements for fragile lands The development of sustainableland-use systemswill be one of the major challenges facing animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica. Identification of appropriate policies that would facilitate such developmenttherefore merits high priority in policy research.Such policy researchshould address: Development of improved land-use rights based on traditional or completely new systems, taking account of recent insights in arid zone range management(Ellis 1991). Appropriate means of involving producer organizations in the control and enforcement of better adaptedland-userights (Gilles 1991). Incentives and market strategiesto enhancestratification of the livestock industry among the arid, subhumid, and highland zones. Other incentives to increaseoff-take from the arid and semi-arid rangelands,such as increasedcost recovery and the introduction of grazing fees. Measuresto mitigate the effect of drought (drought strategies). Appropriate establishmentand maintenancesystemsfor livestock water points and irrigation in the arid and semi-arid regions. Land tenure and managementstrategiesleading to sustainableland use for the subhumid zone. b. b 9 Institutional Strategy for Research The quality and effectivenessof research, extension, and education, more than any other aspectof the developmentprocess,will determine how well sub-Saharan Africa feeds its growing human populations in the uncertain years ahead. The focal point for research,education, and extensionis the national institutions createdin each country for thesepurposes. Unless these national institutions become more effective, employ modem methodologies, are staffed by competentprofessionals, and are motivated to serve the needsof their agricultural constituencies,the prospectsfor sub-Saharan Africa are not promising. African countries and the international community must renew their efforts to support the developmentof strong indigenousinstitutions in Africa. This chapter describes the main publicly supported institutions that conduct animal agricultural researchin sub-Saharan Africa and makes recommendationson changesthat will strengthenthese institutions’ ability to support agricultural and rural development. The target of the analysisis the animal-orientedinstitutions, national, regional, and international. Because. many of them exist as componentsof broader systemsencompassingall of agriculture, some commentsabout new strategiesfor collaboration, for donor funding, and for communications also are applicable to institutions serving other sectorsof agriculture. The putative strategy for researchand technology development that has evolved for public sector institutions since the 1960s when the IARCs were created is based upon the premise that the national agricultural researchsystem(NARS) is the focal point of agricultural researchin each country. NARS identify researchable problems, conduct research(mostly applied, adaptive, and on-farm verification), and Serveto link the extensionservices,educational institutions, the private sector, nongovernmentalorganizations, donors, and other entities that are concernedwith agricultural researchand development. IARCs conduct strategic and applied researchon problems of importance to many countries. Their chief clients are the NARS. Although in the colonial period, regional institutions played an important role in research,the contemporaryconcept of regional centersand programs still is evolving. No matter what configuration they eventually take, they too will articulate with producersthrough the NARS. For agricultural and rural economic developmentto proceed in an orderly .manner, the effectivenessof the NARS-the keystoneinstitutions in the agricultural researchsystemin suHMaran Africa-must improve considerably. In developed countries feed companies, providers of genetic stocks, pharmaceutical suppliers, and other commercial enterprises,as well as farmers and fanner organizations, have 86 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica . c important roles in the animal agricultural research system. In sub-SaharanAfrica, privatesectorinvolvement in research,is poorly developed,but it has great potential for contributing to agricultural development. All of these researchbodies-NARS, regional and international institutions, and the private sector-must be seen as integral componentsof a single interdependentsystem. The system will not deliver the desired product if one component, for example the IARCs, functions effectively while the NARS do not. It is essentialfor the welfare of agriculture and rural development that Afkican governments, international agencies, donors, and others recognize and addressthe needs of all componentsof the agricultural research system in sub-Saharant AfiiCX. 9.1. National Agricultural 9.1.1. Evolution of animal-oriented NARS Research Systems 2.’ Animal agricultural research in sub-Saharan’ Africa began during the 19th century. Colonial veterinary departmentsestablishedto control diseasethreats to livestock production were confronted with diseasesnew to the Western world, and they initiated field and laboratory investigationsdirected toward developmentof control measures.Researchon how to improve the productivity of indigenous and introduced breeds of livestock soon become an important component of the researchagendaof theseinstitutions. In anglophoneAfrica before World War II, regional researchinstitutions were formed to support colonial programs by addressing particularly important problems, such as trypanosomiasisand viral diseases.Elsewhere in Africa, colonial programs were closely linked for support to the national veterinary researchsystemsof the.home countries-France, Belgium, and Portugal. The agricultural researchinstitutions in anglophone Africa were nationalized at independenceand largely incorporated into newly establishedministries of agriculture or livestock. Regional institutions soon ceasedto function as regional entities and were taken over by the countries in which they were situated. In francophone Africa, nationalization of agricultural researchinstitutions was delayed for 10 to 15 years after independenceand many were organized under ministries of science(Rocheteauet al. 1988). Thus theseinstitutions have had less time to develop than those in anglophonecountries. NARS organized as componentsof ministries of sciencetend to be less responsiveto the needsof agriculturaI developmentthan those within ministries of agriculture. NARS throughout Africa generally are young and still-developing institutions, yet a great deal of progress has been made. For example, funding for NARS in 43 sub-Saharan countries increased from US$149.5 million in 1961-65 to US$372.3 million in 1981-85 (in 1980 dollars), and the number of researchworkers (excluding university-basedscientists)increasedfrom 1,323 to 4,941 (‘Pardeyet al. 1991:200). Of the nearly 5,000 researchworkers, 1,578 were Afiicarn nationals with post-graduatequalifications. A good start has been made toward the establishmentof effective agricultural research institutions. Facilities have been constructed, field stations established, and research conducted. It must be clearly understood,however, that NARS in sub-Saharan Africa are far from Institutional Strategyfor Research 87 being mature institutions. An indication of the level of developmentis that in 1981-85, 29 percent of the researchworkers in sub-Saharan Africa were expatriates(Pardey et al. 1991:284). A sample of seven NARS revealed that during the 198Os,on average, 59 percent of the researchworkers had less than 6 years of researchexperiencewhile only 14 percent had more than 10 years (Pardey et al. 1991). Building and equipping researchfacilities is easy. Providing the initial training of researchscientistsby sending them abroad to study also can be accomplished rather quickly. Fulfilling these objectives, however, does not mean that an effective researchinstitution has been established.It takes many years for a researchinstitution, even under the best of conditions, to develop the scientific manpower, appropriate research managementprocedures, and the culture and traditions that support the systematic application of rigorous scientific proceduresto the agricultural developmentneedsof a nation. 9.1.2. Functions of NARS The term NARS ordinarily is used to include all of a country’s public, parastatal, and private nonprofit institutions, such as universities, that conduct researchor contribute innovatively to the developmentor adaptationof technology and policies that support agricultural and rural development (Pardey et al. 1991:153). NARS in sub-Saharan Africa conduct strategic, applii=d, and adaptive researchand on-farm trials to verify the effectiveness,practicality, and economic viability of new technology generatedthrough research. NARS also serve as the conduit through which a country is kept abreast of developments in agricultural science throughout the world that may be relevant to local agriculture. Some of this information leads to adaptive research,but much is passeddirectly to the-user community. NARS form the essential linkages with extension services, the private sector, educational institutions, and governmental ministries. They work with farmers, farmer organizations, private industry, and extensionagentson problem identification (for research)and on technology transfer. 9.1.3. Structure of NARS supporting animal agriculture In sub-Saharan Africa NARS designedto support animal agriculture are organized either as a component of agricultural (plant, animal, social science) research entities or are maintained as separateanimal-oriented programs. In countries where agriculture is dominated by mixed crop-livestock farming systems, there are compelling reasonsfor plant and animal researchto be closely coordinatedand for plant and animal scientiststo interact professionally. Most NARS in sub-Saharan Africa are organized as departmentswithin ministries of agriculture and/or livestock (Taylor 1991). Some are semi-autonomousresearchinstitutions or university-basedinstitutes or departmentsof agricultural research. The dividing lines between research,extension, and the service functions of national organizations, often are.indistinct. For example in animal health, diagnostic laboratories and vaccineproduction units sometimesare part of researchinstitutions. Within the university setting, educationaland researchtasksappropriately are intermingled. 88 Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Africa 9.1.4. University faculty: An underused research resource A serious generic problem among NARS in sub-Saharan Africa is that university fac- ulty have not been fully integrated into the national researcheffort, which contributes to ineffciencies and underutilization of highly qualified professional personnel. In many developed countries, the preponderanceof agricultural research is conducted in university settings. In 1980-86 agricultural faculties in subsaharan Africa had 2,374 national scientists with postgraduatequalifications (Jain 1990). Most of them were not engagedin researchactivities that contributed creatively to national agricultural developmentpriorities. Effective ways must be developedto bring thesepeople into the agricultural researchsystem. There are many time-honored means that can be used to involve university faculty in research directly applicable to agricultural development needs. A common procedure is for NARS to contract with universities for specific research.In the USA, the land grant universities, through legislative means, were given responsibilities for agricultural researchand have been funded for thesetasksby both stateand national governments.Some NARS have brought university scientists into their programs by establishing university-basedagricultural research stations. Another method is for the government, directly or through a foundation, to fund university researchby offering grants for specific projects The problem is not finding a way to accomplish the objective, but finding the will to do so and overcoming the beliefs and traditions that have kept NARS and universities pursuing different researchmissions in the past. African governmentscan ill afford not to use the human researchresourcesof their agricultural and veterinary faculties to help solve the problems of agricultural development. 9.1.5. Renewing the effectiveness of NARS NARS as a group are not generating sufficient new technology to adequately fuel animal agricultural development in sub-SaharanAfrica. The researchproductivity of NARS in sub-Saharan Africa, when measuredin output per unit of land, labor, and fertilizer, is the lowest of all regions of the world (Pardey et al. 1991:213). This is a major reasonagricultural and rural development are not keeping pace with needs. The causesof poor overall performance are many, varied, and not all fully understood, but prominent ones include researchplanning and organization, researchenvironment, training, funding, scientific communication, and career opportunities. Defects in research programs, program generation, and priority setting NARS in sub-Saharan Africa have retained much of the researchculture and the organizational and management approaches of the colonial era. Too many programs reflect the specialized interest of scientistsand have too little relevanceto national developmentneeds.Most NARS do. not adequatelyinvolve policy makers, farmers, extensionagents, commercial enterprises, and other stakeholdersin setting priorities and developing researchprograms. As a result too much of the research conducted is of little importance to national development initiatives (GiIles 1991). NARS must develop strategiesand processes to adequatelyinform scientistsabout important researchneeds,of the animal agriculture constituenciesthey serveand to motivate them to addresstheseneeds.This almost inevitably requires that major stakeholdersand constituen- 1 , Institutional Strategyfor Research 89 ties participate in researchprogram development. Inadequateinteraction of researchinstitutions with policy makers, farmers, extension agents, and commercial enterprisesthat use the output of these institutions seriously impairs the effectiveness of NARS throughout subSaharanAfrica. Improper environment for research Many NARS are highly bureaucratized,politicized, and subjectedto detailed govemmental control of their operations,which stifles innovation, destroyscreativity, and diminishes productivity. If NARS are to be effective, they must have the ability to createa supportive scientific environment and establishresearchmanagement practices that encouragecreativity and enhanceproductivity. History has shown that accomplishingthis objective is much more eomplex than merely providing a small degreeof autonomy within an institution or the establishment of semi-autonomousresearchentities. It involves the establishmentof an institutional culture that supportsand rewards creativity, researchproductivity and relevance, without unnecessary control. The researchenvironment must contribute in a major way toward motivating the scientific work force to apply its skills to the agricultural development needs of the country. The developmentof the appropriate institutional culture is complex but absolutely essential to enable NARS to effectively support developmentneeds.One successfulstrategy that established an appropriateinstitutional agricultural researchculture in an environment in which it previously did not exist was the institutional mentoring by U.S. land grant universities of In. dian agricultural universities in the period following independence (Jam 1990). Freeing NARS from the negative effects of bureaucratization may require the establishment of new researchentities in somecountries. Many countriesthroughout the world have developed semi-autonomousagricultural researchinstitutions closely tied to the ministries of agriculture for this purpose. Regrettably, theseinstitutions, too, tend to becomebureaucratized over time. No matter what structure is selected, researchinstitution managementprocedures and practices must be changedin many NARS. There are many of effective national agricultural researchinstitutions that can serveas models for African institutions. The most important elementis an institutional culture that properly motivatesthe scientific work force, requires the application of rigorous scientific procedures,and demandsproductivity and relevancewithin the researchmission of the institution. Too few scientbts wirh research training An element of prime importance to the success of a researchsystemis the quality of its scientific work force. A researchinstitution can be no better than its scientists. Of the nearly 5,ooOresearchscientistsin the NARS in 1981-86, 71 percent were nationals, and of them, 45 percent had MS or Ph.D. degrees(Pardey et al. 1991:ZOO). With 20 percent of the total work force of NARS devoted to livestock research(Pardey et al. 1991:269), this meansthere were fewer than 1,000 researchers with Bs-level training or higher in livestock research,and about 315 African scientistswith post-graduateresearchqualifications. Assuming, liberally, that one out of three has a Ph.D., there were be only about 100 African animal scientistswith a Ph.D. in NARS in Africa. The shortageof African nationals with post-graduatequalifications is a key issue. There are too few scientistswith Ph.D. qualifications to lead researchin the areas PO Animai Agriculture in Sub-Shari Afica I essentialto modem animal research, which encompasses numerous production, biomedical, and social sciencedisciplines and specialities. In the longer term, it will be nationals, not expatriates~who staff the NARS in sub-Saharan Africa. The number of African scientistseducated to conduct researchon animal production and health is inadequate to the researchtasks envisionedby this study. High priority must be given to the educationof sufficient numbersof scientiststo staff NARS. Funding of hX?tS Funding for animal researchprograms in most sub-Saharan countries is insufficient to serve the needs of animal agriculture considering the complexity and scale of development needs. Taking the proportion of the scientific work force of NARS devoted to livestock research,2096, as an indication of the budgetary support-for livestock research, $75 million of the total researchbudget of US$372.3 million (Pardey et al. 1991:200) is spent annually for livestock researchin sub-Saharan Africa. Expenditures for all agricultural researchamounted to 0.54 percent of agricultural gross domestic product during this period (Jain 1990). This is comparableto or better than other developing regions, but only one fourth the level of support devoted to agricultural researchin developed countries, which are confronted with far fewer problems than subsaharan Africa. Compared on a regional basis, expendituresper research scientistin NARS for 1981 to 1985 were $75,800 in sub-Saharan Africa, $59,200 in all developing countries, and $99,100 in the USA (Pardey et al. 1991:200). In addition to these flndings, there is much other evidence to suggest that lack of adequate funding for animal agriculture researchis a major impediment to the productivity of these institutions (Tawonezvi 1991, Gilles 1991). It is widely believed that the proportion of recurrent agricultural researchexpenditures devotedto salariesis too large, leaving too little for operating expenses(Gilles 1991). Pardey et al. (1991:280), however, found that operating expendituresat NARS amounted to 29 percent of recurrent expenses in sub-Saharan Africa, as comparedwith 30 percent for less developed countries as a whole and 25 percent for the USA. In an effort to determine why their data did not support the conventional wisdom, Pardey et al. (1991) postulated that there may be systematicdifferences in purchasing power. After calculating differences in sector purchasing power of various regions, Pardey et al. (1991:280) found the proportion of recunent expenditures allocable to operationsto be 13 percent in sub-Saharan Africa, as comparedwith 15 percent for all developing countries and 25 percent for the USA. Thesedata support the view that too large a proportion of recurrent expenditurebudgetsare salariesat the expenseof operating budgets. Another funding problem that has limited the effectivenessof NARS in sub-Saharan Africa is the instability and uncertainty of funding. Frequent and recurring budgetary crises often have led to precipitous budget cuts and severedisruptions of research, particularly for animal research,which often hasa long time frame. Donor jimding Donor funding is a critically important component of the support for NARS. In 198185 it amounted to 35 percent of the total expenditures for research in sub-S&ran Africa f . Institutional Strategyfor Research 91 (Pardey et al. 1991:307). Lele and Goldsmith (1989:30) report that 43 percent of funding of NARS in the region comes from external sources.From the viewpoint of NARS, donor funding is a mixed blessing, though it is essentialto the continued operationsof many of theseinstitutions. Donors tend to supportprojects on specific problems for fixed periods of time. This creates special problems for researchon animals with inherently long reproductive cycles. Bary (1991) has observedthat the averagelength of a donor project in the region is less than the time it takes a cow to mature This short time frame introducesdonor bias into the research enterprise, contributes to the instability of funding and to an imbalance of researchprograms, and has the potential of substituting political for scientific objectives. Above all, countries that dependhavily upon donor funding to support their national researchsystemshave great difficulty in maintaining an integrated and coherentresearchprogram that is responsiveto the developmentneedsof the country. There is need to modifying the way donors provide funding for agricultural researchin sub-Saharan Africa. Donor funding should be both institutional and project-basedproviding for the strengtheningof the institution as well as support for specific researchinitiatives. Multiple donors contributing to a single NARS often work at crosspurposesin their attemptsto help the institution. Their efforts would be more effective if donors would collaborate rather than attempt to achieve narrow individual objectives. Ways also must be found to ensuredonor support for periods of time that are sufficiently long and dependableto contribute to institutional stability rather than undermine it. In institution building, it is essentialfor donors to think in terms of 20 or more years, rather than in terms of projects limited to 3 to 5 years. There is need to coordinate donor funding of NARS in sub-SaharanAfrica. Not only could a coordinated system addressproblems createdby the present system of donor funding, it could also serve as a powerful force to acceleratedesirablechangesin NARS and to induce cooperationand collaboration among them, as discussed later in this chapter. SPAAR currently is addressingcoordination of donor supportof NARS. Communications and interactions among scientkts Scientific isolation is an important problem for researchscientists working in animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Lack of adequatelibrary resources,especially current scientific journals, isolates scientistsfrom the mainstreamof sciencethroughout the world. Becausefew NARS have sufficient resourcesto establishcritical massesof scientistsworking in related areas, most African animal scientistswork alone or in very small groups, which is a very ineffective way to conduct research.Even including BS-level employeesand expatriates, NARS in 26 of 43 sub-Saharan countries had fewer than 100 plant and animal scientists, and 10 had less than 25 (Jain 1990). It is difficult for African animal scientiststo maintain professional contact with counterparts in Africa and elsewhere. Few have funds to attend scientific meetings, to visit scientists working on similar problems, and to establishcollaborative relationshipswith scientistsin other countries. ILCA has establishedfive networks that link it with national programs. These networks not only have improved ILCA’s relationships with NARS, but they also have contributed to reduction of professional isolation. Scientific isolation is a serious problem that must be addressed to improve the effectiveness of NARS. Information about animal production and health and other disciplines relevant to animal agriculture is increasing at an accelerating rate. The cost of library resourceshas become so great that it is difficult for researchinstitutions throughout the world to maintain adequatescientific libraries. The developedworld, more and more, is turning to electronic meansof storing and accessingscientific information. Programs that will enable scientists in sub-S&ran Africa to utilize the world scientific literature through electronic means are badly needed. There is an equally important need to devise systemsby which scientiststhroughout Africa cibn communicatewith eachother and exchangeideasand information easily. Programs designedto help scientistsgain accessthe world literature, to improve communications, and to overcome cp; scientific isolation in NARS must be given high priority in any strategy designed to vitalize ’ -. NARS in sub-Sahm Africa. Stable research careers at NARS Animal agricultural researchin sub-SaharanAfrica suffers becauseof the difficulties scientists encounter in maintaining viable researchcareers. Bureaucratic organizational and managementsystemsin researchinstitutions, lack of stable funding for salaries, the low prestige-of agricultural research,absenceof a competitive career ladder, shortagesof funds for op erating expenses,lack of modem equipment, inadequateanimal resources,all make it difficult for even the most dedicated research scientist to maintain a productive long-term career in agricultural research.The demand for educatedspecialistselsewherein government and in the private sector has created attractive alternatives to employment for NARS scientists in some countries thus drawing the most able to other careers. In addition, many outstanding African scientistswork in developedcountries becauseof the lack of competitive career opportunities at home. These factors coupled with pervasive scientific isolation make the developmentof a stable scientific work force for NARS difficult to achieve. However, a competent and motivated scientific work force dedicated to the improvement of agriculture is essentialto the effective functioning of NARS. Stepsmust be taken to assurethat this objective is achieved. 