Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia RE PORT The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. The Alliance focuses on the nexus of agriculture, nutrition, and environment. We work with local, national, and multinational partners across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and with the public and private sectors and civil society. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis. The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia (WP2.4) Jonathan Mockshell Thea Ritter Diego Álvarez Leslie Estefany Mosquera Innovations for the Prevention and Management of the Banana Fungal Disease Fusarium Tropical Race 4 (TR4) Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) Americas Hub Km 17 Recta Cali-Palmira. C.P. 763537 A.A. 6713, Cali, Colombia Website: https://alliancebioversityciat.org/ Email: j.mockshell@cgiar.org Citation Mockshell J; Ritter T; Álvarez D; Mosquera L. 2024. Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia (WP2.4). Innovations for the Prevention and Management of the Banana Fungal Disease Fusarium Tropical Race 4 (TR4). International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Cali, Colombia. 56 p. About the authors: Jonathan Mockshell, Scientist II, International Center for Tropical Agriculture ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1990-6657 Thea Ritter, International Consultant, International Center for Tropical Agriculture ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0503-2952 Diego Álvarez, Research Associate, International Center for Tropical Agriculture ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6745-6577?lang=en Leslie Estefany Mosquera, Research Associate, International Center for Tropical Agriculture ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3876-4783 Cover Photo: ©2021 CIAT/Juan Pablo Marin García Design and layout: Ximena Hiles. Communications team, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT © CIAT 2024. Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC-BY-NC) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ March 2024 http://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101498 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1990-6657 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0503-2952 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6745-6577?lang=en https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3876-4783 Acknowledgments Special thanks to Jorge Eliecer Vargas, who provided valuable guidance and information during the socioeconomic study. We are grateful for the funding for this work from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). We are thankful for the support in the data collection process to the banana producer associations Augura and Asbama, the producer cooperatives, members from the Latin American and Caribbean Network of Fair-Trade Small Producers and Workers (CLAC, for its acronym in Spanish) and, last but not least, to Leonardo García and his data collection team. The opinions expressed are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the funders or institutions of affiliation.This research was also financially supported by the CGIAR research initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS), which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors. 6 | REPORT CIAT/J.E. Vargas 7Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Acronyms B/C Benefit-cost ratio BMP Best management practice BXW Banana Xanthomonas Wilt CBA Cost-benefit analysis CE Cost-effectiveness DSA Daily subsistence allowance FIES Food Insecurity Experience Score GDP Gross domestic product ICA Colombian Agricultural Institute IRR Internal rate of return LAC Latin America and the Caribbean NPV Net present value SSI Semi-structured interviews TR4 Tropical Race 4 8 | REPORT Executive Summary Banana crops around the world are threatened by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4, hereafter “TR4”). TR4 is a fungus that affects the vascular system of the plant, leading to death of infected banana plants and contamination of the soil for decades. TR4 was first detected in Colombia on two farms in the department of La Guajira in 2019. Bananas play an important role in Colombia’s economy, such as it contributing to 5.3% of the country’s gross domestic product (MADR, 2020) and over a tenth of the country’s agricultural exports (Augura, 2021a), as well as generating nearly 300,000 direct and indirect jobs (MADR, 2020). Understanding the socioeconomic and financial effects of TR4 in Colombia is a critical issue at hand. A review of the literature could not find any studies that assess the socioeconomic effects of TR4 on different actors in the banana value chain in Colombia or in other parts of the world. Instead, the existing literature focuses on suitable environmental conditions for TR4, the efficacy of control methods, and TR4’s spread and overall economic losses. There are only a handful of studies that examine the effects of TR4 on the economy, environment, food security, and income; however, these studies present results at the regional or national level, rather than at the farm or individual level, and none of these were conducted in South America. Regarding cost-benefit analysis (CBA), few studies have implemented CBA as a tool, some of which grouped TR4 with other banana diseases. To the best of our knowledge, there are no CBA studies that examine TR4 on its own. This study aims to fill these gaps in the literature by examining the economic, environmental, and food security effects from TR4 on the banana value chain. This is critical to quantify how this devastating disease affects value chain actors and their environments. The study takes place in Antioquia and Magdalena, Colombia’s two largest banana producer and exporter departments with different types of producers. Producer surveys and semi- structured interviews were conducted to collect information from actors in the banana value chain. Primary data and secondary data sources were used to calculate the costs and benefits of mitigation strategies for the CBA. With the information collected, this study provides a socioeconomic context to banana production in the study area, finding similarities and differences in the two departments. In Antioquia, most producers are large-scale and are in an overall better socioeconomic status than their counterparts in Magdalena. Nevertheless, our analyses found that all producers, regardless of their area or context, are concerned about TR4 and the consequences of its presence in Colombia. The calculations presented in this report confirm that the economic consequences of TR4 in Colombia might be immense for employment, production, and banana sales. For this reason, public and private actors from the banana value chain are working together to support banana producers in their efforts to fight against TR4. The results presented show that it is beneficial to conduct prevention strategies, such as building disinfection stations at the entrances of farms or the disinfection of tools and shoes, given that the benefit/cost ratio is greater than one for both departments, meaning that each monetary unit invested in biosecurity measures brings larger benefits, compared to the costs of the practices. Finally, based on the results, we present recommendations to the public and private sector to build banana sector that is more resilient to TR4. 9Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Resumen ejecutivo El banano del mundo está amenazado por el hongo Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Raza 4 tropical (Foc R4T, en adelante “R4T”). El R4T es un hongo que puede permanecer en el suelo durante décadas y afecta al sistema vascular de las plantas de musáceas, provocando su muerte. El R4T se detectó por primera vez en Colombia en La Guajira en 2019. El banano desempeña un papel importante en la economía colombiana, ya que contribuye al 5,3% del producto interno bruto (MADR, 2020) y a más de una décima parte de las exportaciones agrícolas del país (Augura, 2021a), además de generar cerca de 300.000 empleos directos e indirectos (MADR, 2020). Entender los efectos socioeconómicos y financieros del R4T en Colombia es un tema crítico en la actualidad. En la literatura no se encontraron estudios que evalúen los efectos socioeconómicos del R4T en los diferentes actores de la cadena de valor del banano en Colombia o en el mundo. En su lugar, la literatura se centra en las condiciones ambientales adecuadas para el R4T y su propagación, así como en la eficacia de los métodos de control y las pérdidas económicas globales. Hay pocos estudios que examinan los efectos de la R4T en la economía, el medio ambiente, la seguridad alimentaria y los ingresos; sin embargo, estos presentan resultados a nivel regional o nacional, en lugar de a nivel de finca o individual, y ninguno de ellos se llevó a cabo en Sudamérica. En cuanto al análisis costo-beneficio (ACB), pocos estudios lo han implementado como herramienta, algunos de los cuales agruparon el R4T con otras enfermedades del banano. Hasta la fecha, no hay estudios de ACB que examinen el R4T por sí solo. Este estudio pretende llenar un vacío en la bibliografía examinando los efectos económicos, medioambientales y de seguridad alimentaria del R4T en la cadena de valor del banano. Esto es fundamental para cuantificar cómo esta devastadora enfermedad afecta a los actores de la cadena de valor y su entorno. El estudio se lleva a cabo en Antioquia y Magdalena, los dos mayores departamentos productores y exportadores de banano de Colombia, con diferentes tipos de productores. Se utilizaron datos primarios con productores y actores de la cadena, y fuentes de datos secundarios para calcular los costos y beneficios de las estrategias de mitigación para el ACB. Con la información recolectada, este estudio proporciona un contexto socioeconómico de la producción bananera en la zona de estudio, encontrando similitudes y diferencias en los dos departamentos. En Antioquia, la mayoría de los productores son grandes y están en mejor situación socioeconómica que sus homólogos en Magdalena. Sin embargo, nuestros análisis encontraron que todos los productores, independientemente de su zona o contexto, están preocupados por el R4T y las consecuencias de su presencia en Colombia. Entre los resultados se confirman que las consecuencias económicas del R4T en Colombia podrían ser inmensas para el empleo, la producción y las ventas de banano. También, muestran que es beneficioso llevar a cabo estrategias de prevención, como la construcción de estaciones de desinfección en las entradas de las fincas o la desinfección de herramientas y calzado, dado que la relación beneficio/costo es mayor a uno para ambos departamentos, lo que significa que cada unidad monetaria invertida en medidas de bioseguridad trae mayores beneficios, en comparación con los costos de las prácticas. Finalmente, con base en los resultados, se presentan recomendaciones al sector público y privado para construir un sector bananero más resiliente al R4T. Table of contents Acronyms 7 Executive Summary 8 Resumen ejecutivo 9 1. Introduction 12 2. Literature review 14 2.1. Socioeconomic literature review 14 2.2 Cost-benefit analysis literature review 16 3. Study area 17 4. Methodology 19 4.1 Data collection: Producer survey and stakeholder interviews 19 4.2 Data analysis process for the socioeconomic analyses 20 4.3 Methods and data analysis process for the cost-benefit analysis 20 5. Results and discussion 24 5.1. Producer information 24 5.2. Characterization of the surveyed banana farms 26 5.3. Access to information and technology 27 5.4. Fusarium wilt TR4 management 28 5.5. Banana farm management 32 5.6. Harvest and sales 35 5.7. Association/cooperative membership and certifications 36 5.8. Food Security 38 5.9. