PROCEEDINGS The 6th All Africa Conference on Animal Agriculture Kenyatta International Convention Centre, Nairobi 27 -30 October, 2014 Theme: Africa’s Animal Agriculture: Macro-trends and future opportunities SECTION A: FULL PAPERS Sub-theme 1: Which Way for Smallholder Production Systems? Contextualizing smallholder systems in Africa's livestock production systems Kitalyi, A.1, Njakoi, H.2 and Kivaria, F.3 1Independent Consultant- Dar es Salaam; 2Tanzania, Heifer International; 3FAO Tanzania African agriculture is predominantly smallholder with over 80% of Sub-Saharan population deriving their livelihoods from that system. In the last half century of self-governing Africa there have been massive investments in smallholder production systems in the name of poverty eradication. Yet whether smallholder farming will eradicate poverty in developing countries remains an unanswered question. Some schools of thought contend that smallholder farming is an obstacle to development in developing countries. While farm sizes have been used to define small holdings, this is tricky in livestock production systems, where land factor is complicated by tenure system and agro-pastoral and pastoral households are marginalized in the crop biased agricultural development framework in most developing countries. This paper present a review of development trends in African post-independence livestock production system in the wake of fast changing social and economic global development trends. We look at the future of smallholder livestock production systems with major shift from public to private led agrarian economy. What is the role of state and non-state institutions, the AU led African countries agricultural development policy and the effects of increasing, large foreign and domestic investments on land and large-scale farming? Will smallholder livestock producers benefit from the undoubted opportunities of science and technology advancement as well as increasing livestock products demand, or are they going to miss out? Key words: Land policy reform, livestock infrastructure, poverty reduction, value chain integration Homecoming of Brachiaria: Improved hybrids prove useful for African animal agriculture Maass, B.L.1*, Midega, C.A.O.2, Mutimura, M.3, Rahetlah, V.B.4, Salgado, P.5, Kabirizi, J.M.6, Khan, Z.R.2, Ghimire, S.R.7 and Rao, I.M.8 1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) PO Box 823-00621, Nairobi, Kenya; 2African Insect Science for Food and Health (ICIPE), PO Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya; 3Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB), PO Box 5016, Kigali, Rwanda; 4Centre de Développement Rural et de Recherche Appliquée, BP 198, Antsirabe 110, Madagascar ; 5CIRAD, UMR SELMET, Mediterranean and Tropical Livestock Systems, BP 319, Antsirabe 110 Madagascar; 6National Livestock Resources Research Institute (NaLIRRI), PO Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda; 7Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa - International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI Hub), PO Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya; 8International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), AA 6713, Cali, Colombia SA. * Corresponding author: b.maass@cgiar.org Abstract Species of the genus Brachiaria originate primarily from Africa, where they are constituents of natural grasslands. Due to their adaptation to acidic, low-fertility soils, millions of hectares of Brachiaria species have been sown as improved pastures in South and Central America, especially B. brizantha cv. Marandu and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Due to B. decumbens’ susceptibility to spittlebug insect pests in the Americas, CIAT in Colombia and EMBRAPA in Brazil initiated breeding programs in the 1980s. First cultivars released from CIAT’s breeding program, cvs. Mulato and Mulato-II, have also been investigated in African countries. They have been examined for integration in conservation agriculture systems (Madagascar), for drought and acidic soil tolerance (Rwanda) and for intercropping forages in dairy systems (Uganda, Madagascar), among others. Seed sales to African countries suggest that an area of at least 1,000 ha has been sown so far. Largest adoption of cv. Mulato-II is currently happening in eastern Africa, where it is used by over 20,000 farmers as trap plant in the push-pull system for control of maize stem borers and parasitic Striga weed. Cv. Mulato-II’s particular advantage is relatively high crude protein content due to greater leafiness and thinner stems than those of traditional Napier grass, resulting in higher nutritive quality. Yet, new pest challenges have emerged requiring further research attention. Though, diverse hybrids are in the pipeline for release, among them such suitable for cut-and-carry systems prevalent in eastern Africa. This paper reviews research, development and incipient adoption of new Brachiaria hybrids in African countries. Key words: conservation agriculture, cv. Mulato-II, East Africa, forage adoption, push-pull system Background Species of the genus Brachiaria originate primarily from eastern, central and southern Africa, where they are natural constituents of grasslands (Boonman 1993). The largest impact of Brachiaria in agriculture, though, is in the Americas, especially in Brazil. Due to their adaptation to acidic, low-fertility soils, an estimated 99 million hectares of Brachiaria species have been sown as improved pastures in Brazil alone (Jank et al. 2014). This refers especially to B. brizantha cv. Marandu and B. decumbens cv. Basilisk. Despite Africa being their center of origin and diversity, Brachiaria species had not been selected for pasture improvement in eastern Africa, when grassland research was most active in the 1960s and 1970s (Boonman 1993). The then available commercial cultivars of B. brizantha, B. decumbens, B. ruziziensis and B. humidicola were evaluated in small-plot agronomic trials in western and central Africa in the 1990s (Ndikumana and de Leeuw 1996). However, none of them appears to have found its way into commercial agriculture at a significant scale in any African country (Boonman 1993). Only Congo Signal grass (B. ruziziensis, K5832) has been used as a cultivated grass in some areas of Congo (DRC, formerly also Zaïre), Uganda and Kenya according to Boonman’s (1993) review. This nutritious and persistent grass has been in commercial seed multiplication since 1960. Brachiaria improvement in the Americas Due to the susceptibility to spittlebug insect pests of B. decumbens in the Americas, CIAT in Colombia and EMBRAPA in Brazil initiated breeding programs in the late 1980s (Miles et al. 2004). Accessing useful resistance genes for cross-breeding was a particular challenge due to the apomictic nature of the grass (i.e., reproducing asexually by seed). This was only made possible by applying modern biotechnological tools then available (Miles et al. 2004). The first inter-specific hybrids from CIAT’s Brachiaria breeding program (cvs. Mulato and Mulato-II) were released in the Americas in early and mid-2000s by Grupo Papalotla (Table 1). Since 2012, cv. Cayman – as a plant with higher water-logging tolerance – has been made commercially available by Grupo Papalotla (Pizarro 2013), and the new, relatively taller cv. Cobra that is more suitable for cut-and-carry system will be soon available on the market. Table 1. Commercially available hybrid Brachiaria cultivars Cultivar CIAT ID Special characteristics Country, year of variety protection (first release) Reference cv. Mulato CIAT 36061 Spittlebug-resistant, high forage yield and nutritive quality, poor seed fill Mexico, 2004 (2001) Argel et al. 2007; Miles et al. 2004 cv. Mulato-II CIAT 36087 Spittlebug-resistant, high forage yield and nutritive quality, good seed yield Mexico, 2007 (2005) Argel et al. 2007 cv. Cayman BR02/1752 Higher tolerance to water logging than other hybrids Mexico, 2013 (2012) Pizarro 2013 (cv. Cobra) BR02/1794 Relatively taller than other hybrids, suitable for cut-and-carry Mexico, 2013 Pers. comms. E. Stern, M. Peters – cv. name not yet official These interspecific hybrids originate from crosses between three Brachiaria species (B. ruziziensis x B. decumbens x B. brizantha) and subsequent screening conducted by CIAT’s Tropical Forages Program in Colombia (Argel et al. 2007). Being apomictic hybrids, these cultivars are true-breeding and will not segregate from one generation to the next. Commercialization of hybrid Brachiaria In 2000, the Mexican seed company Grupo Papalotla/Tropical Seeds entered into agreement with CIAT for 10 years, for obtaining rights to commercialize CIAT hybrid Brachiaria cultivars by receiving first-generation hybrids bred during that period for further evaluation and determination of their commercial potential. Papalotla is paying royalties for protected and commercialized cultivars during protection period (E. Stern pers. comm.). After expiry of protection 15 years from the first sale, according to the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), cultivars will pass into the public domain and no other right may prevent free use. Global variety protection for the released cultivars has been obtained in Mexico (Table 1). While Grupo Papalotla/Tropical Seeds has been marketing the seeds directly in the Americas, so far the Australian company Heritage Seeds has been responsible for countries in Oceania, Asia, and Africa. Commercial seed production of the hybrids at low latitude in the tropics has been a major challenge. Therefore, Papalotla transferred seed production of cv. Mulato-II to sites of higher latitude (≥15 °N) in Mexico and Thailand, from where most exports have been realized (Hare et al. 2013). This paper reviews research, development and incipient uptake of new hybrid Brachiaria cultivars in Africa to document the existing knowledge on their current uses. Hybrid Brachiaria in Africa The first cultivars released from CIAT’s breeding program, cv. Mulato and cv. Mulato-II, have likewise been researched and distributed in Africa. Seed sales (2001-2013) by Grupo Papalotla/Tropical Seeds to African countries (M. Peters pers. comm.) suggest that an area of at least 1,000 ha has been sown to hybrid Brachiaria hitherto. The new hybrid Brachiaria cultivars have been distributed since 2001 to Eritrea, Ethiopia, Nigeria, DR Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, South Africa and Madagascar according to combined information from seed sales and published research. While the largest share of known commercial seed sales of hybrid Brachiaria cultivars went to Kenya, this only reflects the fact that a big project is being conducted from Kenya (ADOPT – see details below), from where the seed is further distributed to participants in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Key findings from both on-station and on-farm research and development, emphasizing agro- ecological adaptation of the plants and their acceptability for farmers, are described below. Small-scale agronomic and participatory evaluation Rwanda. During participatory research with farmers on sites with low rainfall and acidic soils in 2007, among various Brachiaria commercial cultivars, released hybrids and advanced lines, cv. Mulato-II was preferred because of producing green forage year round without any fertilizer input, high above-ground biomass production, palatability, drought tolerance, quick regrowth, persistence, being a perennial and easy for cut-and-carry (Mutimura and Everson, 2012). Therefore, cv. Mulato-II is considered an excellent alternative to traditional Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) predominantly used in zero-grazed dairy systems of the region. Napier grass, though, has been widely suffering from Napier stunt disease (caused by Phytoplasma) and smut that both decrease severely herbage production and, thus, put dairy-dependent livelihoods at risk (Khan et al. 2014b). More than 150 individual farmers and over four farmer cooperatives are now using cv. Mulato-II as erosion control on contour bunds, livestock forage and hay-making for income generation. Currently, >50 ha are planted with cvs. Mulato-II, Marandu and Basilisk to multiply planting material to satisfy the high demand in the country (Pizarro et al. 2013). Kenya. While the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) set up small-plot agronomic experiments in several KARI research stations across the country in 2011 to compare the performance of cv. Mulato-II with that of available local grasses and to assess its agro- ecological adaptation (D. Njarui pers. comm.), currently various Brachiaria cultivars are tested, including hybrids, within the new project ‘Climate-smart Brachiaria grasses for improved livestock production in East Africa’ (see below). At KARI-Kiboko Research Station, cv. Mulato-II was found superior to native range grasses such as buffel (Cenchrus ciliaris) and horsetail grass (Chloris roxburghiana) in both primary dry matter production and subsequent regrowth (Machogu 2013). It also had higher nutritive quality, especially in terms of high DM digestibility (65%) assessed in 12-week-old plants, whereas crude protein content (13.3%) was similar to that of the other grasses. While this trial was conducted with irrigation until 16 weeks after sowing, cv. Mulato-II in another rain-fed trial at Kiboko was heavily infested by red spider mite and both biomass production and plant survival were affected by drought. Eritrea. Wolfe et al. (2008) evaluated cv. Mulato at two agricultural research stations in Eritrea, Halhale in the Central Highlands and Shambuko in the Western Lowlands, from 2006 to 2007 and found it was among the most promising grasses in Halhale. Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Both cv. Mulato and Mulato-II were introduced for assessing agro-ecological adaptation in Sud-Kivu province. Small plots for agronomic evaluation were established at the INERA (Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques) Research Station in Mulungu and on farmers’ fields in Kabare and Walungu ‘groupements’. Cv. Mulato was also evaluated when planted on contour bunds for erosion control within CIALCA (Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa) (B.L. Maass unpubl.). Unfortunately, the plants became so severely diseased that evaluation was disrupted and plots abandoned. Not only symptoms of fungal diseases (e.g., rust – probably caused by Uromyces setariae-italicae Yosh – and anthracnose) were found, but also of mites (H. Maraite pers. comm.). J. Linné (pers. comm.) explained this undue susceptibility of hybrid Brachiaria as a re-encounter phenomenon induced by returning plants (hosts) selected under completely distinct biotic challenges back to the species’ centers of origin and, consequently, center of diversity also of its diseases and pests. Madagascar. The Centre for Rural Development and Applied Research (FIFAMANOR) and the French Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD) conducted medium-sized plot agronomic experiments to compare the performance of cv. Mulato as compared to other Brachiaria species (B. brizantha, B. decumbens cv. Basilisk, B. humidicola and B. ruzizensis) (P. Salgado unpubl.). Herbage production of cv. Mulato, local B. brizantha and cv. Basilisk was around 20 t DM/ha/year and significantly higher than that of the other species, while nutritive value (net energy for lactation) was similar. Rahetlah et al. (2012) demonstrated its superior herbage production and nutritive value than grass alone when combined with forage groundnut (Arachis pintoi). Systems integration Dairy production systems in Uganda. Cv. Mulato was introduced as an alternative to Napier grass, the predominant forage for dairy cattle in zero-grazing systems (Kabirizi et al. 2013). After initial on-station and further participatory on-farm evaluation in Masaka district, incipient uptake of cv. Mulato took place (Mugerwa et al. 2012). Demand for cv. Mulato has been increasing since (Kabirizi et al. 2013). Mainly in smallholder dairy systems, cv. Mulato is being used for cut-and-carry together with legumes like Clitoria ternatea or Centrosema molle (Kabirizi et al. 2013). Cv. Mulato along with other grasses like B. brizantha cv. Toledo is now being promoted by NGOs such as ‘Send a Cow’ (Kato 2011). It is recommended to feed drought- tolerant cv. Mulato with a forage legume during the dry season, when Napier grass mono-crops are disadvantaged due to drought, Napier stunt disease and/or poor agronomic practices (Kabirizi et al. 2013). As no seed is available commercially, farmers, even with only small plots, sell vegetative planting material (splits) (B.L. Maass unpubl.). This, hence, creates small-scale agro-business opportunities, especially for women. In the more sub-humid area around Jinja, cv. Mulato also appears to be an ideal solution for grazing of calves due to its relatively high nutritive quality (R. Jones pers. comm.). The push-pull-system in Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. The largest uptake of hybrid Brachiaria cv. Mulato-II is currently taking place in eastern Africa, where the grass is used as a trap plant in the push-pull system that helps control maize stem borers and the parasitic weed, Striga hermonthica (Khan et al. 2014a). The push-pull-system has been developed and promoted by the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) (Khan et al. 2014a). This smart technology successfully harnesses agro-biodiversity for improving productivity of cereal crops while providing fodder for livestock. Initially, its components included Napier grass and Silverleaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum). Yet, on the systems’ limit to semi-arid lands (500-700 mm rainfall p.a.), cv. Mulato-II has been identified as a new trap crop together with Greenleaf desmodium (D. intortum) as the intercrop; both are currently being disseminated. These two components are more drought-tolerant than the traditional ones. In addition, cv. Mulato-II seems to be resistant to Napier stunt disease (Z.R. Khan unpubl.) that devastates Napier grass in the region. Over 20,000 smallholder farmers benefiting from the ADOPT project in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Nigeria and Ethiopia have already planted cv. Mulato-II (C. Midega unpubl.). Farmers in Kenya indicated that their dairy goat milk production has doubled due to the availability of the improved grass and Greenleaf desmodium (B.L. Maass unpubl.). They prefer cv. Mulato-II over Napier grass for several reasons: it is drought- tolerant, highly palatable and nutritious for livestock, easier to handle as cut-and-carry and for making hay to be used during the dry season. As the push-pull-system has been developed to control maize stem borer, thus far little attention has been paid to the possible importance of livestock production improvements for the uptake and further spread of the technology. Conservation agriculture and dairy systems in Madagascar. In Madagascar, cv. Mulato has been tested since 2008 for soil structure improvement, high biomass production and carbon accumulation in the soil by its root system as a first step for direct seeding on compacted soils. However, the conservation agriculture system did not spread as initially expected as it requires herbicides for grass control, which are not easily accessible in Madagascar (O. Husson pers. comm.). On the other hand, in dairy production systems in the highlands, specifically in the Vakinankaratra region, almost 20 ha were planted with cv. Mulato in 2011 (V.B. Rahetlah unpubl.). Owing to its better palatability and higher biomass yield as compared to other Brachiaria spp., cv. Mulato has been rapidly adopted by small-scale dairy farmers. It is mainly grown for green forage production under cut-and-carry systems during the warm and rainy season extending from November to April. Research and development of new hybrid Brachiaria for Africa Despite all the enthusiasm and demand in the region, cv. Mulato-II seed is not yet available on the African market, except for experimental purposes. Therefore, Grupo Papalotla/ Tropical Seeds has requested varietal release from Kenyan authorities, possibly being granted later in 2014. A new research project led by the Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA)-ILRI Hub that, among other outputs, focuses on integrating improved Brachiaria grasses into smallholder mixed crop-livestock systems, while considering climate-relevant effects on the environment (Djikeng et al. 2014), will most likely push further the adoption of hybrid Brachiaria in the region. Outlook Apparently, hybrid Brachiaria has a role to play in improving African agriculture. Yet, new pest and disease challenges have emerged that require further research attention. On the other hand, an array of diverse hybrids is still in the pipeline for release (Pizarro et al. 2013; E. Stern pers. comm.); some of these new materials may better address the specific biotic and abiotic challenges identified as well as the requirements for particular production systems in African locations. In order to maximize benefits for smallholder farmers and deploy the new hybrid Brachiaria cultivars effectively, the following research needs and opportunities have been identified:  Researchable knowledge gaps (e.g., effects on livestock production in mixed crop- livestock systems; agronomy of system-integration; assessing the socio-ecological niche – considering gender and economics, and adoptability by smallholder farmers);  Upcoming research needs (e.g., dealing with biotic challenges like red spider mite, sorghum shoot fly, fungal diseases; seed production on the continent); and  Research and development opportunities (e.g., testing advanced hybrids under biotic and abiotic stress as well as in representative African production systems; fitting the right cultivars into different production systems and further develop their agronomy). Brachiaria, so far neglected grasses in their continent of origin, have not only returned home in the form of improved hybrids, but they have been very welcome by African farmers. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the unreserved sharing of information and personal communications (in alphabetical order) by Dr. O. Husson, CIRAD, France (Email: olivier.husson@cirad.fr); R. Jones, Jinja, Uganda (babbinswood@onetel.net); Dr. J.M. Linné, UK (jillian.lenne@btopenworld.com); Prof. H.M.M. Maraite, UCL, Belgium (maraite@fymy.ucl.ac.be); Dr. D.M.G. Njarui, KARI, Kenya (donaldnjarui@yahoo.com); Dr. M. Peters, CIAT, Colombia (m.peters-CIAT@cgiar.org); and E. Stern, Tropical Seeds, USA (esn749@gmail.com). References Argel, P.J., Miles, J.W., Guiot García, J.D., Cuadrado Capella, H. and Lascano, C.E. 2007. Cultivar Mulato II (Brachiaria hybrid CIAT 36087): A high-quality forage grass, resistant to spittlebugs and adapted to well-drained, acid tropical soils. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. Boonman, J.G. 1993. East Africa's grasses and fodders: Their ecology and husbandry. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 343 pp. Djikeng, A., Rao, I. M., Njarui, D., Mutimura, M., Caradus, J., Ghimire, S. R., Johnson, L., Cardoso, J.A., Ahonsi, M. and Kelemu, S. 2014. Climate-smart Brachiaria grasses for improving livestock production in East Africa. Trop. Grassl. – Forrajes Tropicales, 2(1): 38- 39. Hare, M.D., Phengphet, S., Songsiri, T., Sutin, N., Vernon, E.S. and Stern, E. 2013. Impact of tropical forage seed development in villages in Thailand and Laos: Research to village farmer production to seed export. Trop. Grassl. – Forrajes Tropicales, 1(2): 207-211. Jank, L., Barrios, S.C., do Valle, C.B., Simeão, R.M. and Alves, G.F. 2014. The value of improved pastures to Brazilian beef production. Crop and Pasture Science, published first online 2014 Mar. 11 at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/CP13319. Kabirizi, J., Zziwa, E., Mugerwa, S. and Namagembe, A. 2013. Dry season forages for improving dairy cattle production in smallholder dairy systems. Trop. Grassl. – Forrajes Tropicales, 1(2): 212-214. Kato, J. 2011. Start preparing for the dry season. New Vision, Uganda, published 2011 May 31. Retrieved 2014 Mar 24 from: http://www.newvision.co.ug/D/9/756/756237. Khan, Z.R., Midega, C.A., Pittchar, J.O., Murage, A.W., Birkett, M.A., Bruce, T.J. and Pickett, J.A. 2014a. Achieving food security for one million sub-Saharan African poor through push– pull innovation by 2020. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 369(1639):20120284. Khan, Z. R., Midega, C. A. O., Nyang'au, I. M., Murage, A., Pittchar, J., Agutu, L. O. and Pickett, J. A. 2014b. Farmers' knowledge and perceptions of the stunting disease of Napier grass in Western Kenya. Plant Path., first published online 2014 Mar. 26 at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ppa.12215. Machogu, C. 2013. A comparative study of the productivity of Brachiaria hybrid cv. Mulato II and native pasture species in semi-arid rangelands of Kenya. MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved 2014 Mar 24 from: http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/56273/A%20Comparative%20Study%2 0Of%20The%20Productivity%20Of%20Brachiaria%20Hybrid%20Cv.%20Mulato%20Ii%20An d%20Native%20Pasture%20Species%20In%20Semi- arid%20Rangelands%20Of%20Kenya%20.pdf?sequence=5 Miles, J.W., Do Valle, C.B., Rao, I.M. and Euclides, V.P.B. 2004. Brachiariagrasses. In: Warm- Season (C4) Grasses. Moser, L.E., Burson, B.L. and Sollenberger, L.E. (Eds). American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI (USA), pp. 745-783. Mugerwa, S., Kabirizi, J.M., Njarui, M.D. and Mpairwe, D. 2012. Utilization of introduced forages by smallholder dairy farmers in Uganda. Int. J. Biosci., 2: 36-45. Mutimura, M., and T. Everson. 2012. On-farm evaluation of improved Brachiaria grasses in low rainfall and aluminium toxicity prone areas of Rwanda. Int. J. Biodiv. Conserv., 4(3): 137-154. Ndikumana, J. and de Leeuw, P.N. 1996. Regional experience with Brachiaria: Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Brachiaria: Biology, Agronomy, and Improvement. Miles, J.W., Maass, B.L. and Valle, C.B. do (Eds). CIAT and EMBRAPA/CNPGC, Cali (Colombia), pp. 247-257. Pizarro, E.A. 2013. Un nuevo híbrido para el mundo tropical: Brachiaria híbrida cv. CIAT BR02/1752 “Cayman”. Pasturas de América, June 2013. Retrieved 2014 Aug. 22 from: http://www.pasturasdeamerica.com/articulos-interes/notas-tecnicas/brachiaria-hibrida- cayman/. Pizarro, E.A., Hare, M.D., Mutimura, M. and Changjun, B. 2013. Brachiaria hybrids: potential, forage use and seed yield. Trop. Grassl. – Forrajes Tropicales, 1(1): 31-35. Rahetlah, V.B., Randrianaivoarivony, J.M., Andrianarisoa, B., Razafimpamoa, L.H. and Ramalanjaona, V.L. 2012. Yield and quality of Brachiaria sp. cv Mulato-forage perennial peanut (Arachis pintoi) mixture in the highlands of Madagascar. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 24 (10), Article #171. Retrieved 2014 Aug. 20 from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd24/10/rahe24171.htm. Wolfe, E.C., Tesfai, T., Cook, B., Tesfay, E. and Bowman, A. 2008. Forages for agricultural production and catchment protection in Eritrea. In: Global Issues, Paddock Action: Proceedings of the 14th Australian Agronomy Conference, Adelaide, South Australia, Australian Society of Agronomy. Unkovich, M. (Ed). Retrieved 2014 Aug. 30 from: http://www.survey.regional.org.au/au/asa/2008/concurrent/agronomy-abroad/5644_wolfeec.htm Comparison of production performance and tolerance to helminthosis of Toggenburg and Norwegian crossbred goats under smallholder production system in Tanzania Chenyambuga S. W.1*, Shija D. S., Kusiluka L. J. M.2 and Lekule F. P.1 1Department of Animal Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania. 2The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania. *Corresponding author email: chenyasw@yahoo.com and chenya@suanet.ac.tz Abstract This study was carried out to compare the growth rate, lactation performance and tolerance to gastrointestinal nematode infection of Toggernburg and Nowergian breeds in Kongwa district with a semi-arid environment and Mvomero district with a sub- humid environment. Milk production of does, nematode eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) and packed cell volume (PCV) were recorded for one year in 57 Toggenburg crosses and 72 Norwegian crosses raised by 107 small-scale farmers in the two districts. Kid body weights and mortality were recorded in 65 kids who were born. Kid birth weight of Norwegian crosses (3.07 ± 0.13 kg) and Toggenburg crosses (2.91 ± 0.14) were not significantly different (P ˃ 0.05). The growth rate of Norwegian crossbred kids from birth to one year (54.26 ± 4.33 g/day) was lower than that of Toggenburg crossbreds (61.50 ± 4.38 g/day). Toggenburg crossbred does produced slightly higher average daily milk yield (0.81 ± 0.08 l/day) compared to Norwegian crossbred does (0.64 ± 0.09 l/day). Norwegian crosses had higher mean EPG (211.78 ± 0.02) and lower PCV (23.93 ± 0.96%) than the Toggenburg crosses (129.51 ± 0.02 EPG and 26.71 ± 0.99% PCV). It is concluded that the Toggenburg crosses are relatively better suited to the smallholder production environments in rural areas compared to the Norwegian crosses. Keywords: Dairy goats, growth rate, milk production, nematode infection Introduction Dairy goat production has been adopted as an intervention strategy for poverty reduction and improving the livelihoods of rural poor households in developing countries (Devendra, 2013). In recognition of the importance of dairy goats to poor farming households, the government of Tanzania introduced dairy goat breeds, namely, Saanen, Alpine, Anglo-Nubian and Toggenburg in the country in the early 1960s (Das and Sendalo, 1991). These breeds of dairy goats were imported mainly from Europe and kept in research stations and missionary centres. Smallholder dairy goat production in rural areas started to be promoted in 1980s as one way of mitigating the problem of malnutrition and improving the living conditions of poor families. It was envisaged that helping the rural poor people, especially women, to successfully raise dairy goats can have a very significant impact on their income, social status and even on the local environment (De Varies 2008). However, the distribution of these breeds has been carried haphazardly without taking into consideration the environmental conditions in rural areas. No efforts have been done to match the genotype with the right environment. Therefore, this study was carried out to assess the growth performance, lactation performance and tolerance to gastrointestinal nematode infection of Toggernburg and Nowergian breeds in Kongwa district with a semi-arid environment and Mvomero district with a sub- humid environment Materials and Methods Location of the study The study was conducted in Masinyeti and Ihanda villages of Kongwa district, Dodoma region and Kunke and Wami-Luhindo villages of Mvomero district, Morogoro region. Kongwa district is located between latitude 5°30’ and 6°0’ south and longitude 36° 15’ and 36° east. The district is found in semi-arid areas and has annual rainfall ranging from 400 to 800 mm and temperatures that vary from 18 to 34°C. Mvomero district is located in sub-humid zone and lies between latitudes 8° and 10° south and longitudes 28° and 37° east. The district receives an annual rainfall of 600 - 2000 mm and has temperatures that range from 18 to 30°C. Experimental procedure A total of 29, 28, 21 and 29 small-scale farmers from Kunke, Wami-Luhindo, Ihanda and Masinyeti villages (107 in total) were trained on improved goat husbandry practices, including feeding system, housing, feeds and feed compounding, breeding, health management and record keeping. After the training, each farmer constructed a raised slated goat house using locally available materials. A total of 72 Norwegian crosses (65 females, 7 males) and 57 Toggenburg crosses (52 females, 5 males) were distributed to the 107 farmers between March and April 2012. In each village, half of the farmers received Norwegian crosses and the other half received Toggenburg crosses. The crossbred goats were crosses of Toggenburg with the Small East African (SEA) goats (75% Toggenburg blood and 25% SEA blood) and Norwegian goats with the SEA goats (75% Norwegian blood and 25% SEA blood). For each breed, one buck was shared by about 10 farmers, each one keeping one female goat. Before distribution to the project farmers, all animals were ear-tagged for identification and screened to know their health status with regard to gastrointestinal nematode infection. Before the beginning of data collection, all goats were treated with an anthelmintic drug (Ivomec®) to control endoparasites and sprayed with acaricides to control ectoparasites. All goats were kept indoors under zero grazing and managed according to individual farmer’s conditions. Each farmer observed heat signs for the female goat, if the animal was found to be in heat it was taken to the buck of the respective breed for mating. Data collection on kidding, milk production and kid growth A weighing scale for measuring live body weight, a calibrated cup for measuring milk production and a record card for data recording were distributed to each farmer. Upon kidding, the birth weight of the kid(s) was measured using the weighing scale and daily milk production for each doe was measured and recorded after each milking by the farmer. Data on kidding, kid weights at births, monthly weights, kid deaths and daily milk production were routinely collected by each farmer. The research team made monthly visits to the research sites to collect data recorded by farmers on goat kidding, body weight measurement and milk production. Body weights of the offspring were measured at birth and then every month up to 12 months. Growth rate and yearly body weight were determined and used for evaluation of growth performance. Collection of data on gastrointestinal nematode infection Gastrointestinal nematode infection was monitored in all animals from June 2012 to April 2013. During this period field visits were made by the research team every month and faecal samples were collected from the rectum of each animal. Each faecal sample was placed in a separate polythene bag, labeled and then all samples were packed and stored in a cool box and transported within 24 hours to the laboratory at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) where they were stored at 4°C until analysis. The presence of gastrointestinal nematode eggs in faeces was determined using the McMaster counting technique (Hansen and Perry, 1994). The number of eggs counted in the McMaster slide was multiplied by 100 and expressed as nematode eggs per gram of faeces (EPG). Animals with medium (500 - 1,000 EPG) to high rate (> 1,000 EPG) of infection were treated. In addition to faecal sampling, blood sample from each animal was collected from jugular vein using 10 ml vacutainer tubes containing EDTA. Packed cell volume (PCV) and hemoglobin concentration (HB) were determined as complementary tests for nematode infection. Results and Discussion Results for milk production and lactation period are shown in Table 1. Average daily milk yield, total milk production and lactation period did not differ (P ˃ 0.05) between the breeds, but differed among the villages. On average the Toggenburg crosses produced 22.26 litre more than the Norwegian crossbred goats, indicating that the Toggenburg goats are superior to Norwegian goats in terms of milk production. The average daily milk yield observed in the project villages for Toggenburg does is lower than the mean milk yield of 1.7 and 2.2 litre/day reported for Toggenburg goats in Babati, Tanzania (Jackson et al., 2014) and Meru, Kenya (Ahuya et al., 2003), respectively. Similarly, the average daily milk yield of Norwegian does is lower than the mean yield of 1.0 and 0.9 litre/day reported for pure and 75% Norwegian goats, respectively, in Mgeta, Tanzania (Safari et al., 2008). The difference between the current study and previous studies could be due to differences in the age of the animals, management and environmental conditions. Normally milk production is lower during the first lactation and it increases gradually from the first to the fourth lactations. The goats in the research villages were either in the first or second lactation. It is anticipated that in subsequent lactations, milk production will increase to the levels comparable to those observed elsewhere. Moreover, Meru, Babati and Mgeta are highland areas with cool temperature and adequate rainfall; hence, their climatic conditions could be more favourable for raising dairy goats compared to the semi-arid condition in the research villages. Lactation length was not significantly (P ˃ 0.05) different between Toggenburg and Norwegian crosses. The mean lactation length of 3.5 months observed in the present study is lower than the lactation length of 7.5 months reported by Ahuya et al. (2003) in Toggernburg breed and 10 and 8 months observed by Safari et al. (2008), respectively, in Norwegian goats. The difference in lactation length might be due to differences in management, nutrition, dairy breed blood level and environmental conditions. Table 1: Effects of breed and location on milk production of dairy goats Factor Lactation period (days) Mean daily milk yield (litre/day) Milk production per lactation period (litre) Breed Norwegian (n = 21) 103.87 ± 11.45 a 0.64 ± 0.09 a 82.32 ± 11.78 a Toggenburg (n = 25) 104.12 ± 9.55 a 0.81± 0.08 a 104.58 ± 9.83 a P ˃ F 0.9865 0.1504 0.1565 Village Ihanda (n = 12) 73.08±10.76 b 0.50±0.09 b 36.1 ±11.1 b Masinyeti (n =23) 93.23±6.40 b 0.66±0.05 b 62.9±6.59 b Kunke (n =7) 63.17±16.44 b 0.47±0.13 b 35.0±16.9 b Wami-Luhindo (n =4) 186.50±21.52 a 1.29±0.16 a 239.8±22.1 a P ˃ F 0.0003 0.0014 0.0001 a,b The means with different letters in the same column within the same factor differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05). Table 2 shows the growth performance of Toggenburg and Norwegian crossbred kids in the research villages. The results show that among the kids born, 74.7% were born as single and 25.3% were twins. The mean birth weight of single kids was not significantly different (P ˃ 0.05) from that of twins. Similarly, the overall growth rate of singles was not significantly (P ˃ 0.05) higher than that of twins. The mean birth weight of Norwegian kids was slightly higher compared to that of Toggernburg, but not significantly different (P ˃ 0.05). However, the growth rate of Norwegian kids from birth to one year of age was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than that of Toggenburg kids. The average birth weight of male and female kids did not differ significantly (P ˃ 0.05), but in terms of growth performance for the first 90 days, male kids had higher (P ≤ 0.01) growth rate than female kids. The average birth weight and growth rate of Toggenburg kids are lower compared to the birth weight of 3.2 – 3.6 kg and growth rate of 104 – 127 g/day reported in Meru, Kenya (Ahuya et al., 2003). For the Norwegian goats, the mean birth weight observed in the present study is slightly higher that that reported in Mgeta (2.5 – 2.8 kg) (Safari et al., 2008), but the kid growth rate is lower than the growth rate of 65 – 118 g/day which has been reported for Norwegian goats in Mgeta. The differences could be attributed to the differences in climatic conditions and age of the dam. Table 2: Effects of breed, location, sex and type of birth on growth performance of dairy goats Factor Birth weight (kg) Growth rate to 90 days (g/d) Growth rate to 180 days (g/d) Overall growth rate (g/d) Breed Norwegian(n = 33) 3.07 ± 0.13 114.40a±6.81 24.22b±11.55 54.26±4.33 Toggenburg(n = 32) 2.91 ± 0.14 89.88b±7.02 71.97a±11.71 61.50±4.38 P ˃ F 0.3753 0.0087 0.0025 0.3088 Village Ihanda (n = 18) 3.00 ± 0.13 97.56±6.94 42.15±12.61 59.04a±4.16 Kunke (n = 10) 3.22 ± 0.20 113.70±10.18 7.11±17.94 43.85b±7.24 Masinyeti (n = 31) 2.90 ± 0.10 104.38±5.44 74.89±9.58 70.76a±4.63 Wami (n = 6) 2.84 ± 0.26 92.94±13.60 68.24±26.44 - P ˃ F 0.4777 0.4885 0.0122 0.0426 Sex Female (n = 25) 2.95 ± 0.14 91.16b±7.39 48.03±12.08 56.05±12.39 Male (n = 40) 3.03 ± 0.11 113.13a±5.89 48.16±10.39 55.01±10.58 P ˃ F 0.6107 0.0103 0.9923 0.6610 Birth type Single (n = 46) 3.04 ± 0.10 109.97±5.15 58.79±9.34 60.84±3.15 Twins (n = 19) 2.93 ± 0.15 94.32±8.02 37.41±13.15 54.92±4.34 P ˃ F 0.5002 0.0699 0.1349 0.2851 a,b The means with different letters in the same column within the same factor differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05). The effect of breed and location on gastrointestinal nematode infection is shown in Table 3. Breed had no significant effects (P ˃ 0.05) on EPG and HB, but significantly influenced (P ≤ 0.05) PCV. The Norwegian crosses had slightly higher values for EPG (211.78 ± 0.02) than the Toggenburg crosses (129.51 ± 0.02) while the Toggenburg crosses had higher HB (7.09 ± 0.35 g/dl) and PCV (26.71 ± 0.99%) values than the Norwegian crosses. The higher EPG values observed in the Norwegian crossbred goats compared to Toggenburg crosses may suggest that the Norwegian goats are more susceptible to gastrointestinal nematodes than the Toggenburg goats. Breed differences with respect to nematode infection in dairy goats have been reported by other studies (Costa et al., 2000). The Toggenburg goats have been in the country for longer time (since early 1960s) compared to the Norwegian goats, which were introduced in the late 1980s. Hence, the Toggenburg goats may have adapted better to the local conditions and developed traits for tolerance to endemic diseases compared to the Norwegian goats. Kid mortality rate is shown in Table 3. The results show that kid mortalities of Toggenburg and Norwegian goats were not significantly different (P > 0.05). However, the average kid mortality rate in Toggenburg kids was higher by 2.9% compared to that observed in Norwegian kids. Kid mortality rate observed in this study is higher than the recommended kid mortality of 10%. However, the kid mortality rates observed in the research villages are lower than the mortality rate of 17 – 33% reported for Norwegian goats at Sokoine University of Agriculture farm (Mruttu, 2001). Table 3: Effects of location and breed on EPG, HB, PCV and kid mortality of dairy goats Conclusions The study has revealed that the Toggenburg goats produce slightly higher amount of milk and are relatively tolerant to nematode infection than the Norwegian goats. In addition, the study has found that milk production and growth performance of Norwegian and Toggenburg goats in research villages areas are relatively low. Therefore, there is a need to improve management practices in order to improve productivity of the dairy goats in the research villages. Factor Factor Parameter EPG HB (g/dl) PCV (%) Kid mortality (%) Village Ihanda 184.14 ± 0.03 7.27 ± 0.38 25.52 ± 1.06 22.2 Kunke 96.55 ± 0.02 6.59 ± 0.36 24.39 ± 1.01 22.9 Masinyeti 155.43 ± 0.03 7.12 ± 0.41 24.79 ± 1.16 13.8 Wami-Luhindo 246.46 ± 0.06 7.02 ± 0.62 26.58 ± 1.75 18.18 P ˃ F 0.6776 0.3630 0.5706 0.2931 Breed Norwegian 211.78 ± 0.02 6.91 ± 0.34 23.93b ± 0.96 16.5 Toggenburg 129.51 ± 0.02 7.09 ± 0.35 26.71a ± 0.99 19.4 P ˃ F 0.2638 0.5856 0.0023 0.3326 Acknowledgement This research was supported with a grant from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, www.idrc.ca, and with financial support from the Government of Canada, provided through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), www.acdi- cida.gc.ca . We are grateful for the cooperation and assistance provided by the farmers and extension officers in the research villages. References Ahuya, C.O., Okeyo, A.M., Mosi, R.O. and Murithi, F.M. 2003. Growth, survival and milk production of Toggenburg goats and their crosses with East African and Galla goat breeds on the Eastern slope of Mount Kenya. Paper presented at LPP International workshop on small ruminant research and dissemination, 3rd – 7th March 2003, Embu, Kenya. Costa, C.A.F., Vieira, L.da S., Berne, M.E.A., Silva, M.U.D., Guidoni, A.L., Figueiredo, E.A.P. 2000. Variability of resistance in goats infected with Haemonchus contortus in Brazil. Vet. Parasitol. 