` Post-Harvest Losses Management through Climate Smart Innovations: A collaborative Approach Among Value Chain Actors Technical Report [xxx] Report Binge, B| Jalango,D | Tesfaye, L December • 2023 To cite this report Binge, B., Jalango, D., Tesfaye, L. 2023. Technical Report: Post-Harvest Losses Management through Climate Smart Innovations: A collaborative Approach Among Value Chain Actors. Nairobi. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Acknowledgements Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. The authors would like to thank the agricorporates in Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia that took part in the key informant interviews. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the efforts done by Melat Yemane in conducting the interviews in Ethiopia and Brenda Binge for conducting the interviews in Kenya and Zambia. About AICCRA Reports Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim research on the scaling of climate services and climate- smart agriculture in Africa, in order to stimulate feedback from the scientific community. Disclaimer This working paper has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AICCRA, donors, or partners. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution – Non-commercial 4.0 International License. About AICCRA Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Explore our work at aiccra.cgiar.org aiccra.cgiar.org aiccra@cgiar.org CGIARAfrica AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS CONTENTS CONTENTS ........................................................................................ I ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................. III KEY MESSAGES ................................................................................ IV 1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 1.1. Climate Vulnerabilities Across Major Value Chains ....................... 2 1.2. Objectives of Assessment ............................................................ 7 2.0 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 9 2.1. Interview Structure ...................................................................... 9 2.3. Analysis ....................................................................................... 10 3.0 POST-HARVEST LOSS CHALLENGES ........................................... 11 3.1.Zambia ......................................................................................... 12 3.2. Ethiopia ....................................................................................... 13 3.3. Kenya .......................................................................................... 15 4.0 RESULTS: NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF PHL 18 4.1. Kenya .......................................................................................... 18 4.2. Ethiopia ....................................................................................... 26 i AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS 4.3. Zambia......................................................................................... 35 5.0. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REDUCING PHL .. 39 APPENDIX ......................................................................................... 1 Questionnairre..................................................................................... 1 ii AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS ABBREVIATIONS ADB African Development Bank AEZ Agro- Ecological Zone AICCRA Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa BFS Bureau for Resilience and Food Security CBK Central Bank of Kenya CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture CIS Climate-Smart Information Services CSA Climate Smart Agriculture CSAIP Climate Smart Agriculture Investment Plan EGTE Ethiopian Grain Trade Enterprise FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations GCA Global Center on Adaptation GDP Gross Domestic Product GHGs Green House Gases INPho Information Network on Post-harvest Operations IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ITA International Trade Administration (ITA) PHL Post harvest loss PIC Purdue Improved Crop Storage RCP Representative Concentration Pathways SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises USAID United States Agency for International Development VCC Value Chain Commodity VC Value Chain WMO World Meteorological Organization iii AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS Women and men are affected equally in terms KEY MESSAGES of PHL as they experience similar challenges for example reduced income from the produce. However, in terms of minimizing losses, there The agricultural sector in Kenya, Ethiopia and are differential traits especially in the dairy value Zambia faces productivity and food security chain. Women have a tendency of minimizing challenges tied to a lack of inputs, limited access loss because they are careful and articulate when to markets and market information and it comes to hygiene. Similarly, in soybean and training/extension services. Importantly, it faces leafy vegetables, women workers are preferred at a growing number of climate related the grading station because they tend to be more vulnerabilities. Climate has become increasingly cautious and articulate as compared to the male variable over the past few decades, with drought, counterparts. seasonal and flash flooding, and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. These To counter these losses, there are innovative combined challenges thwart agricultural solutions developed by SME processors and investments. agri-corporates, research organizations and other key value chain actors. They include safe and Post-harvest losses (PHL) in agriculture are a improved storage technologies e.g. hermetic major challenge for small and medium-sized bags for cereals, cold storage for horticulture, enterprises (SME) processors in these three aquaculture and dairy, timely harvesting, proper countries. These losses occur due to inadequate handling, value addition and processing among infrastructure, lack of storage facilities, and poor others. Additionally, there are several post-harvest handling and processing methods. organizations in the three countries that are in the This has resulted in a significant waste of forefront in knowledge sharing and capacity resources, reduced income for farmers and building. This has shown increased capacity processors that source from them, and food building amongst the SMEs and increased insecurity. Agri-corporates, on the other hand, adoption of innovative solutions in tackling post- have the resources and expertise to tackle these harvest losses. challenges, but often lack knowledge and understanding of the challenges faced by SME In the digital agriculture ecosystems, digital processors. solutions can be traced through the full span of the agricultural value chain including support for Some of the main post harvest loss categories postharvest activities such as processing, storage identified in the value chain of focus include and transport; linkages to buyers and off-take weight loss due to spoilage, quality loss, markets. Digital agriculture can also build nutritional loss and commercial loss. The resilience by lowering postharvest losses for problem of post-harvest loss is especially acute farmers through access to timely information on for horticultural crops (up to 40%) with the post-harvest activities and access to markets. major causes being lack of proper harvesting and Additionally, Small and localized processing and handling. While in cereal value chain, between storage facilities serving farmers in remote areas harvesting and marketing, cumulative loss from to reduce post-harvest losses are feasible production is between 10-23%. This is attributed pathway in reducing post-harvest losses at the to the dry matter weight loss when grain is local level especially with the poor transport scattered or spilt or because of biodeterioration. infrastructure. In the dairy value chain, the main losses can either be through spillage and/or spoilage. Lastly, in aquaculture value chain, material losses of harvested fish resulting from spoilage, grading, size breakage. iv AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS face a growing number of climate related vulnerabilities. This is because they are highly 1.0 INTRODUCTION sensitive and exposed to yet low adaptive capacity. Extreme weather is causing significant problems for smallholder farmers and others who depend on agricultural value chains. The agricultural sector plays an integral part in Climate has become increasingly variable over the economies of Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia. It the past few decades, with drought, seasonal and not only contributes to economic development flash flooding, and extreme temperatures but also supports the dietary and nutritional occurring more frequently. needs of households. In Kenya, agricultural Extreme weather events increase the frequency, sector contributes to 22% of the Gross Domestic intensity, spatial extent, and duration of weather Product (GDP) and 27% indirectly through its and climate-related hazards. According to the linkages with other sectors. It also employs over latest World Meteorological Organization 40% of the total population and more than 70 % (WMO) report, the number of climate-related of the rural population (CBK, 2022). In Zambia, hazards— droughts, floods, heat, erratic rainfall, agriculture is a key sector that employs 67% of landslides, and others—has increased five-fold the working population and supports 85% of over the past 50 years (World Meteorological livelihoods (CIAT, 2021). In 2019, the Organization, 2021). The sixth agricultural, forestry, and fisheries sector Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change contributed 3% to the total national gross (IPCC) assessment report showed that climate- domestic product (GDP). (World Bank, 2020; related hazards have caused widespread ZamStats, 2019). Similarly in Ethiopia, deterioration of ecosystem structure and agriculture is the mainstay of the economy; it function, loss of resilience and natural adaptive provides 34% of the national GDP and employs capacity, and shifts in seasonal weather timing 68% of the country’s workforce (World Bank, (Pörtner, 2022). 2021). It contributes to the rural livelihoods by employing more than 73% of the employment opportunities and source of livelihoods for 90% Zambia has experienced a series of climatic of the rural population. It contributes 84% of extremes that include drought, seasonal and flash total exports and serves as more than 70% of floods, extreme temperatures, and dry spells. sources of raw material for agro-processing These climatic hazards have increased in industry. Ethiopia is the second largest producer frequency, intensity, and magnitude (World of cereals in Africa (World Bank, 2021). The Bank, 2019). Between 2007 and 2016, climate livestock sector, one of the largest in the world change cost Zambia an estimate of US$13.8 in terms of animal heads, contributes 16–20% to billion constituting 0.4% of its annual GDP the national GDP and represents a key growth. Again, it is estimated by 2036, subsistence source for some 10 million agricultural losses related to climate change pastoralists. Roughly 90% of total exports might reach US$2.2–3.1 billion, largely as earnings come from agriculture, especially results of waterlogged fields, water shortage, through the commercialization of coffee, destruction of crops, and a higher incidence of livestock products (hides, skins), and seeds and crop and livestock diseases (World Bank, 2019). pulses (CIAT; BFS/USAID, 2017). In Ethiopia, approximately USD 2 billion is likely to be lost in the agricultural sector in the Despite the relevance of agriculture in these next few years due to rainfall variability. This three economies, the sector faces productivity amount is equal to 32.5% of the current real and food security challenges tied to a lack of agricultural GDP. This situation affects inputs, limited access to markets and market Ethiopia’s economic development and growth information and training/extension services. and could reverse the gains accumulated in These challenges thwart agricultural development over years (Simane B, 2016) and investments. Importantly, agricultural systems (ministry of foreign affairs, Netherlands, 2018). 1 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS Other climatic hazards stemming from Ethiopia’s changing climate include high and extreme climate variability, heat stress, droughts, floods, growing season reductions, and high 1.1. Climate growing season temperatures, or a combination Vulnerabilities Across of these hazards. Droughts and floods are the Major Value Chains commonest climate-related natural hazard impacting the country (World Bank, 2020). The results from most climate models indicate high inter annual rainfall variability in combination Climate change has significant impacts on with warming, which is likely to lead to various stages of key activities within the recurrent droughts in Ethiopia, potentially agricultural value chain, including input impacting crop production and exacerbating food supply, on-farm production, post-harvest security challenges (world Bank, 2016). processing, and output market. . These consequences are further exacerbated by low In Kenya, extreme climate events have become agricultural yields, relatively small increasingly frequent, with direct consequence to uneconomical farm sizes, land degradation, and annual agricultural production rates. Agriculture deforestation, which characterize the agricultural in Kenya is largely rain fed (98%) and thus production systems in these countries. For this extremely vulnerable to increasing temperatures, study, a selection of value chain commodities droughts, and floods. Smallholder farmers are (VCCs) was chosen for a deeper analysis of how especially hard hit by these changes often climate change affects them. These value chain confronted with livestock losses, crop failures, commodities include Livestock (dairy, and and related income and livelihood losses. aquaculture) and crop (horticulture, cereals, Projections based on RCP 4.5 emissions scenario pulses). Each of the three countries have specific and downscaled using the Delta Method show crops of focus, in Kenya, the main value chains increases in mean annual temperature of 1 °C to include dairy, aquaculture, sorghum/millet, 1.5 °C by 2030. Relatedly, changes in rainfall maize, tomatoes, mangoes and green grams distribution and more frequent extreme events, while in Ethiopia, the value chain of focus such as prolonged drought and flooding are include dairy, wheat, maize, legumes, predicted to result in more frequent water horticulture and lastly in Zambia, the value shortages. chains that will be used in this paper includes dairy, maize, soybean. They constitute the These sporadic weather events have detrimental primary commodities in these countries and as impacts on post-harvest activities leading to such, will form the primary focus. They are increased incidences of post-harvest considered the most important value chains in losses. Climate related hazards create conditions these three countries both in terms of supplying favorable for crop diseases and pests. As a result food for domestic consumption as well as of these impacts, large proportions of grain can supporting export markets. Cereals, pulses and become unusable after it has been harvested. horticulture represent a critical food resource for These post-harvest losses have consequences the households supporting both dietary needs throughout the grain supply chains, increasing and contributing to household income for the market prices, reducing livelihood opportunities farmers that sell their surplus. Livestock, and can have consequences for human health likewise, is critical to rural incomes, nutrition, (APHLIS, 2023). Additionally, these hazards and food security. Importantly, these value impact water supply, food production, transport chains were prioritized in the Climate Smart infrastructure, human health that affects post- Agriculture Investment Plans (CSAIP) in these harvest activities leading to post harvest losses. countries. This study aims to implement value To avert these losses, there is a need to develop chain commodities that were identified and and promote climate smart innovations. prioritized in the CSAIPs. 2 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS The effects of climate variability are already challenges. Additionally, post-harvest losses are visible in crop production by either slowing or significantly high due to perishability of hastening growth and development processes, livestock by products (dairy and fish), poor which can result ultimately in crop failure. A key management practices and limited access to driver of this process is change in the timing of ready markets.  rains that adversely affect planting and growth cycles. Other consequences of these climate- Climate change is also a key driver for the related risks include loss of productive land due proliferation of conflict between pastoralists and to expanded desertification, causing relocation of farmers over limited land and resources which in suitable areas to produce cereal crops and return will eventually contribute to additional increasing incidences and prevalence of crop rural-to-urban migration due to the strain on pests and diseases (Tesfaye, 2016). Crop failures rural livelihoods (USAID, 2016). The have been recurrent due to limited access to examination of climate vulnerabilities and improved seed varieties that are adapted to the resilience across the cereal, horticulture and changing climatic conditions. Most farmers still livestock value chains indicate that these value use local seed varieties that have been recycled chains are highly sensitive to climate related over time. Dry lands occupy a large proportion hazards. The below subsection will analyze the of the land area and are highly vulnerable to effects of climate change on the specific value climate change impacts (mainly erratic rainfall chains in each of the three countries. and extremely high temperatures). Moreover, the growing population in these areas has been a catalyst for conflicts and environmental 1.1.1 Ethiopia degradation. This points out the need for diversification of livelihood activities In Ethiopia, climate change effects such as particularly through farming. The production of extreme rainfall and rising temperatures have dry land cereals (sorghum and millet) and pulses distorted the wheat planting calendar and are pivotal to the dry land ecosystem and thus similarly affected production. Climate change is should be largely promoted. expected to increase future temperatures, potentially reducing production in many key Climate change has also exacerbated the existing regions. In the wheat value chain, climate change water shortages due to the below average rainfall affects wheat production by increasing abiotic and drying up of water sources. This has led to stresses, e.g., heat, drought, cold, salinity and supply deficits for both domestic consumption waterlogging, and biotic stresses, e.g., aggressive and agricultural production. As a result, it is diseases and insect pests (Kedir, 2017). necessary to upscale water utilization and Additionally, rising temperatures decrease the harvesting systems to sustain production during length of the grain-filling period of wheat and the dry seasons. This has significant effects on other small grains. Rising temperatures and the cultivation of horticultural crops, such as changes in rainfall patterns have direct effects on fruits and vegetables. crop yields and indirect effects through changes availability of water e.g., irrigation (Kedir, The livestock sector, particularly cattle farming, 2017). is a significant contributor to employment and food security in developing countries. However, It is estimated that these climate hazards will the sector is highly sensitive to climate change negatively affect agricultural production on other and a major contributor to greenhouse gases cereals and livestock on over 60 million ha of (GHGs). Over the years, farmers have suffered land. Over 15 million rural people and USD $1.4 economic losses due to death of cattle and billion in crop and livestock value are predicted reduced milk production volumes due to harsh to be exposed to these climate-related hazards climatic conditions such as heat stress and yearly (GCA;CIAT &ADB, 2023). The drought- reduced rainfall. The scarcity of fodder, which prone highland areas are likely to experience relies on rainfall, is the main reason for these more intense and irregular rainfall, affecting 3 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS yields of slow maturing, long-cycle crops; however, the higher altitude moisture-sufficient The figure below shows climatic hazards parts of the highlands where cereal production calculated for the period 2050 under RCP 8.5, are dominant are expected to increase in per production system in Ethiopia and suitability and productivity of some cereals geographic distribution of climate hazards in (CIAT; BFS/USAID, 2017). Increased Ethiopia. temperatures