Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea L.)
is the only representative of the
Section Pinea, subgenus Pinus.
A tree 10–25 m tall, it has long
horizontally spreading or
ascending branches that give its
adult crown a characteristic
umbrella-like shape.
Twigs are glabrous, first
green, then greyish; buds
are approx. 1 cm long,
with brown scales.
Needles are bright
green, stiff and born
in fascicles of two.
They persist for 2–3
years (occasionally
4). Needles are
10–15 cm long
with an acute apex
and stomata on
each side. Male and
female flowers are
located on the same tree
(monoecy). Yellow pollen
catkins are located in clusters at
the base of the season’s shoot;
ovulate cones are erect, approx.
2 cm long. Pollen is transported
Pinus pinea 
EUFORGEN
These Technical Guidelines are intended to assist those who cherish the valuable Italian stone
pine genepool and its inheritance, through conserving valuable seed sources or use in practical
forestry. The focus is on conserving the genetic diversity of the species at the European scale.
The recommendations provided in this module should be regarded as a commonly agreed basis
to be complemented and further developed in local, national or regional conditions. The
Guidelines are based on the available knowledge of the species and on widely accepted
methods for the conservation of forest genetic resources.
Italian stone pine
B. Fady1, S. Fineschi2 and G.G. Vendramin3
1 INRA, Mediterranean Forest Research Unit, Avignon, France
2 CNR, Plant Protection Institute, Florence, Italy
3 CNR, Plant Genetics Institute, Florence, Italy
Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use
Biology and ecology
i
by wind. Fecundation takes
place 2 years after pollination
and cones reach maturity in 3
years. Mature cones are
large (8–14 cm
long) and broadly
ovoid, sessile and
isolated. Cone
scales are flat
and bear two
large seeds (1.5–2
cm) with an easily
detachable small
wing. Seeds are
heavy and mostly
dispersed by grav-
ity or by small
mammals such as
the frugivorous tree
rat (Rattus rattus).
Seed production
begins at an early age
(15–20 years; 5–10 years
in isolated trees). Pinus
pinea does not hybridize
with any other pine.
Pinus pinea grows mostly
in pure stands and is naturally
regenerated by seeds. Stands
are found within the thermo- and
meso-Mediterranean climate
zones and subhumid biocli-
mates, characterized by hot, dry
summers (up to 5 months
drought) and rainy, mild winters
(mean temperature of the coldest
month over 0°C and rainfall of
600–800 mm yr -1). It is light-
demanding and prefers acidic or
neutral sandy soils although it
tolerates slightly calcareous sub-
strates.
Pinus pinea is patchily distrib-
uted all around the northern
and eastern Mediterranean,
from Portugal to Syria as well
as along some coastal areas of
the Black Sea. It can be found
from sea level up to 500–600
m in the northern Mediter-
ranean and up to 800–1400 m
in the eastern Mediterranean.
Because of its economic
importance, human impact
can be expected to have
strongly influenced the cur-
rent distribution of its geo-
graphic and genetic diversi-
ty. Pinus pinea (formerly
named Pinus domestica)
was extensively planted
around the Mediterranean
throughout historical times
by Etruscans, Greeks,
Romans and Arabs because
of its edible seeds. Anatolia,
Lebanon and the Iberian
peninsula are its most proba-
ble original areas. Cone and
wood charcoal fragments of
P. pinea approx. 50 000
years old have been found
in Spanish Paleolithic settle-
ments.
Pinus pinea has been suc-
cessfully introduced into North
Africa (mostly Tunisia, Algeria and
Morocco) as well as Argentina
and South Africa. In other places
(e.g. California, Scotland, south-
ern England) it is usually con-
fined to parks and gardens.
Pinus pinea has a heavy and very
resinous wood with a yellow-red-
dish heartwood and a whitish-
pink extensive sapwood.
Although it has been cultivated
since the Roman period for tim-
ber (construction and ship-build-
ing), its most economically
important product is its seed, the
pine nut (hence its Latin name
“pinea”). Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Tunisia and Turkey are the main
countries where pine nuts are
traditionally marketed. Other
products of economic value
include resin, bark (for tannin
extraction), and empty pine cone
shells (for fuel). Pinus pinea is
also currently widely cultivated
around the Mediterranean for
environmental protection: con-
solidation of coastal dunes, soil
conservation and protection of
coastal agricultural crops. 