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) 39 5.10. Socioeconomic implications of TR4 43 6. Limitations of the study 48 7. Conclusions 50 Appendix A: Supplemental data 52 Appendix B: Published outputs 54 Appendix C: Conference and presentations 54 References 55 12 | REPORT 1. Introduction Banana crops around the world are threatened by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4, hereafter TR4). TR is a fungus that affects the vascular system of the plant, constricting the transport of water and nutrients, which leads to the death of infected plants. It destroys all banana plants in the affected area and can remain in the soil for more than 50 years (Pegg et al., 2019). Foc can lead to high economic losses and is a major concern for not only bananas, but for a wide variety of crops (Okungbowa and Shittu, 2013). There is great diversity in Foc populations of which only one can affect the economically important Cavendish cultivar: Tropical Race 4 (hereafter, TR4). TR4 is by far the most aggressive Foc strain (Buddenhagen, 2009). TR4 also affects a diverse range of local cultivars that are not susceptible to Foc Race 1 (R1) and Race 2 (R2). More than 80% of global banana and plantain production is thought to be based on germplasms susceptible to TR4 (Staver et al., 2020). TR4 was first detected in Asia in the 1970s before arriving in Africa in 2013 and spreading to Latin America in 2019 when it was detected on two farms in La Guajira, Colombia. Two years later, TR4 was confirmed in Peru and in 2023 was confirmed in Venezuela. According to Ploetz et al. (2015), preliminary risk analysis indicated that TR4 is spreading to other major banana-growing countries in Asia and Africa (Staver et al., 2013). TR4 is a major concern for banana production throughout the world since there is no effective treatment against it, it leads to complete yield loss, and there are no commercial varieties resistant to this long-lasting disease. It is imperative to better understand the socioeconomic effects of this disease and to identify responses to prevent and manage it. With the arrival of TR4 in Colombia in 2019, the banana industry in Colombia and neighboring countries is at risk of high economic losses. Four of the world’s five leading banana exporters are in Latin America (in order from highest to lowest): Ecuador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Colombia. Colombia exported more than 2 million tons of bananas in 2021 (FAO, 2022), corresponding to 86% of its national banana production. While there are no existing studies on the economic losses of TR4 on Latin American countries, studies from other countries offer insights. For example, in Taiwan, by 2013 Fusarium wilt of Cavendish bananas had already caused welfare losses to the banana industry there of up to USD253.3 million/year and losses of about USD91 million in producer welfare (Peng et al., 2013). Cook et al. (2015) predicted that TR4 would cause annual losses of USD138 million in Australia and estimated that about 13,000 hectares of commercial banana plantation would be affected by this disease over a 30-year period. Will Colombia suffer from these immense losses as well? 13Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Due to the losses TR4 can cause and its recent spread to Colombia, understanding the effects the disease on the banana industry is vital so policymakers, industry leaders, and other stakeholders can prioritize prevention and mitigation practices and investments. In Colombia, to mitigate the effect of TR4 on banana production, three main interventions have been implemented thus far: building the capacity of actors to manage TR4, strengthening the capacity of actors to use preventive instrument (surveillance), and containing existing cases of TR4. Currently, there is no information on how effective these interventions have been in achieving the overall goal of enhancing food security through increased income. The cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and socioeconomic analysis in this study will shed light on the effects of TR4 on different value chain actors in the banana industry. This study will examine how the banana value chain is affected by TR4 and how different preventative, management, and containment practices can be utilized by examining how interventions that address the spread and management of TR4 lead to outputs, outcomes, and eventually impacts. The theory of change shown in Figure 1 forms the basis of this socioeconomic and CBA study. Figure 1 Theory of change indicating the problem, interventions, and expected outputs, outcomes, and impact. Problem Banana plants are highly susceptible to Fusarium wilt Tropical Race 4 (TR4), leading to reductions in production, exports, income, and food security. Intervention Strengthen the capacity of actors to use improved preventative, managemet, and containment practices. Outputs Competences of banana value chain actors to apply improved preventative, management, and containment practices of TR4 are strengthened. Increase in value chain actors using improved preventative, managemet, and containment practices, including innovative tools TR4. Increase in banana yields and income. Improved dietary diversity, income, production, yields and technology adoption. Outcomes Impact The problem underlying the need for this study is that bananas are highly susceptible to TR4, which leads to losses in production, exports, income, and food security. Interventions designed from data collected in this study will help build the capacity of value chain actors to prevent, manage, and contain the spread of TR4. Outputs include improved TR4 preventive measures, management practices, and containment methods. Expected outcomes from this project are an increase in the number of actors using improved preventative, management, and containment practices. This includes innovative tools, such as mobile apps for the detection and management of TR4. This is expected to lead to positive outcomes of increased banana yields and income. Lastly, expected impacts are improved food security (through increased yields and income via the 14 | REPORT production‐consumption pathway and the production- income pathway, respectively), income, production, yields, and the adoption of technology. Based on this theory of change, this study aims to answer the following research questions: What are the economic, environmental, and food security effects of TR4 on the banana value chain in Colombia? What is the potential of technology, policy, and institutional responses to preventing and managing the spread TR4? What is the economic impact of implementing biosecurity strategies on banana farms to prevent the spread of Fusarium TR4? Are biosecurity strategies financially viable for banana producers? By answering these research questions, this study will address important gaps in the literature, which are discussed in the below literature review. 2. Literature review This section contains a literature review of socioeconomic and cost-benefit analysis studies that are relevant to our study. 2.1 Socioeconomic literature review This section contains a review of the socioeconomic literature on TR4 in addition to relevant literature on other banana diseases. In a review of the literature on TR4, Molano and Montoya (2022) highlight the increasing trend of research in the last few years on the disease due to its growing presence in banana- producing countries. They write that the literature is mainly focused on agricultural, biochemical, and genetic and molecular biology, emphasizing the importance that future research be conducted on economic issues since there is a knowledge gap on this topic. Based on a review of the literature, we could not find any studies that assess the socioeconomic effects of the disease on the banana value chain. Important aspects such as the diseases’ effects on food security and the livelihoods of value chain actors are absent. Instead, the scant existing literature, discussed below, focuses on suitable environmental conditions for TR4, the efficacy of control methods, and TR4’s spread and overall economic losses. A handful of studies are based on models that estimate the spread of the disease and potential effects (Barahona, 2021; Cook et al., 2012, 2015; Olivares et al., 2021; Pemsl and Staver, 2014; Staver et al., 2020). For example, Olivares et al. (2021) review the state of knowledge concerning agro-environmental factors that affect disease progression. Maximum Entropy models are used to estimate the potential spread of TR4 in Venezuela if TR4 were to enter the country. The study presents a map of the continuous climatic suitability for TR4 based on the models. Scheerer et al. (2018a) propose a procedure with a logical sequence for projecting losses from TR4, classifying countries into four risk categories. The study then estimates banana production losses for each country in terms of the area lost, which is presented as the percentage of the total national production area. Their findings for Peru and Colombia indicate that 2% and 5%, respectively, of the total national area will be lost over 25 years due to TR4. However, these studies are based on predictions and do not examine the actual effects of the disease on banana producers and others in the value chain. The study also does not consider other effects of TR4 beyond production areas. Moreover, they are based on assumptions which may or may not be realized. Other studies examine actual economic losses caused by TR4. Aquino et al. (2013) surveyed 30 Cavendish banana farms in the Philippines through focus group discussions and key informant interviews to assess farm-level economic consequences. They estimated the value of direct and indirect effects of TR4 in terms of losses in banana production and additional costs to control the disease, respectively. The study found that the total cost of TR4 for all 30 sampled farms was USD386,686 within one year. Malik et al. (2013) uses a country-wide survey to determine the incidence and distribution of Fusarium wilt in Malaysia, finding that losses are USD14.1 million per year. Molano and Montoya (2022) present cases of TR4 in Indonesia, Taiwan, and Malaysia where they estimate that millions of dollars have been lost from the disease. Damodaran et al. (2019) assess the efficacy of a bio-formulation in terms of its ability to control the disease, restore yields, and increase income of banana growers in a community-based management scheme of TR4. The bio-formulation, ICAR-FUSICONT, has both antagonistic and growth-promoting microbes. Through a survey conducted in 2017 and 2018 in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, India with adopters and non-adopters, they found evidence of an overall decrease in the incidence of TR4 among adopters of the bio-formulation and community-based management 15Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia scheme. Adopters also reported higher yields and income from banana production compared to non- adopters. Petersen and Luis (2023) present an impact assessment to identify the impact of a project called “Integrated management of Fusarium wilt of bananas in the Philippines and Australia”, which provided scientific knowledge on the epidemiology, containment, and management of TR4. The study found that the project had a high environmental impact in Australia by reducing soil erosion and run-off, preventing contaminants from reaching the ocean. In the Philippines, the project had a small impact on reducing the area contaminated by TR4 and encouraging the adoption of partially resistant varieties. This project also had high economic impacts on Philippines and Australia, since the study found that the ratio of total project benefits to costs is estimated to be 71, meaning that every dollar invested is expected to generate 71 dollars in return. The above studies on the economic effects of TR4 show the immense impacts the fungus can have. In addition, they present evidence on how beneficial it is to take measures that prevent its spread. A related strand of literature examines another banana