9.2. Regional Research Programs and Centers irn SubSaharan Africa During the colonial period, numerous agricultural researchentities were establishedin sub-Saharan Africa to addressimportant regional problems. These institutions were incorporated into national systemsafter African countriesgained independence.There are, however, a number of newly establishedregional institutions that participate directly or indirectly in agricultural researchin sub-Saharan Africa. Two, SACCAR and CEDES, serve as examples for the kinds of regional cooperation and collaboration in agricultural researchthat might be used by other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. SACCAR serves as a coordinating mechanism for agricultural research conducted within nine SADCC member countries. Activities include joint researchplanning and program design, allocation of researchtasksto member NARS, and decisionson sharing researchcosts. The SPAAR Secretariat(see section 9.2.4) is cooperating with SACCAR, which servesas the representativeof member countries to donors for agricultural researchfunding for thesecoun- ’ , Institutionai Strategyfor Research 93 tries. It does not maintain researchfacilities or a cadre of researchpersonnel. SACCAR is an attractive model for coordination of researchbetween countries, particularly those within one agroecologicalzone. The nine CILSS countries currently are embarking upon a similar collaborative effort (Institut du Sahel 1991), and action plans are being consideredfor IGADD and CEEAC with assistance from the SPAAR Secretariat. The Centre International de Recherches et Developpementsur 1’Elevageen Zone Subhumide (CEDES), formerly the Centre de Recherches sur Trypanosomoses Animales (CRTA), is located in Burkina Faso and is in the processof becoming a regional center. It has signed memoranda of understanding with Eenin, Burkina Faso, C&e d’lvoire, Niger, and Togo. CIRDES will no longer limit its program to trypanosotniasisresearch.Its activities will include applied and adaptive research, technology transfer, and training in broad aspectsof livestock production and health. Member countries will make monetary contributions to CIRDES, and CIRDES will be responsiveto animal production needs of these countries. Itwill not replaceNARS, but inevitably it will perform many functions that would be conducted by the NARS of member countries if sufficient support were available to them. The evolution of CIRDES as a regional researchcenter is an important development. It also is an example for countriesthat wish to cooperatein the establishmentof a regional researchentity. Other facilities exist in sub-Saharan Africa with the potential of becoming regional institutions. The International TrypanotoleranceCentre (ITC), located in the Gambia, is devoted to the task of disseminationof genetic stocksof trypanotolerant livestock, an important developmental activity, but one that might be best handled by the private sector. Perhapsby following the example of CIRDES, ITC might redefine its program and become a regional researchinstitution serving countriesthat shareagroecologicaland other characteristics. ILCA has developednumerousprograms basedupon networks with NARS throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Thesenetworks have proven to be an efficient meansof coordinating collaborative efforts among cooperating NARS on specific ILCA initiatives. SPAAR has developed a program to support the establishmentof networks of NARS scientists. Other programs and institutions also have establishedvarious kinds of networks between scientists and programs in NARS. There is considerablepotential for expanding the use of networks for these purposes. 9.2.1. Organization of national agricultural regional basis research on a .. Most countries in sub-SaharanAfrica are confronted with overwhelming social and economic problems. The demandsfor resourcesto support all kinds of servicesand projects exceedsthe ability of most countries to fund them. Consequently, many important national servicesand programs including NARS in thesecountries are underfunded.There is, however, a critical ne4 to develop new technology to support the improvement of animal agriculture and crop-livestock farming systemsto meet nutritional needsand support rural development. Many of the technological constraints confronting animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa are related to geographic and climatologic conditions representedby agroecological zones. Technology developedthrough researchon a biological constraint in one country in a particular agroecological zone will apply equally well in other countries in that zone. Other w Animul Agriculture in Sub-Swan Afica 0 constraints are not specific to an agroecologicalzone or country. Considering theserealities, it would make good sensefor countries with common agroecologicaland other featuresto cooperate in funding and conducting researchrather than trying to provide for all of their needs themselves.SACCAR and CIRDES provide two different models of how this can be accomplished. There are others including collaborative networks. Considering the demand that will be made on agricultural researchsystemsto respond to the need for rapid intensification, regional collaborative mechanismsmay be the only fistally re&istic meansof conducting the animal agricultural researchso badly needed. Collaboration on an extensivescale, however, will not happenspontaneously.It must be appropriately encouraged. A strategy to promote cooperation between NARS is discussed later in this chapter. 9.2.2. Need to relate plant and animal research Establishing regional centersis complicated by the need to relate, and in many casesto integrate, animal researchwith crop researchand studies on crop-livestock farming systems. Although some of the integration can be achievedat the NARS level, this study strongly recommends that regional centers and collaborative programs include both plant and animal researchas well as studieson the most important crop-livestock farming systemsof the region. 9.2.3. A livestock and crop research center for the subhumid zone The subhumid agroecological zone has been identified as having great potential for expansionof animal agriculture. It also is the zone with greatestpotential for increasedcrop production. Animals can add to food supplies, raise crop production, generate new income streamsfor small farmers, and enhancethe sustainability of agriculture in the zone. To achieve theseobjectives, new technology specific to this zone must be developed. The generation of new technology will be aided materially by the presenceof a researchcenter in the subhumid zone that is dedicatedto the needsof animal agriculture and the crop-livestock farming systems most suited to this zone. Although ILCA has collaborative programs with NARS in Kaduna, Nigeria, it does not have facilities of its own in the subhumid region. This center would conduct strategic and applied researchsupportive of NARS. Its program should include research on crops grown in the region and where appropriate would integrate agronomic, animal production and health, natural resource management, and socioeconomic research relevant to farming systemscharacteristicof the zone. It should be part of the CGIAR system. Severalalternativesfor fulfilling this need exist. One is to create a new center to serve the subhumid zone. On the surface it would not seemto make good fiscal senseto develop a new center if an existing one can adequatelyservethe purpose. Another possibility is to designate CIRDES as the regional center for the subhumid zone. CIRDES possesses many of the characteristicsdesired of this center. Its program at the present time, however, is limited to animals. If CIRDES were to be selectedas the center to serve the subhumid zone, a plant dimension should be added. Such a program would nrn the risk of duplica%ingresearchconducted at IITA. A third alternative is to add an animal dimension to the IITA program. The latter alternative is the most attractive from the viewpoint of this study and is more fully explored in section 9.3.2. Institutiond Strategyfor Research 9.2.4. SPAAR 95 In 1985 a group of donors concludedthat there was much to be gained by working together in their efforts to strengthenNARS in sub-Saharan Africa. The Special Program for African Agricultural Research(SPAAR) was establishedas a vehicle to achievethis goal. SPAAR has two main objectives(SPAAR 1989): 1. To strengthen African agriculturalresearch systems in the public and private sectorsand, throughthem, the development and testingof relevanttechnologies in supportof sustainable agriculturaldevelopment. 2. To increase the effectiveness of donor assistance to African agriculturalresearch systems throughbeaercoordination of existingresources; avoidance of duplicationof effort; exchange of informationon past, currentand future activities;and, collaborative initiatives to address particularproblemsin agriculturalresearch. To achieve its objectives, SPAAR has emphasizedthe identification of problems that can be addressedthrough collaborative efforts of its members at both national and regional levels, In addition to working on means to strengthen and fund research networks in subSaharanAfrica, it has developedguidelines for strengtheningNARS, establishedan information system on planned and proposed agricultural research projects, conducted studies on forestry research and education and training for agricultural scientists, developed countryspecific donor coordinating groups, addressed locust researchneeds,and funded a small-grants program for African agricultural scientists. Twenty-three donor organizationsare represented in SPAAR. The main responsibilities of its secretariat, housedin the World Rank, are facilitating meetings, arranging information exchanges,managing the SPAAR information system, coordination of working groups, liaison, and publicity. 9.3. International Agricultural Resekh Centers The Consultative Group for International Agriculture Research(CGIAR) representing approximately 40 countries, foundations, and international agencies, provides the organizational framework for funding and management of 16 international agricultural researchcenters. The mission of the CGIAR is (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 1990): Throughinternational research andrelatedactivities,andin pattnership with nationalresearch systems, to contributeto sustainable improvements in the productivityof agriculture,forestry, and fisheriesin developing countries in waysthat enhance nutrition andwell-being,especially amonglow incomepeople. The IARCs are expectedto conduct strategic and applied researchof an international character that complements and supports national agricultural research efforts. Their chief clients are the NARS, which utilize IARC research findings, including genetic stocks, and adapt them to country needs. IARCs assist in strengthening national research capacities through training programs and information services. An overriding objective is to satisfy hu- 96 Animai Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca * + man needsfrom agriculture, forestry, and fisheries without degrading the environment or the natural resourcebase. The ultimate objective of the IARCs is to benefit poor people in develi oping countries through increasedfood production and the generation of new income streams through technological changein agriculture. 9.3.1. IARCs with activities in subSaharan Africa Five IARCs have their primary base of operations in sub-S&ran Africa: ILCA, ILRAD, IlTA, ICRAF, and WARDA. ICRISAT has substationsin Niger, Mali, and Zimbabwe, and CIP, CUT, and CIMMYT have smaller basesof operations on the ILRAD campus in Kenya as well as in some other African countries. ILCA and ILRAD are devoted mainly to researchon animals, while the other centersrestrict their efforts to plants. IFPRI and ISNAR, although not physically located in Africa, addresssub-SaharanAfrican problems as part of their mandates. The International Laboratory for Research on Animal Disease was approved as a CGIAR center in 1972 and beganoperationsin 1974. Its mandatewas set out in the agreement between the Rockefeller Foundation, acting in behalf of the CGIAR, and the Government of Kenya. The purposeof the Laboratorywill be to serveas a world centerfor research on ways and means of conquering, as quickly as possible,major animaldiseases which seriouslylimit livestock industriesin Africa and in many other partsof the world. The Laboratorywill concentrate initially on intensive researchconcerningthe immunologicaland related aspectsof controllingtrypanosomiasis andtheileriosis(mainlyEastCoastfever). It may, however,eventually extendits research to other seriousanimaldisease problemsfor which its facilities and expertise are appropriate, providedsuchextension is approved by its Boardof Directorsand the Government of Kenyadoesnot objectfrom a disease safetystandpoint. In carryingforward its program,the Laboratorywill developcloselinkageswith governmental and regionalorganizationsundertaking research on the same or relateddisease problems. Most of ILRAD’s effort has been devoted to an immunological approachto improving the control of trypanosomiasisand theileriosis and to related aspectsof bovine immunology. It has made many important contributions to the understandingof its causative agents, and its vector, and of host-parasiteinteractions, as well as the immunology of the bovine relevant to trypanosomiasisand other diseases.It has servedas the primary meansby which worldwide advancesin basic biology and immunology, relevant to trypanosomiasisand its control has been brought to bear on African animal trypanosomiasis. II&AD has backstoppedresearch, provided reagents, methodologies, and special training for scientists engagedin researchon African tqpanosomiasis and theileriosis throughout Africa and the world. One outcome of trypanosomiasisresearchis the understandingthat trypanosomesare very complex biologically, which makes development of an effective immunizing agent very difficult. Substantial progress, on the other hand, has been made toward the developmentof an immunizing agent for theileriosis. ’ r Institutionai Strategyfor Research 97 ILRAD has made contributions to the understandingof aspectsof the biology, pathogenesis,and epidemiology that are critical to the developmentof the technology to control typanosomiasisand theileriosis as well as other Group II diseases--diseases related to the environment (Seesection 6.1.2). It has becomea world leader in researchon bovine immunology, a competenceof critical importance to future studieson Group II diseasecont.& in subSaharanAfrica. ILRAD also has servedas the main sourceof information, technology, and the modem methodologiesfor conductingresearchon animal diseases for NARS and other African researchinstitutions. ILIAD is in a strong strategicposition to addressfuture needsin regard to researchon animal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. The International Livestock Centre for Africa was approvedas a CGIAR center in 1972 and an agreementwas signed with the Governmentof Ethiopia in 1974. The agreementstates as its purpose: to assistnationalefforts which aim to affect a chdnge in the production and marketingsystems in tropical Africa so asto increase the sustained yield and output of livestock products and improvethe quality of life of the peoplein this region.The Centrewill serve:(a) as an intemational Centrefor researchto promote the developmentand demonstration of improved livestock production systemsoptimizing the use of human and animal resources in Africa, (b) asa focal point for training activitieswhich will increase regionalcompetence in a systems approach to livestock production and development, and (c) as a multidisciplinary documentation Centre, working in both French and English for the livestock industry of Africa. In carrying forward its program, the centre will develop close linkage with national and regional organizations undertaking research and training activities in the sameor closely related fields of interest. Its researchactivities were further defined: Engagein multidisciplinaryresearch to study existinganimal productionsystems(including breeding,feeding,management, and relatedhealthaspects of husbandry, the improvement of range and pastures, and the social and economic factors affecting the livestock industry including processing and marketing), develop new and amendedsystemsof production, and define priorities for other research. During its early years, ILCA concentrated on defining factors that influenced the output. of indigenous livestock production systems,particularly -pastoralsystems.During the 198Os,it redirected much of its researcheffort to designing interventions to increasethe productivity of livestock and crop-livestock farming systemsthroughout sub-Saharan Africa. Many notable researchadvanceshave been made. Alley farming systemsutilizing livestock have been developed for the humid zone and fodder banks for the subhumid zone. In the highlands, water harvesting and soil-conservationtechniquesusing small animal-drawn implements have been ‘developed. Simple dairy processingtechnology has been adaptedto sub-Saharan African conditions, and progresshas been made the managementof vertisols with animal traction. In cooperation with ILIAD through the African Trypanotolerant Livestock Network, ILCA has shown that trypanotolerant cattle can be productive under heavy diseasechallenge and that chemotherapycan be usedto open new areasto livestock production. ILCA also has assumed a leading role in assemblingand distributing forage germplasm. Networks have been established 98 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca , 4 with national livestock programs. ILCA has contributed to the training and provided field experience to a cadre of expatriate and African animal scientistswho today are conceptualizing and leading animal agricultural developmentin Africa. During its 17 years of operation, ILCA has made major contributions toward improving animal production in sub-SaharanAfrica. ILCA is well-positioned to meet future researchchallengesidentified by this study. IFPRI The International Food Policy ResearchInstitute, establishedin 1976 in Washington DC., conducts researchon food consumption and nutrition policy, food production policy, e international trade and food security issues,agricultural growth linkages, and food data evalu- _ ation. Its principal function is to help convincepolicy makers through its program of policy re- ‘search of the value and the return on investment resulting from agricultural research. It is increasing its emphasison sub-SaharanAfrica. IFPRI researchhas identified animal agriculture as a promising meansof fueling developmentin many of the poor African countries and hascontributed importantly to the understandingof the role of livestock in development.There are many important policy issuesrelevant to the intensification of animal agriculture in subSal&ran Africa that must be resolved by analysis and research.IFPRI has a significant role to play in the future agricultural developmentprograms in sub-Saharan Africa. ISNAR The International Service for National Agricultural Research, headquarteredin The Hague, the Netherlands, began operations in 1980. Its purpose is to help governmentsof de-. veloping countries strengthentheir agricultural researchby providing advice and training on researchpolicy, organization, and managementissues. It has worked extensively with NARS in sub-SaharanAfrica and cunently devotes 50 percent of its effort to this region. A major conclusion of this study is that an essentialstep in the intensification of animal agriculture in a sustainablemanner is to make NARS much more effective in the generation and dissemination of the appropriatenew animal production and health technology. ISNAR is in a strong position to provide leadership in this important task. A limitation is that ISNAR in the past has concentrated mainly on the crop sector. It must increase its competencein animal-oriented researchif it is to provide neededleadershipfor the improvement of animal researchat NARS in sub-Saharan Africa. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture was establishedin 1967 in Ibadan, Nigeria, to increasethe productivity of key food crops and to develop sustainableagricultural systemsthat could replace bush-fallow (slash-and-bum)cultivation in the subhumid and humid agroecologicalzones of Africa. It has four objectives: (1) to develop systemsfor the management and conservationof natural resourcesfor sustainableagriculture in the humid and subhumid tropics, (2) to improve the performance of selectedfood crops that can be integrated into improved and sustainableproduction systems, (3) to strengthennational agricultural researchsystems,and (4) to improve food quality and storage,processing,and marketing. IITA doesnot directly consider animal needsin its researchprograms. Five ILCA scientistsare stationed at IITA and conduct researchon pasturesand forages, multipurpose leguminous trees, Znstitutional Strategyfor Research 99 small ruminants, and trypanotolerant cattle. They do not, however, participate to any great extent in the IITA researchprogram. ZCWSAT The International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics has establisheda Saheliansubstationin Niger to increaseits ability to addresscrop production problems in semiarid Africa. Initially its programs did not take livestock production needs into account in a systematicmanner. Recently, however, ILCA has stationedthree staff membersat ICRISAT. They collaborate with ICRISAT crop and soil scientistsin devising and evaluating improved resource managementtechnologies that increase the sustainability and stability of livestock production in mixed farming systems. The collaborative program developed by ILCA and ICRISAT is a successfulmodel for incorporation of an animal production dimension into programs of plant-oriented IARCs. ZCZUF The International Center for Researchon ‘Agroforestry was establishedin 1977 in Nairobi, Kenya. Its mandateis to increasethe economicand nutritional well-being of people in deyeloping countries through the integration of woody perennials in farming and related land use systems. ICRAF’s activities have evolved from information exchange to hands-on research, emphasizing multipurpose tree speciesand the tree-crop-pasture-animalinterface. It currently is contemplating the addition of an animal dimension to its program. If this is done, and there is much to be said in favor of such a move, it should be done in cooperation with ILCA. Other URCs in sub-Saharan Africa WARDA situatedin C&e d’Ivoire is devotedentirely to rice as a food crop. Except for the use of animal traction for cultivation, no animal studiesare conductedat WARDA. CIAT collaborateswith ILCA in the sub-Saharan forage germplasm network. CIP and CIMMYT do not addressanimal feed needsin researchon their target crops. 