88: 153 - 158. Das, S.M. and Sendalo, D.S.C. 1991. Small Ruminant Research Highlights in Tanzania. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock development and co-operatives. pp 33. Devendra, C. 2013. Investments on pro-poor development projects on goats: Ensuring success for improved livelihoods. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 26(1): 1 – 18. De Vries, J. 2008. Goats for the poor: Some keys to successful promotion of goat production among the poor. Small Rum. Res. 77: 221–224. Hansen, J. and Perry, B. 1994. The Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control of Helminth Parasites of Ruminants, 2nd Edition. Nairobi, Kenya; ILRAD. Jackson, M., Chenyambuga, S.W., Ndemanisho, E.E. and Komwihangilo, D.M. 2014. Production performance of Toggenburg dairy goats in semi-arid and sub-humid areas of Tanzania. Livest. Res. Rural Devel. Volume 26, Article #30. Retrieved February 4, 2014, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd26/2/jack26030.htm Mruttu, H.A. 2001. A study on reproductive traits and effect of parent phenotype on post- weaning performance of goat kids. MSc. Dissertation, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. Safari, J., Mtenga, L.A., Eik, L.O., Sundstøl, F. and Johnsen, F.H. 2008. Analysis of three goat production systems and their contribution to food security in semiarid areas of Morogoro, Tanzania. Livest. Res. Rural Devel. 20 (5). [http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/5/safa20074.htm] visited on 20 March 2012 Nutritional attributes and gas production of silages from two forages inoculated with locally-derived substrates for smallholder setting Matshaba, G. R., Tshireletso, K., Legodimo, M. D., Moshakga, M., Nemark, F. and Madibela, O. R.* Department of Animal Science & Production, Botswana College of Agriculture, P/Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana. *Corresponding author: othusitsem@yahoo.com Abstract Smallholder dairy farmers are challenged with feeding their cows. Silage is a world-wide recognized method of preserving fodder and the common crop is maize. Can other crops common in smallholder setting such as millet and sorghum be used? Also feed additives may be necessary to attain good quality silage. Conventional additives such as molasses may be out of reach of smallholder dairy farmers. This calls for investigating locally available substrates with a potential to act as feed additives. Therefore this paper investigated the nutritional attributes and quality of maize (Ma) and millet (Mi) silages treated with 5% molasses (Mo), chibuku (Chi), and sun dried melon (Mel) (citrullus vulgaris) or no additive (control; Co) resulting in the following treatments; MaMol, MaChi, MaMel, MaCo, MiMol, MiChi, MiMel and MiCo. Silages were tested for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), fibre components (NDF and ADF), dry matter digestibility (DMD), gas production (after 48hrs) and pH. There was treatment, forage and feed additive effect (ranging from P<0.05 to P<0.001) on DM, CP, and pH whereby silage from millet had high DM (383.1 vs 233.2 g/kg), silages from maize had high CP (108 vs 89.5 g/kg) and addition of chibuku resulted high levels of CP (113.7 vs 95.7 vs 94.3 vs 91.2 for chibuku, molasses, control and melon respectively). Maize resulted in the lowest pH than millet (4.0 vs 4.4) while addition of chibuku and melon lowered pH to 4.1 and 4.0 respectively while lack of additive and addition of molasses resulted in pH of 4.3 and 4.5 respectively. However, only treatment (P<0.001) and feed additive influenced ash (P<0.05) and DMD (P=0.067), whereby MaMol had the higher levels of ash (133 g/kg) while MiCo had the least ash content (11 g/kg) and molasses resulted in the highest ash (88.2 g/kg) and the least was in silages without inoculum (19.5 g/kg). Dry matter of MaMol was highly digestible (835 g/kg) and that of millet without feed additive was the least digestible (751 g/kg) but the addition of chibuku tended to improve DMD (814 g/kg) than silages without feed additives (777 g/kg). Addition of feed additives (NDF and ADF) and forage type (ADF) did not have an effect (P>0.05) while treatment (NDF and ADF; P<0.01) and forage (NDF; P<0.05) had an effect. It was observed that levels of NDF in millet was higher than that of maize forage silages (289 vs 255 g/kg) while MiCo (305 g/kg) and MiMol (298.5 g/kg) had the highest NDF levels and MaMol (226.5 g/kg) and MiMel (241.6 g/kg) had the least NDF levels. The highest and least levels of ADF were observed in MiMol (205 g/kg) and MiMel (131.5 g/kg) respectively. Gas production after 48 hrs was similar between treatments, between forage type but tended (P = 0.056) to vary with addition of feed additives, even though MiChi (22.5 ml/200mg) and MiCo (25.0 ml/200mg) produced less gas than MaMel and MiMel (42.5 ml/200mg). Addition of melon elicited more gas than molasses (42.5 vs 25.8 ml/200mg). Addition of additives or forage did not influence ME (P>0.05) but treatment (P<0.001) did, whereby MiMol had more ME than MiCo (13.1 vs 11.8 MJ /kg respectively). The current results indicate that millet can also be used to produce high quality silage while the addition of either melon or chibuku improve nutritive value of silage and increase gas production. These materials; millet melon and chibuku can be easily accessible under smallholder setting. Keywords: Crude protein, digestibility, gas production, maize, millet, silage, Introduction Small scale dairy production is constrained by lack of feed of high quality. Normally silage is used to preserve forage crops for dairy cattle and it is a source of energy. Challenges in securing high feeds for dairy animals are compounded by lack of water for irrigation or low and erratic rainfall. Crops such as maize which is traditionally used for making silage in temperate climate may not be ideal in arid conditions. The question is can other crops common in small holder setting be used for silage making. Sorghum as compared to maize is drought tolerant (Ambula et al., 2001). The high physiological adaptation of sorghum to acquire and retain moisture has made it more genetically suited to arid conditions (FAO and ICRISAT 1996). Pearl millet silage produced equal amount of milk with higher milk fat levels than corn silage in a dairy feeding trial at McGill University in Quebec (Levital et al., 2009). Therefore crops adapted to arid environments such as sorghum and millet should be considered for silage making by smallholder farmers. However, crops that are rich in soluble carbohydrates and cultivated grasses are the most suitable for ensiling (Iranha, 2011). During the process of adapting to hot areas, sorghums and millets develop high fibre levels and this reduces highly fermentable carbohydrates. Under such conditions of low soluble carbohydrates, such feed additives as molasses are normally used. However, in countries where sugar is not farmed and molasses is not available, it will be out of reach of smallholder farmers. This calls for investigating locally available substrates with a potential to act as feed additives. Small amount of grains can be used in the form of malts or brewers spent grains which are available during traditional beer making. Another common crop that is not effectively used at farm level is melon. In Botswana the eating melon type is processed into small strips and hangs to dry by sun heat. After drying the melon can be stored for sometime and used for cooking when needed. This product is hypothesized by the present authors to have high fermentable sugars and will be suitable as a feed additive in silage making. Therefore the objectives of the present study was to investigate the nutritive attributes and gas production of silage made from sorghum and millet and treated with chibuku and melon as compared to maize as forage and molasses as an additive. Materials and methods The study was conducted at Botswana College of Agriculture (BCA) near Gaborone Botswana. BCA is located in Sebele Content farm. The experiment crops were grown in the field under rain fed conditions. Two types of crops maize and millet were collected from different fields Notwane and Modipane farms. For silage three additives were used; molasses, sundried melon, chibuku all in powder form and a control (without additive) for each crop, and two replicate for each crop. Both maize and millet samples were obtained at milking stages. Maize and millet crops were hand harvested and passed through a commercial silage chopper at Notwane farm. The bulky chopped material was taken and placed and compacted into one litre plastic bags. Sun-cured melon was dried in a oven and ground. The ground melon, chibuku and molasses were added to the 600g chopped materials at rate of 30g. The silage plastic were closed airtight and placed in the big bag and store in a warm cool environment. The resultant silages were assessed for chemical composition and quality after 21 days. Chemical composition determination at ensiling Dry matter and chemical composition determination of samples was done in duplicates. A 100g sample was placed in an oven at 70oC for 48 hours and thereafter the samples were weighed and grinded. Crude protein (CP) was calculated from the nitrogen content of the samples determined by modified Kjeldahl methods (AOAC 1996). Acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) were analysed using ANKOM220 fiber analyser (AOAC 1996) using reagents suggested by van Soest et al (1991). For ash weighed samples were burned in a muffle furnace at 550oC for four hours. Digestibility was determined by incubating silage samples in 100ml syringes (150ml) according to Menke and Steingass (1988) modified by weighing the samples in a multi-layered polyethylene cloth bags, (F57 filter bags: ANKOM, Technology Crop). The rumen fluid was from steers fed with maize silage. At the end of the incubation (48 hrs), gas produced was recorded and the bags were removed from the syringes, rinsed four times with distilled water, dried, weighed and placed in an ANKOM fiber analyzer and boiled in neutral detergent solution for 60 min. In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) was calculated as the difference between DM incubated and the residue after NDF analyses. Organic matter digestibility was used for calculating metabolisable energy according to McDonald et al., (2011); ME (MJ/kg DM) =DOMD (g/kg DM) × 0.016. pH was assess by putting samples in a blender and reading the pH using a digital pH meter. Statistical analysis Data was on chemical composition was analysed using General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of SAS Statistical package (SAS, 2002-208) as a factorial to test for the effect of treatments (Forage/Additive), effect of forage and effect of additive. Where there was differences, mean separation was done using Duncan multiple range test. Mean were considered at significant at p≤0.05 and are reported as least square means ± standard deviation. Results and discussion The concentrations of DM, NDF, ADF, CP and Ash were significantly different in maize and millet silage treated with melon, chibuku and molasses (Table 1). Ash from millet without any additive was significantly lower (P<0.05) than all other types of silages. The CP for maize treated with chibuku was higher (P<0.001; 126g/kg) than other silages. MaMel, MiChi, MaCo, and MaMol had similar (P>0.05; 98, 108, 101.5 and 99.5g/kg respectively) CP which was higher (P<0.001) than those of MiMel, MiMol and MiCo (84, 83.4 and 89.2g/kg respectively). Both additive and forage had a highly significant (P<0.001) effect on CP. It would seem that addition of chibuku improved (P<0.001) CP concentrations of silages while maize silages had higher (P<0.001) CP concentration. Chibuku is a malted starter culture of maize/sorghum for traditional beer making and a recent study by Legodimo and Madibela (2013) showed that malting improves crude protein of sorghum grains. Beer making to get Chibuku is a result of alcoholic fermentation by a fermenting yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Togo et al., 2002). Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is widely used in diets for dairy cows (Bruno et al., 2009) to shift ruminal microbial population (Ghasemi et al., 2012) and to promote health (Bruno et al., 2009). Therefore the addition of chibuku, which is local product, into silages may result in these beneficial effects. The NDF of silage from MiCo had the highest (P<0.01) amount of fiber (305g/kg) which was similar to that of MiChi (298.50g/kg), MiMol (295g/kg) and MiMel (273.5g/kg). On the other hand NDF of silage from MaChi (261g/kg) was not significantly different (P>0.05) from that of MaCo (260g/kg). MaMel had the lowest level of NDF (226.5g/kg). Silage from MiMol had the highest ADF level (205g/kg) while that from MaMel, MiChi and MaMol were similar (P>0.05). Silage from MiMel had the lowest (131.50g/kg) and significantly different (P<0.01) ADF levels than all other silage types. De Boever et al. (1996) also found NDF levels (45g/kg) which were higher than those in present study. Table 2 Least square means ±standard deviation of chemical composition, in vitro dry matter digestibility (g/kg DM), 48hrs gas production (ml/200mg), ME (MJ/kg DM) and pH of maize and millet silage treated with sun dried melon, chibuku and molasses after 21 days. Means with the same letter along the same column are not significantly different. DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; NDF= neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; DMD = dry matter digestibility; ME = metabolizable energy; NS=P>0.05; * = P<0.05; ** = P<0.01; ***=P<0.001 Treatments DM ASH CP NDF ADF pH Gas DMD ME Maize/melon 236cb 29c 98b 273.5ab 182.5abc 4.2c 42.5a 81.6bc 12.7bcd Millet/melon 453.5a 38cb 84c 241.5cd 131.5d 4.1c 42.5a 80.4cd 12.7bc Maize/molasses 261b 133a 108b 226.5d 161.5bc 3.9bc 35c 83.5a 12.4ab Millet/ molasses 427a 43.5b 83.5c 295a 205a 4.8a 40abc 78.9d 13.1cde Millet/chibuku 439a 36.5cb 101.5b 298.5a 171bc 4.5a 22.5ab 82.6ab 12.9a Maize/chibuku 235.5cb 25.5c 126a 261bc 160c 3.7b 32.5abc 80.2cd 12.6e Millet/control 213c 11d 89.2c 305bc 185ab 4.4b 25bc 75.1e 11.8f Maize/control 200.5c 28c 99.5b 260a 162bc 4.2bc 37.5abc 80.4cd 12.5de Std Dev 107.54 36.58 13.85 28.79 22.21 0.33 8.84 2.56 0.37 Additive effect ** * *** NS NS * NS * NS Forage effect *** NS *** * NS *** NS NS NS Treatment effect *** *** *** ** ** *** NS *** *** For these fiber components (ADF and NDF) additives did not (P>0.05) affect, but forage did (P<0.05) affect NDF but not ADF concentration (P>0.05). The low level NDF of less than 300g/kg accompanied by low dietary DM in diets, as is the case with maize in this study (Table 1) of cows fed maize silage may create problems of rumen and hoof health (Kolver et al., 2000 as cited by Kolver et al., 2001). Millet silages had the highest (P<0.05) NDF but also low CP as discussed above. This high NDF and low CP may affect digestibility of silages made from millet and eventually lead to low milk solids as suggested by Kolver et al., 2000 as cited by Kolver et al., 2001). Forage crops are best preserved within an oxygen-free (anaerobic) environment with a low pH (3.8-4.5). According to McDonald et al. (2002) silage with a pH range of 3.8 to 4.2 is considered well preserved, an observation made in the present study. Kolver et al. (2001) reviewed literature on the quality of maize silages and identified that pH ranging from 3.8 to 4.5 would contain high concentrations of lactic acid. In the present study MiMol and MiChi silages had the highest (P<0.001) pH values (4.8 and 4.5 respectively) while the least pH values was recorded from MaMol and MaChi (3.9 and 3.7 respectively). A highly significant effect was due to forage (P<0.001) than additive (P<0.05) with maize silages having lower pH and addition of chibuku or melon resulting in lower pH values. This indicate that local additives such chibuku or melon could be a potential additives in silage making. Togo et al (2002) noted that there is spontaneous lactic acid fermentation during traditional beer making using chibuku due mostly to mesophilic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) inherent in the malt and the authors identified Lactobacillus lactococcus leuconostoc bacteria in chibuku beer. Normally, in silage making, to ensure that there is enough LAB for the efficient fermentation of forages during ensiling, bacterial inoculants comprising mainly LAB are used (Nkosi et al., 2011). Therefore, further investigation on the potential use of chibuku as silage additive is worth undertaking. The present results show no effects of treatment, none of forage or additive in gas production by silages. However, MiChi and MiCo produced the least gas (22.5 and 25 ml respectively). Melon produces more and molasses produce less gas even though the model shows that there was no significant effect. Gas production methods have been used to determine the rate and extent of dry matter degradation (Karabulut et al., 2007). The more fermentable carbohydrate available for the micro-organisms the more gas production occurs. Therefore the low gas production of millet silages may be indicating low rate and extent of digestion in the rumen, probably because of high NDF observed in the present study. Dry matter digestibility was highly different between silages (P<0.001) but forage had no effect (P>0.05) while an additive effect was observed (P<0.05). MiMol and MiChi had the highest DMD (82.6 and 83.5% respectively). It would appear that additives are actually improving dry matter digestibility. Metabolisable energy was found to be high for silage from MiMol but low from MiCo reflecting trends in OMD. Metabolisable energy in this study are typical ME for silages according to McDonald et al. (2002). Conclusion It was concluded that sun dried melon and chibuku powder improved the fermentation characteristics of maize and millet silages. The results of this study suggests that sun dried melon and chibuku can be used as alternative silage additives as they gave results in line to those obtained with molasses as an additive to maize and millet silage. References Ambula, M. K., Odulo, G. W. and Tuitoek, J. K. (2001) Effects of sorghum tannins, a tannin binder (Polyvinylprrolidone) and sorghum inclusion level on the performance of broiler chicks. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science 14:1276-1281 Bruno R. S. G., Rutigliano R.L., Cerri P.H., Robbinson H. and Santo J.E.P. (2009). Effect of feed Saccharomyces Cerevisiae on performance of dairy cows during summer heat stress. Animal Feed Science and Technology 150:175-186. De Boever J. L., Cottyn B., De Brabander D. L., Vanacker J.M. and Boucque C.V.(1996). Prediction of the feeding value of grass silages by chemical parameters, in vitro digestibility and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 60:103-115. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and International Crops Research Institute for Semi- arid tropics (ICRISAT) (1996) the world sorghum and millet economies; facts, trends and outlook. FAO and ICRISAT; pp 5-25. Ghasemi S., Naserian A.A., Valizaden R., Vakili A.R., Behga M., Tahmasebi A. M. and Ghovvati S. (2012). Partial and total substitution of alfalfa hay by Pistachio by product modulated the counts of selected cellulotyc ruminal bacteria attached to alfalfa hay in sheep. Livestock Science 150: 342-348. Iranha, P. (2011). Silage & Silage Additives. http://www.articlesbase.com/agriculture- articles/silage-silage-additives-4641907.html Karabulut, A., Canbolat, O., Kalkan, H., Gurbuzol, F., Sucu, E. and Filya, I (2007) Comparison of in vitro gas production, metabolisable energy, organic matter digestibility and microbial protein production of some legume hays. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science 20:517-522 Kolver E.S., Roche J.R., Miller D., and Densley R. (2001). Maize Silage for Dairy Cows. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association. 63:195-201 Legodimo, M. D. and Madibela, O. R. (2013) Effect of sorghum variety on chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of malted grains from Botswana. Botswana Journal of Agriculture and Applied Sciences 9:104-108 Levital T., Mustafa A. F., Seguin P. and Lefebvre G. (2009). Effects of a propionic acid-based additive on short-term ensiling characteristics of whole plant maize and on dairy cow performance. Animal Feed Science and Technology.152: 21-32 Menke, K. H. and Steingass, H. (1988). Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro rumen fluid. Animal Research and Development 28:7-55. van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B., Lewis, B.A., (1991). Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science 74: 3583–3597 McDonald P., Edwards R.A., Greenhalgh J. F.D., Morgan C. A., Sinclar L.A. (2011). Animal Nutrition. 7th Ed. Pearson. London McDonald P., Edwards R.A., Greenhalgh J. F.D., Morgan C. A., Sinclar L.A. (2002). Animal Nutrition. 6th Ed. Pearson. London Nkosi, B.D. and Meeske, R. (2010) Effects of whey and molasses as silage additives on potato hash silage quality and growth performance of lambs. South African Journal of Animal Science. 40:229-237. Togo C. A., Feresu, S. B. and Mutukumira, A. N. (2002) Identification of lactic acid bacteria isolated from opage beer (Chibuku) fro potential us as a starter culture. The Journal of Food Technology in A review of genetic diversity of domestic goats (C. hircus) identified by microsatellite loci: from global perspective Mekuriaw, G.1,2, Tesfaye, K.1, Dessie, T.2, Mwai, O.3, Djikeng, A.4 and Agaba, M.4 1Addis Ababa University, department of Microbial, Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 3International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya; 4Bioscience for eastern and central Africa (BecA), Nairobi, Kenya . *Corresponding author: yafetgetinet@gmail.com Abstract Genetic characterization requires knowledge of genetic variation that can be effectively measured within and between populations. It is considered as an important tool for sustainable management or conservation of a particular population. Limited diversity may hamper the possibility of populations to adapt in the long term but loss of genetic diversity can also more immediately lead to decreased fitness within populations. In this paper, genetic diversity of more than 120 domestic goat populations found in various parts of the world (Mediterranean region, East and South African region, Middle East, Asia, partly Europe and Brazil) has been summarized. The paper is limited only to the diversity study conducted by microsatellite loci. In all the reviewed goat populations, the within population genetic diversity is extremely higher than between population variation which might be due to the uncontrolled and random mating practiced among the breeding flock. However, the technical as well as statistical data management deficiencies, like selection of microsatellites and other sampling biases, observed in the reports might have their own impacts on the limited and weak variations obtained within and among populations. The genetic distance among populations is very narrow especially breeds found within a state. In general, the genetic variations are relatively found in the recommended range of estimates among regions though the regional variation is still lower for domestic goat compared with other livestock species. Key words: Domestic goat, genetic distance, heterozygosity, polymorphic information content Introduction Genetic diversity has shaped by past population processes and will also affect the sustainability of species and populations in the future (Soule, 1987). It is a key for the long-term survival of most species (Väli et al., 2008 Farm animal genetic diversity is required to meet current production needs in various environments, to allow sustained genetic improvement, and to facilitate rapid adaptation to Breed Country HE HO No. MS Author Sri Lanka and Australian goats (12) Sri Lanka- Australian 0.45-0.49 22 Barker et al. 2001 Korean goats Korean 0.38 0.360 9 Kim et al., 2002 Indian goat populations India 0.54-0.79 0.505 17- 25 Fatima et al., 2008; Pramod et al., 2008; Dixit et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2009 Swiss goats (11) Swiss3-24 0.66 47 Glowatzki-Mullis et al., 2008 Canary Island goats C. Islands 0.62 27 Martínez et al., 2004 Kalahari Red goats 0.63 8 Kotze et al., 2004 Sub-Saharan breeds * 0.54 0.56 11 Muema et al., 2009 Spanish Guadrrama goat Spain 0.81 0.78 10 Serrano et al., 2009 Croatian spotted goat Croatia 0.77 0.76 20 Jelena et al., 2011 Chinese ten goat populations China 0.54-0.64 0.55- 0.62 14 Verma et al., 2007; Di et al.. 2010 Brazilian goats and herds Brazil 0.50-0.70 0.61- 0.70 11 Araújo et al., 2006 Guinea Bissau goat W. Africa 0.60 0.61 14 Di et al., 2010 Iranian goat populations Iran 0.65-0.80 13 Mahmoudi et al. 2010 Ardi S.Arabia 0.68 0.55 11 Aljumaah et al., 2012 Twelve Chinese breeds China 0.61- 0.78 0.60 - 0.78 17 Li et al., 2002 Three Egyptian and two Italian goat breeds Egypt and Italy 0.67- 0.79 7 Agha et al., 2008 Tswana goat Botswana 0.16 0.12 12 Maletsanake et al., 2013 Ethiopian goat populations Ethiopia 0.55-0.69 0.52- 0.68 15 Tesfaye, 2004; Halima et al., 2012a changing breeding objective and serves as a tool for animal breeding and selection (Kevorkian et al., 2010). In addition to the crude estimate phenotypic characterization delivers (Meghen et al., 1994), classifying the genetic diversity based on historical, anthropological and morphological evidences (Ali, 2003) as well as their geographical origin are not satisfactory and enough for the purpose of conservation and utilization of these resources. Goats are considered the most prolific ruminant among all domesticated ruminants especially under harsh climatic conditions (Yadav and Yadav, 2008). Today, there are >1,000 goat breeds (http://www.fao.org/corp/statistics/en/), and >861.9 million goats are kept around the world (Abdel Aziz, 2010).The existence of such a large gene pool is important for the potential future breed preservation and for the development of a sustainable animal production system (Mahmoudi et al., 2011). Apart from the limited information which may not allow for comparative analysis, the absence of well-managed conservation genetics programmes and the uncontrolled introgression between indigenous as well as foreign breeds are seriously threatening the future of many populations in various parts of the world (Pariacote, 2006). This has also an Table 1. Estimation of genetic heterozygosity of indigenous goats MS=Microsatellite; * Uganda (4), Tanzania (5), Kenya (2), Mozambique (2), Nigeria (3), Mali (1) and Guinea Bissau (1) implication of the presence of terrible risk that most breeds may perish before they have been exclusively recognized (Hoda et al., 2012). Since last decade, various efforts have been demonstrated on goat genetic diversity study using microsatellite markers despite the efforts made are incomparable with the huge goat populations found globally. In general, this review tries to summarize preceding findings on molecular characterization of domestic goats using microsatellite markers and forwards possible the way forwards. Genetic diversity and polymorphic information content (PIC) Choosing the appropriate breed or population for conservation is one of the most important problems in the conservation of genetic diversity in domestic animals. Some of the good indicators to study genetic polymorphism within a population are expected heterozygosity estimates and allelic distribution (Ramamoorthi et al., 2009; Halima et al., 2012). The precision of estimated genetic diversity is a function of the number of loci analyzed, the heterozygosity of these loci and the number of animals sampled in each population (Barker, 1994). Estimation of heterozygosities Estimations of expected and observed heterozygosities are measures of genetic variability in within a given population (Ramamoorthi et al., 2009). The expected heterozygosity (HE) is the proportion of heterozygotes expected in a population; whereas, observed heterozygosity (HO) is the percentage of loci heterozygous per individual or the number of individuals heterozygous per locus (Ojango et al., 2011). Several reports confirmed the status of genetic variability of different goat populations (table 1) and genetic diversity (HE and HO) estimates observed in goat of Sri Lanka, Australia, Korean, Botswana and in some Indian and Brazilian goat populations were below 0.5. This is because of maintaining microsatellite loci which had registered heterozygosity estimates below 0.5 in the respective breeds during the analysis. Literatures suggest that heterozygosity estimates having greater than 0.5 are believed to be appropriate for genetic diversity study (Davila et al., 2009; Dorji et al., 2012). Similarly, some of the estimated values were also closer to the margin. These low estimates imply there might be high selection pressure, small population size minimal or null immigration of new genetic materials into the population. Similar low genetic diversity estimates were reported for Argentinean and Chilean goat populations despite the small sample sizes used in the analysis (Amills et al., 2008). Whereas the remaining estimates conclude that the studied populations have substantial and high amount of within population genetic diversity. This might be due to low selection pressure, large population size and immigration of new genetic materials (Aljumaah et al., 2012). High value of average expected heterozygosity within the populations could also be attributed to the large allele numbers detected in the tested loci (Kalinwski, 2002). In most of the above diversity estimates, HO and HE estimates for each locus and goat population are closer they each other indicating no overall loss in heterozygosity (allele fixation) (Araújo et al., 2006). However, few of the microsatellites studied by various scholars (eg. Aljumaah et al., 2012) had higher HO than HE estimates. Probably, this might be due to the existence of sampling bias (Dorji et al., 2012). On the other side, Saitbekova et al. (1999) had evaluated diversity among nine domestic Swiss goat herds, Wild Ibex goats and Bezoar goats, and the heterozygosity was higher in the domestic breeds than in the wild goats with the mean HE ranging from 0.51 to 0.58 for domestic herds and from 0.17 to 0.19 for the wild species. The lowest heterozygosity estimates which imply the low genetic variation within the population are comparable with the mean observed (HO=0.12±0.16) and expected heterozygosity (HE=0.16±0.20) values of Tswana goat breed (Maletsanake et al., 2013) which is because of the effects of inbreeding and selective breeding in small and closed population. This idea is supported by Caňón et al. (2006) who stated the positive correlation (r = 0.35) of population size with heterozygosity estimates. Low amounts of genetic diversity increase the vulnerability of populations to catastrophic events such as disease outbreaks that indicates high levels of inbreeding with its associated problems of expression of deleterious alleles or loss of over-dominance (Mahmoudi et al., 2011). It can also destroy local adaptations and break up co-adapted gene complexes that ultimately leading to the probability of population or species extinction (Mahmoudi et al., 2011). Estimation of allelic distribution and locus variability The allelic distribution is the other measure of genetic variability in a given population (Ramamoorthi et al., 2009; Maletsanake et al., 2013). However, according to Kalinowski (2004), the primary disadvantage of using allelic richness as a measure of genetic diversity is that it is highly dependent on sample size: large samples are expected to contain more alleles than small samples. Similarly, more alleles are expected to be found in a region sampled many times than in a region sampled few times. Private allelic richness has the same problem On the other hand, intensive sampling of genetically similar populations may reduce the number of private alleles to any population. Therefore, a region that has been sampled intensively may appear to have fewer private alleles than a region sampled less intensively. These problems have a straightforward statistical solution: rarefaction can be used to compensate for differences in sample size and number (Kalinowski, 2004). Mean observed alleles (na) that explain high level of polymorphism of the studied microsatellites were reported for several goat populations (table 2). Though the MNAs indicated in table 2 showed above the suggested minimum estimates, except some Ethiopian, Brazilian, Egyptian, Italian and Iran goat breeds, comparatively the average as well as the range of alleles estimated were the highest estimation for the 45 breeds studied in the Mediterranean regions (Caňón et al., 2006) (table 2). Maximum chromosomal coverage (30 microsatellites) was seen in the later study. One of the reasons for the lowest estimates of MNA per locus, in many of the studies, might be because of using very few sires, eg. 3-5 sires per year for Tswana goat for 16 years of almost closed breeding program at BCA farm (Maletsanake et al., 2013); and it might also be because of directional selection for parasite resistance/tolerance coupled with increased productivity (Nsoso et al., 2001) that possibly accumulates inbreeding. Similarly, Li et al. (2002) indicated that among the 26 loci of twelve Chinese goat populations, 17 were polymorphic and the number of alleles varied between 4 (ILSTS005) and 19 (BM2113); the remaining nine loci (excluded from the analysis) tested had less than four alleles or non-specific PCR products. The later screening procedure was not undertaken by the other authors. For studies like genetic distance, microsatellite loci should have no fewer than four alleles to reduce the standard errors of distance estimates (Barker, 1994). For the other goat populations relatively encouraging estimates of MNA were reported. However, though those reports explain the existence of high polymorphism, the average number of alleles depends on sample size, number of observed alleles tends to increase with increase in population size and the number of sires used in a breeding program because of the presence of unique alleles in populations which occur at very low frequencies (Aljumaah et al., 2012; Maletsanake et al., 2013). In general, heterozygosis deficiency may be resulted because of the presence of a null allele (Callen et al., 1993; Pemberton et al., 1995), due to small sample size where rare genotypes are likely to be included in the samples (Mahmoudi et al., 2011), due to the Wahlund effect and due to the decrease in heterozygosity because of increased consanguinity (Kumar et al., 2006). Higher heterozygosity provides better assignment performance (Manel et al., 2002) and the loss of alleles is probably the consequence of repeated founder effects during migration events (Cymbron et al., 2005). Estimation of polymorphic information content (PIC) Literatures state that the polymorphic information content (PIC) values depict the suitability of the markers and their primers used in the study for analyzing the genetic variability of a given population. Hence, microsatellite markers having greater than 0.5 PIC value are considered as highly informative and highly polymorphic (Botstein et al., 1980; Marshall et al., 1998). In most the studies addressed, highly polymorphic markers were employed for the goat populations (table 2). In contrast to this, a lower PIC values (for instance Korean goats PIC = 0.35, Kim et al., 2002; for Egyptian and Italian goats of few loci PIC=0.221, 0.482 & 0.389, Agha et al., 2008 and for India goat having 28% of the loci <0.5 PIC, Kumar et al., 2009) which were expected to exclude some of the microsatellites during analysis were reported. In fact, the PIC is determined by heterozygosity and number of alleles (Aljumaah et al., 2012) and this makes microsatellite markers the choice for genetic characterization and diversity studies. In particular, the high PIC values of a particular marker suggest its usefulness for genetic polymorphism and linkage mapping studies in goats and 60% of microsatellite loci had significant HWE. Level of inbreeding (FIS) FIS is a measurement of the reduction in heterozygosity of an individual as a result of non- random mating within its subpopulation (Widmer and Lexer, 2001). It is an average Breed Country origin/Re gion MNA per breed MNA per MS PIC per locus Author MS (No.) Egyptian and Italian goat breeds (5) Italy 6.48 3.8-9.8 0.22 - 0.87 Agha et al., 2008 7 Indian goat breeds (10) India 6.33- 9.7 4-24 0.08- 0.90 Aggarwal et al., 2007;Pramod et al., 2008; Kumar et al., 2009; Ramamoorthi et al., 2009 17-25 Taleshi goat Iran 6.7 2.4-5.2 0.54- 0.81 Mahmoudi and Babayev, 2009 9 Iranian goat breeds (6) Iran 6.46 - 8.15 0.71- 0.86 Mahmoudi et al., 2010; Mahmoudi et al., 2011 13 Croatian spotted goat Croatia 8.1 8.1 0.74 Jelena et al., 2011 20 Ardi goat Saudi Arabia 6.64 0.63 Aljumaah et al., 2012 Brazilian goat breed (3) Brazil 3.5 -7.2 3-11 NA Araújo et al. 2006 11 Namibian goat breeds (4) Namibia 4.67 – 6.00 Els et al., 2004 18 Kalahari Red goat South Africa 7.77 7.77 NA Kotze et al., 2004 18 Tete goat Mozambi que 5.58 Garrine et al., 2010 increase of homozygous loci by FIS by decreasing the heterozygous loci by the same proportion (Maletsanake et al., 2013). It is less suited to reflect historical processes because it has a different, more rapid dynamic than does gene diversity (Widmer and Lexer, 2001). A high positive FIS indicates a high degree of homozygosity and vice versa (Dorji et al., 2012). Inbreeding coefficients is estimated for breeds which show significant deviation from the HWE (Ojango et al., 2011). This indirectly implies that inbreeding coefficient (FIS) is significant for significant HWE estimation (Widmer and Lexer, 2001); but it may not work for all loci of a population. Based on this background, moderate and high level of inbreeding coefficients were reported by various scholars; for instance, for Marwari (FIS=0.26; Kumar et al., 2005), Jamunapari (FIS=0.19; Gour et al., 2006), Mehsana (FIS=0.16; Aggarwal et al., 2007) and Kutchi (FIS=0.23; Dixit et al., 2009) breeds of India, Ardi goat breed (FIS =0.18 with only 50% of the markers under HWE; Aljumaah et al., 2012) of Saudi Arabia, Tswana goat breed (FIS =0.12; Maletsanake et al., 2013) of Botswana. However, particularly for Tswana goat breed, the FIS estimate ranged from -0.2340 (INRA006) indicating low levels of inbreeding at that marker locus to 0.8772 (MCM527) depicting high levels of inbreeding. This might be because of the small population size, closed breeding system and very limited number of breeding bucks used for many consecutive years in the farm (Maletsanake et al., 2013). The lowest heterozygosity and MNA estimates indicated in table1&2 above strengthen this rationale. However, tolerable mean value of FIS (0.03) with the range of -0.223 to 0.220 was obtained for 17 microsatellites (with 12 MNA per locus and a range of 0.586 to 0.790 He estimates) of 12 Chinese indigenous goat populations (Li et al., 2002). Table 2. Estimated mean number of alleles and polymorphic information content Key:- MS=Microsatellite The moderate level of inbreeding may be a result of moderate levels of mating between closely related individuals under field conditions and may be the uncontrolled and unplanned mating that cause to high level of inbreeding. On the contrary, very low inbreeding value (FIS=0.10) were also reported within 45 rare breeds of 15 European and Middle Eastern countries (Caňón et al., 2006) compared with the above reports and the discrepancy between the observed and expected heterozygosities and the difference between the observed and effective number of alleles could confirm the existence of inbreeding (Caňón et al., 2006). Still the level of inbreeding estimates in all the 45 breeds studied except the two breeds (St. Gallen Booted goat breed of Switzerland, FIS = 0.048 and Thuringian forest goat breed of Germany FIS =0.049) are not tolerable because of the estimated values obtained higher than 0.05. From thirty microsatellites used, twenty-four of them were in H–W equilibrium (p>0.05) and is more than 90% of the total 45 breeds of European and Middle East goats studied (Caňón et al., 2006). However, Aljumaah et al. (2012) obtained small number of loci which were in Hardy- Weinberg Equilibrium; i.e., only 50% of the total fourteen microsatellite markers, showed Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) (p>0.05) in Ardi goat breed of Saudi Arabia. Similarly, Araújo et al. (2006) reported only 55% of the total microsatellites used showed HWE (P>0.05) in Alpine Pafuri goat Mozambi que 6.94 Garrine et al., 2010 45 breeds Mediterra nean regions 5.2-9.1 5-43 NA Caňón et al., 2006 30 Chinese goat populations (22) China 5.24 - 9.1 4-19 0.62- 0.88 Li et al., 2002; Qi et al., 2009 17-20 Tswana goat Botswan a 1.83 0.58 Maletsanake et al., 2013 12 Indigenous goat populations (17) Ethiopia 5.13 - 6.73 2.06-23 NA Tesfaye, 2004; Halima et al., 2012a 15 Saanen and Moxotó dairy goat breeds in Brazil. Such findings indicate the presence of effect of selection or uncontrolled breeding practice in the study populations (Aljumaah et al., 2012). Huge deviation from HWE (16 out of 20 loci) was observed on Kanniadu goats of India (Thilagam et al., 2006); the possible reasons for the deviations pointed out were existence of "null" alleles, high mutation rate and size homoplasy of microsatellite loci, besides the small study population. On the other hand, four out of the 12 loci that differed significantly from HWE were observed indicating subjection of those loci to systematic selection and dispersive forces such as genetic drift and inbreeding (Maletsanake et al., 2013). In this study, five out of the total 12 loci were monomorphic (fixed allele) that could be linked to genes responsible for parasitic resistance, and this goes in line with the study made by Beh et al. (2002). The large proportion of loci with out of HWE might be because of those loci being under within major histocompatibility complex (Schwaiger et al., 1993) and under strong natural selection pressure (Hedrick and Kim, 2000); or it might be because of the presence of null or non- amplified alleles, allele grouping defects, sampling structure effect, selection against heterozygotes or inbreeding (Araújo et al., 2006). Aminafshar et al. (2008) also stated that deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium could also be due to a variety of causes including: excess of heterozygote individuals than homozygote individuals in contrast Mahmoudi et al. (2011) who stated heterozygosis deficiency is one of the parameters underlying departure from HWE, migration, high mutation rate at microsatellite loci and artificial selection. Genetic distances among populations The simplest parameters for assessing diversity among breeds are the genetic differentiation or fixation indices. Several estimators have been proposed (e.g. FST and GST), the most widely used being FST (Weir and Basten, 1990), which measure the degree of genetic differentiation of subpopulations through calculation of the standardized variances in allele frequencies among populations. Statistical significance can be calculated for the FST values between pairs of populations (Weir and Cockerham, 1984) to test the null hypothesis of a lack of genetic differentiation between populations and, therefore, partitioning of genetic diversity (e.g. Mburu et al., 2003). Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) can be performed to assess the distribution of diversity within and among groups of breeds (Excoffier et al., 1992). In relative to other markers, microsatellite data are commonly used to assess genetic relationships between populations and individuals through the estimation of genetic distances. The most commonly used measure of genetic distances is Nei’s standard genetic distance (DS) (Nei, 1972). However, for closely related populations where genetic drift is the main factor of genetic differentiation the modified Cavalli-Sforza distance (DA) is recommended (Nei et al., 1983). Genetic relationship between breeds is often visualized through the reconstruction of a phylogeny, most often using the neighbour joining (N-J) method (Saitou and Nei, 1987). However, a major drawback of phylogenetic tree reconstruction is that the evolution of lineages is assumed to be non-reticulated, i.e. lineages can diverge, but can never result from crosses between lineages. This assumption will rarely hold for livestock, where new breeds often originate from cross-breeding between two or more ancestral breeds. The visualization of the evolution of breeds provided by phylogenetic reconstruction must, therefore, be interpreted cautiously. Multivariate analysis and more recently Bayesian clustering approaches have been suggested for admixture analysis of microsatellite data from different populations (Pritchard et al., 2000). Based on comparison of genetic distances that measure genetic drift, with microsatellite data set, the Reynolds distances underestimate the divergence of eastern Mediterranean goat breeds (Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Albania and Cyprus) with a high heterozygosity (Cañón et al., 2006). Model-based clustering (Pritchard et al., 2000) of the goat microsatellite genotypic values indicates that the most significant subdivision is at the level of breeds or of groups of closely related breeds (Cañón et al., 2006). Analysis at lower k-values may indicate a subdivision of the goat population (Rosenberg et al., 2002) that preceded breed formation. In relative to other reports, Cañón et al. (2006) obtained lower average values of FST for the four goat populations clusters (East Mediterranean: FST=0.033, Central Mediterranean: FST=0.040, West Mediterranean: FST=0.051 and Central-north European: FST=0.069) than the values of 0.14 recorded for Asian goats (Barker et al., 2001), of 0.17 for Swiss goat breeds (Saitbekova et al., 1999) and of 0.10 for a set of Chinese goat populations (Li et al., 2002). Similar low estimate of mean differentiation among populations (FST = 0.0717) was also reported by Araújo et al. (2006) indicating presence of mixing among population and the most variability occurs within a population. This might be because of that gene flow among most breeds has probably been restricted by geographical isolation rather than adherence to pedigree; i.e. a geographical restriction of genetic contacts of population may cause geographical clines or maintain clines that predate breed formation (Cañón et al., 2006). According to Tesfaye (2004), FST values for each pair of populations varied from 0.001 to 0.040. The average FST values over all microsatellite loci was 0.026, indicating that a 2.6% of total genetic variation corresponded to differences among populations, whereas 97.4% was explained by difference among individuals. Similarly, based on Halima (2012a) report, it was noted that 5% of the total variation occurred due to population subdivision, while the remaining 95% of the variation existed among individuals within the goat ecotypes. Weir (1996) and Kalinowski (2002b) had recommended the highest genetic distance (FST) to be higher than 0.25, moderate to be between 0.05 and 0.25 and the lowest estimate below 0.05. In general, the genetic distance between populations obtained by many of the scholars (Li et al., 2002; Tesfaye, 2004; Araŭjo et al., 2006; Hoda et al., 2011a; Halima et al., 2012a) is almost negligible (<0.05) and/or moderate (0.05US$ 70 billion) investment in transport, energy, retail, water and sewerage, higher education in Africa over the next 5 years, Africa's food market estimated at US$ 300 million today and is expected to grow to US$ 1 trillion by 2050. Livestock products such as milk are obviously part of this growth, more so to feed the ever increasing urbanized and richer population. The smallholder farming system would have to transform, by embracing more modern and highly technology driven systems. In order to sustainably compete with the more developed world, in an ever increasingly globalized, integrated, branded and structured food market, African smallholder farmers will have to consolidate, standardize process and bulk trade and purchase inputs through cooperatives, block farming, out grower schemes etc. Ability to attract investment, skills and innovation are key to the future and success of tomorrow's African livestock farmer. This paper discusses how the sleeping giant of Africa can be awakened from the current slumber and transform into a competitive global player in as far as production and trade in livestock products are concerned. Dairy intensification strategies and dairy's contribution to sustainable livelihoods in smallholder systems Chagunda, G.G.M.1*, Kawonga, B.S.2, Mankhwala, F.2, Tebug, S.F.3 and Chiwona-Karltun, L.4 1Future Farming Systems Group, SRUC (Scotland's Rural College), Kings Buildings, Edinburgh, UK; 2Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bunda College Campus, Lilongwe, Malawi; 3International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; 4Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden. *Corresponding author: mizeck.chagunda@sruc.ac.uk Abstract This paper discusses the relationship that exists between smallholder dairy development strategies and dairy's contribution to sustainable livelihoods using Malawi as an example. There are four strategies in dairy development namely: genetic improvement, optimising feeding, mitigation of disease and improving general husbandry. Genetic intensification strategies have traditionally included; importation of breeds such as Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jerseys, crossbreeding of the indigenous breeds with HF, and upgrading towards HF.Improvements in dairy cow management have mainly been through stall-feeding or zero-grazingsystems unlike the more extensive grazing system. In order to determine the trade-offs among the different parameters, an analysis was conducted on data from three milk-shed areas of Mzuzu, Lilongwe and Blantyre. Milk samples for milk composition comparison were obtained from Lilongwe milk- shed area. In order to estimate the prevalence of brucellosis and tuberculosis in smallholder dairy cattle, a survey was conducted to assess dairy farmers' knowledge and practices that could increase the risk of milkborne zoonoses. A total of 684 farmers in the Mzuzu dairy region were interviewed. Supplemental data from a cross-sectional study which was carried out in April 2011 was used to estimate the seroprevalence of Brucellaspp. The prevalence of tuberculosis was determined using Single Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin (SCIT) test. The emphasis on increasing productivity has been yielding some results. In the Blantyre milk-shed area alone total milk production has steadily increased from 10,000 liters per day in 1997 to 45,000litres per day in 2011. However, the continued volume-based milk payment system has promoted the predominant use of Holstein Friesian cattle and hence increased milk yields but not milk constituents high in nutritional content. Thus although the indigenous Malawi Zebu (MZ) produces only 2 to 4 litres of milk per day compared to 10 to 15 litres, MZ milk had butter fat content of 4.6% and protein content of 2.8 %. HF milk had 3.2 % BF and 2.8 % P. On the other hand, stall feeding systems has helped in the control of transmission of tick-borne diseases and has also allowed collection of manure for crop production. Of the tested animals, 7.7% had antibodies against brucella species while 13% reacted positive to Single Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Test. More than three-quarters of the sampled farmers were aware of zoonotic diseases. However, only a third of the sampled farmers had had at least one medical examination and none of the animals were checked for zoonoses. Inter-linked policies that promote synergies for dairy development strategies, human nutrition and health in smallholder dairy systems should be promoted to achieve the desired goal of dairy systems and sustainable healthy livelihoods. Key words: dairy strategies, human nutrition, protein, zoonoses Introduction In most Sub-Saharan African countries, milk is produced on both small and large-scale dairy farms. Small-scale dairy farms are commonly referred to as smallholder dairy farms. Among others, the major differentiating features of these two dairy sub-sectors are the holding size, the genotype of cattle raised and the level of management (Chagunda, et al 2004). Smallholder dairy production is an important agricultural activity, producing a valuable nutritious food product and providing a regular income and work for poor households. Although smallholder dairy farms on average have anything from one to five milking cows, their contribution to national dairy production is high and this plays an important part in the dairy value chain. For example, in Malawi, smallholder dairying supplies about 60% of the milk that is processed at the formal processing plants every year (Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development (DAHLD), 2008). Duringthe past two decades, two technological approaches have been used to improve small scale dairy productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. The application of agricultural ecological processes (ecological intensification), and utilising modern livestock breeding (genetic intensification) have both been used (The Montpellier Panel 2013). In terms of ecological intensification, some of the strategies that have been applied are, continuous housing of cows applying a cut-and-carry feeding system, the introduction of purpose-bred forages and pastures, and the introduction of agro-forestry within the dairy systems (The Montpellier Panel 2013). Genetic intensification strategies have included the importation of world-renown dairy breeds such as Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jerseys, crossbreeding of the indigenous breeds with HF with the aim of upgrading towards HF. Training and capacity building activities to create sustainable livelihoods have been initiated to not only impart farming and technological practices of animal husbandry but also to enhance appropriate leadership and corporative- building skills. The objective being that they would create and support an enabling environment for livestock sustainability. One problem that has been identified as arisingwith intensification is that of unintended consequences of not driving all the facets of development at the same pace. Strategies for Sustainable Intensification in Malawi Sustainable intensification, has been defined as strives to utilise the existing resources to produce greater yields, better nutrition and higher net incomes while improving the resources use efficiency and lowering emissions of harmful greenhouse gases(The Montpellier Panel 2013). There are four majorstrategies in dairy development namely: genetic improvement, optimising feeding, mitigation of disease and improving general husbandry (Payne and Wilson, 1999). Genetic intensification strategies have traditionally included; importation of breeds such as Holstein Friesian (HF) and Jerseys, crossbreeding of the indigenous breeds with HF, and upgrading towards HF. In dairy production in Sub-Saharan Africa the major genetic driving force that has been employed are genotype migration and crossbreeding (Hodges, 1984). Only in a few cases has selection within local breeds been used (Seo and Mendelsohn, 2008). Migration has been applied through the importation of germplasm and stock from the traditional global dairy regions of Europe, and North America, and to a lesser extent from within Africa for breed substitution and crossbreeding. Most of these initiatives have been carried out by either national governments or practical entrepreneurs. For example, in 1979 the Malawi Government imported 400 Canadian Holstein Friesian heifers as foundation stock for a dairy improvement programme (Chagunda et al., 2004). Crossbreeding has been another genetic improvement strategy that has been employed. Crossbreeding has been aimed at upgrading the indigenous Zebu cattle towards the productivity levels of the traditional dairy breeds such as the Holstein Friesian. The strategy has been used to explore the difference in milk yield and tropical stress adaptability between the BosIndicus and Bos Taurus breeds (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987). Previous studies have shown that heterosis for production traits such as milk yield, butter fat, and milk protein range from 2% to 10% (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987). In terms of ecological intensification, several initiatives have been carried out in the livestock sector. These initiatives include the introduction of more intensive cattle management systems than the extensive communal grazing commonly found, integration of crop and tree species, and the introduction of non-conversional livestock feeds. The majority of smallholder farmers have adopted cut-and-carry feeding system. Cut-and-carry feeding system are a form of zero grazing, an approach in which livestock are permanently housed and provided with fodder and water. The benefits of using zero grazing management on dairy farms include increased monitoring of the health of the animals, reduced energy and time costs to livestock, and reduced risk of tick-borne diseases. The other common initiative is that of agroforestry, the integration of crops with trees insert ICRAF http://www.do.ufgd.edu.br/omardaniel/arquivos/docs/a_matdid/saf/artigos_interessantes/trees_o n_the_farm.pdf. Agroforestry provides some very important sustainable advantage for the farmer through nutrient recycling and adding additional value to the system by providing extra forage that would otherwise be underutilised. In addition, livestock also provide an incentive for farmers to plant legumes and other leguminous plants. In addition to fixing nitrogen into the soil and hence serving to improve soil fertility and reduce soil erosion, legumes provide protein to livestock (FAO, 2012). Socio-economic intensification centres on enabling the environment of the production system efficient, resilient and contributing to the stock of natural environmental capital. Training and capacity building activities to create sustainable livelihoods have been initiated to not only impart farming and technological practices of animal husbandry but also to enhance appropriate leadership and corporative-building skills that would create and support an enabling environment for sustainability. Examples of the result of these initiatives are the emergence of rural artisanal groups such as village farmer technicians, para-veterinary practitioners, lead farmers and farmer extension workers.Improvements and policy shift initiatives in the service delivery have been championed by either the national governments or development partner institutions and non-governmental organisations through different programmes and projects. For example, in Malawi, the government has made smallholder dairying its flagship in the livestock sector (Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development (DAHLD), 2006). Furthermore, the Malawian Government hasrecently launched the Presidential Initiative on Poverty and Hunger Reduction with the one cow a family programme to promote smallholder dairying to majority rural areas. This initiative also aims to enable women and women headed households to own and participate in dairying and livestock activities. While one cow may not be huge in number, it is a step for diversifying women’s livelihood trajectories. Dairy Productivity and Milk composition The emphasis on increasing milk productivity has been yielding some results. In the Blantyre milk-shed area alone total milk production has steadily increased from 10,000 litres per day in 1997 to 45,000 litres per day in 2011. Figure 1, shows the steady increase in milk yield over the period between 1997 and 2011. Figure 1: Change in milk collected daily from smallholder farmers in Blantyre Milkshed area from 2003 to 2011 (Source: Brian Lewis, Shire Highlands Milk Producers Association) This increase in milk yield has positively contributed to the income that smallholder farmers receive from dairy farming. However, the continued volume-based milk payment system has promoted the predominant use of Holstein Friesian cattle and hence increased milk yields but not milk constituents high in nutritional content. Thus although the indigenous Malawi Zebu produces only 2 to 4 litres of milk per day compared to 10 to 15 litres, Malawi Zebu milk had butter fat content of 4.6% and protein content of 2.8 %. Holstein Friesian milk had 3.2 % butter fat and 2.8 % protein. Zonooses prevalence and awareness In order to estimate the prevalence of brucellosis and tuberculosis in smallholder dairy cattle, to assess farmers’ awareness of zoonotic diseases and to identify behaviours that could favour transmission of milk-born zoonoses to humans, a study was conducted in northern region of Malawi (Tebug et al, 2014). In the study, a total of 155 (149 cows and 6 bulls) and 195 (100 using SCITT and 95 using SIT) dairy cattle were tested for brucellosis and tuberculosis respectively. Data to investigate zoonotic disease awareness among farmers, were collected through face-to-face interviews of 140randomly selected smallholder dairy farmers from February to June2011. A questionnaire was designed to include information on respondent’s awareness about zoonoses, mode of transmission between man and animals, milk consumption habits, herd size, duration in dairy farming, origin of animals, sale of milk and history about zoonoses in their herd and family amongst others. The results of this study showed that 7.7% (95 % CI, 3.5– 11.9%) and 8.1% (95 % CI, 3.7– 12.5%) of all tested dairy cattle and dairy cows had antibodies against brucella species respectively. No antibody against brucella species was found in serum collected from the 6 bulls. Generally, farmers were aware of tuberculosis (74.3%) while a small proportion knew of brucellosis (2.9%). Other relevant zoonotic diseases cited were rabies and bird flu. Most farmers knew that milk (67.1%) and meat (56.4%) as routes for animal to human transmission of zoonotic diseases. When asked about measures taken to prevent contracting zoonotic diseases, about a quarter of the farmers interviewed had once gone for medical check-up or had their animals checked against one of the zoonotic diseases. All farmers consumed unpasteurised milk produced at home and a majority (54%) sold their milk directly to the general public. Additionally, over 30% of the farmers indicated that they consumed unpasteurised milk either as fresh milk or as cultured “chambiko”, with a significantly higher proportion (P<0.05) being farmers. The high awareness about bovine tuberculosis revealed by this study was not reflected by farmer’s milk consumption and disease prevention habits. These results do not differ from other public health studies, e.g. sexually transmitted diseases. Knowing about how diseases are transmitted, has little correlation with peoples sexual behaviours About 95% of farmers exhibited one or more risk behaviours such as drinking of fresh or cultured milk or sale of fresh milk to the general public. Furthermore, some farmers indicated that poor market access for milk, irregular collection of milk by processors and late payment of dues leave them with no other option but to produce sour milk, chambiko. Additionally, more than half the number of dairy farmers included in the study sold fresh milk to the general public and a minority had their animals checked at least once for a zoonotic disease. Raw or unpasteurised milk has been associated with brucellosis and tuberculosis transmission from animals to humans (Al Shaalan et al. 2002; Makita et al., 2008; Fetene et al., 2008) making milk-borne zoonosis a considerable threat on human health in the study area. The livestock development policy is to increase productivity in dairy cows. This has been translated as increasing milk yield using imported Holstein Friesian cattle. All the processors in Malawi buy milk from farmers based on milk volume and not milk constituents such as buffer fat and protein. This clearly conflicts with the need for agriculture to contribute to combating protein-energy malnutrition especially in children under the age of five years. Further, unlike enzoonotic diseases which receive full attention from a veterinary point of view, zoonotic diseases tend to be ‘forgotten’ diseases (Marcotty et al., 2009). Conclusion This review aimed at examining the relationship that exists between smallholder dairy development strategies and dairy’s contribution to sustainable livelihoods using Malawi as an example. Using the four strategies in dairy development, genetic improvement, optimising feeding, mitigation of disease and improving general husbandry, the review demonstrated that the inter-linked policies that promote synergies for dairy development strategies, human nutrition and health should be promoted to achieve the desired goal of dairy systems and sustainable healthy livelihoods. Policies intervening in the post-milking phase could significantly reduce zoonosis and contribute towards value addition and production of high value milk products. Acknowledgements The authors thank the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs Food Security Initiative special support to the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (UD15). SRUC receives financial support from the Scottish Government.The Administration of World University Service of Canada, Malawi program (WUSC Malawi) is greatly acknowledge for supporting the TB testing as part of their capacity building of activities. References Al Shaalan M., Z.A. Memish, S. Al Mahmoud, A. Alomari, M. Y. Khan, M. Almuneef, and S. Alalola, 2002: Brucellosis in children: clinical observations in 115 cases. International Journal of lnfectious Diseases 6, 182-186. Chagunda MGG, Bruns EW, King J.M, Wollny CBA (2004) Evaluation of the breeding strategy for milk yield of Holstein Friesian cows on large scale dairy farms in Malawi. J AgricSci142: 595-601 Cunningham EP, Syrstad O (1987) Crossbreeding bosindicus and bostaurus for milk production in the tropics. FAO Animal Production and Health paper 68. Rome, Italy DAHLD 2008. Dairy Production, Flag Carrier for DAHLD. Annual Report by Animal Production Section, Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development, Lilongwe, Malawi Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012). Livestock sector development for poverty reduction: An economic and policy perspective. Retrieved January 2014 from http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2744e/i2744e04.pdf Fetene T., N. Kebede and G. Alem, 2008: Tuberculosis Infection in Animal and Human Populations in Three Districts of Western Gojam, Ethiopia. Zoonoses and Public Health 58, 47-53. Hodges J (1984) Strategies for dairy cattle improvement in developing countries. In: Smith AJ (ed) Milk Production in Developing Countries, University of Edinburgh, UK pp 198 – 217 Makita K., E. M. Fèvre, C. Waiswa, W. Kaboyo, B. M. De Clare Bronsvoort, M. C. Eisler, and S. C. Welburna, 2008. Human Brucellosis in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas of Kampala, Uganda. Animal Biodiversity and Emerging Diseases: Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1149, 309- 311 Payne W.J.A and Wilson R.T, 1999. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics,5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ Seo, S.N., and R. Mendelsohn. 2008. Measuring impacts and adaptations to climate change: A structuralRicardian model of livestock management in Africa.Agr. Econ. 38:1-15. Tebug, S.F., Njunga.,G.R., , Chagunda M.G.G., Mapemba, J.P., Awah-Ndukum, J., and Wiedemann, S. 2014. Knowledge and safety practices against zoonotic infections by smallholder dairy farmers: case of northern Malawi. OnderstepoortJournal of Veterinary Research81 (1) doi: 10.4102/ojvr.v81i1.594 . The Montpellier Panel 2013. Sustainable Intensification: A New Paradigm for African Agriculture, London, UK. Effect of energy source on the milk production and reproduction of lactating Holstein cows B.A. Useni1*, C.J.C. Muller2 & C.W. Cruywagen1 1Department of Animal Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa; 2Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Research and Technology Development Services, Directorate: Animal Sciences, Private bag X1, Elsenburg 7607, South Africa. *Corresponding author: alainu@elsenburg.com Abstract The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of different energy sources on the milk production and reproduction of dairy cows in a pasture-based system. Holstein cows from the Elsenburg herd were used in the study. Following parturition, cows were fed ad libitum cultivated irrigated kikuyu-ryegrass pastures for 22 weeks. Cows were divided into three groups according to concentrate supplementation of which the energy was provided by starch and/or fat. The P-control was a standard concentrate feeding system based on industry practice. Treatment P-HSLF was a glucogenic regime made of maize. Treatment P-HSLF-LSHF was a high starch/high fat combination treatment, whereby an glucogenic diet was offered for the first 60 days of lactation as per treatment P-HSLF and followed from 61 days by a lipogenic (low starch-high fat) diet made of wheat bran and calcium salts of palm fatty acids. Cows were milked twice a day and concentrate supplementations were fed after each milking. Heat observation was done as per usual for a dairy herd followed by standard artificial insemination procedures. Results showed that the milk yield and live weight of cows of dairy cows were affected (P<0.05) by the feeding concentrate programme while milk composition was not affected (P>0.05). The number of services per conception (SPC) and the number of days from calving to first service (CFS) did not differ (P>0.05) between treatments for primi- and multiparous cows. However, the pregnancy rate (PR) of cows at 150 days tended to be affected (P<0.10) by the feeding programme, with P-HSLF and P-HSLF-LSHFL being higher. Results showed that while the milk yield was affected by concentrate feeding, fertility was not similarly affected. This is probably due to the complex and multifactorial nature of fertility of dairy cows. Keywords: Energy, milk production, fertility, pasture-based feeding system Introduction Intense genetic selection, enhanced dairy nutrition and herd management have significantly increased milk of dairy cows in past decades (Gilmore et al., 2011). However, selection of high genetic merit for milk production has led to increased nutrient requirement during early lactation. This requirement is only partially met by feed consumption, due to limitations in intake and appetite (Walsh et al., 2011), with the remainder being met by mobilization of body fat reserves resulting in a negative energy balance (EB) for dairy cows in early lactation (Van Knegselet al., 2007). Negative EB has been defined as an underlying causal factor of poor reproductive performance in dairy cows (Jorristsmaet al., 2003). Numerous nutritional approaches to reduce the severity and occurrence of metabolic upsets towards improving reproductive performances following the parturition have been study in dairy cows. Most studies pointed at reducing the extent of the negative EB by enhancing the energy intake in the transition period, hereby reducing the risks of metabolic and reproductive disorders in early lactation (Drackleyet al., 2003). A common strategy, aiming for an increased energy intake in early lactation, is to improve the energy density of the diet by reducing the forage to concentrate ratio or by supplementation of energy dense ingredients like fat or non-fibre carbohydrates (Staples et al., 1998;Voigt et al., 2003, VanKnegselet al., 2005; Gilmore et al., 2011). Against this background, little scientific information is available in South Africa on the effects of energy sources on production performance of dairy cows. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate two supplement feeding programmes made of energy dense ingredients like non-fibre carbohydrates and/or fat on the milk production and reproduction of dairy cows in a pasture-based feeding system. Materials and Methods The ethical clearance was obtained from Western Cape Department of Agriculture, where the study was conducted at the Elsenburg Research Farm. Elsenburg is located approximately 50 km east of Cape Town at an altitude of 177 m, longitude of 18° 50' and latitude of 33° 51' in the winter rainfall region of South Africa. The area has a typical Mediterranean climate with short, cool, wet winters and long, warm, dry summers with an average annual rainfall of 650 mm.Holstein cows from 8 weeks pre-partum to 22 weeks post-partum were used. The chemicalcomposition of feeds used in the study is presented in Table 1. During the pre-partum period, heifers and cows received oat hay ad libitum supplemented with a concentrate mixture, containing anionic salts, at a ratio of 3 kg/cow/day and 3 kg/heifer/day from 30 to 14 days pre- partum and then 6 kg/cow/day and 5 kg/heifer/day from 13 days pre-partum to calving, respectively. Following parturition, cows were fed ad libitum cultivated irrigated kikuyu-ryegrass pastures (IP) supplemented with concentrates of which the energy was provided by starch and/or fat. A pasture-replacement mixture (PRM) consisting of oat hay (48%), Lucerne hay (43%) and a high protein source like soybean oil cake meal (9%) was provided as additional roughage during winter when pasture availability was low. The control (P-control) was the standard pasture feeding system based on an industry best practice in the area with an allowance of a control concentrate of 7kg/day for both primi- and multiparous dairy cows. Table 1 Chemical composition of feedstuffs Concentrate Parameters Control HSLF LSHF IP PRM Oat hay DM (g/kg) 891 895 883 189 917 928 Ash (g/kg DM) 56 52 59 4 56 38 CP (g/kg DM) 140 155 153 7 134 46 Fat (g/kg DM) 35 27 66 1 17 14 NDF (g/kg DM) 150 74 159 20 420 552 Ca (g/kg DM) 12.4 9.9 10.5 0.1 4.3 2.1 P (g/kg DM) 5 7 7.4 0.2 2.7 1.8 TreatmentsP-HSLF and P-HSLF-LSHF aimed to improve the energy density in pasture-based system by supplementation of energy dense ingredients like fat or non-fibre carbohydrates with an allowance of 11.6 kg/day for primi- and 12.6 kg/day for multiparous dairy cows. Treatment P- HSLF was aglucogenic (high starch-low fat) diet made of maize as major energy source with aims of improving energy intake, thereby reducing the severity of the negative EB. Treatment P- HSLF-LSHF was a high starch/high fat combination treatment, whereby an glucogenic diet was offered for the first 60 days of lactation as per treatment P-HSLF to encourage cyclicity and followed from 61 days by a lipogenic (low starch-high fat) diet made of wheat bran and Calcium salts of palm fatty acids as major energy sources to promote the embryo development. Fresh drinking water was freely available at all times.Cows were milked twice a day and concentrate supplementations were fed after each milking. The daily milk yield of cows was automatically recorded at each milking. Milk samples were collected at the evening and following morning’s milking sessions every 35 days and combined for analysis for fat, protein and lactose content at the milk testing laboratory of the National Milk Recording Scheme. Heat observation was done as per usual for a dairy herd followed by standard artificial insemination procedures. Milk production and fertility traits were analysed using statistical packages (SAS, 2014). Results and Discussion The effect of concentrate feeding on milk yield parameters of dairy cows is presented in Table 2. Results showed that the milk yield of cows were affected (P<0.05) by the feeding programme. With both primiparous and multiparous cows, higher milk yields were recorded for P-HSLF and P-HSLF-HFLS compared to P-control (Figure 1). In agreement to this study, reports stated that either feeding extra glucogenic nutrients orlipogenic nutrients had similar effect on kg of milk produced per day (Voigt et al., 2003). In the current study, no statistically significance effect of treatments was reported on milk composition for both primiparous and multiparous dairy cows (Table 2).However, other studies foundthat feeding lipogenic nutrients increased milk fat and protein levels, while adding glucogenic nutrients to the diet decreased milk fat and increased milk protein percentage (Van Knegselet al., 2005). Table 2 Least square means (±s.e.) of milk production parameters of dairy cows from 2 to 22 weeks post-partum Primiparous cows Multiparous cows Parameters P- Control P-HSLF P-HSLF- LSHF P- Control P-HSLF P-HSLF- LSHF Numbers of cows 26 19 19 67 35 35 # lactation 3.89 ± 0.18 3.50 ± 0.23 3.54 ± 0.22 Average Milk yield (kg/day) 19.2b ± 0.21 21.9a ± 0.25 21.7a ± 0.18 31.3b ± 0.77 31.1a ± 0.77 28.9a ± 0.75 Crude protein (%) 3.11 ± 0.02 3.14 ± 0.05 3.12 ± 0.04 3.10 ± 0.50 3.07 ± 0.53 3.12 ± 0.48 Fat (%) 3.72 ± 0.04 3.68 ± 0.06 3.66 ± 0.08 3.71 ± 0.67 3.66 ± 0.50 3.69 ± 0.51 Lactose % 4.86 ± 0.02 4.91 ± 0.02 4.89 ± 0.03 4.69 ± 0.24 4.72 ± 0.22 4.73 ± 0.19 a,bValues with different superscripts within production system differ at P<0.05. (a) (b) Figure 1 Least square means (±s.e.) milk yield of primi- (a) and multiparous (b) dairy cows from 2 to 22 weeks post-partum Both primi- and multiparous cows under P-Control were affected (P<0.05) by a live weight loss compared to their counterparts in Treatments P-HSLF and P-HSLF-HFLS (Figure 2). According toOldicket al. (1997), body weight changes may not be valid indicators of the EB status in dairy cows. However, it has been indicated that live weight loss associated with a negative EB due to a prolonged low energy intake are detrimental via intermediate signals to fertility of dairy cows (Van Knegselet al., 2005).In other words, cows that suffer a negative EB are prone to diseases(Evans &Walsh, 2012) and may experience alterations in endocrine, metabolic and physiological signals (Leroy et al., 2008) which adversely affect the reproductive performance of dairy cows, resulting in cowsfailing to conceive at all to be culled. (a)(b) Figure 2 Least means (±s.e.) live weight change of primi- (a) and multiparous (b) dairy cowsfrom 2 to 22 weeks post-partum square Feeding effects on reproductive parameters of dairy cows are presented in Table 3. No differences were observed on the number of services per conception (SPC) as well as on the number of days from calving to first service (CFS). However, the pregnancy rate (PR) of cows at 150 days tended to be affected (P<0.10) by the feeding programme, with P-HSLFand P-HSLF- LSHFL being higher. Reports illustrates that feeding supplemental glucogenic or lipogenic nutrients has variable on reproduction parameters (Van Knegselet al., 2005). Explanations can be related to nutrient factors and to limitations in animal numbers as well as in the period