disease, Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BWX). Among the most recent literature is a paper (Petsakos et al., 2023) that takes a multidisciplinary approach, employing partial equilibrium economic models and a BXW disease spread model. This paper seeks to understand how the potential spread of BXW may impact the production and demand of bananas and food security in sub- Saharan Africa. The spread is modeled based on three scenarios of policy responses and how these responses may affect the adoption of management practices to control BXW. Their results show that even a limited response can reduce the negative consequences of BXW and that impacts can be almost entirely nullified if producers have good knowledge of the disease and fully adopt appropriate management practices. Although these studies were not on TR4 specifically, they shed light on the benefits knowledge and good management practices can have. Lastly, there are studies that explore the ability of modern technology to collect information on the analysis, detection, and management of banana diseases. Nakato et al. (2016) use mobile phones to collect data on the presence or absence of three banana diseases (BXW, Fusarium wilt (race 1), and Banana Bunchy Top disease) in two districts of Uganda. A mobile application is used by fieldworkers to take pictures of banana plants and record GPS coordinates to assess the viability of a participatory Geographic Information System to enable a plant diagnosis network. Utilizing this technology resulted in reduced transport costs for fieldworkers. In addition, the technology was able to identify the incidence of the disease, which was 29.1% and 33.8% in the two districts. In another study, Sanga et al. (2020) identified a lack of tools for early banana disease detection in Tanzania and developed a mobile application that uses deep learning to detect Fusarium wilt 1 and black Sigatoka. The technology detected Fusarium wilt 1 and black Sigatoka banana disease with a confidence level of 99% from images of the captured leaf area. These studies provide insight into how technology can be used to combat TR4. The above literature indicates that there are only a handful of studies that examine the effects of TR4 on the economy, environment, food security, and income, and that these studies present results at the regional or national level, rather than at the farm or individual level. In addition, none of these studies were conducted in Latin America. Research thus far has focused on understanding the environmental conditions that allow for the development and spread of TR4 rather than the economic, food security, and environmental effects of the disease at the household, farm, or individual level. We were also unable to identify any studies that examined effects on the banana value chain. Vascular coloration in banana plants as a telltale sign of TR4 infection ( Bioversity/M. Dita) 16 | REPORT This study aims to fill these gaps in the literature by measuring the economic, environmental, and food security effects from TR4 at the producer level and national level in Colombia. Given their experience and knowledge, value chain actors were interviewed to help understand the effects of TR4 on the banana sector, food security, and the environment. Such an analysis is critical to quantify how this devastating disease affects the banana value chain and the entire economy. This study also examines the potential of technology, such as mobile phone applications and drones, to prevent and manage the spread of TR4. Information from this analysis will provide actionable data on the importance of placating the effects of TR4, thereby helping policymakers, scientists, development organizations, and other stakeholders to develop and target policies and initiatives. 2.2 Cost-benefit analysis literature review A literature review on impact assessments of TR4 revealed that there are a few studies that have utilized CBA as a tool, some of which grouped TR4 with other banana diseases together. The relevant literature is addressed below to provide information on existing methodologies and gaps in the literature. Pemsl and Staver (2014) have been pioneers in identifying and prioritizing strategies to improve banana production. They administered an online survey to 523 banana experts in 50 countries on factors limiting banana production, such as diseases, pests, weather problems, marketing constraints, and other factors that determine income. The potential economic returns of six strategies were estimated using CBA and an economic surplus model to estimate the number of potential beneficiaries and effects on poverty reduction. Through workshops, the importance of and devastating effects of Fusarium as a constraint to banana production were identified. Nevertheless, there was a greater concern for Banana Bunchy Top Virus and Banana Xanthomonas Wilt bacteria disease. Other studies utilizing CBA examine the economic viability of implementing mitigation strategies against TR4 and their impact on poverty reduction. Scheerer et al. (2018b) evaluate the economic viability of implementing strategies that mitigate the impact of TR4 in 29 countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America using CBA to calculate the net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR). The authors define benefits as the losses avoided by a particular mitigation intervention to calculate a “Foc Scale” to estimate the total expected loss of production by TR4 in each country. Results indicate that in the 29 countries analyzed, production losses caused by TR4 over a 25-year horizon could be nearly 1.7 million hectares (ha) assuming a 50% spread rate or over 1.2 million ha assuming a 25% increasing spread rate, which represent 17.1% and 12.6% of the total banana production area, respectively. All researched mitigation options in the study have positive economic returns while contributing to poverty reduction. Integrated crop and disease management to reduce the impact of Fusarium (R1, R2, STR4, and TR4 strands) and improved quarantine and surveillance measures to avoid the spread of TR4 are the options provided in Scheerer et al. (2018b) that would lift the greatest number of beneficiaries out of poverty, with 850,000 beneficiaries applying quarantine and 807,000 beneficiaries with surveillance measures. Likewise, Staver et al. (2020) examine the impact of four mitigation options against TR4 in the Asia-Pacific region, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The study assumes two adoption scenarios, low and high adoption, using a partial equilibrium economic surplus model and a CBA. They find that all options generate positive NPV and that IRR is above the standard 10% rate. In addition, any investment in TR4 mitigation would benefit between 2.7 million and 14 million small-scale producers by avoiding or reducing losses from TR4. The study also found that research in conventional breeding of Fusarium wilt resistant banana cultivars and in improved exclusion, surveillance, eradication, and containment would have a major impact on poverty reduction, resulting in 422,000 to 850,000 people being lifted out of poverty. The greatest benefits on poverty reduction were found to be in African countries since they have the highest poverty rates and the largest elasticity of poverty reduction with respect to agricultural productivity. Another method implemented in this study is the risk- index model developed by Scheerer et al. (2018a). This model projects losses from TR4 over time assuming an accelerated expansion of the disease (a 50% spread rate) and a more conservative scenario (a 25% spread rate). In both sceneries, losses in banana production areas exceed 200,000 ha during the first 10 years. With a spread rate of 25%, a loss of 800,000 ha after 20 years is predicted and with a spread rate of 50%, it is predicted that losses would exceed 1 million ha. In contrast, the impact assessment report by Hort Innovation (2020) presents an approach where CBA is used to value actual and/or potential impact of BA14013 project in Australia with 246 producers, partners, and 17Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia managers in the banana sector, with the objective of containing and preventing the spread of TR4. In this project, 37 workshops were held to identify the best biosecurity options for each production system, which led to the construction of “The Best Management Practice (BMP) guide for on-farm biosecurity”. The CBA found that the B414013 project has expected benefits of USD11.02 million (in present value). As can be seen from the above CBA literature, previous studies have focused on evaluating the impact of strategies to mitigate the effects of TR4 and other banana diseases on poverty reduction and avoided production losses, using methodologies such as CBA, NPV, IRR, and partial equilibrium economic surplus models to compare strategies under various assumptions related to the adoption of different scenarios and spread rates. None of these studies were undertaken in Colombia. In addition, most of the above studies have used secondary or expert panel information, while this study collects information on prevention and mitigation practices related to TR4, the costs of these practices, and the income associated with banana production through a survey with banana producers. This study aims to fill these gaps in the literature by evaluating the socioeconomic effects of TR4 and the financial viability of mitigation strategies implemented to counteract TR4 in Colombia. 3. Study area This section first describes the importance of bananas in Colombia before focusing on the study areas within Colombia where our interviews took place, namely Antioquia and Magdalena. The agricultural sector in general and the banana sector in particular play important roles in Colombia’s economy. In 2020, the agricultural sector represented 25.3% of total exports and banana exports were valued at USD916.2 million, representing 11.6% of the total agricultural exports (Augura, 2021a). In addition to the importance of bananas in Colombia’s international trade, the banana sector is important for employment and food security. The banana sector generates approximately 293,648 direct and indirect jobs and has a 5.3% share of Colombia’s agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) (MADR, 2020). Bananas are produced in 23 of the country’s 32 departments, of which three produce for international markets (Antioquia, Magdalena, and La Guajira) and 21 for domestic markets. Figure 2 shows a map of these banana producing regions. There are two varieties of bananas in Colombia: bananas for export (Cavendish) and bananas for domestic consumption (known as banano criollo). Antioquia is the only department that produces for both. Producers can be organized into cooperatives and associations. Large producers, called plantations, hire laborers to assist with different activities, such as planting and harvesting. Small producers rely on family labor. Some activities in the value chain vary by gender. Men tend to perform activities like land preparation, de-suckering, loading, and harvesting while women are largely involved in weeding, ripening, and marketing (Kennedy et al., 2018). In Colombia, about 10–15% of laborers on banana plantations are women. Banana producer associations and cooperatives in Colombia help organize and support banana producers to sell their products to international markets. Currently, there are two large banana associations in Colombia: Asbama and Augura. Asbama has producers in Magdalena, La Guajira and Cesar. Augura is mainly present in Antioquia and Magdalena. Both associations are focused on banana production for export. In the case A banana plantation that does not appear to be affected by TR4 ( CIAT/J.E. Vargas) 18 | REPORT of producers in Magdalena, cooperatives (which are smaller than associations) are an important institution since they are closer to the context and reality of producers in small villages near urban areas, helping them with technical assistance. They also allow small producers to organize and assemble large amounts of certified bananas for international markets. As shown above, banana production varies in Colombia from region to region based on the number of small and large producers, as well as the types of bananas produced there. To gather data from both small and large producers, we collected data in both Magdalena and Antioquia. There are several reasons why these departments were selected for the study.1 First, there are three cases of TR4 in Magdalena (Iguarán, 2022). Figure 2 Map of departments of study in Colombia 1. We had originally selected La Guajira in addition to Magdalena and Antioquia for the study since there are 11 farms of TR4 there, however, producers were unwilling to share information with us in La Guajira. For more details on this, please see page 48. ATLÁNTICO SUCRE CÓRDOBA ANTIOQUIA CALDAS CHOCÓ COLOMBIA VENEZUELA BRAZILECUADOR PERU NORTE DE SANTANDER MAGDALENA BOLÍVAR CESAR LA GUAJIRA 19Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia We wanted to ensure to include areas with and without TR4. Second, as explained in the introduction, these are the departments where bananas for export are produced. In addition, Antioquia also produces for domestic markets. Third, these departments have different types of producers in terms of smallholders and plantation managers. There is also a variety of conventional and organic farming systems. This is important so that the effects of TR4 and disease management practices can be compared between different production systems. Below, we describe the methodology. 