9.3.2. Future tasks for IARCs in sub-Saharan Africa ILZwl This study confirms the conclusionarrived at when the International Laboratory for Researchon Animal Diseaseswas establishedthat the control of diseases related to the environment, i.e., Group II diseases,is of paramount importance to the enhancementof livestock production in Africa and that there is a seriouslack of knowledge about thesediseases and the technology for their control. Among the most important are trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosis,cowdriosis, and dermatophilosis. Dermatophilosis is expectedto assumegreater importance as animal production is increasedin the subhumid zone. Diseases related to intensification, i.e., Group III diseases,also are important potential future constraints to productivity. Finally, the study recommendsthat strategic researchon genetic resistanceto diseases and parasitesbe initiated at an early date. ILRAD has matured as a researchinstitution during the nearly 20 years that it has been in operation and now ranks among’the best animal diseaseresearchcentersin the world. Con- ZIK) Animai Agriculture in Sub-&damn Afn’ca ( L tinuing to hold ILRAD to a very limited researchagenda, i.e., immunological aspectsof trypanosomiasis and theileriosis, although appropriate initially, will inhibit that laboratory’s ability to maximize its effectivenessin addressingsub-%&ran African animal health needs. ILRAD’s program should be broadenedfrom researchon trypanosomiasisand theileriosis to include strategic and applied researchon the Group II diseasesand important evolving constraints attributable to Group III diseases.The details of the researchagendaand the specific diseasesto be studied should be dictated by the needs for strategic and applied researchon thesediseases as determined by ILRAD managementand its Board of Directors after consultation with African institutions. The Technical Advisory Committee of the CGIAR does not have the scientific competence to make thesedecisions. ILRAD should initiate appropriate studies and provide leadership for researchon genetic resistanceto economically important animal diseases and parasitesconducted in African institutions and in developing countries in other regions of the world. Researchon genetic resistanceto diseases of animals throughout the tropics-is a very important consideration for the future and a natural extension of the studies on trypanotolerance, bovine immunology and molecular geneticscurrently being conductedby ILRAD. A crucial element in the recommendation that ILRAD’s researchprogram be broadenedis that it will allow that laboratory to provide more comprehensivesupport to national animal diseaseresearchlaboratories in subSaharanAfrica. ZLCA This study confirms the critical need for the expansionof researchon the improvement of the productivity of animals and of crop-livestock production systemsto meet the food, employment, and development goals dictated by population increasesprojected for sub-Saharan Africa. ILCA’s three commodity thrusts+%le milk and meat, small ruminant meat and milk, and animal traction, all in the context of smallholder mixed crop-livestock farming systems-are appropriate. The three strategicthrusts: animal feed resources,trypanotolerance, and livestock policy and resourceuse also addresshigh priority livestock production research needsidentified in this study. ILCA has undertakenresearchon the genetics of trypanotolerante and resistanceto endoparasites, both of which are high priority initiatives. ILCA should continue to focus its researchprogram on strategic and applied aspectsof animal production, particularly for meat and milk deficit areas.Its program should move more and more toward strategic research. Researchbn feed supply should focus on fodder, trees, pastures,supplementation,and the utilization of crop residues.The nutritional researchagenda should include strategic studieson protein metabolismand on the physiological basisof animal nutrition in order to improve the utilization of lignocellulosic feedstuffs by ruminants. ILCA’s program should include characterizationof indigenous African livestock populations, resource managementissues (e.g., nutrient cycling involving animal manure), researchon trade, pricing, credit, and other livestock policy issues. ILCA, in cooperation with plant-oriented IARCs, should conduct researchon the development of feeds for poultry, pigs, and aquatic animals, the developmentof a feed industry, and on animal aspectsof mixed crop-livestock farming systems.In cooperation with ILRAD, Instinctionai Strategyfor Research 101 ILCA should conduct researchon genetic markers and mechanismsassociatedwith tolerance and resistanceto diseases and parasitesand on animal health and management. IITA and animal agriculture research for the subhumid zone This study has confirmed the widely held belief that the greatest opportunity for increasinglivestock production in Africa is in the subhumid zone and that realizing the opportunity entails increasing the productivity of mixed crop-livestock production systems.It also has recognizedthe fragility of the humid zone and the need to researchthe means, by which animals can increasethe productivity and sustainability of agriculture in the subhumid zone. IITA has as its objective improving food crop production in the humid and subhumid zonesand the developmentof sustainablefarming systemsfor thesezones. Its program is comprehensiveand its researchof excellent quahty. ILCA hasa small cadreof researchworkers stationedat IITA, but its program is separatefrom the main scientific effort of IITA. If IITA is chosento fulfill the role of a plant/animal center for the subhumid zone, then research on crop-livestock systemsmust becomea legitimate objective of IITA; and meansto achieveit worked out with ILCA. The alternatives are to develop a new center to conduct the animal-related research required for the subhumid zone or to assign this task to a currently functioning center. This study supportsthe idea of expandingIITA’s program to include animal needsas a cooperative effort with ILCA, as the way to establisha strategic animal-oriented researchprogram in the subhumidagroecologicalzone. . ICIPE This study has recognized vector-borne diseasesas being among the most important diseaseconstraintsto animal production in sub-Saharan Africa. The International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, which is not a member of the CGIAR system, maintains a vital researchprogram on basic and applied aspectsof the biology and ecology of insectsaffecting plants, animals, and people. ICIPE, located in Nairobi, Kenya, should continue to carry out research aimed at developing sustainable, integrated, and environmentally sound physical, chemical, immunological, and biological methodsof control of the tsetsefly, ticks, and other important insect vectorsof animal diseases. Strategic redirection of the plant-otierued URCs The prevailing philosophy when the first IARCs were being developedwas that emphasis should be placed upon food crops. As a consequence, the work of all of the commoditybasedcentersexcept for ILRAD and ILCA is devotedto plants. Only CIAT and ICARDA are concernedin more than a minor way with utilization of their target crops by animals. When the objective of the CGIAR was broadenedto include income generationthrough technological change in agriculture, particularly for the rural poor, animals assumedgreater importance to the system. If the systemis to respondto the broadenedvision of developmentespoused by the CGIAR, plant-oriented IARCs should adjust their programs to take animal feed into consideration when they conduct researchon their target crops. Nonruminant animals, particularly poultry, pigs, and aquatic animals, are increasing in importance as sourcesof high quality protein and other essentialnutrients for growing world populations. There is a need to improve the productivity of feed crops, notably root crops and cereal grains, for these species.For ru- IO2 Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&an Afica minants there need for more productive forages and tree crops and higher quality of agricultural residuesand by-products. In view of the changedobjective of the CGIAR, it is appropriate to consider a strategic redirection of the objectives of all plant-oriented IARCs. Rather than continuing to focus almost entirely upon the use of target crops for human food, consideration should also be given to nutritional value of thesecrops and their residuesand by-products when fed to animals. The plant-oriented IARCs also must take into account the growing world demand for feeds for poultry, pigs, and aquatic animals and to a lesser degree supplemental feed for dairy cattle maintained in intensive p&-urban systems. The best way to avoid detrimental competition between animals and people for cereal and root crops in developing countries is to develop technology to improve feed crops. Adding animal feed considerationsto the missions of plantoriented IARCs would not materially expandtheir programs. Coordinahon of IARC activities in animal agriculture Since the CGIAR establishedILRAD and &CA as separateinstitutions, responsible authorities including TAC have discussedthe desirability of merging them into a single institution. In weighing the pros and cons of merger as revealed by the record of the past two decades of operation, minor advantages and disadvantages can be identified both for single and for separateinstitutions. For example, a small amount of money might be savedby merging administrative functions, i.e., having one instead of two directors general. On the other hand, becauseof marked differences in the missionsand researchagendas,most-of the director-level managementfunctions would have to be retained by each institution. Merging also would make coordination of programs easier. The record is clear, however, that there have been no major problems of duplication or lack of collaboration or coordination of programs of these two institutions. The greatestimpediment to merging ILCA and ILRAD at this time is the different cultures of theseinstitutions. Values, researchphilosophies, and modesof operation appropriate to their missions have evolved at each institution. Having two different kinds of centers provides diversity and flexibility, which is particularly beneficial in times of rapid change. Combining these centers would increase the size of the operation, creating problems associated with scale, with few compensatingadvantages. Combining ILCA and ILRAD would be both very difficult and disruptive considering the fact that each institution is separately charteredin different countries and has separategoverning boards, operating procedures,relationships with countries, etc. Forcing these institutions to merge at this time would create many more problems than it would solve. ILCA and ILRAD have respondedto the need to coordinate their programs by having membersof their governing boardsattend annual meetingsof the board of the other institution. ILCA sendshvo board members, usually including the director general, to the ILIAD board meeting, while the by-laws of ILRAD’s Board of Directors provides for the board member who chairs the program committee to attend the ILCA board meeting. ILFWD’s director general usually attendsthe meeting as well. The main coordination of the researchof thesecenters occursat the scientist-to-scientistlevel with very good relationshipsbetween scientistsof these institutions. InstituionaX Strategyfor Research 103 While thesemechanismsare broadly satisfactory, they probably do not go far enough. This study doesnot believe, however, that merger at this time is the appropriateresponse.The need is not necessarilyto have one institution but rather to ensure close coordination of the programs of the two institutions. A solution would be to establish cross membership on the governing boards of these institutions-two members to serve concurrently on the boards of both ILCA and ILRAD. There also should be crossmembershipon the program committeesof each center, which would lead to the developmentof more joint programs utilizing the unique competencies of eachcenter. LRadership for livestock research conducted by URCF The question of whether or not ILCA and ILRAD should be merged into a single institution has now been overshadowed by a larger and more important issue: How can future efforts of all IARCs operating in Africa best contribute to an overall strategy of sustainable agriculture built upon crop-livestock systemsas well. as on food-crop production? The future direction of the developmentof sub-Saharan African agriculture-expansion and intensification of mixed crop-livestock farming systemsand growing importance of monogastric livestock particularly poultry and pigs-is a compelling argument for better coordination of plant and animal researchin IARCs, as well as in NARS and regional institutions. There are 11 IARCs either located in sub-Saharan Africa or with significant activities in the region. These institutions, with the exceptionof ILIAD and ILCA, have little or no expertise in animal production or health. On the other hand, they are staffed with plant scientists who, by and large, are capable of dealing with animal production dimensions of plant research.What they lack is direction on aspectsof researchon target crops that are important to animals and detailed knowledge of animal dimensions of crop-livestock farming systemsresearch,which are talents that ILCA scientistscan provide. There is need to establish a research-planningmechanism to identify and prioritize strategic researchinitiatives in animal dimensionsof agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa and to inform the institutions that are best prepared to conduct the researchabout these priorities. This is a role that TAC might fulfill, but TAC, over the years, has not possessed adequateexpertise on animal agriculture and specific experience in sub-SaharanAfrica. Until a better mechanismis developed,ILCA should be given the responsibility for providing programmatic leadershipin animal-relatedaspectsof the researchconductedby plant-oriented IARCs in subSaharanAfrica. Programmatic leadershipshould be basedupon an on-going strategic planning processthat would identify, among other things, the greatestneedsof animal agriculture and opportunities for research.Specific researchprograms to be conductedat the various IARCs would be defined by ILCA and the plant IARCs that might becomeinvolved. Decisions on the details of collaborative researchprograms and funding of this researchwould best be made by ILCA and the collaborating center. Better cootdinan’on of programs of EC4 and ILRAD with NARS An important element in efforts to improve the effectivenessof animal agricultural researchin subSaharan Africa is the establishmentof mechanismsthat will ensurethat the programs of the IARCs and NARS are synchronized. Coordination will become more and more 104 Animal Apiculnue in Sub-SaharanAfica important as NARS programs grow in sophistication. Each set of institutions possesses unique capabilities important to the overall researchneedsof the region. Each has an important, although different, role to play in this effort. The benefits of diversity that have been built into the system will be captured only if structuresare developedthat ensure that these institutions work toward common goals in a cooperativeand collaborative mode. Leadership in the development of appropriate coordinating processes should be taken by ILRAD and ILCA as part of their outreachefforts. 9.4. New Perspectives on Agricuiturai saharan Africa Research in SubB -. There are 43 countries engagedin agricultural researchin sub-SaharanAfrica. Most support animal agricultural researchprograms. A few of the larger and economically more developed countries have establishedcomprehensiveanimal researchcapability, but most programs are small. , The problems confronting animal agricultural development in sub-SaharanAfrica as outlined in this report are numerousand complex, and their solution will require new technology, new genetic stocks, new knowledge and new understandingof technological, social, and economic relationships. Not only will much research be required to obtain essential new knowledge, but the nature and complexity of the problems will require researchof the highest quality conductedby competent scientistsusing modem methodsand technology. Adaptive researchalone will not be enough becauseecological and climatic conditions as well as social and cultural influences in sub-Saharan Africa are very different from much of the rest of the world. If it is to be successful,the sub-Saharan African animal agricultural researchsystemas a whole must be competentto conduct strategic, applied, and adaptiveresearchon a .wide variety of animal production, health9policy, and management problems. Agriculturalists and policy makers throughout the world who suggestthat the highly complex problems in agriculture that sub-Saharan Africa is facing can be solved with low-level applied and adaptive researchare doing the region a great disservice. In animal agriculture, at least, the needis just the opposite. NARS must engagein strategicand adaptive researchof the quality conducted in developed countries, if they are to generatethe technology required for agricultural development. Animal-oriented NARS in sub-Saharan Africa, by and large, are experiencing difficulties in maintaining relevant and productive researchprograms. Uncertainties and inadequacies in funding, excessivebureaucratization, lack of facilities, equipment shortages, insufficient numbers of trained specialists, scientific isolation, difficulties in communication, and many other problems confront theseinstitutions. If thesedifficulties remain unresolved, sub-Saharan African animal researchinstitutions cannot provide the technology essentialto agricultural and rural developmentin the region. The most vulnerable link in the African agricultural research . systemis the NARS. Donors have recognized the importance of strengtheningnational researchcapability for many years and numerousefforts of various kinds to do so have been attempted. As indicated earlier in this chapter, theseefforts have yielded mixed results. New ways for donors to Institun’onal Strategyfor Research I05 support NARS that build upon past experiencesand the realities of the future, are urgently needed. 9.4.1. Regional collaboration agricuiturai research to strengthen national The task of building broad c&petence in many disciplines and enhancingthe capacity to addressa wide spectrumof problems in 43 sub-S&ran countries is too large a task to be accomplishedin the next 30 years even if the money to do so were available. A more attractive approachis to establishthe mechanisms and processes to enableNARS throughout sub-Saharan Africa, but particularly those sharing agroecological zones, to collaborate to accomplish this objective. If sub-Saharan African countries cooperateextensively in conducting research,the technology neededto propel agricultural and rural developmentprobably can be produced in time to meet growing food production and rural development-needs. If they do not collaborate, the animal researchrequired probably cannotbe accomplished. One way that collaboration might be structuredis for a group of 6 to 12 countries that shareagroecologicaland other featuresto organize and work together to conduct the full spectrum of research required to overcome constraints within the portion of the agroecological zonesin which thesecountriesare situated. One or two NARS in the group might work on one set of problems, another NARS on a different set, and a third on still other problems, etc., cooperating and collaborating as dictated by the researchneedsof the group To facilitate organization of regional collaborative groups, thesecountries should, insofar as possible, utilize existing political or economic associations.This is the way that SPAAR is working toward the establishmentof regional coordinating mechanisms.One can envision five or six groupings (seemap) that together would provide adequatecoverageof sub-Saharan Africa’s agroecological zones. There are, of course, other ways for NARS to organize and to cooperateto addressthe researchtasks ahead, but the cooperativeand collaborative approach appearsto have particular merit at this stagein the evolution of animal agricultural researchin sub-Saharan Africa. It is not likely, however, that a country or its NARS would fully participate on a longterm basis in a collaborative effort without having a significant incentive to do so. An effective incentive might be a commitment by donors to specialassistance in institution building and to sustainedfunding for agricultural research.One meansof ensuring stable funding would be to establishan administrative mechanismthat would coordinateall donor support to the NARS in sub-SaharanAfrica, facilitate the development of collaborative arrangementsbetween and among countries and regions, and ‘provide leadership for planning and priority setting and evaluation of programs. In many respects,the relation of this mechanismto donor support of national research(NARS) would be analogousto the relation of the CGIAR to donor support of IARC research.For the systemto work, donors would have to use this mechanismto channel most or all of their technical assistance to NARS. The level of funding currently committed by donors to NARS would constitute a substantial portion of the funding required for the program. Animal Agricdture in Sub&haran Africa .$$$$$i.::+ L::::::::y:.:.. ‘... ‘W Potential regional affiliations for collaboration in agricultural research. I Instihdonal Strategyfor Research 9.4.2. Assumptions and premises important to future research at NARS IO7 This study of the role that animal agriculture must play if sub-G&an Africa is to meet food production, economic development, and environmental protection needsduring the next 30 years has led to the following conclusionsin regard to the institutional dimensions of nsearchand technology developmentas it applies to NARS: 1. Improvement of the productivity of animal agriculture and increasing the cornpIementarity between crop and livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa is essential to the ability of that region to meet, in a sustainablemanner, its food production and economic developmentneedsof the next 30 years. Substantialimprovement im productivity will require the generationof much new technology. 2. The NARS must generatethe majority of the technology that will be required to support the expansionof animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica in the next 30 years. IARCs or other institutions in Africa or elsewhereare important to the pry cess, but they are incapable of developing the specific technology usable at the farm-level that is necessary to drive developmentthroughout the region. 3. For a wide variety of reasons,a high proportion of NARS are not adequatelycontributing to the agricultural developmentneedsof their countries. A major effort directed toward revitalization of NARS is required to enable these institutions &I respondto the challengesfacing sub-Saharan Africa. 4. Becauseof the magnitude of the undertaking as well as insufficient resourcesin most sub-Saharan countries and limits on donor funding, it will be impossible to strengthenthe animal agricultural researchof all the NARS in sub-Saharan Africa to the point that eachcountry can provide for all of its own needs. 5. One way that sub-SaharanAfrica could generate the needed new technology is through extensivecollaboration between countries. Regional collaboration through institutions such as SACCAR and INSAH would constitute the building blocks for collaboration. All sub-Saharan countries could participate in a regional grouping. Every NARS, no matter how large or how small, hasan important function to perform and can contribute.to the needsof the region in which it exists and to animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa generally. 6. If donor support is aggregatedand then allocated and managedover a long period (20 or more years) to support a single program aimed at building institutions into vital researchentities and at the sametime conducting researchof high priority to an agroecological zone, it could provide the leverage neededto transform NARS into effective institutions. Productive NARS that resolve important food and development problems might be expectedto justify increasedsupport from African governmentsand donors alike. 7. In animal agriculture, there are applied and adaptive research and developrnmt needs that are common to several or perhaps all agroecological zones. Conse- 108 Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Afica quently, a mechanismthat would appropriately coordinate, on a pan sub-Saharan African basis, the research conducted in the regions, would have important’ advantages. 8. A comprehensiveprogram to strengthenNARS in sub-SaharanAfrica would require that a mechanism, perhapsa smaIl secretariat, be establishedto coordinate donor support, assist regional researchorganizations with program formulation, and provide guidance on inter-regional cooperation. The secretariat must possess scientific competencein thenanimal sciencesmaps through technical advisory committees), conduct strategic planning for animal agricultural research in subSaharanAfrica, provide information and communication services,and conduct review and evaluation procedures. 9. A key to the successof a sub-Saharanstrategy for animal agricultural research based upon regional collaboration will be the decision by donors to funnel all or most of their support for animal researchto NARS through this collaborative regionally focused mechanism.To meet d&or needs,the systemmust permit donors to select the region, countries, and researchactivities that they will fund. This could be accomplished in a manner similar to the processesemployed in donor funding of individual IARCS. 