and protocol of the experiment (Staples et al., 1998; Gilmore et al., 2011). With emphasis only on energy sources, the type of lipogenic nutrients (chain length and degree of saturation of long chain fatty acids) as well as the type of glycogenic nutrients (rate of fermentation in the rumen) affects the profile of nutrients absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract which in turn may impact on reproductive parameters (Staples et al., 1998). Since dietary energy density has been reported to have significant effects on reproductive performance, it is important to stress out the difference isocaloric and non-isocaloric diets in different studies (Gwazdauskaset al., 2000; Sanzet al., 2004). Another factor contributing to the diversity in effects of supplemental glucogenic and lipogenic nutrients can be related to the lack of using isocaloric diets to avert the interaction with dietary energy density of fertility (Van Knegselet al., 2005). Other studies found that an effect of improved energy diets can indirectly affect the fertility of dairy cows as a result of improved EB. This implies EB to be an intermediary in the effect of dietary energy source on reproductive performance (Minor et al.1998; Miyoshi et al., 2001). Table 3Least square means (±s.e.) of reproductive performance of dairy cows from 2 to 22 weeks post-partum Primiparous cows Multiparous cows Parameters P- Control P-HSLF P-HSLF- LSHF P- Control P-HSLF P-HSLF- LSHF Numbers of cows 26 19 19 67 35 35 Age at calving (years) 2.24 ± 0.04 2.15 ± 0.04 2.24 ± 0.05 5.37 ±0.21 5.06 ± 0.33 4.99 ± 0.27 SPC 2.71 ± 0.36 2.44 ± 0.37 2.37 ± 0.40 2.30 ± 0.19 2.52 ± 0.30 2.03 ± 0.27 CFS (days) 89 ± 4 82 ± 5 84 ±8 103 ± 7 99 ± 6 94 ± 5 PR at 150 days (%) 0.35b ± 0.10 0.53a ± 0.12 0.57a ± 0.12 0.44b ± 0.06 0.60a ± 0.09 0.57a ± 0.09 a,bValues with different superscripts within production system differ at P<0.10. Conclusion Increase in dietary energy sources in dairy cows during lactation improved milk yield in a pasture-based system.Since the energy effects on reproduction are rather inconclusivein this studyand studies on feeding different energy compounds on reproductive performance are still scarce, further investigationswith emphasis on EB and metabolism are therefore needed to understand factors affecting reproduction in dairy cows. Acknowledgments The authors express gratitude to the Western Cape Department of Agriculture and Western Cape Agricultural Trust for funding this study. References Evans, A.C.O. and Walsh, S.W., 2012. The physiology of multifactorial problems limiting the establishment of pregnancy in dairy cattle.Repro.Fert. Dev. 24:233-237 Drackley, J.K., Cicela, T.M. and LaCount, D.W., 2003. Responses of primiparous and multiparousHolstein cows to additional energy from fat or concentrate during summer. J. Dairy Sci. 86: 1306-1314. Gilmore, H.S., Young, F.J., Patterson, D.C., Wylie, A.R.G., Law, R.A., Kilpatrick,D.J., Elliot,C.T. and Mayne, C.S., 2011.An evaluation of the effect of altering nutrition and nutritional strategies in early lactation on reproductive performance and oestrousbehaviour of highyielding Holstein Friesian dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 94: 3510-3526 Gwazdauskas, F.C., Kendrick, K.W., Pryor, A.W. and Bailey, T.L., 2000.Impact of follicular aspiration on folliculogenesis as influenced by dietary energy and stage of lactation. J. Dairy Sci.83: 1625-1634. Jorritsma, R., Wensing, T., Kruip, T.A.M., Vos, P.L.A.M. and Noordhuizen, J.P.T.M., 2003. Metabolic changes in early lactation and impaired reproductive performance in dairy cows. Vet.Res. 34: 11-26. Leroy, J.L., Opsomer, G., Van Soom, A., Goovaerts, I.G.F. and Bols, P.E., 2008. Reduced fertility in high-yielding dairy cows: are the oocyte and embryo in danger? Part I. The importance of negative energy balance and altered corpus luteum function to the reduction of oocyte and embryo quality in high-yielding dairy cows. Reprod. Domest. Anim.43:612-622 Minor, D.J., Trower, S.L., Strang, B.D., Shaver, R.D. and Grummer, R.R.,1998.Effects of nonfiber carbohydrate and niacin on periparturient metabolic status and lactation of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 81: 189-200. Miyoshi, S., Pate, J.L. andPalmquist, D.L., 2001. Effects of propylene glycol drenching on energy balance, plasma glucose, plasma insulin, ovarian function and conception in dairy cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 68: 29–43. Oldick, B.S., Staples, C.R., Thatcher, W.W. andGyawu, P., 1997. Abosomal infusion of glucose and fat.Effect on digestion, production, and ovarian and uterine functions of cows. J. Dairy Sci. 80: 1315-1328. Sanz, A., Bernues, A., Villalba, D., Casasus, I. and Revilla, R. 2004. Influence of management and nutrition on postpartum interval in Brown Swiss and Pirenaica cows. Livest. Prod. Sci. 86: 179-191. SAS, 2014. Statistical Analysis Systems (SAS Enterprise guide Software). SAS® Institute Inc., Cary, N.C., USA Staples, C.R., Burke, J.M. and Thatcher, W.W.,1998. Influence of supplemental fats on reproductive tissues and performance of lactating cows. J. Dairy. Sci. 81: 856-871. Van Knegsel, A.T.M., Van den Brand, H., Dijkstra, J. van Straalen, W.M., Jorritsma, R., Tamminga, S. and Kemp, B., 2007. Effect of glucogenic vs lipogenic diets on energy balance, blood metabolites and reproduction in primiparous and multiparous dairy cows in early lactation: J Dairy Sci.90:3397-3409. Van Knegsel, A.T.M., Van den Brand, H., Dijkstra, J. van Straalen, W.M., Jorritsma, R., Tamminga, S. and Kemp, B., 2005. Effect of dietary energy source on energy balance, production, metabolic disorders and reproduction in lactating dairy cattle .Reprod.Nutr. Dev. 45: 665-688 Voigt, J., Gaafar, K., Hagemeister, H., Kanitz, W. andPrecht, D., 2003.Fat vs. starch as energy sources in diets for high yielding lactating dairy cows. In: Progress in research on energy and protein metabolism, Rostock, Germany, pp 445–448. Walsh,S.W., Williams, E.J. and Evans, A.C.O., 2011. A review of the causes of poor fertility in high milk producing dairy cows.Anim. Reprod. Sci. 123:127-138. Productivity and economic impacts of selected intervention in the rural poultry production system E. Wondmeneh123*, E.H, Van der Waaij2, D. Tadelle3, H.M.J. Udo4, and J.A.M. Van Arendonk2 1 Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre, P.O. Box 32, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, 2 Wageningen University, Animal Breeding and Genomics Centre, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 3 International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box, P.O. Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 4Wageningen University, Animal Production systems, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands. *Corresponding author: wondmeneh.esatu@wur.nl Abstract Changes in the productivity and economic impacts of selected interventions in village poultry production system were evaluated. Interventions and existing values of the rural poultry production system (base situation) were identified using a questionnaire survey conducted into two districts from 240 Household. Data were analyzed using a dynamic simulation program, the VIllage POultry SImulation Model (VIPOSIM). A deterministic sensitivity analyses was used to identify the most important variable that affect the profitability of the rural village poultry production system. Over the simulated periods of three years, supplementation of formulated feed, housing, and application of vaccinations and introduction of an improved indigenous chicken breedresulted in a positive change in flock size, bird offtake, egg production and egg offtake. The use of formulated feed, housing and vaccinations into the system resulted in negative returns. The base situation that represents the existing low input and low-output system showed in a positive net benefit. The use of improved indigenous chicken breed resulted in a break-even situation. The sensitivity analysis revealed thatthe cost of feed asthe most important factor to affect the profitability of poultry production in rural areas followed by housing, vaccination and breed. Keywords: base situation, cost-benefit, simulation, Introduction The demand for poultry products has shown amassive increase in developing countries (Sonaiya et al., 2004).Rural poultry production is a predominant system and contributes to poverty alleviation and household food security in developing countries (Alders and Pym, 2009). However, traditional poultry producers raise small number of domestic fowl for home consumption with small, mostly seasonal surpluses being sold at villages (Farrelly, 1996).Ondwasyet al., 2006, suggested that commercialization of indigenous poultry production is timely to meet the unmet market demands. It was also indicated that investments in small scale poultry farming generate attractive returns and contribute to poverty reduction and increased food security (Mack et al., 2005; Pica-Ciamarra and Otte, 2010). Feed cost, market price, stock size, number of birds sold and consumed were found to significantly affect profitability of the system (Siyaya, and Masuku, 2013). Suitable breed and proper knowledge of management can results in profitable poultry production (Mahapatra, 1990). However, inadequate nutrition has greater effect on production than the genetic factors (Sazzad et al, 1988). This study evaluates the productivity and economic impacts of some interventions in the rural poultry production system. Sensitivity analysis was further conducted to indicate the most important factor that affects the profitability in this system. Methodology Data Primary data were collected from a total of 240 farmers in two districts of Ethiopia (Ada and Horro), where mainly a rural poultry production system is being practiced by farmers. A two stage sampling procedure was followed to select eight villages and thirty sample households from each village in both districts. In the first stage, four rural villages from each district were selected purposively based on their prior experience in chicken production and proximity to the road. The second stage, individual households (n=240) were selected using a systematic random sampling. Systematic random sampling is often used to select large samples from a long list of households using a sampling interval. A structures survey was conducted to collect the relevant information for modeling of the village poultry production system. Simulation model, interventions and sensitivity analysis: A dynamic simulation program, the VIllagePOultrySImulation Model (VIPOSIM), was employed in the study. VIPOSIM was developed at Wageningen University, the Netherlands, and validated with data from Ethiopia (Asgedom, 2007). VIPOSIM takes into account the complex and dynamic aspects of village poultry production system and gives the flock dynamics and cost-benefit after a simulation period. This model performs calculations in time steps which represent reproduction cycles. Each step has a length of a season of 3 months and the maximum number of steps in the model is 12, which corresponds to a periodof three years (Asgedom, 2007). It was programmed in Microsoft Excel® and integrates quantitative relationships of various elements of the system in a series of mathematical equations. (Tomo et al., 2012).Four interventions that are believed to affect the performance and economics of rural poultry production were selected. The interventions formulated feed, housing, vaccinations, and improved indigenous poultry breed. A simple deterministic sensitivity analysis approach was used (Marchand et al 2008).It is based on the idea of varying one uncertain parameter value, or set of parameter vales, at a time and evaluating the change in the outcome variable which can be any performance measure or indicator and can easily be shown in a tornado diagram(Eschenbach, 1992). The underlying logic of the one-at-a t-timesensitivity analysis is similar to that of the VIPOSIM program that both evaluates the changes in the outcome variable by changing each variable at time while the rest are kept at their base (default) values collected from the field. The sensitivity analysis however ranks the most influential variables in the order of importance using visual and easy to understand presentations such as a tornado diagram (Eschenbach, 1992). A tornado diagram can include a large number of parameters without becoming over crowded. It shows the lower and upper values of the outcome variable (profit in our case) obtained from the variation of each variables (inputs), with the variable with the widest limits displayed on the top, and the parameter with smallest on the bottom. Results The base situation The survey revealed that farmers keep 15 chicks, 4 pullets, 3 cockerels, 4 hens and 1 cock. Figure 1 shows the dynamics of the number of different class of chickens of the base situation during the simulated period of 12 seasons (3 years). The number of cocks, pullets, cockerels, and the hens did not change too much during the simulated periods of three years. However, chicks show significant variation over the period of simulation as their number can easily change due to mortality (Wilson, 1986). Generally the flock change indicates that the base situation represents a more or less stable flock over the three years of simulated period. Figure1. Simulated development of flock size, number cocks, pullets, cockerels, chickens and hens over 12 months (base) Impacts of interventions Flock size, bird offtake, egg production and egg offtake changes as a result of four simulated interventions to the base situation at the end of the simulated period of three years is presented in Table 1. Each intervention had positive effect on the variables considered vaccination being the most important.The analysis also showed that the effect of feed was higher than the breed. Table1. Percent changes in flock size, bird offtake, egg production &egg offtake as a result of four simulated interventions to the base situation at the end of the simulated period. Flock size bird offtake egg production formulated feed 223 268 217 Housing 244 292 259 vaccinations 324 333 362 Breed 154 165 210 Cost - benefit analysis Total costs, benefits and net returns for the base situation, formulated feed, housing, vaccination, improved indigenous breed over the simulated period of 12 seasonsare shown in Figure 2. The cost benefit analyses of the simulation indicates that all selected interventions applied to the base situation were found to be not-economical except the base situation that resulted in positive net return.A break-even situation was found when an improved indigenous chicken was introduced.Sensitivity analysis was further conducted. The result was presented in tornedo chart. The result of the sensitivity result presented in Figure 3, shows that feedcost was most important parameter that needs attention for the profitability in rural areasfollowed by housing, vaccination and breed Figure2. Total costs, benefits and net returns for the base situation, formulated feed, housing, vaccination, improved indigenous breed over the simulated period of 12 seasons Figure 3 A tornado diagram showing the range of variables representing the profit (in USD) for high and low values of each of the variables Discussion The importance of rural poultry production in improving the livelihood and source of food for the ever increasing population has been recognized. The rural poultry production system remains important to the developing countries where the system dominates. The improvement is closely related to the inputs used into the system. Governments need to revisit their interventions into the system. This study has shown issues that need attention.Simulation models can never include all factors that affect a system under study (Udo et al., 2006), but are an alternative approach to measure impacts of interventions (Tomo et al., 2012). By integrating the different processes and management options involved in the complex and dynamic system, it providesinsights on the dynamics of the system (Asgedom, 2007; Udo et al., 2006). In the current study, each intervention applied to the base situation resulted in a positive change (productivity).The base situation was reported to have been significantly improved by interventions such as feed(Huque et al., 1990). The cost-benefit analysis showed that formulated feed, housing, and vaccination were not economically feasible.The economic results of interventions depend very much on local conditions and all interventions require additional cash inputs (Udo et al., 2006). The cost of feed was very high asingredients are used for human consumption. Keeping chickens in a housing requires provision of feed.The use of vaccination in the absence of any outbreak of diseases, together with the application of effective biosecurity measures, could maximize poultry protection whenever a risk of exposure exists, so an overall cost-benefit analysis should be performed by taking into account the costs of vaccinesand all other related activities. (Marangon and Busani, 2006). The introduction of proper vaccination,goes with housing and feeding which inflates the cost of the intervention. The base situation appeared to be economically feasible as farmers invest little: raise their own stock, the birds are left to scavenge and occasionally supplemented, do not provide any type of vitamins or veterinary services, and often with no housing provided. (Farrelly, 1996). The breed that was used in the simulation was the one being improved for more egg and fast growth. Genetic improvement increases productivity and can determine profitability of family flocks (Hossen,2010). The introduction of this breed resulted in a break even situation. Further, the sensitivity analysis showed that feed cost was the most important factor in the village production system followed by housing, vaccination and breed. Similar result was reported by (Sazzad et al, 1988). With the current price of feed, it is not possible to make profit. In line with Masuku, 2013, recommended that farmers should organize themselves to take advantage of discounts when purchasing feed. The use of appropriate breed can result in more profit in the rural poultry production system. Conclusion and implications This simulation study showed that interventions can positively affect the variables considered but not economically. The base situation appeared to be economically feasible as it is low input- low output system. Farmers seem to be convinced that investment in the current system is not economically feasible. That could be among the reasons that rural farmers are reluctant to use inputs. Further improvement of the breed used and feed supplementation could help maximize the net profit. Governments and development organizations should revisit appropriate interventions that not only increase productivity but also improve the profitability. Acknowledgement The authors sincerely thank the Kopepon foundation for sponsoring the research. References Alders, R.G., andPym, R.A.E. 2009. Village poultry: Still important to millions, eight thousand years after domestication. World Poultry Sci. J., 65:181-190. Asgedom, H.A. 2007. Village Poultry in Ethiopia: Socio-technical Analysis andLearning with Farmers. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University. Siyaya, B.J. and Masuku, M.B. 2013. Determinants of profitability of indigenous chickens in Swaziland, Business and economic research 3(3). Farrelly, L.L. 1996. Transforming poultry production and Marketing in developing countries: lessons learned. Dep. of Agri. Econ. and Economics,Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Huque, Q.M.E., Ebadul, M.H. and Rigor, E.M. 1990. The effect ofchick separation on productivity of the hen and chick. Asian Australas. J. Anim.Sci., 3:121-123 Hossen, M.J. 2010. Effect of management intervention on the productivity and profitability of indigenous chickens under rural conditions in Bangladesh. Livestock Research for rural development. 22(10). Kapur, S.V. 2008. Engineering rural prosperity-Keggfarms. The journal of inter-disciplinary perspectives.,2(2). Mahapatra, C.M. 1990. Tips of management of chicks. Poultry guide, XXVII No. Ip. 35-46. Marangon, S. and Busani, L. 2006. The use of vaccination in poultry production. Rev.sci. tech.off.int.Epiz, 26(1): 265-274 Marchand, E., Clément, F, Roberts, J.E. a, Pépin, G., 2008. Deterministic sensitivity analysis for a model for flow in porous media. Adv.WaterResour., 31 (2008) 1025–1037 Sazzad, M.A., Mamotazul, S.M.H. and Asaduzzaman, M.U. 1988. Growth pattern in Deshi& khaki Campbell ducks under rural condition. Indian journal of poultry science. 23: 165- 166 Tomo, A.,Crawford, E., Donovan, C.,Lloyd, J.,Udo, H. and Viet, T. 2012. Does Village Chickens Vaccination Raise Farmers’ Income? Evidence from Rural Mozambique. Paper presented at the IAAE. Triennial conference, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, Ondwasy, H., Wesong, H. and Okitoi, L. 2006. Indigenous chicken production manual. Technical note series no. 18, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Udo, H., Asgedom, A.H. and Viets, T.C. 2006. Modelling the Impact of Interventions on the Dynamics in Village Poultry Systems. AgrSyst., 88: 255-269. Wilson, R.T. 1986. Poultry production in sub-Sahara Africa. Outlook Agric., 15: 121-12 Growth performance of two crossbred rabbit genotypes fed two levels of dietary protein Momoh, O.M.1*, Unung, H.U.1 and Attah, S.2 1Department of Animal Breeding and Physiology; 2Department of Animal Production University of Agriculture, PMB 2373, Makurdi, Benue State Nigeria. *Corresponding author: mykemomoh@gmail.com Abstract A study was undertaken in which two crossbred rabbit genotypes were fed two levels of dietary crude protein with the objectives of assessing and comparing their growth performances as well as investigate any possible genotype × protein level interaction. Twenty four (24) crossbred weaner rabbits (12 chinchilla × Dutch belted and 12 New Zealand white ×California) at six weeks of age were used for the experiment. The rabbits were subjected to two diets containing 12% and 17% crude proteins, respectively in a 2 X 2 factorial, using completely randomized design. Performance indices evaluated were final weight, Weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant (P<0.05) genotype effect was observed in all the growth traits studied. Protein level significantly (P<0.05) affected all growth parameters except feed intake (P> 0.05). Similarly, genotype × protein level interaction was significant (P<0.05) affecting all the growth traits except feed intake. Both crossbred genotypes were similar in performance at 17% crude protein while the Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred was superior to New Zealand white × California crossbred at 12% crude protein. It is therefore, recommended that the Chinchilla × Dutch Belted Crossbred rabbit be adopted for wide spread use in Nigeria because of its high adaptability to low crude protein diet (12% CP). Key words: Body weight, Feed conversion ratio, Feed intake, Genetic, Genotype ×environment interaction. Introduction Rabbits play an important role in the supply of animal protein to most Nigerians (Amaefule et al., 2005). They are efficient converters of feed to meat and can utilize up to 30% crude fibre in their diet as against the 10% by most poultry species (Egbo et al., 2001). Rabbit production involves low input or cost and offers a very profitable enterprise due to the size, efficiency and simplicity of management of the animals (Rajadevan et al., 1987). According to Egbo et al. (2001), the prolific nature of the rabbit coupled with its short generation interval makes it an animal of choice for rapid increase in animal protein production for human consumption. Well over forty breeds of rabbit have been reported in the United States of America (LukeFahr et al., 1983) but only a few of these have been imported into Nigeria. Ekpeyong (1988) reported that New Zealand white, California, D’Argent, Dutch belted, Chinchilla. Pearl white, Champagne, Florida-white and Flemish giant are some of the common breeds imported into Nigeria, which have under gone indiscriminate crossbreeding to the extent that there is no exact knowledge of the genetic make-up of the rabbits in the country. The greatest desire and goal of the animal breeder is to match the genetic potential of a given livestock breed to the prevailing or anticipated production environment. Nutrition as a component of the environment is one of the most critical factors in any livestock enterprise, accounting for about 70% of the total cost of production. Protein is one of the two critical nutrients whose requirement must be met in animal nutrition for maximum production to be attained. Two levels of protein (13 and 17%) have been recommended by Aduku and Olukosi (1990) to meet the maintenance and production requirements, respectively, of rabbits. Rao et al. (1977) reported a crude protein level of 12% for maintenance and 16% for production in rabbits while Sanchez et al. (1985) noted that protein levels above 17% fed to rabbits were not significantly beneficial. This study was, therefore, designed with the objective of evaluating the growth performance of two crossbred rabbit genotypes fed two levels of dietary protein. Materials and methods The experiment was conducted at the rabbitry unit of the University of Agriculture, Makurdi Teaching and Research Farm, Makurdi, Nigeria. Makurdi is located on longitude 80 31ʹ East and latitude 70 41ʹ North (Abu, 2002). Annual temperature of Makurdi ranges from 21.180C to 33.250C with an average of 220C. The annual rainfall is between 1500mm – 1800mm with a relative humidity of 47-85% (Abu, 2002). Experimental Diet The composition of the two experimental diets used in the study is as shown in Table 1 below: Table 1: Percent ingredient composition of experimental diets for rabbits Experimental Animals and Procedures A total of twenty four (24) six weeks old crossbred weaner rabbits (12 Chinchilla × Dutch belted and 12 New Zealand white × California) of nearly uniform weights with average initial weight of 523 g were purchased from the rabbitry unit of Dagwom Farm of the Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom, Nigeria and used for the study. Each crossbred genotype was made up of equal number of males and females. The rabbits were weighed individually to establish initial weights and thereafter, they were randomly assigned to the two dietary treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial experiment using the Ingredient 12% CP 17% CP Maize 59.45 45.62 Groundnut cake 7.60 21.43 Brewers dried grain 6.00 6.00 Bone ash 3.00 3.00 Rice offal 23.00 23.00 Vitamin premix 0.25 0.25 Methionine 0.25 0.25 Lysine 0.15 0.15 Common salt 0.30 0.30 Total 100.00 100.00 Calculated values Crude protein % 12.01 16.99 Crude fibre % 12.31 12.59 Crude fat % 4.13 4.35 Calcium % 1.19 1.22 Phosphorus % 0.65 1.05 ME (Kcal/kg) 2695 2585 Analyzed value Dry matter 91.30 91.05 Crude protein 12.13 17.50 Crude fibre 11.95 12.20 Ether extract 7.25 7.85 Ash 6.55 7.10 Nitrogen free extract 62.22 55.35 complete randomized design. The animals were fed their respective diets and water was given ad libitum. The experiment lasted for 90 days. Parameters Measured Feed Intake: Each rabbit was served a weighed quantity of feed daily. Average daily feed intake was calculated by subtracting the weight of the left over feed from the weight of the feed that was served. Daily Weight Gain: Weekly weight gain for a rabbit was obtained by subtracting the previous week’s weight from the current week’s weight. Daily weight gain was, therefore, obtained by dividing the weekly gain by the seven (7), that is, the number of days in a week. Total Weight Gain: This was computed by subtracting the initial weight of a rabbit from its final weight. Feed Conversion Ratio: The efficiency with which rabbits in the various treatment groups converted the feed consumed into body tissues was computed as the ratio of the average feed consumed to the average weight gain. This is mathematically expressed as; FCR =Average feed intake/Average Body weight gain. Statistical Analysis Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 14.0 (2004). The following linear model was entertained: Yijk = µ + Ci + Dj + (CD)ij + eijk Where: Yijk = Single observation. µ = Overall population mean. Ci = Random effect of the i th crossbred genotype (i = 1, 2) Dj = Fixed effect of the j th diet (j = 1, 2). CDij = Fixed effect of the interaction between the genotype and diet. Eijk = Random residual error. Where significant differences were observed, the means were separated using the Duncan multiple range test as outlined by Steel and Torrie (1980) Results and discussion The performance of the two crossbred rabbit genotypes fed two levels of dietary crude protein is presented in Table 2. Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred differed (p<0.05) from New Zealand white × California crossbred in all growth performance traits studied. Table 2: Performance of two crossbred rabbits fed two levels of dietary protein (12 % and 17 %) Parameter Chinchilla × Dutch belted New Zealand white × California Initial weight 524.84 ± 4.17a 525.17 ± 8.17b Final weight 1762.50 ± 67.51a 1368.00 ± 35.32b Total weight gain 1237.66 ± 77.17a 842.83 ± 62.78b Daily weight gain 13.75 ± 1.45a 9.36 ± 1.05b Feed intake 50.45 ± 2.26a 41.69 ± 2.45b Feed conversion ratio 3.67 ± 0.58a 4.45 ± 0.67b The average daily weight gain obtained in the present study agrees closely with the values of 12.32 – 12.98 g reported by Odoh et al. (2007) but much higher than those reported by Olabanjo et al. (2007); 3.65 – 9.57 g and Umoren and Ojo (2007); 4.72 – 6.94 g when they fed rabbits with diets containing protein levels similar to those used in this study. Differences in weight gain as reported by various researchers could be due to differences in breed type. Similarly, average daily feed intakes obtained in this study fall within the range of 24.21 – 45.15 g reported by Umoren and Ojo (2007) but lower than 61.16 – 74.32 g reported by Akinunsi et al. (2007) for rabbits under similar nutritional plane. Differences in feed intake could be attributable to several factors such as age of the animal, energy concentration of the feed and differences in general management practices. The values of feed conversion ratio reported here are better than those of 4.50 – 4.73 and 5.82 – 7.12 obtained by Akinmutimi et al. (2007) and Umoren and Ojo (2007), respectively. Differences in feed conversion ratio reflect differences in the efficiency of feed utilization by different breeds/genotypes. The Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred rabbit had a lower feed conversion ratio, indicating a lower kilogram of feed intake per a kilogram of body weight gain as compared to the New Zealand white × California crossbred. The significant (p<0.05) difference in growth performance observed between the Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred and the New Zealand white × California crossbred in this study might be due to a good breed complementarity existing between the Chinchilla breed and the Dutch belted breed than do the New Zealand white and the California breeds. In other words, there could have been a better nicking when Chinchilla rabbit is crossed with the Dutch belted breed than when New Zealand white rabbit breed is crossed with the California breed. Table 3 shows the effect of two dietary crude protein levels on the performance of two crossbred rabbits. Crossbred rabbits on diet containing 17% CP performed higher (p<0.05) in final weight, total weight gain, average daily weight gain and feed conversion ration than those fed 12% CP. This could obviously be as a result of differences in the protein levels of the diets. This finding is in agreement with the report of Odi (1992) that low levels of dietary Table 3: Effect of two dietary protein levels on the performance of two crossbred rabbits (Chinchilla × Dutch belted and New Zealand white × California) Parameter Chinchilla × Dutch belted New Zealand white × California Initial weight 526.84 ± 0.20 529.17 ± 4.17 Final weight 1741.67 ±109.491a 1389.17 ±379.09b Total weight gain 1214.83 ± 77.83a 860.00 ± 64.95b Daily weight gain 13.49 ± 1.52a 9.56 ± 1.01b Feed intake 49.69 ± 2.61a 42.54 ± 2.21b Feed conversion ratio 3.68 ± 0.76a 4.45 ± 0.04b protein fed to rabbits reduced their weight gain and impaired their reproductive performance. It equally corroborates the report of Fasanya and Ijaiya (2002) who observed increase in weight gain in rabbits as their protein level in the diet increased. Table 4: Crossbred × protein level interaction on growth performance of two crossbred rabbits fed two levels of dietary protein Chinchilla × Dutch belted New Zealand white × California SEM Parameter 12% CP 17% CP 12% CP 17% CP Initial weight 525.00 516.67 523.33 517.00 3.95 Final weight 1695.00a 1830.00a 1583.33b 1653.33a 164.85 Total weight gain 117.00a 1313.33a 1060.00b 1136.33a 14.55 Daily weight gain 13.00a 14.59a 11.77b 12.63a 2.08 Feed intake 52.83a 47.64a 45.68b 44.22a 7.08 Feed conversion ratio 4.06b 3.27a 3.88b 3.50b 1.01 The effect of crossbred × protein level interaction on the growth performance of two crossbred rabbits fed two levels of dietary protein is presented in Table 4. The outstanding performance of the Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred compared to the New Zealand white × California crossbred in all the studied parameters was such that while Chinchilla × Dutch belted genotype excelled the New Zealand white × California crossbred at 12% CP, it equaled the performance (p>0.05) of the New Zealand white × California at 17% CP. The difference in performance between the crossbreds subjected to the same nutritional condition could be due to differences in their gene assemblage (genetic make-up). Okeyo (1997) had shown that two breeds of sheep maintained under a common environment performed differently. Similarly, the performance (p<0.05) of Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred in all the growth parameters when compared with the New Zealand white × California crossbred on 12% CP, which also equaled the performance of the New Zealand white × California crossbred on 17^% CP, could be a demonstration of genotype x protein level (environment) interaction. Conclusion and recommendation A comparative study on the growth performance of two crossbred rabbit genotypes (Chinchilla × Dutch belted and New Zealand white × California) raised on two dietary crude protein levels (12% and 17%) revealed that the Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred was superior (p<0.05) to New Zealand white × California crossbred in final weight, total weight gain, average daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio at 12% CP. However, at 17%CP, both crossbreds performed similarly (p>0.05) for all the growth traits, thus demonstrating genotype x protein level interaction. It is recommended that within the limits of this study, the Chinchilla × Dutch belted crossbred rabbit be adopted for widespread use in Nigeria and perhaps the tropic because of its excellent performance on 12% CP diet considered to be maintenance ration for rabbits. References Abu, I. 2002. Agro-meteorological appraisal and crop scheduling in Makurdi LGA, Benue State. B. Agric. Thesis. Dept of Soil Science. University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria. Pp 22-26. Aduku, A.O. and Olukosi, J.O. 1990. Animal Products Processing and Handling in the Tropics. Living Book Publishers, Zaria Nigeria. Pp 24-32. Akinmutimi, A.H., Abasiekong, S.F. and Osuagwu, C.C. 2007. Growth performance of weaner rabbits fed sweet potato peels in place of maize base diet. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual conference of the Nigeria Society for Animal Production. University of Calabar, Calabar, March 18th – 21st 2007. 347-349. Akinunsi, F.A.O., Bamgbose, A.M., Ogunola, A.B., and Alade, A.A. 2007. Performance characteristics and cost benefits of feeding weaner rabbits with cashew nut residue based diet. Nig. J. Anim. Prod. 34(2): 203-207. Amaefule, K.U., Iheukwumere, F.C. and Nwaokoro C.C. 2005. A note on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of rabbits fed graded dietary levels of boiled pigeon pea seed (Cajanus cajan). Livestock Research for Rural Development 17(5). Egbo, M.L., Doma, U.D. and Lacdaks, A.B. 2001. Characteristics of small scale rabbit production and management in Bauchi metropolis. Proceedings of the 26th annual conference of Nigeria Society for Animal Production. 18 -21 March, 2001. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Pp 160-162. Ekpeyong, T.E. 1988. Growth performance and breeding standard for rabbits. Proceedings of second national conference on rabbit production organized by AERLS, 31ST August, 1988. Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Fasanya, O.O.A. and Ijaiya, M.O. 2002. Effect of varying levels of dietary protein on the performance of rabbits. Nig. J. Anim. Prod. 29 (2) 168-175. Luke-Fahr, S.D., Hohenboken, W.D., Cheeke, P.R.and Patton, N.M. 1983. Doe reproduction and preweaning litter performance of straight bred and crossbred rabbits. J. Anim. Sci. 57; 5-9 Odi, B.H. 1992. The effect of dietary protein levels on the reproductive performance of rabbit does. A review presented at the Department f Animal Science seminar, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, November, 1992. 26pp. Odoh, O.E., Onuh, S.O. and Iorgyer, M.L. 2007. Effect of flushing on the reproduccctive performance of rabbits. Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the Nigeria Society for Animal Production, Calabar. 18 – 21 March, 2007. Okeyo, A.M. 1997. Challenges of goat improvement in developing rural economies of Eastern Africa with special reference to Kenya. In: Ahuya and van Houton (Eds.). Proceeding of a workshop on goat development in East Africa. 8-11th December, 1997. Nairobi Kenya. Olabanjo, R.R., Farinu, G.O. Akinlade, J.A. And Ojebiyi, O.O. 2007. Growth performance and haematological characteristics of weaner rabbits fed different levels of wild flower (Tithonia diversifolia Heml A. Gray) leaf-blood meal mixture. Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the Nigeria Society for Animal Producction, 18-21 March, 2007, Calabar. Nigeria. Rajadevan, P., Goonewarden, L., Ravindran, V. and Rajaguru, S.B. 1987. An investigation on the productive traits of ccrossbred rabbits in Sri-Lanka. World Rev. Animal Production. 23(2): 91-95. Rao, D.R., Sunki, G.R., Johnson W.M. and Chen C.P. 1977. Postnatal growth of the New Zealand white rabbits. J. Anim. Sci. 44, 1021-1025. Sanchez, W.K., Cheeke, P.R. and Patton N.M. 1985. Effect of dietary protein level on the reproductive performance and growth of the New Zealand white rabbits. J. Anim. Sci. 60: 1029-1039. SPSS 2004. Statistical package for social sciences. Release 14.0 for windows. IL 60611. Chicago. Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. 1980. Priciples and Procedures of Statistics: A Biometric Approach. 