4. Methodology To understand the socioeconomic impact of TR4 and the strategies employed by banana producers to mitigate its effects, a comprehensive study was conducted in the regions of Magdalena and Antioquia. 4.1 Data collection: Producer survey and stakeholder interviews Quantitative and qualitative data was collected in a producer survey and semi-structured interviews (SSIs). All survey tools were conducted in Spanish. Before beginning data collection, an ALER4TA project workshop was held in Santa Marta, so that stakeholders were aware of the project, the project’s objectives, and the type of data we planned to collect. The producer survey included 191 smallholder farmers and large plantation owners/managers in two regions of Colombia (see Table 1). The number of surveys conducted in each municipality varies widely given the different production systems. Out of the total 191 surveyed banana producers, a majority (176) are located in Magdalena, while the remaining 15 farms are in Antioquia (see Table 1). As shown, the vast majority (161) were conducted in Zona Bananera. Spreading the surveys across these different regions and municipalities allows us to have location-specific findings which will lay the foundation for further analysis and allow for a deeper understanding of the regional dynamics in terms of banana farming and the subsequent socioeconomic effects of TR4 and its mitigation practices. Producer surveys were designed to gather data across nine sections, which encompassed various aspects of banana farming. The producer survey collected information on socioeconomic and environmental characteristics, including income from banana production, income from banana labor, the banana production system (e.g., inputs used, time spent managing banana plants, amount harvested, amount lost, size of farm, environmental effects from banana Table 1. Number of producer surveys by department and municipality (N = 191) Department Municipality Number of interviews Magdalena Santa Marta 7 Magdalena Aracataca 1 Magdalena Ciénaga 7 Magdalena Zona Bananera 161 Antioquia Apartadó 6 Antioquia Carepa 3 Antioquia Chigorodó 3 Antioquia Turbo 3 Source: Own elaboration based on survey 20 | REPORT production, etc.), experiences with TR4 (e.g., bananas lost due to TR4, detection methods, mitigation methods, and management methods), membership and participation in producer organizations, banana consumption at home, food security, use of mobile phones and other technology that could be used to help prevent and manage TR4, and knowledge on the ability to detect and manage TR4. Related to the use of technology, quantitative indicators included the number of value chain actors using innovative tool(s) to detect and/or manage TR4, as well as the change in banana yields, losses, income, and management practices (especially inputs and time spent) among users. SSIs allowed to obtain insights into the different effects of TR4, which may not have come out of the quantitative data. To understand the varying effects of TR4 on the value chain, we conducted SSIs with plantation owners/ managers, plantation workers including daily laborers, smallholder farmers, multiplicators, extension agents, service providers, and researchers (Table 2). It was originally planned to conduct SSIs with producer association and cooperative managers. However, none were available after repeatedly attempting to set up interviews. SSIs provide both quantitative and qualitative data. In addition, we had planned to conduct focus group discussions, but the representative of the owner and farm managers affected by TR4 were unwilling to participate due to the sensitivity of the topic and competitiveness. 4.2 Data analysis process for the socioeconomic analyses Data from the producer survey and SSIs were analyzed separately. With data collected from the two survey tools, we examined the far-reaching effects of TR4 on various indicators, such as food security, income, the environment, and the detection and management of TR4 (such as time, money, and inputs used). We also include both men and women in our analysis to understand the gender roles in banana production and the value chain. From the SSIs, open-ended questions and multiple-choice questions were tabulated in Excel. Value chain actors are identified based on what type of value chain activity they are involved in and whether they have experience with TR4. This allowed the analysis of answers to the multiple-choice questions based on different respondent characteristics. 4.3 Methods and data analysis process for the cost-benefit analysis CBA is an analytical tool that balances the costs and benefits of a project to evaluate its financial profitability (Castro et al., 2008). This study uses a CBA approach to evaluate the potential benefits of TR4 mitigation practices. Given that we had a limitation concerning the availability of cost data for all surveyed Table 2. Semi-structured interviews (N = 28) Type of actor Number of interviews Extension agents, service providers, and multiplicators 9 Banana laborers 10 Researchers 2 Presidents/Vice presidents of producer organizations 5 Government officials 2 21Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia producers, a CBA was performed using average values per department rather than estimating B/C ratios and NPVs for each producer. There are several factors necessary for the CBA calculation, detailed below: 1. Analysis Horizon: When carrying out a CBA, the useful life of the project is considered as a time horizon. Considering the Colombian National Tax Statute Article 137, we selected a 40-year analysis horizon as the foundational useful life for the disinfection stations and roadways. An annual depreciation rate of 2.22% and 2.5% was applied to disinfection stations and roads, respectively. 2. Discount Rate: The discount rate is used to discount future payments to their present value so that the time value of money is considered. The higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the payments. In this case, a 12% social discount rate was applied to bring future costs and benefits to their present value (Piraquive et al., 2018). 3. Investment Cost: Investment costs are the initial costs of an implemented mitigation strategy. 4. Operation and Maintenance Costs: These are all the costs necessary for the development and implementation of mitigation strategies, including fixed costs, input costs, repairs, and maintenance. During an ALER4TA project workshop in Santa Marta, the mitigation actions implemented by actors in the banana value chain in Colombia were identified. Participants include researchers, producers, extension agents, representatives of government institutions (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario – ICA) and the Ministry of Agriculture and National Natural Parks, representatives of associations (Augura and Asbama), banana transport providers, and export companies. Table 3 shows the interventions addressing the TR4 outbreak in banana production and commercial systems in Magdalena, La Guajira, and Antioquia. Mitigation strategies and activity costs Cost items Capacity building of actors to manage TR4 Training banana farmers about Fusarium TR4 Institutional level 1. On-farm training cost (transportation of participants, training allowance for participants and facilitators, snack, and lunch) 2. Number of facilitators Construction of disinfection stations at farm entrances Institutional level 1. Cost of the site (rental or outward purchase) 2. The total cost of construction of disinfection stations (materials, transportation, labor cost, and supervision) 3. Cost of maintaining the facility (labor and material costs) 4. Operation cost (including labor and supervision) Disinfection of machinery, vehicles, and footwear before entering the farms and when leaving farms Institutional level 1. Cost of water for cleaning vehicles, machinery, containers, footwear, and agricultural implements 2. Cost of electricity in operating the pressure pump 3. Labor cost in operating the pressure pump 4. Cost of chemicals for disinfection 5. Labor cost disinfection Table 3. TR4 program interventions and related cost activities 22 | REPORT Mitigation strategies and activity costs Cost items Cement paths in the banana plantations for machinery and vehicles Institutional level 1. Cost of building materials 2. Transportation cost of building materials 3. Labor cost 4. Supervision cost Information dissemination campaigns about Fusarium on radio, television, and frequented places such as the airport Institutional level 1. Advertising costs Strengthen capacity of actors to use preventive instrument (surveillance) Monitoring symptoms through drones, apps, and extension agents Institutional level (ICA and producer organizations) 1. Technology (drones, apps) costs – development costs/startup costs, maintenance costs 2. Labor cost (operational) for deploying the technology 3. Transportation cost of extension agents 4. Daily subsistence allowance (DSA) allowances for extension agents Monitoring symptoms by banana farmers/workers Farmer/worker level 1. Labor cost for deploying the technology 2. Transportation cost of farmers/workers Containment of existing cases of TR4 Quarantine of Fusarium-infected zone Institutional and farmer levels 1. Building materials (wire enclosures, trenches, hexagonal mesh of galvanized wire) 2. Biosecurity practices for containing the disease to prevent spread (footbath with disinfectant solution cost) 3. Labor costs Eradication of plants from infected lots Producer level 1. Labor cost (number of people and days involved in eradication) 2. Materials (disposable suits, hoods, disposal overalls with caps, gloves, mask, and rubber boots) Report the presence of plants suspected of being affected by TR4 to the ICA Producer level 1. Transportation cost 2. Communication 23Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia In this analysis, CBA calculations were performed per hectare. In this context, each cost and benefit data associated with the implementation of biosafety measures to combat TR4 was calculated for one hectare of land cultivated with bananas. This approach makes it easier to understand their economic impact and viability at the level of individual plots or farms. The steps followed