and extended drought periods are likely to negatively affect the lowlands, posing particular challenges to already vulnerable pastoral and agro pastoral populations. Consequences for small-scale holder farmers include changes in water availability for crop and livestock production, and increased competition and conflicts over pasture and water for livestock. Another consequence is the geographical shifts and reductions in areas suitable for the production of maize and other key cereals. Another impact of climate variability on crops is the increase in the incidences and prevalence of crop pests and diseases (Tesfaye, 2016). Specifically, the two main climatic hazards affecting wheat are a shorter rainy season and droughts. Other noticeable hazards include late and early onset of rainfall, floods, and extreme rainfall. Ethiopia has been faced with a few drought events in the last 50 years, and droughts are also expected to influence production in the future. Droughts are associated with increased temperatures and a reduction in the amount of soil water. In drought conditions, it is more probable that wheat production will face challenges like heat and moisture stress. Droughts also inhibit wheat growth and can result in an increased incidence of insects and pests, as well as in weed infestation. Additionally, they make it difficult to cultivate the fields due to the formation of hard soil pans. This effect is especially significant since most Figure 1: Geographical Distribution of Climatic wheat-growing soils in Arsi zone are clay soils Hazards in Ethiopia. Source: GCA;CIAT &ADB, called black vertisols. A combination of 2023. inhibited growth rate, disease, and weed infestation reduces the productivity of wheat. In Drought impacts the dairy cow value chain as it turn, the effects of drought reduce the quality decreases the availability of cattle feed and and quantity of marketable wheat, constricting water. Farmers’ fodder production is the trading capabilities of other value chain compromised due to reduced pasture quality. actors. Additionally, droughts can contribute to This forces farmers to seek alternative feed an increase in price markets, which tends to sources or reduce their cattle’s intake. This leads drive up the price of basic wheat products in the to malnutrition. Farmers who use drought economy. tolerant fodder like brachiaria sp, and who 4 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS engage in water harvesting and fodder conservation are less vulnerable to the consequences of drought. Excessive rainfall leads to erosion, disrupted transportation networks, increased labor costs, parasites and diseases like pneumonia and foot rot, and the leaching of nutrients from the soil. Leaching leads to poor-quality fodder, which affects productivity while these diseases are very expensive to treat. The overall impact is reduced productivity and income. Disrupted road networks affect artificial insemination services and milk transportation. This leads to postproduction losses such as spoilage. Climate change-induced rising temperatures can also negatively impact milk production in dairy cows. Heat stress can decrease both the quantity and quality of milk, which can significantly impact the profitability of dairy farms. Moreover, higher temperatures can also contribute to the spread of diseases and pests among dairy herds, resulting in health problems and increased costs for farmers. 1.1.2.Kenya More than 1.86 billion USD in crop and livestock value per annum, and more than 15 million rural people are exposed to climate related hazards. Furthermore, climate hazards will negatively affect the agricultural production Figure 2: Geographic Distribution of Climatic Hazards in Kenya. Source: GCA;CIAT &ADB,2023b. of cereals and livestock on over 40 million ha of In the aquaculture value chain, poor production land (GCA;CIAT &ADB, 2023b).Consequences and management practices hinder the sector’s for small-scale farmers include changes in growth. Over 85% of inland aquaculture ponds increasing heat stress and uncertainty in water in Kenya are poorly located on the riverside, and availability for crop and livestock production, over 80% of fish culture facilities are made from increased competition over pasture and water for clay material. This increases their susceptibility livestock, and increases in the incidence and to temperature changes and flooding events. prevalence of crop pests and diseases. Heat stress leads to increased evaporation and Geographical shifts and reductions in areas reduced water levels at the fishponds. The nets suitable for production are also a likely become difficult to use when the water level is consequence of the effects of climate change in low. Low water levels compromise the survival Kenya. On the other hand, in some places this of fingerlings. This also has an impact on the might lead to opportunities for crop breeding sites, making harvesting difficult and in diversification and intensification (Rippke U, many cases forcing farmers to reduce the grow 2016). The figure below shows geographic out period. Heat stress not only raises the distribution of climate hazards in Kenya. expenses associated with preserving fish, but it 5 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS also contributes to a scarcity of fish in the impacts of low feed and water availability, heat market. stress, and livestock diseases will reduce dairy Fish are also sensitive to high rainfall and herd productivity in Kenya. flooding, causing migration out of the ponds. High rainfall may have adverse impacts on the power supply and communication network that Drought is a limiting factor in the production, are important inputs for storage. Power cuts will processing, and marketing of green grams. affect the quality of the fish harvested and kept Heavy rainfall renders the road network in cooler boxes and refrigerators. Damage to the impassable, reducing the accessibility of inputs. road network will affect the transportation, It further impedes the aggregation, bulking, and processing and access to the market. transportation of produce to processing facilities and the market. Like most pulses, the moisture content of green grams in storage should not be Moreover, there is increasing evidence of the above 13%. Green grams are very susceptible to impacts of climate change on aquatic bruchid attacks and are best stored immediately ecosystems. Other impacts of climate change on after sun-drying, in airtight drums, tins, or gunny aquaculture production include diseases and bags in a clean, ventilated place. Mixing seed harmful algal blooms, uncertainty of external with ash is effective against storage pests, as is inputs supplies among others. As such, fish treatment with sunflower oil or mixing with farmers need to adapt to climate change by neem leaves (Biovision, 2019). adopting sustainable fish farming techniques, adjusting to environmental changes, and A recent study by Alliance of Bioversity diversifying their livelihoods. Currently, International and CIAT on the suitability of freshwater aquaculture production techniques tomato value chain under future climate use vast volumes of water that undergo conditions indicates that it is less suitable with biological and chemical processes, generating the future climate scenarios. Low suitability is huge amounts of waste. Fish also produce waste observed in Central and western parts of the containing ammonia emissions that increase country. Comparatively, higher suitability (more GHG emissions. Therefore, a climate smart than 0.3) is seen in Kitui, Tana River, Machakos, aquaculture system is needed to minimize the areas of Garissa, and Isiolo under future climate environmental impact of aquaculture systems change. Some of these counties also show and build climate resilience as effectively and medium to low vulnerability scores and smaller efficiently as possible (Dorcas Jalango, 2022). rural population and can be potential climate smart agriculture (CSA) investment planning Kenya’s dairy farming is highly sensitive to sites. The average suitability score for tomatoes climate change. Variability in rainfall patterns, under future climate change is 0.25, ranging temperature increases, and increased extreme from 0.08 to 0.5 across the country. weather, such as floods and drought, affect dairy production levels. The production of fodder and feed in Kenya is highly rain-fed. This means that 1.1.3.Zambia during the prolonged dry spells, there is scarcity The country is already experiencing weather in the quantity and quality of animal feed. Hot variability and climate change-induced hazards, and dry conditions also decrease water including drought and dry spells, seasonal and availability, while increasing the likelihood of flash floods, extreme temperatures and changes heat stress. As most high yielding dairy livestock in season onset and cessation. Some of these breeds, e.g., Friesians, are ill adapted to high hazards, such as droughts and floods, have temperatures, heat stress will give rise to low increased in frequency and intensity over the productivity. Temperature changes will also past few decades and have adversely impacted likely result in the migration and redistribution food and water security, water quality, energy of insect parasites that can transmit novel and livelihoods of the people, especially in rural diseases. As a result, the compounded negative communities 6 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS production costs associated with disease control Climate change related losses in agriculture are and management. Another consequence of expected to amount to US$ 2,200–3,130 million increased rainfall is the destruction of structures over the next 10-20 years(CIAT, 2017) Increases that shelter the animals and in extreme cases in rainfall may result in waterlogged agricultural leads to flood risk that can kill livestock. fields, destruction of crops (in both pre- and Zambia is experiencing reduced rainfall post-harvest), contaminated water supplies and characterized with low intensity and fewer rainy increases in incidence of crop and livestock days. This has resulted in moisture stress that disease. Reductions in rainfall are likely to severely affects soyabean value chain. Moisture reduce water availability for both crops and stress inhibits the growth of soya beans, resulting livestock and also affect the quantity and quality in low productivity. Soya bean plants are highly of pastures. In places where rainfall quantity susceptible to inadequate moisture during their does not change significantly, there may still be flowering and pod filling stages. Insufficient changes in season onset and cessation that could rainfall severely affects their physiological negatively affect the production of key crops, maturity as it interferes with pod size and including maize. weight. This forces farmers to supplement with irrigation during these important stages of Zambia may become more dependent on imports soybean production. Additionally, the high cost of major agricultural commodities (apart from tied to irrigation prohibits farmers from engaging cotton and groundnut) in the period up to 2050. in it and thus affecting their productivity. If low Exports are expected to be lower and imports production reduces the volume of marketable higher for almost all crops under the climate soya beans, prices may increase, negatively change scenario than under the no climate affecting consumers and traders. change scenario. Similarly, land areas cultivated Similarly, increased temperatures affect the under maize are likely to be less under climate growth, yield and quality of soyabeans. High change by 2.4pp as compared to the no climate temperatures impact the germination stages and change scenario (CIAT, 2017). can reduce the number of flowers and seeds per pod. High temperatures during flowering can Drought is a limiting factor in the dairy value result in pollen sterility and a reduced seed set, chain. This is because it affects fodder potentially leading to smaller production production. Scarcity of fodder may compel volumes and lower-quality produce. Poor quality farmers to reduce their animals’ dietary intake or and quantities of soya beans negatively affect feed quality. Decreasing a cattle’s dietary intake traders because both factors can increase their diminishes milk productivity. Similarly, transactional cost to source produce. Some increased temperatures may result in milk losses traders resort to mixing low quality and high- due to poor postharvest handling techniques. quality produce and selling at high prices (GIZ, High temperatures may also threaten dairy cattle; 2021). heat stress and death can occur, especially in young calves. The lower volumes of milk available for sale and processing lead to higher prices. This negatively affects the overall 1.2. Objectives of consumers. Extremely high rainfall may lead to Assessment increased fodder production. On the flip side, it may lead to over production of milk. The milk The analysis of climate change on the selected production may exceed processing capacity, value chains in the three respective countries resulting in lower milk prices. This results in suggests the need to consider post-harvest losses. reduced household income amongst dairy This is because post-harvest losses play a critical farmers. Additionally, excessive rainfall may role in influencing the life of millions of provide a thriving environment for the foot-and smallholder farmers by impacting the available mouth disease increases, which potentially food volumes and trade-in values of the results in deaths of livestock and increased commodities. In addition to economic and social 7 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS implications, postharvest losses also impact the established framework and process and builds on environment, as the land, water and energy country’s programs, policies, and strategic plans (agricultural inputs) used to produce the lost and the work of numerous local, national, food are also wasted along with the food. regional, and international institutions. Unutilized food also results in extra CO2 emissions, eventually affecting the environment (Kumar & Kalita, 2017). Saving the Based on this, the research prioritized CSA cereal crop lost during postharvest operations innovations suggested in the CSAIPs. The can help in meeting the food demand and reduce innovations covered various aspects such as the load on the economy (Kumar & Kalita, livestock (including dairy and aquaculture) and 2017). Similarly, minimizing losses in legumes, crops (such as horticulture, cereals, and pulses). pulses, dairy and aquaculture value chains could The aim was to promote enhancements in be one resource-efficient way that can help in breeding, value addition, and processing to strengthening food security, sustainably minimize food wastage. Additionally, the combating hunger, reducing the agricultural land research aimed to provide irrigation and solar needed for production, rural development, and irrigation products and services to smallholder improving farmers’ livelihoods. farmers, particularly those involved in horticulture. Another area of focus was on inputs for crop, livestock, and aquaculture, which included the development of improved seed The Climate Smart Agriculture Investment Plans varieties, including fodder/forage, as well as (CSAIPs) were developed in 2021/22 through improved breeds of fingerlings and cattle. Lastly, the engagement of actors within the government the research aimed to develop digital climate- and private sector to ensure that selected smart Information Services (CIS). investments are within national priorities of the countries. The objective of this project is therefore to implement CSA innovations that were identified and prioritized in the CSAIPs. Post-harvest losses play a The innovations under the CSAIPs should guide critical role in influencing the the development of suitable development projects to support agricultural development in life of millions of smallholder the face of climate change. The projects should farmers by impacting the therefore be bankable or tap into financial available food volumes and opportunities from private sector actors, public trade-in values of the institutions bilateral and multilateral financial institutions or international donors. commodities. The CSAIPs provides a strategic and comprehensive case for investing in agricultural development, given climate change and variability. Through a highly stakeholder- engaged development process, the plan identified, assessed, and prioritized a list of best- bet CSA investments in Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia. The CSAIP results in a nationally supported and scientifically screened investment portfolio targeted towards tapping into financial opportunities from the private sector actors, public institutions, international donors, and other key stakeholders who aim to transform the agriculture sector. This CSAIP uses an 8 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS Development of SMEs emerges as a key instrument in poverty reduction efforts, as it is a major source of employment. The focus is on SMEs that are active in agro-food value chains 2.0 METHODOLOGY and those whose businesses depend on such value chains. The research was conducted using a mixed- methods approach, including both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The This assessment helped in understanding the research was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 challenges faced by Small and medium-sized involved desk review and key informant enterprises and agri-corporates in Kenya, interviews. A desk review of existing literature Ethiopia and Zambia related to post-harvest and reports related to post-harvest losses in losses. Post-harvest losses in agriculture are a agriculture was conducted. The existing database major challenge for small and medium-sized on post-harvest losses such as African Post enterprises (SME) processors in developing Harvest Losses Information Systems (APHLIS) countries. These losses occur due to inadequate that collects, analyze and disseminate data on infrastructure, lack of storage facilities, and poor post-harvest losses on cereal grains in sub- post-harvest handling and processing methods. Saharan Africa (SSA), Ceres2030-an open- This leads to a significant waste of resources, access database to support users in exploring the reduced income for farmers and processors that data by crop, country, postharvest activity and source from them, and food insecurity. Agri- intervention type to inform and support corporates, on the other hand, have the resources evidence-based decisions, policy formulation and expertise to tackle these challenges, but and investments in postharvest loss reduction. often lack knowledge and understanding of the This database provides users with the challenges faced by SME processors. In opportunity to interactively explore the data on addition, they require additional supplies to meet postharvest loss reduction interventions, market demand. This need assessment aims to: Information Network on Post-harvest Operations • Address the needs of stakeholders to (INPho), aims at promoting good practices in identify challenges they face, supply chain post-harvest activities for agri-food products and requirements, production capacity and to assist in the expansion of agribusinesses by market access.  providing access to technical data and • Identify innovative solutions to reduce information and among other platforms. post-harvest losses developed by SME To complement the data collected in the first processors and agri-corporates phase, a survey was administered to SME, • Identify potential areas for collaboration processors and agri-corporates to collect and networking between producers, SME quantitative and qualitative data on the processors and agri-corporates.  