10. If a collaborative approach is to be considered as the primary means by which donors will attempt to assistNARS prepare for the challengesof the 21st century, donors and African countries alike must renew their commitments to the task. This must be done at the highest appropriate level of donor organizations and by high public officials in African countries. It cannot be accomplished by mid- or lowlevel public servantswho have a stak.e in the statusquo. The foregoing assumptionsand principles have been developed specifically for the needsof animal agricultural research.Without assumingthat the crop and agroforestry needs are the same, from the standpoint of animal agriculture it would be highly desirable if not essential for regional and sub-Saharan strategiesto include all aspectsof agricultural research. 9.4.3. An effective coordinating mechanism for donor funding An effective coordinating mechanismis neededthat will enable donors to join forces, pool resources,and, & cooperationwith African countries, develop a single integrated strategy for supporting NARS, and establisha long-term commitment to this goal. These objectivesare similar in many respectsto the objectivesof SPAAR. SPAAR, on the other hand may not have the mandateto play the decisive role that is needed.SPAAR’s mandatecould be strengthened and its mode of operation could be changedso that rather than coordinating a wide variety of country initiatives, it assistsin the developmentand implementation of a single collaborative strategyfor supporting NARS. This study recommendsthat a meeting of high-level representatives of donor organizations and African countries:be held (for historic reasonsBellagio might be a good location) to establisha commitment to a joint endeavorinvolving the pooling of resourcesand to develop a ’ , Instinuional Strategyfor Research 109 unified strategyfor supporting NARS with particular attention to the collaborative regional approach pioneeredby SACCAR, INSAH, and others, with strong support and leadership from SPAAR. It is recommendedthat the new initiative be given a new name such as the Council for Agricultural Researchfor Sub-Saharan Africa (CARSA), whether or not it is envisionedas an extensionof SPAAR. The entity would have a new mandate,objectives, and operating procedures,and would involve African governmentsas co-sponsors and active participants. 9.4.4. Coiumuuicatious network Another area in which CARSA or SPAAR could play a leadershiprole is in the establishment of a sub-Saharan Africa agricultural scienceelectronic communications network. Its purpose would be to facilitate communications among cooperating NARS and collaborating agricultural scientists. It must be capableof providing every cooperating NARS on-line world literature searchcapability and facsimile transmissionof journal articles if it is to adequately servetheseinstitutions. 9.4.5. Coordination of CARSA/SPAAR and the CGIAR If a CARSA, SPAAR, or someother such entity is empoweredto coordinate donor efforts to strengthen national agricultural research(see section 9.3.2.), an early decision would be required on whether or not it would be developedas an extension of the CGIAR, or as a separate,but closely related system. No matter what form it takes, the programs of the two entities must be carefully coordinatedand researchtasks to be undertakenby each entity carefully chosen. This means, at the least, .a common strategic and research program planning mechanism.Practical considerationswould argue strongly for two closely related systems.An appropriatevenue for donor discussionof this matter would be the recommendeddonor meeting (Seesection9.4.3). . 9.4.6. Private-sector research The developmentof strong private-sectorsupport servicesis an essentialcomponentof the strategy to enhancethe productivity of animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. This sector also can play a very important role in the researchand developmentstrategyof a country. Veterinary biological and pharmaceuticalindustries throughout the world conduct researchon animal health and production problems important to their proprietary interests. They also support much researchat university and governmental laboratories on aspectsof health and production unrelated to corporate initiatives. Many international biological and pharmaceutical firms also maintain large cadres of scientists who conduct strategic and applied research on important emerging biological and health problems and backstop their applied researchefforts. These industries also involve private veterinarians in researchand development activities, particularly field verification of the effectivenessof potential products. Feed manufacturing and distribution companieshave a long history of conducting and supporting researchon animal nutrition that directly or indirectly relates to their businessactivities. Firms engagedin artificial insemination, embryo transplantation, or improvement or disseminationof genetic materials through the sale of animals (poultry, fish, pigs, ruminants) 110 Animal Agriculture in Sub&damn Afn’ca > ’ traditionally have engagedin both applied and strategic researchrelated to their enterprises. Seed companiesconduct a high proportion of the adaptive and farm-level verification research on feed and forage plants in most developedcountries. Many private entrepreneursin the developed world produce innovative products that enhancethe utility and effectivenessof all types of animal husbandryand health practices. The private sector will become involved in researchand developmentin a country in a major way only when researchinvestment promises an adequatereturn. Therefore the most important factors to enhancethe effectivenessand long-term viability of private-sectorresearch is the formulation of governmentalpolicies that support the developmentof a vigorous private * sector and the promulgation of regulations that are fair and not unnecessarily restrictive. Private-sector research positions offer attractive employment opportunities for African ‘-. professionals. c t 10 Strategy for Extension, Education, and Support Services Successfuldevelopment dependsupon improving human capital and establishing the conditions under which knowledge can be used. Appropriately focusededucation systems,effective meansof transferring knowledge to farmers, -andproperly functioning support services are essentialto this process. For animal agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa, all of these functions are hampered by weak national institutional structures. African governments have retained responsibility for support services that can be better provided by the private sector. Governmentlivestock serviceslack the financial resourcesto operateeffectively, and there are deficiencies in their technical capability and in the technology that is available to improve farmers’ incomesand the productivity of agriculture. The nature of the demand for education, extension, and support servicesis changing rapidly as farming systemsand farmers’ needsgrow ‘more complex. Technical needsand ability to apply technology varies greatly among farmers and among &untries. State structuresthat respond more to internal bureaucraticimperatives than to farmer needsare a major handicap. In many countries, the historic division betweencrop and livestock departmentshas continued after independence.It is doubtful that a progressiveagricultural sector with significant crop and livestock interactions can in the long run function successfullywith separateministries for crops and livestock. Livestock servicesfrequently have a strong veterinary bias. Many countries have been slow to recognize that animal production scienceis as important as animal health or crop science. Greater recognition of the role of animal production scienceand the developmentof suitable institutional structures will enable animal production to &tribute more decisively to development. The ineffective use of university graduates in agriculture, and weaknessesin their training as practical agriculturists, also is a generaldeficiency. Thirty yearsago there were few university and school graduates.Now there are many more, but there has been little changein .theorganization and.methodsof communication with farmers. For example, staff pyramids in extensionhave increasedin size, but university graduatesremain as far removed from farmers as they were before. A major causeof the present financial crisis in government agricultural services has been the desirable expansion in the number of graduates. However, the large number of better educatedstaff are much more expensiveto maintain in salaries, housing, and transport than the less-educated staff that previously formed most of theseservices. I12 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanA.ca Even when economic and sectoralgrowth rates improve, most governmentswill not be able to afford the number of extension, animal health, and other support service workers they now employ. The need to further improve the technical qualifications of staff will increasethe financial problems unless adjustmentsare made. Governmentsmust make the services more professional and financially sustainableand less dependenton numbers of personnel. Instead they should rely on improved communication techniquesin order to lower costsand to achieve more direct contact with farmers. Improving governmental servicesis complicated by the low level of professional salaries-US%60 per month in some African countries. It remains to be seen whether or not such salary levels provide an adequateincentive for service. Incentives can be improved without increasing total costs if systemsare streamlined and more pluralistic approachesare taken. 10.1. Agricultural Extension Services There is no general consensus on the best meansof transferring technologiesto farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Well-financed and well-struc’turedextension programs have been successful when focused on a high value commodity. Dairy developmentin Kenya is a good example of a successfulextension effort for small farms (World Rank 199Oa).The training-andvisit approach on a national scale also has been applied successfully in some countries, but mainly to crops (seebox “Training and Visit System”). There have been relatively few studies of the effectivenessof livestock extensionprograms (Gilles 1991, ISNAR 1991). Jahnkeet al. (1987:63) argue that there has been an overinvestmentin extensionprograms given presentinvestmentsin research. As a consequence,many extension workers have little in the way of new technology to share with farmers (Baxter et al. 1989:34). Judd et al. (1983) report that $515 million were spent on agricultural extensionin Africa in 1983 as contrastedto !§425million for research. Ministries also undermine extension agents’ roles as educators by giving them regulatory and support tasks such as administering farmers’ accessto subsidized credit and inputs, collection of governmentloans, and enforcementof regulations (Gilles 1991). 10.1.1. Types of technology transfer systems There are a wide range of extension systemsin sub-Saharan Africa becauseof differencesin countries, prior colonial structures,and the current influence of the international agricultural developmentcommunity. ISNAR (1991) identified four principal systemsof technology transfer that are in use in Africa: (a) Conventional hierarchical approachesthat employ large numbersof field staff with relatively low levels of educationand training, working in direct contact with farmers and supportedby subject-matterspecialists;(b) group-oriented or cooperative organizations that provide advice to farmers, sometimes with input and other services;(c) profit-oriented agenciesthat provide integrated specialist servicesto producersof certain high value crops or livestock where costs can be recoupedby a tax, service fees, or saleof inputs; and (d) the farming systemsresearchand extensionmethod (FSFUE),which is a multidisciplinary approachthat looks at the total farm unit and family. In practice however most extension information is transferred by the hierarchical system, which in many countries is being modified by the training and visit organizational ap- t Strategyfor Extension, Educarion, und Sypon Services 113 preach and funded entirely by government. In many countries livestock and crop delivery systems are separateand where combined there is often significant crop bias. The size of these delivery serviceshas in all casesoutgrown governments’financial ability. to sustainthem properly, and effectivenesshas fallen greatly. There is now pressureto combine the different crop and livestock production services into single national extension services. This needs to be enwuraged. An effective extension service‘for mixed farming or for range areasmust link producers with researchers in a way that will facilitate two-way communications. For this to happen, extensionagentsmust be accountableto both producersand governments,and they must constantly learn new skills as the needsof clients change. GiIles (1991) points out that in the first 40 years of the U.S. extension system, a system that was particularly effective, extension agents were accountableto producer groups and local interests,-and they still are in many states.Even though agentsreceived their salary from federal and state sources,local govemments provided office support and operating costs. The lessonsof this experienceare clear, extensionagentsrespondto the needsof those who support them. Users in Africa should contribute to the support of extensionagents. Training and Visit System Improvement of extension services in Africa has been a national and developmentagencyproject objective for 30 years. Since 1982 the World Bank has been engagedin a major effort to make better useof the large number of agriculture extensionstaff who were produced under many ineffective donor extension efforts in the past. Twenty-six countries in Africa are now coveredby World Bank extension activities, costing about US%500million. Theseactivities are basedon the premise that, in the absenceof commercial or farmer organizations(suchas existed in Brazil and Taiwan), few agricultural countries have succeeded in developing a modem agriculture sector without a publicly funded and well-trained professionalextensionservice. Attention is being paid to the organization and managementof existing personnelusing the training-and-visit system (T&V). The objective is to develop a more technically competent service that respondsto farmer needsby providing answersor ensuring that problems are researched.At about 2-week intervals, field staff visit farmers or farmer groups to provide information and answer questionsthrough meetingsand training sessions with subject-matterspecialists.Women and young farmers are encouragedto attend, and messages are tailored for their special needs.Regular meetingsare important to sustaincontinuing discussionwith farmers and to ensurethat when critical problems are identified they are brought to the attention of specialists. Close attention is being paid to researchand to developing research-extension-farmer two-way linkages. Key ingredients are small demonstrationplots and getting researchersinto the field to undertake trials on farmers’ fields. In this program, technology improvements are sug- 114 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica gestedwithin the context of the whole farm and farmer ability and expectations.Farmers are encouragedto participate in programing agentsvisits and field organization. For livestock extension, some of theseprinciples might need to be modified. Demonstration plots might need to be animals, and in a situation of high mobility of herds and herders, a regular visiting program to the samegroup might not be possible. Altematively pastoralist,auxiliaries could be met regularly at prespecified and different watering points so that the specialist would be able to provide information on a regular basis and at the sametime seea variety of herders. However, many of the managementtechniques of T&V-ensuring that extensionagents have a clearly defined work program, and that they are provided with regular training and new technological inputs are relevant to livestock extensionas well. Governmentsgenerally like the approach. However an important issue is sustainability becauseavailable government funds are insufficient to meet staff and operating costs. This suggeststhat the World Bank is funding staffing levels and measuresof dissemination that are too costly. Evaluations of T&V projects in India have been positive. When new communication techniques are introduced, government staff numbers can decline. In time, greater responsibility will devolve to the private sector. The World Bank is currently doing an economic evaluation of the T&V system in Kenya and Burkina Faso. Extension and support servicesshould to be tailored to the needsand resourcesof the constituenciesto be served. All available meansof delivering theseservicesmust be exploited, including the public sector, the private sector, farmer organizations, and NGOs. Alternative setvicesand sourcesof information will become more efficient for delivering certain types of information or for serving particular groups of farmers. This is irrespective of the fact that governmentswill not have the resourcesto meet all farmer needs. Where government extension is inadequatealternative systemsof financing and organization should be tried. An extension program in Pakistan, which uses the community to do its own extension, may have important lessonsfor Africa (seebox “Community-basedExtension”). Crop and livestock extension integration in mixed farming areas Becausefarmers need to integrate crops and livestock at the farm level and govemments need to use financial resourcesefficiently there is a compelling case for developing national agricultural extension serviceswhich disseminateboth crop and animal production advice. Such servicesshould normally be divested of other support and regulatory functions so that they can concentrateon improving farmer-research-extension linkages. The unification of extension servicesis often strongly resistedby livestock departmentsin Africa. They fear that livestock will be submergedin a combination with crop departments There is little practical experiencein Africa with such programs. In 1991, Nigeria boldly introduced a unified extension service, which, in most states, combines crops, forestry, fisheries, and some animal health and production staff into a single service and makes field agents, whatever their backgrounds, give advice on all four subjects.Since staff were originally trained only in one of the Strategyfor Extension. Education, and Support Services 115 four subjects, a major in-service training program is under way. It should be noted however that in the pilot phase, the livestock departmenthas complained that, in staff training meetings and the transfer of messages, livestock issuestend to take secondplace to crop information at planting time. Cameroon has a similar program and similar experiences.The integration processwill not be easy. Given the backgroundand training of many extension staff there is need for realism in what can be expectedfrom generalextensionspeciahsts in providing animal production advice. As long as most field agentshave a low educational statusand crop production backgrounds, the majority will probably only be able to handle simple messages. The agent should however be able to extend advice on common livestock needs, such as vaccination, dehorning, deworming, castration, fodder production, calf feeding, feeding regimes, and clean milk production. The more competentagentswill be able to give more advancedadvice, especially if they have animals on their own farms. Community-based Extension An innovative extension program launched by the Aga Khan Foundation in Pakistan may be applicable to some situations in Africa. Operating in three isolated and resource-poordistricts of northern Pakistan, the program is rooted in the concept that people in the community (villages in this case) should be responsiblefor their own development. The community selectsindividuals from the village and the project trains them in skills such as feeding dairy cows, dairy hygiene, calf rearing, grafting of fruit trees, nursery development, and animal health. These “specialist“ villagers then improve village farming and charge for some services.Some personnel get remuneration from the foundation in the early stagesof the developmentprogram. In Africa the application of a village-skill training systemcould lighten the administrative burden on the government extension service and reduce the number of low-level staff. Those staff might in somecasesbe employed by the villages to become the community specialistssuch as animal health auxiliaries. The government’srole would be to train community specialists and provide information to keep them upto-date. Community-based extension systems should work in parts of Africa where villageoriented social systemsexist, but the concept may be.less applicable in communities where individual farmsteadsare dispersedand there is a greater degree of individualism. It will only work where agriculture is economically viable and useful new technology is moving to farmers. For this reasonanimal health auxiliaries and horticultural nurserymen would be good choices as the first to be funded by local communities in Africa. NGOs could assist government in experimenting with establishing community extensionsystemsand transferring responsibilitiesto them. The expansionof Kenya‘s smallholder dairy, poultry, and pig production can be credited to the close collaboration betweencountry’s general extension servicesand the veterinary 116 Animal Agricdtie in Sub-SaharanAfrica gdepartment.But the needsof some intensive producershas outstripped the ability of many of the general extension agents. Animal production subject-matterspecialistsworking with or in the extension services will be essential. Their work has to be suitably organized and there needsto be enough of them so that the more advancedfarmer can be assisted.They are also neededto work with farmers training centers, which should become increasingly important information sourcesin the future for livestock farmers. Farm managementand enterprise planning are areas that remain underdevelopedin most small-farm extension services. Integration of livestock in such planning will be increasingly important as livestock become recognizedas a powerful multiplier of farm incomes. d! As farmers’ sophistication and need for more specialized information advances,such _ advice should increasingly wme from businessesand farmers’ organizations that sell them “products and market their produce. Such businesses are becoming more numerous in densely populated productive areas. There are meansto encouragethem to provide such advice and to undertakeapplied field researchtrials. Government servicesshould work in concert with private efforts with the objective of giving them increasing responsibility. Some extension work could be subcontracted to the private sectorincluding farmers’ organizationsand groups. * Animal health and associatedservices, such as dipping, will increasingly fall in the domain of the private sector. There is however need for both public and private sector animal health staff to be able to give animal production advice in the wurse of their visits and to participate in the developmentof animal production policies, programs, and extensionactivities. To keep costs down, extension services should experiment with different systems of providing information rather than continuing to rely entirely on face-to-facewntact with farmers. In Asia, farmers have been the most important source of information for other farmers (Antholt 1990). New extension methods will be especially important for areas where human population densities are low and road communication is difficult. The more progressivelivestock producers are often better educatedand willing to use new information systems.Extension provided by commercial wncems should be of great assistance. Pastoralist and range area extemion needr Pastoralistgroups differ in population density, degreesof sedentarism,and dependence on cultivation for subsistence.Types, economic roles, and managementrequirementsof livestock vary. Household members have different roles in the managementof animals. In some areascustoms affecting managementand the transfer of advice are rigid and in others much less so. Human population pressureon land resourcesaffects disparities in stock wealth and the degreeto which some families are dependenton others for their subsistence (thus affecting relationships and individual aspirations). Another variable is that availability of water affects migration and transhumant patterns. There is no wmmon technique of providing extension servicesto all pastoral and range people. The questionsthat need to be asked are what type of information is required and how can it be supplied, and how should the information be delivered and who should do it? Range and stock managementis closely tied to the socioeconomicstructure of the peaple concerned. There is need for range and other technical experts to work closely with pastoralist groups to design and develop organizational, land, and herd-managementsystemsbest Strategy for Extension, Educcrtion,and Support Services 117 suited to their needs.This will require an interaction of well-trained subject-matterspecialists who have technical skills as well as strong interactive skills. Subject-matterspecialistsshould have multiple skills and be capableof giving advice on most aspectsof community activities within the narrower confines of technical subjects. Familiarity with the communities where they work and knowledge of the local languagealso are required. Advice on animal health may be the most important extension information required by pastoralists. Most simple husbandry.techniquesare well known, but in the higher potential pastoralist areas, considerableimprovement is possible through better feeding and breeding programs, including the introduction of other animal breeds, e.g., Sahiwal bulls to improve milk production. Cultivation is already a major activity in some groups and is increasingly so in others. Information on seed,animal traction, and improved cultivation techniques,including manure application, are important. Water spreading techniques for crops and fodders can sometimesbe introduced or improved, and some pastoral&s irrigate. Others are interested in improving water supplies, processingof animal products (milk, drying meat, hides and skins, artisanal activities), and marketing. The type of extensionand who should do it will dependon the nature of needsand the diversity and mobility of the people. With few exceptionsgovernment services for pastoral peoplesare not well developedand are usually confined to animal health. Given public funding limitations, governmentsshould limit their interventions to the provision of well-qualified specialist advisers and leave simpler extension advice to people employed by the pastoralists themselves.Where government employs agents, Sandford (1983) suggeststhat they should generally be multipurpose giving advice on range management,animal health and production, crops, water, and marketing. This may mean the retraining or in service training of existing animal health and range personnel. Users must be fully involved in establishingpriorities. Advice can be given at known camping or householdsites and at water points. Sandford (1983) also points to the need to know the social structures,e.g., age and kinship groups, and to design extension programs to work within them. The advice should be part of an overall land managementimprovement program that is well understoodby all staff and pastoralists. The selectionof suitable people by the pastoraliststhemselvesto carry out theseextensionand animal health functions should be a priority. Pastoral organizationsare developing animal health auxiliaries in Central African Republic, Guinea, Niger, Mauritania, Somalia, and Senegal. 