to generate the CBA are highlighted below: Step 1: Identify the specific activities of each of the TR4 interventions or mitigation strategies. Step 2: Collect data on TR4 mitigation strategies applied in the field and their cost structure (quantities and costs associated with inputs and labor, etc.). Data collection involves SSIs with value chain actors and producer surveys. Step 3: Clean and analyze the collected data on TR4 mitigation strategies and their cost. This step ensures that the cost and income information are in the same units for the entire sample, which in this case, is on a per hectare basis. Step 4: Identify the benefits associated with TR4 mitigation strategies. In this study, benefits will be understood as the monetary losses avoided: i.e., the estimated losses that the farm would have incurred, had the banana plants on that farm contracted TR4. For this, questions about the average amount harvested per hectare and the sales price were included in the producer survey. Step 5: Calculate net cash flows over the years obtained by subtracting total income from total costs including the initial investment. This is done on a per hectare basis. Step 6: Calculate NPV, which is a financial metric that is the difference between the present value of cash inflows and outflows associated with an investment or project. NPV helps assess the profitability or viability of an investment by determining whether it generates more value than it costs when considering the time value of money. A positive NPV indicates that the investment is likely to be financially worthwhile, while a negative NPV suggests otherwise. To calculate NPV, the time horizon, net cash flows, and the discount rate are needed, which are then used in the NPV formula [1]. Step 7: Adjust the income (benefit) and cost of each period to the present using the discount rate selected in the following formula: Step 8: Estimate the benefit-cost (B/C) ratio. As shown in equation 4, the B/C ratio is obtained by dividing the sum of current benefits by the sum of current costs calculated in step 7. When this ratio is greater than one, it indicates that the project will generate more benefits than costs, therefore making it financially profitable. The above approach of understanding avoided losses as potential benefits has been used in Cook et al. (2012) and are called exclusion benefits. The CBA in this study will provide results that will play a key role in assessing the potential benefits of implementing TR4 mitigation strategies in banana production. By employing key financial metrics, such as the benefit- cost ratio (B/C ratio) and net present value (NPV), the analysis will provide a comprehensive understanding of the economic viability of TR4 mitigation strategies undertaken by banana producers. 24 | REPORT 5. Results and discussion This section presents and discusses the results according to the nine sections of the producer survey. 5.1 Producer information This section of the producer survey focused on gathering general information about the respondents, encompassing factors such as gender, relationship status, education level, and occupation. This section provides a comprehensive overview of the demographic characteristics of the banana farmers participating in the study. Gaining insights into the social and economic backgrounds of the respondents can help understand the diversity of experiences and perspectives within the farming community. In Magdalena, out of the total respondents, a significant majority (166) are banana producers. The remainder include relatives of banana producers and farm managers that have knowledge about managing banana plantations. On the other hand, in Antioquia, all of the respondents are banana producers. This indicates a more homogenous demographic composition within the surveyed population, where all participants were actively engaged in banana cultivation. Despite this, there are still gaps to close in terms of women’s participation in banana production since 16.2% of respondents are women. In Antioquia, the share of women respondents is 20%, while in Magdalena the share is 15.9%. In terms of the educational background of the respondents, the survey data reveals interesting patterns between Magdalena and Antioquia. Figure 3 summarizes the reading and writing skills of respondents. In Antioquia, all respondents indicated that they can read and write, while in Magdalena 3.4% of the respondents do not know how to read and write. Specifically, 5.1% of the respondents in Magdalena reported not having any formal education. However, the remaining respondents in Magdalena showcased a diverse range of educational attainment levels. Approximately 35.1% of the respondents have a high school education, indicating a solid educational Surveillance of banana plantations with drones ( CIAT/J.E. Vargas) 25Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia foundation. Around 19.3% reported having completed technical studies, suggesting specialized knowledge in agricultural practices. Furthermore, 18.1% of the respondents in Magdalena have pursued university studies. A significant 80% of the respondents in Antioquia reported having pursued university studies, indicating a higher level of educational attainment compared to Magdalena. Additionally, 13% of the respondents in Antioquia reported having completed technical studies. Only a smaller proportion, 7% of the respondents in Antioquia, reported having a high school education, indicating a relatively lower representation at this educational level (see Figure 4). These results indicate that Antioquia is a region where banana producers have, on average, more education than their counterparts in Magdalena. In Magdalena, the primary occupation of 73.1% of the respondents is owning their farm, while 11.4% work in farm management for other farms. Within the group of respondents who work on their own farm, the majority (71.9%) do not have a secondary occupation. In Antioquia, 46.7% of the respondents work in their own banana farm as their primary occupation, 13.3% work as managers of other banana farms, and 40% are involved in various other activities such as managerial, agronomist, and administrative roles. Similar to Magdalena, all respondents who work on their own farm in Antioquia do not have a secondary occupation. Figure 3 Respondents’ reading and writing skills (N = 191) Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Notes: This figure shows all types of respondents, which includes producers (N = 181) and relatives of producers (9). One respondent didn’t respond to the question. Know how to read and write Do not know how to read and write 3% 97% Bioversity/M. Dita 26 | REPORT 5.2 Characterization of the surveyed banana farms In the full sample, 55% of respondents are small-scale producers (farms of less than 3 hectares), 26% are medium-scale producers (from 3 to 20 hectares), and the remaining 19% are large-scale producers (farms larger than 20 hectares). All 15 producers in Antioquia are large-scale producers, with the smaller producers having 85 hectares of banana plants. The average size of these banana farms in Antioquia is an impressive 134.6 hectares, underscoring the substantial landholdings and extensive agricultural operations carried out by the region’s large producers. The prevalence of large-scale banana production in Antioquia points to the region’s capacity for high-volume cultivation and exports of bananas. On the other hand, 59% of respondents in Magdalena are small-scale producers, 29% medium- scale producers, and 12% being large-scale producers. This indicates that there are differences in the characteristics of farms that produce bananas for export markets in the two departments analyzed. Table 4 shows statistics related to farm size. As shown in the table, the average farm size is much larger in Antioquia (134 ha) than in Magdalena (12 ha), which is evidence of the differences between producers of these departments. Table A1 in the Annex includes mean t-tests that compare the averages of different variables between Antioquia and Magdalena and show their significance levels. As shown in this table, the difference in the farm area between the two departments is statistically significant at the 1% level, with producers in Antioquia having a larger farm area, on average, compared to those in Magdalena. Magdalena is a region with hundreds of small-scale and medium- scale banana producers and many are dependent on agricultural activities. On the other hand, in Antioquia, banana producers are characterized by being large- scale ones who sell to international markets, with larger lands owned by fewer people compared to Magdalena. Producers in Magdalena are concerned about the purchase of land by large commercial companies in their local areas, as this would reduce the presence of small-scale producers and further increase land owned by large-scale producers. Figure 4 Educational level of respondents, by department Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Note: Number of respondents from Antioquia: 15. Number of respondents from Magdalena: 174. University Technician/Technologist High school Elementary school None Ed uc at ion le ve l Share of respondents Antioquia Magdalena 80% 18% 13% 19% 7% 35% 0% 22% 0% 5% 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 27Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Figure 5 Means to access internet connectivity, by department Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Notably, conventional production systems dominate in this region, with only 4% of respondents employing organic production methods. In terms of land ownership, 70% of respondents own their farms with official land titles, while 10% own farms without official documentation. This is common in Colombia where a large share of lands is informally occupied: in 2019, 52.7% of lands did not have documentation (Neva and Prada, 2020). Additionally, 10% of respondents rent their farms, while the remaining respondents utilize other land ownership arrangements. 5.3 Access to information and technology When it comes to accessing information, in Magdalena 80% of the respondents have a smartphone, indicating a relatively high ownership rate. However, there is still a connectivity gap, with 24% of the producers lacking internet access. Figure 5 displays statistics on how producers access the internet. Among those who have internet access, 50% of producers in Magdalena utilize their own mobile devices, connecting through a combination of Wi-Fi and mobile data, with 28% of producers using internet thanks to mobile data and 22% via Wi-Fi connection. On the other hand, in Antioquia, 100% of the respondents have smartphones and internet access, indicating a high level of connectivity. Among them, 60% access the internet using a combination of mobile data and Wi-Fi, while the remaining 40% solely rely on Wi-Fi networks. Respondents who have access to the internet in Magdalena use their own smartphone (99.3%), their own computers (27.8%), public computers (1.5%), and tablets (0.7%). While, in Antioquia, all respondents access the internet through their own smartphones, another device used to access the internet is their own computers (73.3%). Producers in both departments use the internet to access various types of agricultural management information (66%), input information (53.5%), and to seek guidance on pests and diseases (42.4%). Among the diseases, the most searched for are Fusarium (76.2% of respondents looking for information of pests/diseases) and Black Sigatoka (59.5%). Less frequently searched is Erwinia in Magdalena and insects in Antioquia. These findings emphasize the importance of mobile technology, particularly smartphones, as the primary means of internet access for respondents in both departments. Hectares planted with bananas Department Obs. Mean Median Std. dev. Min Max Magdalena 175 12.19 2.8 32.04 0.2 210 Antioquia 14 134.56 130.36 49.71 85.59 248.4 Table 