challenges they face and potential areas for • Increase awareness and knowledge on collaboration. post-harvest losses and best practices among SME processors and agri-corporate and increase viability and market opportunities 2.1. Interview Structure for SME processors to showcase their We conducted semi-structured interviews, a style products and services to potential buyers and of interviewing shaped around pre-established investors questions drawn from trends and gaps in the • Identify potential for collaboration literature that were open-ended enough to allow between SME processors, agri-corporates, interviewees to introduce new themes and and researchers to address post-harvest topics. Specifically, we aimed to: (a) identify losses, and potential for scaling up and and map various actors who are implementing replication of successful solutions to other various post-harvest losses (PHL) reduction regions and countries. interventions along the selected value chains, (b) 9 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS challenges/barriers posed by PHL and (c) backgrounds and expertise to brainstorm identify opportunities for collaboration (see the innovative ideas that can help SMEs and large interview guide in Appendix A). agri-corporates collaborate more effectively. This collaboration can be in the form of mutually The data collection was carried out in 2023 beneficial commercial partnerships, strategic between the months of July and August. The investments, or a combination of both. research focused on key value chains specific to each of the three countries. The sample selection involved sourcing the interviewees through literature review, past engagement in AICCRA and other projects within the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and other partners. The target stakeholders were small- scale and medium-scale enterprises and large Agri corporates in each of the value chains specific to each country. The scheduling of the interviews was done virtually, in-person and by telephone to allow proper planning of the interviews. Over 100 stakeholders were contacted, however, with the challenges of the low response rate and missing specific attributes, Th is assessment helped in 38 stakeholders were available for the interviews understanding the challenges faced in Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia. A qualitative by approach was also administered. It was required Small and medium-sized for every participant who was willing to take enterprises and agri-corporates in part in the survey to provide verbal consent. The Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia related respondents who consented to participate in the key informant interview (KII) verbally were to post-harvest losses. interviewed and the results are explained below. In instances where the interviewee was not comfortable in answering some of the questions, then those questions were skipped. In addition to the primary data, secondary data was used in the research. Literature review was relevant in fostering critical analysis of post-harvest losses. 2.3. Analysis Descriptive statistics were used in the data analysis. Under descriptive statistics, the amount of/volume of production and post-harvest losses averages were calculated. This was done across each of the specific value chains in each of the three countries. Overall, this research provides valuable input into designing the hackathon, which is a collaborative event where people come together to solve a complex problem or create something new within a limited timeframe. A hackathon can bring together participants from different 10 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS agriculture. Efforts to reduce post-harvest losses 3.0 POST-HARVEST (PHL) have the potential to improve producers’ income and build more resilient value chains, LOSS CHALLENGES able to withstand the effects of climate-related shocks and stressors. In addition, reducing PHL will alleviate the need to bring additional land FAO defines Post harvest loss (PHL) as under cultivation, thereby mitigating negative measurable losses in edible food mass (quantity) environmental impacts from agriculture (Carlotta or nutritional value (quality) of food intended for Ridolfi, 2018). human consumption. The post-harvest system comprises a range of interconnected activities, In developing countries, specific causes of from the time of harvest through processing, postharvest loss vary widely, depending on crop marketing, preparation, and finally consumption type, region, culture, weather, and farmers’ decisions at the consumer level, either to eat or incomes (U.S. Department of State, 2013). to discard (Kiaya, 2014). Each year, large Losses result from poor storage and handling quantities of food are wasted or lost at each of practices and a lack of infrastructure. Stemming these stages during their journey to consumers. postharvest loss requires targeted investments According to a study by FAO, around one third and agricultural policies, which in turn requires (1.3 billion Tonnes) of food produced for human understanding the causes and impacts of loss. consumption is lost or wasted globally each The challenge is that reliable data is scarce or year. nonexistent in many countries (APHLIS, 2023). However, in Kenya, poor post-harvest It can also be defined as the degradation in both management renders much agriculture quantity and quality of a food production from unprofitable, with an estimated 40 percent of harvest to consumption. Quality losses include harvested crops being lost every year, those that affect the nutrient/caloric composition, representing financial losses of up to USD 500 the acceptability, and the edibility of a given million (WFP, 2023). product. These losses are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002). The World Bank estimated that around US$4 Quantity losses refer to those that result in the billion annually could be saved in Sub-Saharan loss of the amount of a product. Loss of quantity Africa by reducing the post-harvest loss in grains is more common in developing countries (Kiaya, -mainly cereals and legumes (World Bank, 2014). FAO report indicates that at global level, 2019). This is more than the value of total food volumes of lost and wasted food in high income aid received in the region over the last decade. regions are higher in downstream phases of the There are four major reasons to address post- food chain, but just the opposite in low-income harvest loss according to (Megan Sheahan, regions where more food is lost and wasted in 2017). upstream phases (FAO, 2013). 1. Improve food security 2. Improve food safety Substantial food losses in sub-Saharan Africa 3. Reduce unnecessary input use occur at production, during storage and handling 4. Increase profits for food value actors stages at the farm level (FAO, 2011). It is estimated that the total post-harvest loss in Sub- This technical paper uses a value chain approach Saharan Africa amounts to one third of total food to analyze the post-harvest losses that occur at produced in volume (FAO, 2011). Such losses different stages with the respective post-harvest disproportionately affect the incomes of farmers management or practices. The value chain of in rural areas, where poverty rates are highest focus are livestock (dairy and aquaculture) and and whose livelihoods are totally dependent on 11 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS for crops include horticultural crops, cereals and storage arrangements can allow the entry of pulses. water, and give access to insects and rodents. The problem of post-harvest loss is especially Postharvest losses of cereal grains commence acute for horticultural crops. These losses range when they have reached physiological maturity between 20% and 35% (Carlotta Ridolfi, 2018). in the field, i.e., when the grain production phase Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of is complete. What follows is a chain of vitamins and minerals essential for human postharvest activities from the field to the nutrition.  These are wasted in transit from consumer. This chain has at least eight links harvest to consumer affecting the quantity and from harvest to marketplace (harvesting/field quality of these nutritious foods. Additionally, drying, transportation to homestead, drying, careless harvesting and rough handling of threshing/shelling, winnowing, farm storage, perishable bruise and scar the skin, thus transport to the market and market storage). At reducing quality and market price of these each link, there are usually some dry matter commercial crops. Such damaged produce also weight losses when grain is scattered or spilt or fails to attract international buyers and bring the because of grain becoming rotten or consumed exporting country less profit. This ultimately by pests (a process called biodeterioration). After results in huge economic losses for the country. all of these stages, the cumulative loss from Therefore, reducing postharvest losses along all production is between 10-23% (APHLIS, 2023). segments of fruit and vegetable value chains Factors that may lead to grain weight loss presents an opportunity to improve nutrition include among others, Grain being scattered or security by capturing otherwise lost nutrients to spilt during postharvest handling (harvesting, channel into the food system and create threshing, transport), and biodeterioration that profitable, accessible and affordable diversified results from the activities of pests such as diets. Moulds, insects or rodents. The main organisms attacking grain during postharvest handling and storage are generally arthropods (mostly insects such as beetles, moths and mites), Moulds, rodents such as rats and mice and sometimes 3.1.Zambia birds. Weight losses due to biodeterioration are exacerbated by mechanical damage during handling. Improper handling of grain results in The substantial post-harvest losses in Zambia are grain breakage, this may happen at any point as a result of inappropriate storage facilities, during postharvest handling and storage but is sparse processing opportunities due to high costs especially a problem during threshing. For of equipment, inadequate transportation options, example, many farmers thresh maize by placing lack of timely market and price information, maize cobs in a sack and beating them with missing trading relationships, limited access to sticks. This results in a high proportion of broken agricultural inputs and below-average rainfalls as grain. The presence of broken grain by itself is a a consequence of changing climate patterns reduction in quality for all types of cereals, (GIZ, 2021). furthermore broken grains are much more Post-harvest grain losses have sometimes been susceptible to other types of quality decline such as high as 35% at some national grain storage as attack by Moulds and insects that may further facilities. In general, losses occur due to high lead to weight loss. Grains that are not dried to humidity, pest attacks and pilfering. Region II safe moisture content shortly after harvest are and III agro-ecological zones have sporadic rains likely to be affected by Moulds. High moisture that sometimes result in grain losses in storage content provides for a favorable environment for sheds and open-storage platforms (CIAT, 2017). the development of insect infestation and may The African post-harvest losses information also lead to chemical browning reactions that systems (APHILIS) provide data on the post- result in grain discoloration. Additionally, poor harvest losses of cereals in Zambia. In 2022, it is 12 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS estimated that 359,519T constituting 16.9% of volumes of domestically produced raw milk to maize were lost as a result of post-harvest. It achieve economies of scale. However, the lack further provides1 the financial losses as a result of data on the locations and potential milk of the PHL. It is estimated that these losses in the volumes needed hinders further investments to maize value chain accounts for 78, 606,749 expand the network of chilling, procuring, and USD. For vegetables, post-harvest losses are processing facilities in order to tap into lost milk estimated at up to 50%, due to lack of post- (ZEF, FARA, & Zambia Agriculture Research harvest processing and storage facilities and lack Institute, 2017). of market incentives for the smallholders (CIAT, In Soybean value chain, over 90% of famers in 2017; CIAT, 2017) Zambia, particularly women, use a hand- In the dairy value chain, post-harvest losses threshing method, which consists of beating the begin at the farm level after milking. It then grain with a wooden stick on a hard surface. This follows the market chain up to the consumption. method leads to grain damage and grain loss. It However, the magnitude of these losses is poorly is also a limiting factor for the area cultivated, documented (FAOSTAT, 2018). Two major since when planting, farmers consider physical causes of the losses are spillage and spoilage. capacity and time needed for harvesting and The spillage losses are most likely on the packaging the crop for markets. Hence the minimum side as compared to the spoilage. harvesting process dictates the area planted and However, there is a category of loss commonly consequently quantity and quality of the crop referred to as ‘forced consumption’, which sold. Hand threshing does not only induce occurs due to limited market opportunities. At income shortfalls for the farmers. It also poses the market level, PHL incurred are due to the health risks for them, as the dust raised during handling of leftover milk from previous day hand threshing is blamed for causing respiratory sales. Most traders record a significant volume illnesses (FAO, 2023). of leftovers from the previous day’s milk sales. Minimizing and eliminating post-harvest losses Most of the leftovers are used by the family, sold is critical to ensuring smallholder farming or allowed to ferment and sold as fermented households have enough food to last them the milk. Milk losses at the market level vary with whole year and have quality surplus to sell at a seasons. Rejection of farmers’ milk by good price (Katete, 2022). cooperatives and processors is minimal during the dry season but can climb to very high levels during the wet season when milk production is mostly high (GIZ, Alliance of Bioversity 3.2. Ethiopia International and CIAT, 2022).Within the A study by Debebe (2022) found that the cooperative milk chain, milk losses are low but magnitude of PHL of crops in Ethiopia was first become significantly high in the wet season for fruit and vegetables (33.38%), second for when delivery rejections are common. Losses at cereals (23.36%) and third for pulse and oilseed processing at the factory level are also low. This crops at (23.25%). The African post-harvest is attributed to the innovative solutions of cold losses information systems (APHILIS) also storages and processing facilities in the provide data on the post-harvest losses of the factories. main cereals in Ethiopia. It reports higher post- A substantial portion of raw milk produced harvest losses in the major cereals in Ethiopia as through informal channels does not reach the compared to Kenya and Zambia. In 2022, it is formal market. The lost milk is usually sold or estimated that 1,109,201T constituting 17.6% of consumed locally either in the unprocessed or maize were lost as a result of post-harvest; fermented form. Dairy processors in Zambia face 614,474T (14.1%) of wheat were also lost as a shortages of raw milk supply due to increasing result of post-harvest losses. It further provides2 domestic demand for dairy products. Therefore, the financial losses as a result of the PHL. For there is pressure for the country to import maize, it is estimated that these losses account cheaper and poorer-quality fresh milk from other for 439,539,372USD while wheat value chain countries. Dairy processors need to access larger stands at 398,209,660 USD. 13 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS polypropylene bags and transported to storage Ethiopia, the second largest wheat producer in using human labor or donkey/horses. Since Africa after Egypt, contributes to 21.7% of the threshing fields are located near farmers’ homes, total wheat production and 18.3% of the wheat this is a brief postharvest practice. According to area harvested on the continent, producing 5.5 farmers in Ethiopia, quantitative losses due to million metric tons of wheat (FAOSTAT, poor transportation materials and improper 2020). However, there is significant amount of handling are less than 1.0%. The loss incurred wheat wasted as a result of high post-harvest during transportation from the threshing field to losses. The lack of or inadequate storage storage is also not substantial (GIZ, Alliance of facilities after harvest and unfavorable weather Bioversity International and CIAT, 2022). At the conditions after harvest contribute heavily to storage stage, wheat is lost due to infestation by these PHLs. The critical loss points are during insects, pests, diseases, rats, and the mishandling storage, threshing, winnowing, and field drying. of grains that may lead to spillages or breakages. Post harvest losses during harvesting are Reduction in this loss, particularly if it can common though the loss depends on several economically be avoided, would be of great factors such as variety differences, poor significance to growers, consumers, and other harvesting practice and delays, and use of poor- actors in the wheat value chain. quality sickles. Additionally, the occurrence of rain during harvesting leads to delayed harvesting. Wheat harvesting in Ethiopia is An assessment by Tadesse et al. (2017) reported largely done manually using hand-held sickles; that 54% of the total post-harvest losses of the mechanical harvesting is low. In most wheat value chain happen at the farm level. The households, family labor is a prerequisite input study further estimated PHL among other actors in the wheat value chain. Men harvest the wheat such as aggregators, wholesalers, retailers, and while women and children collect the bunches processors to be 3%, 4%, 6%, and 5% of the together. Conversely, the economically endowed volumes handled, respectively. Similarly, households hire laborers to harvest the wheat another study by Amentae et al, 2017 reports produce. The wheat variety that germinates and post-harvest losses among the primary actors of shatters early increases its susceptibility to the wheat value chain. It reports post-harvest rainfall related vulnerabilities. The estimated losses of 21% among farmers and cooperatives, loss during harvesting can be as much as 3.7%. 3% on collectors, 4% on wholesalers, 6% After harvesting, farmers practice field drying retailers and 5% post-harvest losses by for 1–7 days before threshing can commence. processors. Rain, pests such as rats, termites among others can also cause losses at this stage. The estimated According to recent studies, PHL in pulses loss from field drying is 2.5%. After drying, ranges between 12.5% and 28.4% of the total wheat grains with their stalks are transported to harvest. Crop harvesting, field drying/stacking, the threshing floor, mainly on women’s backs or transportation to threshing location, threshing, donkeys. PHL occurring during transportation is storage, and marketing are considered critical estimated at 1.7%. Threshing is done manually loss points in Ethiopia’s pulses value chain, in the open fields by people or using animals, largely due to poor harvesting techniques, poor which risks physical contamination and degrades post-harvest handling, and lack of storage the wheat quality especially when mixed with technologies to prevent storage loss. Harvesting pebbles or stones, cattle dung, and dirt. Spillage is mainly done by uprooting the entire crop and and scattering are also common at this stage. followed by field stacking for further drying Farmers spend a few days winnowing the grain before transporting to a threshing field. to separate it from the chaff, resulting in further Threshing is done using animals on the same day PHL due to mechanical and wind scattering of or after a few days depending on the crop’s the grains. The estimated cumulative loss due to moisture content or the farmers’ schedule. After threshing and winnowing is 4.5%. Threshed and threshing, the grain is immediately sold within cleaned grain is normally packed in the same day or a few days later. The main cause 14 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS of losses at harvesting is the shattering of pods, management strategy and to scale up for all other mainly during dry and sunny conditions, leading crop types in Ethiopia. The main factors to quantitative loss. The high-volume shattering determining post-harvest losses of crops are of pods also occurs during field drying. Some households with larger adult family size, higher pods and grains are lost to spillages and levels of education attendance, and wealth status, shattering during transportation to threshing large landholding size and damage of stored fields. Substantial amounts of grain are lost to crops by insect pests infestation and/or rodent spillage, but grains are mixed with soil, dirt, and feeding due to utilization of traditional storage cattle waste during threshing. The grains also equipment access to extension support services, suffer substantial breakages when beaten by cooperative marketing membership, and being sticks or trampled by livestock. Both quantitative far away from both all weathered roads and near and qualitative losses occur in stores due to local market centers due to a higher transaction storage pests and adverse environmental costs associated with a lack of market conditions. Poor handling during marketing also information, contamination, and mechanical leads to losses resulting from spillages, injuries (Debebe, 2022) . breakages, and theft. Milk postharvest losses are dynamic along the Post-harvest loss and quality deterioration of dairy value chain and poorly measured in terms horticultural crops occur due to lack of proper of monetary value and per capita milk care, use of inappropriate harvesting consumption and the magnitude of milk post- equipment and handling techniques. The severe harvest losses has not been accurately quantified post-harvest loss and quality deterioration of in Ethiopia (Fekata, et al, 2023). The main horticultural crops mainly occur during causes of post-harvest losses along the value harvesting followed by marketing, transporting chain include lack of suitable markets and and storage. Poor quality equipment and