Agroecology Initiative Context Document [India] ALLs – Anantapur District Smitha Krishnan, Shweta Gupta, Ravindra Adusumili, Prapti Barooah, Sudharsan Maliappan, Sonali Singh, Prachi Patil, Swati Renduchintala, Muzna Alvi, and Alok Sikka December 2023 This report summarizes key information about Agroecological Living Landscapes (ALLs) in India for the Initiative on Agroecology. The ALLs are based in Anantapur District of the southeastern coastal state of Andhra Pradesh (AP). In addition to providing information on the environmental, social, economic, and political context of the ALLs, the extent to which various agroecological principles are followed within the ALLs is discussed in detail. Photo credits: © APCNF Communications team Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Initiative on Agroecology and has not been independently peer reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. The CGIAR Initiative Transformational Agroecology across Food, Land, and Water Systems develops and scales agroecological innovations with small-scale farmers and other food system actors in seven low- and middle-income countries. It is one of 32 initiatives of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/agroecology/ Agroecology Initiative Context Document [India] ALLs – Anantapur District Smitha Krishnan1, Shweta Gupta2, Ravindra Adusumili3, Prapti Barooah2, Sudharsan Maliappan4, Sonali Singh2, Prachi Patil3, Swati Renduchintala5,6, Muzna Alvi2, and Alok Sikka4 1 Bioversity International, Bengaluru, India 2 International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), New Delhi, India 3 Watershed Support Services and Activities Network, Hyderabad, Telangana, India 4 International Water Management Institute (IWMI), New Delhi, India 5 Rythu Sadhikara Samstha (RySS), Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India 6 World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), New Delhi, India January 2024 | Context Document [India] 4 Contents Executive summary 8 Key highlights.................................................................................8 Description of the Agroecological Living Landscapes (ALLs) 12 Environmental context 16 Climate/climatic zone of the ALLs .............................................16 Rainfall trends and variability assessment of the ALL sites .... 17 Drought assessment ...................................................................20 Main climate change impacts projected or currently experienced .................................................................................20 Main environmental challenges ................................................21 Land use pattern ......................................................................... 22 Land degradation ....................................................................... 27 Soil ................................................................................................ 28 Biodiversity ................................................................................. 28 Forests, nature reserves, and protected lands ....................... 28 Water resources .......................................................................... 30 Groundwater ................................................................................30 Gross and net irrigated area ......................................................35 General information about the ecosystem ............................. 36 Economic context 37 Key farming systems .................................................................. 38 Area and major crops ..................................................................38 Dominance of monocropping ...................................................38 Mixed farming methods .............................................................39 Natural farming promoted by the APCNF project .................39 Major agricultural commodities and livestock ........................41 Major crops................................................................................... 41 Livestock ....................................................................................... 41 Market information for both inputs and outputs .................... 42 Key factors affecting agricultural productivity ....................... 42 Extreme climatic events and crop failure .................................42 Low groundwater levels ..............................................................42 Pest attacks ...................................................................................42 Monocropping.............................................................................42 Agricultural financing ................................................................ 43 Financial education of farmers ................................................. 43 Land tenure situation ................................................................. 43 Operational holdings..................................................................43 Tenancy .........................................................................................44 Farm assets and income ............................................................ 44 Supportive infrastructure (roads, electricity, storage, agro-industry, etc.) ..................................................................... 44 Storage .........................................................................................46 Electricity ......................................................................................46 Drinking water sources .............................................................. 46 Migration situation ..................................................................... 46 Employment opportunities (on- and off-farm) ....................... 46 Social context 47 Household structure and size ....................................................47 Gender relations ..........................................................................47 Ethnicity (when there are no barriers to refer to it) ..................47 December 2023 | Context Document [India] 5 Literacy of farmers and other food system actors in the ALLs ...............................................................................................47 General health conditions of the ALL population .................. 48 Knowledge sharing .....................................................................49 Community leadership (in the ALL context) .............................49 Power relations in the ALL ..........................................................49 Political context 50 Background ................................................................................. 50 Community representation in politics ..................................... 50 Local participation in policy-making decisions ...................... 50 Women’s participation in local leadership ............................. 50 Inclusion of all social groups in political decisions ................. 50 Policies in favor of agroecological transition .......................... 50 Policies hindering agroecological transition .......................... 50 Current state of agroecological principles in the ALLs 51 Recycling ......................................................................................51 Possible interventions .................................................................52 Input reduction ............................................................................52 Type of inputs used for production and how producers acquired such inputs (at a cost or not; generated on-farm or not).................................................................................................52 Limitations and options available to farmers to decrease dependence on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides ..............53 Water use for production in irrigated production systems and an inventory of various techniques used for irrigation ....54 Inventory of water retention techniques that enhance water availability in production systems and decrease the frequency of irrigation, without significant impact on ecosystem services ....................................................................54 Sources of energy used at the farm level ..................................55 Substitution of fossil energy by renewable energy on-farm (e.g., solar panels) ........................................................................56 Possible interventions .................................................................56 Soil health .................................................................................... 56 Existing practices to maintain soil organic matter ..................56 Estimate of fires, grazing, and compaction ..............................56 Farming practices to enhance and protect soil health ...........56 Soil physical, chemical, and biological properties as affected by farming practices ...............................................57 Soil erosion situation ...................................................................57 Soil acidification potential as related to farming practices .... 57 Soil compaction ...........................................................................57 Soil aggregation ..........................................................................58 Nutrient balance ..........................................................................58 Soil fertility/productivity ............................................................58 Soil degradation ..........................................................................58 Soil biota and their activity .........................................................58 Soil productivity based on crop performance ........................58 Possible interventions and gaps ................................................ 59 Animal health ...............................................................................59 Livestock health care services ...................................................59 Types of feed and quality ............................................................59 Animal-rearing conditions and feeding regimes .................... 59 Water used for animal feeding and its quality ......................... 59 Biodiversity ..................................................................................59 Plant/crop diversity (including genetic diversity) ................... 59 December 2023 | Context Document [India] 6 Livestock and aquatic animal breeds (including genetic diversity) .......................................................................................59 Efforts by farmers to maintain natural biodiversity .................60 Access to agricultural genetic material, improvements, modifications, and local practices ............................................60 Soil microbial diversity ................................................................60 Diversity of species and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses .........................................................................................60 Invasive species ...........................................................................60 Gaps .............................................................................................60 Possible interventions .................................................................60 Synergy ........................................................................................ 60 Mixed farming, including animal manure for crop production ...................................................................................60 Occurrence of agroforestry and shade enhancement ........... 61 Water to support natural ecosystems and for irrigation, including irrigation techniques ................................................. 61 Economic diversification ............................................................61 Income from agriculture and livestock ..................................... 61 Other agro-based income sources ........................................... 61 Wage employment and migration ............................................ 