4. Statistics on farm size (N = 189) Antoquia (N = 15)Magdalena (N = 141) Wi-Fi and mobile data Only Wi-Fi Only mobile data 28% 40% 60% 22% 50% Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey 28 | REPORT According to extension agents and service providers involved in the banana value chain, technology is useful for TR4 prevention when it is used to provide “timely and accurate responses” and “accelerate the protocols for early symptoms”. It also helps with “logistics and information”. Further, these respondents believe that technology will be useful in the future by providing “satellite spectrums with accurate location and timely information” and by “shortening detection times for precise information about the crop and location of outbreaks or alarms”. In terms of TR4 management, they agree that technology is key when used for obtaining “precision and follow-up information”, “creating new varieties resistant to the fungus”, and “improving the quality of the information”. They also mentioned that technology will be more useful in the future by “shortening time for early detection” via “better identification of symptoms” with “apps useful to detect, inform, and locate”. These opinions of extension agents are in line with the views of other actors. For instance, cooperative managers and government agents see the importance of technology in the management of TR4 in obtaining and sharing information, while researchers mention that the main role of technology now and in the future has to do with the development of new banana varieties and improving disease detection times. These remarks from banana value chain actors help to understand how important it is to analyze access to technology and its use in banana production, given the potential that it has to improve crop management, disease prevention and management, and information access and sharing. Regarding the use of mobile phone applications (hereafter, apps) for crop management, a relatively small percentage (16%) utilize such apps. In terms of app usage, 60% of the respondents in Antioquia utilize apps, compared with 11.35% of producers in Magdalena, providing this statistic an interesting contrast in technology usage in crop management in the regions. Some of the commonly used apps in Magdalena include Avanza, Banasoft, Excel, Farmers Edge, Field Climate, Georeferencing and GPS, Planty, Silver Tracker, and WhatsApp. In Antioquia the apps Xioma and Tropimovil are the most employed. These apps primarily serve the purpose of obtaining information about agricultural management, market trends for bananas, and input- related information. The findings reveal that banana producers in both Antioquia and Magdalena actively engage in chat groups for the exchange of valuable banana information. In Antioquia, 60% of banana producers actively participate in such chat groups, all of them use WhatsApp and 22% use Facebook groups for this purpose. Similarly, in Magdalena, 48.3% of respondents participate in similar groups, with WhatsApp being the platform used by all participants, with a smaller proportion of 2.3% using Facebook and 1.2% Telegram for information exchange. These digital communication channels serve as crucial platforms for knowledge sharing and collaboration within the banana farming communities in both regions. These channels may prove useful to reduce the negative consequences of Fusarium on the sector, since producers may take advantage of these digital tools to share positive and negative experiences dealing with TR4, showing the potential of technology in preventing and managing this fungus. The above results indicate differences in technology access and economic conditions among producers from the two study regions. 5.4 Fusarium wilt TR4 management In both Antioquia and Magdalena, TR4 poses a significant threat to banana cultivation. Currently, in Colombia TR4 has only been confirmed to be present on large farms in La Guajira and Magdalena. However, the results from the producer survey show that none of the respondents have reported Fusarium-infected banana farms. This is due to the unwillingness to give information from producers affected by TR4. Farm owners with plantations affected were unwilling to provide data because they feared that providing this information would be harmful to their economic activities since they highly depend on bank loans to conduct their activities as large-scale banana producers. Producers feared that if banks knew their situation with the Fusarium wilt, they would not be able to obtain loans, harming their business even more. There are differences across the departments regarding training on TR4. In Antioquia, all 15 banana producers have heard of TR4, of which 14 received training on the topic. Producers were trained an average of eight times on TR4 in 2022. On the other hand, in Magdalena, 174 banana producers are aware of Fusarium TR4. Of these, 161 respondents received an average of 5.8 training sessions on TR4 in 2022. The actors responsible for providing these crucial trainings on TR4 were producer associations (59.6% of respondents trained thanks to these institutions), the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA, 52.8%), and marketing companies (20.5%). In Antioquia producers were trained significantly more by extension agents 29Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia than producers in Magdalena, where producers are trained more often by producer associations and cooperatives. The survey asked respondents to describe TR4 in a few words. Some producers mentioned that “it is the worst plague”, “it’s deadly – destroys everything”, “extremely threatening for bananas”, “agricultural pandemic”, “it’s poison that destroys plantations”, “can end banana business”, “it’s a demon”. These words may indicate that banana producers are aware of the threat TR4 poses to the banana sector. The phrases used to describe TR4 did not vary much by department: Most in Antioquia and all in Magdalena said it is a fungus. Nearly half of respondents in Magdalena mentioned something regarding danger and TR4. Figure 6 shows a word cloud with the most common words in the answers to the question of what knowledge did they have about Fusarium Tropical Race 4, and words such as “fungus”, “disease”, “soil”, “plague”, and “plant” are the most highlighted by the producers. Figure 6 Word cloud of most common words among producers about TR4 Source: Own elaboration based on the producer survey (N = 189), which asked respondents about their knowledge about TR4 The research team also conducted semi-structured interviews in which we asked different actors in the banana value chain in Colombia. For example, we asked laborers how Fusarium TR4 would affect their job if the pathogen spreads to their area. Figure 7 shows a word cloud with the most common words they said to answer this question. The image shows that the most common concerns of banana laborers are losing their jobs and losing their source of income. They also fear impacts on the economy and crops. 30 | REPORT Differences also exist regarding surveillance strategies between Antioquia and Magdalena. Regarding surveillance strategies, all respondents in Antioquia have implemented such measures, with 93% monitoring symptoms either by themselves, with the help of farm workers, or by hiring someone specifically for this purpose. Additionally, 1.3% utilize mobile applications during the monitoring process and 27% rely on visits from extension agents. Interestingly, only one producer in Antioquia uses drone technology for symptom monitoring. In Magdalena, 89% of respondents have implemented surveillance strategies, with 58.6% conducting symptom monitoring through direct involvement or with the assistance of farm workers. Around 5% utilize mobile applications during this process, and 39% rely on extension agents for symptom monitoring. Similar to Antioquia, only one producer in Magdalena uses drones for this purpose. Drone usage for surveillance could be low in Colombia because this technology is expensive and relatively new, so it is not considered as an option by most producers. The cooperatives and marketing companies play a role in surveillance by supporting producers in supervision of banana plantations, since these institutions send technicians to monitor the phytosanitary status of farms. The frequency of monitoring activities varies based on the strategies employed. When symptom monitoring is conducted by the producers themselves or their farm workers, it occurs daily as part of the farm’s routine activities. In contrast, monitoring conducted by extension agents or drones typically occurs monthly. Furthermore, 79% of the cost for monitoring symptoms conducted by extension agents in both departments is financed by cooperatives, associations, government institutions, or marketing companies, relieving the burden from the banana producers themselves. In terms of prevention strategies, 100% of respondents in Antioquia have implemented such measures, while 98% of respondents in Magdalena have adopted preventive actions to safeguard their banana farms from the threat of TR4. The following strategies are implemented by banana producers on their farms to prevent Fusarium. Figure 7 Word cloud of most common words in answers to question about impact of TR4 in laborer’s job Source: Own elaboration based on semi-structured interviews with banana laborers (N = 10) 31Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Disinfection stations Disinfection stations seems to play a crucial role in controlling the spread of TR4. Typically located at the entrance of the banana farm, these stations consist of two zones separated by a cement bench. The first zone serves as the “dirty zone,” where individuals leave their regular shoes, while the second zone is the “clean zone,” equipped with cleaning boots. To leave the disinfection station, one must pass through a footbath containing a disinfectant solution. The implementation of such stations ensures that visitors and farm workers do not inadvertently carry the fungus onto the farm, reducing the risk of Fusarium TR4 contamination. The bottom left image shows an example of a large disinfection station found at the entrance of a banana farm. Remarkably, 100% of respondents in Antioquia have built and implemented disinfection stations on their banana farms, highlighting their commitment to disease prevention. In Magdalena, a significantly lower share of 77% of respondents have taken the same proactive approach by constructing these essential disinfection stations. Regional differences in the share of producers that have built disinfection stations may be due to purchasing power differences, since there is awareness of TR4 and the importance of disinfection in both regions, but building these stations has an additional, significant cost for small-scale producers (in Magdalena). Many disinfection stations of small- scale farmers were paid for by cooperatives. In addition, some inputs, such as quaternary ammonium and boots, were supplied by associations and ICA. Disinfection of shoes in foot baths Another prevalent prevention strategy adopted by both departments is the disinfection of shoes before and after entering the farm. Foot baths, containing a mix of ammonium quaternary and water, are strategically placed in various zones of the farm, particularly at different entrances, such as disinfection stations as the one shown in the bottom left image. This additional layer of protection helps eliminate any potential contamination of the farm’s soil. In Antioquia, 73% of respondents employ this shoe disinfection strategy, while in Magdalena, 69% of respondents have embraced this preventive measure. Cement paths Some producers have implemented the construction of cement paths between banana lots to avoid contact with the soil. In Magdalena, 4% of respondents have taken this step, while in Antioquia, a significantly higher proportion of 33% have adopted this approach to minimize soil-to-plant contact and reduce the risk of disease transmission. The bottom right image shows cement paths implemented in banana farms (Augura, 2021b). Photo of the inside of a large disinfection station in Magdalena ( Bioversity & CIAT/Taken by researchers in Zona Bananera, Magdalena, Colombia) Cement paths implemented in banana farms ( Augura/Screenshot taken from a YouTube video at 1:00 [Augura, 2021b]) 32 | REPORT Fences Another practice that is often carried out by farmers is the installation of fences around banana plantations, to prevent the undesired entrance of animals and people to the farm area. Overall, the above proactive prevention strategies demonstrate the dedication and awareness of banana producers in both Antioquia and Magdalena in safeguarding their livelihoods and banana industry against the destructive impact of TR4. By combining various preventive measures, these producers are actively working towards sustaining a resilient and healthy banana industry. It is important to carry out these measures as they are the main means by which the effect of TR4 can be mitigated, given that there are currently no banana varieties suitable for the market that are resistant to TR4. Despite their efforts, producers also have stated that there is still work to be done in biosecurity measures since they feel there is a lack of rigorous control of movement of people, machinery, and vehicles and thus a need for disinfection stations for vehicles and machinery moving between farms. Another concern of producers is that non-banana farmers or laborers are unaware of the TR4 situation, so they don’t think twice about trespassing on banana plantations to take bananas without undertaking shoe disinfection. This is an additional risk they face in the spread of TR4. 