10.1.2. Special target groups Extremely poor farmers and women farmers need special attention by extension services. Often 30 to 40 percent of the farmers in an area control 70 percent of the land and livestock resources. This is the group usually. targeted by extension agents. The smallest landholders have different advisory and support needs. They have such limited financial resourcesthat frequently they cannot utilize the sameadvice given to larger farms. Different extension messages and wmmunica&on techniqueshave to be used for different classesand types of farmers. Particular attention needsto be given to women farmers by extensionagents,educators, and researchworkers. Three-fourths of Africa’s women are engagedin agriculture (Gittinger et al. 1990). In many African societies,women do all of the food processing,fetch most of the 118 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca cooking fuel and water, produce 70 percent of the food, handle 60 percent of the marketing, and do at least half of the work of raising animals (Gittinger et al. 1990). Women usually do most of the milking and calf managementin pastoral societies and usually tend sheep and goats. In addition to working along with their spousesand children, women head at’ least a third of all farms. However, in spite of a growing understandingof the importance of women in agriculture, development policies too often neglect women’s roles and needs, and women are grossly underrepresented in public sector support programs, Weidemann (1987) estimates that only 20 percent of extension agents are women. Schwartz and Kampen (1992) make a strong case for bringing more women into mainstream researchand extension. The role of women in pastoral societies and how they can be helped requires study followed by pilot projects. 10.1.3. Improvement of extension Extension’s challenge for the 1990s and onwards is to find ways to improve animal agriculture in a cost-effectivemanner with low budgets(Gilles 1991). Major actions needed: b b b b b Crop, livestock, and range extension services should come under a single extension directorate that is free of other support and regulatory functions. While general extension staff should be the major purveyors of information, specialist staff will also be needed to deal with more advancedfarmers and to coordinate with the private sector. Effective extension services must link producers with researchersin a way that will permit two-way communication. For this to happen, extensionagentsmust be accountableto both producers and governments, and they must constantly learn new skills as the needsof farmer-clients change. Governmentalconnectionsshould involve NARS as well as the agricultural extensionservice. Grass-rootspolitical and partial economic support and control at the community and producer levels are required to make extension agentsresponsiveto producer interests. An important evolutionary step in improving the effectivenessof extension is participation in control of extension activities by beneficiaries. This may require the developmentof producer and community organizationsto which extension agentsrespondand serve. Means must be devised to improve wst effectiveness,i.e., reduce the unit cost of extensionthrough improved organization, communication techniques,and delivery systems. The development of alternative sources of information other than govemmentfunded services should be actively sought with a view to permitting scarcegovernment resourcesand servicesto be used with farmers who cannot be dealt with by private-sectorservices. Strategyfor Euension, Education, and Support Services 10.2. Animal Health Services I19 The effectivenessof animal health servicesin sub-Saharan Africa has seriously declined over the last two decades(de Haan and Nissen 1985, de Haan and Bekure 1991, Provost 1991, Walshe et al. 1991). As a result, diseasesurveillance, vaccine production, and epidemic disease control measuresare inadequate, curative servicesare poor or nonexistent, and public health and extension servicesare weak (de Haan and Bekure 1991, Provost 1991). only the presentdonor-assisted rinderpest campaign can be said to be functioning properly. Indeed the recent rinderpest epidemic has been directly attributed to the failure of veterinary servicesto maintain adequatevaccination cover and to detect early outbreaks of the disease.The losses due to this rinderpest outbreak have been estimated at $300 million (Provost 1991, de Haan and Nissen 1985). The inadequacyof health servicesis the major factor in the estimated $4 billion of lossesin livestock productivity from animal diseases in sub-Saharan Africa (de Haan and Bekure 1991). In many countries, both governmentaland commercial sourcesare short of veterinary drugs due to inadequatebudgets, stringent foreign exchangeallocations, and unfavorable conditions for the private sector. Nevertheless commercial concernsprovide more than two thirds of the veterinary medicinesin sub&hat-an Africa. The staffs of governmentveterinary servicesthroughout sub-Saharan Africa have continued to expand, absorbing a greater proportion of the available funds for salariesand leaving proportionally less for operating and related costs (de Haan and Nissen 1985, de Haan and Bekure 1991, Gilles 1991, Provost 1991). In West Africa, for example, personnel costs increasedby 7 percent a year between 1960 and 1976 while recurrent costs increasedby only 3 percenta year (provost 1991). Even though the human resourcescomponentof veterinary services has improved dr%matically,the serviceshave not gained in effectivenessbecausethere is little money for operations. Governmentsare administratively and financially overextended, and enormous demandson their budgetsloom. There is now general recognition that govern-. ment animal health servicescannot deliver all the services-that ,previously have been expected of them (de Haan and Nissen 1985). 10.2.1. Services provided by public and private sectors The present mode of delivering animal health services in sub-SaharanAfrica must changesignificantly. The bulk of veterinary servicesmust be privatized (de Haan and Bekure 1991). In determining what servicesshould be provided by governmentsand what servicesby private veterinarians, a distinction must be drawn between “public” functions for which governments should be responsibleand “private” functions for which an individual or groups of individuals should be responsible. The key issue in distinguishing between “public” and “private” functions relates to who is the ultimate beneficiary (Leonard 1984, de Haan and Bekure 1991, Provost 1991). At one extreme are purely private services such as individual animal treatments that only benefit the animal owner. At the other extreme are servicessuch as meat inspection that primarily benefit the general public. The higher the private benefit, the more appropriate it is to transfer delivery of such servicesto the private sectorand to have the beneficiariespay for the servicedirectly. Public sectormanagementof private-good servicesis only justified if economiesof scaleare important or if high-level expertiseor advancedequip- I20 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAjkica ment is needed.In suchcases,the se&es should be financed through direct payment from the beneficiaries and not from general revenue. Pure public-good servicesshould be managedby the public sector, though they may be subcontracted to the private sector and financed by general public revenue(de Haan and Bekure 1991) The role of government veterinary services should be restricted to policy, planning, quality control and coordination, supervisionof training, public health issues,and oversight of compulsory control of epidemic diseases,leaving the actual execution of thesediseaseprevention and control programs plus clinical treatmentsto private veterinariansand other auxiliaries. This shift will involve a reduction in governmentpersonnel, but not necessarilyan immediate cut in veterinary budgets, given their current underfundedstate. Needsof livestock systemsvary as wiIl approaches to animal health care. In somecases a transitional system may be needed within a strategy of increasing privatization. Ultimately most veterinarians should move into private practice. Governmentsmay contract with them to perform essentialvaccinations, meat inspection, and other public health tasks as part of their general work. They should be remuneratedin relation to some quantifiable task achieved, and during a transitional period the work might provide 4 or 5 months’ income. Some veterinarians could earn their living entirely from private practice; others would work full time or part time for farmers’ associationsor commercial concerns.Privatization would improve the availability of veterinary medicines, although it will require a greater decentralizationof drug distribution It would be essentialto keep the evolving commercial distribution of drugs and vaccinesfrom being undermined by donor-assistedanimal health programs that provide free or subsidized drugs. Geographic areas with widely dispersedlivestock populations may require more indirect government support than areas with more intensive livestock systems. In areas with low livestock densities, simple prophylactic, health, and production techniquesmay representthe majority of servicesrequired, giving veterinarianslittle possibility for establishingprivate farm practices. Diversity of local languagesmay also be a constraint. For theseareas, the need is to train auxiliaries and community personnel to undertake simple health measures.The govemment might have a role in their training or they could be trained by private veterinarians. Animal health workers could be paid by the community or by animal owners. They might serve under the supervisionof a private veterinarian. More intensive farming areas afford many opportunities for veterinarians and auxiliaries to sell their servicesto farmers. The expansionof intensive dairy, pig, and poultry enterpriseswiU attract veterinary specialistsin these fields. Compulsory, government-supervised vaccination campaigns should be implemented insofar as possible by private veterinarians. Compulsory vaccinations should be paid for by livestock holders, to the extent possible, In countries that have followed theseapproaches,such as Burkina Faso, there is no sign that requiring full payment induces farmers to avoid vaccinating their stock, if the diseasethreat is recent. However where diseasethreatsare viewed as remote, full payment per vaccination may reduce farmer participation. In those cases,special levies or other forms of indirect payments should be introduced. To ensurethat animal health remains an important topic on the govemment and commercial agenda, strong, independent, and active veterinary associationsshould Strategyfor Extension, Zhication, and Suppon Services 121 be encouragedand given an important role in regulating the professional activities of individual veterinarians. 10.2.2. Disease diagnosis and recording Diseasediagnosisand recording are hamperedby numerousproblems. Funds’for laboratory operations are ace. It is difficult to hire and retain highly trained personnel. There are shortagesof field staff and insufficient transport for them and a lack of incentives to forward specimensto central laboratories. As a result, diseasereporting at national, regional, and international levels is inadequatefor effective diseasesurveillancepurposes. Production and application of diagnostic tests are currently closely allied with vaccine production and application and generally are included in the activities of central laboratoriesof public veterinary services. Such servicesare constrainedby the lack of adequatefunding for operating costs (Provost 1991) and do not provide adequatediagnostic servicesto collect the data required to provide a sound epidemiological basis for the development, execution, and monitoring of animal health control and researchprograms. They also have been slow in providing IBAR and OIE with information on diseaseconditions. Lack of standardizationof diagnostic tests across countries and regions and lack of appropriate quality control in their manufactureare also major impediments to diseasecontrol and to international trade in livestock and livestock products. As animal production intensifies, rapid diagnosisand reporting will become more important. Proper epidemiology surveys also are needed to provide information for setting researchand development priorities. The role of government diagnostic facilities, their efficiency, turn-around times, charges, and continued position in the public domain should constantly be reviewed. Delegation of somediagnostic functions to private veterinariansshould be considered, given the difficulties in communication between the farmer and government veterinarians at central facilities. There is an urgent need to develop simple, reliable diagnostic kits for use in field situations. The operation of diagnostic facilities and reporting of diseaseto regional and international bodies must remain the responsibility of government veterinary departments. 10.2.3. Vaccine production facilities The number of vaccine production facilities in sub-SaharanAfrica is excessive,and most laboratories function below their capacity. Quality control is inadequateand physical facilities are rapidly becoming obsolete (Provost 1991, de Haan and Nissen 1985). The basic problem lies with fmancing current and developmentcosts, becauserevenuefrom salesof vaccine often are not budgetedto the production laboratory (de Haan and Nissen 1985) and vaccines frequently are sold at prices below the actual cost of manufacture and distribution (Provost 1991). The economicsof vaccine production for various diseases in different regions has not yet been adequatelydefined (Msellati and Tacher 1991), but there is clearly a case for rationaliition of vaccineproduction in sub-Saharan Africa (Msellati and Tacher 1991, Provost 1991, de Haan and Bekure 1991). A solution needsto be found to the presentovercapacityin vaccine production, which makes vaccinesexpensivefor governmentsand affects quality. Regionalization of production 122 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfTica with specialization by individual institutions is needed, along with a policy of charging full cost for the product. Privatization of vaccine production could bring about greater efficiency and more flexibility. A reduction to three or fewer major vaccine producers for sub-Saharan Africa could result in significant savings. However, there are practical difficulties that have to be overcOme. particularly where vaccinesmust be transportedin a wld chain (4OC). Also the low demand for some vaccinesdoes not warrant private-sector involvement. Some vaccines, too, can easily be produced at very low cost making commercial involvement risky. A policy of rationalization of vaccine production in sub-Saharan Africa should be adopted and privatization, insofar as possible, implemented. How veterinary vaccine production can best be rational&d wiI.l require careful study with donor support. The Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre, establishedunder OAWBAR, controls rinderpest vaccine quality and should be made responsiblefor ensuring the quality of other vaccinesand the integrity of their manufacturing processes. The introduction of recombinant vaccines, whether by the public or the private sector, will require appropriate legislation on intellectual property rights in individual countries in order to extend patent protection to the new vaccines. Otherwise they will not be developedor licensed. There is a wide variation among the countriesin sub-Saharan Africa in regard to laws and regulations on intellectual property rights. In some countries, biological prtiucts are specifically excluded under these laws. This is a matter to be taken under consideration by OAWIBAR at the appropriate time. Another potential problem in sub-Saharan Africa is the lack of wmmon regulations and the facilities to carry out.appropriate safety testing of bioengineeredvaccinesbefore an environmental impact assessment can be made that is needed to obtain approval for releaseof a vaccine. Regulatory bodies in the industrialized world, such as USDA/APHIS, and intemational agencies, such as OIE, could help OAWIBAR develop appropriate regulations and codesof conduct for testing and releaseof recombinantvaccines. There currently are only hvo containment facilities in the world, Plum Island National Laboratory in the USA and Pirbright in the U.K., that meet containment requirements(BL3) for large animal studieswith recombinantvaccines. ILRAD is planning a third such facility in connection with its research on vaccines for Group II diseases.There could be a role for ILR4D in safety testing for the region. Approval of containment facilities also needs to be consideredby the appropriateagencies,suchas OAU/IBAR and OIE. 10.3. Land Management 10.3.1. The problem Land managementin general, and communally owned land in particular, has becomea seriousconcern throughout Africa. Land management and the well being of the land is affected by the forces at work in the community using it, including most importantly the users, and tenure rights and their limitations and regulations. As a result of the relentlessgrowth of human population, traditional cultivators and pastoralistshave become less able to meet subsistence and income requirements in a sustainable way. The demarcation of internationally . Straregyfor Extension, Education, and Support Services 123 recognizedborders and internal administrativeboundarieshas often severelyreducedthe traditional capacity of peoplesto adjust through migration. The responseof the people to increasing population pressuresis to attempt to gain greater control of their land resourcesby modifying their local tenure system and intensifying their cultivation and livestock husbandry. Such changeshowever are affected by the strengthof customarylaw (i.e., those who administer it), which itself is being affected by societal changesand the availability of suitable technology to intensify agriculture. Many presenttechnical solutions to reducing land degradationand to increasing incomes now require changesin how people control the use of land as well as, in r? somecases,adequateincentivesfor adopting involved technologies. 10.3.2. Capacity of customary law to make changes T.. There is considerabledebate in Africa and development circles about the capacity of traditional customary law to managethe tenurial changestaking place and to meet the immediate needsof natural resourcemanagement,and the foreseeable technological needsand income aspirationsof those who are expectedto provide the bulk of the national agricultural needsin the future. The argumentsin favor of relying on an evolutionary approachhave suggestedthat this will provide greater equity through better sharing of what is available. It is believed that communities can be made more responsiblefor the management of their land and that effective credit for developmentcan be administeredwithout the need for using land as collateral, therefore the state should graft on improvement to the existing customary arrangements.While theseargumentshave certain validity, population, economic, and social changesare generating new conflict and land use issuesthat are not being solved by customary procedures.Also equity arguments are becoming less valid with more landless or disadvantagedpeople being “hidden” by a social systemthat may no longer benefit all participants. A greater transparency that exposesthese problems might lead to interventions specifically designed to improve the situation for disadvantaged people, e.g., education,work. Institutions have to help communities develop tenurial systemsthat make communities and or individuals responsible for maintaining and developing their land. Land use laws are required to enable communities to implement proper land use and development programs. Ministries of agriculture can be delegatedresponsibility for ensuring optimum land development and managementand may need special departmentsor divisions to facilitate this, e.g., soil conservationand management and group management; . The eventual demarcation and registration of land (sometimesinvolving consolidation of land fragments) is complicated, expensive, and only justified if technical improvements have demonstratedtheir feasibility, are wanted, and can be implemented quickly over a wide area. As demonstratedin Kenya, maintenanceof land registerscan be difficult and expensive, especially becausetraditional inheritance may continue and lead to a reemergence of problems over time. 10.3.3. Croplivestock systems Gilles (1991) points out that individual land ownership in Africa remains rare despite the variability in land tenure systems.It is in the cultivated areasthat the earliest need and desire for changein user rights have occurred As the population density has increased,the ten- Animal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Afn’ca I I dency has been for individual customary rights over cultivation areasto gradually resolve into one of permanency. Where cattle have also been owned, temporary individual grazing rights have sometimes also been conferred and these have in some casesled to enclosures. These changesin customary tenure have been accompaniedand encouragedby intensification, including soil conservationpractices, as farmers have tried to maintain their subsistence and increasetheir incomes from diminishing areas of land. Over much of Africa this evolutionary pattern in the cultivated areasis tak&i place within ethnic groups where traditional customary wurts can deal with the mounting conflicts that thesechangescause.However, in the Sahelian countries and somecountries in Eastern Africa, the spreadof cultivators (who are increasingly embracing livestock in their system) into what were predominantly pastoral areas and the sedentarizationof pastoral families in cultivated areaspreviously visited as part of a migrating pattern have causedtenure and user problems of a divisive and difficult nature. So overlying these changes,and to some extent inhibiting natural evolutionary changes,has been the wntention in many countries that all land belongs to the state and that permanent rights are not . necessarilyrecognized. In smallholder communities where individual homesteadsare scattered, the dispersal will be very beneficial for mixed crop-livestock development,Where communities traditionally live in villages, there may be some outmigration to develop individual homesteads,but the majority may remain in villages. In thesecircumstances,individual rights to some or all of the cultivated land will evolve while grazing rights will likely remain communal initially, but may subdivide over time to reflect wmmon user interests. Such tenure and user changesare likely to reflect a responseto opportunities for profitable technical changes,particularly in the livestock field where continued communal ownership of land posesspecialproblems for those who want to adopt intensive or improved systems. Permanentchangesin tenure or land management will dependupon the desire of the majority (or the most powerful) for such a changeand the degreeof conflict createdwithin the traditional system. In this equation, time is becoming more expensiveand land use and tenure systemswill have to adjust to changing needs. Livestock extensionpersonnelwill have a key role in this process. 