2nd Edition, New York USA. McGraw Hill Books Inc., 633pp. Umoren, U.E. and Ojo, T.J. 2007. Comparative evaluation of maize, cassava, cocoyam and Icacinia Manni as energy source for growing rabbits. Proceedings of the 32nd annual conference of the Nigeria Society for Animal Production 18-21, March,2007. Implementation of genomic selection: Steps and experience in dairy cattle and goats populations: Implications for intensification of dairy production in Africa Mrode, R. International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. BOX 30709, Nairobi Abstract Genomic prediction and selection of animals on the basis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) from dense marker maps in practical animal breeding has not only grown in popularity in recent years but is becoming the method of choice. This has been fuelled by the reduction in genotyping or sequencing costs over time. In this talk, steps involved in the implementation of genetic selection on basis of genomic breeding values in the dairy cattle and goat populations in the UK are briefly outlined. With large number of genotyped bulls available for the Holstein breed in the UK, a SNPBLUP model has fitted, with the subsequent incorporation of parental contributions from conventional genetic evaluations; the so called two-step approach. The gain in reliability for genomic breeding values of young bulls was about 0.33 for production traits but varied from 0.20 to 15 for fitness traits of lower heritabilities such as somatic cell counts and lifespan. The comparison of initial genomic breeding values for a group of bulls with no daughter information to evaluations that later included daughters' records demonstrated good predictive of the SNP BLUP model. However, when number of genotyped animals is limited as in the dairy goat population in the UK, results indicated that the single step approach was optimal. The implications of both approaches are assessed in terms of the application of genomics for small holder farmers in Africa Production Systems, diversity and richness of cavy culture in Cameroon Meutchieye, F.1*, Ayagirwe, B.B.R.1, Wikondi, J.1, Youchahou, P.1, Bisimwa, B.C.2, Bacigale, S.B.3, Wamonje, F.4, Fon, D.E.1, Osama, S.4, Metre, T.K.3, Niba, A.T.1, Nyebe, M.G.I.1, Manjeli, Y.1 and Mwai, O.5 1Department of Animal Science, University of Dschang, Cameroon; 2Institut Supérieur des Techniques Médicales (ISTM), Bukavu, DRC; 3Université Evangélique en Afrique (UEA), Bukavu, DRC; 4Biosciences in eastern and central Africa –ILRI, Kenya; 5International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya, *Corresponding author: fmeutchieye@gmail.com Abstract In order to assess existing cavy production systems of Cameroon western highlands and rain forest agro-ecological zones, a household baseline survey was carried out in a total of 500 households randomly chosen. It appears that cavy culture is a women (> 60%) and youth (>12%) driven livestock production system for both regions. The main motives are consumption (62%), income generation (32%) and manure (18%). The majority of actors are smallholders, more or less organized, with flock size varying from 3 to >500, with a mean of 16 per farmer. Average adult cavy live weight was 620g (±35). The most common production technique was ‘kitchen free roaming’, with only few caging. A total of 475 cavy biodata samples were collected to estimate the genetic variability using 13 microsatellites markers. Inbreeding was a real challenge in all study sites (Fis = 0.32852). Cameroon’s cavy populations demonstrated four putative subpopulations with a wide range of variation, and very distant to 2 other country types. Genetic potential and breeding-related constraints were identified in all the zones. Traits of importance from farmers’ views were growth, adaptability and fecundity. There is need for a well designed and comprehensive national breeding program for cavies, and increased capacity building of farmers to address mortality rates and health issues. Rapid improvements in production could be easily achieved with huge potential impacts through improved feeding and reproduction management. Key words: Cameroon, domestic cavy, genetic diversity, husbandry, smallholders. Introduction Cavyculture offers an alternative for food and income generation for many rural and peri urban households in sub Sahara Africa (Dikko et al., 2009; Lammers et al., 2009). The potential has not yet been thoroughly exploited for Cameroon context where accessibility to animal protein is becoming a real challenge (Ngoupayou et al., 1995). Beside the production systems per se, genetic material introduced in various stages from South America has received little or no attention. Recent molecular techniques opened wide the opportunity to populations characterization (Sportono et al., 2004). The aim of our study was respectively to assess the cavy production systems and cavy populations’ genetic variability in Cameroon. Material and methods A baseline survey was undertaken on a total 500 households randomly chosen using snow ball approach in western highlands and rainfall agroecological zones of Cameroon. Data were analyzed under SPSS 18.0. Genomic DNA was extracted from 475 FTA cards collected from non related cavy individuals. Following Sportono et al., (2004) procedure genetic variability was evaluated using 13 cavy microsatellites and data processed under GenAlex 6.0. Native populations were genetically compared to some cavies populations from Colombia, Cote d’Ivoire and DRC. Results It appears from our findings (not shown) that cavy keeping is a women (> 60%) and youth (>12%) driven livestock production system. As displayed in table 1 here below, the main motives are consumption (62%), income generation (32%) and manure (18%). Table 1: Cavy keeping motives in Cameroon Motives for cavy keeping Main motive Secondary motive Sales 33.5% 37.0% House consumption 27.5% 35.0% Manure 18.5% 17.8% Secondary self employment 16.0% 6.0% Pet 4.5% 4.2% Total 100.0% 100.0% Majority of actors are smallholders, more or less organized, with flock size varying from 3 to >500, average adult cavy live weight being 620g (±35), with a mean of 16 per farmer (data not shown). Health and feeding were the highest constraints faced by cavy keepers. As shown in table 2, only 4% of cavy keepers were able to feed their flock with both grass and legume forages. Table 2: Cavy feeding systems Feeding systems Frequency Percentage Kitchen free roaming and cavies fed with fresh harvested forage 7 1.9 Kitchen free roaming and cavies fed with fresh harvested forage and kitchen wastes 340 91.4 Kitchen free roaming and cavies fed with fresh legumes and forage 4 1.1 Total kitchen free roaming 21 5.6 Total 372 100 The most common production technique was ‘kitchen free roaming’, with only few caging. Total penning was very scarce in general. High mortalities were noted in all households, particularly for kids before weaning stages. Sudden mortalities were also common (data not shown) depriving the overall growth of cavy populations. From molecular analysis, it appears that inbreeding was a real challenge in all study sites with inbreeding index (Fis) = 0.32852 (data not shown). All the 13 loci were polymorphic and structured the samples cavies in their respective origin groups in general (see figure 1 below). Cameroon cavy population is very distinct with a clearly 02 genetic types (data not shown). Figure 1: Four countries Cavy populations’ phylogenetic relationships Discussion, conclusion and implications Production systems we described in our findings were identified earlier (Manjeli et al., 1998) as traditional guinea pig management system. Most of challenges were also those found by Dikko et al., (2009) in Nigeria. The opportunities for better cavy keeping development were discussed by Niba et al., (2012) and are being unraveled by our study. Genetic variability and population segregation could have been caused by isolation or introduction of foreign “blood” into local genepool (Niba et al., 2012). There have been some private initiatives to distribute heavy Central America breeds in order to improve the live body weight of native genetic types. Cavy culture in Cameroon is dominated by smallholder systems, with variegated cavy populations. Developing opportunities are enormous, while considering better feeding practices and health management, as well as reproduction to address inbreeding issues. Solutions could be tapped locally from available resources, within the country or in connection with other African countries. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided to the Biosciences eastern and central Africa hub at the International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI Hub) by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) through a partnership between Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) through the research Project No. CSI002-GUI. References Dikko, A.H., S.S.A. Egena., A.A. Malik., and H. Ibrahim. 2009. Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) as an untapped protein source for man: The Potentialities, Opportunities and Challenges. Proceedings of 14th Annual Conference of Animal Science Association of Nigeria (ASAN) September 14th – 17th 2009, LAUTECH Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Lammers, P.J., Sarah, L.C., Gretchen, A. Z., and Mark, S.H. 2009. Reducing food insecurity in developing countries through meat production: the potential of the Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus). Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 24(2): 155-162. Manjeli Y., Tchoumboué J., Njwé R.S.M. and Teguia A. 1998. Guinea-pig productivity under traditional management. Trop. Anim. Hlth Prod. 30 (2): 115-122. Ngoupayou, J.D, Kouonmenioc, N.J., Tagny, J. M. F., Cicogna, M., Castroville, C., Rigoni, M., and Hardouin, J. 1995. Possibilités de développement de l'élevage du cobaye en Afrique subsaharienne: le cas du Cameroun. World Animal Review 83(2):20-28. Niba, A.T., Meutchieye, F., Fon, D., Laisin, A.G., Taboh, H., Njakoi, H., Bela Tomo, A., Maass, B.L., and Djikeng, A. and Manjeli, Y. 2012. Current situation of cavy production in Cameroon: Challenges and opportunities. Livestock Research for Rural Development, Vol. 24, Article # 194. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd24/11/niba24194.htm. Spotorno, A.E., Valladeres, J.P., Marin, J.C., and Zeballos, H. 2004. Molecular diversity among domestic guinea-pigs (Cavia porcellus) and their close phylogenetic relationship with the Andean wild species Cavia tschudii. PIGS Revista Chilena de Appraising the extent of cavy culture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Maass, B.L.1*, Metre, T.K.2, Tsongo, F.3, Mugisho, A.B.4, Kampemba, F.M.5, Ayagirwe, R.B.B.2, Azine, P.C.2 and Bindelle, J.6 1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), P.O. Box 823-00621, Nairobi, Kenya; 2Département de Zootechnie, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques et Environnement, Université Evangélique en Afrique (UEA), Bukavu, Sud-Kivu, DR Congo; 3Vétérinaires sans Frontières Belgique (VSF-B), Butembo, Nord-Kivu, DR Congo; 4UECCO asbl (Union des Eleveurs de Cobaye au Congo), Bukavu, Sud-Kivu, DR Congo; 5Département de Zootechnie, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université de Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Katanga, DR Congo; 6Universityof Liège, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Animal Science Unit, Passage des Déportés 2, B-5030 Gembloux, Belgium * Corresponding author: b.maass@cgiar.org Abstract For the first time, the extent of cavy culture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is assessed with emphasis on Sud-Kivu province. Cavy culture is defined as the raising, production and utilization of the domestic cavy (i.e., Guinea pig, Cavia porcellus L.) as farm animal. Although published research literature is extremely scarce, it can be estimated from various sources that more than 2 million cavies are kept as farm animals in DRC, probably contributing significantly to nutrition security and income generation of several hundreds of thousands of poor rural and urban households. This review estimates the current status of cavy populations in the country. The largest cavy populations were claimed in the Kivu provinces, which may be partly due to the inclusion of cavies in the agricultural portfolio of development agencies and in 'rehabilitation kits' of humanitarian NGOs who seek to address the challenges of widespread hunger and malnutrition in the area. Research and capacity building needs related to cavy culture are also identified. Given the dimension, we propose that cavies should generally be included in livestock census, honoring their role in the livelihoods of less endowed people, especially women. This review was undertaken within the project 'Harnessing husbandry of domestic cavy for alternative and rapid access to food and income in Cameroon and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo'. Small is beautiful: cavies improve livelihoods in DR Congo South Kivu province Chiuri, W., Maass, B., Wimba, B., Amzati, G., Muhimuzi, F., Amani, C., Habumugisha, P., Metre, T. and Bacigale, S. *Corresponding author; w.chiuri@cgiar.org Abstract The current debate on African agriculture is women’s limited access and control of production assets which jeopardizes the sector. Women need more access and control of production assets, but how and who will do it? On the other hand, little attention is given to what women control (small livestock) by researchers, extension and development agents, despite their potential in food and nutrition security, gender equity and women empowerment and general improvement of livelihoods. The domestic cavy (Guinea pig / Cavia porcellus) is one of them. Thus, the AustAID-funded project ‘Harnessing husbandry of domestic cavy for alternative and rapid access to food and income in Cameroon and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)’ aimed to contribute to improved cavy husbandry, introduction to forage production and generate reliable information on their contribution to livelihoods. “Small is beautiful”, Professor Schumacher said. In a world, where big is better, it takes thinking outside the box to see the world from African women’s eyes. Cavies are small and they are kept mostly by women and young people. They are one of the women’s controlled livestock for nutrition and incomes. Women constitute 64% of cavy producers and traders. Assuming that Cavies are the only source of cash and proteins, it is estimated that in one calendar year, a household of 5.6 members needs 130 cavies to meet their basic nutrition and income of (above 1.25 dollars a day) requirements, if the cavies average weight is 800g, achieved with improved forage production and cavy husbandry. With the traditional husbandry, the family needs 230 cavies. Key word: Cavies, Empowerment, Livelihoods, Women, Youth Introduction The current debate on African agriculture has given substantial attention to African Women within small-scale farming households, where they provide the bulk of the labor required both for cash and food crops. They are also in charge of household welfare, health, and food and nutrition security. They meet these obligations with limited access to and control of production assets, services and information. Hence, the sub-Saharan agricultural sector is underperforming because women do not have equal access to resources and opportunities that they need to be more productive (FAO, 2011, 2012, 2013). As a result, many African countries have been unable to meet their Millennium Development Goals on gender equality (MDG 3), poverty and food security (MDG 1) which are mutually reinforcing. In order to address the gender differences, use of small livestock is imperative. Thornton et al. (2003) estimated that 600 million small livestock keepers are women from developing countries. According to Kristjanson et al. (2010), it is easier for many women in developing economies “…to acquire livestock assets, whether through inheritance, markets or collective action processes, than it is for them to purchase land or other physical assets or to control other financial assets”. This means that, women’s ownership of small livestock may be a faster route to their access and control of resources and assets that can propel them to empowerment, Methodology and Site Selection After the commissioning of Sud-Kivu Provincial Cavy Innovation Platform, a baseline survey was conducted with a sample of 250 households. Snowball sampling method was used to target only those households with cavies. Based on information gathered during the baseline study, four sites have been selected for establishing Cavy sub-Innovation Platforms (sub-IPs) in three territories (in brackets), Muhongoza (Kalehe), Nyacibimba (Kabare), Kamanyola and Tubimbi (both Walungu). Impact Pathway and Data Correction The pathway to impact is constructed through innovation platforms (IPs) (Figure 1). An IP is defined as ‘a space for learning and change composed of a group of individuals (who often represent organizations) with different backgrounds and interests: farmers, traders, food processors, researchers, government officials among others. They come together to diagnose problems, identify opportunities and find ways to achieve goals (Homann-Kee Tui, et al, 2013). Figure 1. Pathway to impact by making use of Innovation Platforms. In South Kivu Province, we have two layers of innovation platforms; the provincial platform, which is the official platform with a wide variety of stakeholders, and village-level sub-platforms, which are composed of farmers’ and traders’ associations. These sub-IPs are in four sites selected after the baseline study and they are the forums which propose the agenda for the required research activities and other interventions depending on the farmers/traders/consumers’ felt needs, problems and opportunities. Members participate in information gathering that is then shared with the rest of the group and with the provincial IP if necessary. Results and discussions The section below discusses the results gained over the 2 years the project has been in implementation. Using integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) approach and establishing Innovation Platforms (IPs) has been instrumental in getting women and small livestock on the research map in DR Congo. Innovation Platform The cavy project was designed to use the IAR4D approach. Therefore, at the onset of the project, a Sud-Kivu Cavy Provincial Innovation Platform was established and commissioned on 2nd-5th May, 2012 in Bukavu. The project team established cavy farmers groups in each research site which are key pillars for the provincial Innovation Platform. Membership was and is based on cavy ownership. Four sub-IPs exist in Kalehe, Kabare, Kamanyola and Tubimbi. Each sub-IP has a management committee which is assisted by sub-committees (commissions) to handle, (i) Market; (ii) Monitoring & Evaluation; (iii) Technical; and (iv) Credit (Table 1). Women are inevitably the majority and they are very active. This gives them a voice and space for leadership. Table 1: Women/men in leadership S-IP Committee S-IP Commissions Men Women Total Men Women Total Kalehe 4 6 10 Market 1 3 4 M&E 2 2 4 Credit 2 1 3 Technical 3 2 5 Kabare 3 8 11 Market 1 2 3 M&E 2 3 5 Credit 2 2 4 Technical 2 4 6 Tubimbi 3 6 9 Market 1 3 4 M&E 2 2 4 Credit 1 2 3 Technical 1 2 3 Kamanyola 5 6 11 Market 3 3 6 M&E 2 1 3 Credit 2 2 4 Technical 1 2 3 15 26 41 28 36 64 As table 1 above shows, women are keen to take leadership in cavy associations. The office bearers in each of these positions are democratically elected through secret ballot. Women are maintaining this leadership as exemplified recent elections in 2 of the study sites; Kamanyola and Tubimbi which were conducted in June 2014 with the following results (Table 2). Table 2: Sub-IP Kamanyola and Tubimbi new office bearers Kamanyola Tubimbi Number per position Position Sex Position Sex 1 President F President F 1 V/President F V/President F 1 Secretary M Secretary M 1 V/Secretary M V/Secretary F 3 Advisers F M M Sud-Kivu provincial Cavy IP meets thrice in one year while the sub-IPs meet every month. Women participate a lot more than men in the meetings Table 3 below. Table 3: Attendance list July 2013 - June 2014 Gend er 2013 2014 Jul y Au g Sep t Oct No v Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun e Wom en 119 129 188 109 127 146 70 101 76 71 91 70 Men 78 78 93 91 85 91 55 34 37 41 37 37 Each of these sub-IPs are registered with the provincial government. Savings and Credit After the sub-IPs were registered, it was imperative to introduce savings and credit to the members. This meant that they needed to have group bank accounts and also agree to start group savings. Members were encouraged to open up bank accounts with savings from membership contribution and from cavy sales. The banking activity is a learning experience on how to save and borrow from formal financial institutions and thus demystifying micro finance. Members in each sub-IP decided their monthly contributions which range from half a dollar to a dollar. Tubimbi sub-IP is the exception; the members have yet to decide how much each will contribute to common savings. Women’s livestock Women and children own, control eat and sell cavies. Main reason for keeping cavies is consumption, followed by incomes generation and manure production is the third. Cavies (Cavia porcellus) in DR Congo provide women with a livestock asset they are in total control of in terms of incomes, production, manure, purchase, sales and consumption. It is a female livestock not only in DR Congo but in many other African countries where they are found (Maass et al., 2014 unpublished report). Cavy culture is common across the humid tropics belt of sub-Saharan Africa with high potential as a start up kit out of poverty for the most poor rural and peri-urban households. They provide the initial step in livestock ladder (Maass, 2013). Cavy husbandry provides a primary source of asset accumulation that can enable women and their families start climbing the livestock ladder to improved incomes, food and nutrition security, source of manure, and ultimately improved livelihoods (Maass et al., 2013). If larger livestock are acquired, they often become the property of adult males in the households as culture dictates. However, women may still retain the cavies or ‘step out’ of the livestock ladder and engage in other livelihood options. However, in the study site, insecurity is still a major hindrance to larger livestock keeping. Therefore, families have settled for small livestock like cavies for women and chicken for men. Cavy value chain and markets Poor access to regular, reliable and profitable markets by small-scale farmers is one of the causes for low technology adoption and lack of interest in improved production. Farmers are shy to invest if the market is unreliable, unprofitable or non-existent (Jack, 2013). In addition, women, face special market access challenges especially if the markets are too far away from the villages or if the market value chains are long and complex (Kristjanson et. al 2010). Cavies on the other hand, have a ready market within production neighborhoods and have short value chains making it easier for women not only to participate but to take the lead in cavy trade. Many cavies are traded among neighbors and the nearest markets. Demand for cavies still far exceeds supply and prices are based on size and the season, ranging from 0.5 USD for small size of less than 500g; USD 0.8$ for medium sized (500-800g), and about 2 dollars for large size of over 800g. In Tanzania, Matthiesen (2011) found the same, that cavies have good local ready market at Tanzanian shillings 1500-3500 (1.0-2.3USD) per animal depending on size and season. Most cavy keepers sell them seasonally to raise money for school fees and school supplies. Prices rise during Easter and Christmas due to high demand which far exceeds the supply (Maass et al. 2014). Prices also escalate when armed forces/soldiers and miners are paid. Table 4: Total recorded sales and average prices in USD for selected months in 2013 and 2014 2013 2014 April May June Jan Feb March Total sales (numbers) Total sales No 2453 3982 2984 2790 4644 3956 Approximate weights range (gm) Average price (USD) Average price (USD) Small (kids) 300-500 0.55 0.52 0.45 0.6 0.57 0.7 Medium sized 500-800 1.03 1.15 0.93 1.2 1.27 0.98 Large sized 800-1200 1.82 1.87 1.7 1.87 1.97 2.03 Cultivated forages for Cavies In planting of forage materials, women constitute 73.4% of those who had planted forages by March 2014. They are taking the lead trying various forage options on their plots. Most of the farmers integrate the grasses with other crops. Many of them plant the grasses on the edge of their plots and some are also used to curb soil erosion Table 5: Number of men and women cavy farmers with forage production Site Men (no.) Women (no.) Total (no.) Grasses on the edge of a bean plots Kalehe 9 23 32 Kabare 3 17 20 Kamanyol a 5 3 8 Tubimbi 4 15 19 Total (no.) 21 58 79 Total (%) 26.6 73.4 100 Figure 2. Grass legume as a soil erosion control crop Cavies’ impact on livelihoods Small livestock and cavies in particular can improve families’ livelihoods by providing cheap reliable source of animal protein, quick cash incomes and manure to improve production of other food crops. Given the local prices and the reliable ready markets we made the assumption that if the family of 5.6 members had only cavies as the sole source of livelihood (which is very unlikely), under the current low-input husbandry, they would need to have over 230 cavies at any one single time within an year. This would help them meet their protein requirement per month and generate enough income of at least 1.25 dollars a day. With reliable feeding and feeds, right housing and improved husbandry the same family would need only 130 cavies in one year for the same (Fig 2). Thus a cavy keeping family which adopts forage production and improved cavy husbandry can improve its livelihood using cavies as the starter kit. Conclusions Small is beautiful and profitable. Cavy husbandry in the humidtropics highlands provide an avenue for easy, cheap and quick alternatives to animal protein source, manure, soil erosion vegetation among others. But the most exciting role that cavies are playing and can play in African agriculture is in empowering women and giving them space and voice to take leadership in local cavy institutions as well as have assets that they are in total control of. For African women to make the changes needed to get the continent self-sufficient in food and nutrition security, more assets, like the cavies, that can be under total control of women need to be identified and promoted vigorously. Men rarely interfere with cavy production within their households. They are more interested in owning and controlling poultry and eggs and this should be promoted alongside cavies to have gender equity. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Australian Agency for International Development (AUSAID) for their financial support under the African Food Security Initiative and through the partnership between Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and the Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (BecA) Hub at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). We acknowledge, the role University Evangelic Africaine has played as a research partner and as a host. Specific gratitude go to the vice chancellor/Rector Dr. Gustave and his administration office. We appreciate the cavy farmers involvement and willingness to try new ways of cavy husbandry. Special recognition to the women, who have dared to take leadership positions in various institutions. We thank all the partners of the South Kivu Cavy IP for accepting to work with cavy farmers and traders to make this a viable production line. References: Mass, B et.al (2013) DR Congo, Cavy Project Technical Report 2013-unpublished Mètre, T. (2011). Small, healthy, high-yielding. Rural21: The InternationalJournal for Rural Development, 45(1), 40-42. Patti Kristjanson, Ann waters-bayer, Nancy johnson, Anna tipilda, Jemimah njuki, Isabelle baltenweck, Delia grace and Susan macmillan (2010). Livestock and Women’s Livelihoods: A review of the recent evidence discussion paper no. 20. International livestock research institute, Nairobi, Kenya. Homann-Kee Tui, S., Adekunle, A., Lundy, M., Tucker, J., Birachi, E., Schut, M., Klerkx, L., Ballantyne, P.G., Duncan, A.J., Cadilhon, J. and Mundy, P. 2013. What are innovation platforms? Innovation Platforms Practice Brief 1. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Thornton PK, Kruska RL, Henninger N, Kristjanson PM, Reid RS, Robinson TP. 2003. Locating poor livestock keepers at the global level for research and development targeting. Land Use Policy 20(4):311–322. Jack, B. Kelsey. 2013. “Constraints on the adoption of agricultural technologies in developing countries.” Literature review, Agricultural Technology Adoption Initiative, J-PAL (MIT) and CEGA (UC Sub-theme 2: Pastoral Systems: Options for Tomorrow Enhancing resilient pastoral based livelihoods in Africa in a changing world: Challenges and opportunities Njoka, J.T. Center for Sustainable Dryland Ecosystems and Societies, Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi Corresponding address: jesse.njoka@uonbi.ac.ke Abstract Sustainable Pastoral production system is increasingly on the decline in Africa despite the recent acknowledgement of its potential to contribute to the development of rural economy, improved livelihoods and sustainable management dryland resources. The dryland ecosystems cover about 45% of the continent. The Policy Framework for Pastoralism in Africa ( AU-IBAR 2010) which aims to address the worsening situation of pastoralism through various interventions , but the major concern if whether these policy initiatives are effective to facilitate the transition of pastoralism in Africa to cope with the fast pace of national, regional and international development emerging trends. This presentation (paper) briefly explores past development initiatives, contemporary challenges and opportunities for sustainable development options in face of changing world. Long-term monitoring of rangelands – Impacts of fire, tree cutting and livestock grazing on carbon sequestration in West Africa Koala, J.1, Sawadogo, L.1, Mohammed, S.2, Savadogo, P.1, and Zida, D.1 1INERA, Burkina Faso and 2International Livestock Research Institute Abstract The Thirteenth Conference of the Parties (COP 13) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the emerging issue of REDD in 2007, has increased the interest in managing dry forests and woodlands in sub-Saharan Africa for carbon storage and sequestration. A critical pre-requisite to managing savanna woodland for carbon storage and sequestration is a good knowledge about tree and shrub biomass. Providing accurate measurements of carbon stock is difficult without precise measurements of biomass.This research aimed to estimate the amounts of carbon that can be sequestered through trees and land management options while measuring the above and below ground biomass between control and treatment in existing long term grazing, fire and selective tree cutting experiments in the rangelands of Burkina Faso. Method used for above ground biomass assessment was indirect by (i) long term monitoring of tree growth at plot level by complete inventory of the trees on each plot (measurement of dbh and height) every five year and yearly herbaceous biomassassessment since 1992.(ii)Further, allometric equations were built for estimation of trees below and above ground biomass using as predictor above ground dendrometric parameters (circumference or Dbh). (iii) For belowground biomassdirect measurement by monoliths sampling is used once after 20 year of treatment.The results show that Grazing did not affect trees basal area but affect significantly their height while fire affect significantly both basal area and trees height. Herbaceous total biomass is affected negatively by grazing about 25%. This percentage is 1% for early fire. Fire promote annual herbaceous in replacement to the perennial one.For the studies species parameters such as circumference, diameter and height could use to predict accurately above and belowground biomass with R2 ranged from 0,58 to 0,91. The main effect of treatments (grazing fire and selective cutting) was not significant on roots total biomass for plot level. Nevertheless, their cumulative effect was significant. Roots biomass ranged from 7 to 21 t.ha-1 following the treatments. The result suggested that in dry savanna ecosystems disturbances affect mostly above ground biomass. Nevertheless, these ecosystems are adapted to the investigated disturbances since below ground root biomass is not affected by any of the treatment applied alone. Therefore, projects which aim to mitigate climate change by increasing carbon stocks in dry savanna ecosystems should pay more intention on the belowground biomass, taking care to avoid occurence of the three disturbances factors in the same landscape. Sero-epidemiological study of camel brucellosis in Mehoni district, south eastern Tigray, Ethiopia Habtamu, T.T.* and Fisseha, K.K. Mekelle University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mekelle, Ethiopia Corresponding author: habtamut@yahoo.com A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2012 - August 2013 to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of camel brucellosis in Mehoni District, Southeastern Tigray, Ethiopia. From the total of 450 sera (300 camels and 150 goats) collected, 26 animals were positive by Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT), and 11 of 19 camels and 5 of 7 goats were confirmed by complement fixation test (CFT). The overall seroprevalence of Brucella antibodies in camels and goats was 5.78% (26) and 3.56% (16) by RBPT and CFT, respectively. The logistic regression analysis showed highly significant association of positive antibody status with potential risk factors of age (P = 0.021, X2 = 9.689), history of abortion (P = 0.001, X2 = 129.964), and parity number (P = 0.006, X2 = 12.4754), and moderate associations based on herd size (p = 0.089, X2 = 4.8487) and for keeping camels in close contact with goats (P= 0.082, X2 = 3.0281). In contrast, seropositivity was not associated with sex (P=0.532, X2 = 0.3897) or, species (P= 0.857, X2 = 0.0324) or herd size (P= 0.089, X2 = 4.8487). Questionnaire interviews indicated that most of the animal owners were not aware of the zoonotic nature of brucellosis and they drank raw milk and do not take precautions in handling aborted foetuses. Clearly, further studies need to be conducted on the risk of human brucellosis in this area, to educate herders on zoonotic disease and to devise measures for disease control. Key words: Brucella: CFT: risk factors: RBPT Introduction Camels (Camelus deromedarius) are vital domestic animal species that are best adapted to harsh environments and fluctuating nutritional conditions of arid and extreme arid zones. These animals are endowed with extra ordinary features that enable them to survive and perform in such hard conditions (Teka, 1991). Dromedaries are versatile living assets that ensure food security even during the dry periods and also serve as means of transportation and draught power (Higgins et al., 1992). Africa hosts 80% of the world population of dromedary (16.5 million), of which 63% attributed to east Africa (Wilson, 1998). According to the animal population census (CSA, 2004), the camel population in Ethiopia is estimated to be 2.314 million. The major ethnic groups owning camels in Ethiopia are the Beja, Rashaida, Afar, Somali and Borana (Workneh, 2002). Camels are kept in the arid lowlands of Ethiopia which cover approximately 61-65% of the total area of the country and, are the homes to 12-13 % of the total human population (Beruk, 2003). In drought stricken areas, ruminants are inferior to camels because of their physiological dependence on large amounts of water for metabolism and cooling. However, camels can retain lactation and produce high quality of milk under drought condition which makes them admirably suited to human requirements even when they are dehydrated and when other milk producing animals perish (Yagil et al., 1994). In spite of its vital importance particularly to the marginalized communities in the dry zones of tropics and subtropics, studies about camel are very few. Published information on diseases reveals that camels may be either carrier or susceptible or suffering from a vast array of infectious and parasitic diseases (Kohler-Rollefson et al., 2001). Brucellosis is one of widespread infectious disease of camel that has considerable public health importance as camel milk is consumed in raw. Brucellosis was reported in camel from different countries of Africa and Asia (Abbas and Agab, 2002; Wernery and Kaaden, 2002). Previous serological surveys showed overall prevalence rates of 4.4% (Domenech, 1977) and 4.2% (Teshome et al., 2003) in different camel rearing areas of Ethiopia. However, available studies on camel brucellosis are scanty and do not provide detail epidemiological information of the disease in the particular study area. Therefore, the present study will be undertaken with the following objectives:  To determine the sero-prevalence of camel brucellosis in Mehoni district and  Identify potential risk factors associated with the disease MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of the Study Area This study was carried out in Mehoni district, north eastern part of Ethiopia which is located in south eastern Tigray Regional State, near to border of Afar. Mehoni is situated approximately between 130151 and 130301N and 390301 and 390551E longitude, 200 km to south east of Mekelle, the capital of Tigray (Diress et al., 1999). Study Population and Sample Size Determination Camel population in Mehoni district was represented the study population. However, the sample size required to determine the prevalence of camel brucellosis was determined by following standard formula recommended by Thrustfield (1995). N=1.962 Pexp(1-Pexp)/D2 With 5% desired precision, at 95% confidence level and with expected prevalence of 50%, a total of 384 serum samples was supposed to be collected proportionally from three selected pastoral associations of the study district (Genete, Kukuftu and Chercher), however to increase the precision, the sample size has been increased to be 450. Sampling Procedure The study district was selected purposively based on easiness for accessibility and camel population. Then, multi-stage sampling procedure was followed at three different stages to collect serum samples. The first stage is a primary sampling unit which represents each peasant association and was selected purposively based on the presence of camel population and easiness for accessibility. In the second and third stages; following proportionalization, camel herds and individual camels was selected randomly from each peasant association and herd, respectively. Data Collection Questionnaire Survey One hundred randomly selected camel owners from three pastoral associations of Mehoni district was interviewed by using structured questionnaire. Two questionnaire formats; one for serum sampled individual animal history and the other structured questionnaire format for herders were developed. By doing so; risk factors that have possible association with the occurrence of brucellosis were investigated and used to support serological results. Serological Survey About 10 ml of blood was collected from the jugular vein using plain vacutainer tubes. While collecting the sample (specific animal identification, sex, age, etc) was labeled on the tube and the tubes was left overnight to clot at room temperature and finally the serum was carefully separated by decanting on cryovials and stored in a refrigerator at -20°c until the time of testing. Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) All sera samples collected was initially screened by RBPT using RBPT antigen (Institut Pourquier 325, rue de la galèra 34097 Montpellier cedex 5, France) by following the standard procedure recommended by Nielson and Dunkan (1990). Sera samples were kept in a refrigerator at +40C before testing. Sera and antigen were left at room temperature for half an hour before the test to maintain to room temperature. Complement Fixation Test (CFT) Those positive sera with RBPT were further tested with CFT for confirmation using Standard Brucella abortus antigen (CVL, New Haw, Weybridge, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK). The CFT test proper and reagent preparation procedures were done by following the procedures outlined by OIE (2004). The reading was as complete fixation (no hemolysis) with water clear supernatant was recorded as + + + +, nearly complete fixation (75% clearing) as ++ +, partial hemolysis (50%) + + and some fixation (25% clearing) as +. Complete lack of fixation (complete hemolysis) was recorded as 0. For positive reactions final titration was recorded. Data Management and Analysis Different models or analytical tools were employed to analyze collected data on STATA version 16 Software. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze majority of the data collected by questionnaire. Chi-square test was used to rule out whether there was significant association between prevalence of camel brucellosis and different groups of sex and herding experience. In addition, General linear Model (GLM) procedure with t-test and Duncan’s multiple range tests were used to test differences of disease prevalence amongst different age, parity and herd size groups. RESULTS Overall Seroprevalence In this study, 450 sera (300 camels and 150 goats) were collected from three peasant associations (Genete, Chercher and Kukuftu) (Table 1). Using RBPT, 26 animals (5.8%) were identified as seropositive reactors from the total serum sample collected. The seropositive reactors with RBPT were subjected for further CFT confirmation. Accordingly, 16 (3.56%) overall seropositive reactors were detected by CFT (Table 2). Table 1: Total number of camels and goats sampled in each Peasant Association Peasant Association Animals Goats Camels Total Genete 50 (33.3%) 50 (16.7%) 100 (22.2%) Chercher 50 (33.3%) 125 (41.7 %) 175 (38.9%) Kukuftu 50 (33.3%) 125 (41.7 %) 175 (38.9%) Total (%) 150 (33.3%) 300 (66.7%) 450 (100.0%) Table 2: Overall seroprevalence of Brucellosis in Camel and Goats by RBPT and CFT Species No. of Serum Test Serological Test RBPT CFT Camels 300 19 (6.33%) 11 (3.67 %) Goats 150 7 (4.67%) 5 (3.33 %) Total (%) 26 (5.78 %) 16 (3.56%) Risk Factors and Seroprevalence To identify the potential risk factors association with the occurrence of camel and goat brucellosis, all breeding male and female camels and goats above six month of age were included. From the total camels tested, 247 (82%) were female and 53 (17.7 %) were male camels. The seroprevalence of brucellosis in male camels is 3.8%, a slightly higher than female (3.6%), however; there was no statistically significant difference observed (P= 0.608, X2 = 0.3897) (Table 3). Table 3: Seroprevalence of camel brucellosis in relation to sex CFT Total Association Positie Negatv e Ma le Fe ma le S e x 2 (3.8%) 51 (96.2) 53(100%) P= 0.608 9 (3.6%) 238 (96.4) X2 = 0.3897 247 (100%) Total 11 (3.7%) 289 (96.3) 300 (100.0%) Camels and goats found in the peasant association ‘Kukuftu’ and Chercher were 5 and 3 times more likely to be affected by Brucella infection as compared to Genete (OR = 5.36, CI 95%; 0.669, 43.003 and OR= 3.51, CI 95%; 0.417, 29.621), respectively. However, the seroprevalence of brucellosis with regard to peasant associations was not statistically significant (Table 4). Table 4: Seroprevalence of Brucellosis in the three PAs Peasant Association CFT Negative Positive Total Association Genete 99 1 (1 %) 100 P = 0.202 X2 = 3.1985 Chercher 169 6 (3.43 %) 175 Kukuftu 166 9 (5.14 %) 175 Total 434 16 450 The potential risk factors such as age, abortion, parity number, herd size and rearing camels with goats were considered in the analysis. Logistic regression for age, abortion and parity number indicated that there was highly significant association (P = 0.021, X2 = 9.689; P = 0.001, X2 = 129.964; P = 0.006, X2 = 12.4754, respectively) with the occurrence of the disease in camels and goats (Table 6-8). The present study showed that there was slightly higher significant association with the occurrence of the disease in adult (> 4 years) than young camels (6 month to 4 years). Table 5: Risk Factors for the occurrence of seropositivity Risk Factors Category Total sample Positive (CFT) % Positive (95% CI) P- value OR (95% CI) Age Camel 6 months - 4years 131 0 0 0.021 X 2 = 9.6897 > 4 years 169 11 6.51% Goat 6 months -1 year 15 1 6.67% > 1 year 135 4 2.96% Sex Male 83 2 2.41 % 0.532 X 2 = 0.3897 Female 367 14 3.81 % Species Camel 300 11 3.67 % 0.857 X 2 = 0.0324 Goats 150 5 3.33 % Parity No parturition 99 1 1.01 % 0.006 X 2 = 12.4754 Single parity 114 1 0.88 % More than one parity 155 12 7.74% History of abortion Yes 29 12 41.38% 0.001 X 2 = 129.964 No 338 2 0.59% Contact with other animals Contact 229 219 95.6% 0.082 X 2 = 3.0281 No contact 71 70 98.6% Herd size 1-9 97 1 1.03 % 0.089 X 2 = 4.8487 10-19 183 5 2.73 % >20 170 10 5.88 % Seroprevalence analysis against sex, species and herd size, was found to have no significance difference (P = 0.532, X2 = 0.3897; P = 0.857, X2 = 0.0324; and P = 0.089, X2 = 4.8487, respectively) in acquiring the disease except keeping of camels in close contact with goats which showed moderate statistical significance (P = 0.082; X2 = 3.0281) (Table 5). Questionnaire Interviews About 100 owners of animals have been interviewed regarding the potential risk factors and their awareness about the public health impact of the disease during blood sample collection and history recording. This study showed that camels were commonly reared with small ruminants especially of goats and this might increase the spread of the disease among animals. Most of the respondents did not have any awareness about the zoonotic nature of the disease and they drank raw milk and did not take care of handling aborted foetus. There was no data of vaccination against camel and goat brucellosis in the study area. Discussion Brucellosis is a widespread zoonotic disease that still of veterinarian, public health and economic concern in many developing countries including Ethiopia (Mohammed et al., 2011; Habtamu et al., 2013; Karthik et al., 2013). Brucellosis is a classical zoonosis and the major sources of infection remain contact with infected animals or handling of carcasses and less frequently through food. Camels are not known to be primary hosts of Brucella organisms but they are susceptible to both B. abortus abd B. melitensis (Cooper, 1991). The seroprevalence of brucellosis in camels appears to follow two distinct patterns: a low (2-5%) prevalence in nomadic or extensively kept camels and a high (8-15%) prevalence in camels kept intensively or semi-intensively (Abbas and Agab, 2002). In this study, 3.67% seroprevalence of camel brucellosis was observed which is in close agreement with Bekele (2004), Teshome et al. (2003) and Domenech (1997) who reported prevalence rates of 0.4-2.5%, 4.2% and 4.4%, respectively in Borena, Oromia region and with Ghanem et al. (2009) who reported a prevalence of 3.1% in Somalia. As most of camels are kept by nomadic people despite the variation in region or locality where all areas practice extensive farming system which agrees with the report of Abbas and Agab (2002) that seroprevalence was low in this study. In contrary to the present study, there was relatively high seroprevalence (5.5%) by Richard (1979) in Afar region and in other camel-rearing areas of Ethiopia and (7.6%) by Sisay et al. (2012) in different districts of Afar region. Brucellosis in camels has been reported in many countries with different seroprevalences: in Kenya, a prevalence rates of 4.6-10.3% by Kagunya and Waiyaki (1978); in Sudan, a prevalence of 8.0% by Osman and Adlam (1987); in Egypt, 10- 20% and Saudi Arabia, 4.3-8.6% by Radwan et al. (1992). These varying reactor rates for camel brucellosis in different countries might be due to varying in husbandry and management practices, susceptibility of the animal, virulence of the organism, presence of the reactor animals in the region, absence of veterinary service, lack of awareness by the nomads about the disease and the pastoralists’ movement from place to place. The movement of animals may worsen the epizootic situation of brucellosis in an area as the movement contributes on disease spread from one herd to another due to the movement of an infected camel in to a susceptible camel herd (Radostits et al., 2000). Seroprevalence of brucellosis in relation to sex of animals as some of the researchers reported significantly higher prevalence in females than in males (Hussien et al., 2005) while others in Sudan (Abu Damir et al., 1984) and Saudi Arabian (Radwan et al., 1992) reported that male camels have high antibodies against Brucella infection more frequently than females. In this study, even though the logistic-regression analysis indicated that there was no statistical significant difference between the two groups, males showed relatively higher prevalence (3.8%) than female groups (3.6%) which is in agreement with the later findings. Infection may occur in animals of all age groups but persists commonly in sexually matured animals. Younger animals tend to be more resistant to infection and frequently clear infection although few latent infections may occur (Radostits et al., 2000). The present study showed that there was slightly higher significant association with the occurrence of the disease in adult (> 4 years) than young camels (6 month to 4 years). The low seroprevalence in young camels might be because of maternal immunity. Susceptibility appears to be more commonly associated with sexual maturity and risk of infection increases with pregnancy as the stage of pregnancy increases (Crawford et al., 1990). A higher seroprevalence (4.4%) was observed in camels reared with small ruminants (goats) as compared to those kept with no contact with small ruminants (1.4%) and there was statistically moderate significant association between camel groups with small ruminants and without ruminants (P=0.082, X2 = 3.0281). A significant association has been reported by Andreani et al. (1982) in Somalia where high chance of Brucella transmission from small ruminants to camels since they were in free range proximity in the bush and watering points. A contributing factor to the spread of the disease may be the movement of animals for grazing and watering during the dry season as aggregating animals around watering point will increase the contact between infected and healthy animals and thereby facilitate the spread of the disease (Richard, 1997). The classical symptoms of brucellosis in camels are abortion, placental retention, still birh, delayed sexual maturity and infertility (Musa and Shigidi, 2001). In the present study, the seroprevalence in aborted camels and goats was 41.38% which is in close agreement with the findings of Mohammed (2011) where he reported seroprevalence of 40% in camels with abortion in and around Dire Dawa city, Eastern Ethiopia. There was statistically significant association (P = 0.006, χ2 = 12.4754) between parity and the seroprevalence of the disease. Those she-camels and goats with the history of more than one parity were 1.59 times more at risk of being seropositive to Brucella infection than those with no parturition (OR = 1.594; 95% CI, 0.944 – 2.694). Those she-camels and goats with single parity were 1.25 times more at risk of being seropositive than those with no history of parturition. Higher infection rate was recorded in the she-camels and goats which gave birth to more than one calf (7. 74%) than those with single parity (0.88%) and with no parity (1.01%). The present study is therefore, in consistent with the previous study by Bekele (2004) where higher reactor rate was recorded in camels with more than one parity, compared to other group of camels. Conclusion and recommendations Brucellosis is an important re-emerging bacterial zoonosis and a significant cause of reproductive losses in animals, and camel brucellosis is one of a widespread disease in camel rearing areas of Ethiopia. The present study provided a baseline data or status of camel brucellosis in Mehoni District and showed the potential risk factors that would contribute to the occurrence of the disease in camels as well as possible zoonotic implications in human beings. The overall seroprevalence was relatively low as compared to many other research findings. In this study, different age groups, parity number and history of abortion showed statistically high significant association with the prevalence of the disease; however, the association with different peasant associations, sex and species of the animal was not statistically significant with the occurrence of the disease except a slight significant difference with herd size and in camels co-exist with small ruminants. Lack of awareness about the zoonotic nature of brucellosis together with existing habit of raw milk consumption and, close contact with animals can serve as means of infection to human beings. In view of the above facts, the following points should be considered in controlling of the disease:  Camel pastoralists are often neglected from public services, facilities and information. Thus, awareness about modern animal husbandry, disease prevention and risk of zoonotic diseases is quite necessary.  Further researches that intended for the isolation of causative agents and identification of species and biotypes in Ethiopia are important.  Camels prosper, produce and sustain the life of the pastoralists under a number of constraints. Hence, researches that support these animals and maximize their performance are recommended.  Adequate brucellosis control programs in small ruminants would contribute to the reduction of the disease prevalence in camels. Acknowledgements This project was funded by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) project, the Livestock-Climate Change Collaborative Research Support Program (LCC CRSP) in Sub- Saharan Africa and South Asia in collaboration with Colorado State University. The authors would like to thank to the US agency (USAID) and Colorado State University for funding this project. Grateful thanks to Prof. Richard, Director of the program (LCC CRSP) for mentoring the project throughout the study and Dr Solomon Desta and Dr Hoag Dana for their unreserved support. It would be grateful to thank Mekelle University for providing all the necessary facilities. Many thanks are to Mehoni District veterinarians and Dr Yohannes Hagos for all their contribution during the study period. References Abbas, B. and Agab, H. 2002. A review of camel brucellosis. Prev. Vet. Med., 55: 47-56. Abu Damir, H., Kenyon, S.J., Alla, A.E.K. and Idris, O.F. 1984. Brucella antibodies in Sudanese camels. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 16: 209-212. Andreani, E., Prosperi, S., Salim, A.H. and Arush, A.M. 1982. Serological and bacteriological investigation on brucellosis in domestic ruminants of Somali Democratic Republic. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays. Trop., 35: 329-333. Bekele, M.B. 2004. 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Science and Camel milk production. In: Bonet P. (ed) proceeding dromedaries and camels, milking animals. Nouakchott, Mauritanie October 24 – 26. pp. 79 – 85. How are pastoral household economic benefits compared to agro-pastoral benefits in TransMara West district of Narok County- Kenya? Magembe, E.M.1*, Bebe, B.O.2 and Lagat, J.K.3 1Agriculture Department, Meru University, Box 972, Meru, Kenya; 2Animal Science Department, Egerton University, Box 536, Njoro, Kenya; 3Agricultural Economics and Agri-business Department, Egerton University, Box 536, Njoro, Kenya *Corresponding author: esymachana@yahoo.com Abstract The shift from pastoral to agro-pastoral farming is ongoing among the Maasai community with traditionally strong cultural attachment to livestock assets and pro-conservation practices in TransMara West of Narok County in Kenya. The shift suggests limited success of development of livestock market opportunities in supporting sustainable livestock based livelihoods. Specific objective of the study was to compare pastoral and agro-pastoral based livelihoods for economic benefits of the farming systems associated with the shift. Data were collected from a sample of 130 households through interview schedules. An economic evaluation model was used to analyse economic benefits of pastoral and agro-pastoral farming. The findings indicated that unit net economic benefits were 2.4 times greater in agro-pastoral farming compared to pastoral farming. It was empirically justified that the shift from pastoralism to agro-pastoralism made economic sense. However there is need to hold educational campaigns, workshops and seminars on land use, planning and management in the area. Keywords: Economic benefits, Pastoral and agro-pastoral farming systems, TransMara West, Maasai community Introduction Globally, pastoralism is characterised by keeping large herds of indigenous breeds. In Kenya almost 8 million people depend on pastoral livelihoods (Adeel and Uriel, 2005). Pastoralists own over 70% of Kenyan national livestock herd valued at over US$ 1.55 billion (Fineline systems and Management Company, 2010). These people live in the arid and semi arid lands (ASALS) characterised by high rainfall variability and with recurring droughts which impact on rangeland productivity. In some ASALS, where rangelands receive reliable rainfall pattern which can support crop production, pastoral households have responded by introducing commercial crop production. Consequently, the response has been associated with gradual shift from pastoral livelihoods to agro-pastoral land use systems (Gumbo and Maitima, 2007; Mwang’ombe et al., 2009). This kind of shift in livelihoods is ongoing in TransMara West of Narok County among traditionally pastoral Maasai community, who have had a strong attachment to livestock keeping. In the district, integration of crops and livestock systems has led to competition for land resource between livestock and crops. Adding to land pressure is higher growth rates of population and in-migration to pastoral lands (Akinwumi et al., 1996, Coast et al., 2001, 2006, Tangus, 2004). In pastoral land use, land ownership remains communal, unlike in agro-pastoral land use where, land ownership is private, which may be used for ranching and crop enterprises. Access to communal land offering potential for grazing and water resources promote mobility in pastoral production system. Therefore, changes restricting access to these grazing resources increase pastoral vulnerability to drought and loss of livestock assets, which pose threat to sustainability of pastoral-based livelihoods (Mwangi, 2005; Coast et al., 2006). Faced with such threats, many pastoral communities have responded with diversification of livelihoods to agro-pastoralism ( Ayantunde, 2008; Binsbergen and Watson, 2008; Freeman et al., 2008; Galvin, 2009). The Maasai community in TransMara West is not exceptional even though the economic benefits behind the shift have not been well understood. To mitigate some sustainability threats to pastoral livelihoods, the Kenyan government in partnership with the private sector promoted integration of pastoral economy into market economy. This has been through setting up of co-operative societies in the TransMara West to open ready market for livestock and livestock products trading in order to accommodate financial and social capital. This development strategy has however not been able to support sustainable pastoralism, evidenced by ongoing gradual shift to agro-pastoral based livelihoods (Morton and Meadows, 2000; Mochabo et al., 2006). The shift in livelihoods is pre-summed to be following a rational and economic decision, but empirical evidence is lacking to support this assumption. Therefore, evaluation of economic benefits associated with the shift to agro-pastoral livelihoods would inform development strategies for such areas. Further, comparative quantification of economic benefits associated with the shift would provide insight into the rationale underlying household decision making in farming systems. Materials and methods Data Collection The study used Multi-stage sampling. Within the TransMara West, Kirindoni and Lolgorian divisions were purposively selected in the first stage because of having prominent pastoral and agro-pastoral farming households within the same agro-ecological zone. In the second stage was simple random selection of 8 locations among the two divisions. Lastly, random selection of the respondents within the locations was made proportionate to the population of each location to obtain the required sample size. The needed proportionate sample in a location was computed from the households in a location divided by sum of all households in eight locations them multiplied by the needed sample estimate of 130 households. Data collection used interview schedule guided by structured questionnaire, observations and focused discussions with key informants, in collecting the primary data. Data on input and output prices was collected from the local markets. The questionnaire was administered with the help of translators. Both large scale and small scale farmers were contacted. Data requirements included livestock live weights, inputs and outputs quantities and prices, labour requirement, sources of credit in the area and interest rates charged, household inventory of crop and livestock assets at the beginning and end of the year of survey. Because most farmers did not keep records, therefore a recall on month to month approach, field observation and field estimation was used to reduce the limitation of memory recall. Sample size determination The actual sample size was calculated from the approach of Anderson et al. (2007): 2 2 *)( 2 E qp n z  Where; n = Sample size, Z= confidence level (95% in this case) 96.1z 2/  P* = proportion of the population q = 1- p*, E= allowable error In computing n, P*= x / N Where x is the population (households) involved in pastoralism and agro-pastoralism, N is the total population in the eight locations in Kirindoni and Lolgorian divisions. X was determined to be 1228 and N to be 14517 (MOFAP, 1999). The proportion (p*) (x/N = 1228/14517) is thus 0.08459. With the desired margin of error (E) set at 0.05, the sample size needed was estimated at 119 as follows; 119118.9 0.05 1.96 *0.91541*0.08459n 2        Additional respondents (11) were included to cater for none and invalid responses that are common with cross sectional survey interviews. Consequently, a sample size of 130 respondents was used. Specification of the empirical model Quantifying economic benefits An economic evaluation model based on the approach of Ayalew et al., (2003a, b) was adopted to compute the economic benefits from physical capital, financing and security/insurance. Valuing physical benefits from livestock and crops (crop sales) The sum of monetary values of meat, milk, and honey and eggs production gave the gross output of the kth herd. Gk=YMk + MMk+ MHk + MEk.................................. (i) Where; Gk=Monetary gross output of the k th herd, YMk= Sum of monetary values of net meat production, MMk= Sum of monetary values of net milk production, MHk = Sum of monetary values of net honey production and MEk= Sum of monetary values of net egg production. The value of livestock kept for meat production was calculated as follows; YK=FSk-ISk+Sk-Pk+OTk-ITk+Ck.................................. (ii) Where; YK=Monetary net production of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd, FSk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd at the end of the year, ISk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd at the start of the year, SK= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd sold out during the year, Pk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd purchased during the year, OTk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd transferred out during the year, ITk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd transferred in during the year, Ck= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd slaughtered during the year. Total value added of the kth herd will be obtained by deducting total purchased inputs (lkj) from gross output in monetary value (GK) as follows VAK = GK - ∑lkj...................................................................... (iii) Gross margin analysis was used to get the physical economic benefits from crops. This analysis has been adopted by (Ajani et al., 2008; Abubakar et al., 2007; Cairo et al., 2009) and is stated as follows:- GM= )( 1 PxiXiPyiYi n i   …………………………………… (iv) Where: Yi = quantity of product (s) Pyi = unit price of the product(s). Xi = quantity of inputs (s) Pxi= Unit price of the input(s) i=1……n Σ = Sigma Valuing financing benefits from livestock and crops Livestock and crops help to adjust the consumption and savings of the household’s income over time by balancing the current cash needs against anticipated cash needs of the future. The financing benefits associated with livestock were estimated based on the value embodied in the herd and the opportunity of using the animals for the specific purpose at the desired time without having to pay in the form of interest rate. Thus benefits for financing (FKL) of the k th herd were determined as follows FKL= OMK × f........................................................................ (v) Where; OMK=Monetary value of stock outflow (CK+SK+OTK) and financing factor (f). F represents interest rates based on the opportunity cost of borrowing credit in the locality. Ck= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd slaughtered during the year. SK= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd sold out during the year OTk= body weight of livestock in (kgs) of the k th herd transferred out during the year. It was assumed that some households might require liquid cash to pay school fees, medical bills and even for re-investment, thus there’s a likelihood that they sell or lease out crops in the field to get cash. These financing benefits associated with crops (FKC) were arrived as follows:- FKC = OMK × f.................................... (vi) Where: OMK=Monetary value of crops sold while in the field and f will be interest rates for credit in the area which was based on the opportunity cost of borrowing credit. The opportunity cost of credit was sought from the available credit service providers (Agricultural Finance Corporation (A.F.C.), Kenya commercial bank and Co-operative bank). Informal credit institutions were at reach by farmers, however, formal credit was common. There was insufficient evidence to apply estimates of interest rates from the informal credit market, as most farmers did not know the interest rates (Figure 1). The observed rate of 10% charged by A.F.C., which is the major credit provider in the area, was used. A.F.C. charged this rate (Kibaara, 2006) for short to medium term credit cash during the study period. A chi-square test was applied to determine whether there were differences in interest rate awareness and credit provision between pastoral and agro-pastoral households. Valuing insurance /security benefits from livestock and crops It was assumed that all livestock and crops were available to provide household security through liquidation at any time if need arises. On this assumption, the Security benefits from livestock (SKL) were based on the value of sum weights of all livestock herds as follows:- SKL=WKL × S…………………………………..………… (vii) Where WK=Monetary value of weighted current stock of kth herd and S = insurance factor of the study area based on opportunity cost of insurance. The insurance benefits from crops were based on the assumption that households keep crop produce in store for quite some time before converting them into liquid cash. Thus crop insurance benefits were computed as:- SKC=WKC × S…………………………………….………… (viii) Where: SKC = Security benefit from crops, WKC=Monetary value of unsold crop produce in store and S = insurance factor of the study area based on opportunity cost of insurance, however, an opportunity cost of insurance did not exist in the area, as insurance services were inaccessible to the farmers. This concurred with findings of Bebe et al., (2002), Ayalew et al., (2003b), Obare et al., (2003) and Kosgey et al., (2004a). However, in relation to index based insurance whose aim is to protect farmers against weather related losses such as livestock mortality, Mude (2010) proposed a premium of 3.25% chargeable on the monetary value of livestock insured in the ASAL areas. This is applicable only when the predicted mortality rate is greater than 15%, implying that if the predicted mortality rate is below the strike point (15%), farmers are never compensated. So, an insurance factor of 3.25% was used in this study. Net benefits The net benefits from raising livestock were given as the sum of value added VAK, benefit from financing (FK) plus benefit from insurance (SK). NBKL=VAK+FKL+SKL………………………… (ix) The net benefits from crops were given as the sum of gross margin (GM) associated with crops, benefit from financing (FK) plus benefit from insurance (SK). NBKC=GM+FKC+SKC………………………….. (x) Unit net benefit for agro-pastoralists was the combination of unit net benefits from crops and livestock, whereas for pastoralists were unit net benefits from livestock. It is worth noting that the contribution of skins to gross benefits was negligible because a small proportion of animals were slaughtered at home that solely contributed to skins sold by the farmers, an observation already made in pastoral herds by Kosgey et al., (2004a). Unit net benefit It was assumed that for a household to get a certain level of output which is associated with different economic benefits, they used factors of production (land, labour and capital). In this case land was treated as a fixed input. Both hired and family labour were considered and assumed to have equal productivity. Also all farmers were assumed to have same production technology. Prices which were used prevailed during that production season for each of the enterprises. Thus these factors of production were accounted for in order to get the appropriate productivity measure. The per unit net benefit was arrived at by dividing the total net benefits by the average price of hiring in/lending out land in the area (Ayalew et al., 2003b). The obtained unit benefit values were subjected to t- test for any statistical difference in net economic benefits between the pastoral and agro-pastoral households in their livelihood sources. Results and discussion Comparison of interest rate awareness, sources of credit, limiting production factors and land prices among pastoral and agro-pastoral households Economic benefits were arrived at by summing gross benefits, insurance and financing benefits in the farming systems. Moreover, the economic benefits were derived out of factors of production which had to be taken into consideration. To get financing benefits, interest rate for borrowing credit, household’s awareness of the interest rates and various sources of credit were investigated. Figure 1 presents a comparison of pastoral and agro-pastoral household’s awareness of the interest rates charged for the credit by various lending institutions. 020 40 60 80 100 Yes (2.98) * No (3.58) ns H o u s e h o ld ( % ) Pastoral (n=53) Figure 1: Awareness of interest rates among the pastoral and agro-pastoral households (in brackets are chi square values with *P<0.01; ns P>0.05) About (81% and 71%) of the pastoral and agro-pastoral households respectively did not know the interest rates charged. Lack of awareness of interest rates charged by credit lending institutions might relate to low uptake of credit, low attendance in training and extension access. Moreover, the practice of borrowing credit from informal lending institutions (local money lenders) (Figure 2) could have contributed to low levels of awareness. Credit access was higher (P<0.05) among the agro-pastoralists. Of the four credit lending institutions, A.F.C was the major provider of credit, probably because of its low interest rate which might have attracted many farmers (Jayne and Nyoro, 1999). Figure 2: Household preferences for credit sources by pastorals and agro-pastorals (in brackets are Chi square values with **P<0.05; ns P>0.05) Asked about limiting factors of production, the respondents indicated, in order of importance, land, labour and financial capital (Figure 3). Land and financial capital were more (P<0.05) limiting for the agro-pastoral households while labour was more limiting for the pastoral households. Among the factors of production, land turned out to be limiting for both pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. The results imply that shift to agro-pastoral farming was associated with smaller farm holdings and greater need for financial capital. Land limitation for agro-pastoral farming could be explained by the decision by the Kenyan government to privatize land in the rangelands (Griffiths, 2007), consequently leading to subdivision and allocation of rights for ranching and farming. This policy created pressure on pastoral lands (Coast et al., 2001, 2006; Thornton, 2010) which has been accelerated further by the, high rates of population growth and in-migration in the area. Figure 3: Limiting factor of production among pastoral and agro-pastoral households (in brackets are Chi square values with **P<0.05) Table 1: The price of land 1 US$=Ksh. 86 Farming system Mean Standard deviation t-test Pastoral households (n=53) 2118.51 281.54 0.00ns Agro-pastoral households(n=77) 2118.52 303.30 Table 1 presents the average price of the most limiting factor of production (land) which was used to arrive at the unit net benefits. The average price of land was not different (P>0.05) between pastoral and agro-pastoral farming systems. This was because the buying and selling price of land was not dependent on the farming systems (Herrero et al., 2006; Akerman, 2009). Moreover, it might happen that there existed a competitive market, where by the land prices were determined by the prevailing market forces, making both buyers and sellers be price takers. Comparison of Economic Benefits (Revenues, costs and net benefits estimates) Table 2 gives revenues, costs and net benefits associated with pastoral and agro-pastoral farming. The net benefits were arrived at by subtracting costs from gross incomes to get net incomes/profits. Further net incomes were added to financing and insurance benefits (obtained from equations (v) and (vi) to obtain the net benefits. The net benefits were more than twice higher for agro-pastorals as compared to pastorals (Ksh. 323306.04 verses Ksh.133890). Agro- pastoral farming enjoyed benefits from both crops and livestock, unlike pastoral farming where benefits were solely from livestock. Honey formed a substantial source of income in pastoral farming, about four times higher (P<0.05) than in agro-pastoral farming system. The reason is that bee keeping was a dominant activity among pastoralists in the area. Table 2: Average revenues, costs, financing, insurance and net benefits from pastoral and agro-pastoral farming Variable Pastoral (n=53) Agro-pastoral (n=77) t-test statistic Total gross income: 162485.00 442933.70 Revenues Egg sales 776.60 3031.30 1.95ns Honey sales 70452.83 28352.60 -3.03** Livestock sales 43154.57 43259.00 0.10ns Milk sales 48101.00 145450.00 -1.06*** Crop sales 222840.80 3.25*** Total costs: 53368.21 146694.70 Livestock costs Treatment cost 3117.74 2560.39 -1.08ns Transport cost 564.15 333.13 -1.04ns Drug costs 3154.06 2939.81 -0.34ns Labour cost 46532.26 27054.61 -2.12** Crop costs Labour costs 0.00 77058.70 2.35** Transport cost 0.00 468.18 4.70** Input cost 0.00 36279.94 2.98** Net income 109116.80 296238.40 Financing benefits: Livestock 23546.34 20626.75 -0.46ns Crops - 1919.48 1.81ns Insurance benefits: Livestock 1226.87 3854.84 1.70ns Crops - 666.51 4.31*** Net benefits 133890.00 323306.04 2.70** *** P<0.001, ** P<0.05, ns P>0.01, 1 US$=Ksh. 86 Labour costs were 1.7 times higher for pastoral farming compared to agro-pastoral farming, a result inconsistent with several earlier observations (Akinwumi et al., 1996, Kristjanson et al., 2002, Adewumi et al., 2009). It should be noted that livestock herding is a shared responsibility between family and hired labour on communal grazing lands, which when far away requires payments for labour services of trekking livestock. Pastoral herds are moved from place to place to access natural salt licks (Karbo, 2007, Ndumu et al., 2008). Akinwumi et al., 1996, also supports the fact that as more people shift into agro-pastoralism through increased cropping, access to natural grazing land becomes limited due to fencing. So, more labour would be required to tether the animals carefully, thus increasing labour costs. Milk sales earned about three times more (P<0.01) revenues in agro-pastoral than in pastoral farming. The difference could be associated with better access to milk markets in market centres within proximity of agro-pastoral homes and consumption of most milk produced by the pastoral households. Figure 4: Distribution (%) of costs and benefits of insurance, financing and net incomes from pastoral and agro-pastoral farming The percent distribution of the economic benefits (Figure 4) indicated that financing and insurance roles of crop and livestock were important part of economic benefits with financing benefits higher (17.6%) in pastoral while insurance higher (6.9%) in agro-pastoral farming. Financing benefits arise from liquidation of crops and livestock assets to finance cash needs requiring lump sum money like school fees and money to buy food for the household. Insurance benefits arise out of liquidation of crops and livestock assets to meet emergency cash needs such paying medical bills or settling legal court case (Awuor, 2003, Kosgey et al., 2004a, COMESA, 2009). Unit net benefits were arrived at after dividing net benefits by the monetary value of the most limiting factor of production in the area, which was land (Tables 2 and 1). Further a t-test was done to test for statistical difference in unit net benefits between pastoralists and agro- pastoralists. The results are presented in Table 3, indicating that agro-pastoral attained about 2.4 times more unit net benefits (Ksh 317.90/ha/year) compared to pastoralism (Ksh 131.65/ha/year). The reason could be that, farmers had realized that they could not achieve self-sufficiency through livestock production alone so as a response they tended to diversify to crop production so as to provide a variety of food for their families (Fratkin and Mearns, 2003; Miyuki, 2006; Adewumi et al., 2009). Table 3: Unit net benefit results *** means significance at 1 % Conclusion and recommendations From the study, it was empirically justified that the shift made economic sense, given that agro- pastoralism exhibited greater unit net benefits associated with more enterprise diversity. However, these benefits were derived from factors of production land being one of them. It was evident that land turned out to be the most limiting factor of production. Therefore, as much as farmers will be willing to shift to agro-pastoralism, already they are constrained by land. Thus, educational campaigns, workshops and seminars on land use, planning and management should be encouraged in the area. Estimation of economic benefits was challenging. It would happen that farmers are less attracted to borrow loans from formal financial institutions when transaction and transport costs are taken into account by these institutions. Likewise the insurance premiums might be high given the fragile environmental conditions that pastoralists live in. Therefore, this study recommends further comprehensive research on ways in which farmers can cope with future uncertain financial requirements besides relevant alternative insurance options in the area. 