spoilage. Milk loss can be seen in economic, materials usage cause tremendous mechanical, qualitative, quantitative and nutritional terms. In physiological and pathological damage to the country, there is the adoption of low levels of horticultural crops. Farmers are minimizing technology in the conventional milk production their losses through traditional methods that are system to prevent microbial contamination and rudimentary (Mohammed Kasso, 2016). Most of spread. Additionally, milk and dairy product these materials and equipment are poor in distribution facilities are not designed to assist quality. For harvesting they use hand picking or with proper product handling and storage in an collecting with equipment such as sickle, spade, appropriate state prior to sale. These factors hoe, axe, ladder locally named ‘baalla’, cloth, exacerbate post-harvest losses in this value chain basket, canvas, sack, plastic bucket, palm oil (Fekata, et al, 2023). container, aluminum or plastic bowel, oil can and thatched and weaved baskets and containers. Similarly, packaging materials and equipment used are of rudimentary type. Baskets, sacs, 3.3. Kenya ‘tubo’, wooden box, plastic crates, leaves and Kenya’s climatic conditions are ideal for branches of different plants, aluminum and horticulture production. The horticulture industry plastic bowl, oil can, used cloth, cloth bags and in Kenya is the fastest growing agricultural sub- rope were the most common packing materials sector and ranks third in terms of foreign and equipment (Mohammed Kasso, 2016). exchange earnings from exports, after tourism and tea. However, the sector faces detrimental Reductions of post-harvest losses of crops are losses. Estimates of horticultural losses in Kenya crucial tasks in ensuring food and nutrition have been reported to be as high as 50%, mainly security. However, a lack of knowledge on the due to poor storage and handling practices extent of post-harvest losses and its associated (Carlotta Ridolfi, 2018). impeding factors are posing major challenges to effectiveness of grain post-harvest loss 15 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS The African post-harvest losses information collection ceases and farmers do not have proper systems (APHILIS) provide data on the post- milk preservation techniques. Rejection at harvest losses of cereals in Kenya. In 2022, it is market is a result of poor handling and the time estimated that 522,480T constituting 16.7% of taken to reach markets due to distances and the maize were lost as a result of post-harvest, for condition of roads. Rejections are higher during sorghum 22,370T constituting 12.6% were lost the wet season, when production is high, and as result of PHLs. It further provides3 the roads are impassable. Few studies have financial losses as a result of the PHL only for documented the losses along the milk value maize and it accounts for 161,376,884 USD. In chain. Milk loss estimates at the farm level range Kenya, most farmers store their harvested maize from 3% to over 6% of the total to provide for food stocks between the harvest production (Fintrac, USAID, 2015). seasons. Stored maize is highly susceptible to insect damage. The estimates of postharvest losses of maize caused by major storage insect Poor handling of milk at the farm and long pests vary from 24 to 48.5% for untreated grains distances to market results in significant post- after six to nine months. The major storage farm level losses due to spoilage. Poor handling insect pests include the larger grain includes unhygienic practices such as milking in borer Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) open environments, leading to potential (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), maize contamination by flies and dust, and calf weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky) suckling to stimulate milk letdown, which could (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and angoumois contaminate milk. Other hygiene concerns grain moth Sitotroga cereallela (Lepidoptera: include inadequate cleaning of hands before Gelechiidae). The control of stored product milking, ignoring teat dripping before milking, insect pests on smallholder farms remains a using plastic containers for milking and storage, major challenge. Currently, synthetic lack of fridges for cooling, and inadequate insecticides are widely used to control insect cleanliness in the milking and animal pests of stored grains. However, less than 25% environments. Such handling practices are often of applied insecticides achieve good results compounded by poor road infrastructure, which leading to misperception of ineffectiveness. hinders timely market access, especially in the Misuse of insecticides has resulted in insect cold and wet season. resistance, chemical residues in grains and adverse effects on human and animal health. In Poor milk composition, microbial contamination addition, heavy storage damage results in and adulteration are constraints to dairy sector reduced quantity and nutritional content, development. Microbial contamination of milk sometimes rendering the grains unfit for human occurs when bacteria found in the cow’s udder, consumption, and low market value. Readily often causing mastitis, or from the cow and her available cost-effective storage devices that can environment, enter the milk through unhygienic reduce insect pest infestation and damage are milking and handling practices (Nyokabi, therefore required (Kimondo Mutambuki, 2021). If the milk is not tested at the farm gate, 2019). the milk is sold to traders or collectors and eventually spoils. Milk adulteration also undermines the quality of milk sold to processors In Kenya, dairy farmers lose about 95 million and consumers. Multiple value chain actors liters of milk annually. Total farm-level losses handle milk during bulking and transporting, are estimated at 4.5% of milk value, while which increases the risks of microbial physical loss of milk through spillage and contamination and adulteration (GIZ, Alliance of spoilage stands at 3.8% of milk production Bioversity International and CIAT, 2022). (MoALF, 2013). Milk losses in Kenya are Antibiotics and inhibitory substances, such as highest at the farm level as a result of spoilage, hydrogen peroxide and formalin, can directly lack of market and rejection at market. adulterate milk. Chemical contaminants such as Significant losses occur with evening milk, when aflatoxin, pesticides, and antibiotics affect milk 16 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS processing. Contamination with bacteria such as units, especially in lower income urban Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. is a sign of areas (Fintrac, USAID, 2015). poor milk handling and hygiene practices (Nyokabi, 2021). Zoonotic bacterial diseases, such as brucellosis and Q-fever (Coxiella burnetti), are a major public health concern for consumers in Kenya (GIZ, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, 2022). Contamination of milk with lactic acid bacteria is also common in Kenya and, if not controlled by heat treatment or immediate cooling, eventually results in sour milk, spoilage, and reduced shelf life of dairy products. Chemical contamination of milk refers to the presence of chemical residues such as pesticides, antibiotics, and preservatives (Nyokabi, 2021). Milk adulteration, i.e., the alteration of the natural composition of milk, is also a significant challenge in the Kenyan dairy value chain (Nyokabi, 2021). Adulteration occurs through extraction of one or more of its components, such as fat, or the addition of substances, such as water, by value chain actors. Adulteration undermines milk quality sold to processors and consumers in Kenya (Ondieki et al., 2017; Wanjala et al., 2017). Although milk is usually not cooled during bulking and transporting from the farm, cooperatives and processors in the formal chain often have a central bulking location, where they collect, bulk, and cool milk before transporting it to processing factories. Constraints faced by milk traders include poor quality of milk purchased from producers, flowing through outdated or poorly maintained cooling facilities, and being treated with subpar handling practices, seasonality-driven price fluctuation, high transport costs and insufficient capital. While there are an estimated 200 chilling plants in the country, poor management and a lack of efficient operational systems lead to prohibitive start-up costs and significant losses. Milk dispensing enterprises have emerged as a popular alternative source of milk, providing low-income consumers with quality milk at affordable prices. They present significant opportunities to develop the dairy value chain but require interventions to identify safety issues and facilitate investments in more dispensing 17 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS For most of the stakeholders, there are no gender differentiated losses across the three countries. This indicates that both women and men are equally affected by post-harvest losses 4.0 RESULTS: NEEDS and face similar challenges related to post- harvest. However, when it comes to minimizing ASSESSMENT FOR THE losses, there are differential traits, especially in the dairy value chain. Women have a tendency to MANAGEMENT OF PHL minimize loss due to their careful and articulate approach to hygiene. Therefore, having female employees in a processing plant has been shown This section presents the results and discussion to result in minimal losses. Similarly, in the of the study, which was to understand the soybean and leafy vegetable sectors, women challenges faced by SMEs and agri-corporates in workers are preferred at the grading station Kenya, Ethiopia and Zambia in relation to post- because of their heightened caution and harvest losses. The two sub-aims - the first to articulation, compared to their male identify challenges and innovative solutions to counterparts. reduce post-harvest losses developed by SME processors and agri-corporates and second to identify potential areas for collaboration and 4.1. Kenya networking between producers, SME processors Most of the actors we interviewed were small- and agri-corporates. It will further determine the scale to medium scale enterprises. The large Agri effectiveness of these solutions in the adaptation corporates were not responsive while some were towards post-harvest losses. Through this, it will not willing to participate in the KIIs. According identify potential for collaboration between SME to the Ministry of Industrialization, Trade and processors, agri-corporates, and researchers to Enterprise Development State Department for address post-harvest losses, and potential for Industrialization, Small enterprise means a scaling up and replication of successful solutions business activity whose annual turnover ranges to other regions and countries. These aspects between KES 1 million and KES 5 million and were described in the previous chapter that meets any of the these criteria; a) Employs presented the methodology used in the study. between 10-50 people; b) Has total assets as shall be determined from time to time by the Cabinet Secretary (Responsible for matters Generally, the SMEs and the large agri- relating to MSEs). Small and medium-sized corporates focus and engage in the value chain of enterprises are the backbone of Kenya’s their focus to ensure food security and to economy. generate income. For instance, milk is significant in ensuring food security and income Most stakeholders we interviewed in Kenya generation. Milk is a highly nutritious and were carrying out cross-sector projects, versatile commodity that is consumed by a large oriented—even if not explicitly—around post- portion of the population. The production and harvest losses. We found a small number of distribution of dairy products not only provides a organizations who focus specifically on single stable and reliable source of nutrition for issues or who did systems-based work without consumers but also contributes to their overall any major constraints, but most faced formidable health and well-being. Similarly, other value challenges on post-harvest losses. Similarly, to a chains such as fish, cereals, legumes, study by FAO, 2018 to explore the specific horticulture, and leafy vegetables are also constraints faced by SMEs engaged in nutrition economically relevant and important for meeting improvement in Kenya. These challenges the dietary needs of the larger population. include insufficient and stringent access to financing. Most SMEs cannot rely on a large 18 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS capital base, but many opportunities to access as tea, with a high preference for raw milk, even funding are either too stringent or too specific in among high-income urban groups (ILRI, 2008). the financing of post-harvest needs they Raw milk is seen as superior due to its high address. Additionally, SMEs encounter limited butterfat content and appealing taste, and it is access to markets, making it challenging for 20–50% cheaper than pasteurized milk, making them to establish or sustain markets for their it more accessible to the poor. The expanding products, especially when competing against dairy sector and improved farm-level large-scale food manufacturers and other productivity in Kenya present an opportunity for setbacks. In this sense, successful milk processing, which is vital to absorb the implementation of post-harvest losses strategies, increase in milk production and trade to innovations, technologies will require international markets. strengthening the institutional and financial capacity of key actors along the respective value Meru Diary Union, a large-scale processing chains. In turn, farmers must have the company has 65 complete farmers' cooperative information to understand post-harvest losses society affiliated with the union. Cooperatives and how to respond to it. Appropriate strategies, get the milk from individual farmers through technologies and innovations will be contingent bulking.  The union provides transportation, upon farmers’ ability to access crucial extension chilling and cooling facilities. It ensures the services in a systematic way and allow for the quality is met through continuous testing. In adequate response against post-harvest Bukura college, the dairy was established with losses. To cope with post-harvest losses, the the twin objectives of commercial milk SMEs are using a number of adaptation production after value-addition and as a training strategies as will be seen below. unit for college students undertaking a course in animal production. It is classified as a medium scale key actor in the dairy value chain. Not only does it engages in processing, but also provides 4.1.1. Dairy transportation of milk to its customers. This distribution is done to retail outlets such as Milk processing has been relatively unstable, kiosks and small supermarkets. Other important with the entry and exit of many low-capacity actors that interact with Bukura College and processors. As of 2019, there were 29 licensed Meru Dairy Union include packaging dairy processors and 67 mini dairies (KDB, companies, KEBS crucial in the certification and 2019). The installed capacity in dairy processing quality regulation, Kenya Dairy Board (KDB), currently stands at 3.75 million liters per day input providers that supplies inputs for the (KDB, 2019). The milk processors operate at processing of yoghurt, butter, ghee, fermented half capacity, accounting for 12% of fresh milk milk, private organizations for purchasing testing sales in urban centers, primarily due to the low material. The Kenya Bureau of Standards and the demand for pasteurized milk, given its relatively Kenya Dairy Board have also accredited their high price compared to raw milk. Although operations. active milk processors produce a wide range of products, including long-life milk, butter, cheese, The stakeholders understand post-harvest losses yogurt, sour milk, tinned condensed milk, and considering their activities, losses are skimmed milk and milk powder, fresh milk is incurred even after processing.  Milk is a highly still the predominant product. Value addition perishable product, and the main causes of post- increases the shelf life of the products and harvest losses are milk handling, intermittent competitive advantage on the markets. This power supply, the lack of cold chains, lack of activity is common among the actors that we adequate knowledge on proper preservation, interviewed. To further increase their profits, poor technologies, transportation delays and these actors brand these value-added climate change among others. Excessive rains products. This is because raw milk does not make roads impassable increasing the time spent fetch good money. However, traditionally, dairy on milk on the road leading to spoilage. Another consumption in Kenya is mainly in liquid milk 19 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS notable point is that most of the clients served by freezers to preserve the milk. In the output Bukura College do not have access to cold market supplies, these stakeholders study the storage facilities. Therefore, Bukura college has market demand and supply chain to ensure they a return policy that after 3-4 weeks when the understand the market dynamics and needs. milk has not been sold, then it can be returned to There are three major target areas for them. If the local distribution and marketing intervention to reduce or eliminate milk PHL in system is efficient, they can rely on milk being Kenya. These cover farm-level actors, informal available for sale all the year round, but if they chain actors such as small traders and hawkers, are isolated for at least part of the year through and transporters. These interventions include bad roads and lack of transport, their milk Training on proper milk handling, hygienic milk distribution will be more at risk. A good practices, quality testing, appropriate marketing infrastructure, maintenance of rural preservation and processing technologies, and roads and marketing services have profound good business practices. These fall within the effects on milk availability and market prices. Dairy Industry Act enforced by the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB) and the Public Health Act For the large processor like Meru Dairy Union, enforced by the Ministry of Health (MoH). the total production of milk is 750,000 liters per day while Bukura College- medium scale is 800 liters per day. In terms of post-harvest loss, Meru Several organizations provide external support to Dairy Union reports only 1% while Bukura these actors while they are carrying out their College reports 3%. The disparity between the interventions. These organizations range from two can be explained in part by the strong government, NGOs, research institutions, agro- interventions put in place by the large Agri processors among others. The support they corporates to curb post-harvest losses. There is a receive is technical, financial or in-kind. The strong monitoring system in place to ensure the government has distributed a cooler tank, 3200 losses can be minimized and enhanced cold liters for milk storage in Bukura college. The storage to minimize post-harvest losses within milk can at least be stored there and chilled for the dairy value chain. Other strategies include 2-3 days before it is processed. The project also investing in a lot of capacity building and got support from German Agency for sensitization by engaging farmers in terms of International Cooperation (GIZ) to establish a production and aligning of standards, capacity modern dairy farm when students wrote a building on basic tests before collection, quality funding proposal. The agency helped the college control team from farms to factory, supply construct a dairy plant with a Sh25 million grant, lactometers, testing reagents, testing guns. The providing the college with increased capacity to union owns cooling facilities, and the union produce more milk. They have also received a personnel support running the chilling lot of technical support through capacity facilities. The union takes the chilling facilities building from GIZ on milk handling, value as near as possible to cooperative and farmer addition among others. groups. After bulking, minimum time is taken to processing in the silos to reduce the PHL. 4.1.2. Aquaculture Similarly, Bukura College is involved in a lot of training in milk handling. Experts argue that in There are several post-harvest value chain order to scale up agricultural productivity, activities carried out by several stakeholders in education and training play a vital role in the Kenya in the aquaculture value chain. We realization of food security and nutrition. To interviewed small-scale and medium scale tackle the power outage challenges, there are enterprises. Some of the main activities include backup power and biogas plants that act as not carrying out massive harvesting up to about only alternative source of energy but an efficient 2.5tonnes a week, after which they are and renewable option in chilly processing. processed. Processing includes removal of scales Relatedly, retailers have refrigerators and deep and intestines. Fish is