61 Possible studies/gaps .................................................................62 Possible interventions .................................................................64 Co-creation of knowledge ........................................................ 64 Possible interventions .................................................................64 Social values and diets ............................................................... 64 Consumption patterns, dietary diversity, and equity .............64 Changes in diets over time .........................................................65 Knowledge of the nutritional facts of such food products.....65 Dependence on imports of food ...............................................65 Possible studies/gaps .................................................................66 Fairness ........................................................................................ 66 Prices .............................................................................................66 Profitability ...................................................................................66 Wages ........................................................................................... 67 Intermediaries .............................................................................. 67 Information ................................................................................... 67 Employment .................................................................................68 Potential studies/gaps ................................................................68 Connectivity ................................................................................ 68 Types of distribution chains .......................................................68 Infrastructure to facilitate market access .................................68 Existence of communication channels between food system actors ......................................................................68 Potential interventions ................................................................68 Land and natural resource governance................................... 68 Participation .................................................................................69 Possible interventions ................................................................. 69 Concluding remarks 70 Exploitation of the findings for the establishment of the ALLs based on the preliminary transition pathways being considered ...................................................................................70 Identification of entry points to test agroecological innovations of interest based on knowledge gaps .................70 References 71 Annexes 75 December 2023 | Context Document [India] 7 Executive summary Key highlights { The Andhra Pradesh Community-Managed Natural Farming (APCNF) project began in 2016, expanding the scope of agroecological methods (natural farming) with the experiences evolving from field-level innovations. { Within Anantapur, two blocks (mandals), Bathalapalli and Tadipatri, were chosen as the Agroecological Living Landscape (ALL) sites for this study, where a substantial number of farmers have reportedly adopted the natural farming methods promoted by APCNF. { Anantapur is a dryland region affected by frequent droughts, with a normal rainfall of 552 mm per annum, significantly lower than the national average (1,160 mm). Both mandals also fall under semi-arid zones, with an average annual rainfall of 489 mm and 587 mm, respectively. { The Vulnerability Atlas prepared by ICAR-CRIDA characterizes the exposure to climate change and consequent vulnerability in Anantapur as “very high.” Apart from receiving low rainfall, the region has experienced high-intensity off-season rains as well and consequent loss of crops in the last five years, demonstrating unpredictable extreme climatic events. { Bathalapalli is made up of poor red soils, while Tadipatri is made up of black cotton soils. { About 54% of the total geographic area in Bathalapalli and 43% in Tadipatri represented the net sown area (NSA) in 2019–2020. These regions also have much fallow land at 26% and 33%, respectively, typical of dryland regions. Recently, there has been a decrease in NSA and an increase in fallow land, indicating distressed agriculture. { The Chitravati River flows through Bathalapalli. Several dispersed water bodies can be seen in Bathalapalli, with one large water body (Appacheruvu) adjoining the ALL site. Tadipatri, in contrast, has a plain terrain, and the Pennar River transits through the mandal. { Anantapur District has large deposits of dolomite, iron ore, limestone, gold, and diamond. The region has the potential for generating solar and wind power. Anantapur has been one of the main districts in Andhra Pradesh in harnessing electricity through wind. { The ALL sites have relatively less land degradation than the district as a whole. Based on satellite data from 1990 to 2018, 31.93% of the land in Anantapur is facing land degradation and desertification (17.34% severe land degradation and 14.59% desertification). { Bathalapalli mandal is categorized as “critical,” and Tadipatri mandal is categorized as “overexploited” with respect to the state of groundwater development. Both mandals have a high correlation of groundwater with seasonal rainfall, which fills during September-October rainfall and falls rapidly from December-January onward because of high extraction levels through borewells. { Anantapur District has witnessed a steep rise in tubewell/ borewell irrigation since 2000, making tubewells the major source of irrigation. High investments in borewell irrigation, along with declining groundwater resources have been a major cause of farmers’ distress. { Anantapur traditionally used to have diversified crop systems in its rainfed areas before groundnut became the dominant monocrop: for instance, the Navadhanya system, which involved growing 5 to 10 crops with multiple harvests over the two seasons. { But, by the early 1980s, there was a shift to monocropping of groundnut to promote its high-yielding varieties, which led to an increase in its area from 18% in 1960 to 74% in 2005 and decreased dependency on millets and pulses for household consumption in addition to depriving soils of biomass. { The region has seen an increase in mixed farming methods. For instance, using groundnut haulms as fodder to promote the ruminant economy, compared to systems involving crop production alone, helps provide income stability. Also, to protect from climate variations, various government initiatives are also promoting the cultivation of millets along with Navadhanya. { Moreover, relying on nine basic principles and based on an extension model centered in community organizations and with practicing farmers serving as extension agents, APCNF is spearheading a major agroecological movement in the district. { The selected cluster of villages in the ALLs has good social capital in terms of organizing women into self-help groups (SHGs). There is a total of 107 SHGs from among the 872 households in the two clusters, with 40 SHGs in Bathalapalli and 67 in Tadipatri. { In terms of area, the major crops grown in 2019–2020 in the district were groundnut (51%), pulses (25.4%) such as red gram (pigeon pea) and horse gram, cotton (6.5%), and rice (4.1%). Season-wise, groundnut is the major kharif crop in red soil under rainfed conditions, covering 60% of the area. Other kharif crops are cotton, red gram, and horse gram. The major rabi crop is gram, covering 56% of the area, followed by other crops such as groundnut (23%), rice (8.7%), and maize (5.4%). { In Tadipatri, jowar (sorghum) and cotton in Kharif and Bengal gram in rabi are the major crops as per the district statistics, and the cropping intensity is low. In comparison, Bathalapalli, with predominant red soils and rainfed geography, has more rainfed crops, with horse gram and groundnut as the predominant crop systems. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 8 { As per the Livestock census 2012, the total livestock population in the district was 4.4 million, including cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, and others. Tadipatri mandal has a significant dairy economy with more than 15,000 buffaloes, suggesting higher availability of fodder than in Bathalapalli, where the cattle population is predominant for draft and dairy purposes. { The local market is within a radius of 5–6 km from the village. Agricultural inputs can also be purchased from local input dealer shops in the village, mandal (block) offices, KVK centers, Rythu Bharosa Kendra (RBK) centers, and Primary Agriculture Cooperative Societies (PACS) located near the village. { Farmers usually sell their produce in local markets or at the farm gate. However, in recent times, big private companies have also entered the markets and are focusing on processing and marketing the produce. { Pest incidence is also high, forcing farmers to rely excessively on chemical pesticides, especially because of excessive rainfall around the harvesting stage of the crop. In 20 rainfall-induced late leaf spot pest attacks in groundnut due to water stagnation, which caused massive yield loss. { The district has had several traditional sources of credit and savings, such as commercial banks, regional rural banks, and cooperative banks. However, the bank-linked SHG-based microfinance program has been identified as a significant source of lending and saving in the state (and district). { In 2015–2016, Anantapur had 0.77 million operational holdings, of which 72% were under marginal (0.5–1.0 ha) and small farmers (1–2 ha), 23% under semi-medium farmers (2–4 ha), and the rest under medium to large farmers (DES, 2015–2016). The average landholding in the district is 1.75 ha. Between the two mandals in the ALLs, 74% of Tadipatri farmers and 68% of Bathalapalli farmers have landholding of size less than 2 ha. { As per the National Sample Survey Organization’s (NSSO) 70th-round survey of land and livestock holdings, the state had about 2.45 million tenant farmers in 2013, of whom 0.63 million were landless. { Livestock also play a major role in the district in providing draft power for farming, crop manure, food, meat, milk for household consumption, and industrial raw material. { In terms of farm machinery, the district has about 28,000 tractors, 561 power tillers, nearly 4,000 threshers, and about 2.3 lakh agricultural pump sets (PLP, NABARD, 2021–2022). As per the fifth minor irrigation census (2013–2014), the district had 8,666 shallow tubewells, of which 89% were owned by farmers belonging to the Other Backward Classes, 4% by Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes, and the rest by others. { Both ALL sites are well connected by roads and highways through transportation by private and government- operated bus services. { Limited storage options are available in the district and ALLs. In Bathalapalli town, a grain storage facility is available, but it is mainly used by traders. { As per Census 2011, all 63 mandals in the district reported having access to a power supply. The main source of electricity is hydropower, which the government supplies. A few farmers have access to solar power. { Because of overexploitation of groundwater and excessive reliance on borewells, the district becomes affected by drinking water shortages. The major source of water is through either pipelines connected through the local grid or overhead tanks (fed by groundwater). { Since returns from agriculture have declined over time, large-scale outmigration of men has occurred to cities (Bengaluru, Mumbai, Tirupati, Hyderabad, etc.) to work in poultry, selling pilgrimage materials in Tirupati, papaya transporting and processing, etc. Most of this migration occurs during the lean period after groundnut harvesting and becomes exacerbated because of droughts. { Agriculture wage employment is a major source of employment in both ALL mandals. The MG National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is a consistent source of part-time employment. In the two mandals, 0.24 and 0.33 million workdays have been generated in Bathalapalli and Tadipatri, respectively, representing INR 83.2 and 128.4 million in 2019 and 2020. { About 89% of the population of Anantapur identify as Hindus, followed by 10% Muslims. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 14% and 4% of the population, respectively (Census, 2011). { Both ALL sites show poor literacy at 68% in Tadipatri and 59% in Bathalapalli. { The government of AP has established two sets of local institutions called Grama Sachivalayam and Rythu Bharosa Kendra for access to inputs and information. These are intended to be single-window service centers located within a Gram Panchayat. { Agriculture has always been an important concern in national and state elections given the importance of farmers in the vote share as well as national GDP. { There is a legal provision of 50% reservation for women among members and sarpanches (village decision- makers) in Andhra Pradesh and one-third in any constitutional bodies to foster women’s leadership. { Another important cadre of women are those who have organized to form SHGs. They collectively help each other to solve their problems and give support in economic activities as well as provide access to schemes/benefits, exchange information, promote small savings among their members, and provide small loans to their members from the common fund. { Various recycling measures are being adopted in the region, such as using groundnut husks for fodder and mulching, stacking biomass from various crops for animal feed, and using cow dung and urine to prepare biological inputs. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 9 { Family labor is common when landholding is small, while hired labor is used for medium to large landholdings. A reduction in weeds is observed in the case of CNF farmers who practice live mulching. The lack of availability of labor and increasing costs involved drive the spread of weedicides, which is a major challenge for the CNF program. { Conventional farmers use more than 60 different pesticides, including insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides, and procure them from local traders. { CNF has moved the focus from vermicomposting and other external inputs to in situ regeneration of soil health through a package of measures such as using bio- inoculants, covering the soil for longer periods with live crops (called live mulch) to decrease exposure to sun, and applying Ghana Jeevamrutam, a dense nutrient value addition, to dung locally prepared. { Pre-monsoon dry sowing (PMDS) is a system of tilling, sowing, and tending the land, wherein the farmer grows crops in the non-farming season or whenever there is no crop cover on the land. This is mainly before the advent of monsoon during summer and is an important water retention technique. { Burning of crop residues in rice is not a prevalent practice in the district. But, in cotton and pigeon pea crops, the stalks are removed during land preparation and burned. Shredding of this biomass and using it for mulch could be an option, but its economic viability in an already stressed agricultural economy is the question. { From 1999 to 2015, soil acidity increased by more than 4% and organic carbon in the soil decreased by 84%. { In Bathalapalli, 48% of the land area has been affected by moderate water erosion and, in 24% of the region, signs of slight salinity have been observed. About 25% of the area is composed of gravelly uplands. Close to 68% of the land area in Tadipatri is affected by moderate to strong water erosion and 29% by salinity. However, the ALL site in Tadipatri is relatively plain with no serious erosion hazard, whereas Bathalapalli has several areas with salinity/ alkalinity and extensive areas subject to water erosion. { A shift to monocrop of groundnut at scale and leaving the land barren and exposed to hot sun after the harvest for the rest of the year is a major feature of Anantapur District’s desertification. Soil compaction is further exacerbated by the shift away from draft animal power to tractors and from manual harvesting to combine harvesters. Increasing dependence on fertilizers and decreasing the quantity of manure application further complicates the process. { Out of the 11 villages in Bathalapalli mandal, two have vet dispensaries within the village, seven villages have one within 2 to 5 km, and two villages have one at >5 km distance (Census, 2012). The recently formed RBKs have a veterinary assistant as one of the technical staff who liaises with the Animal Husbandry Department. { Apart from agriculture, most households in the district own sheep, followed in numbers by goats, cattle, and buffaloes. The calves of sheep, goats, cows, and buffaloes are sold regularly and thus this is an ensured income every year. There is an active fish market. As of 2015–2016, the district had 22 milk cooperative societies that collected milk from individual households through their network of 606 pick-up centers located within the villages. Firewood is another important forest product in the district, followed by beedi leaves to some extent, along with neem and other minor forest products. { About 35% of the rainfed farmers migrate after kharif and 21% of the total farmers are dependent on rainfed agriculture. The remaining farmers work as wage laborers in irrigated fields or take up other small-scale jobs within and around the village. { The MGNREGA is one of the beneficial employment schemes, and as per the Report on district-level estimates for the state of Andhra Pradesh under the 5th employment/unemployment survey, 51.4% of the households were reported to benefit from the MGNREGA scheme. { Earlier, jowar/maize roti comprised the main diet. In recent years, rice and wheat have replaced most of the traditional millet-based diets. However, the trend is reversing, especially post-COVID pandemic. { Staple foods such as rice and ragi are widely consumed along with green leafy vegetables such as fenugreek and spinach. Consumption of fruits and pulses is low. Non-vegetarian food is mostly consumed once a month. Consumption of dairy is more common among large landowners than small farmers. The APCNF assessment of natural farmers showed that 87% of the women had achieved minimally adequate diet diversity (i.e., consumed more than five food groups under natural farming). { The experience of natural farmers in the APCNF project, in terms of prices, is mixed. About 45% of the farmers who adopted the program reported obtaining higher prices for their CNF output than for non-CNF output. Natural farming also led to substantial cost savings but used more labor than chemical farming. { Farmers use multiple sources to gather market information, such as newspapers, radio, peer groups, and traders. Large farmers have an advantage in volume and staying power and having connectivity to secondary-level aggregators for marketing. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 10 Description of the Agroecological Living Landscapes (ALLs) Figure 1. Map of Andhra Pradesh and the district of Anantapur (inset: India map with location of Andhra Pradesh) Anantapur Source: Wikipedia. Credit: Adityamadhav83. (https://bit.ly/3GttL74), Blank map of Andhra Pradesh state and districts: https://bit.ly/46H8j9l Andhra Pradesh (AP) is the eighth largest state in India, with a geographical area of 0.167 million km2, and it is the 10th largest state in population, accounting for more than 4% of the people (Figure 1). As per the last census available in 2011, Andhra Pradesh has a population of 49.5 million, with a decadal growth rate surpassing 9%, population density of 394/km2, and literacy at 67% (Andhra Pradesh State Planning Society, 2021). The state has a predominantly rural population, with only 29.47% staying in urban areas as per the 2011 census, but this is expected to change substantially. Administratively, the state is divided into 13 districts, 51 revenue divisions, 679 mandals, 17,464 revenue villages, and 13,385 Gram Panchayats (the local governance institutions with elected representatives) (Figure 2). The state is conventionally divided into the Coastal region, with districts along the coast (AP has a coastline of 974 km) receiving relatively higher rainfall and a large proportion with access to irrigation, and the drier Rayalaseema region, consisting of four districts (Anantapur [Anantapuram + Sri Sathya Sai], Kurnool, YSR, and Chittoor). The north coastal high-altitude tribal region also has a distinct geography. The combined state of Andhra Pradesh was divided in 2014 into Telangana and Andhra Pradesh states. The administrative divisions are state, regions (3), districts (26), revenue divisions (77), and mandals (679). The 13 districts at the time of the state division were re-organized in 2022 into 26 districts. The district of Anantapur (or Anantapuram) was divided into Anantapuram and Sri Satya Sai districts. The two ALL sites selected in the combined Anantapur District fall under these two districts (Anantapuram and Sri Sathya Sai; see Figures 1 and 2). The reorganization of states and districts brings complexity to the presentation of data. (Anantapur, Ananthapur, and Ananthapuramu are taken as synonyms in this document.) For reasons of data availability, we consider the undivided Anantapur District for our presentation. The state has six diverse agro-climatic zones and five agroecological zones (districts before reorganization). The ALL sites are situated in the scarce rainfall zone with annual rainfall at 500 to 670 mm. Anantapur District has vast areas of drylands with low population density at 213/km2 vis-à-vis 304/km2 at the state level. The district has a higher proportion of net sown area than the state and a low proportion classified as forests in land use. Typical of drylands, Anantapur District has a high percentage of fallow lands (cultivable waste, permanent pastures and fallows, other fallow lands, and current fallow (Figure 3). The declining net sown area and increasing fallow lands are a matter of concern in the district, typically indicating farmers’ disinterest in continuing with cultivation (Figure 3). Frequent failure of crops due to aberrations in rainfall and volatility in market prices are often the stated reasons. Anantapur has shifted over the years from a diverse crop system to monocrop of groundnut. It is one of the most drought-prone districts in the state and is subject to frequent crop failures. Community-Managed Sustainable Agriculture (CMSA) began in 2004 in the combined Andhra Pradesh. It is the first state-level program focusing on extension of agroecological methods to promote non-pesticidal management (NPM) approaches on the platforms of women’s self-help groups (Madhuri, 2014). A more comprehensive program on spreading agroecology has taken shape in the form of Andhra Pradesh Community- Managed Natural Farming (APCNF), begun in 2016. The program was initially named Zero-Budget Natural Farming, focused on the principles enunciated by Sri. Subhash Palekar, and it later evolved into APCNF, expanding the scope of agroecological methods with the experiences evolving from field-level innovations. The APCNF program is being implemented by Rythu Sadhikara Samstha (RySS), a not-for-profit company established by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. Anantapur December 2023 | Context Document [India] 12 Figure 2. Andhra Pradesh with new district boundaries Source: Arjunaraoc (https://bit.ly/3TcMLhF; https://bit.ly/47x6CMV). RySS’s mandate is to plan and implement programs for the empowerment and all-around welfare of farmers (NITI Aayog, 2021). For our study, we have selected two mandals (Tadipatri, with 27 villages, and Bathalapalli, with 11 villages), within Anantapur District (one each in the newly formed Anantapuram and Sri Satya Sai districts), where a substantial number of farmers have reportedly adopted the natural farming methods promoted by RySS. Table 1 provides an overview of Anantapur District and the following sections provide the detailed context of the environmental, social, economic, and political context in addition to the status of the 13 agroecological principles followed in the region. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 13 Figure 3. Land use types in Anantapur and the trends in cropped area, recreated by WASSAN Table 1: Overview of Anantapur District Overview of Anantapur District (MoA&FW, 2022) Location 13°30’ and 15°11' N and 75°45' and 78°15' E (Krishnan et al., 2003) Geographic area 19,130 km2 Cultivable area 10,150 km2 Revenue mandals 63 Agroecological region/ sub-region (ICAR) Karnataka plateau Rayalaseema as inclusive agroecological sub-region (3.0) Agro-climatic region (Planning Commission) Southern Plateau and Hills Region (X) Agro-climatic zone (NARP) Scarce rainfall zone of Andhra Pradesh (AP-6) Average annual rainfall 560 mm Soil type Shallow red soils: 934,000 ha (78%) Black soils: 239,000 ha (20%) Others: 23,000 ha (2%) Groundwater extraction Overexploited: 28 blocks (12% of area) Critical: 12 blocks (8% of area) Semi-critical: 9 blocks (15% of area) Safe: NA (65% of area) Irrigation Net irrigated area: 108,900 ha Gross irrigated area: 137,400 ha Rainfed area: 81,4400 ha Sources of irrigation Canals: 22,400 ha (18.8%) Tanks: 4,300 ha (3.6%) Tubewells/filter points: 91,000 ha (76.3%) Other sources: 1,500 ha (1.3%) Natural resources Mineral deposits: dolomite, iron ore, limestone, gold, diamond Non-conventional energy sources: wind and solar December 2023 | Context Document [India] 14 Environmental context Climate/climatic zone of the ALLs Anantapur District has a bimodal distribution of rainfall, receiving rains from the northeast and southwest monsoons. Anantapur is often deprived of monsoon rains during years when the monsoonal vigor is below normal. Thus, the district is a drought-prone area and is the district receiving the second lowest rainfall in the nation, with a normal rainfall of 552 mm per annum. The region receives much of its rain (57%) from the southwest monsoon (June to September) and 30% comes from the northeast monsoon (October to December) (APSAC, 2018). Monthly and annual rainfall data of 38 years (1980–2017) were analyzed to calculate the average rainfall for the study sites (Figure 4). Average annual rainfall of Bathalapalli is 569 mm and that of Tadipatri is 613 mm, while India’s annual average is 1,160 mm (IMD 2022), thus clearly showing that the region is deprived of rain. Bathalapalli and Tadipatri receive most of their rain (~59% and ~62%) from the southwest monsoon and ~26% and ~25% from the northeast monsoon, respectively (Figure 5). As can be seen from the isohyets map of Anantapur District (Figure 5), the two sites selected for ALLs are in different rainfall zones. Bathalapalli is drier, having an average annual rainfall of 489 mm, whereas Tadipatri has 587 mm, about a 100-mm difference in the isohyets; however, both sites are in a low-rainfall semi-arid zone. Figure 4. Trends and return periods in analysis of rainfall (1980–2017) (IMD data). Author: Sudharsan Maliappan. Bathalapalli Figure 5. Seasonal and monthly rainfall trend (averages across 1980–2017) (IMD data). Author: Sudharsan Maliappan. Average seasonal rainfall Average monthly rainfall (1980-2017) 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Jan to May 100 1980-00 Tadipatri Bathalapalli Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2001-17 1980-00 2001-17 200 300 400 500 600 700 Jun to Sep Tadipatri BathalapalliOct to Dec 65 381 139 172 382 95 64 103 332 160 342 141 December 2023 | Context Document [India] 16 Figure 6. Monthly rainfall for 2016–2020 for the ALL mandals. Source: IMD, 2016–2020. Author: Prachi Patil Bimodal rainfall can be discerned from the monthly rainfall of the two ALL sites (Figure 6). While the June to September window (with small pre-monsoon showers occasionally in May) receives rainfall from the southwest monsoon, rainfall in the September to November window comes mainly from the return/northeast monsoon. The monthly distribution of rainfall at the two sites (Tadipatri and Bathalapalli) during the last five years shows very high variability, with high-intensity rainfall events during the northeast monsoon (Figure 5). Increasing climate variability in terms of drought spells and increasing off-season rains with high peaks has been a disturbing trend in the district and at both ALL sites. Rainfall trends and variability assessment of the ALL sites Daily rainfall data for 1991 to 2020 from the IMD was plotted for the ALL sites. The rainfall Plume Tool developed by researchers from SARDI (South Australian Research and Development Institute) under the project “Water management in rainfed areas for improving livelihood security of smallholder farmers” was used to do the rainfall analysis. The cumulative rainfall is plotted for 30 years against daily rainfall data. The graph gives the following information: { Average rainfall, +/- 20% average, median rainfall, +/-20% of median rainfall, and 1st and 9th decile rainfall { Rainfall trend for past 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 years { Chances of rainfall occurrence in a specific decile for the above The following analysis provides further insight into the rainfall variability at the ALL sites. Figure 7. Bathalapalli mandal cumulative rainfall from 1991 to 2020 (IMD grid data). Gray lines indicate cumulative rainfall of the past 30 years, black lines indicate 2016 to 2020 cumulative annual rainfall, and blue lines indicate average rainfall and +/- 20% average cumulative rainfall. Author: Prachi Patil December 2023 | Context Document [India] 17 The 30-year average annual rainfall of Bathalapalli mandal is 587.6 mm. If the 2016 to 2020 cumulative rainfall is considered, 2016 and 2018 received 34% and 52% less than the average annual rainfall, while, in 2015, 42% excess of average cumulative rainfall was received (Figure 7). Table 2 indicates rainfall variability over the past 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 years. Table 2: Cumulative rainfall in Bathalapalli Chance of decile 1 (≅ 320 mm) cumulative rainfall Chance of decile 9 (≅ 700 mm) above cumulative rainfall Past 5 years 40% 20% Past 10 years 30% 20% Past 15 years 20% 20% Past 20 years 15% 15% Past 30 years 10% 17% The chance of receiving low rainfall (below average) is increasing over time. At the same time, there is also an increasing trend in the chance of receiving rainfall higher than 700 mm, which is >100 mm above the average. This trend in variability in rainfall has been prevalent in the past 5 to 10 years. Figure 8. Tadipatri mandal cumulative rainfall from 1991 to 2020 (IMD data). Author: Prachi Patil December 2023 | Context Document [India] 18 The 30-year average annual rainfall of Tadipatri mandal is 672.6 mm. If the 2016–2020 cumulative rainfall is considered, 2016 and 2018 received 25% and 34% less than the average annual rainfall, whereas, in 2017, there was a 29% excess in average cumulative rainfall (Figure 8). In 2020, the rainfall was 51% higher than the average cumulative rainfall of the region. Table 3 indicates rainfall variability over the past 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 years for deciles 1 and 9. In Tadipatri mandal, rainfall variability has been especially high in the past 5 and 10 years. Bathalapalli receives lower rainfall than Tadipatri but has higher rainfall variability. Tables 2 and 3 give an analysis on cumulative rainfall chances of occurrence less than or equal to 1 decile and greater than or equal to 9 decile values for ALL sites. If the past 5 years’ rainfall for both locations is analyzed, it is observed that, in Bathalapalli for 2 years, the cumulative rainfall was less than 320 mm, whereas, for Tadipatri, the cumulative rainfall was less than 480 mm (less than 1 decile) for 1 year. Table 3: Cumulative rainfall in Tadipatri Chance of decile 1 (≅ 480 mm) cumulative rainfall Chance of decile 9 (≅860 mm) above cumulative rainfall Past 5 years 20% 20% Past 10 years 20% 10% Past 15 years 13% 14% Past 20 years 15% 15% Past 30 years 10% 17% December 2023 | Context Document [India] 19 Drought assessment Anantapur District is one of the most severely drought- affected districts in India (Sainath, 1996). For assessing drought, the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) (Sönmez et al., 2005) is used. SPI is the deviation of precipitation from the mean for a period (monthly, 3-monthly, etc.) relative to its standard deviation (Sönmez et al., 2005). SPI is calculated based on monthly rainfall data of the years 1980 to 2017. To assess seasonal and annual droughts, SPIs are calculated separately for annual, kharif season, and rabi season. The shorter periods (monthly to seasonal) evaluate agricultural droughts, whereas the annual period SPI assesses hydrological droughts. The seasonal and annual SPIs for the study catchments appear in Table 4. The analysis of trends and return periods of rainfall shows the likelihood of droughts. This information is useful for stakeholders to prepare for managing crop stress. Main climate change impacts projected or currently experienced Anantapur has been drought prone for more than a century according to rainfall data. There were only 3 years in the past two decades when the region received normal annual rainfall; however, the number of rainy days was fewer than normal (Mohan, 2019). The year 2018 received 556 mm of rain, which is normal annual rainfall (APSAC 2018), but, in 2019, the region received only 272.8 mm of rainfall, which is the least it has received in this century and which adds up to only about half of what it normally receives (APSAC, 2018). Different parts of the district experience one to three droughts every 5 years (Krishnan et al., 2003). The Vulnerability Atlas prepared by ICAR-CRIDA characterizes the exposure to climate change and consequent vulnerability in Anantapur as “very high,” the exposure factor being the projected decrease in July rainfall and the sensitivity factor being the low rainfall (Rama Rao CA et al., 2013). However, the region has experienced high-intensity off-season rains and consequent loss of crops in the past five years, which demonstrates the unpredictable extreme climatic events and thus furthers the factors of vulnerability. Table 4: SPI calculation for different periods and tabular matrix of results Bathalapalli Tadipatri Jan-May Jun-Sep Oct-Dec Annual Jun-Sep Oct-Jan Feb-May Annual No drought 39% 45% 42% 45% 50% 42% 45% 37% Mild drought 45% 37% 42% 42% 32% 47% 42% 47% Moderate drought 16% 18% 11% 11% 16% 11% 11% 11% Severe drought 0% 0% 5% 3% 3% 0% 3% 5% Extreme drought 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Source: Author Sudharsan Maliappan’s analysis (monthly data from 1980 to 2017 were analyzed for drought assessment) December 2023 | Context Document [India] 20 Main environmental challenges The environmental challenges of Anantapur District are the following: { Rainfall pattern: low and erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, and increasing variability. { Desertification and climate change: Dwindling rainfall has led to an increase in aridity, deteriorating soil quality, and increasing desertification. Aridity has deteriorated soil productivity as well (Jitendra, 2019). With 18 droughts in the past two decades (until 2020), the region is gradually experiencing farmers’ disinterest in cultivation, leading to desertification resulting in climate-induced mass migration (Bommakanti, 2021). About 110 kilometers from Tadipatri and Bathalapalli lies D. Honnur Village, where the landscape is dominated by sand and dunes. The community attributes the degradation of the sandy landscape, which they say it always was, to a change in the cropping patterns (shift away from millets and multi- cropping systems into groundnut monocropping) and change in intensity, timing, and frequency of rainfall (Sainath, 2019). { Degradation of commons: The hillocks that are not under the forest department are subject to high degradation. Anantapur District and Bathalapalli have sizable area under commons. { Increasing fallow lands: As discussed earlier, this is a serious concern because, as farmers discontinue cultivation, land degradation processes set in. { Loss of soil fertility: Large areas of Anantapur District are under groundnut monocropping, thus limiting soil cover with crops up to October. As the plants along with roots with pods are taken out, not much biomass is left to mix with the soil. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 21 Land use pattern Bathalapalli and Tadipatri mandals depict two different terrains. While Bathalapalli has undulating terrain with varied geography, Tadipatri is flat with black soils and relatively homogeneous topography. Table 5 shows the land use for the two mandals. Bathalapalli is mainly made up of poor red soils that are slightly sodic and classified as arid and treeless (Abrol et al., 1988). Chitravati, a tributary of the Pennar River, drains the mandal. About 1.5% of the total area of the mandal is classified as hilly. Tadipatri has an almost equal extent of black cotton soil and red soil. Some of the lowest points of Anantapur District are in this mandal at 274 m above mean sea level, where the slope is almost flat. Most of the mandal is drained by the Pennar River (APSAC, 2021). { Predominance of single-cropped area and kharif orientation of the crop systems. Very poor development of a second (rabi) crop, with a meager percentage of land under area sown more than once. Only 6% and 3% of the total cropped area is sown more than once in Tadipatri and Bathalapalli mandals, respectively. { Very low area under commons (forests, culturable waste, non-agriculture land, pastures and grazing, etc.). { Very high incidence of current fallows, a feature typical of stressed rainfed agriculture (nearly 32% of the land is fallow in Tadipatri and 26% in Bathalapalli). { The satellite data broadly corroborate the land use data. A very small area is under forests in Bathalapalli, while most of the area is under cultivation. The incidence of scrub lands is higher in Tadipatri (Figure 9). { The Chitravati River flows through Bathalapalli mandal. Several dispersed water bodies can be seen in Bathalapalli, with one large water body (Appacheruvu) adjoining the ALL site. The Pennar River transits through Tadipatri with relatively plain lands adjoining the river. { The ALL sites within the mandals are marked with a green boundary. While the Tadipatri ALL site is smaller with relatively uniform topography, the Bathalapalli site has landscape diversity, including a few water bodies. { The ALL site in Tadipatri has deep black clayey soils, while the Bathalapalli ALL site has loamy to clayey and clayey to gravelly clayey soils (Figure 10). Table 5: Mandal-wise land use, 2019–2020 Mandal-wise land use, 2019–2020 Area in ha Bathalapalli Tadipatri Geographic area 23,071 100% 36,408 100% Forest area 360 2% 0 0% Barren and uncultivable land 2,490 11% 3,120 9% Land put to non-agricultural uses 1,142 5% 5,878 16% Culturable waste 445 2% 1,002 3% Permanent pastures and grazing land 34 0% 0 0% Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves not included in net sown area 286 1% 0 0% Other fallow lands 1,467 6% 2,016 6% Current fallow lands 4,658 20% 9,710 27% Net sown area 12,189 53% 14,682 40% Total cropped area 12,545 54% 15,604 43% Area sown more than once 356 2% 922 3% December 2023 | Context Document [India] 22 Figure 9. LULC maps of Bathallapalli and Tadipatri. Source: Bhuvan (2015–2016). Figure recreated by WASSAN Figure 10. Soil maps of Bathalapalli and Tadipatri. Source: APSAC data, 2021. Figure recreated by WASSAN Other natural resources Large deposits of dolomite, iron ore, limestone, gold, and diamond exist in Anantapur District. The region also has potential for solar and wind power generation. Anantapur has been one of the main districts in Andhra Pradesh in harnessing electricity through wind. The average wind velocity is about 20 kmph and thus offers huge scope for harnessing this non-conventional energy source (APSRAC, 2018). A 500-acre, 100-MW solar power plant was established, which is expected to generate nearly 160 million units (kWh) of energy per year, thereby diminishing the load on the conventional grid and helping offset approximately 110,000 tons of CO2 annually (Tata Power Solar Systems Ltd, 2022). Land degradation Extracts from the satellite data from Bhuvan on land degradation at the two ALL sites suggest a contrasting picture of no serious land degradation at the Tadipatri ALL site, while Bathalapalli has several areas with salinity/alkalinity and extensive areas subject to water erosion (Figure 11). The ALL sites have relatively lower levels of land degradation than the district. Based on satellite data from 1990 to 2018, 31.93% of the land in Anantapur is facing land degradation and desertification, of which 17.34% faces severe land degradation and 14.59% has undergone desertification. Changes in land cover have led to vegetation degradation and waterlogging in part of the study area. The low moisture index (-75.5% for the district) shows that the rainfall received is not sufficient to meet the potential evapotranspiration demand, which has deteriorated soil quality and thus led to an increase in desertification. Aridity has deteriorated soil productivity as well. From 1999 to 2015, soil acidity increased by more than 4% and soil organic carbon declined by 84%. Availability of nitrogen and potassium dioxide decreased by 55% and 43%, respectively, during the same period. Other essential micronutrients such as zinc, iron, phosphorus, and potash were deficient too (Jitendra, 2019). Figure 11. Land degradation profile of the ALLs. Source: Bhuvan, NRSC 2015–2016). Figure recreated by WASSAN December 2023 | Context Document [India] 27 Soil The soil type in Anantapur District is predominantly of the red type except in a few mandals, including Tadipatri. About 76% of the district is covered with red soils and 24% with black soils (APSAC, 2018) (Table 6). Table 6: Soil characteristics of Anantapur District Soil type Characteristics Area in ha Red soils 1. Clay content low 2. Water-holding capacity low 3. Depth shallow 4. Nutrients low 875,196 (87.4%) Black soils 1. Clay content high 2. Water-holding capacity high 3. Depth shallow to deep 4. Nutrients medium 125,830 (12.5%) Problematic soils 1. Saline or alkaline soils 2. Need reclamation 190 (0.1%) Source:: (ICAR, 2013) Biodiversity The dominant species within forests are thorny shrubs such as Acacia sandra (Sundra), Acacia leucophloea (Tella Thumma), Dichrostachys cinerea (Nela Jammi), Acacia latronum (Paki Thumma), Carissa spinarum (Vaka), Zizyphus spp., etc. The non-thorny plants present are Dodonaea viscosa (Pulivailu), Jatropha curcas (Adavi Amudalu), and climbers such as Abrus precatorius (Gurivinda), etc. The main ground flora are grasses such as Cymbopogon coloratus (Bodha Gaddi) and Heteropogon contortus (Pandi Mallu Gaddi). The predominant exotic species outside the reserve forests are Prosopis juliflora (Sarcar Thumma) and Acacia nilotica (Nalla Thumma), while the native species include Tamarindus indica (Chinta), Azadirachta indica (Vepa), Pongamia pinnata (Kanuga), and Albizia lebbeck (Dirisona). Phoenix sylvestris (Etha Chettu), a palm, is also seen along the banks of streams and rivulets. Important fauna are predators such as leopards, bears, hyenas, jackals, and wild dogs; ungulates such as black buck, spotted deer, sambar, etc.; and small mammals such as porcupines, squirrels, a variety of rats, etc. The blue jay, the Andhra Pradesh state bird, parakeets, red jungle fowl, bulbuls, woodpeckers, peacocks, including the endangered great Indian bustard, and migratory birds such as painted Siberian storks are notable among birds. Forests, nature reserves, and protected lands There are no national parks, sanctuaries, or biosphere reserves in Anantapur District, but it has 19,130 km2 of reserve forests (Table 7). December 2023 | Context Document [India] 28 Table 7: Forest cover in Anantapur in 2019 in km2. Source: Forest Survey of India (2019) Forest cover in Anantapur in 2019 in km2 Geographic area (GA) Very dense forest Moderately dense forest Open forest Total % of GA Change from 2017 Scrub 19,130 0 213.14 773.69 986.83 5.16 -0.17 1,116.68 Table 8: Bamboo area in Anantapur in hectares. Source: Andhra Pradesh Forest inventory report Bamboo area in Anantapur in ha (part of National Bamboo Mission) Pure bamboo Dense bamboo Medium bamboo Scattered bamboo Total bamboo Bamboo area in % 2021 0 2,021 5,052 9,094 2.3 The forests of Anantapur fall under tropical dry deciduous, tropical moist deciduous, tropical semi-evergreen, and tropical thorn forest types. The per capita forest area is 0.054 ha (Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, 2014). In addition to reserve forests, the region has several smaller forest fragments called sacred groves, which range in size from <1 ha to 200 ha. Sacred groves are forests protected because of cultural beliefs (Jayaprada, 1998). However, only a very small area of forests is in Bathalapalli. The incidence of scrub lands is higher in Tadipatri (see Figure 9). Bamboo cultivation is being promoted under the leadership of the National Bamboo Mission and farmers are encouraged to grow bamboo (Table 8) (Globalgreen, 2021). The Forest Department is using the MGNREGS to take up forestry operations in reserved forest areas and outside. A large number of nurseries are being raised under the Mahatma Gandhi Vana Nursery (MGVN) Program as a part of the MGNREGS in the state. These nurseries are being raised to produce good-quality seedlings of tree species that are preferred by the people and that are suitable to the agro- climatic conditions of the district concerned (APFD 2013). In July 2020, the government had taken up the task of planting 9.4 million saplings in the district (Anonymous, 2020). Community forest management: There are 281 Vana Samrakshana Samities (VSSs) or Joint Forest Protection Committees (JFPCs) in Anantapur covering an area of 628.35 km2, which constitutes 32% of the forest area. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 29 Water resources Figures 12 and 13 show the water resources of the two selected mandals along with the boundaries of the ALL sites. Bathalapalli, with undulating slopes, has a dense drainage network flowing into the Chitravati River. The mandal has a total of 2,821 water bodies with 158.95 mcft of storage capacity, of which 37.58 mcft has actual storage. Except for a canal on the northwest, most of the irrigation is through borewells. The 40 minor irrigation tanks have a cumulative command area of 955 acres. The ALL site in Bathalapalli is in the catchment area of the Appara Cheruvu (a minor irrigation tank). The southern part of the mandal comes under the irrigation command area. Tadipatri mandal, in contrast, has relatively plain terrain with limited scope for water bodies. Much of the mandal comes under the Pennar River basin. The mandal has 13 irrigation tanks with a command area of 243 acres. The Handari-Neeva Sujala Sravanthi project has been a political ambition for the people of Anantapur. The project pumps water from the backwaters of Srisailam dam traversing more than 500 km across the higher reaches of the district. The project is mostly used for filling up the tanks (water bodies) along its path. The project mandals are out of reach of the HNNS canals. Groundwater According to CGWB’s block-wise groundwater resources assessment of 2022 (Central Ground Water Board, 2022), both Bathlapalli and Tadipatri fall under the safe category. The groundwater status of Tadipatri has shown improvement in recent years, as it was previously categorized as overexploited in 2017 (Central Ground Water Board, 2020) but is now classified as safe based on the CGWB’s report. Bathalapalli has a hard rock deep aquifer system, while Tadipatri, adjoining the Pennar River, has shallower water tables and aquifers. In both mandals, the groundwater table highly correlates with rainfall (Table 9). The groundwater level is relatively more consistent in Tadipatri because of the canal systems. Figure 12. Water resources of Bathalapalli and Tadipatri Figure 13. Canal and command area in Bathalapalli and Tadipatri Figure 14. Groundwater status in 2019–2020 in Bathalapalli mandal. Source: CGWB (2022). Figure recreated by Sudharsan Maliappan. Bathalapalli Groundwater level (2019-2020) Rainfall (mm) Groundwater level (m) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Figure 15. Groundwater status in 2019-20 in Tadipatri mandal. Source: CGWB (2022). Figure recreated by Sudharsan Maliappan. Tadipatri Groundwater level (2019-2020) Rainfall (mm) Groundwater level (m) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 5 10 15 20 25 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec December 2023 | Context Document [India] 33 Table 9: Groundwater status and rainfall across the year in 2019–2020 in Bathalapalli and Tadipatri mandals Tadipatri groundwater level 2019–2020 Bathalapalli groundwater level 2019–2020 Month GW level (m) Rainfall (mm) Month GW level (m) Rainfall (mm) Jan 17.5 0.7 Jan 14.2 0.2 Feb 17.9 0.0 Feb 14.6 0 Mar 18.0 8.4 Mar 16.2 1.1 Apr 18.9 15.4 Apr 23.8 98.0 May 19.5 21.1 May 32.7 16.3 Jun 19.8 19.5 Jun 43.3 18.4 Jul 20.2 13.5 Jul 43.4 14.2 Aug 20.5 99.2 Aug 44.7 72.0 Sep 16.0 269.2 Sep 47.3 267.1 Oct 10.7 152.9 Oct 14.6 101.6 Nov 8.2 4.6 Nov 11.2 19.3 Dec 8.2 7.6 Dec 11.3 15.2 The September-October rainfall fills up the aquifers while the groundwater level falls rapidly from December-January onward due to high amounts of extraction through borewells. Both mandals have similar rainfall patterns but, since Tadipatri is composed of plain black soils adjoining the Pennar River, the groundwater is relatively shallow. The groundwater status and quality in the two ALLs are summarized in Table 10. Table 10: Summary of groundwater status in the two ALLs Sl. no. Parameters Bathalapalli Tadipatri 1 Basic rock Hard rock (Granite Gneiss) and found dolomite dikes in the block Semi-consolidated Shale Cuddappa stone 2 Porosity Medium (secondary porosity developed 6 to 9 meters weathered and horizontal and vertical fractures) High (less than 3 meters weathered rock, horizontal fractures and minor vertical fractures) 3 Aquifers Deep aquifers are in use with boreholes. Shallow aquifers are dried up (multiple aquifers present). Deep aquifers are in use with boreholes. Shallow aquifers are dried up (multiple aquifers present). 4 GW development status Safe Safe 5 Yield Medium Low December 2023 | Context Document [India] 34 Gross and net irrigated area Figure 16. Trends in irrigation in Anantapur District. Recreated by WASSAN Anantapur District has witnessed a steep rise in tubewell/borewell irrigation since 2000 (Figure 16). High investments in borewell irrigation along with declining groundwater resources have been a major cause for farmers’ distress. The situation might change to some extent with the advent of the Handri-Neeva project. Mandal-wise, source-wise, and season-wise gross area irrigated, 2019–2020, is provided in Table 11, showing that the dependence on tubewells is high in the region. Table 11: Mandal-wise, source-wise, and season-wise gross area irrigated, 2019–2020. Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Vijayawada Total gross area irrigated (ha) Area irrigated more than once (ha) Net area irrigated (ha) Source of irrigation Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total Tadipatri 2,611 171 2,782 0 12 12 2,611 159 2,770 Tubewell Bathalapalli 912 690 1,602 0 356 356 912 334 1,246 Tubewell At the ALL sites, although some canal command areas are reported, the major source of irrigation is tubewells (Table 12). Table 12: Minor irrigation census schemes Mandal Groundwater Surface water Grand total Dugwell Shallow tubewell Medium tubewell Deep tubewell Total S. flow scheme S. lift scheme Tadpatri 336 514 890 648 2,388 77 0 2,465 Bathalapalli 234 114 22 2,073 2,443 132 0 2,598 The data suggest a predominance of deep tubewells for irrigation; more so in Bathalapalli mandal. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 35 General information about the ecosystem A more detailed analysis of the ecosystem of the ALL sites will be carried out as the fieldwork starts in the ALLs. Groundwater management is a major challenge. Although substantial efforts and investments were made on recharge structures, they did not provide a lasting solution as the rates of extraction far exceeded the recharge limits. There is also inequity in access to groundwater. Appropriate governance systems that not only regulate excessive extraction and enable sharing of groundwater for crop-saving irrigation for rainfed farmers are the need and precondition for aquifer recharge. Promotion of APCNF has addressed the problem of water deficit in cropping systems in this region to some extent. In comparison with conventional farming methods, natural farming has improved soil moisture retention capacity, thus diminishing the usage of water for agriculture while also having the benefit of decreased GHG emissions (Rosenstock et al., 2020) and improvement in the status of soil fauna such as earthworms and other beneficial insects (RySS, personal communication). Another major issue is managing common lands. As the sheep economy is predominant, regenerating hillocks by establishing social norms will not only help in recharging aquifers but will also benefit small-ruminant farmers as their fodder base improves. Social regulation around commons has been tried by several organizations and networks in Anantapur. Economic context Demographic features of the two ALL sites follow. Table 13 depicts the key demographic variables of the villages Bathalapalli and Raghavampalle in Bathalapalli mandal and Chinnapolamada and Diguvapalle in Tadipatri mandal. Table 13: Population in ALL villages Parameter (Andhra Pradesh, India) Chinnapolamada Diguvapalle Bathalapalli Raghavampalle Total population 4,181 1,921 12,697 1,043 Number of households 1,053 458 3,251 259 Average household size (4/4.45) 3.97 4.19 3.91 4.03 SC population (16.4%/16.6%) 25% 13% 17% 20% ST population (5.6%/8.6%) 0% 0% 5% 0% Female literacy rate (59.15% / 65.46%) 40.44% 41.08% 42.31% 43.40% Male literacy rate (74.88%/82.14%) 59.56% 58.92% 57.69% 56.60% Source: Census (2011) Table 14: Agricultural laborers as percentage of population with more than 6 months of work (main workers) Village (total main workers: females/males) Chinnapolamada (604/1,048) Diguvapalle (363/523) Bathalapalli (1,389/3,032) Raghavampalle (268/281) India (in million) (89.35 /273.21) Andhra Pradesh (in million) (11.57/21.46) Female agricultural laborers (%) (no.) 53% (321) 81% (295) 32% (448) 43% (115) 35% (30.95) 55% (6.41) Female cultivators (%) (no.) 5% (30) 8% (29) 20% (274) 53% (142) 26% (22.87) 16% (1.9) Male agricultural laborers (%) (no.) 25% (267) 39% (204) 20% (601) 40% (111) 20% (55.25) 32% (6.78) Male cultivators (%) (no.) 20% (214) 40% (209) 18% (551) 55% (155) 27% (73.06) 19% (4.18) Source: Census (2011) The preponderance of female agricultural laborers among main workers reiterates the feminization of agriculture in India (Table 14). The two villages of Tadipatri have a stark disparity between female and male cultivators, with the percentage of the latter being 4 to 5 times higher. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 37 Key farming systems Area and major crops There has been a decline in net sown area (NSA) over the past two decades in the district and the increasing area under fallow lands is striking (Figure 17). The increasing trend in abandoning agriculture/leaving the land fallow is a sign of distress in agriculture. Figure 17. Trends in land use. Recreated by WASSAN The net sown area in Anantapur District in 2020–2021 was 0.85 million ha, which forms 45% of the total area (1.9 million ha) (DES, 2020–2021). The total cropped area in the same years was about 0.91 million ha, out of which 6.3% was sown more than once. Dominance of monocropping Anantapur traditionally used to have diversified crop systems in its rainfed areas before groundnut became the dominant monocrop. The diverse multi-crop system (termed Navadhanya) uses 5 to 10 crops (one-time sowing) with multiple harvests over the two seasons; it covers soil from June to February or March. This method uses the bimodal rainfall effectively and harvests crops beyond the monsoon crop season. The mixed farming system (Figure 18), common in the past, facilitated harvesting the rainfall and allowing for percolation into the soil profile by retaining ground covering for a large part of the year. However, by the early 1980s, there was a shift to groundnut monocrop (promoting high-yielding varieties of groundnut, which led to an increase in its area from 18% in 1960 to 74% in 2005), which decreased dependency on mixed farming systems that included millets and pulses for household consumption in addition to depriving soils of biomass. However, because of repeated droughts and groundnut crop failures, there was a slight increase in crop diversification in some areas (Accion Fraternia Ecology Centre, 2017). The government has also recognized the importance of millets as a climate- friendly crop and initiated steps to revive millet cultivation (Hemalatha, 2017). Nearly 4.6% of the area is under millets such as jowar, bajra, and ragi (Directorate of Economics and Statistics., 2020). And, from 80% to 90% of the millet seeds are farmer-saved (Reddy, 2006). Rice is the main crop where surface irrigation is available (i.e., in tank irrigation systems and even under borewells). Promotion of subsidized sprinkler and drip irrigation systems by the government has increased the area under irrigated horticulture while the focus on mango orchard promotion under the MGNREGS has increased the area under orchards. Figure 18. Diverse vs. monocropping systems. ©WASSAN December 2023 | Context Document [India] 38 Mixed farming methods Typical of the drylands with substantial common grazing land (with the private current fallows and postharvest fallows also used as common grazing lands), the small-ruminant economy has increased substantially. Groundnut haulms available at scale also supported small-ruminant expansion, mostly of sheep. Recent years have seen a shift from animal draft power to mechanization, thus decreasing the dependence on bullocks substantially over time. These mixed farming methods, as compared to systems involving crop production alone, provide income stability, especially during drought years (Gopinath et al., 2012). Various initiatives such as National Innovations on Climate- Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) and Rainfed Area Development (RAD) and policy interventions such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act and Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) in Andhra Pradesh have enhanced the uptake of climate-smart agricultural practices (Vincent & Balasubramani, 2019). The district has also taken up community-managed seed systems (CMSS) in a big way, for which the Agriculture Department partnered with farmers’ producer organizations (FPOs) in establishing seed systems centered in groundnut. Efforts to revive the Navadhanya system by subsidized distribution of multi-crop seeds as a package were also taken up at scale facilitated by WASSAN (Watershed Support Services and Activities Network), an NGO active in the region (also our project implementing partner). Natural farming promoted by the APCNF project The major driver for crop diversification and movement toward agroecology methods is the APCNF program promoting “natural farming,” a term used synonymously with agroecology. Based on an extension model centered in community organizations and practicing farmers serving as extension agents, APCNF is spearheading a major agroecological movement in the district. APCNF promotes the following natural farming principles: 1. Cover soil with crops 365 days (living root principle). 2. Use diverse crops (15–20 crops), including trees. 3. Keep the soil covered with crop residues whenever living plants are absent. 4. Minimally disturb soil. 5. Use indigenous seed. 6. Integrate animals into farming. 7. Use bio-stimulants as necessary catalyst. 8. Manage pests through better agronomic practices and botanical extracts. 