10.3.4. Pastoralist systems While the rate of population growth among pastoralistsliving in the semi-arid and arid areashas been less than that for the cultivator or mixed crop-livestock farmers, it has still been sufficient to put increasing pressure on the range resources.There are few pastoral groups whose populations live comfortably off their herds in the traditional subsistence manner without the discouraging symptoms of widening differences in stock ownership and decline in grazing quality. There are many pastoral groups whose major sourceof subsistence no longer comes from livestock but from crops. There is considerablehuman suffering and societal dislocation in thesechanges.While Gilles (1991) and Dodd (1991) note that it remains arguable about the degree to which arid rangelandscan be destroyed from grazing pressure (except around water points), there is evidenceof range decline in some of the semi-arid areas(even though it could often be reversedwith appropriate treatment). Without doubt the grazing resourcesof Africa are coming under considerableenvironmental stress. Strategyfir Extension, Education, and Support Senices I25 As pressuresmount to derive subsistence from existing herds, pastoralistsbecome increasingly interested in systemsthat increasecarrying capacity (e.g., water) and methods to protect their grazing rights and control grazing. It was in responseto these pressuresthat Kenya in the 1960sdevelopedtheir group ranch registration and management program. A department in the Ministry of Lands was establishedto register the groups and to help the groups administer their land use under specially designed legislation. The registration was popular, and initiaIIy somedevelopmentbenefits were noted through the construction of schoolsand facilities at a few ranch centers.But generally the governmenthas not been successfulin helping pastoralistscontrol the forces that make grazing managementdifficult when there are major disparities in stock wealth and interest. A recent review of World Bank supportedprojects in Senegal,Mauritania, Mali, and Niger by Shanmugaratnam et al. (1991) noted that thesestates have no effective instrumentsto enforce property rights and managerange and water resource at the local level. Yet in all four countries, pastoral&s saw a need for such institutions for their own security. The study also noted they desired more literate leaders. Under special legislation, Lesotho, with USAID assistance, has establishedseveral pilot range-management associationsin the mountain summer grazing areas. While promising range improvementshave been made, control is not entirely in the handsof the membersso that newwmers who move in with the chief’s permission endangerthe benefits so far achieved. Gilles (1991) notes that while the introduction of land rights and organization structureshave helped protect pastoralist rights they have not solved the land managementproblems. This also is the conclusion of . Shanmugaratnam et al. (1991) although they did note someprogress. Shanmugaratnam et al. (1991) suggestthe need for the developmentof suitable institutions and interventions in pastoral organization and tenure. Great stressis laid on a bottom-up approach,as well as an understandingof pastoral&s perceptionsof the priorities of their society, and of institutional needs.An assessment of-the statusof women, literacy, and human resourcecompetenceis also needed.Gilles (1991)) however, cautionsthat land tenure and managementonly become local priorities when conflicts and needswarrant the time that will be involved. Having a national program increasesthe chancesof failure and reducesthe likelihood of government agenciesbeing able to render assistance to communities that really have commitment to reform. Experiencein Kenya with group rancheswould bear this out since the governmentbecamemore concernedwith registration (which was in demand), and neglectedto give sufficient time to ranchesstruggling to solve problems causedby differences between the different stockowners. Institutional arrangementswill be neededto register these pastoral and land management associations.Legislation will be neededat some stageto support the bodies in the managementof their land. The ability to adopt different formats and rules for different situations needsto be recognized. A key to their success will be how each individual within the wmmunity effort benefits from the managerial systemschosen. There is much heterogeneityamong the individuals in stock ownership, managementcapacity, and income expectations. Legal tenurial arrangementswill vary with need and successive evolutionary changeswill be made. Group managementcould lead to freehold or leasing arrangementsfor individuals or subgroups with rents paid to communities on a use basis. Methods may need to be devised for people to buy in or increasetheir stockholding. Much more imagination is neededbasedon 126 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAjkica better understandingof the issuesand debateamong participants. Above all, discussionsmust include local pastoral&s and must benefit.local communities. Extension serviceswill have to help uncover common interests of individuals so that the can work and benefit together. If the great majority benefit from the new technologies,improvements in overall land managementwill occur. For example, to function properly, the land managementsystemsmust benefit both personswith one animal and others in the same community who have many animals. Maximizing production in relation to labor capability and other family resourcescould involve very different production systems.Becauseof the heterogeneousaims of the communities, it is likely that these arrangementswill over time lead to further subdivisions. Also while the majority may agree, there will always be a minority who do not, and the state will need to step in with legislation to ensurethe will of the community. Range management,animal health, and animal production extensionserviceswill have to help the communities form groups, design suitable production systems, and then help the groups and individuals meet their objectives. 10.4. Sectoral and Rural Organizations Farmer empowerment must be a major objective of agricultural development in subSaharanAfrica. Progresscannot be made if farmers, the major target of development activities, have little or no influence on decisions affecting their welfare. In Taiwan the basis of early agriculture successwas the establishment, with strong government sponsorshipand financial assistance,of a network of farmers associationscovering the ‘whole country that sup plied all farmers’ needsincluding extension. In sub-Saharan Africa today, organizations such as farmers’ unions, cooperative unions, marketing and service organizations, chambersof commerce, professional organizations, and quasi-governmentalrural development committees are not well developed. They could, however, serve as essentialchannelsof communication between different interestsand government. The establishmentand development of national organizations representing such groups should be a national development objective. Where producers do not have a strong enough voice in government decisions, there may be a need to establish subsectoralproducer advisory boards (on, for example, dairy or pigs) to advise governmentand other bodies about problems in that sector. In the livestock sector, parastatalmarketing organizations have been particularly inefficient. Where they exist, they should be examined to see whether they are necessary and whether their regulatory functions can be performed by other public or private bodies. NGOs, donors, and international agencieshave a catalytic role to play. NGOs work best at the grassrootslevel and can work with farmers and the private sectorin helping develop new ways of doing things. Their role in developing rural organizations including savingsand loan operationscan be invaluable. 10.4.1. Producers organizations In the livestock sector, farmers’ organizations are most important for input supply, marketing, savings, and loans. For example, in the Central African Republic, the national . l Strategy for &tension, Educm’on, and Srrppon Services 127 herder organization (FNEC) efficiently distributes veterinary ,pharmaceuticalsand provides training. In early stagesof dairy development,milk collection and processingare likely to require farmer organizations. Even though milk retailing is probably best done by private businesses, opportunities sometimesarise for retailing by farmer organizations. G& examplesof economically successfuldairy developmentexist in Kenya and Malawi where milk is collected over wide catchments-up to 150 kilometers. Establishmentof regional dairy farmer cooperatives in Kenya has served to expand local markets and reduce dependenceon a single milk marketing cooperative (Wanyoike 1991). Although in many wuntrie-s, the tendency has been to build a large monopolistic marketing organization as the dairy industry develops, there is a strong caseon efficiency grounds for having independentmilk producers’ organizations serving different milk catchmentsand competing with eachother in major urban markets. Dairy cooperativescan serve as more than milk marketing organizations. Operating feed mills and providing raw and processed supplementaryfeeds, such as cottonseed,groundnut, and soya cakes, molasses-urea mixes, and mineral supplementsare natural adjuncts for dairy cooperatives,as shown in India (Alderman etal. 1987). Veterinary services, and artificial insemination, bull schemes,and milk recording for bull selectionare essentialservicesfor more intensive livestock production. Dairy cooperatives provide them in somecountries. There are similar opportunities for poultry and pig cooperatives, involving small farmers. 10.4.2. Grazing land management organizations A critical developmentneed is to enable local pastoral organizations to managecommunally held grazing land (see 6.2 and 10.3). There are as yet no proven models for proper managementof common land, although in Senegal,Mauritania, and Mali approaches basedon local control are promising (Shanmugaratnam et al. 1991). There are lessonsto be learned from failures in the past such as the Tanzania Masai grazing associations.It is probable that the models today will be part of an evolutionary processinvolving further fragmentation of land units into even smaller parcels than currently are envisagedas desirable. In Sahelian countries in West Africa, the more promising land management programs being discussedwill permit a more rational use of land by the traditional livestock keepersand the cultivators who themselvesare beginning to raise livestock. With the growing need for better managementof Africa’s rangelands,much more attention will have to be paid to community organizational issuesin land managementin conjunction with property rights and land userights. 10.4.3. Water users’ organizations Water users’ associations,wheneverpossible linked to land managementorganizations, are needed to augment government efforts to maintain and increase water supplies. Because livestock producers, particularly pastoral&s, tend to be outside the political mainstream, an important goal for water user associationsis to develop into a national organization that can effectively representproducersin discussions with governmentofficials. . l 128 10.4.4. Credit instiitions Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica Financial markets in Africa are receiving close attention in policy discussions and structural adjustment efforts. Governmentsare being encouragedto create the right policy environment, to end direct state intervention, and to liberate markets. In several countries, private commercial lenders coexist with government agenciesthat offer small farmer credit on special terms. Perhapsthis approachcould be further developedin sub-Saharan Africa (FAO 1986d). Short, mediwn, Md long-term credit Commercial banking, whose development is now being strongly fostered in many countries, should be able to meet ordinary demandfor short- to medium-term credit from large farmers, livestock traders, processors, and farmers organizations. If bank branches are widespreadin rural areas,they also can meet the needsof small farmers, though small farmers are usually better served through their own credit organizations. Traders’ credit, too, can be important for farmers who can demonstrategood f&n cash flows. Through the use of rollover credit procedures,banks can provide funds for 2- to 4-year periods to borrowers in good standing for acquiring such items as fattening cattle, breeding cattle, bulls for artificial insemination centers,and animal traction equipment. Livestock can be usedas collateral. The provision of medium and long-term credit continues to be a problem of uncertain dimensions. Sometimes surprising amounts of savings materialize when farmers see a highly productive investment opportunity. Neverthelesscredit becomes a constraint at some point when the community really embraceslivestock developmentand methodswill need to be found to provide this type of credit. Agricultural devdopment banks The record of agricultural developmentbanks unfortunately is spotted by poor timeliness of lending, low recoveries, high transaction costs, patronage, and political interference. Still, theseorganizationscontinue to be neededbecausecommercial banks are unlikely to lend long term to smallholders, and few farmer organizationshave the capability to raise short- and medium-term capital. Such lending can be profitable, but the high volume of transactionsinvolved and the possibilities for political interference may be a major problem for a parastatal developmentbank. Instead the bank could specializein long-term lending and perhapstake equity positions in some enterprises.While abattqirs and processingplants can get some of their capital from owners‘ equity, they will need some long-term loan capital. The provision of dips, spray races, fire breaks, and buildings for pigs, poultry, and dairies can sometimesbe met from medium-term credit, but longer term credit is generally neededfor intensive wmmercial livestock production. Long-term credit will be vital to allow poultry and pig operations to expand to meet rapidly rising demand for white meat. Fencing, accessroads, and water suppliesare other critical developmentneedsthat require long-term credit. Rural credit organizations The mobilization of savingsfrom rural people, who historically are net savers,will be an important element for development. Livestock owners can contribute to this effort, and Strategy for Enension, Education, and Support Services I29 savingscan be made available for lending to the agriculture sector. The existenceof savings mechanismsis a vital aspectof drought managementstrategy. At the onset of a drought, livestock producersneed alternative investmentopportunities that will allow a fast remobilization of funds when the drought ends. Because commercial banksand specializeddevelopmentbanks are usually concentratedin large urban centers, they are not in a position to handle rural savings. The developmentof credit facilities by marketing cooperativesor specializedrural savings and loan societies will be essentialto make credit available to the livestock sector in a timely fashion. Such organizations are ideal for short-term credit. In Kenya ACCOSCA estimates that over US$lOO million is saved and lent each year by rural credit unions and rti WOJK!hVeS. 10.4.5. Private businesses Input supply, marketing, and prczessing should be the responsibility of the private sector. Availability of foreign exchangeand removal of subsidized government competition will be essential.The capital costsof stock routes, quarantine, and holding grounds as well as their administration will remain the responsibility of the central or local government, but responsibility for operating auctions and holding areasshould be contractedout. Some countries have highly developedand valuable hides and skins services;in others considerablesums are lost to the livestock industry through lack of such services.Investigation is neededto seehow the private sector might be induced to take a greater interest in this activity. Training wiI1 be an important factor. Privatization of animal health servicesand transfer of some other animal health functions to the private sector must be encouraged.As demand increases,other animal production advisory servicesshould be suppliedby the private sector. Marketing is usually a farmer-to-trader or retailer operation. Private livestock traders have been shown to be efficient (Staatz 1979, Holtzman and Kulibaba 1992). While there is opportunity for cooperativesto be involved in meat and egg marketing, generally they are not highly effective in these activities although some informal farmer cooperation (for transport, for example) with minimum overhead can be valuable. With beef cattle, there have been problems of moving enough fattening steersat the right time from one part of the country to another for ranching operations (for example, Kenya) or small farm fattening (as in Malawi and Burkina Faso). While this operation should remain in the handsof private traders or processors(who can contract for the animals), there may be opportunities for farmers to band together informally to undertakesomeof the tasks. As developmentproceeds,the private sector should assumethe primary role in the purchase,manufacturing, and marketing of livestock feedsand supplements;in providing supplies for livestock production; in establishing food processingplants; and in the preparation and marketing of fertilizers. 10.5. Education and Training Great strides have been made in education in sub-Saharan Africa since independence. According to studiesconductedby the World Bank (1988), adult literacy has risen from 9 percent in 1960 to 41.8 percent in 1985. Between 1965 and 1983, the averagenumber of years of I30 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca educationof the working age population increasedfrom 1.21 years to 3.19 years. Enrollments in educational institutions increasedfrom 12.6 million to 62.9 million between 1960 and 1983 and enrollments in higher (tertiary) educational institutions from 21,000 to 437,w in the sameperiod. The rapid growth of the education sector was not sustainedin the 1980s (World Bank 1988). Public expenditures for education fell from $10.0 billion in 1980 to $8.9 billion in 1983. Expenditures on education were 4.1 percent of GNP in 1970, 4.9 percent in 1975, 5.5 percent in 1980, and 4.3 percent in 1983. Comparing the periods 1960-80 and 1980-83, average growth in enrollments fell from 7.1 percent a year to 2.9 percent for primary education, from 12.4 percent a year to 10.9 percent for secondaryeducation, and from 14.9 percent a year to 9.1 percent for tertiary education. The averageannual growth rate in expendituresfor educationin the region also has dropped. Growth in recurrent expendituresfell from 9.2 percent a year for the period 1976 to 1980 to -7 percenta year for 1980 to 1983; growth in capital expendituresfell from 4.1 percent a year to -20.7 percent a year for the same periods. According to the World Bank analyses,there has been a seriouserosion of quality of education as expenditureshave declined. It generally is believed, becauseof the rapid population increase, that the needsfor primary educationare greater at the presenttime than for either secondaryor tertiary education. Education and training for animal production and health must be consideredwithin the enormous needs of education. Agricultural development requires the improvement of human resourcesat all levels of production, processing,and marketing, and in the agricultural support services. Therefore, improvement in quality of the output of all educational levels is needed. Strategiesfor’the developmentof animal agriculture require that contributions of primary, secondary, and tertiary education programs to agricultural and economic development need to be evaluatedand adjustmentsmade as needed. Education and training in agriculture will assumegreater importance as intensification of agriculture progresses,as the evolution of mixed crop-livestock proceeds, as land management, production, processing, and marketing needs grow, and as supporting agricultural industries evolve. The needs for education and training in agriculture will be enormous. Particular emphasismust be placed upon training of farmers, which has been neglectedin the past. First degree, diploma, certificate, and professionaltraining must be better focusedon the developmentneedsof the agricultural sector (Pritchard 1988, Kisauzi 1991). 10.51. Personnel needs All countries in sub-SaharanAfrica urgently need to review the agriculture training neededto setice farmer needs. These reviews are essentialin order to set training priorities and arrangements.Animal production and crop experts must work together to devise programs to fulfill educationneeds for crop-livestock-enterprises and to make optimal use of facilities and funds. Animal science training generally is expensive, and specialized training is even more so. Becauseonly a limited number of specialistsare neededin subjectslike veterinary medicine, range management, and advancedanimal production, a regional educational approach is desirable. Both agricultural and veterinary faculties should develop closer working relationships with each other through joint researchefforts and sharing of faculty, facilities, Strategyfor Extenrion, Education, and Support Services I31 and equipment. Roth should interact more extensivelywith the rest of the university in order to strengthenprograms. The SADCC countries have made a systematicassessment of the total personnelneeds of the crop and livestock sector for 1991-2010(Davis et al. 1989, Government of Botswana 1990). In a region of 70 million people, 36,CMNprofessionaland technical staff were estimated to be employed in the private and public sectorsinvolved directly in agriculture. This number will have to increaseby 6 percent a year to the end of the century. The report determined where shortfalls could arise and which facilities in each country would specializein awarding higher degreesin the various animal sciences.Establishmentof centersof specializationin key subsectoraldisciplines in different countries are planned as needsarise. Arrangementsfor students to attend coursesin neighboring countries are being developed as well as cross-border posting of staff on short- and medium-term assignments.A regional coordinating mechanism under SACCAR is being establishedto implement the strategy. SPAAR helped finance this initiative. Even in large countries, such as Nigeria, that have the capacity to train in all sectors, there is need to review total needsand to seehow institutions devoted to animal production and health can interact more effectively with each other and with plant agricultural programs. Thesecountriesalso can assistneighboring countries in very significant ways. 10.52. Primary and secondary education The majority of people who need educationin livestock matters are farmers. Their basic education affects the degreeto which highly trained advisorscan be effective. Today most farmers receive primary education, and an increasingnumber of those receiving secondaryeducation will find employment as farmers or in rural sector work outside government. There would be a major payoff if the agricultural content of general education were improved. This could be accomplishedthrough a program of deliberately relating enough of the content of primary education to farming so that the connectionsbetweentheir educationand the needs.of farmers can easily be madeby students(Kisauzi 1991). kt the secondarylevel, some form of vocational agricultural training such as that practiced in the USA would be highly appropriate in many countries of the region. If agriculture is to become an important component of primary and secondaryeducation, agriculturalists must become involved in the processand help develop educational materials. The challenge is to use educational resourceswithout wmpromising general education. The e&cation curriculum should include introductions to agricultural issues such as the role of animals in sustainable agriculture, concepts of animal managementand production, and animals and environmentalprotection. A pilot project model is warranted. 