then packed in cooler 20 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS boxes with ice to be transported to various keep the fish fresh for as long as 24hours. Muga selling points such as shop outlets. For Fish farm produces ice flakes, which are always enterprises on the island such as Lake View carried along for use just in case there are delays Fisheries, transportation is done frequently to the on the road during transportation. mainland through the water (using boat, waterbus or ferry) then use a company truck There are no tangible collaborations with other which is based on the mainland to distribute to small- scale and medium farmers. The gutting the various outlets. Since the outlets are also and scaling are done by farm staff and additional widely spread across the various counties, hands from the communities. However, they transportation also becomes a key activity. The closely work with small scale farmers who have enterprises directly interact with different actors limited access to the market by providing market across the value chain, for example fish is to them (aggregating from them) to help them directly sold to institutions like schools, hotels, reduce on the post-harvest losses since most of retailers and direct consumers. them do not have access to cold storage facilities and cooler boxes which can be used for The understanding of post-harvest losses among preservation. the stakeholders is similar, they concur that these are the losses incurred from the time the fish is It is important to promote capacity building and harvested and the time they are sold to the sensitization on the various possible consumers/traders. These losses can be ways/interventions of minimizing post-harvest categorically grouped into two i.e., physical loss losses. This can be achieved by intensified of the fish and loss in monetary value of fish. training/workshops for nursery operators, grow- Physical loss can be attributed to poor storage out farmers and extension officers to the county technologies e.g., tights sacks instead of cooler level to have a fast and meaningful impact. Other boxes, long exposure to hot temperatures feasible pathways that can work in this value exacerbating faster decay of the fish, use of chain is various post-harvest technologies, such unhygienic storage materials. Conversely, the as improved fish solar driers, improved fish loss in monetary value is mostly associated with smoking kilns, and improved fish processing and low prices, which can either result from the value-addition equipment, can be promoted trending market prices or because of the poor among fish traders across the country (Keyombe quality of fish, which might be resulting from the et al., 2018). practices resulting in physical loss mentioned earlier. Post harvest losses can be quantified either in terms of value of the loss or the percentage of the loss. For example, if you 4.1.3. Cereals (Maize, Sorghum, harvest 8,000kg from a cage and 500kg is lost and Finger Millet)  through physical damage or rotting, it will be In Kenya, large-scale millers deal majorly with captured as 500kg/8000kgx100%=6.25%loss. maize and wheat, while small-scale millers use Monetary loss is quantified in terms of the hammer mills and occasionally mechanical corresponding value. Using the same example dehullers. and noting that a kilogram of fish is worth 350 In the finger millet and sorghum value chain, the KES, this means that the total value of loss is growing demand for value-added products has 350*500=sh175, 000. prompted increased investments by agro- processing companies, especially in finger millet There are several interventions in place to and sorghum, which are readily milled into flour. address post-harvest losses. Some of these There are untapped processing opportunities. enterprises embraces the use of modern However, the flour is for domestic markets and technologies i.e., cold storage facility (running is found in supermarkets and cereal stores. East cold room) within the firm that is used for Africa has an increasing number of small, storage of freshly harvested fish while for medium, and large commercial millers and transportation, they use cooler boxes which can processors producing pure and composite flour 21 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS and porridge mixtures. Despite the potential of harvest system for cereals as documented by sorghum and millet in the processing industry, UNIFEM, 1988: harvesting, pre-drying in the less than 5% of the produce is commercially field, threshing, winnowing, drying, storage of processed in East Africa (Rohrbach, David, grain, primary processing (such as cleaning, 2003). Nevertheless, there exist opportunities for grinding, hulling, pounding, milling, grinding, increasing sorghum and millet production for the tempering, soaking, parboiling, drying, and brewing, animal feed, and milling industries. sieving), secondary processing (including This necessitates intensified commercialization baking, frying, cooking, extruding, blending, of sorghum and millet products through the fermenting, roasting), as well as packaging, effective participation of key actors involved in marketing, and utilization by customers. the entire value chain (Dorcas Jalango, 2022). Additionally, the use of hermetic bags reduces The small- scale enterprises typically referred to the quantity of post-harvest losses and pesticides as posho mills were available and willing to utilization during the storage period for sorghum, participate in the interviews. These enterprises millet and green grams. are mostly involved in drying maize and milling it into maize flour. Value addition increases the Maize is a major contributor to household food shelf life of the products and competitive security and nutrition. Most farmers grow maize advantage on the markets. Some of the other few since it is considered a staple food in Kenya. It is value addition activities they are involved in accompanied by other value chains of focus such include grading, dehulling and flour making. as leafy vegetables, fish etc. Post harvest losses largely affect the maize value chain, and the These small –scale actors do not report post- main causes of post-harvest losses include lack harvest losses. This is because the interventions of access to market, poor storage facilities and in place limit the losses. The most promising the lack of adequate knowledge. Climate change intervention is the proper drying of maize, leads to increased incidences of pests and increased access to the market, good storage- use diseases, storage pesticides such as large grain of hermetic bags and management of storage borer commonly known by the farmers as pests and diseases. The post-harvest handling of osama. Relatedly, excessive rainfall especially cereal and legume grains presents different during harvest can lead to increased rotting. In problems as will be seen in the subsequent addition, inadequate drying of maize under wet section. For these crops, the drying stage is all- conditions is likely to increase chances of important, to reduce attack and damage from aflatoxin contamination- The rudimentary insects and fungi. method of food storage has led to several cases of aflatoxin contamination and grain rotting Despite the small- scale actors interviewed not during the field drying stage. One of the experiencing major post-harvest losses in maize recommendations to overcome this challenge at value chain, post-harvest losses in maize value the household level is to ensure adequate chain are a serious issue. To tackle the losses, division of labor among the household members, hermetic grain storage technologies such as especially in timely grain harvesting. This metal silo and SuperGrain IV-R bag, standard demonstrates the need to appreciate fully the woven polypropylene bag with or without constraints and strategies of existing farming Actellic super dust are common. Both metal silo systems, together with the significance of and SuperGrain IV-R bag suppress insect involving the target communities in the selection population, preventing grain loss and cross- and introduction of proposed interventions. infestation of insects from the surrounding environment. On the contrary, polypropylene Due to the unavailability of the large Agri bags allow rapid buildup of insect population corporates in the maize value chain for and re-infestation from the surrounding interviews in this study, a literature review was environment (Paddy Likhayo, 2016). Another conducted to gather the necessary data. The study evaluated the triple layer Purdue Improved following are the stages in the complete post- Crop Storage (PICS) airtight bags against two 22 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS major storage insect pests to determine efficacy the consumer. The actors report up to 7 in controlling these major stored grain pests: middlemen between the farmer and the larger grain borer P. truncatus and the maize consumer. Additionally, improper handling of weevil S. zeamais. These results demonstrate that the produce could contribute to wastage/losses. PICS bags can be used to store maize against P. This is further exacerbated by improper truncatus and S. zeamais attack as they suppress transportation. This may also include improper insect development, maize grain damage and packaging that has the potential to contribute to weight loss during storage (Kimondo an increase in post-harvest losses.   Finally, Mutambuki, 2019). climate change is a huge contributor to post- harvest losses in the leafy vegetable value chain. The extreme temperature is an important climatic risk that affects this value chain. The losses are 4.1.4. Leafy Vegetables further exacerbated by the lack of cold storage facilities. Retailers are the most affected, often Mace Foods Ltd is a social agri-business being responsible for discarding spoiled produce working with over 2,500 farmers in Kenya, in many instances. spanning across 13 counties to produce pre- cooked, high quality, hygienic, and nutritious The average production of leafy vegetables after leafy vegetables to large institutions and schools harvesting in medium scale actors ranges in Kenya. Mace Foods processes seven varieties between 10- 12 Tonnes depending on the season. of leafy vegetables include: Black Nightshade, In the low season, the produce ranges between 3 Spider Plant, Cowpeas, African Kale, Amaranth, and 5 Tonnes.  The losses are however estimated and Jute Mallow. at 10% of the produce. The actors interviewed agree that leafy vegetables are highly perishable, posing a threat To tackle the PHL, these actors have come up in handling, storage and transportation.  There is with feasible strategies and innovations. Mace a high incidence of vegetable rotting. The main Foods offers farmers gurney bags for vegetable causes of PHL as cited by the respondents are transportation. They also have aggregation lack of adequate equipment in post-harvest crates, for aeration of the vegetables so that they handling, climate change, lack of adequate don't go bad while colanders help in plucking. knowledge amongst farmers on post-harvest The enterprise has gone a step further in handling and management, too much surplus in localizing the plucking to the farm level from the the market and household, middlemen/brokers. factory. The direct impact on the business is Mace Foods, for example, has decreased the reduced processing time leading to reduction of percentage of loss by 30% by using aggregation overall cost of production by 16%. This has centers to make it easier for farmers to transport helped to reduce losses caused by delays in their produce over long distances.  The drying and improved the processing lead by 92% aggregation center's proximity to the farmers has compared with the current turnaround time for shown successful results. They issue ticket vegetable processing. Additionally, they provide numbers and through that they can know per day colanders specifically for women, as they are the how many farmers would bring in their produce.  key actors in plucking. They also provide On the other hand, E- Mboga, links farmers to hermetic bags that have proven effective in the market, buys from the farmers then sells to managing post-harvest losses. Mace Foods also the consumers. The business to consumer model offers refresher training at home level, mobilize, enables the connection between wholesalers, recruit, and train farmers free of charge on small scale farmers, and the distribution to production techniques and post-harvest handling retailers.  It channels the consumers to buy from of the raw materials. Additionally, after their appointed retailers  processing, they ensure the products are well packed. The enterprise is involved in pre-cooked; Another main cause of PHL in leafy vegetables dehydrated vegetables have a 2-year shelf life thus is increased middlemen between the farmer and eliminating the need for refrigeration 23 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS upon harvesting, farmers prefer to sell On the other hand, E- Mboga provides an immediately. Farmers are organized into farmer efficient market system by creating a groups where they aggregate their produce and marketplace with free interactions digitally. sell when the prices are good. Some of the Digital Marketing is helpful to farmers to reach recommendations reported include training in out the multiple buyers and get higher prices for post-harvest activities such as harvesting, their products. It especially empowers cleaning, drying and good storage. agricultural startups to have better access to markets and allows them to reliably sell more produce not just at higher prices but with better 4.1.6. Mangoes quality too. There are several actors within the academia, research, NGOs space that are actively The compelling reason why the enterprises supporting the SMEs in their engage in mango value chain is to increase interventions. These include University of income generation to farmers and cushion them Nairobi and JKUAT that have supported in from post-harvest losses. Mango farms have the product development. Though still to be rolled potential to contribute significantly to food out, they are developing the value addition of security and income generation. In terms of food vegetables to noodles. While Technoserve and security, mangoes are a nutritious fruit that can SNV have supported in offering technical and provide a valuable source of vitamins and financial assistance to agri-businesses, enabling minerals, helping to diversify diets and improve them to implement climate-smart innovations, nutrition for local populations. Due to their high technologies and practices that lead to higher demand, mangoes can generate higher income profits. for farmers, offering them a sustainable source of livelihood. Additionally, these farms have the potential to generate employment opportunities, 4.1.5. Pulses (Greengrams) benefiting local communities and contributing to rural development. These opportunities range The main causes of post-harvest losses in green from farm labor during planting and harvesting gram value chain are lack of adequate capital, to activities related to processing and marketing, lack of access to market, lack of adequate resulting in both direct and indirect employment knowledge, climate change leading to increased along the value chain. incidences of pests and diseases, lack of aggregation centers and adequate storage facilities and power outage. There are active value chain actors' interactions in the horticulture/mango value chain. Some of For this study, only one enterprise was available these actors and their responsibilities include for the interview. The Inamangu CBO PLC juice manufacturers involved in the sale of puree, primarily focuses on seed outgrowing activities, traders also involved in the sale of puree, although they also have some involvement in transporters involved in the transportation of other post-harvest management stages, albeit puree and raw materials, producers through indirectly. cooperatives- purchase of mangoes. They provide capacity building to farmers in The main causes of post-harvest losses in mango various areas such as harvesting, cleaning, other horticulture crops include insufficient threshing, and drying. This training is aimed at markets, poor prices, insufficient knowledge of preventing aflatoxin contamination and teaching value addition, and lack of technologies for farmers proper storage techniques. value addition. For the medium scale enterprises, the average production after harvest is a range The actor indicated that there are no traceable from 1000-1500MT of mangoes. Post harvest losses. This is because green gram is considered losses are quantified and monitored by the a cash crop especially in Kitui county, therefore 24 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS actors; this is with the aim of reducing the PHL.   In Makueni processing plant, at the factory level, they inspect and receive what meets their One important thing to highlight is that there are standards. Any damages or unfit fruits are no gender specific differences in the rejected before weighing. Any loss at ripening implementation of the strategies to reduce PHL. stage is quantified by weighing. The average loss However, the agri-business involved in these associated with the PHL is reported to be below efforts have made a conscious effort to include 2% of quantity received. women and young people in their operations. For example, at the Makueni processing plant, they The main post harvest activities in the mango employ a daily workforce of 50-100 youths, value chain are value addition/processing. including women, during production. Young Crushing ripe mangoes to puree, which is energetic men do most of the transportation aseptically packaged and sold even in off-season. activity and off-loading. Therefore, involving These stakeholders understand that post-harvest women in post-harvest activities can be losses are as any produce that spoils after healthy beneficial, as they possess valuable skills and maturity from harvesting to consumption. Out of attention to detail. Training programs should 10 mango fruits, eight go to waste particularly emphasize their roles in tasks such as sorting, due to fruit fly in the hands of the farmer. Fruit cleaning, and packaging the harvested mangoes. fly can be managed by processing the mangoes early before the damage increases.  Nevertheless, there is still no active collaboration between key actors across the mango value chain. As a result, there are key There exist different strategies to reduce PHL in recommendations that should be put into action the mango value chain. Processing mangoes to address this gap. These recommendations during peak season into puree, which cushions include creating a policy for the packaging and farmers against losses that would otherwise have transportation of fruits, providing training for been experienced due to too much ripening at the individuals involved in handling fruits, offering same time. In Kitui County, Processing the financial assistance to youth and women groups mango-to-mango flakes, grouping the farmers to promote value addition, and establishing into farmer groups and cooperative society. connections between producers and markets to Through the cooperatives, the members work boost sales collectively and divide the labor to produce the mango flakes.10 mangoes will provide 1kg of Conclusively, implementing thorough pre- mango flakes. If dried well, it can last over 1 harvest practices can significantly minimize year. Another feasible intervention is the use of post-harvest losses in the mango industry. By solar drier in drying the mangoes. paying close attention to factors such as monitoring fruit maturity, providing proper Further recommendations on the best approaches irrigation, managing pests and diseases, and to reduce post-harvest losses include training planning harvest activities effectively, farmers programs can be organized to educate farmers on can greatly reduce the amount of fruit lost during the operational manual, ensuring they understand the post-harvest phase. By investing time and and implement best practices in all stages of effort into pre-harvest processes, farmers can mango production. Daily monitoring and ensure that the mangoes are harvested at the communication can help identify any potential optimal time and with the necessary preparations issues or challenges and allow for timely in place, resulting in minimal post-harvest interventions. Harvesting mangoes at the right losses. stage of maturity is crucial to minimize losses. Farmers should be trained in proper harvesting techniques and timing. Immediate transportation after harvest, particularly for delicate mango varieties, can help preserve their quality. 