5.5 Banana farm management Proper crop management can help maintain soil and plant health, making them less vulnerable to TR4. Concerning fertilizer usage, in Antioquia, all surveyed producers (100%) incorporate fertilizers into their crops. As shown in Figure 8, several types of fertilizers are used, including chemical (46.7%), organic (13.3%), and a combination of both (40%). In Magdalena, nearly all producers (99%) use fertilizers, with chemical fertilizers (72%) ranking as the most prevalent type, followed by organic fertilizers (5%). Nearly one quarter (23%) use a combination of both. This difference in the use of chemical fertilizers between the two departments is quite stark and shows that a much higher proportion of producers in Antioquia rely on organic fertilizers for their plantations. Figure 8 Type of fertilizers used in banana farms (N = 187) Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Antoquia (N = 15) Magdalena (N = 172) % of respondents Mixture of chemical and organic Organic Chemical 40% 13.33% 46.67% 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 23.3% 4.7% 72% 33Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia As shown in Figure 9, in Antioquia, one-third of the surveyed farmers utilize pesticides in their crops, showing a preference for chemical pesticides (60%) and a combination of chemical and organic options (40%). Meanwhile, in Magdalena, pesticides are used less frequently by banana producers, with only 11.4% of producers applying pesticides. Among those who do apply pesticides, chemical pesticides (75%) are the predominant choice, with fewer using organic options (10%) or a combination of both (15%). Marketing companies play an important role in pest and disease control, as they carry out aerial spraying against Black Sigatoka. In Magdalena, for example, there are signs on some banana plantations warning people to stay away from the areas when planes are spraying, which is done weekly on Thursdays. This shows the role that marketing companies play in supporting banana producers by fighting against diseases that affect banana plantations, which is also beneficial for these institutions as they depend directly on the performance of producers and banana production. This may imply interest among trading companies in supporting banana farmers in mitigating the consequences of TR4. The practice of desuckering, in which inadequate baby plants (suckers) are removed to reduce competition for nutrients to obtain maximum yield of the selected offspring, is implemented by all producers in Antioquia, whereas in Magdalena, the majority (89.7%) follows suit. Similarly, the practice of deleafing in which leaves are removed from the banana plants, is prevalent in both regions. All producers in Antioquia and the vast majority (98.9%) in Magdalena engage in this practice. This practice increases the efficiency of fungicide applications and reduces premature ripening, however, there is a minimum leaf surface area that must be preserved to ensure an adequate development of the bunch. Thus, there is a trade-off between deleafing and the leaf area (Promusa, 2020). Figure 9 Type of pesticides used in banana plantations (N = 191) Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Regarding seeds, Figure 10 shows the type of seed chosen by banana producers for planting or reseeding. Figure 11 illustrates the origin of these seeds by department. In Magdalena, most producers predominantly use corms (65%) as their primary source of banana seeds, followed by seedlings (35%). Most of these growers obtain their banana seeds by sourcing them independently, often taking them from other lots (79%). A smaller percentage opt to purchase certified seeds (20%), while only 1% receive them as gifts from fellow farmers. In terms of awareness regarding ICA- certified establishments for the sale of banana seeds, just over half (51.4%) of the growers in Magdalena are informed about these establishments. On the other Antoquia (N = 5) Magdalena (N = 20) % of respondents Mixture of chemical and organic Organic Chemical 0% 60% 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 15% 10% 75% 40% 34 | REPORT hand, all the producers in Antioquia choose to plant seeds taken from their plots instead of getting them from certified establishments or from fellow farmers. Understanding the source of banana seeds is important amid the TR4 situation: If these seeds originate from TR4-infected soils, is likely they are TR4-infected. It is important to be certain that seeds come from phytosanitary certification, which is not the case with seeds that come from, for example, a neighbor’s plantation. Farmers in Antioquia prefer to use corms instead of seedlings, which is the same as in the results for Magdalena. Specifically, 6.7% of Antioquia’s producers opt for seedlings, while a substantial 93.3% favor corms as their primary seed source. Notably, regardless of the seed type chosen, all respondents indicated that they acquire their banana seeds from their own sources or from other lots, indicating that large-scale banana producers are more independent and more likely to use their own plant material to grow new banana plants, compared to small-scale producers who rely on ICA-certified establishments or in other producers. Concerning awareness of ICA-certified establishments for banana seed sales, 53.3% of the producers in Antioquia affirmed their knowledge of such establishments, while 46.7% were unaware of their existence. Figure 10 Figure 11 Type of seed used in banana planting Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Note: Number of respondents from Antioquia: 15. Number of respondents from Magdalena: 175 Origin of the seed used in banana planting Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Antoquia Magdalena Seedlings Corn 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 100% Antoquia (N = 15)Magdalena (N = 141) 100%79% 20% 1% Own taken from other plots Gifted by another farmer Bought certified Bought non-certified 35Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia In both Magdalena and Antioquia, it is a common practice to utilize corms taken from their own plots for either replanting or initiating new plantations. However, it is essential to recognize that corms have the potential to carry pathogens, including Fusarium TR4, within them. Consequently, if the corms used as seeds are infected, they have the potential to introduce these pathogens to new areas or facilitate their transmission within an existing plantation. Such an occurrence can result in the rapid dissemination of this destructive disease. The results thus show that producers in Antioquia are more susceptible to this method of spreading TR4 given that more producers rely on corms there compared to producers in Magdalena. 5.6 Harvest and sales Banana production in the surveyed regions is focused on export markets, but some bananas that do not comply with international requirements are sold in the national markets. Compared to other regions where farms produce for national markets, the surveyed farms have international certifications and yields are higher. As the data indicated in the previous sections, there are more large-scale producers in Antioquia than in Magdalena. This holds true for quantities harvested on the farms. As shown in Table 5, producers in Antioquia harvested an average of 6,107.2 tons in 2022 whereas producers in Magdalena harvested an average of 485 tons. Table 5. Average banana production per producer in 2022 (tons), by department Department Obs. Mean Median Std. dev. Min. Max. Magdalena 160 485 82.8 1,274.8 2.6 7,947 Antioquia 11 6,107.2 5,249.4 3,187.5 2,431.4 12,045.5 Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Note: Number of respondents is less than 191 because some respondents didn’t answer the harvest question for 2022 data Expert guidance on TR4 ( Bioversity/M. Dita) 36 | REPORT As shown in Table 6, most producers in Magdalena hire labor (61.9%) and a large share of them use family labor (44.3%), with 21% of producers using both family and hired labor. Producers in Antioquia rely on hired labor for the banana plantations. About one in six (17.8%) of family laborers are women. A small share (7.9%) of banana producers work by themselves in plantations without hiring labor. This data shows differences in banana labor in the departments since Antioquia only uses hired labor, while in Magdalena producers also rely on family members. This contrast can be explained by examining the area of land since small-scale producers tend to rely on their families to carry out productive activities, while larger producers have more resources to hire labor. Our yield data corroborates that from secondary sources. Data obtained from the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture (MADR, 2022) shows that the departments of Magdalena and Antioquia have high yields of above 30 tons per hectare, which is the highest in the country. This is similar to the results from the calculations made from data collected in the producer survey data (shown in Table 6). The higher yield in Antioquia (44.1 tons/ha) compared to Magdalena (38.66 tons/ha) is expected given that producers in Antioquia have better access to technology and use hired labor for banana production. Despite this, it is worth noting that both departments have high production values, which is expected since these regions grow bananas for international markets. Table 6. Yield in 2022 (tons per hectare) by department Department Obs. Mean Median Std. dev. Min. Max. Magdalena 160 38.66 40 15.29 10.4 80.4 Antioquia 11 46.24 44.10 13.68 31.92 75.47 Given that producers in the sample produce for international markets, they destine a large majority of the harvest for export, with producers from the two departments selling on average 95% of the harvest to other countries. The 5% remaining is either sold in national markets or used for producer’s own household consumption. These banana sales translate into large income from sales for banana producers in both regions, especially in Antioquia. According to income data collected from nine producers in Antioquia and 144 in Magdalena, the average income earned by producers in Antioquia from banana sales in 2022 is 8.16 billion COP, compared to 581.9 million COP earned by producers in Magdalena. This provides a clear contrast between the socioeconomic conditions of producers in each region, as producers in Antioquia earn much higher income than those in Magdalena. Based on data presented before, this is due to higher yields and areas of production in Antioquia. 