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DOI:10.1098/rstb.2010.0134. http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org (Accessed19.01.2011) Market behaviours of Sahelian Herders Wane, A.1*, Toure, I.2 and Ickowicz, A.3 ILRI-CIRAD-PPZS, ILRI Campus Nairobi, Kenya; 2GIS, CIRAD-PPZS-CILSS, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; 3CIRAD-PPZS, Montpellier, France *Corresponding author: A.Wane@cgiar.org and awane@cirad.fr Abstract The Agenda of many research institutions and development advocates the (re)integration of landlocked economic sectors to markets. Sahelian pastoralism is also affected. The problems of pastoral marketing systems are generally examined from the perspectives of infrastructure buildings. Based on the case of Senegal, this study shows that Sahelian pastoralists create money wealth by selling ruminants (97.9 per cent), dairy products (0.50 per cent) and crops (1.6 per cent). However, the distribution of sales (Gini index: 52.80) remains very unequal and linked to ecological disparities. As consumer-producer household, Sahelian pastoralists rely more on their uncertain environment (cereal/animal price fluctuations, spatiotemporal variability of resources) and exploit occasionally market opportunities (religious feast). These reactions alternating homo oeconomicus and limited behaviours are exacerbated by fluctuating environment and market inefficiencies. Sahelian pastoralists use obviously livestock markets but these markets do not systematically pilot their production and marketing decisions. Although production, trade, storage and safety nets policies are useful to support producers and consumers to cope with price fluctuation impacts, it is also necessary to reduce transaction costs and information asymmetry to boost livestock marketing to satisfy growing demand of animal products. Climate variability and livestock marketing in the Horn of Africa: opportunities and challenges Tiki, W.1, Little, P.D.1 and Debsu, D.N.2 1Emory University; 2Addis Ababa University Abstract The volume and value of livestock trade in the Horn of Africa, including exports to overseas markets, has grown considerably during the past decade. Most of the livestock and livestock products for export activities originate from the region’s pastoralist areas, which are characterized by increased climate variability and extreme weather events, especially droughts. In Ethiopia the Borana Zone in the south of the country supplies the bulk of the live animal and livestock products for the country’s export trade. The pastoralist production and marketing systems that fuel these exports operate under difficult conditions that go beyond climate variability, including increased encroachment of cultivation on their rangelands and land loses. The paper presented here addresses some of the local production and marketing challenges that affect export and other livestock markets in Ethiopia. It mainly draws on a current study of pastoralist households and livestock traders based in southern Ethiopia and suggests that the main constraints to increased production and trade are local vulnerability to climate-induced shocks, limited access to formal credit supply, fluctuations of demand and price in terminal markets, and limited capacity to respond to shocks. The paper will show, however, the responses to these challenges and the benefits from livestock trade vary significantly across wealth groups, locations, and livelihood systems. Even during extreme weather events some fortunate actors, such as large-scale male traders, have benefitted considerably and reaped enormous profits, while pastoralists and small-scale traders have suffered. To convert these constraints into opportunities for pastoralists and traders, we argue for policies and programs that keep more value in the pastoralist areas and can more equitably spread the benefits from increased livestock trade. Abstract The volume and value of livestock trade in the Horn of Africa has grown considerably during the past decade. Most of the livestock and livestock products for export trade originate from pastoralist areas, which are characterized by increased climate variability. In Ethiopia the Borana Zone supplies the bulk of livestock and livestock products for the country’s export trade. This paper addresses some of the production and marketing challenges that affect livestock markets in Ethiopia. It draws on a current study of pastoralist households and livestock traders and suggests that the main constraints are climate-induced shocks and capacity to respond to them, limited access to formal credit supply, and fluctuations in demand and price in terminal markets. To address these constraints, we argue for policies and programs that keep more value in pastoralist areas and more equitably spread benefits from trade. Keywords: Borana, pastoralism, drought, value chain Introduction Pastoralism is a livelihood for millions of people in the Horn of Africa. Although pastoralism has been practiced for centuries and is well adapted to the environment, governments persistently advocate for sedentary agriculture rather than mobile pastoralism. Despite this bias, pastoralism is one of the most important sectors in the region for generating foreign currency through export of chilled meat and live animals. Ethiopia is one of the countries where live animal and chilled meat exports are rapidly growing, with the country earning more than 240 million US dollars from these exports in 2012. Most animals for Ethiopian exports originate from the pastoral (Borana) area of southern Ethiopia. Borana Zone of southern Ethiopia is an arid and semi-arid (ASAL) rangeland characterized by erratic and unpredictable rainfall. To cope with climate variability, Borana pastoralists depend mainly on mobile herding, but also opportunistic farming and petty trade (McPeak et al. 2006). In recent years livestock marketing has become an important adaptive strategies for pastoralists, agro- pastoralists, and traders in the region. However, the livestock marketing value chain that connects producers to end markets operates under several challenges. Some of the challenges are local while others are national and international in nature. In this paper, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of livestock marketing value chain that originates from Borana and ends in the Middle East/North Africa. The data is drawn from a household survey and traders’ interviews conducted in 2012/13, group discussions, and key informant interviews. A set of related questions addressed in the paper include: How does climate variability affect livestock marketing? How do Borana utilize marketing opportunities to cope with climate variability? What are the main challenges facing Borana livestock marketing value chains. To answer these questions, we conducted household survey in two kebeles in Borana: Dikale, Yabelo woreda, and Kancharo, Dillo woreda. A total of 140 households were included. Additionally, 76 traders mainly from Borana, and some from Adama were interviewed. Data from structured interview were supplemented by key informants interview, group discussions and market observations. Climate variability and livestock marketing The quality and quantity of livestock from pastoral areas primarily depends on the availability of water and pasture resources. However, 95 percent of pastoral production in the Horn of Africa’s rangelands operates under erratic rainfall with high spatial and temporal variability (Catley et al. 2012). In addition to spatial and temporal variability, frequent droughts affect range production in the Horn. Mbowa et al. (2008) describes rainfall as a key factor influencing the quantity and quality of water and pasture, the key resources for livestock production. In dry regions of Africa the occurrence of drought poses risks for the production system, often creating disastrous impacts for local livelihoods. As drought approaches, pastoralists must either decide to move away from the market to distant grazing or stay nearby to sell animals (Little, et al. 2012). At the initial stage of drought, pastoralists may be optimistic and defer movement or rushed sales. As drought worsens, they initially move in search of pasture and water and, further into the drought, may sell some of the animals even though quality and price will have deteriorated. With the latter decision, pastoralists face additional challenges, including the distance between fallback areas and market centers and trekking weak animals to market. If their animals reach the market, sellers’ bargaining power is diminished due to poor animal quality and lack of grazing options (Tiki, Field note, 2012). Furthermore, this period corresponds with the season when pastoralists must purchase foods to avoid hunger, which adds pressure on sellers to accept any price offered. LB, an Ethiopian livestock trader, describes this problem: Since pastoralists increase their supply at the late stage of the drought, there are many factors constraining the marketing activities: the deteriorated body condition, presence of few buyers in the market, financial limitation, fear of the risk of buying weak animals, lack of transport either to move the animals or transport feed, etc. Climate vulnerability shifts benefits from producers to traders because the latter can buy emaciated animals and feed them with purchased inputs for eventual sale once the market improves. The big traders and wealthy pastoralists transport forage from distant locations to feed animals until drought ends. Some traders also transport water to distant herds to reduce the energy expended by animals in using local water points (KA, personal communication, Moyale, 2013). Despite a heavy investment in animals and a degree of financial risk, drought presents an opportunity for large traders to buy low-priced animals and earn high profits (Tiki, field note, 2012). However, the timing of the transaction determines the level profit or loss. Transactions at a severe stage of drought may result in a “lose-lose” situation for both traders and pastoralists. During these times pastoralists sell at extremely reduced prices while traders also may lose their purchased animals. Only wealthy traders and herders can utilize the transport and market options described above. For instance, 39 percent of traders profited from their business operation during the drought of 2010/2011. Therefore, climate variability is causing additional cost for small traders and poor pastoralists. Rich traders benefit due to their financial capacity, access to facilities, access to market and weather information, and volumes of operation that enable them manage risks. Climatic variability affects poor pastoralists more than wealthy households who have more animals, diversified species, and diversified business activities. Indigenous and innovative coping strategies with climate variability Borana pastoralists use various strategies to cope with climate variability. They have crafted longstanding herd management strategies to address resource scarcity and climatic conditions. Pastoralists can expand or reduce animal numbers depending on climate and resources. These coping strategies are embedded in communities’ customary social structures and resource management institutions that focus on land use classification, herd splitting and mobility. The customary deep wells of Borana are centers of reference for differentiating wet and dry-season grazing regions. Accordingly, lands surrounding the deep wells are reserved for dry seasons. Animals are sent, in turn, to remote grazing regions during wet seasons. This pattern, however, has been abandoned in the past three decades. In the absence of enough animal feed for the dry season because of overuse, minor deviations of rainfall can cause widespread deaths of cattle every few years (see Tiki et al. 2011). Moreover, the degradation of the grazing land and changes due to private enclosures, expansion of cultivation, expansion of settlements, and bush encroachment have dramatically reduced pasture availability for communal use(Ibid). While indigenous coping strategies are in decline, pastoralists and traders have adopted new and sometimes innovative approaches. Use of crop residue as animal feed has become common among pastoralists who own and cultivate farms. Pastoralists store crop residue for dry season and feed the animals. Unfortunately, the availability of crop residue is highly dependent on the amount and distribution of unreliable rainfall. Transporting water and hay to feed animals, increased reliance on mobile phones to receive market information, buying use rights of grazing lands, and feeding animals with selected tree leaves are new attempts to cope with climate variability, and reduce market risks. Opportunities and challenges In this section, we present both opportunities for improving pastoral livelihoods through improved livestock marketing and the challenges that make these changes so difficult. Opportunities Ethiopia contains the highest number of cattle in Africa. It has a high potential for improving livestock production and productivity, has valuable species, and is located close to the Middle East and North Africa, the regions that import the majority of live animals and chilled meat from the Horn of Africa. In these regions, demand for meat is growing fast. According to Hamito (2011), the annual total demand of Middle Eastern countries is about 207,000 tons of meat and 12 million head of sheep, goats, cattle and camels. Based on existing export data from 2009/10, the market share of Ethiopian exports was only 3.4 % and 1.4 % of the Middle East’s meat and live animal markets, respectively (Ibid). These data suggest high potential to expand Ethiopian exports to these regions if constraints can be addressed. Another possible advantage for Ethiopia lies in the growing market for organic meat products. However, the country has done little to promote the trade. Ethiopia’s competitors, such as Australia and Brazil, have undertaken what a USAID report describes as an ‘aggressive promotional campaign’ (2013). Improving product and price competiveness in international markets would enable Ethiopia to reap its clear locational and animal species/quantity advantages. Expanding domestic market options also will benefit Ethiopian small holders, traders, and the government. This requires identifying the challenges and addressing them. Challenges With the current dependence on livestock markets in the Middle East/North Africa countries, a key question is: what would be the fate of pastoralists if Middle East or North African countries markets close down temporarily or permanently? This happened when Saudi Arabia banned imports in the 2000s due an outbreak Rift Valley Fever in the region (Aklilu, 2008). We posed this question to traders in Borana. One replied, ‘People will be robbers, while another trader replied, ‘We will be impoverished and finished’. In the following section, we present some of the main challenges to livestock marketing value chains that source animals from Borana. Informal Credit arrangements The livestock marketing chain from Borana to export markets is characterized by informal credit operations. Sources of credit for this trade are diverse. Some traders take cash advances from large-scale traders, while many others take animals on credit from pastoralists at lower ends of the market chain. A trader makes a partial payment to the herder and promise to pay back later the remaining balance. The credit operation is driven by two important factors: (1) distress sales from pastoralists or small traders due to climate and (2) shortages of finance from buyers. Pastoralists and traders may sell animals on credit during droughts to minimize feeding costs and avoid animal losses. The second factor is unavailability of formal credit. Since informal credit lacks proper documentation and legally binding contractual agreements, there is less accountability on part of the borrower than in formal credit arrangements. When a pastoralist/trader is forced to sell due to drought, he/she tends to accept whatever price is offered. If the credit is due to shortage of finance from the buyer, the seller has a relatively strong bargaining position, even though he/she may have no control over the repayment period. In practice current credit operations are considered by traders to be the best options available in the absence of formal sources of finance. Many traders will buy and sell without ever having the required amount of money. From 76 traders we interviewed, 33.33% of them report buying animals on credit, while 78.67% indicate selling animals on credit. Moreover, sixty-eight percent of traders who buy on credit report repaying credit immediately after selling animals, while 28% report repaying a few days after the animal(s) is sold(Table 1). Moreover, 39% of the traders who report selling on credit said that they recover the money back whenever the buyer gets enough money, while 22 % said they obtain the money back immediately after the borrower sells the animals. Table 1. Recovery of credit money as reported by traders Time of repayment Get back from debtor (N=59) pay back to your creditors(N=25) Frequency Percent Frequenc y Percent Immediately after reselling 13 22.03 17 68 Few days after reselling the animals 9 15.25 Few weeks after reselling the animal 7 11.86 7 28 Whenever the buyer gets money 23 38.98 1 4 Others 7 11.86 Total 59 100 25 100 However, since the big traders also partly or fully sell on credit, the repayment at the lower level is delayed by multiple factors: personality of the trader, inefficient banking transfers, and the delay with money transfers from importing countries. In general, those at lower levels of the market chain bear most of the cost of credit transactions. The most disappointing part of the credit transaction is the frequency and amount of default recorded by traders. Of the 59 traders who reported selling on credit, 51% have encountered at least one default where the credit recipient did not pay. Only 33% of them partly or fully recovered the loan and a few traders even taking their cases to court. The loss of money ranges from about 1,000 birr to well over one million birr (Table 2). Data from traders’ interview show that each trader encountered on average 1.8 defaults on loans. Table 2. Amount of money lost to credit default, frequency of default, and number of defaulters N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Amount lost (in birr) 30 1300 3000000 315709 670379.76 Times defaulted 28 1 5 1.64 1.061 Number of defaulters 30 1 5 1.8 1.21 Source: Traders’ interviews, 2012-2013, CHAINS Project. The problem is not only lack of money to repay credit, but also a lack of awareness by small traders and pastoralists of their legal rights. Credit transactions also involve local butchers and hotel owners who purchase goats and bulls on trader credit and plan to pay back after selling the meat. Similar credit arrangements have been observed among traders and butchers is Nairobi (McPeak, et al. 2012). These transactions are also prone to default. Seasonality and fluctuation in demand, supply, and prices Livestock trade in Ethiopia experiences significant annual and intra-annual fluctuations in demand, supply, and price, which increase uncertainty for many market actors. Volatility may be related to political instability in the area, the occurrence of religious holidays in the Middle East and North Africa, weather conditions in Borana and Adama, bureaucratic constraints on trade, disease prevalence, and other factors (Group discussion, October 2013). Demand for meat and live animals in domestic and Middle Eastern markets are especially affected by the timing of religious holidays. According to one exporter, the annual haji pilgrimage to mecca accounts for about 70% of annual small stock exports from the Horn region. During the 2012 Eid al-Adha holiday exporters could only meet about 50% of the demand for small stock (MA, March 2013, Adama; also see Majid 2010). Demand in local markets also rise sharply during the Ethiopian New Year, Meskel1 , Christmas, and Easter holidays, and then drops dramatically during fasting observances by orthodox Christian followers. Seasonal factors also affect supply response among producers/pastoralists. During wet seasons, the producers may hold to cattle and fulfill their cash requirements from small stock sales. During dry seasons herders generally are more motivated to sell animals because of high cash requirements to purchases food. Most pastoralists sell animals when they are compelled to because of family need or external factors, such as a prolonged dry season or drought (see Little, 1992, Little, 2006). Only a few rich pastoralists take advantage of favorable prices by timing their sales to take advantage of market opportunities. From our data, major sales were reported during the main dry season of December to February, with 42.4% of respondents reporting selling animals in those months. Livestock export market chain and challenges There are different export routes for Ethiopian livestock. The most frequently used routes are via Moyale to Kenya and via Adama to the Middle East, but it is only the latter market channel that the government recognizes to be export. To a limited extent, there also are formal and informal exports to Sudan, especially of camels and cattle. The volume of and prices for exports of live animals varied over the last couple of years, with a decline in the export of beef and live bulls in 2012/13(Figure 1). While government experts and abattoir owners blame informal cross-border trade for the decline, many traders point to increased competition from other countries (e.g., Pakistan, Australia and Brazil) and a lack of price competitiveness for Ethiopian exports. One trader explains that ‘sometimes meat prices are the same at Cairo [Egypt] and Haro Bake (Borana) markets’. Market assessment by USAID team in different importing countries confirms that some Middle East countries are shifting from Ethiopia to other suppliers (USAID Ethiopia, 2013). Figure 1. Volume of livestock exports from Ethiopia, 2005-2013 1 Is a public holiday in commemoration of the finding of true cross among the orthodox Christians 0 200,000 400,000 600,000 2005/6 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9 2009/102010/112011/122012/13 cattle volume in number Source: Meat and Dairy Technology Institute A long market chain, inappropriate and expensive transport, high costs of feed and feedlot operations are some reasons behind high prices of Borana bulls (USAID-Ethiopia, 2013:20). An earlier study showed feed price as a major constraint that impedes Ethiopia’s access to competitive world market (Rich et al.2009). Another important market constraint is limited access to market information at the local level. In particular, pastoralists lack clear and detail information on the characteristics of animals that are required for export and animal health requirements. Conclusions Livestock marketing is a source of livelihood for many actors in Ethiopia. It is also an important source of revenue to local governments and the federal government of Ethiopia. However, this sector operates under multiple constraints. Climate-induced vulnerability and consequent shortage of animal feed puts pastoralists in a position where they must sell on a devalued market, especially in cases where herd mobility is not a viable alternative. For traders, however, financial constraints are a key challenge and most of them lack access to forma credit. Instead, they rely on informal sources of credit that lack proper contractual agreements and legal protection. Fluctuation of demands and prices on the basis of local and international events increase volatility in the sector. Despite these and other constraints described in the paper, there are opportunities to improve Ethiopia’s livestock markets and its competitiveness in international market. This means improving product quality, meeting specifications of importing countries, and responding to favorable demands. Solving livestock feed shortage and its seasonality require a concerted effort and would reap major benefits both for producers and traders. Acknowledgements: This report was made possible by the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through Grant No. EEM-A-00-10-0001. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development or the U.S. Government. References Aklilu, Y. 2008. Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia: A Review of Policies and Practice. Feinstein International Center, Addis Ababa. Catley, A., J. Lind, I. Scoones. 2012. Development at the Margins: Pathways of Change in the Horn of Africa. London: Routledge. Hamito, D. 2011. Export Requirements For Meat and Live Small Ruminants: How Can Development Agents Assist Producers to Improve Small Ruminant Export? Ethiopian, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa Little, P., D., Mahmoud,H., Tiki, W. and Debsu. D. 2012. Sell or Move: Preliminary Observations About Herder Decision-Making During a Prolonged Drought. Research Brief RB01-2012. Innovation Lab for Adapting Livestock Systems to Climate Change Collaborative Research Program, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO. Little, P.D. 2006. Working Across Borders: Methodological and Policy Challenges of Cross-Border Livestock Trade in the Horn of Africa.” In J. McPeak, and P. D. Little, eds. Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges. Pp. 169-185. Warwickshire, UK: ITDG Publications. Little, P. D. 1992. The Elusive Granary: Herder, Farmer, and State in Northern Kenya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Majid, N. 2010. Livestock Trade in the Djibouti, Somali and Ethiopian Borderlands, African Program briefing paper, Chatham House. McPeak, J., Little, P.D., and Doss, C.R. 2012. Risk and Social Change in an African Rural Economy: Livelihoods in Pastoral Communities, Routledge, London and New York Mbowa, C., Mertz, O., Diouf, A., Rasmussen, K. and Reenberg, A. 2008. The History of Environmental Change and Adaptation in Eastern Saloum–Senegal: Driving Forces and Perceptions, Global and Planetary Change, 64:210–221 Rich, K. M., Perry, B. D. and Kaitibie, S. 2009. Commodity-based Trade and Market Access for Developing Country Livestock Products: The Case of Beef Exports from Ethiopia. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, Volume 12, Issue 3 Tiki, W., Oba, G. & Tvedt, T. 2011. Human Stewardship or Ruining Cultural Landscapes of the Ancient Tula Wells, Southern Ethiopia, The Geographical Journal, 177:62–78 USAID. 2013. End Market Analysis for Meat/Live Animals, Leather and Leather Products, Dairy products Value Chains: Expanding Livestock Markets for the Small-Holder Producers, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa The current challenges to pastoralism and potential strategies for support of small ruminant production and pastoral livelihoods in the rangelands of Kenya Otieno, K.* and Kiura, J.N. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Naivasha, P.O. Box 25, Naivasha, Kenya *Corresponding author: otienokenneth@yahoo.co.uk Abstract Kenya has an estimated population of 17.1 million sheep and 27.7 million goats, majority of which are found in the semi-humid to arid zones of Eastern, North Eastern and Coast province which are mainly rangelands often classified as arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs); cover an estimated 511,000 km2 (88%) of Kenya's landmass and are populated primarily by some 30% of Kenya’s population, mainly traditional, transhumant pastoralists. Although the ASALs spread across 18 of the 20 poorest constituencies in the country with the populations experiencing the lowest development indicators and highest incidence of poverty, it is recognized that a vibrant livestock industry, with small ruminants (sheep and goats) being predominant, can play a key role in reversing the poverty levels and contribute not only to the ASAL’s but to the nation’s economic growth. Since the mid 1970s there have been major changes to the basic production systems on these rangelands which have had an impact on their productivity. A number of factors have together contributed to these changes including population growth; loss of herding lands to private farms, ranches, game parks, and urban areas; increased commoditization of the livestock economy; out-migration by poor pastoralists; and periodic dislocations brought about by drought, famine, and civil war. This paper reviews some of these change drivers and proposes potential strategies for ensuring a sustained small ruminant production in the Kenyan pastoral rangelands. These strategies include identification and characterization of the predominant livelihood scenarios and current strategies; undertaking comprehensive livelihoods and market chain analysis; empowering pastoralists to engage with markets more effectively and strengthening their business linkage with other entrepreneurs; and putting in place measures for managing the environmental risks and reducing vulnerability of the pastoralists. Key words: cropping pressure, climate change, land markets, property rights, ranches INTRODUCTION Kenya has an estimated population of 17.1 million sheep and 27.7 million goats, majority of which are found in the semi-humid to arid zones of Eastern, North Eastern and Coast province (Figure 1). These areas are mainly rangelands characterized by:  A moisture index (annual rainfall expressed as a percentage of potential evaporation, Eo) of less than 50%;  Mean annual rainfall of less than 1100 mm;  Lie at an altitude below 1200 m;  Have mean annual temperatures ranging from 22° to 40°C respectively. These rangelands are often classified as arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs); cover an estimated 511,000 km2 (88%) of Kenya's landmass and are populated primarily by some 30% (about 12 million) of Kenya’s population (who are mainly traditional, transhumant pastoralists) and has 50% of its livestock and 75% of wildlife. The ASALs spread across 18 of the 20 poorest constituencies in the country with the populations experiencing the lowest development indicators and highest incidence of poverty. It is however, recognized that a vibrant livestock industry, small ruminants (sheep and goats) being major, can play a key role in reversing the poverty levels and contribute not only to the ASAL’s but to the nation’s economic growth. It is important to recognize the fact that since the mid 1970s there have been major changes to the basic production systems on Kenya's rangelands where most of the small ruminants are found and which have had an impact on their productivity. A number of factors have together contributed to these changes and including:  Agricultural development: the need to produce more food from marginal lands;  Population growth and;  Global climate change. The potential impact of these drivers of change on livestock systems and the resource-poor people who depend on them is considerable. Taken together, these trends signal a fundamental switch in production strategies across the rangelands from an extensive, mainly pastoral production system to a more intensive agro-pastoral system (Norton-Griffiths and Said, 2009). It is the result of population growth; loss of herding lands to private farms, ranches, game parks, and urban areas; increased commoditization of the livestock economy; out-migration by poor pastoralists; and periodic dislocations brought about by drought, famine, and civil war (Fratkin,1997). This paper reviews these drivers of change and proposes potential strategies for ensuring a sustained small ruminant production in the Kenyan pastoral rangelands. Materials and methods Information and data used in the preparation of this paper has been gathered through a comprehensive review of papers published in journals, review articles and technical reports. The publications cover local, regional and international experiences. These sources are complemented by information gathered by the authors through informal exploratory survey of several small ruminant markets and discussions with livestock extension officers, pastoralists and private ranchers in over ten counties in Kenya. Results The major drivers of change in the pastoral rangelands Pastoralism is often defined as a livelihood in which at least 50% of the household’s food and income is derived from livestock and is characterized by mobility and in particular, the seasonal movement of livestock to access grazing resources and water (PACAPS, 2009). Other authors have defined pastoralists as people who depend on livestock or the sale of livestock products for most of their income and consumption, where livestock is mainly grazed on communally- managed or open-access pastures, and where there is at least some tendency for households or individuals to move seasonally with livestock (Morton,2008; Broekhuijsen,2013). In the present circumstances where there are pastoralists who are in transition struggling with different options and those who have lost their livestock and taken up alternative livelihoods in response to a variety of drivers, these definitions seem to be rather restrictive. However, as a way of life and economic activity in Africa, pastoralism as we know it, is one of the oldest, most resilient and most adaptive livelihoods strategy which is well suited to arid and semi-arid environments. However, the traditional and often sustainable pastoral practices are now being threatened by a number of factors including agricultural development, the need to produce more food from marginal lands, population growth and global climate change. Against this background, the traditional ways of pastoralists continue to change, and many are settling (or are settled) and diversifying their income-generating activities into crop production, wage labour and other activities, while other family members continue to herd the family stock and move to follow the availability of forage (Reid, et.al., 2005). This paper analyzes these drivers of change, their impacts particularly on small ruminant production and suggests potential strategies for mitigation. Expansion of crop production into rangelands Over the years, patterns of land-use have changed in the ASALs from, principally, nomadic pastoralism to sedentary pastoral and agro-pastoral production, or to pure cultivation mainly as a result of unprecedented population growth, excessive cropping pressure and overgrazing. The human population growth of some 3.1% per annum has been accompanied by an 8.6% per annum growth in the area under cultivation, a trend seen in all ASAL Districts (Norton-Griffiths and Butt 2006). According to Boserup (1965, 1981), population growth has been the driving force for intensifying agriculture in preindustrial societies. The increased population density has thus led to both intensification of production and the search for wage labour and the concomitant change in food consumption patterns from milk, meat and blood to cereal grains. Incidentally, the highest rates of poverty have been observed among those who are no longer directly involved in pastoralism, particularly those without livestock who depend on casual labour or petty trade in towns (REGLAP, 2012). As more land is opened up for agriculture, the loss of vegetation on which small ruminants thrive is inevitable. Subdivision of ranches and the evolution of individual property rights Agricultural development in East Africa was much influenced in the 1970s by a paper published by Hardin in Science in 1968 titled “The Tragedy of the Commons” in which he intimated that land degradation was occurring due to the overstocking of livestock arising from a traditional system in which land was owned communally, leading to a lack of incentives to manage it properly in the long run. This seems to have had an influence on the Kenyan Government since it took the first major step towards privatization in 1968 with the introduction of the Land (Group Representatives) Act Cap. 287 of the Laws of Kenya, which provided for the adjudication of group ranches (Bekure et.al.1991; Rutten, 1992) and subsequently promoted private and individual land titles since the 1980s, leading to a scramble for land(Galaty,1994). Prior to the formation of group ranches, access to grazing was obtained through membership in a section or sub-tribe. In the Kajiado District, for example, the average section was over 2000 km2. In normal years, producers tended to use only a portion of their section; in times of drought, however, even cross section movement was facilitated. The Kaputiei section, which was about 3100 km2, and divided into two subsections of roughly 1000 and 2100 km2 , with the latter having three socially distinct locations, has been subdivided to the extent that today the mean size of the 15 Kaputiei group ranches is only about 160 km2. Perhaps the most striking example of this is on the high potential agricultural land around the Maasai Mara Game Reserve where the original 42 group ranches of an average size of 35,000 hectares have been transformed into some 30,000 private land holdings of around 50 hectares each (Norton-Griffiths, M. and Said, M.Y. 2009). The rapid evolution of property rights and the sub-divisions from large parcels of land under group or communal tenure to small parcels of land under private tenure across Kenya's rangelands are happening at an alarming rate. Indeed much of Kenya's southern rangelands have been subdivided into individual parcels, including the high potential areas which are critical dry season grazing reserves for traditional livestock keepers. Areas which have not yet been officially subdivided have on the other hand, undergone a parallel process of sedentarization. Even in the more arid and less populated conditions of Kenya’s Marsabit District, pastoralists are experiencing land crowding and, in highland locations including Marsabit Mountain, they are beginning to privatize land and secure titles (Adano and Witsenburg, 2005). This reduction in grazing area has important implications for production considering East Africa's highly erratic and scattered rainfall. The process of urbanization and emergence of land markets It is thought that urbanization is one of the major factors creating and driving the new and powerful incentives to sub-divide land throughout Kenya's rangelands, specifically the influence of growing urban markets and peri-urban settlements. Although the massive transfer of wealth from urban to rural areas due to purchases of agricultural and livestock produce from the surrounding agricultural lands and rangelands contributes significantly to poverty reduction, a secondary effect is to inflate the value of land in response to the growing demand for both quantity and quality of produce, which in turn creates further incentives to invest in land sub- division, conversion and production (Tiffen,2006). There are those Maasai pastoralists who believe today that fences, roads, quarries, cement works, flower farms and new buildings which hinder their movement are graver threat to their survival more than droughts (ILRI, 2012). Ironically, although rapid urbanization is expected to continue in developing countries, the global demand for livestock and livestock products will continue to increase significantly in the coming decades as a result of the urbanization, population growth and income increases. Certainly this increased demand has to be met from somewhere and most likely from the same rangelands depending on how the producers will benefit from this potential demand-led income opportunity. Effects of Climate change and Global warming Droughts are not a unique phenomenon in the ASALs to the extent that it can be said managing drought is a normal part of pastoralism. The only unique situation is that in the past, drought came in ten-year cycles, enabling pastoralists to build up their herds and regenerate pasture and water resources to withstand the next drought (REGLAP, 2012). Over the past 30 years, however, drought cycles have been shrinking to every five years and now every two years– and the droughts are more prolonged. These short drought cycles hinder pastoralists’ traditional drought management strategies, making them less resilient (Erasmus, et. al., 2012). The prolonged drought of 2008-9, which is thought to have been extreme not only in meteorological and rangeland production terms, but also in terms of its devastating impacts on livestock resources, is being at least attributed to climate change (Fratkin et.al.,2011). Figure 2 shows very high mortality rates experienced that time, particularly for cattle and sheep. Goats and camels had lower mortality rates, presumably these managed to find forage as they are browsers. 