The Italian stone pine is a
dramatic ornamental tree, widely
planted in parks and gardens
throughout the world. In Italy it is
a traditional element of the land-
scape (hence one of its common
names, the ‘Italian stone pine’).
In southern France, it was a sym-
bol of freedom for persecuted
Protestants during the religious
wars of the Renaissance. 
There is a growing worldwide
market for pine nuts, boosted by
claims supported by the US
Food and Drug Administration
that eating its nuts reduces the
risk of coronary heart disease, an
Distribution Importance and use
Pinus pinea Pinusalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pinea
effect ascribed to their high
linoleic acid content. Pinus pinea
is one of the nine major tree nut
species worldwide and its seeds
have a high nutritional content,
particularly rich in proteins
(32%), fats (45%) and vitamins
B1 and B2.
Pinus pinea is included in the
list of forest tree species in Direc-
tive 1999/105/CE of the Euro-
pean Union Council (December
22, 1999) for the commerce of
forest reproductive material.
Minimum requirements have to
be met before P. pinea seed can
be sold for reforestation.
Wooded dunes with P. pinea
(and/or P. pinaster) are consid-
ered a priority habitat for conser-
vation in Europe under the
"Habitat" Directive (n° 92/43/
CEE of May 21 1992).
A range-wide, 15-site prove-
nance trial network using com-
mon material was established
in 1994–96 in France, Italy,
Morocco, Spain, Tunisia and
Turkey to test for adaptive
genetic variability of Italian
stone pine across as many eco-
logical conditions as possible.
Experimental trials have also
been installed in Brazil, Portugal,
Russia and Zimbabwe.
Pinus pinea is genetically
very uniform; there are no
descriptions in the literature of
geographical races, ecotypes or
cultivars. Provenance trials do
not indicate any strong geo-
graphic structure in adaptive
traits such as vigour. High nut
production is achieved through
the establishment of grafted
clonal orchards and classical
nut production tech-
niques. One vari-
ety, P. pinea var.
fragilis, which
produces soft-
shelled seeds, is
believed to be the result
of a single mutation.
An extensive range-wide
chloroplast DNA diversity investi-
gation has revealed that all but a
few populations located in
Lebanon were characterized by
the same haplotype, although
this kind of genetic marker is
usually highly polymorphic in
Mediterranean pines (e.g. Pinus
pinaster and P. halepensis). This
near-absence of diversity is also
confirmed by isozyme analysis.
The stereotypic appearance
of its crown, so familiar to the
Mediterranean people, could
also be attributable to this
extremely low degree of
genetic diversity, possibly
inherited from the Quater-
nary history of the species.
Confined to a narrow distri-
bution range during successive
glacial times, P. pinea may have
experienced a further reduction
of its genetic diversity with the
advent of traditional agriculture
and long-distance trading.
Genetic knowledge
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Pinus pinea Pinus 
Pinus pinea is not considered a
threatened species. Although its
genetic diversity is low, it is com-
paratively rarely attacked by
pests and diseases.
However, diseases such as
blister rust (Cronartium flac-
cidum), twisting rust (Melampso-
ra populnea f.sp. pinitorqua) and
needle rust (Coleosporium tussi-
laginis) can sometimes cause
serious damage to seedlings and
young plantations. Diplodia
pinea, generally considered a
pathogen of weak trees, may be
responsible for some severe
attacks after water stress.
Heterobasidion annosum can
sometimes produce extensive
losses through decay and root
rot.
Some insects are also known
to provoke localized but severe
damage. Phytophagous insects
such as the red-black spittle bug
(Haematoloma dorsata), can be
responsible for needle drying.
The pine processionary caterpil-
lar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa),
can cause defoliations in south-
ern Europe and North Africa. The
European pine shoot moth (Rhy-
acionia buoliana), mines needles,
buds and shoots in young plan-
tations.
Forest fires constitute the
major threat to the genetic
diversity of most Mediter-
ranean forest species. Pine
ecosystems are especially
prone to fire and entire
stands can be wiped out in a sin-
gle fire. Pinus pinea is consider-
ably less fire-sensitive than other
species, given its thick bark and
high crown devoid of low
branches. A unique feature
among pines, up to 90% of the
canopy of P. pinea can be
burned without killing the tree.
Pinus pinea forests also regener-
ate well from seeds after fire.
Populations of P. pinea are
highly sensitive to air pollution,
especially when combined with
other environmental stresses
such as drought.