10.5.3. Farmer training As intensive farming develops, especially in livestock managementand processing, courseslasting 1 or 2 weeks designed specifically for farm family labor and employeesare needed to augment the traditional efforts of extension workers. There may be demand for longer coursesfor those working in specializedareassuch as machinery and processingon the farm or in the supply sector. Residential farmer training centers are one way to deliver specialized training to farmers. An example is the Naivasha Dairy Training School in Kenya, 132 Animal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan A..ca which can take some credit for the strength of the dairy industries in easternAfrica. They are expensiveand should be developedas the progressof the agriculture sector warrants. Centers also can be used by farmer organizationsand other service sector concerns, which should contribute to their upkeep and management.The use of day training centers, built by the wmmunity, as has been done in Malawi, also can be integrated into the training system. 10.54. Middle-level tmining Middle-level training (diploma and certificate) requires critical analysis. Training needs are changing. Government employment opportunities are on the wane, but the SADCC study suggests that the farmer and commercial sector needsfor people trained at this level are growing (Governmentof Botswana 1990). Apart from more applicable training, there is needon the one hand for generalistswmbining animal health, production, and formal agriculture skills and, on the other, specialistson subjectslike dairying, pig and poultry husbandry, and diseasecontrol. For generalists, it is important that extensionmethods, animal health, andproduction receive much more attention. Extension methods should also be part of animal production and veterinary specialist training as it currently is in many animal health technology training institutes in the region. There is too much staff qualification layering in agriculture. Intensification requires that more highly trained staff including graduates work directly with farmers. The colonial anachronism(in government service and outside) particularly in anglophone Africa of providing both diploma and certificate-level training with similar education qualifications should be eliminated. The private sector (feed mills, dairy processingplants, abattoirs, etc.) should provide more on-the-job and apprenticetraining. Private-sectorinvolvement in training might free somegovernmentfacilities for training farmers and for developing more specializedtraining in neglectedsubjects. Training of other professionalsfor the livestock sector will remain the responsibility of government,but the financing of special schools, such as for dairying, hides, skins, or leather working, could be assistedby the appropriate industries. NGOs can help with these training needsas well as help farmer training centers. 10.5.5. University training At the university level, coursesof study for graduateswho will work in the animal industries must be oriented toward more practical application of the biological and social sciences to the needs of the animal agriculture. A solid understanding of animal breeding, nutrition, health, management, processing, marketing, agricultural economics, and farming systemsis needed.Opportunities for studentsto obtain practical experiencein agriculture prior to graduationis very important for those studentswith little or no experiencein agriculture. Professionalveterinary educationalso needsattention. The curricula of someveterinary schools, especially in anglophoneAfrica, are too narrowly focused on animaf diseases and do not provide sufficient instruction in animal production, agricultural economics, and public health to enable graduatesto deal effectively with interactions of health, nutrition, genetics, management,and the environment in different farming systems (Provost 1991). Veterinary curricula must emphasize all the livestock species important to animal agriculture in sub- Strategyfor Enension, Education, and Support Servkes 133 SaharanAfrica. Veterinary educationprograms must take into account the growing movement toward privatization of veterinary services.Graduateswill not be entering a profession with a well-structured private animal health delivery system, so they must acquire more knowledgeof veterinary practice managementthan might be required in countries with long establishedprivate veterinary services..A major deficiency of graduatestoday is a lack of practical experience with animal production and health under actual mixed crop-livestock farming conditions and under pastoral and agropastoralsystems. There is need for a comprehensivereview of university-level programs to educatepersonnel for the rapidly changing needs of animal agriculture. Such a review should focus on both animal production and animal health. Most educational systems are transplanted from Western countries and in some cases they are not particularly appropriate for sub-Saharan Africa. There also are major differences between the education programs of franwphone and anglophoneAfrica. Both systemshave important contributions to make to educationin animal production and health. It also is becoming increasingly clear, especially in veterinary medicine, that the 27 veterinary faculties in the region probably cannot mobilize the resources neededto mount adequateeducationprogramswithout collaborating, perhapson a regional basis. Faculties of agriculture and veterinary sciences,many of which have animal husbandryor production programs, for a host of educational and fiscal reasons, must explore means of working together more effectively. It is proposed that an assessment of university-level education in the animal sciences and veterinary medicine in sub-SaharanAfrica be undertaken, similar to the Pew National Veterinary Education Program in North America (Pritchard 1989), to determine how animal production and veterinary medical education programs can best be oriented to support the changing needs of agricultural development and how institutions can collaborate in order to maximize their effectiveness.The assessment should take into account the need for professional personnel and determine how the needsfor educatedpersonnel to support animal agricultural developmentcan be achievedin a cost-effectivemanner. Animal health and production workers often are widely dispersedwhen they work in the field. Their contacts with colleaguesand accessto professional information are limited, making it difficult to keep up with new developments.Agricultural professional associations, which are important sources of information in developed countries, are still embryonic in Africa. Training institutions should therefore take it-as one of their responsibilities to continue the professionaleducationof practicing animal agriculture workers and at the sametime foster national and regional professionalassociations. 10.5.6. Graduate training Demandsin the private sector for university graduateswith specializedtraining beyond the baccalaureate-level in the animal sciencesand in processingtechnology will grow significantly. In animal health there will be needsfor veterinarianswith post-graduatetraining in disciplines such as epidemiology, pathology, and reproduction. Also many researcherswho currently hold bachelor’s or master’sdegreesare underqualified for future needs,consequently the demand for doctorates for research tasks will expand considerably. A way must to be found to meet these needsprimarily within existing economic limitations. Taken as a whole, 134 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfn’ca il a presentuniversity systemsare inefficient, underutilized, and chronically underfunded. A major review and prioritization of post-graduatetraining goals at the national and regional level, as is being tried in the SADCC countries, could help balancethe quantity and quality of output with existing needs and financial resources.Doctorate training and university researchpresentsa special problem becausethey are probably the most underfunded aspectsof university activities, and likely to remain so, given the total demandsof the education system, unless more imaginative ways of funding are employed. Post-graduateeducation in disciplines most relevant to the animal sciencesshould be a part of the assessment of university-level education in animal production and veterinary medicine proposedin section 10.5.5. Post-graduateeducation and researchin agriculture and veterinary medicine are being neglectedat the very time that tmined scientiststheseprograms would educateare neededfor researchin NARS (see Chapter 9), and for other tasks within agriculture. The fundamental feaSOn is that post-graduateeducation and researchin universities is perceived not to be relevant to development needs. Most countries probably cannot at this time afford to support researchsolely for the interest of sciencewhen there are so many immediate social and economic needs. African faculties of agriculture and veterinary medicine must orient their researchand post-graduateefforts to the solution of priority agricultural development problems of their countries, and they must become integral componentsof the national agricultural researchsystems. Not only would NARS benefit, but both undergraduateand post-graduate education would become more relevant. Researchworkers obtaining doctoratesin environments far removed from agricultural development issueswill not be well prepared to tackle development needswhen they are employed by NARS. Their education for researchcareersin agriculture will be much improved if they have the opportunity to participate in development-orientedresearchprograms during their doctoral education. 103.7. Rble of XARCs in education and training Education and training of animal scientistsand veterinarians and support for their activities are critical needs.The IARCs working in Africa on animal production with their experience and information basehave an important role in supporting the education and training of African scientists.ICIPE, ILCA, and ILIAD provide opportunities for African studentsto undertake degree-relatedresearchon important animal agriculture problems. In addition to providing places for degree-relatedresearch, L4RCs also help develop educational and training materials based on examples from animal agriculture researchand production in Africa. The IARCs also link with and support regional post-graduate programs. This provides a sustainable baseof cooperation from within Africa and ensuresthat the limited facilities of the IARCs are widely shared. IARCs might also become partners with universities in Africa and outside the continent in the developmentof three-way programs for implementation in Africa. The existing progrk that enable African scientists to undertake periods of study at IARCs should continue, and increasedopportunities should be provided for African university staff to pursue sabbatical studies at IARCS. IARCs offer a number of short-term training coursesfor NARS researchers and for extension and developmentagents. These coursesneed to provide more focused training on priority topics identified by NARS. For example, such topics may include on-farm researchmethodologiesand data analysis, specific biotechnology Strategyfor Exrension, Education, and Support Sem’ces 135 techniques,or researchon breed characterization.IARCs also can contribute, through training courses,to improvement of researchmanagementin NARS. The training materials developed in the coursescan be used by NARS and universities in their own training programs. IARC training coursesshould make use of NARS staff as teacherswheneverpossible. IARCs possessextensivelibrary and documentationservices. IARCs should give sup port to NARS libraries and to regional post-graduateprograms and develop information technologies that will faciitate the delivery of information to NARS. The IARCs also can help support animal science researchersin NARS by providing access to up-to-date technical 8 information. 10.6. Role of Regional and International Organizations Regional organizations, CILSS and SADCC, for example, can play a role in promoting the sharing of information and encouraging international cooperation. This could lead to the development of mutually beneficial trade policies. *IGADD, CEEAC, and CEDEAO cover other parts of Africa and SPAAR is helping them develop regional research priorities and frameworks for action. OAWBAR has shown for rinderpest that it can play a valuable role in coordinating activities. Regional and pan-African mechanismsclearly exist for defining and discussingthe major livestock priorities and problems. Donors must be prepared to work together more, to be less demandingabout their own desires however commendablethey may be, and to work within agreed strategiesand the financial and organizational limitations of the different government agencies. Enclave projects should be resisted.The donors’ role must be institution building. FAO and multinational agencies such as the World Rank and African Development Rank should help governmentsdefine policies in the livestock field, help them establishthe main framework, and then fund integral componentsof the developmentprogram. In many cases,capital for bricks and mortar is less neededthan support for operating costs to permit the large number of personnel to apply the skills they have beentaught. r Stmtegyfor Extension, Educaiion, and Suppon Services 135 techniques,or researchon breed characterization.IARCs also can contribute, through training courses,to improvement of researchmanagementin NARS. The training materials developed in the coursescan be used by NARS and universities in their own training programs. IARC ttaining coursesshould make use of NARS staff as teacherswheneverpossible. IARCs possess extensivelibrary and documentationsetices. IARCs should give support to NARS libraries and to regional post-graduateprograms and develop information technologies that will facilitate the delivery of information to NARS. The IARCs also can help support animal science researchersin NARS by providing access to up-to-date technical t information. 10.6. Role of Regional and International Organizations Regional organizations, CILSS and SADCC, for example, can play a role in promoting the sharing of information and encouraging international cooperation. This could lead to the development of mutually beneficial trade policies. ‘IGADD, CEEAC, and CEDEAO cover other parts of Africa and SPAAR is helping them develop regional researchpriorities and frameworks for action. OAU/IBAR has shown for rinderpest that it can play a valuable role in coordinating activities. Regional and pan-African mechanismsclearly exist for defining and discussingthe major livestock priorities and problems. Donors must be preparedto work together more, to be less demandingabout their own desires however commendablethey may be, and to work within agreed strategiesand the financial and organizational limitations of the different government agencies. Enclave projects should be resisted.The donors’ role must be institution building. FAO and multinational agencies such as the World Rank and African Development Rank should help governmentsdefine policies in the livestock field, help them establishthe main framework, and then fund integral componentsof the developmentprogram. In many cases,capital for bricks and mortar is less neededthan support for operating costs to permit the large number of personnel to apply the skills they have been taught. 11 Priority Actions for the Next 10 Years The strategy for developmentadvocatedby this study is-to focus on the higher production regions of sub-Saharan Africa: the semi-arid, subhumid, and highland zones. Specific actions to increasefood production are to be directed to supporting the natural forces causing the intensification of agriculture, encouragingthe developmentof sustainablemixed crop-livestock systems, and improving the productivity of these systemsthrough improved technology and greater use of inputs, Development efforts for the drier regions of sub-Saharan Africa should be directed toward arresting the effects of population pressureswhich are causing degradation of the rangelands.For the humid zone, the paramountconsiderationis protection of the tropical ram forests. High priority actions for the next 10 yearsare summarized. 11 .l. Priority Actions for Agroecological Zones The subhumid zone and wetter portions of t@esemi-arid zone Develop meansto increasethe sustainable productivity of the infertile, fragile soils of this region, including crop-livestock systemsusing legumes, forages, mineral fertilizers, and improved pasturemanagement. Develop practical technologiesfor the control of environmentally related animal diseasesparticularly trypanosomiasis, tick-borne diseases,and dermatophilosis; practical means to more rapidly multiply trypanotolerant livestock; and more effective animal health delivery systems. Expand coarsegrain, root crop, and oilseed production and develop a commercial feed industry basedupon thesecrops and agricultural by-products. Improve the productivity of indigenous livestock species,particularly trypantolerant animals, for usein thesezones Develop infrastructure for transportation, processing, and marketing of animals, animal products, and feeds. Develop and implement improved meansof resolving conflicts over land use. 138 b Animal Agriculturein Sub4ahara.n Afica Promulgate policies fair to producers and consumers, including realistic foreign exchangerates, trade policies with anti-dumping provisions, market-driven price policies, and land and water use policies. Highland zone Priority actions for this zone should be directed toward raising the productivity of livestock in crop-livestock production systemsby improving technologiesand increasinginputs. b w Use higher yielding legumes, forages, trees, improved cultural practices, and more fertilizer for increasedfeed production. Develop practical technologiesfor the control of the tick-borne diseases,strategies for control of diseases of intensification, and improved veterinary delivery systems. Increaseproduction of coarsegrains and oilseeds, and develop a commercial feed industry. Improve genotypesparticularly for milk production and improve delivery of artificial insemination Improve infrastructure for transportation, processing, marketing, sanitation, and water. e b b b Arid zone Action priorities are to be directed mainly to protection of the rangelandsfrom degradation and improved use of this resource. b Establish land use systemsthat protect rangelandsfrom degradation and that ensure the communal rights of pastoraliststo use land for grazing. Establish locally controlled land and water managementsystems. Establish geographic information systemsto assist in managementof the rangelands, provide information on impending drought so drought-assistance procedures can be implemented in a timely manner, and to monitor land use, vegetative changes,and degradation. Use game ranching and game-livestockproduction systemsmore widely in order to improve food production, income generation, and sustainability of the rangelands. Implement animal health delivery systemsbased upon the use of auxiliaries and technologiessuitable for tropical environments. b l b Priority Acn’ons Humid zone x39 This study does not support the further development of animal agriculture in the forestedportions of the humid zone. b l Develop effective meansof protecting the remaining African tropical rain forests from destruction. Conduct research on sustainablecrop-livestock-tree production systems for this zone if required to savethe rain forests. 11.2. Priority Actions for Production Systems Mixed crop-livestock systems Support and encouragethe developmentof nlixed crop-livestock production systemsas efficient and sustainablemeansof increasing productivity at this stage in the developmentof agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. b b l b b Conduct site-specific studieson crop-livestock farming systemsin all areaswhere thesesystemsare important; the objective being to identify productive and sustainable systemsfor various geographicareas, agroclimates, cropping patterns, levels of farmer knowledge, livestock combinations, and market opportunities. Develop production-improving technologies appropriate to smallholder croplivestock operations, e.g., improved productivity of indigenous livestock, improved milk production by cross-breeding,and use of higher yielding cereals, root crops, oilseeds, forages, and legumes. Foster the development of services, such as veterinary delivery systems, input distribution systems, artificial insemination services, and a commercial feed industry that support smallholder croplivestock production systems. Improve infrastructure for transportation, processing,marketing, water, input services required by mixed crop-livestock systems. Establish government policies for marketing, commodity pricing, importation of inputs, land and water use, technology developinent, private-sector services, etc. that are favorable to both producersand consumers. Pastoral systems l Provide pastoralistswith land use rights that will ensure the viability of pastoral systemsin view of increasedcultivation in rangelandareas. Establish locally controlled land and water managementsystems. Implement animal health delivery systemsbased upon the use of auxiliaries and technologies suitable for tropical environments. 140 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfrica Intensive commercial systems Intensive commercial production will play an increasingly important role in food production in sub-Saharan Africa. b b b Establish trade, price, and foreign exchangepolicies that do not distort the cost of inputs, or markets for meat, milk and eggsproducedin intensive systems. Develop infrastructure for transportation of feedstuffs, and the processing and marketing of animal products Increaseproduction of coarsegrains, root crops, oilseeds, and forages and the use of by-products for feed. Establish a commercial feed industry. systems Wildlife and wildlife-livestock Wildlife have the potential of playing an increasingly important role in food production and income generation. b Institute policies favorable to game farming and wildlife livestock production systems where they provide a promising way to improve food production and income from land resources. Develop markets for meat, support tourism and safari hunting, and give local communities a stakein theseventuresand somecontrol over their operation. 11.3, Priorities for Research Feed supply b Feed supply is a primary constraint to livestock production. For the semi-arid and subhumid zones b Develop improved legumes, fodder, and tree crops for use on mixed crop- b b b P b b livestock farms. Develop improved pasturemanagementsystems Use microbial, chemical, and mechanical means to improve the digestibility of lignocellulosic feedstuffs. Develop improved systemsof protein nutrition through use of nonprotein nitrogen, by-passprotein, and other sourcesof proteinUse mineral supplementationto correct dietary mineral deficiencies. Improve meansof storing foragesand fodders for dry seasonuse. Improve nutritive quality of residues and by-products of food crops for use as animal feeds. lk highlands b l Find ways to achievegreaterproduction through use of forage crops having higher yields of energy and protein. Develop feeding systemsthat use residuesand by-products, forages, legumes, root crops, and coarsegrains for all classes of livestock. Poultry and pigs b Improve production of cereals, rwt crops, and oilseeds as well as nontraditional crops, suchas leaf meals, azolla, and amaranth. Animal b health I 7.' b . b b b Conduct strategicand applied studieson better meansto control vector-borne.diseases,such as trypanosomiasis,theileriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosisand cowdriosis, and on derrnatophilosis. Identify and utilize sourcesof genetic r&istance to diseases and parasitesin livestock. Improve animal health delivery systemsand animal health technology appropriate for tropical African conditions, including thermostablevaccines, animal-side diagnostic tests, and slow-release pharmaceuticals. Develop management strategies and control measures for diseases of intensification. Develop effective animal health delivery systems for smallholders, pastoralists, and intensive commercial production systems. Genetic improvement CharacterizeindigenousAfrican livestock genetic resources. Conduct strategic researchon the molecular geneticsof resistanceto diseasesand parasites, adaptation to environmental stress, and the identification of genetic markers. Develop technologiesfor the multiplication, consemation, and preservationof genetic resources. Find practical means to acceleratethe multiplication of trypanotolerant livestock with improved geneticpotential. Farming systems and livestock management b b Conduct studies on farming systemsin different agroclimates, cropping patterns, livestock use, and market alternativesin order to identify productive, sustainable, and profitable systemsfor various areas. Adapt animal management systemsand methodsto local farming conditions. 