9. Do not use synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and weedicides. To the above principles, a recent addition is pre-monsoon dry sowing (PMDS). A package of practices is evolving around these principles that are promoted across the district and state by farmer resource persons. The selected clusters (Figure 19) have good social capital in terms of organizing women into self-help groups. There are a total of 107 SHGs from among the 872 households in the two clusters, with 40 and 67 SHGs, respectively, in Bathalapalli and Tadipatri mandals (Table 15). Figure 19. Distribution of farmers as classified by APCNF, recreated by WASSAN Distribution of farmers as classified by APCNF 0% Bathalapalli C1 Tadipatri Total 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 60% 52% 20% 7% 12% 9% 55% 17% 6% 12% 10% 11% 11% 12% 5% C2 C3 C4 C5 Table 15: Spread of the APCNF program in the ALL villages. Source: MIS of APCNF (Anantapur) Location Total SHGs Total households C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Total members Lead farmers ICRPs Master farmers Bathalapalli 40 329 260 49 20 49 53 431 3 2 5 Bathalapalli 25 174 134 30 10 23 21 218 2 1 3 Raghavampalle 15 155 126 19 10 26 32 213 1 1 2 Coverage of farmers 60% 11% 5% 11% 12% 100% Tadipatri 67 543 357 137 49 82 64 689 4 2 6 Chinnapolamada 48 413 265 101 47 57 32 502 3 2 5 Diguvapalle 19 130 92 36 2 25 32 187 1 0 1 Coverage of farmers 52% 20% 7% 12% 9% 100% Grand total 107 872 617 186 69 131 117 1,120 7 4 11 Note: C1: farmers practicing natural farming (NF); C2: farmers who have just started/are willing to practice; C3: farmers still working as chemical farmers; C4: non-cultivating farmers; C5: agricultural labor/landless. ICRPs = internal community resource persons December 2023 | Context Document [India] 40 Major agricultural commodities and livestock Major crops In terms of area, the major crops grown in 2019–2020 in the district were groundnut (51%), pulses (25.4%) such as red gram and horse gram, cotton (6.5%), and rice (4.1%) (Figure 20). Season-wise, groundnut is the major kharif crop in red soil under rainfed conditions, covering 60% of the area. Other kharif crops are cotton, red gram, and horse gram. The major rabi crop is gram, covering 56% of the area, followed by other crops such as groundnut (23%), rice (8.7%), and maize (5.4%). In Tadipatri, jowar and cotton in kharif and Bengal gram in rabi are the major crops according to the district statistics. The cropping intensity is low (Table A1). In comparison, Bathalapalli, with predominant red soils and rainfed geography, has more rainfed crops, with horse gram and groundnut as the predominant crop systems (Table A2). Livestock As per the Livestock census 2012, the total livestock population in the district was 4.4 million, including cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, and others (Table A3). The livestock data suggest a predominance of small ruminants in the livestock economy of both ALL mandals. The current fallows and the higher incidence of single- cropped area and the larger stressed agricultural economy are the enabling factors for the spread of the small-ruminant economy in the region. Table 16 details the livestock population in the two mandals. The poultry population is significant in Tadipatri mandal, mostly due to access to larger markets in Tadipatri Town. Figure 20. Trends in crop area in Anantapur District. Recreated by WASSAN Table 16: Mandal-wise livestock and poultry population, 2012 Census. Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Vijayawada. Figure recreated by Prachi Patil. Tadipatri mandal has a significant dairy economy with more than 15,000 buffaloes, suggesting higher availability of fodder than in Bathalapalli, where the cattle population is predominant for draft and dairy purposes. Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats Poultry 4,421 15,073 73,574 11,409 35,934 Livestock Tadipatri mandal 14,957 8,906 82,407 6,989 8,834 Bathalapalli mandal 4% 13% 8% 73% 6% 15% 70% 11% December 2023 | Context Document [India] 41 Market information for both inputs and outputs The local market in the village is within a radius of 5–6 km from which basic household and food items can be locally procured from private stores. For others, farmers need to travel to the nearest town, which is within 15–20 km. Anantapur (district market) is 30–50 km away. Agricultural inputs can also be purchased from local input dealer shops in the village, mandal (block) offices, KVK centers, RBK centers, and PACS located near the villages. Currently, as per official records, about 6,000 PACS are operating in the state, of which 286 are in Anantapur District (Cooperative Dept., AP). The state also has a very active network of more than 7,000 private input dealers (Gupta et al., 2020). At the district level, about 500 outlets are selling fertilizer, close to 1,000 are selling seeds, and about 700 shops are selling pesticide (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2020). Farmers usually sell their produce in local markets or at the farm gate. However, in recent times, big private companies have also entered the markets and are focusing on processing and marketing the produce. Anantapur has the strategic advantage of being in proximity to metropolitan areas such as Bengaluru (200–250 km away) and Hyderabad and Chennai (390–430 km away). Market players such as Big Basket, Flipkart, and several others have established procurement centers in Anantapur, which are gradually diversifying into multiple commodities such as millets, pulses, fruits, vegetables, and oilseeds. For transportation of agricultural produce, a well-laid-out system of private trucks and tractors also exists. Key factors affecting agricultural productivity The NICRA initiative conducts a vulnerability assessment and identifies climate-vulnerable regions across the country. According to its assessment, a total of 121 are climate-vulnerable districts in India, of which five, including Anantapur, are in Andhra Pradesh. The following are some of the key challenges hampering agricultural productivity in the district. Extreme climatic events and crop failure This district’s position in the peninsula is such that it cannot reap the benefits of either the northeast or southwest monsoon and it is the second driest region in the country after Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) (APSAC (Andhra Pradesh Space Applications Centre), 2021). This makes the region subject to seasonal droughts. Out of the 8.8 lakh hectares of gross cropped area in 2019–2020, only 19.5% of the area was irrigated, while the rest was rainfed (Directorate of Economics and Statistics., 2020). However, it has also experienced unusually high rainfall in recent years, especially during the vegetative and harvesting stage of the crops. Exposure to drought spells and high intensity off-season rainfall are the major climatic problems that impede food production. Low groundwater levels Access to groundwater is aspirational in Anantapur. Competitive digging of borewells in a situation in which the strike rate in successfully accessing a good aquifer is limited and drying up of borewells, which forces further deepening or digging of new borewells, result in draining of capital resources. Even migrant families invest their hard-earned savings in borewells. According to Malla Reddy, Director of the AF Ecology Centre, it was estimated that, in 2019, the district had about 270,000 borewells against a carrying capacity of 70,000 (RDT, 2019). Some 41% of the irrigated gross cropped area in 2019–2020 was irrigated using groundwater and the rest by other sources such as canals, tanks, etc. (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2021). Because of this, there have been several incidents of borewell failures resulting in farmer suicides (Bommakanti, 2021), high indebtedness (Radhakrishna, 2017), and a shrinking number of farmers in the district (The Hindu, 2017). Nonetheless, the government has undertaken various groundwater management activities such as periodic estimation of basin-wise groundwater resources, delineation of potential groundwater zones, water quality monitoring, and special groundwater monitoring using GIS, among others. Currently, out of the total of 63 mandals, the number of mandals categorized as safe in terms of groundwater resources rose from 12 in 2007–2008 to 45 in 2019–2020, which includes both Tadipatri and Bathalapalli in this study (Central Ground Water Board, 2021). There are several initiatives in Anantapur District to encourage farmers to move toward shared groundwater use for extensive life-saving irrigation, such as the Indra Jalprabha Scheme, which involves linking all borewells with a network of pipelines and outlets to ensure availability of water for rainfed crops (Dasgupta, 2016). However, these initiatives too have been a cause for depleting groundwater levels. Pest attacks Pest incidence is also high, forcing farmers to rely excessively on chemical pesticides, especially because of the excessive rainfall around the crop’s harvesting stage. In 2020, rainfall induced late leaf spot pest attacks in groundnut because of water stagnation and this caused massive yield loss (Susarla, 2020). Excess rainfall during the vegetative period and harvesting stage leads to low groundnut yield. The postharvested dried-up groundnut is usually used as fodder for livestock, which become affected because of fungal infections. So, steps in the early identification of the fungus and proper field management might help in mitigating this problem. Monocropping Groundnut monocropping increased farming risk. Crop failure due to drought spells leaves farmers without any income and investment made on the crop is lost. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 42 Agricultural financing The district has had several traditional sources of credit and savings such as commercial banks, regional rural banks, and cooperative banks. As of 2020–2021, the banking network consisted of 26 commercial banks, one regional rural bank (Sree Anantha Grameen Bank), one district central cooperative bank (Ananthapuramu DCCB), and AP State Financial Corporation, with 330, 123, 28, and 1 branch, respectively. Of the total of 481 branches, 184 are rural branches, 121 are semi-urban, and 176 are urban. Along with banks, 120 PACS play a huge role in financial inclusion (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2020). However, the bank-linked SHG-based microfinance program has been identified as a major source of lending and saving in the state (and district). Among all the states in India, Andhra Pradesh is the third largest in terms of number of SHGs (8.2 lakh), after Bihar (9.9 lakh) and West Bengal (9 lakh) (Rafi et al., 2021). There are three broad models of this method: (1) banks provide loans to SHGs, (2) NGOs form an SHG and obtain loans for them from banks, and (3) NGOs act as both facilitators and microfinance intermediaries (Madineni, 2013). This linkage has synthesized formal institutes with informal institutes. SHG-bank linkages are well established in Andhra Pradesh. SHGs provide loans to their members internally at low interest rates at 8–12% per annum. The government provides an interest subvention if the SHGs repay the loans taken from the banks in time, and these loans come at a much-reduced rate of interest. The SHG loans are mostly taken for daily needs, special needs of health/marriage/education, or purchase of inputs. By the end of 2019–2020, about 65,000 SHGs were credit linked and an amount of INR 184 million was loaned. As per RBI guidelines, commercial banks provide loans to SHGs at 7% interest rate (RBI). These SHGs then extend these loans to their members at an interest rate of 12% per annum (Rafi et al., 2021). A major issue with credit is the annual cycle of credit. In an environment where droughts are frequent, farmers become easily indebted. Many of the crop loans are often “recycled,” that is, used to pay old debts, thus pushing farmers to approach the interlocked credit markets. Many of the input loans are taken from the input dealers who also sell chemical inputs. Financial education of farmers Information needs to be collected. Land tenure situation Operational holdings In 2015–2016, there were 0.77 million operational holdings in Anantapur, of which 72% were under marginal (0.5–1.0 ha) and small farmers (1–2 ha), 23% under semi-medium farmers (2–4 ha), and the rest under medium to