Because P. pinea was so
highly valued for its seeds, it is
very likely that the same genetic
material was used for planting in
different regions of the Mediter-
ranean. This would explain its
low genetic diversity. It is also a
source of concern as genetic
uniformity increases the risk of
extinction when environmental
conditions change.
The conservation of forest genet-
ic resources in the Mediter-
ranean basin is a very complex
task, as ecological and socio-
economic conditions are highly
variable among countries.
Because of their history of over-
exploitation since agriculture
emerged some 10 000 years ago,
assessing whether current
Mediterranean forests are really
well adapted and truly natural is
challenging, although necessary
for any careful conservation
strategy.
This is the case for P. pinea,
in particular. A number of scien-
tific gaps should be filled. The
past history and ecology of this
species need to be understood
to outline the areas of autoch-
thony. Knowing its current
adaptive diversity is also a
prerequisite to outlining its
potential distribution area and
the consequences it may suffer
from environmental changes. As
in other forest tree species,
implementing an in situ conser-
vation network where selected
populations are allowed to
naturally regenerate with-
out introduction of exotic
material is recommended.
Regions of autochthony
such as Spain and the
eastern Mediterranean,
areas where eco-
logical conditions
are extreme (high
altitude, low rainfall, high
Threats to
genetic diversity
Guidelines for genetic
conservation and use
stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalia
salinity etc.), and areas where
extensive populations currently
exist, should be the primary tar-
gets for such a network.
Appropriate silvicultural and
management strategies should
include the leaving of the highest
possible number of seed trees
before regeneration to promote
maximum outcrossing and
pollen flow. This might mean not
cutting severely burned trees
after wild fires. It should also
include, in areas that are not des-
ignated for seed production, let-
ting natural selection (rather than
managed thinning) sort out
young trees after regeneration.
Wild fires and overgrazing being
the most important risks for P.
pinea forests, fire protection and
social measures that might
reduce these hazards
should also be
addressed for the
effective conser-
vation of this
typically Mediter-
ranean pine.
Pinus pinea PinuItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePin
Distribution range of Italian stone
pine
www.euforgen.org
More information
us pinea Pinus pi 
These Technical Guidelines were
produced by members of the
EUFORGEN Conifers Network.
The objective of the Network is to
identify minimum genetic conser-
vation requirements in the long
term in Europe, in order to reduce
the overall conservation cost and
to improve the quality of stan-
dards in each country.
Citation: Fady, B., S. Fineschi and
G.G. Vendramin. 2004. EUFOR-
GEN Technical Guidelines for
genetic conservation and use for
Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea).
International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
6 pages.
Drawings: Pinus pinea, Claudio
Giordano. © IPGRI, 2004.
ISBN 92-9043-663-8
EUFORGEN secretariat c/o IPGRI
Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a
00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino)
Rome, Italy
Tel. (+39)066118251
Fax: (+39)0661979661
euf_secretariat@cgiar.org
us pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pinePinus pineaItalian stone pine
EUFORGEN
Selected bibliography
Fady, B. and F. Médail. 2004. Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems. Pp.
1403–1414 in Encyclopedia of Forest Science (J. Burley, J. Evans and J.A.
Youngquist, eds.). Elsevier, London.
Fallour, D., B. Fady and F. Lefèvre. 1997. Study on isozyme variation in Pinus
pinea L.: evidence for low polymorphism. Silvae Genetica 46 (4):201-–207.
Prada, M.A., J. Gordo, J. De Miguel, S. Mutke, G. Catalán-Bachiller, S. Iglesia
and L. Gil. 1997. Las regiones de procedencia de Pinus pinea L. en
España. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Organismo Autónomo Parques
Nacionales, Madrid.
Thirgood, J.V. 1981. Man and the Mediterranean forest. A history of resource
depletion. Academic Press, Toronto.
Vagniluca, S., V. Goggioli, P. Capretti, et al. 1995. Cankers and shoot blights of
Pinus pinea in Italy. Shoot and foliage diseases in forest trees. Pp. 284–286
in Proceedings of a Joint Meeting of the IUFRO Working Parties S2.06.02
and S2.06.04, Vallombrosa, Firenze, Italy 6-–11 June 1994 (P. Capretti, U.
Heiniger and R. Stephan, eds.). Tipografia Bertelli, Firenze.
Vendramin, G.G., B. Fady., I. Scotti, F. Sebastiani, F. Sagnard and R.J. Petit.
2004. Near absence of chloroplast microsatellite variation in Pinus pinea L.:
the possible role of human impact. (In preparation.)