25 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS 4.2. Ethiopia estimated that one-third are concentrated in and around Addis Ababa (Bergh et al., 2012). Small- In Ethiopia, most of the actors we interviewed scale millers operate at 32 tons per day, medium- were small-scale, medium scale enterprises and scale millers at 42 to 63 tons per day, and large- large-scale agri-cooperates. The categorization scale millers at 60–500 tons per day. All wheat of businesses in Ethiopia, according to the milling firms are private companies since state Ministry of International Trade Administration owned millers were privatized. A few and Ethiopian Enterprises Development, is cooperatives and unions operate in Ethiopia with determined by their paid-up capital or total a medium scale milling capacity. Bakeries, pasta assets, as well as the number of employees. In and biscuit factories are also involved in wheat the service sector, a small enterprise is defined as processing (GIZ, Alliance of Bioversity having a paid-up capital or total assets between International and CIAT, 2022). Through the 50,000 and 500,000 ETB and employing KII, we were able to interview wheat flour between 6 and 30 individuals. In the industry millers, pasta and bakeries factories and sector, a small enterprise is defined as having a understand their challenges on post-harvest paid-up capital or total assets between 100,000 losses. Almost 53% of wheat reaches the final and 1,500,000 ETB and employing between 6 consumer in processed forms of flour, spaghetti, and 30 individuals. and bakery products; the rest is sold as grain On the other hand, a medium enterprise is which is then processed by consumers characterized by a paid-up capital or total assets (AACCSA, 2016) ranging from 500,000 to 7,500,000 ETB, and a staff size of 31 to 100 individuals. Ethiopian Grain Trade Enterprise (EGTE) is As of 2020, these small and medium-sized responsible for supplying both imported and enterprises (SMEs) accounted for nearly 60% of locally produced wheat, but only to registered employment and approximately 50% of the millers. Farmer cooperatives also supply wheat nation's GDP, as reported by the Government of to millers. While EGTE subsidizes prices for Ethiopia in 2020. imported wheat, locally produced wheat is unsubsidized, thus, more expensive (AACCSA, Generally, these actors that we interviewed had 2016). Moreover, mills in the rural areas prefer their fair challenges of post-harvest losses. They domestically produced wheat, which leads to have come up with innovations and technologies shortages in the urban millers. For this reason, to tackle these challenges. The success is most urban millers are operating at half capacity; improved based on active collaborations with they can only produce 3 million to 4.2 million other value chain actors that are in the forefront tons of flour annually (World Bank, 2020). . in knowledge enhancement and awareness Currently, there are more than 600 wheat- creation regarding these intervention . processing companies in Ethiopia. These include local, foreign, and joint venture companies. The three largest wheat-milling companies include Dina Food Complex , with a milling 4.2.1. Wheat capacity of over 200 metric tons (mt) per day Increased domestic demand for industrial wheat Fikir Food Processing, with a daily milling products due to urbanization and lifestyle capacity of around 150 mt per day; and Alhinan changes has led to increased wheat consumption Food Complex milling around 112 mt per day. presenting a huge opportunity for value addition. Baby cereal is also a product of high value for In most households, wheat grain is used to processors in Ethiopia (WFP, 2023). prepare the traditional fermented thin bread, regular bread,local beer, pasta, and biscuits. Wheat flour is an important value-added product Currently, there are more than 600 small and derived from wheat in Ethiopia. There are large flour mills in Ethiopia, with a total several wheat millers in Ethiopia. Dina Wheat production capacity of between 4 to 4.5 million Flour/ Food Complex acquires the wheat directly tons of wheat flour per year (USDA, 2022). It is from intermediaries, brokers, or traders and 26 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS engages in processing of the wheat, followed by means that when they purchase 100kg bag of packaging and ultimately selling it to final wheat grains, they only obtain 85kg of wheat customers as well as other processors. Al Hinan that can be classified as pure. Despite rejecting Food Complex is a large-scale manufacturing this kind of tampered wheat, it will still be sold facility that focuses on the entire value chain. to other factories. Unfortunately, this is beyond From procuring the raw materials to processing, their control as they do not possess sufficient packaging, and distributing the flour products. bargaining power in this situation. While they They ensure the procurement of high-quality may engage in negotiations pertaining to the wheat grains from brokers or suppliers and use price, the imposition of the quality remains advanced milling and grinding techniques to beyond their control. convert the wheat grains into flour, maintaining its nutritional value and quality. The flour is To tackle these pot harvest challenges, the then packaged into various kilogram bags and enterprises, farmers and other key actors have transported to the end consumers. put up in place climate smart interventions and Olben flour processing company source 80% of other scalable solutions that can reduce these their wheat from contracted farmers, primarily losses. There are several cost-effective post- located in the Bale zone in Oromia region known harvest handling management techniques and for its high-quality wheat production while 15% technologies in Ethiopia. They include hermetic of their supply comes directly from their own plastic bags (PIOS, AgroZ, and Yabi bags, and farm, while the remaining 5% is purchased from metal silos) that were introduced by the sellers or suppliers. After meticulously assessing government in collaboration with development the purity of the wheat, they transport it to the partners (Debebe, 2022). However, the issues of facility, where it undergoes transformation into price per bag, availability, and structural or wheat flour. The processed wheat is sold to mechanical integrity need to be considered for wholesalers who supply it to retailers, including the technology to be widely adopted nationwide. kiosks, bakeries, supermarkets, and restaurants, Farmers who harvest their crop at the proper and then to the final consumers. Some retailers time and moisture content can minimize loss also buy directly from processors. Some large during harvesting. Additionally, combined consumers, especially institutional consumers, harvesters, if used properly, minimize losses by also source directly from processors. shortening harvesting time, field drying and threshing. To mitigate PHL challenges , Dina food complex The stakeholders we interviewed also have other is attempting to utilize coveralls during transport. solutions in place. They have laboratories in the However, the primary issue lies in the presence factory that rigorously examine fundamental of excessive moisture content and impurities. parameters in order to guarantee the quality of This is similar across the companies we the final product. Specifically, these laboratories interviewed. Specifically, Al hinan food complex evaluate aspects such as moisture content and highlights the main post harvest challenge is the detect any present impurities. The mixture of inedible waste products with the implementation of contract farming has also wheat grains they purchase for further proven to be successful in this regard. It has processing. The presence of impurities poses a enabled Al Hinan Food Complex to effectively serious threat to their operations. Lower quality address the issue of impurities, ensuring that wheat is being blended with the main stock, they do not exceed a threshold of 2%. In often accompanied by a mixture of stones and contrast, when purchasing from suppliers and dirt, in an attempt to increase the overall weight. brokers, the impurity level was found to be as The permissible impurity level established by the high as 10%. Contract farming facilitates country stands at 6%, but they attempt to strive effective engagement between factory owners for a lower rate of 5%. Nevertheless, they and farmers as it addresses the issue of post- currently encounter an alarming impurity level harvest loss associated with the conventional and ranging from 10% to 15%. Consequently, this multiple chains. By participating in contract 27 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS farming, they have the opportunity to directly The enterprises/factories can later collect the procure fresh produce from farmers, ensuring the wheat produced to ensure wheat's quality and delivery of high-quality wheat. Olben flour reduced post-harvest losses as they can track it experiences very minimal losses and they allude easily. This approach is mutually advantageous, to the success of contractual farming. Similarly, affording the SMEs and large Agri corporates another promising intervention is ensuring the opportunity to provide the farmers with a closely monitoring to ensure proper monitoring premium price slightly higher than the market is done to maintain the quality standards of the rate, thereby presenting them with encouraging raw materials especially where the input supplies incentives. To achieve this, farmers must possess come from their own farm. knowledge on determining the appropriate time for harvest by assessing the moisture content of Individuals demonstrate a sensitivity towards the wheat. If this is missed, then the wheat is pricing and tend to prioritize it over quality. It is likely to develop mold. It is crucial to prioritize plausible that the price large Agri corporates the training and development of the agricultural offer may not align well with small and medium- workforce. Observing that moisture content sized enterprises (SMEs), Nonetheless, potential possesses a substantial weight when measured in areas of collaboration will be forming kilograms, it is imperative for the value chain partnerships with various SMEs and other actors to comprehend the futility of marketing a entities and moderate prices. product that lacks significant nutritional value. Hence, it is crucial to provide education and raise awareness among the key value chain Several actors have supported these SMEs and actors. large Agri corporates with training. These include Techno Serve, Ethiopian food and Conclusively, it would be favorable to establish pharmaceuticals, GIZ, and PTV which supported a direct means of selling to both cooperatives SMEs to be ISO certified, global alliance and unions, or even better, directly to customers training in quality control for technical themselves. Such an approach would prevent support. It is crucial for these enterprises to artificial price increases from occurring. Within involve the producers from the onset. The the current process, there exists an intermediary initiation of any process should ideally entity that comes into play as the unions and commence from the farmers themselves, and cooperatives engage, resulting in a series of therefore, they must receive adequate support. intermediary steps before the product ultimately By supplying them with the correct input reaches consumers. supplies- correct/ improved wheat variety and other important inputs. In the current year, a Spaghetti and macaroni are popular staple foods scarcity of fertilizers has been observed, in Ethiopia. They are important value-added consequently leading to a compromise in the products from wheat. Several companies quality of wheat produced by the farmers. To include Roma Macaroni/ Bueno,pasta Chilalo attain a higher caliber of produce, it is imperative food complex- pasta, Al hinan Food Complex that the government extends its backing to the Macaron, Aymi macaroni among other farmers. In the previous year, the government companies that produce it in the country. These attempted to establish fixed prices for the companies range from the small scale to large purpose of benefiting all stakeholders; however, corporates. They buy the grain first and convert it would be more beneficial to allow for a free it into flour. The flour undergoes further market system. The issue of security has posed a processing to macaroni. They can be transformed significant challenge for everyone in recent into different shapes and sizes. The macaroni years. It is unjust to oblige farmers to sell their products are hygienically packaged in crops at a predetermined price, especially appropriate materials, ensuring their freshness considering that they are unable to even cover and durability. These companies attempt to have the cost of inputs, let alone generate profit. an efficient distribution system in place to ensure the timely delivery of macaroni products to 28 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS various retailers and consumers. The distribution silo. Additionally, regular training for key is done throughout the country by traders, workers is crucial, and various partners, such as wholesalers, retailers and also drivers. Techno Serve and GIZ, actively support knowledge enhancement and awareness creation However, despite their success, all of these regarding these intervention stakeholders' face challenges related to post- harvest losses. The intensity of the losses, One possible avenue for collaboration involves however, varies with the size of the enterprise. forming direct partnerships with small and For example, Roma Macaroni anticipates losses medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). By joining of around 7% from the Durum wheat variety and forces, these companies can directly supply their 5% from the hard type, primarily due to products to these businesses, bypassing impurities like trash, stones, and dust. They also intermediaries. This collaboration would allow report losses of up to 20% during the flour for increased efficiency and faster delivery of processing stage. Similarly, Chilalo Food our macaroni to the market. Interestingly, these Complex experiences losses of up to 25%, companies such as Roma Macaroni also meaning they only utilize 75% of the raw collaborate with dairy farming especially with material (wheat grain) after converting it into fatting through their byproduct while Aymi flour and further processing it into macaroni. macaroni has been impressed by the results of The losses are attributed to impurities in the contract farming that has shown to reduce wheat grain (20%) and the delicate nature of impurity problems. pasta, which is prone to breakage (5%). Another important value-added product from wheat is bread. Bread is consumed by all social These post-harvest losses can be attributed to classes, including the upper, middle, and lower various factors. The main cause is during class. The demand for bread exceeds the supply, selection of the raw material (the grain wheat) highlighting its potential importance in meeting and in most cases electrical fluctuation. Improper the needs of all classes. The production of bread drying techniques or inadequate air circulation in bakeries is crucial for both ensuring food leads to moisture loss and affects the quality and security and generating income. We interviewed texture of the final product of macaroni. Kana bakery that qualifies as a small- scale Handling and transportation during post-harvest enterprise in the country. To achieve the 60q stages can cause breakage of macaroni pieces. threshold, they outsource from the agents and This sometimes occurs due to rough handling, complement the factory’s production. They are improper packaging, or insufficient cushioning engaged in value addition and marketing. during transit. Inadequate packaging materials or Transportation is managed by brokers or agents mishandling during storage and transportation who deliver the flour to their bakery. The flour is results in damage to the packaging of macaroni packaged in 50 kg bags for convenience during products, leading to contamination and spoilage. transportation. Bags get torn while transporting to the marketplace. Importantly, the recent security threats undermine transportation to the broader In the context of a bakery and pastry shop, post- community. harvest loss refers to the deterioration or wastage To address these post-harvest losses, the of ingredients and finished products after they companies have implemented various measures, are harvested or produced. This can include interventions, technologies, and ingredients such as flour, sugar, and fruits used strategies. Upgrading machinery and adopting in pastries, as well as baked goods like bread, the latest technology in the production process cakes, and pastries themselves. Factors has proven effective in reducing losses and contributing to post-harvest loss in the bakery ensuring a high-quality product. The entire enterprise include improper storage, insufficient process is connected through a pipeline, shelf life for the pastries, spoilage due to facilitating the transfer of macaroni through the microbial growth, physical damage, and 29 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS inadequate handling or transportation. ingredients such as oil and sugar. During their Carelessness among bakery staff can lead to collaboration, they however face challenges such mishandling of ingredients and finished as increased prices due to the involvement of products, resulting in damage or spoilage. The brokers and the lack of market regulation. absence of technology, such as proper storage Additionally, they encounter difficulties in facilities or advanced equipment, can make it obtaining certain ingredients like oil from the difficult to preserve the freshness and quality of government due to the fraudulent nature of the the value-added products, leading to post-harvest business, making it impossible to acquire them loss. Electricity fluctuation is a serious problem through official channels. Feasible pathways for that affects the bakery operation. Lastly, the potential areas for collaboration include skill inability to understand the market trends may sharing, technical assistance, regulatory lead to serious losses. If the enterprises are measures, direct sourcing, and collaboration unable to accurately predict and meet the supply platforms. This works towards a more and demand of the products, it can result in transparent and regulated supply chain that excess or shortage, leading to waste or missed addresses the challenges posed by brokers and sales opportunities. unreliable ingredient sources. The collaboration with importers is highly satisfactory as they are willing to make necessary adjustments if the In bakery business, it is possible to distinguish ingredients, they provide do not meet the client’s post-harvest loss regarding gender. Women expectations or requirements. This level of often exhibit a higher tendency to be careful flexibility and responsiveness demonstrates a in handling work in the bakery. The women strong partnership where both parties are employed play a significant role in post- committed to delivering optimal quality in the harvest activities, such as sorting, cleaning, bakery production process. The current and packaging, which influence the extent of regulations are not aligned with the existing post-harvest losses. Their attention to detail inflation and market conditions, highlighting the and meticulousness in handling the bakeries need for their revision and update. Employing contribute to reducing losses related to more women can positively impact problem- physical damage, spoilage, and overall solving and contribute to reduced spillage, product quality. enhanced cleaning, and improved sorting processes. Women employees bring unique perspectives and skills that can lead to increased To address the post-harvest loss (PHL) in the efficiency and effectiveness in these areas. bakery, several interventions are being implemented, they include use of coveralls and Conclusively, in the past, flour prices were mats to collect any flour spill-offs, ensuring that subsidized, which helped to control costs and none of it goes to waste. Striving to achieve maintain affordability. However, the current production equilibrium by closely monitoring the situation may require a different approach, demand for the products. By studying and considering the inflation and market dynamics. It understanding the market, overproduction can be could be beneficial to explore direct connections avoided. This helps to reduce waste and or partnerships with flour companies, bypassing minimize PHL. Additionally, when bread is not the need for brokers. This direct relationship sold within its shelf life, it is turned further into may provide better control over costs, ensure a breadcrumbs to allow the sale of bread in a consistent supply of quality ingredients, and different form, extending its usefulness and potentially lead to more favorable pricing. preventing it from being discarded as waste. Additionally, material support is crucial for the smooth operation of the bakery. Furthermore, The bakery collaborates with importers to source having generators as a backup power source can cake ingredients and with agents who serve as be essential, particularly with unreliable intermediaries to procure flour directly from the electricity supply. factory and other suppliers for essential 30 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS As a result of this slow adjustment, the first few bags result in a loss of liters. This adjustment 4.2.2. Dairy interval represents another loss in milk processing. Even