large farmers (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2016). Average landholding in the district is 1.75 ha. Additionally, almost all these 0.77 million operational holdings were wholly owned/ self-operated. Among the two mandals in the ALLs, 74% and 68% of Tadipatri and Bathalapalli farmers, respectively, have landholding size less than 2 ha (Tables 17 and 18). Less than 1% of the farmers have landholding greater than 10 ha in both mandals. Land is relatively more evenly distributed with a low incidence of any high landholdings compared to other regions in general. About 93% of the farmers have 73% of the landholding. While 6% of the farmers hold 27% of the land in Tadipatri, land in Bathalapalli is relatively more equally distributed. Table 17: Categories of landholding size for Tadipatri mandal Tadipatri mandal (ha) No. of farmers % of farmers Area (ha) % Area Marginal farmers (less than 1 ha) 5,559 41 2,994 13 Small farmers (1–2 ha) 4,485 33 6,502 29 Semi-medium farmers (2–4 ha) 2,577 19 6,879 31 Medium farmers (4–10 ha) 793 6 4,423 20 Large farmers (10 ha & above) 65 0 1,626 7 Total 13,479 100 22,424 100 Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Vijayawada December 2023 | Context Document [India] 43 Table 18: Categories of landholding size for Bathalapalli mandal Bathalapalli mandal No. of farmers % of farmers Area (ha) % Area Marginal farmers (less than 1 ha) 3,288 30.3 2,032.34 11 Small farmers (1–2 ha) 4,184 38.6 6,206.25 32 Semi-medium farmers (2–4 ha) 2,817 26.0 7,368.84 39 Medium farmers (4–10 ha) 528 4.9 2,841.45 15 Large farmers (10 ha & above) 36 0.3 689.17 4 Total 10,853 100 19,138.05 100 Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Vijayawada Tenancy As per the National Sample Survey Organization’s (NSSO) 70th-round survey of land and livestock holdings, the state had about 2.45 million tenant farmers in 2013, of whom 0.63 million were landless (RSV, 2022). The Andhra Pradesh Crop Cultivators’ Rights Act was launched in 2019, which provides each tenant with a Crop Cultivator Rights Card (CCRC) and ensures their inclusion in various government benefit programs for farmers, which are otherwise mostly linked with land ownership. However, a recent analysis by RSV shows that, out of the estimated 1.6 million tenants in 2021, only 26% were issued CCRCs. The CCRCs are generally for one season of tenancy. For Anantapur District, this number was even lower: only 2% of the tenants out of 54,000 tenant farmers were issued cards. The success of the act is also diminished by many other factors such as lack of awareness among tenant farmers and lack of consent by the owner farmer, among others (Mohan, 2019; Rythu Swarajya Vedika, 2022). No primary data are available on the extent of tenancy in the ALL villages. This will be explored in due course. Farm assets and income As mentioned earlier, the average landholding is 1.75 ha or 4 acres, which is not very different from the recent interaction of the Agroecology India team with farmers in October 2022. There were about 0.3 million farm implements used in the district such as ploughs, sugarcane crushers, animal carts, water-lifting devices, etc. (Directorate of Economics & Statistics, 2007). Livestock also play a major role in the district in providing draft power for farming, crop manure, food, meat, milk for household consumption, and industrial raw material. Tractors are available for hiring mainly for ploughing and transportation. Combine harvesters are increasingly taking over the harvesting services, especially for rice. In terms of farm machinery, the district has about 28,000 tractors, 561 power tillers, nearly 4,000 threshers, and about 2.3 lakh agricultural pump sets (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2020). As per the fifth minor irrigation census (2013–2014), the district had 8,666 shallow tubewells, of which 89% were owned by farmers belonging to the OBC, 4% by SC/ST, and the rest by others. About 2,500 medium tubewells and 242 deep tubewells were also reported in the district in the same year, of which the majority are again owned by the OBC. Drips and sprinklers have gained substantial spread with the government’s subsidized programs. Supportive infrastructure (roads, electricity, storage, agro-industry, etc.) Roads Figure 21. Road and rail network in the two mandals. Source: Bhuvan and APWRIMS. Figure recreated by WASSAN Table 19: Implementation of the MGNREGS, 2019–2020 Location No. of job cards issued No. of families provided with employment opportunities No. of workdays generated Amount spent (INR in lakhs) Bathalapalli 8,235 4,468 246,762 832.32 Tadipatri 8,251 5,668 333,446 1,284.03 Sri Sathya Sai District 256,609 142,777 8,197,944 25,202.02 Anantapur District 322,678 197,440 333,570 36,951.01 Tadipatri is a big town while Bathalapalli is an emerging one. Both ALL sites are well connected by roads and highways through transportation by private and government-operated bus services (Figure 21). As mentioned before, the region is well connected to major cities such as Bengaluru in Karnataka and Hyderabad in Telangana. Well-connected railway networks are also present. The smaller “auto rickshaws” are the common means of transportation from villages to the road heads/towns. The nearest town is within 15–20 km. Anantapur (district market) is 30–50 km away. Bangalore is approximately 200–250 km away and Hyderabad is 390–430 km away. The ALL sites are connected to the nearest towns of Bathalapalli and Tadipatri. The areas have access to a rail network within 40–50 km. Storage In Bathalapalli Town, a grain storage facility is available, but it is mostly used by traders. The district has 77 godowns, with a capacity of 50,000 MT (PLP, NABARD, 2021–2022). Anantapur District has a few cold storage facilities available, with a storage capacity of 3,000 MT. Information on access to storage facilities at the ALL level will be explored further. Electricity As per Census 2011, all 63 mandals in the district reported having access to a power supply. The per capita electricity consumption in 2009–2010 was 90 kw for domestic use and 378 kw for agricultural use (Directorate of Census Operations Andhra Pradesh, 2014). The main source of electricity is hydropower, which is supplied by the government. A few farmers have access to solar power. The region has many windmills and solar panels for harnessing renewable energy. Both ALL sites/villages are connected to the grid with a good electricity supply. Drinking water sources Because of the overexploitation of groundwater and excessive reliance on borewells, the district is affected by drinking water shortages (Nagabhushanam, 2019). But the HNSS and Tungabhadra project high-level main canal system (HLMC) are two projects that play a crucial role in providing irrigation and drinking water fed by the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers (Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, 2016). The Anantapur Drinking Water Supply Project was taken up by Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust tapping water from various sources and providing piped water supply to 773 villages in the district. The project was handed over to the government in 1997 (Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust, n.d.). The major source of water is through pipelines connected through either the local grid or overhead tanks (fed by groundwater). Lately, RO plants have proliferated and have become the major source of drinking water. Distinct drinking water markets evolved through these RO plants established as local enterprises. As per Census 2011, untreated tap water is the main source of drinking water for rural households, followed by treated water. This is in sharp contrast to urban households, in which treated water is the major source for 73% of them (see Table A4 for a full list of sources of drinking water). Migration situation Because of concurrent droughts, the region has experienced widespread migration in the past few years. In 2017, about 500,000 farmers were reported to have migrated, which is 10% of the district’s population (India Today, 2017). Since returns from agriculture have declined over time, large-scale outmigration of men to cities (Bengaluru, Mumbai, Tirupati, Hyderabad, etc.) has occurred, where they are engaged in poultry, selling pilgrimage materials in Tirupati, papaya transporting and processing, etc. Most of this migration occurs during the lean period after groundnut harvesting and becomes exacerbated because of droughts. Employment opportunities (on- and off-farm) Agricultural wage employment is a major source of employment in both ALL mandals. The MGNREGS is a consistent source of part-time employment (Table 19). A total of 0.24 and 0.33 million workdays have been generated in Bathalapalli and Tadipatri, respectively, spending INR 83.2 and 128.4 million in 2019–2020. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 46 Social context Household structure and size A typical household size is 4.2 members. This will be explored in detail in due course. Table 21 provides details regarding the population. Table 20: Social status Variables Rural/ urban/ pooled Sex District population (in million) Population Total 4.08 Males 2.06 Females 2.02 Rural 2.94 Males 1.49 Females 1.45 Urban 1.15 Males 0.58 Females 0.57 Sex ratio Total 977 (Number of females per 1,000 males) Rural 971 Urban 991 Population density (persons/km2) 213 Literates Total 63.6% Males 73% Females 54% Scheduled Castes 14.3% Scheduled Tribes 3.8% Source: District Census Handbook: Anantapur, 2011 (Directorate of Census Operations Andhra Pradesh, 2014) Anantapur language: Telugu villages: 1,681; population: 5.286 million. Anantapur District consists of 31 mandals. ALL locations selected for the study: Tadipatri and Bathalapalli. Tadpatri: 28 villages. Bathalapalli: 11 villages. Gender relations The emergence of SHGs and their federations has made a substantial impact on the household gender relationship. Much credit is now accessed by families through the women’s SHGs. APCNF and several other government programs have their basis in the women’s SHGs. Training and participation in institutional processes has helped women’s leadership to evolve over time. Their role in electoral politics has also become substantive. However, the core issues of land titles in the name of women and their equal representation in decision-making and institutions are still to be resolved. Ethnicity (when there are no barriers to refer to it) About 89% of the population of Anantapur identifies as Hindus, followed by 10% Muslims. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 14% and 4% of the population, respectively (Census, 2011). Much of the tribal population was migrants from Lambada community who settled in the district. The Scheduled Caste people (called broadly Dalits) have gained strength over time in the power structure and in the articulation of their interests. Literacy of farmers and other food system actors in the ALLs Both ALL sites show poor literacy levels at 68% in Tadipatri and 59% in Bathalapalli (Table 21). Furthermore, the literacy rate among women is even lower than that of men as per the 2011 Census. December 2023 | Context Document [India] 47 General health conditions of the ALL population Figures 22 and 23 present some of the health problems faced by the people in the two mandals. The district has serious nutritional issues with 40% of the children below 5 years being stunted, 15% wasted and 39% under-weight and 53% have Anemia. Among the women of reproductive age 54% are anaemic and 20% women have BMI less than 18.5 kg/ sq.m. The relation between food systems- crop systems change and ecological degradation and human nutrition will be further explored in due course. Table 21: Literacy status Mandal Population literacy Male literacy rate Female literacy rate Gap in male/female literacy rate Tadipatri 67.89% 77.99% 57.80% 20.19 Bathalapalli 58.70% 68.38% 48.69% Figure 22. Undernutrition in Anantapur, figure recreated by Smitha Krishnan Stunting among children <5 years Wasting among children <5 years Underweight among children <5 years Anemia among children <5 years Anem