142 Natural resources l Animal Agriculture in Sub-S&ran Ajiica b b b b Researchon means to improve the fertility and sustainability of fragile tropical soils. Rangelands research to evaluate the effects of grazing, weather, and tire on rangelandecology and management. Develop geographic information systemsto monitor the effects of land use practices and to evaluate biotic and abiotic factors and their effects on vegetative changesand rangelanddegradation. Find meansto protect the remaining African tropical rain forests. Increasethe value of wildlife in sustainablerangelandproduction systems. 11.4. Policy Rercb l b b Develop indigenous capacitiesfor collec~on of data essentialto understandingthe role of the livestock sectorin countriesin the region. Conduct researchon key policy issuesrelating to animal agricultural development, i.e., fiscal, incentive, and trade policies, and on appropriate policies to promote technology generation and disseminationfor the protection of fragile lands and the developmentof sustainablecrop-livestock production systems. Develop land use planning capability. 11.5. Institutional Strategies for Research Building research institutions that will create the new technology needed to propel African livestock development is a critica.l element in strategiesto increaseagricultural productivity in the region. b b Build scientifically competent, productive, development-orientednational research institutions. Regional organizations and institutions should be developed as a meansby which countries sharing animal agricultural researchneedscan collaborate and cooperatein conducting research. Pool the resourcesof donors and, with African governments, develop a single, integrated, coherent strategy to leveragethe improvement of NARS basedupon a regional collaborative approach encompassingall of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa. b Convene a high-level meeting of donors and African governmentsto develop the collaborative strategy and the mechanismsby which it might be implemented. If SPAAR cannot serve as this mechanism, a Council of Agricultural Researchfor sub-SaharanAfrica composedof donors and African governments should be established for this purpose. Priority Actions b 143 b b b b b b ILCA should focus its researchactivities on strategicand applied aspectsof animal production moving upstreamand concentratingincreasingly on strategic research. RCA’s researchon feed supply should focus on fodder, trees, pastures, supplementation, and utilization of crop residues.Nutrition researchshould focus on improving the utilization of lignocellulosic feedstuffs by ruminants. Characterization of indigenous livestock breeds, natural resourcemanagement,and livestock policy researchon trade, pricing, credit and other policy issues should be included on ILCA’s researchagenda.Researchon feeds for poultry and pigs, the development of a commercial feed industry, and animal aspectsof mixed crop-livestock farming systemsshould be conductedin cooperationwith plant-oriented IARCs. ILCA and ILRAD should collaborateon researchon genetic markers for resistanceand toleranceto diseaseand on animal health management. ILRAD’s researchagenda should be broadenedfrom trypanosomiasisand theileriosis to include strategic researchon diseasesassociatedwith the environment with particular referenceto vector-borneand associated diseases,e.g., trypanosom&is, theileriosis, anaplasmosis,babesiosis,cowdriosis, and dermatophilosis. It also should conduct researchon genetic resistance to disease.Researchon diseases of intensification should be implementedwhen needed. IFPRI, ISNAR, and ICIPE should continue their present researchprograms relevant to the region. IITA in cooperation with ILCA should establishanimal researchcapability in the subhumid zone. Becauseof changesin CGIAR objectives to include income generation as well as food production and the growing importance of crop-livestock farming systems,a strategicredirection of the plant-orientedIARCS is in order. Plant-oriented IARCs should give consideration to animal nut&i&al ,needs,particularly of by-products and residuesof target food crops, and take into account the growing demand for feed for poultry, pigs, aquatic animals, and to a lesser extent dairy cattle maintained in intensiveperi-urban systems. CGIAR should decide how the researchactivities of all the IARCs in sub-Saharan Africa can best becoordinated to contribute to a sustainableagriculture increasingly built upon crop-livestock systemsas well as on food crops. Until a better method is developed, ILCA should be given the responsibility of coordinating animal-relatedaspects of researchconductedby plant-oriented IARCs in Africa. Policies favoring private-sector developmentand profitability will encouragethe private sector to play an increasingly important role in animal agricultural research in sub-Saharan Africa. 144 Animal Agriculture in Sub-SaharanAfica 11.6. Priorities for &tension, Education, and Support !Services Successfuldevelopment depends upon improving human capital and establishing the conditions under which knowledge can be used. Animal agricuhud extension w b b b Place extension in animal production, range management,and health in a unified agricultural extensionservice. Use extension servicesto link farmers with researchers in ways that stimulate twoway communication betweenthe generatorsand the usersof technology. Develop community-level support and partial control of extension practices to ensurethat extensionactivities are responsiveto farmer needs Reduce the unit costs of extension. Improve technical delivery systemsand efficiency of operations. Animal health services The effectivenessof animal health services has seriously declined over the last two decades. b b b b Privatize farm-level, private-benefit veterinary servicesand pharmaceuticaldelivery systems.Improve animal health delivery systems. Improve the efficiency of governmentalservicesdevotedto thoseaspectsof animal health providing public benefits. Improve animal diseasediagnostic capability with special reference to tests that can be conductedunder field conditions. Rationalize and privatize, insofar as possible, animal vaccine production in subSaharanAfrica. Education and ttiining Major strides have been made in education since independence but progresshas lagged during the 1980s. 0 b b Provide introductions to agriculture, livestock and food in the curriculum of primary and secondaryeducation. Develop freer training programs for specialized skills required to implement rapid changesin animal agriculture. Reorganize middle-level training to make it more responsiveto the rapid changes that are occurring in agriculture. Priority Actions 145 b b Make university-level training more relevant to the needsof animal agriculture. A comprehensivestudy should be made of university-level education programs in animal scienceand veterinary medical education to determine how they can best respond to changing needsof agriculture and how educational institutions can cooperate and collaborate in order to achieve this goal in the most cost-effective manner. Make post-graduatetraining for animal production and health specialistsmore relevant to the needsof agricultural development. 11.7. Conchding Statement The rapidly growing population of sub-Saharan Africa will drive major demographic, social, and economic changesand will transform agriculture in the countries of the region. The demandfor animal products will increasesubstantiallyby the year 2025. There is much potential for increasing livestock production with the most promising possibilities being (1) expansion of crop-livestock farming in the semi-arid and subhumid agroecological zones, (2) increasedproductivity in the highland zone through expandeduse of technology and inputs, and (3) expansionof intensive commercial poultry and pig production systems.The analysis conductedin this study reveals that a 4 percent annual increasein production of animal products, which is needed to provide adequatefood for the growing population is ambitious but feasible. Achievementof this objective will require major technology developmentand transfer and significant advances in feed production, diseasecontrol, and breed improvement. ANNEXA Environmental Issues Related to Animal Agriculture in Sub&&wan Africa As the population of the world increases,cuncem over the effects that human activities are having on the global environment is growing. The effluents of industry and polluting lifestyles in developedcountries and the degradationof agricultural lands, particularly in the dev,elopingworld, are consideredby many to threaten the very existenceof planet earth. In . this context it would be irresponsibleto develop strategiesfor developmentof animal agriculture in sub-SaharanAfrica without taking into account the environmental impacts of such recommendations. There is little disagreementthat it is the irresponsibleactionsof people that are the root causesof environmental deterioration. The desire for ever more comfortable lifestyles in industrial countries and the need to eke out an existenceunder very difficult circumstancesin developing agrarian societies drive environmental destruction. Four major environmental issuesthat have been associated with livestock production are reviewed: desertification, destruction of tropical rain forests, the impact of increased animal production on the wildlife resourcesof the region, and global warming. Desertification The term desertification is used to describe the irreversible decline of the biological productivity of arid and semi-arid lands resulting from increases in human population and from abiotic forces such as variable rainfall and long-term climate Change(Gorse and Steeds1987). Desertification implies irreversible destruction of the topsoil. Degradation, on the other hand, refers to decreases in soil fertility and tilth, in productivity of the rangeland vegetation, and unfavorable changesin composition of plant species,but it does not imply that the changesare permanent or desert-like (Binns 1990). (For a comprehensivediscussionof this subject, see Dodd 1991) Binns (1690) says that the conventional concept of desertification “is one of an advancing Saharadesert inexorably moving south, smothering villages. and destroying farmland and pasture once and for all.” Binns adds that the image “is further reinforced by being portrayed as an environmental catastrophe,the product of long-term decline in rainfall exacerbated by unwise human practices such as overgrazing, burning, and deforestation.* Binns 148 Annex A believes that for much of Africa the image is incorrect, a view shared by many others (see Dodd 1991). There is a large body of literature on the effects that animals have on African rangelands. Most of the studies are short term and of limited depth and scientific rigor @odd 1991:25). Few investigatorshave successfullyseparatedthe effects of grazing from the effects of weather changes.Few have distinguished between temporary and lasting effects of either weather or grazing, None of the studiesexplore the interactive effects of grazing, weather, and fire or fire suppressionon short and long-term changesin vegetation. Dodd (1991:25-26), summarizing the literature on the impact of domestic animals on rangelands, concludes that most investigators have confused animal impacts with drought effects and provide no solid evidence that nomadic or commercial livestock production systemscauseirreversible changes on range vegetation away from water points and habitations. Sandford (1983) points out that there is little evidencethat African livestock have contributed to the degradationof rangelands. A very important limitation on determining whether or not the southern boundary of the Saharais moving further south is the lack of accur&e meansof measurement.Tucker et al. (1991) used a satellite derived vegetation index to map interannual changesin vegetation and by inferences rainfall along the Saharan-Sahelian border from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Seafrom 1980 through 1990. They found that both the northern and southernmovementof the boundary during the period reflected changesin rainfall. The data of Tucker et al. will provide a baseline for future measurements of boundary changes, which, to be meaningful, must be made over a long period. Issuesof overgrazing and range degradation are equally complex. It has been clearly demonstratedthat dramatic changescan be induced in the composition of range vegetation by heavy grazing. There is general agreementthat in the arid and semi-arid agroecological zones, vegetation surrounding water holes and habitation has been seriously degradedby high densities of livestock and people. The only desertification that can be shown to have occurred is limited to theseareasof heavy human and animal use if soil destruction is usedas an indication of desertification. There is much evidence on the other hand that the extension of cultivation into the rangelandsis resulting in degradationof both the soil and the vegetation. The rangelands also are being subjectedto excessiveharvestingof trees and bushesfor use as firewood (Dodd 1991). In summary the most seriousthreat to the arid and semi-arid rangelandsof subSaharanAfrica is from the extensionof cultivation into areaswhere it is not sustainable,and to areasof heavy human and animal use around habitations and water holes. Livestock, on the other hand, causereversible degradationof the vegetationbut are not significant sourcesof soil degradation. Whether the boundary of the Saharadesert is extending southward is as yet unsettled, but many experts believe that the view that the rangelandsare being reduced to desert through overgrazing is seriously flawed (Mace 1991). Destruction of Tropical Rain Forests The humid tropics of Africa have low agricultural productivity. Soils of the humid forests of Zaire and West Africa are highly weathered,acidic, with multiple nutrient deficiencies (Lathwell and Grove 1986). The soils of the wetlands of the forested areasare somewhat Environmental issues 149 more productive with the potential for rice production. Diseasesand pests are more abundant in humid tropical regions than in drier areas. Agriculture is characterizedby shifting cultivation and livestock are not important componentsin thesesystems,although farmers keep poultry, small ruminants and pigs. Trypanosomiasisis a major constraint to ruminant production as are high ambient temperatures and high humidity. Throughout the world the rain forests of the humid tropics are being destroyedat increasing rates as expanding populations increasepressuresto expand agriculture. Population pressuresare compoundedby poverty and the strugglesof people for existenceor for a better life. Over 45 percent of the moist forests of the world have been destroyed (Ehrlich and Wilson 1991:759), and in Africa, about 50 percenthavebeendestroyed(Myers 1984). While deforestation has yielded some economic benefits such as timber sales and expansionof the agricultural land base, there have been great costsas well. They include loss of forest products such as pharmaceuticals,fuel wood, fibers (kapok), timber, chemicals, and -watershed regulation and control of local hits. Also lost are ecosystem services climates-which result in flooding, erosion, siltation and general destruction of watersheds, control of local climates, and destruction of topsoils. Among the most important ecosystem servicesis maintenanceof the gaseouscomposition of the atmosphere,preventing the mix of gasesfrom changing so rapidly as to be destructiveto living organisms. Clearanceof forests, reducing their environmentaleffects, has resulted in 20 to 25 percent of the increasein carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,which many predict will lead to global climate changes{Grove . 1991). The most important consequence of the destructionof tropical rain forests is the wholesale loss of biodiversity. Becauseof the latitudinal diversity gradient, the highest concentrations of diverse species are in tropical rain forests. Approximately half of all speciesare located in rain forests, which constitute 7 percent of the earth’s surface. With the present rate of loss of these forests, 0.2 percent to 0.3 percent of all speciesare lost each year. That amounts to 4,000 to 40,000 specieslost per year from destruction of tropical rain forests (Ehrlich and Wilson 1991:759). It is predicted that all of the world’s rain forests outside of protectedareaswill be eliminated by 2100 (Soule 19911744). Population growth leading to the expansionof shifting cultivation is the principal cause of destruction of tropical rain forests (Allen and Barnes 1985). Growing populations are increasing pressureson these forests. Pates of deforestation in West Africa and in Madagascar are high and are likely to lead to nearly complete deforestationin theseareas.The rate is much lower in humid Central Africa; perhaps 0.2 percent of the forests is lost each year (PA0 1986c:41). Logging for lumber, long considereda primary causeof deforestation, has been a major factor only in West Africa (Gillis 1988). Policy makers and agricultural scientistsin countries with large remaining parcels of tropica rain forests are faced with a dilemma. These lands are poorly productive for agriculture and more important for other uses, yet they may provide the primary opportunity a muntry has to produce food for its people. It is very difficult for most of thesecountries to control the spreadof shifting cultivation. Should a development strategy for humid forested tropical regions consist of meansto provide sustainableagricultural alternativesto shifting cultivation? This is the approachbeing studied by Peruvian scientists(Sanchez1991). If sustainableagxi- 150 Annex A * cultural systemsare developedfor humid forested regions, it is probable that animals will become a part of thesesystems. Tropical rain forests have a globally more important role as sourcesof biodiversity and for their environmental benefits than for agriculture. Industrialized countries will reap a share of thesebenefits from the preservationof rain forests; they must be prepared to sharepart of the costsof preservation. This study does not encouragethe development of animal production in the forested portion of the humid zone. At this stage of development it is difficult to see how livestock production in most parts of the forested portions of the humid zone could be biologically sustainable or economically viable. There is no evidencethat livestock contribute to destructionof the African rain forests. Wildlife Resources Africa’s wildlife endowment is unique and diverse and includes some of the world’s most spectacularherds of wild animals and some of nature’s most unusual species. Although wild animals are still present in great numbers, there has been a marked reduction in wildlife populations, particularly the large speciessuch as the elephant, rhinoceros, gorilla, lion, and buffalo. The chief cause of decline has been the loss of habitat, habitat fragmentation, and overexploitation. There is a strong international interest in conservationand the preservationof wildlife. Sub-SaharanAfrican nations devote a substantialproportion of their land to wildlife. There now are 426 specially establishedareasdevotedto the protection of wildlife in the region, covering 88 million hectaresor roughly 4 percent of the land area of sub-Saharan Africa. Africa also has 18 World Heritage Sites, and 3 1 Biosphere Reservesproposed by African govemments and supportedby.the international community (Kiss 19905). With the rapidly expanding human populations of the region, the formation of more parks and preserveswill not assurethe preservationof wildlife. Wildlife must contribute directly to income generationor to the food supply, or they will not be protected. Wildlife make large contributions to the economies of sub-SaharanAfrica without adding to environmental degradation. Some form of consentation,protection, and exploitation of wildlife involves 25 percent of the land in Tanzania, 30 percent in Zambia, and 12 percent in Zimbabwe. Botswanaplans to allocate 2 1 percent to wildlife (Ellis 1991:6-7). Subsistence hunting contributes importantly to human diets in the more mesic areasof East, South, and West Africa. It is reported to constitute 30 to 40 percent of the meat consumed in the Central African Republic (Ellis 1991:10). Wildlife yield significant economic benefits through tourism. In Kenya and Rwanda, tourism ranks with tea and coffee exports as the top earnersof foreign exchange. Commercial safari hunting is reported to be a profitable form of land use in southern Africa, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Cameroon, and Central African Republic (Ellis 1991). Game ranching and wildlife-livestock production systemsprovide a means of using game animals to utilize rangelandresources(seesection7.3.4). Wild animals are very important to the people of the region. Environmental Issues 151 It is an uncertain time for the wildlife populations of sub-Saharan Africa. Human populations are growing rapidly and crop production is spreading into marginally productive lands, creating more and more conflicts between agriculture and wildlife. It is essentialthat wildlife be seenas a valuable resourceand that wildlife values and economic benefits be consideredin all agricultural developmentplans. It is inevitable that wildlife populations will be reduced as agriculture expandsin subSaharanAfrica. African countries in cooperation with the international community, have set aside vast tracts of land for wildlife parks and preserves.The best way to maintain a large wildlife resourceoutside parks and preservesis to develop meansto exploit them more fully for food and income generation. Livestock, Greenhouse Gases, and Global Warming Human activities throughout the world createhuge quantities of gaseousemissionsthat collect in the stratosphere.Some of theseemissions,. called greenhousegases,increasethe absorption of solar energy and have the potential of changing the world’s climate. This may causeglobal warming, destroy the protective stratosphericozone layer, acidify rainfall, and directly affect the health of people, plants and animals (World ResourceInstitute 1990:345). The most important greenhousegasesare carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide is the most abundantand is being addedat the most rapid rate. It is expectedto causeabout 50 percent of the global warming in the next 50 years (World Resources Institute 1990:14). Methane is the secondmost important contributing 18 percent. About 500 million tons of methaneare entering the stratosphere each year and methaneaccumulation is increasingat the rate of 1.0 percentper year (Johnsonet al. 1990:33). The sourcesof methane emissionsand the proportion of the total contributed are natural swamps, 26 percent and rice growing, 20 percent. Domestic animals contribute 15 percent. The balance comes from biomass burning, oil and gas drilling, landfills, coal mining, wild animals and termites, and animal wastes(Johnsonet al. 1990:35). If methane contributes 18 percent to global warming and up to 15 percent of the methane is produced by domestic livestock, 2.7 percent of global warming would be attributable to domestic livestock. Of the world’s livestock, those in Africa produced 12 percent of the additions to the methane flux in 1987 (World Resource Institute 1990:346). Thus, African domesticatedlivestock’s proportionate share of the total annual increasesin global warming is 0.32 percent, which is a very small amount consideringthe importance of livestock to the people of Africa. Methane production by ruminants can be reducedby a variety of meansincluding high starchdiets, feeding resistantstarches-for example maize and sorghum, high quality forages, by eliminating nutrient deficiencies, use of pelleted forages, and feeding ionophoresand other production improvers (seereview by Johnsonet al. 1990:37-47). Many of the nutritional technologies that reducemethaneproduction are recommendedin this repoti to increaseproduction and productivity. Thus intensification of livestock production as recommendedby this study .I 152 Annex A will also reduce the very small contribution that African livestock currently make to potential global warming. Stuiy Work Group Papers 153 ANNEX B. Study Work Group Papers Chigaru, P. R. N. 1991. Animal production issues. 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