though the factory trucks have cold chains, sometimes the oxygen depletes, and, Ethiopia's dairy industry is expanding, and small in some instances, the trucks break down leading and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are crucial to spoilage. in the entire value chain. Milk, which is a highly Occasionally, farmers modify the milk by adding nutritious product, is widely consumed by a water or removing cream, rendering it less useful significant portion of the population in Ethiopia. for these companies. Also, limited access to By producing high-quality milk, the dairy farms financial resources like investing in modern play a crucial role in meeting the local demand technologies of cold chains is very challenging for this essential food item, thereby enhancing and buying generators is quite expensive, putting food security locally and as a country. In in mind the problem of electricity. Furthermore, addition, this VC creates jobs and therefore is lack of knowledge and skills of good agricultural important in income generation. practices, quality control, or proper handling of dairy products, leading to higher losses. The small- scale enterprises generally supply Sometimes they don’t even understand what milk locally. The cows are mostly crossbred causes these problems. with the local breed with a milk production ranging between 5 and 25 liters per day with fat content to 2.8 to make it easily drinkable. They The main intervention in place is keeping high then proceed to sell this milk and distribute it to levels of hygiene and taking high precautions at various retail outlets. The distribution is done to the time of milking and distributing to the those who reside locally and those who market. It is also important to pair the drivers physically visit the store. In Fana Milk, they with a technical specialist who assesses the have established contracts with farmers who lactose content. Additionally, each driver is possess cattle or dairy farms. Utilizing their cool dedicated to a single location to minimize chain trucks, they collect the milk from these potential delays, as milk is highly vulnerable to farmers and to ensure its safety, the milk is spoilage. If the machinery experiences a pasteurized at 72 degrees Celsius through a temporary malfunction, they refrain from boiling process. Subsequently, they package the collecting milk from the farmers. Moreover, if a milk in various sizes after being cooled to 4 breakdown occurs after milk collection, there is Celsius and later market the products to the adequate chilling equipment to ensure the milk's diverse customer base. preservation. There are challenges experienced in the dairy The interventions put in place that are promising VC especially in the post-harvest stage. Huge include: During fasting, transforming fresh milk losses are experienced during the Orthodox fast. to mozzarella cheese to minimize the post- Additionally, in their production process, there is harvest loss. Training the workers thoroughly to a lot of cleaning of hosepipe using water. Then, ensure efficiency. Technical specialists conduct it is proceeded to clear the pipeline by cleaning it on-site inspections prior to product acceptance. with milk to remove any residual water. Fana Furthermore, they have well-equipped Milk for instance provides the machine with a laboratories to thoroughly evaluate the substantial amount of milk and water that can be parameters. The milk bags have a shelf life of 6 considered a loss due to the rinsing process. days, and they clearly indicate on the packaging Additionally, machinery requires time to adapt that it should be stored in a refrigerator. To when switching from 250 ml bags to 500 ml prevent any inconvenience or bags, and vice versa. Approximately 4 liters of misunderstandings with customers, they milk are lost during the adjustment period until retain a sample from each production day. the gauge properly aligns with the new bag size. This precautionary measure allows the 31 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS enterprises to address any potential claims of freshness and quality throughout the spoiled milk. transportation process. We interviewed this company whose farm is located in Bahir Dar. They have employed a sophisticated cool chain This VC has received a lot of external support system, utilizing refrigerated trucks. This system from different stakeholders. SNV has ensures careful management and regulation oof championed technical support and provided temperature during transportation, ensuring that financial support through purchase of materials the strawberries remain at an ideal temperature and equipment. They have imparted their to preserve their taste, texture, and nutritional knowledge and expertise to these companies attributes. On the other hand, in the mango value through various training programs. chain, after harvesting, the employees engage in the sorting process, categorizing the harvested Potential areas for collaboration and mango based on maturity and size. This recommendations in attempting to minimize meticulous sorting ensures that only high-quality PHL loss include creating market linkage that mangoes make it to the next stage. Once sorted, could help the companies expand their work and the produce is carefully packed to maintain its attain efficiency. Employees should undergo freshness and appeal. The packed produce is then training in every department to ensure transported to the company’s supermarket where comprehensive knowledge and skill customers can find their mangoes. Additionally, development. Close interaction with they supply mango products to other local collaborators is crucial as it allows for effective markets to meet the needs of a broader clientele. problem-solving. Farmers and processors can We interviewed a large-scale company located in collaborate to exchange information on effective Gojjam. It employs twelve farms, where most of post-harvest loss management techniques, their workforce is female. including technologies, quality control measures, and packaging solutions. Large-scale processors Strawberries are highly susceptible to insect can support small and medium-scale farmers by pests, particularly in warm temperatures, which providing training programs and or technical can result in the easy peeling of the fruit and assistance on post-harvest loss management moisture loss. Additionally, mechanical strategies and best practices. breakage of the storages equipment during handling can pose a damage issue for the strawberries. Moreover, high temperatures 4.2.3. Horticulture (Strawberry during overnight storage can lead to quality and mangoes) deterioration. Given the perishable nature of strawberries, it is crucial to consider these factors, especially in the context of the Ethiopia has a thriving horticulture sector, strawberry-farming season in Egypt as they are a including the cultivation of fruits such as huge exporter and competitor of the country, avocado, mangoes and strawberries. The which typically spans from November to May. country's diverse agro-ecological zones and During this period, the strawberries are ready for favorable climate create an ideal environment for export. But they won’t be needed because the horticultural production. Mangoes and Middle East receives strawberries from strawberries, in particular, are cultivated in large Egyptians at that time and therefore, companies quantities and can be utilized to create jams, in Ethiopia will not be able to export. Therefore, juices, and dried fruits that are sold both this means that the produced strawberry at that domestically and internationally. Ethiopia's time is lost unless another good market is mango production is classified as medium to identified. Moreover, ensuring timely and large in comparison to the country's overall fruit efficient maintenance of cold chain systems production (CBI,2020). becomes problematic, as it can be challenging to Once the strawberries have reached maturity and find reliable service providers. Lastly, the higher are ready for the market, companies such as temperatures during this time create additional Ethio Agri Ceft prioritize maintaining their 32 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS hurdles in preserving the quality and freshness of to the strawberries and maintain their overall strawberries. Transporting strawberries at night quality. Harvesting strawberries during cooler used to be a viable method for maintaining a periods, such as in the morning or late afternoon, moderate temperature. However, the current can help preserve their quality as opposed to volatile security situation has become a harvesting during hot temperatures. Immediately significant barrier to this practice. It has become after harvesting, it is crucial to remove field heat increasingly challenging and risky to transport by cooling the strawberries at 0°C. This process strawberries during nighttime due to security helps to minimize spoilage and increase their concerns. As a result, alternative measures need shelf life. Using appropriate packaging materials, to be implemented to ensure the preservation of such as breathable containers, can help maintain quality and minimize losses. the strawberries' quality by allowing proper air circulation and reducing moisture buildup. During mango picking or harvesting, some Ensuring proper handling and transportation mangoes may fall and crack, leading to loss. procedures, such as avoiding rough handling and Additionally, if mangoes are not properly dried providing adequate ventilation, can help after washing, spoilage may occur. Transporting minimize damage and maintain strawberry mangoes without sorting them by maturity and quality during transit. size can also result in perishability. Pre-harvest problems such as improper pruning or Similarly, there are some strategies put in place inadequate use of inputs can contribute to by these enterprises to address these post-harvest uneven maturity levels, which further contribute challenges. The company we interviewed cleans to post-harvest losses. Ideally, mangoes on the the harvested mangoes and sorts them based on tree should mature evenly. To minimize loss size and maturity level. To ensure careful during transportation, it is advisable to use handling, female employees are assigned this crates. Furthermore, market conditions may task. This technique has proven effective in fluctuate, resulting in decreased demand and minimizing loss during the process. Some of the difficulties selling mango products when supply promising interventions include the use of is high. Poor management practices, such as craters and choosing proper picking equipment. inadequate drying of washed mangoes and improper picking techniques are key contributors Other actors have been in the forefront in to post harvest losses in the mango value chain. supporting the production of healthy mangoes so Absence of proper crates for transportation, as to limit post-harvest losses. Research resulting in mangoes being transported in bags, institutions have assisted them with hybrid can lead to damage and spoilage. Imbalance mango varieties known as Kent and tommy. between market demand and supply and market They are short in nature and very manageable linkage is another contributing factor. while picking. This is significant because wild mango trees can pose challenges in terms of their size and growth habit. By working with research As a large processor (packaging and selling) institutions, it will be imperative to find with expertise in the industry, strong measures solutions that result in more manageable mango need to be put in place to optimize strawberry trees, allowing for easier cultivation, harvest, and quality and shelf life. It is crucial to continue and maintenance. Potential areas for collaboration scale-up using the cold chain system during are with other processing firms that are transportation and storage to preserve the desired interested in purchasing and further processing temperature conditions for the strawberries. mango products. By partnering with such firms, Employing fertilizers rich in potassium and they can establish mutually beneficial calcium can enhance the shelf life of relationships that enhance the value chain and strawberries, making them less susceptible to contribute to the reduction of post-harvest losses. spoilage and extending their freshness. Through this collaboration, there will be a Implementing effective strategies to control smooth flow of mangoes from the farm to the diseases and pests is essential to prevent damage processing facility, minimizing delays and 33 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS improving efficiency. This partnership can also The main causes of post-harvest loss are ill open doors to value addition and the timed harvesting and splitting loss of the development of innovative mango products that soybean due to harvesting it without taking into cater to the dynamic market demands. consideration the moisture content. To tackle these PHL, there are several strategies in place. There is the existence of the soybean operational Like other crops, farmers in Ethiopia are manual. Key actors in the soybean can refer to incorporating indigenous knowledge systems in the operational manual to understand when to horticultural crops to protect themselves against harvest, planting data assessment, when to post-harvest losses. Farmers use tree shade, manage pests and disease among others. storing it in small huts or houses, covering it with clean straw, leaves and sorghum for It is important for the key actors to consider key insulation and to avoid direct sunburn. Another activities in the input supplies and production of traditional method used to protect post-harvest the value chain. These pre- harvest activities are loss and quality deterioration of horticultural crucial and determinants on whether the PHL crops is maintaining relative humidity by will occur. For example, if farmers do not sow reducing temperature of the product or container the soybean at the appropriate time, they will be or storage in order to reduce evapotranspiration. pushed to harvest fast before the rainy season To maintain relative humidity, farmers increase begins. This will lead to high split loss because it the moisture of the air around the produce by will be harvested before it reaches the sprinkling, spraying and wetting the floor of appropriate moisture level. Additionally, an storeroom, container or the produce itself. In effective monitoring and evaluation system in addition, vapor barrier materials such as place has shown promising results. Technical polyethylene liner and bags and sacks, cloth support is important to take them through the coated boxes, fresh leaves and grasses and other entire value chain and especially for the farmers variety of inexpensive and recyclable packaging to understand the different varieties of soybean materials are used (Mohammed Kasso, 2016). and when to harvest them. Training should also Additionally, some farmers also prefer chemical be given to workers to improve efficiency while or modern methods to protect post-harvest loss transport techniques should be taken into and quality deterioration. consideration not to split due to high load while being transported. 4.2.4. Soybean Soybean processing companies collaborate with Soybean is a high value crop considered for oil factories. Additionally, the by products are income generation in Ethiopia. Society is used as feed for chicken. One of the successful understanding the importance of soybeans by collaborations with the oil factory is with health aspects and the by product can be used to kuyifera oil. Additionally, a feasible pathway to feed chickens. increase the effectiveness of the collaborations and the management of the post-harvest losses is After harvesting, the processors undergo a collaboration with research institutions in order filtering process to ensure that the quality of the to get a better or a hybrid variety. Unfortunately, beans meets the required standards. Following the current security threat in Ethiopia makes it this, they store and grade the soybeans to hard for establishment of new collaborations and separate them based on their quality continuation of the existing ones. characteristics. Once the grading process is complete, soybeans are sold to companies that operate oil factories. These companies extract oil 4.2.5. Pulses from the soybeans and further process the by- product known as soybean cake. The soybean Ethiopia is one of the largest producers of pulses cake is then sold to other companies such as in Africa, with a diverse range of pulse crops Elfora. , which may utilize it as animal feed. grown in the country. Pulses are an important part of Ethiopia's agricultural sector and play a 34 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS significant role in the country's economy and packing (GIZ, Alliance of Bioversity food security. Some of the major pulse crops International and CIAT, 2022). grown in Ethiopia include chickpeas, lentils, faba beans, and haricot beans. For the pulses value chain, selection of the right time to harvest is a key intervention in reducing 4.3. Zambia post-harvest losses. This will avoid the damage There are several organizations in Zambia that caused as a result of unpredictable rain and are in the forefront in knowledge sharing and reducing field shattering of over-dried pods. creating awareness. E-msika has an E-Learning Farmers determine maturity by looking at the Platform called Apunzile where they provide changes in the color of leaves, stalks, and pods. training on farming from poultry, aquaculture, To further minimize loss, uprooting is commonly piggery, cattle and goat rearing, vegetable and done either early in the morning before 9 am or legume growing. They also have a farmhouse after 4 pm. Further drying to avoid decay and App, packed with features to enhance farming mold damage is done for a few days on the farm experience. Users can post content, request or after transport to the threshing field (3–8 consultancy services, purchase farming products, days) based on the pulse, weather conditions, and seek farming advice from an AI chatbot. and moisture content of pods. Field They have user-generated content where people stacking/piling is also done early in the morning can share farming knowledge, tips, and success or late afternoon. stories with the community and users can post Pulses are transported using donkeys, donkey- content to inspire and connect with fellow drawn carts, or human labor after the crops are farmers. In the post-harvest activities, they have wrapped with a polypropylene sheet or chattel’s an E Commerce platform where they showcase hide at any time of the day. They do this so as to several products in both crop and livestock minimize both qualitative and quantitative production. Buyers for these products are in all losses. Due to the high risk of storage pests and seven provinces and towns of Zambia and lack of improved storage facilities, farmers exchange thousands of messages with suppliers commonly do not keep their grains for more than on the platform each day. Additionally, they a month. However, some farmers use Malathion have a traceability software for African 5% dust and other agrochemicals to control Agribusinesses (Agri ERP). This system is made weevils and to store the grains for longer to help build insights about someone’s business. periods. Farmers’ cooperatives and private The users are Aggregators, out-grower schemes, traders also supply storage pest insecticides like contract farming, value chain boards, NGO's & Actellic 2%, Malathion 5% dust, and rat poisons Governments looking to digitize. to control storage pests. Hermetic bags are also being promoted to control insect pests and post- Agri predict solutions is another crucial harvest diseases (GIZ, Alliance of Bioversity organization in the digital space. With the use of International and CIAT, 2022). machine learning, they offer farmers information on demand that is delivered with accessibility in In the faba bean value chain is the emergence mind for all farmers. The focus is improving baltenas, or local processors and packagers. The access to information. They have developed a baltenas process the faba bean into flaked or split platform that provides various services to the beans for fool, an important Arab breakfast dish, farmers including weather, market access, and roast and mill the beans for shiro. extension services among others. Currently, Companies such as Selam, Abysinia and Etsub there are over 97,000 farmers using the platform have become household names for the supply of registered across the country. Sellers are shiro and spices that were traditionally prepared connected to buyers via the platform and service at home. The local processors’ key activities are providers also connect with the farmers. The purchasing faba beans, transportation, cleaning, main value chain of focus are local vegetables, roasting, flaking, washing, spicing, grinding, and maize, legumes, groundnut, soybean, livestock, otherwise they are open to other value chain 35 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS commodities. They have also conducted training habitat for soil fungi (mycorrhizal). With one, - Farmer and stakeholder