5.7 Association/cooperative membership and certifications An important share of producers from the sample are members of producer associations or cooperatives, namely 80% of producers in Antioquia and 85.23% in Magdalena. Being part of these institutions brings different benefits to banana producers. Our data indicates that the benefit most perceived by Antioquia producers of being a member of one of these organizations is the ability to negotiate fairer prices with banana exporters, with 50% of producers benefiting from better prices. As shown in Figure 12a, other benefits acknowledged by banana producers in Antioquia include selling bananas with other producers (25%) and receiving technical assistance (16.67%). In contrast, producers in Magdalena better recognize the benefit these organizations provide in terms of their ability to sell bananas to other producers (57.14%, Figure 12b) with the majority (57.14%) of them mentioning this as the most important positive aspect of their membership. Producers also perceive negotiating better prices for bananas sold to international markets (55.1%) as another important benefit. From the semi-structured interviews, we also learned that cooperatives are important for producers in their struggle against preventing TR4 from entering the area, since these institutions provide biosecurity kits with footbaths, back pumps, pressure washer, full-body clothing, and five pairs of boots, representing a cost of COP2,800,000 (approximately USD836). Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Note: The number of respondents is less than 191 because some did not answer the harvest question 37Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia This support is financed by the partnership formed in Colombia between the banana producer associations and the government. This partnership had COP5.8 billion (equivalent to approximately USD1.73 million) of funds in 2021 (Augura, 2022). Producer associations and cooperatives are also important for producers in the Caribbean region of Colombia because these institutions help reduce input costs for banana production, as is the case for 40.82% of producers in this region. Producers in Magdalena visit cooperatives to claim inputs given as part of the agreements between cooperatives and producers, in which the former gets the inputs in bulk and the latter pays a reduced cost for the inputs via a discount on their payment receipts. Cooperatives also provide training for producers and banana laborers. This training is often given together with other institutions, such as the producer associations. Producers from Magdalena have constant interactions with cooperatives during their weekly activities. Every week banana producers go to these institutions to claim their payment slips, usually on Fridays. The cooperatives also buy large amounts of inputs for banana production so producers can acquire the inputs at a lower cost than the market price. Figure 12 a Figure 12b Benefits for banana producers in Antioquia (N = 12) Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Figure 12. Most important benefits of belonging to banana producer associations or cooperatives, by department. Benefits for banana producers in Magdalena (N = 147) Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey Negotiating fairer prices with banana traders Selling bananas with other producers Technical assistance/extension agents Reduce input costs Selling banana directly to consumers Yes No 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 100% Assistance in selection and packaging of bananas Better access to information Better access to technology Selling bananas with other producers Negotiating fairer prices with banana traders Reduce input costs Technical assistance/extension agents Better access to information Yes No 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 100% Better access to technology Assistance in selection and packaging of bananas Selling banana directly to consumers 38 | REPORT Certifications are important for producers to abide by certain guidelines. Rainforest Alliance, Global G.A.P., and Fairtrade are the most common certifications that banana farmers in Colombia acquire to export. All 15 producers surveyed in Antioquia have at least one certification, while this is different in Magdalena where 79.89% of producers are certified. A majority of producers (73.33% of certified producers) from Uraba, Antioquia received their certifications by themselves, whereas nearly all (92.81%) of certified banana producers in Magdalena received help from the associations and cooperatives to obtain their certifications. The most mentioned benefits producers perceive of being certified are better access to markets and better prices for selling bananas. Better access to markets is highlighted by 80% of producers in Antioquia. Producers in Magdalena are also aware of the better prices that they are paid for bananas due to certifications (59.66%). It is important to highlight the fact that producers have little knowledge about certification costs when they are supported by cooperatives. For example, producers stated that they were not aware of the total cost involved in acquiring or maintaining their certifications. 5.8 Food Security Food security in the producer survey was elicited through the Food Insecurity Experience Score (FIES) (FAO, n.d.). This score consists of eight questions on food security, asking if they had to skip meals and whether they couldn’t eat despite being hungry. This indicator categorizes the responses according to the food insecurity level, ranging from mild, moderate, and severe food insecurity. This score indicates that producers in Antioquia have had adequate access to food, since all surveyed producers responded to all questions confirming that they did not face food insecurity in the last 12 months. The scenario is not the same for producers in Magdalena, where only 38.07% of producers are not food insecure according to the FIES results, 20.45% of producers faced mild food insecurity, 18.75% endured moderate insecurity, and the remaining 22.73% suffer severe food insecurity. Figure 13 shows the questions and responses of banana producers from Magdalena. Overall, results from this score indicate that producers in Antioquia are more food secure than banana producers in Magdalena. This is likely because producers in Antioquia are larger producers and thus have more income to buy enough food for an adequate diet. The findings in our study align with results from Vega Hernández (2018) that found a high prevalence of food insecurity in Magdalena. 39Socioeconomic, environmental, food security, and cost benefit analysis of Foc TR4 on value chain actors in Colombia Experience Score (FIES) from the producer survey. Responses in Antioquia are not shown since all surveyed producers responded yes to all questions. Based on producer survey. 5.9 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) The CBA was conducted to assess the benefits and costs of implementing biosecurity strategies on banana farms that aim to prevent Fusarium TR4 contagion. The CBA evaluated both costs (expenses) and advantages (benefits). The analysis was conducted per hectare, considering costs and benefits per unit of banana cultivation area. Considering the Colombian National Tax Statute Article 137, we selected a 40-year time horizon as useful life and an annual depreciation rate of 2.22% and 2.5% for the disinfection stations and cement paths, respectively. In addition, a 12% social discount rate was applied to bring future costs and benefits to their present value (Piraquive et al., 2018). This rate reflects society’s time preference and allows for the comparison of cost and benefit streams on an equivalent basis in the present. Below, we present a detailed breakdown of the CBA process, followed by the outcomes of the analysis. 5.9.1 Estimation of the costs of TR4 disinfection stations, footbaths, and cement paths As described in the methods section, data from surveyed producers was used to estimate the construction costs of disinfection stations and cement paths. These costs included initial construction expenses, annual depreciation, regular maintenance, and necessary operational inputs (such as disinfectants, boots), and supervision. Table 7 presents a comprehensive overview of the costs per hectare associated with the establishment of disinfection stations in Magdalena and Antioquia. The cost data indicates variations in expenses associated with establishing and maintaining disinfection stations between Magdalena and Antioquia. Magdalena generally has higher costs, particularly in terms of construction and supervision, while Antioquia benefits from lower construction and depreciation costs. However, the producers in Antioquia face increased expenses on water and quaternary ammonium for disinfecting footwear at station exits. Due to these larger producers require bigger footbaths and more frequent compound changes due to the higher number of workers circulating in the area. Given that Antioquia boasts large-scale producers and Magdalena predominantly consists of small and medium-sized producers, this disparity in costs can be explained by the fact that the costs per hectare tend to decrease when the planted area is larger. As a result, the cost per hectare for Magdalena appears proportionately high when compared to their counterparts in Antioquia. Since TR4 is a soil-borne pathogen, disinfection stations strategically located at the entrance of banana farms are a critical line of defense. They not only prevent the introduction and transmission of the Figure 13 Food security questions and responses from banana producers in Magdalena (N = 176) Source: Own elaboration based on answers to the eight questions used to compute the food insecurity You were worried you would not have enough food to eat? You were unable to eat healthy and nutritious food? You ate only a few kinds of foods? You had to skip a meal? You ate less than you thought you should? Yes No 0% 80%70%60%50%40%10% 90%20% 30% 100% Your household ran out of food? You were hungry but did not eat? You went without eating for a whole day? 40 | REPORT pathogen, but also help contain its spread through the rigorously disinfection of footwear in direct contact with the soil. These stations reinforce biosecurity measures making this strategy sustainable and economically prudent, as it safeguards farmers’ livelihoods while protecting banana crops from the ravages of TR4. Table 7. Costs of disinfection stations by department Disinfection stations: Cost per hectare Magdalena (N = 73) Antioquia (N = 6) COP USD COP USD Construction 1,609,684 396 1,049,606 258.0 Annual Depreciation 35,413 9 23,091 5.7 Annual Maintenance 485,220 119 523,248 128.6 Annual Supervision 7,580,686 1,863 6,701,557 1,647.1 Annual footbaths cost: Water 135.78 0.03 9,004 2.21 Quaternary ammonium 242,520 59.606 2,737,704 673 Annual Equipment cost: Boots 144,800 35.6 160,000 39.3 Source: Own elaboration based on producer survey. The exchange rate is COP4,068.73, equal to USD1 (Banrep, 2023). Cement paths play a key role in preventing TR4 from entering banana farms as they are useful to minimize direct contact between soil and footwear, tools, vehicles, and animals. Cement paths are mainly used to prevent workers or visitors from soil contact within banana farms, thus avoiding soil movement and preventing the unintentional spread of contaminated soil on footwear or tires. Table 8 encompasses three essential cost categories: construction, annual depreciation, and annual maintenance. In terms of constr