training sessions short, rainy season early planting is critical to conducted in Katete, Mpika, Kasama and achieving good yields. Poorer farmers that do Luwingu. In 2020, they developed the Agri not own oxen struggle to plant early. Next year, Predict Market Access Service. However, they they are planning to adopt an approach of further experience several challenges including huge increasing yields. Their goal is to double yields gap in smart phones in rural area and internet to 1 MT / ha. They are planning to reduce the connectivity number of farmers they work with - but increase the support they provide for each farmer. Farmers that produced an above average yield 4.3.1 Sorghum last season will be offered a larger seed loan next season. Increasing the size of the sorghum seed loan from 5kg to 20kg will enable them to Southern sorghum is one of a key actor in maintain the total area planted to sorghum while sorghum value chain and post-harvest reducing the number of farmers they need to management. They supply farmers with seed monitor. This also has the added benefit of loans, ploughing loans, crop analytics and most increasing the total harvest that each farmer can importantly market access. Seed loans enable achieve so they can realize a significant, and farmers to engage with commercial markets and indisputable, increase in income from growing ensure they are growing the varieties needed by sorghum. The main challenge during the commercial buyers. Ploughing loans ensure that monitoring is the access to a driving license. the poorest farmers, who are most vulnerable to However, among the 100 farmers that they are drought, are able to plant early & therefore working with, 30 farmers are lead farmers with a secure a larger harvest. They use crop analytics bicycle and stipend and record keeping. They to determine the most critical factors for monitor the farmers and double checking is done increasing yields & profits, so that we are able to through the app. They do not have full-time improve the services they provide to farmers. staff, however, by next season they are hoping to Market access for drought tolerant grains gives invest in field officers. And to replicate their farmers a real choice to diversify away from the business in every district as it is not common maize. By aggregating sorghum from a complicated. network of hundreds of smallholders' farmers, they can supply the quantity & quality of grain In post-harvest activities, they collaborate with needed by commercial buyers. Their main the local transporters that transport the produce market is Zambia breweries. to their central warehouse. Threshing is done by the farmers while cleaning is done manually, and There are challenges that are experienced which final touch up done by southern sorghum. Once are lack of input access, weak market structure they receive the produce in the warehouse, they and access to training. Southern Sorghum bag, store and fumigate. They, however, do not conducts household economic analysis to have a problem with moisture. The company has determine wealth group as it is a determining not experienced major issues with post-harvest factor in resilience. In 2022/23 they adapted an losses since they have a centralized warehouse. approach to focus on ensuring more farmers However, the Zambian breweries had warned to produced a harvest. One key change they made have issues with the weevils. was to ask farmers for a down payment against their seed loan. The other key change they made Promising interventions include village level was to support a second crop: they offered warehouse. Majority (over 70%) of the farmers farmers a sunflower seed loan in addition to the that they work with are pro-poor that includes sorghum seed loan. This was a direct response to significant number of women and youth. They farmers’ requests and enabled crop rotation and also have SMS system where they communicate supports soil health. Sunflower is particularly with the farmers with questions such as ‘Have effective in supporting soil health because of its you planted? Assistance? deep root structure and because it provides a 36 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS farmers are not allowed to export. These policies are not favoring the farmers much and thus 4.3.2. Legumes- Soybean and limiting the productivity of this value chain. Groundnut Some of the strategies in place include In soyabean, when the pods are dry and brown in promoting good agricultural practices (GAP), color, harvesting starts. Popular harvesting capacity building, packaging, hermetic bags, methods include pulling and cutting by hand. In diversifying enterprises, processing/value larger plots, the use of a mower and combined addition, labeling, grading. These strategies are harvesting are preferred. After threshing, in place with the intention of reducing the post- harvested plants are dried to reduce the aflatoxin harvest losses from the high percentage of 33 to risk threshed, soya bean seeds are sorted, at least 12%. cleaned, and packed in clean bags for storage in a cool place. Less commonly, farmers sell the Several organizations have supported the value soya beans directly to suppliers, assemblers, and chain especially with regards to managing post- processors for further value addition. Important harvest losses. These enterprises have received service providers at the post-harvest and technical support from several non-governmental processing stage include large wholesalers and organizations such as E-Msika, She- Trade for processors like Community Markets for technology,She-Women in Agribusiness, impuls Conservation (COMACO) and Lusaka-based Africa horticulture. Techno serve, SAIOMA, animal feed and oil processors. Nutri aid trust, WFP, Agova on financial management among others. Organicfarm7 links the soybean farmers to processors of oils, cakes etc. They collect the ground nuts from farmers and make peanut butter to distribute. If the demand is slow, they shell the groundnuts. Rufan Agro works with 4.3.3. Horticulture over 2500 farmers through marketing. The farmers are grouped into farmer groups that in In horticulture, the main post-harvest activity is most cases comprises women. Among the 2500 marketing. The companies supply shopping farmers 500 comprise the youth, 250 are men malls, supermarkets, choppies, markets among and the majority-1750 are women. The value- others. Packaging is done efficiently so as to added products are peanut butter and ground nut limit rejection by the buyers. Subsequently, cooking oil. Farmers are trained in how to store labeling and grading is done with special their produce so as to avoid aflatoxin through emphasis on hygiene. Currently the market is drying the ground nut seeds and also in proper local but enterprises such as Rufan Agro intend and safe storage, packing to minimize on the to scale up. losses. The main causes related to post harvest losses Post harvest losses are a serious issue in the are attributed to poor seeds and climate related legumes value chain. The enterprises report up to risks. When there is excessive rain/flooding 33%. The high percentage could be attributed to during harvesting, roads become impassable storage pests such as termites and weevils. Other leading to losses. This is further exacerbated by causes of post-harvest losses are lack of access to the highly perishability of the products. Handling the market, lack of understanding the market is also a key issue in this value chain. The dynamics, poor road network and lack of tomato boxes are packaged together with chicken adequate transport system that undermines the leading to further losses. There is a need for well distribution, lack of knowledge in post-harvest packaging and grading to ensure minimization of activities. Pricing is a key issue in the soybean the losses. and groundnuts value chains. The cost of production is expensive, 20000 for ha, while the Rufan Agro links the farmers to the market at government sets prices. Additionally, soybeans high prices through contract farms to avoid 37 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS losses. There is a farmer service center to help the farmers have market, loans among others. These strategies have proved to be promising and if implemented efficiently, then the post- harvest losses will be minimized. 4.3.4. Dairy In the milk value chain, several interventions exist that attempt to tackle post-harvest losses in Zambia. Training on proper milk handling, good and hygienic practices, milk quality testing, appropriate milk preservation and processing technologies, milk hygiene, and good business practices are key strategies for quality assurance and reducing PHL in the dairy value chains (NamonjeKapenubwa and Hichaambwa, 2016). In processing, dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, butter, ice cream, milk powder and bottled milk are common in Zambia. Value- added functional dairy foods such as low lactose milk, geriatric foods, protein-enriched formulated dairy products, sports drinks, and low or reduced-fat formulated dairy products are developed as per the requirements of different segments of the population of the country (Mumba, 2012). Dairy industries can add value to raw milk by producing a wide variety of processed products to increase the return above the base price of raw milk. Opportunities in the dairy value chain value chain can potentially improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. It can provide income opportunities, particularly for women, and high- quality nutrition; it also provides farmers with a form of savings, as farmers often buy livestock when they have extra cash and sell when they need money (Namonje-Kapenubwa and Hichaambwa, 2016). Dairy production also generates inputs like organic fertilizer that are important to crop production and can also serve as a form of productive capital, as cattle can be used for plowing and transporting goods to market (Kawambwa et al., 2014). 38 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS 5.0. CONCLUSION AND technologies, milk hygiene, and good business practices are key strategies for quality assurance RECOMMENDATIONS and reducing PHL. In the horticultural crops such as leafy vegetables and fruits, it is crucial to FOR REDUCING PHL continue and scale-up using the cold chain system during transportation and storage to preserve the desired temperature conditions. This study assessed the existing interventions towards reducing post- harvest losses in three The long distances between harvest and countries: Kenya, Zambia and Ethiopia. It distribution points, the lack of cold storage and further determined their effectiveness in the poor transportation are the main factors adaptation towards post-harvest losses. The contributing to PHL. This greatly reduces the assessment has helped to understand the needs of value and shelf life of produce and therefore the the actors and identified challenges faced, supply amount of the produce that reaches wholesale chain requirements, production capacity and and then retail. Cooling within hours can market access. Areas that may require therefore extend the shelf life of many fresh improvement have been identified. Such areas products from weeks to months, providing include infrastructure, storage facilities, additional flexibility on export schedules, transportation, and technology among others. improved consistency and quality and reduced Lastly, the study has been able to identify vulnerability to volatility. priority areas for collaboration. The synergies Small and localized processing and storage between government, private sector, and SME facilities serving farmers in remote areas processors and analyzed how these partnerships especially in the grains value chain are also seen address the identified challenges. as a feasible pathway in reducing post-harvest losses and the time spent between production Minimization of post-harvest losses of crops and processing. could be achieved through a holistic approach by providing short and long-term training on post- To ensure a sustainable collaboration among harvest management practices, promoting the value chain actors, there is a need for large Agri use of post-harvest technologies, paying special corporates to partner with the SMEs. This is attention to the institutional support systems because the former have the resources and (agriculture extension and rural credit services), expertise to tackle most of the post-harvest strengthening the support for post-harvest challenges, but often lack knowledge and handling technologies, reinforcing the existing understanding of the challenges faced by SME farmer cooperative marketing, and processors. Forming direct partnerships with improvements of the local market and road small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is networking infrastructures of rural areas should assertive in managing losses. By joining forces, be undertaken by the government in these companies can directly supply their collaboration with non-government products to these businesses, bypassing organizations. intermediaries and these mutual-beneficial partnerships, can support the SMEs in tackling Although a huge challenge, storage losses can be PHL challenges and in return benefit from mitigated by use of efficient storage technology, additional supplies to meet the market needs. upgrading infrastructure and storage practices the availability of low cost and effective storage structures can motivate farmers to store their Tackling postharvest loss requires targeted grains and obtain high prices instead of selling investments and agricultural policies. It is right after harvesting when there is an abundant therefore imperative for the policy makers to supply of grains while in the dairy value chain, collaborate with the Agri corporates and other training on proper milk handling, good and key actors to ensure the integration of post- hygienic practices, milk quality testing, harvest management in agricultural policies and appropriate milk preservation and processing 39 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS strategies to minimize these post-harvest losses. Also, it is crucial for the policy makers to take into consideration the needs of the value chain actors even in the formulation of these policies. 40 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS References AACCSA. 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Centre for Development Research, Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa and Zambia Agricultural Research Institute. 3 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS APPENDIX Questionnairre Key Informant Checklist, 2023 Reducing post-harvest losses through climate smart interventions: The role of agripreneurs Informed Consent The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT is conducting a survey to understand Post-Harvest Losses (PHL) in selected value chains in Kenya, Zambia and Ethiopia, and assess climate smart interventions that can help reduce or manage the losses. The goal is to identify and map various actors who are implementing various PHL reduction interventions along the selected value chains, challenges/barriers and identify opportunities for collaboration. The information gathered will offer valuable insights on the specific interventions that can be scaled up to reduce PHL for improved socio- economic benefits. You have been selected as a participant in this survey due to your expertise in the field, and your participation in answering these questions will be highly appreciated. Confidentiality: Your responses and information will be kept confidential. Your personal information that can identify you will be kept in digital records by the project team under password-protected folders; only research team members will have access to these confidential records. You may also demand that the information that could identify you be erased at any time for any reason. Voluntary Participation: The interview will take one hour. We will greatly appreciate if you agree to participate in the survey. Participation in this study is however voluntary. You are free to decline participation, to end participation at any time for any reason, or to refuse answering any individual question. You are free to ask any questions now or during the interview. In case you have any follow up questions or concerns you can contact Dorcas Jalango at d.Jalango@cgiar.org or Brenda Binge at brendabinge @gmail.com. Do you give consent to participate in the scheduled interview? 1=Yes [ ]; 0=No [ ] (Tick appropriate box) Section A: Key information 1. Country …………………….......................................................................... 1 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS 2. Key informant’s name …............................................................................... 3. Gender (0=Female : 1=Male) ….................................................................... 4. Role or expertise in the organization? …........................................................ 5. Years of experience? ….................................................................................. 6. Contacts the Key Informant (Phone number and Email): ….......................... Section B: Organization’s details 1. How would you categorize your organization{a} Small scale {b} Medium scale {c} Large scale {d} Other (Describe criteria used e.g. turn over, number of employees – disaggregated by gender, scope of operation (region, county etc), volume of production etc) 2. Which value chain (s) does your organization focus on, and why? (Importance of value chain (s) - food security, income generation and potential) 3. What post-harvest stage is your organization engaged in? {a} Harvesting {b} Value addition/processing {c}Packaging {d}Transportation {e} Marketing {f} Other b. Which major activities are you engaged in referring to the stage (s) highlighted above? (Consider: Mode of transportation do you use to transport your products? What kind of packaging do you apply for your raw and final products?) 4. Which value chain actors do you interact with along the value chain, and how? (Consider: target markets whether local or international (consumers), individual institutions, research institutions) Section C: Understanding Post Harvest Losses 1. How would you define post-harvest losses in your context? 2. What are the main causes/contributors of PHL along the specific stage (Consider: climate change related, market prices, poor practices or absence of technologies and how they affect women and youth) 3. What is your total production or volume acquired after harvest? (Consider: If the organization is producing or sourcing from farmers or elsewhere) 4. How do you quantify the losses (describe how or any methods used to quantify or monitor losses)? b. Estimate of loss/damage (in the value chain and stage in kg, quintal, etc., and in the past year)? Section D: Existing interventions for PHL management 1. Could you describe any interventions/strategies/innovations/technologies or approaches (ongoing and past) your organization is implementing to address post-harvest losses (Consider: climate smart innovations or technologies, and youth and women engagement) 2 AICCRA TECHNICAL REPORT | MANAGEMENT OF POST-HARVEST LOSSES THROUGH CLIMATE SMART INNOVATIONS: A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH AMONG VALUE CHAIN ACTORS 2. Are there any specific technologies or practices that have shown promising results in managing post-harvest losses (Which ones have been effective and which ones have not in reducing the losses-is it by quantity or quality)? 3. Have you received any external support to reduce PHL’s?(Consider: The interventions implemented-they can be from government, NGOs, research institutions, agro-processors? If Yes, what kind of support you acquire (technical, financial or in-kind support, and how do they cater for gender inclusivity)? 4. Are there any specific challenges or barriers you have faced in managing post-harvest losses? b. Have you observed any gender-specific impacts or challenges related to post-harvest loss management? (Consider: Ownership of enterprises, women and youth working in large scale processing firms) Section E: Opportunities for collaboration 1. Are there any existing collaborations between your organization and farmers, or with other small, medium and large-scale processors? b. If Yes, what kind of collaboration and how? c. Any challenges you have faced in terms of collaboration 2. In your opinion, what are the potential areas/opportunities for collaboration between farmers, small, medium and large-scale processors to reduce post-harvest losses? (Consider: How can they ensure gender inclusivity?) 3. Are there any successful examples of collaborations that you can share? 4. Based on your experience and expertise, what recommendations would you provide to improve post-harvest loss management in the target value chain, and post-harvest stage (s)? (Consider: Any policy or regulatory changes, financial, capacity building, gender inclusion that you believe would support efforts to reduce post-harvest losses) 5. Is there any additional information or insights you would like to share regarding post-harvest loss management or potential collaborations? 3 aiccra.cgiar.org info@cgiar.org CGIARAfrica