57 65 13 6 16 64 62 34 1 0 Cattle Sheep Goat Camel Donkey Figure 2: Livestock mortality (%) during the 2008/2009 drought in some ASAL districts in Kenya Samburu C. Laikipia N. While reducing the country’s economic performance, recurring droughts particularly erode the assets of the poor, who herd cattle, camels, sheep and goats over the more marginal drylands. This regular erosion of animal assets is undermining the livelihoods of Kenya’s pastoral herding communities, provoking many households into a downward spiral of chronic hunger and severe poverty (ILRI, 2010). Discussions A number of strategies for improving and sustaining small ruminant productivity and creating secure livelihoods for pastoralists in response to the changing trends in the pastoral rangelands of Kenya exist but logically it would require to first identify the predominant livelihood scenarios and current strategies. Identifying appropriate pastoral Livelihood strategies for small ruminant production A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living while livelihood strategies are "the range and combination of activities and choices that people make in order to achieve their livelihood goals’ (Carloni, 2005). In its policy brief, ‘Pastoralism in the Horn of Africa: Diverse livelihood pathways’ the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development (CAADP) recognizes four simplified livelihoods strategies with different levels of resource and market access and shows how the access to these are in turn affected by a number of drivers of change (CAADP, 2012). The first livelihood strategy which is the traditional mobile pastoralism which although is still an important scenario is characterized by poor market access, with limited options for commercialization but still has relatively plentiful resources. It is becoming rare and only a few examples may be found such as in parts of the ‘Karamoja cluster’ of north-western Kenya. In other areas outside these a second type of livelihood has emerged propelled by the growth in commercial trade and markets which has in turn created numerous livelihood opportunities. In such a scenario pastoralists are taking advantage of greater incorporation into national and regional economies to move livestock and goods across geopolitical and land-use boundaries. Households are consequently adopting a mixed strategy– maintaining herds on the range and developing trade, business or services with the women engaging in value-addition and gaining an independent source of income in return. Since not everyone is able to profit from the increasing market opportunities, those who cannot, drop out of the traditional pastoral system and either move into other livelihoods (as laborers, small-scale entrepreneurs or service providers) or become reliant, in increasing numbers, on aid agency support. The fourth category of an elite commercial class is emerging within pastoral societies, well connected economically and politically at the centre, often losing their connections with the ‘margins’. Broekhuijsen (2013) similarly identifies four livelihood responses of pastoralists in times of stress. The first response is ‘hanging on’ to systems of largely subsistence pastoral production. The second option which is open to few as it requires significant support from stakeholders to add value, is ‘stepping up’ to a more commercial livestock production system, where profits can be made. The third response, opted by many pastoralists, is ‘branching out’. In this scenario, livestock rearing is supplemented by a variety of other livelihood activities, often with poor and inconsistent economic returns. The fourth and final option is that of ‘moving away’ out of pastoralist systems for altogether different livelihoods (dropouts). Given the above situation, it is logical to suggest that in terms of improving and sustaining small ruminant production, more focus should be on CAADP’s second type of livelihood which is propelled by the growth in commercial trade and markets which has in turn created numerous livelihood opportunities. This livelihood falls within the ‘branching out’ livelihood response option described by Broekhuijsen (2013) which is already becoming predominant in the southern rangelands of Kenya. According to Broekhuijsen (2013), the ‘branching out’ group should be given support to identify and undertake alternative economic activities that support, complement, or at least do not undermine pastoral production. At present, their livelihood diversification is forced and driven by desperation rather than by emerging opportunities appropriate to this subpopulation in the pastoral areas. Through Sustainable Livelihoods Framework analysis as suggested by Carloni, (2005), it is possible to further understand how household livelihood systems interact with the outside environment- both the natural environment and the policy and institutional context. Identifying appropriate Strategies for meeting future market demand for small ruminants The traditional forms of agriculture in which farmers made all the decisions with regard to production, home consumption and sales at the market place, have changed with modernization. According to Lundy et. al. (2008), through processes of urbanization, generally fostered by industrialization, demand for food from urban dwellers becomes dependent upon more sophisticated arrangements that require aggregation of farm produce, transportation, storage, wholesaling, processing, and retailing. As cities expand, food supply systems develop into increasingly longer and more complex market chains with many market channels and specialization of roles in the market chain based on product type, levels of added value and market segmentation. For pastoralists to actively participate and benefit from such markets requires that they be empowered to engage with markets more effectively and strengthen their business linkage with other entrepreneurs. By engaging the identified pastoral livelihood group in a participatory market chain analysis, researchers and development agencies can build a clear understanding of local marketing conditions and how best to work with farmers to resolve critical points in a particular market chain. Developing this knowledge with farmers is a key element in developing sustainable and competitive agro-enterprises. According to Lundy et. al (2008), the goal of such an engagement would be to upgrade the level of competitiveness for all actors within a market chain and thus enable rural producers, traders, and processors to make the shift from opportunistic and irregular market linkages to being systematic players within growth value chains. In Southern Ethiopia, for example, a project operating under the auspices of the Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program (GL-CRSP), working with the Borana pastoralists, have created a livestock marketing chain from the Borana Plateau to export outlets largely serving the Gulf States. One goal of the project was to enable pastoralists to acquire knowledge on how best to position themselves for profitability in the livestock marketing industry. Following a number of aggregated activities a positive market response has occurred and a new marketing chain has been created (Desta et al., 2006). The experiences from this project show that:  linking producers and buyers directly in a marketing chain, and enabling pastoralists to eventually manage some marketing functions themselves, could put all parties in a stronger position;  unless pastoralists are organized to handle some of the market functions in the value chain, a large proportion of the profit will continue to primarily benefit middlemen, who tend to be urban-based traders. It is estimated that in the Isiolo-Nairobi small ruminant trading market in Kenya, for example, brokers take home an accumulated income of over KES 600 ($ 7.06) per animal. This additional margin contributes to price build up leading to the final consumer paying higher prices per kg of the meat (Onyango, 2013). A similar situation was recently observed in Ol’ Olunga’ market, Narok South (Figure 3) where a middleman buys a goat at KES 3,000 ($ 35.30) from a pastoralist and sell the same at KES 4,500 ($ 52.94) in the market to another middleman, making a profit of KES 1,500 ($ 17.65) per animal. Figure 3: A small ruminant market in Ol’Olunga’,Narok South, Kenya,Nov.2013 The second level middleman would then sell the goat within the same market to traders from a bigger market at Kikopey at KES 4,800 ($ 56.47) in turn making a profit of KES 300 ($ 3.53) per animal. These traders buy in bulk and thus may be making more profit from economics of scale when they sell to butchers or sell in the final market. Exploratory survey of several small ruminant markets and discussions with pastoralists and private ranchers in Laikipia, Trans mara, Narok and Kajiado during the year 2013 show that there is a thriving market for breeding stock of Dorper sheep and Galla goats and for mutton and chevon and the market is expanding. In terms of the slaughter animals (mutton and chevon product chains), the focus should thus be on how to enhance those traits that seem to be the major drivers of the market. These include carcass yield (dressing percentage), body conformation, growth rates and meat quality. From the discussions during the surveys, it emerged that the market is demanding for animals with higher carcass-cutting yield and this is phenotypically expressed as body conformation. This is where the Dorper and Galla are having an edge over the traditional Red Maasai sheep and the Small East African goat respectively. Growth rates as assessed through average daily gains is an important factor too since producers want faster growth so that the animals achieve market weights in the shortest time possible using the least amount of inputs/cost so that they can receive the highest price. The most cost-efficient (optimal) feed conversion and the highest average daily gain are the primary factors determining efficiency of production. The current challenge is lack of access to elite breeding stock for the two preferred sheep and goat breeds. This is where the pastoralists need to be assisted if they have to access and engage with the small ruminant markets more effectively. Managing environmental risks for sustained small ruminant production The two main elements that give rise to risk are hazards and the vulnerability of populations to these hazards. In recent years the effects of climate change have become unavoidable for (agro-) pastoralists living in the Horn of Africa. Prolonged droughts and excessive rains cause problems to secure their already marginal livelihoods. Due to the increasing frequency of these extreme weather events, communities can no longer recover from the intense effects climate has on their livelihoods. Furthermore, due to scarcity of natural resources, conflicts often arise and are bound to intensify (Broekhuijsen,2013). Although historical records indicate that there has been an increase in rainfall over the last century in East Africa (Hulme et al., 2001; IPCC, 2001), one thing that is generally agreed on by many is that climate change will have significant negative consequences for pastoralists. It is for this reason that pastoralists will need to be prepared to either mitigate/reduce the negative impact of climate change or to enjoy the potential benefits of climate change. In order to reduce the vulnerability of people, the Dutch Catholic Organization for relief and Development Aid (Cordaid), has developed and uses the Drought Cycle Management (DCM) and Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) in a combined approach to reduce the vulnerability of people (Figure 4). Figure.4: Drought Cycle Management approach (Erasmus, et al, 2012). The key elements of the DCM/CMDRR approach are preparedness, mitigation, reconstruction and relief assistance. The specific CMDRR activities are designed to reduce poor communities’ risk and vulnerability to drought and enable them to prepare for future drought by strengthening traditional coping mechanisms. While in most cases past efforts have been directed towards relief assistance and reconstruction with minimal impact, a number of efforts need to be directed towards preparedness and mitigation. According to Cordaid’s model, a number of activities can be undertaken to enable the pastoralists prepare for future droughts and some of these have been tried in a number of places with success and only need to be upscaled and outscaled. It is worth noting also that the activities undertaken by Concern Worldwide in Moyale District in Northern Kenya where Livestock account for 70% of household income, and 67% of the population live below the poverty line, showed that by diversifying livelihoods, switching to more drought-resistant livestock species and breeds, improving rangeland management, mitigating resource-based conflicts and lengthening the water availability period, the ability of pastoralists in Moyale District to withstand the 2011 drought affecting Northern Kenya was enhanced (Erasmus, et al, 2012). Droughts have eroded household assets and further reduced the coping mechanisms available to the pastoralist residents of the District. Although Moyale town benefits from a booming petty trade market with a strong cross-border element and a vibrant international and regional livestock market, this well-developed market infrastructure has resulted in fewer pastoralists being completely dependent on livestock and livestock products. Concern Worldwide noted that the poor pastoralists do not necessarily interact with these markets and thus it is important to create conditions that enable poor pastoralists to interact with markets by strengthening the livestock product value chain and encouraging and supporting livelihood diversification. Historically, tradition and sometimes local legislations are known to have played a prominent role in regulating timing of herd movements, routes of migration, rights of use and maintenance of sound grazing systems that would compete in technical standards with any modern up-to- date range management approaches. It may thus be necessary to re-look at such mechanisms as a way of managing pastoral areas and ensuring survival of small ruminants. The “Hema” system of grazing, for example, which was developed in Syria several years ago and has been revived in the Arab world is such a mechanism that is receiving fair attention (Sidahmed,1986). The system protects rangelands through complete prohibition of grazing but with cutting of grass allowed at certain times and places; allowing yearlong grazing with the kind of animals and numbers specified; grazing and cutting at certain times of the year; prohibition of grazing until after flowering for bee keeping purposes; and grazing restriction to protect trees. Some efforts are being made along similar lines by the Food for the Hungry-Kenya (FH-Kenya) which works with communities– elders, environmental management committees, community leaders and local administrations – to develop tools to manage pastures in grazing areas (Tuke, 2011). In such an arrangement elders organize meetings before every wet and dry season to determine the ways forward in grazing management and by creating seasonal grazing calendars, this allows communities to plan when to move animals to a particular site and what species of animals are allowed. Another useful approach is that practiced by the Mbororo nomadic and semi-nomadic herders in parts of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Niger and Nigeria, who observe the rotational use of pasturelands, which then allows pasture to recover after intense grazing. In Ethiopia, the Borana pastoralists on the other hand have learnt that cattle and sheep are especially vulnerable to drought, but goats and camels are less affected by pasture degradation and bush encroachment, since they are ‘browsers’. They thus invest in goats and camels to make pastoralists less vulnerable to drought or pursue alternative livelihood activities such as casual labour in the construction industry, the sale of livestock products (such as milk), beekeeping, and the production and sale of vegetables in the lowlands. People also gather firewood and make charcoal, and collect water, minerals (such as gold, marble and granite), incense and natural gum to sell. It is also worth considering the role of private ranches as strategic feed reserve areas so that formal engagements can be made with the owners on how best they can assist in terms of in-situ feed conservation or making of hay. It has been observed in Narok, Kenya for example, that in areas where there are fenced private ranches, the effect of drought is minimal on grazing pastures (Figure 5) Figure 5: Dry season grazing by sheep in a fenced private ranch in Narok compared to communal grazing areas (Figure 6). Figure 6: Dry season grazing by sheep in a communal grazing area in Narok However, inspite of the effectiveness of some of the community initiatives, it may be important to enhance these efforts through appropriate landuse policy frameworks. The Athi-Kaputiei land- use ‘master plan’, launched in 2011, provides such an example of a policy framework which gives the local council the legislative power it needs to ensure that large expanses of land remain free of fencing, and that new developments are confined to specific areas (ILRI, 2012). Promotion of diversified livelihoods is evidently inevitable in the rangelands since being solely dependent on livestock has become a risky livelihood strategy. In their study of the recently settled Rendille and Ariaal (mixed Rendille/Samburu) communities in Marsabit District in northern Kenya, Fratkin et al. (2011) found that alternate livelihoods have been accompanied by greater food security (buying food, access to relief foods, or growing of crops), improved health care particularly vaccinations and malaria interventions, and increased participation for children in formal education which can result in salaried employment. In this part of northern Kenya, alternative livelihoods are based on a variety of strategies, including the marketing of livestock, dairy products, hide and skins, and cultivated crops; a variety of wage-earning occupations ranging from professional to manual labor; and entrepreneurial activities including shop keeping, craft production and sales, and transportation. Women also play a key role in petty commodity trade activities, particularly the sale of garden vegetables, tobacco, and mira’a, (khat). Although there are obvious benefits of such alternative livelihoods, there are also negative aspects. Market integration may have both positive and negative consequences on child health and nutrition. As observed among the Rendille, children in the nomadic pastoral community were heavier and taller than their same-aged counterparts in the sedentary communities. Children in settled communities suffered both short term malnutrition (resulting in wasting) and long term malnutrition (stunting). These differences were accounted for as fundamentally related to protein deficiencies brought about by a greatly reduced access for children to milk and a higher reliance on poshos grains in all settled communities. It would thus be important to undertake comprehensive evaluation of the recent or on-going livelihood diversifications in order to have evidence-based changes in financial capital and health before recommendations for further development in pastoral areas can be made. Pastoralists protection against climate related risks such as drought-induced livestock losses through the implementation of the index-based livestock insurance schemes should be considered. However, lessons coming from pilot livestock insurance schemes should be considered before repeating and up-scaling. This is important since many pastoralists do not understand the concept of insurance and have little or no previous experience with it. Due to this confusion, some demand payouts when they lose their livestock even if their animals’ death was not caused by drought (Kisiangani and Aziz, 2011). Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the financial and logistical support provided by the Director KARI through the Centre Director KARI-Naivasha. The assistance received from the frontline extension staff in organizing the visits to the ranches and local small ruminant markets is equally appreciated. 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Urbanization: Impacts on the evolution of 'mixed farming' systems in sub- Saharan Africa. Experimental Agriculture 42: 259-287. Dry season supplementation of lactating Small East African goats using processed and none processed acacia tortilis and local grass in Northern Kenya Lengarite, M.I.1*, Getachew, G.2, Akundabweni, L.3 and Hoag, D.4 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Marsabit, P.O. Box 147, Marsabit, Kenya; 2Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 3Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nairobi; 4Deaprtment of Economics, Colarodo State University, USA *Corresponding author: moslengarite@hotmail.com Abstract This paper presents the findings of an on-farm feeding trial conducted to evaluate the nutritional value of processed (milled Acacia tortilis pods and chopped grass hay) and none processed (whole Acacia tortilis pods and long grass) dry season supplementary feeds and the effect of feeding these supplements on milk yield of lactating goats and on growth response of suckling kids. Twenty multiparous Small East African goats from one herd weighing 28.3±0.7 kg live weight were divided into five groups of four animals each and randomly assigned to one of the five treatment diets in a randomized block design. The treatment diets comprised of chopped mixed grass hay (chopped MGH), long mixed standing grass (long MSG), milled Acacia tortilis (milled ATP), whole Acacia tortilis (whole ATP) and control (no supplement). The results showed that daily intakes of chopped grass (309.5 g), whole ATP (413.1 g) were higher than long standing grass (165.4 g) and milled ATP (186.4 g). Of the supplement diets, whole Acacia tortilis was the most consumed (87.7%) followed by milled ATP (67.3%) and chopped grass (51%). With the exception of ether extract, the DM (dry matter), ash, CF (crude fibre), CP (crude protein), NDF (neutral detergent fibre), ADF (acid detergent fibre) and ADL (acid detergent lignin) contents varied (P<0.05) among the diets. Macro (P, Mg, K, Na) and micro (Fe, Zn, Mn) mineral contents differed (P<0.05), while Ca was similar (P>0.05) among the supplements. In five prescribed incubation periods, the diets showed marked differences (P<0.05) in dry matter degradability. Milled ATP and whole ATP were degraded faster, followed by chopped grass hay, while long grass was the least degraded. Diet treatment significantly (P<0.05) influenced the milk yield of goats. Supplementation increased milk production in the range of 6.3-45.3%. ADG (average daily gain) of kids were similar (P>0.05) among the treatment groups. This study showed that processing by milling of Acacia tortilis pods improved digestibility, while chopping of grass hay increased intake. Inclusion in the diet of good quality supplements such as mixed grass hay, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods can alleviate nutritional constraints in the dry season and increased milk yield of lactating goats in the arid rangelands. Key words: Lactating goats; kids; milled Acacia tortilis pods; whole Acacia tortilis pods; chopped grass; long grass Introduction Sheep and goats are the most widespread livestock raised by pastoralists world-wide, with goats being able to penetrate more arid regions than sheep (Degen, 2006). In the arid and semi arid areas (ASALs) of Kenya, goats score second to camels in terms of drought resilience, ability to survive in dry environments with feed and water scarcity and year round production of high quality animal protein. In these areas, small ruminant producers mainly depend on Small East African (SEAG) and Galla goats for milk, meat and cash income. However, output per animal unit was reported to be below optimum level (Harry, 1999). The low productivity is further exacerbated by kidding of does in the dry season coinciding with periods of inadequate pasture production. Thus, animals that depend on natural vegetation for their nutrition suffer heavy losses during the dry season which coincides with the productive performance (Deaville et al., 1994). Inadequate nutrition particularly during the dry season is a major constraint in pastoral livestock production. Diets during the dry season are fibrous, low in digestible protein, energy, minerals and vitamins do not meet goat nutrient requirements. Pastoral producer responses to inadequate nutrition include herd division, movement to dry season pastures, extended grazing hours and supplementation of milking herds. Dry season supplementation is an alternative to rectify nutrient deficiencies and improve goat productivity. As dry season feeding strategy, pastoralists in northern Kenya practice supplementary feeding of livestock by use of local forage resources. The overall percentage of pastoralists in northern Kenya supplementing animals was about 10% (Ndikumana et al., 2000). The most common supplementary feeds were local grasses, leave of browse plants and Acacia pods (Kariuki and Letitiya, 1996). These forages are traditionally stored in open shades, tree branches and living huts, which affect their quality and shelf life (Lengarite and Mbuvi, 2003). Leaves of browse trees and grass forages drastically decline in quality due to heat and smoke produced in the living hut. Stored whole Acacia pods are known to have a short life span due to infestation by insect pests and moulds (Keya, 2001). Pods of leguminous plants such as A. tortilis are valuable source of protein with moderate to high dry matter degradability and rich in macro and micro-minerals (Ngwa et al., 2000). However, substantial proportions of ingested seeds of Acacia species are lost through faeces and mouth during the process of rumination. The undigested seeds represent loss of nutrients which is important during periods of feed scarcity (Shamayo and Uden, 1998). Processing of Acacia pods by milling reduces nutrient loss, incidence of pests that target the seeds of whole pods, increases the rate of passage and protein digestibility. Grasses are the second most preferred forages by goats after browse. The productivity of grass in the rangelands is strongly influenced by precipitation. The changing climatic patterns, which results in excess and decline of rainfall in some years calls for baling of grass in favorable periods for feeding animals during the dry season. In periods of feed shortages chopping of grass will minimize refusals and wastage. In the arid rangelands of northern Kenya, lack of suitable feed processing and storage technologies are to blame for lack of supplementary feeds for feeding goats, damage of limited feeds by pests, reduction in shelf life and feed quality. The objectives of this study were to determine the quality of processed, none processed and stored Acacia tortilis pods and assess the performance of lactating goats and kids supplemented with processed and none processed Acacia tortilis pods and local grass. Materials and Methods Study site The study was conducted at Olturot village in Loiyangalani District, Marsabit County of northern Kenya. The site is located 50 km East of Lake Turkana at the foot slopes of Mt.Kulal. It lies at an altitude of 600 m above seas level, between latitudes ( 2046.5’E) and Longitudes (37014.5’E). The annual rainfall and temperatures ranged between 160-330 mm and 230C-390C, respectively. It has stratified sandy to sandy loam soils, strongly calcareous, slightly sodic with moderate soil fertility and high availability of phosphorus (Lusigi, 1984). The vegetation types are wooded bushland and shrubland dominated by the tree layer of Acacia tortilis, Acacia reficiens, Acacia mellifera and ground layer of Duosperma eremophilium, Indigofera spinosa, Salsola dendroides and grass species. Animals and Experimental design Twenty lactating SEA goats managed by a pastoral producer with an average body weight of 28.3±0.7 kg, at the same stage of lactation and 3rd and 4th parities were used for the study. The animals were divided into five groups of four animals each balancing for weight and parity and allocated to one of the five dietary treatments in randomized block design. The treatment diets were chopped mixed grass hay (Chopped MGH), long mixed standing grass (Long MSG), milled Acacia tortilis (Milled ATP), whole Acacia tortilis (Whole ATP) and control (no supplement). Animal management and feeding At the onset of the experiment the goats were ear tagged, dewormed using 10% albendazole, the does and their suckling kids at birth were weighed and thereafter on a weekly basis. Weighing of does and kids was done in the morning before grazing and suckling, respectively using a mobile scale. The differences in weekly body weights were used to determine growth rates (ADG) of kids. In the first month of life the kids were allowed to stay at night with the mothers and only separated during the day of milk measurement. In the second month the suckling kids were introduced to browse feed through cut and carry. Milk yield of the does was initially recorded at the end of first week post- partum and thereafter once a week. During milking the kids were allowed to suckle one teat to stimulate milk let down. One teat was hand stripped in the morning and the other in the evening and total daily and weekly yields were computed. The animals were allowed seven days for conditioning to the feeding protocol and offered supplements daily in the morning between 07:00- 08:00 hours and then released for grazing. The animals grazed for 8 hours in communal pastures and had free access to water in the village water pan. Feed supplements were initially offered at 2.5% of body weight (BW) and adjusted to actual amounts consumed. Feed offered and refusals were measured using an electronic balance. Does on Acacia tortilis diets were individually fed using mobile plastic troughs, while those on grass based diets were feed using polythene sheets spread on the ground. The daily feed consumed was computed from the differences between feed offered and left over. The on-farm feeding trial conducted between August and October 2013, lasted for 9 weeks. Feed processing and storage Ripe pods of Acacia tortilis were collected (January-February 2013) in the communal grazing land and sorted to remove foreign materials and damaged pods. Some of the pods were packaged in polythene bags, while others were milled using a portable manual grinder. A coarse meal consisting of seeds and husks was prepared by adjusting the screen size of the grinder. The bags containing milled and whole pods were stored in a cool and dry storage shed. Local grasses, mainly Bracharia leersiodes, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Tetrapogon cenchriformis, Cenchrus ciliaris and Aristida mutabilis were harvested and baled. Dry standing grass produced in previous seasons was collected and stored in a separate storage shed with hay grass. Chemical composition and in sacco analysis of diets Duplicate samples of chopped grass hay, long grass, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods were submitted for chemical and in sacco dry matter degradability determination. To account for undigested seeds (Shayo and Ude'n, 1998), 24% of the seeds were removed from pods and the remaining empty pods and whole pods were ground together. Chopped grass hay, long grass, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods (24% of seed removed) were analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF) and ether extract (EE) using the methods described in AOAC (1995). The cell wall polysaccharides of neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin (NDF, ADF, and ADL) were determined according to Van Soest et al (1991). The samples for mineral determination were digested according to AOAC (1998). The concentration of Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, and Mn were analyzed by use of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer while K and Na were determined by use of flame photometer and P concentration was analyzed calorimetrically using spectrophotometer. The in socco (ruminal) dry matter degradability (DMD) of chopped grass, long grass, milled and whole (intact seeds and husks) Acacia tortilis diets were measured using the nylon bag technique described by Ørskov et al (1980). Duplicate samples in nylon bags containing 5 g of feed were incubated in the rumen of cattle bull for 24, 32, 48, 72 and 96 hours before removal at a prescribed time. Dry matter degradability was calculated using the formula described by Jansen et al (2007). Data analysis Data on diet intake, milk yield, growth rates of kids, chemical composition and in sacco DMD of diets were entered in Microsoft excel. The chemical composition and in sacco of diets were subjected to one way analysis of variance, while milk and growth rate data were analyzed according to a randomized block design using the GenStat program (2010). When treatment was significant means were separated using the least significant difference procedure (LSD0.05). Results and Discussion Dietary intake The mean body weights of goats and daily intake of treatment diets expressed as percent of body weights are presented in Table1. The daily intakes of chopped grass (309.5 g), whole ATP (413.1 g) were higher than long standing grass (165.4 g) and milled ATP (186.4 g). The intake of chopped MGH, long MSG, whole ATP and milled ATP correspond with 1.12, 0.58, 1.52 and 0.66% of body weight dry matter intake of goats, respectively (Table1). Of the supplement diets, whole Acacia tortilis was the most consumed (87.7%) followed by milled ATP (67.3%) and chopped grass (51%). Whole pods contributed over half (1.52%) of total dry matter intake (DMI) of lactating goats (2.8% BW) (NRC, 2007). Thus, supplementation using whole Acacia tortilis pods may decrease intake of the basal forage diet (Bii et al,. 2010). The concomitant reduction in forage intake limits energy intake and animal performance. The lower intake of ground Acacia tortilis pods (seeds and husks) can be attributed to the meal form and slight dustiness of the diet supplement. During processing the seeds produced coarse particles, while empty pods formed fine particles. In the case of grass, the higher intake of chopped MGH was due to short length and good quality grass, while the low consumption of long MSG (40.4%) can be ascribed to the long length, high fibre and low CP contents. In this study, it was observed that spreading the grass diets allowed selectivity thereby enhancing intake. The result of high intake of chopped grass was supported by the findings of Castillo et al. (1982) who found that buffaloes consumed more chopped rice straw than long straw and Omokanye et al. (2001), who stated that chopping of browse species enhanced intake by 60%. In contrasts, animals offered long lengths of food had lower intake (Castle et al., 1979; Deswysen et al., 1978). Chemical composition of treatments diets Table 2 shows the chemical components of chopped grass hay, long standing grass, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods. With the exception of ether extract, the DM, ash, CF, CP, NDF, ADF and ADL contents varied (P<0.05) among the diets. As expected, the DM content was higher (P<0.05) in long standing grass, while it was lower and similar (P>0.05) in chopped grass hay, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods (Table 2). The high DM content of long standing grass can be attributed to the stage of maturity and exposure to sunlight. The concentrations of ash was highest in chopped grass hay (10.2%) followed by standing grass (9.2%) and least was milled (5.7%) and whole Acacia tortilis pods (5.9%). The CF contents ranged between 35.5-43.1% in grassed based diets and 18.3-22.2% in Acacia tortilis based supplements. Of the diets, milled Acacia tortilis pods was the lowest in CF content, while long grass contained the highest level. The Cell wall polysaccharides (NDF and ADF) of milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods were similar (P>0.05), but differed (P<0.05) with chopped grass hay and long standing grass. Except for long grass with high lignin content, the levels were similar in other diet supplements (Table 2). The variation in CF, NDF and ADL contents among the diets could be related to plant species and stage of maturity. Mckell (1980) reported that mature pasture plants in the tropics contained high CF contents that ranged between 30 to 40%. The CP content of chopped grass hay (7.4%) was slightly above the critical level of 7% necessary for optimum rumen function. Mero and Uden (1998), Aganga and Autlwetse (2000) reported lower CP contents of 5.1 and 4.88% in Cenchrus ciliaris grass, respectively. Mixed grass species appear to be richer in CP content than single grass species. Milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods with CP contents ranging from 12.2-12.5% were adequate to meet the minimum (12%) recommended requirement for lactating does (NRC, 2007). However, Bii et al. (2010) and Abdulrazak et al. (1999) reported higher contents of CP, but comparable concentrations of NDF, ADF and ADL in Acacia tortilis pods. In the case of macro (P, Mg, K, Na) and micro (Fe, Zn, Mn) minerals the contents were variable (P<0.05), while Ca was similar (P>0.05) among the supplements. Compared to long standing grass, chopped grass hay, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods were higher (P<0.05) in P, Mg and K contents. Of the diets, chopped grass hay was richer in macro (Mg, K and Na) and micro (Fe, Zn and Mn) minerals. The high Na content in chopped grass hay may be attributed to Dactyloctenium aegyptium, which is a salty grass species. Milled Acacia tortilis pod diet was Table 1. Mean intake ( g d-1) of supplement diets by lactating SEAG expressed as % of body weights (BW) and % consumption in 60 minutes Treatment Group Body weight (kg) SEM Intake (g d-1) SEM DMI, % of BW SEM % Consumed in one hour Chopped MGH 28.2 1.8 309.5 37.2 1.12 0.15 51.0 Long MSG 29.0 1.5 165.4 18.5 0.58 0.08 40.4 Whole ATP 27.5 1.6 413.1 13.5 1.52 0.06 87.7 Milled ATP 28.4 1.2 186.4 6.3 0.66 0.03 67.3 MGH, Mixed grass hay; MSG, Mixed standing grass; ATP, Acacia tortilis pods; DMI, Dry matter intake higher (P<0.05) in micro-minerals, while whole Acacia tortilis pod supplement was rich in K. The higher concentration of micro-minerals in milled pods may be related to accumulation of these minerals in the seeds, which were more in the processed pods than whole pods (24% of seeds removed). The low mineral concentrations in long grass can be attributed to loss of leaves, seeds and translocation of minerals to the root system with plant maturity. Table 2. Chemical composition (DM basis) of dietary supplements consumed by goats in Olturot area of northern Kenya Ingredient Chemical component Chopped MGH Long MSG Whole ATP Milled ATP SEM P-value DM (%) 89.7a 93.4b 87.9a 88.8a 0.510 0.006 Ash (%) 10.4a 9.2b 5.9ab 5.7ab 0.196 <0.001 EE (%) 2.5a 1.5a 1.6a 1.6a 0.217 0.09 CF (%) 35.5a 43.1b 22.2ab 18.3ac 0.942 <0.001 CP (%) 7.4a 3.6b 12.2ab 12.5ab 0.149 <0.001 NDF (%) 62.7a 65.4a 35.8b 33.0b 1.165 <0.001 ADF (%) 31.1a 41.7b 19.8ab 18.8ab 0.658 <0.001 ADL (%) 3.8a 5.1b 4.3a 4.3a 0.169 0.025 Ca (g/kg) 4.0a 3.8a 3.4a 3.4a 0.132 0.074 P (g/kg) 3.3a 1.2b 3.4a 3.8a 0.168 <0.001 Mg (g/kg) 4.5a 2.0b 2.3b 2.8ab 0.158 <0.001 K (g/kg) 31.7a 13.9b 26.5ab 24.9ac 0.255 <0.001 Na (g/kg) 3.6a 0.9b 0.5b 0.4b 0.158 <0.001 Fe (mg/kg) 198a 158b 154b 143.5ab 1.032 <0.001 Zn (mg/kg) 20.7a 12.3b 16ab 18.7ac 0.25 <0.001 Mn (mg/kg) 87a 80b 19ab 25.5ac 0.577 <0.001 abcMeans along the same row followed by different superscript differ (P<0.05); MGH, Mixed grass hay; MSG, Mixed standing grass; ATP, Acacia tortilis pods In sacco dry matter degradability of supplementary feeds The in sacco dry matter degradability (DMD %) of the diets consumed by goats are shown in Table 3. In the five prescribed incubation periods, the diets showed marked differences (P<0.05) in dry matter degradability. The extent of degradation improved with incubation period implying that the longer the resident time the better the degradation. This was in agreement with the report by Ondiek et al (2010) who showed that degradation of Acacia browse leaves improved with incubation period (24-48 hrs). Milled ATP and whole ATP were degraded faster, followed by chopped grass hay, while long grass was the least degraded. Except at 32 hrs, where the DMD of milled pods was higher, the extent of dry matter disappearance of milled pods was similar (P>0.05) to whole ATP (Table 3). However, the level of degradation was lower than the average reported by Shayo (1992) in empty Acacia tortilis pod (60.4%) and seeds (58.5%). The higher dry matter degradability of milled pods (32 hrs) may be attributed to the low crude fiber content and reduced particle size. Feeds with small particle size pass through the retriculo- omasal orifice faster thereby stimulating intake and animal performance. Milled ATP and whole pods provide a rich source of nitrogen (N) for microbial growth and dry matter disappearance. The dry matter degradation of chopped grass which was higher than (P<0.05) long grass may be related to low lignin, rich mineral and CP contents (Table 2). The in sacco results compare favourably with that of Cenchrus ciliaris hay (Shayo, 1992). On contrast, the low crude protein and high lignin contents of long grass depress rumen microbial digestion and dry matter degradability. Degradation rate in sacco is a reflection of how fast the particular fraction of the plant will degrade in the rumen after being eaten and can indicate the relative importance of the plant in the diet (Lebopa et al, 2011). Table 3. In sacco DMD % of dietary supplements fed by goats in Olturot area of northern Kenya Ingredient Incubation hours( hrs) Chopped MGH Long MSG Whole ATP Milled ATP SEM P-value 24 43.6a 30.0b 42.7a 44.5a 1.106 0.02 32 45.8a 33.7b 43.3ab 51.9ac 0.589 <0.001 48 48.6a 34.52b 55.3ab 53.7ab 1.037 <0.001 72 59.4a 51.0b 70.0ab 67.4ab 1.803 0.006 96 59.9a 55.9b 69.3ab 68.1ab 0.744 <0.001 abcMeans in the same row followed by different superscript differ (P<0.05) Milk yield of lactating goats The milk production of does and percent increases in milk yield are presented in Table 4. Diet treatment significantly (P<0.05) influenced the milk yield of goats. Supplementation increased milk production in the range of 6.3-45.3%. The daily milk yield was highest in goats receiving milled ATP followed by chopped grass, third whole ATP, fourth long MSG and least was control with no supplement (Table 4). The results are in agreement with previous studies in northern Kenya than indicated that milk yield of SEAG was a function of nutrient status than stage of lactation. Thus, supplementation modified the nutrition status and therefore milk production of goats. Similar findings was reported by Pamo et al. (2006) who observed increase in milk production in West African dwarf goats receiving browse leave supplements. The higher milk yield of goats supplemented with milled ATP was related to increased degradability and rate of passage of the ground ATP at 32 hrs (Table 3). Alteration of the physical form of Acacia seeds increased protein utilization and the dry matter digestibility (Aganga et al., 1998). Milled Acacia pods with seeds provided a supplement of similar value to maize bran (Gohl, 1981). The increased milk yield with processing of roughage are consistent with the report by Church and Kellems (1998) who showed that milled ration with roughages increased milk yield of lactating dairy cows. Conversely, as expected whole Acacia tortilis pods were bulky, limiting intake of forage and milk production of goats. The mean daily yield was in agreement with the value of 264 g d-1 reported by Mbui (1992) and 385 g d-1 by Ruvuna et al. (1984) for Small East African goats. Cooper et al. (1992) also reported a similar yield (270± 99 g/day) for SEAG supplemented with 250 g of maize bran and 259± 99 g/day for control group. Table 4. Milk yield of supplemented and none supplemented lactating SEAG at Olturot area of northern Kenya Treatment Group Milk yield (g d-1) SEM % increase in milk yield Long MSG 255.2a 12.6 6.3 Chopped MGH 307.8ab 15.0 28.3 Whole ATP 300.5ab 16.5 25.2 Milled ATP 348.6b 17.8 45.3 Control 240.0a 14.0 abMeans along the same column with different superscript differ (P <0.05) , LSD0.05 =39.9 Daily weight gain of suckling kids The average daily weight gain (ADG) of kids suckling supplemented and none supplemented does are given in Table 5. ADG of kids were similar (P>0.05) among the treatment groups. It appears that at early and mid lactation, the milk output of supplemented and none supplemented SEAG does was sufficient to support the observed kid growth rates (Table 5). The findings concur with the report by Nga’mbi et al. (2008) who found that kid growth rate was not correlated with milk yield during the first two months after birth. Traditionally, kids in early lactation were allowed to stay with their mothers during the night and only separated during the day. The kids of dams producing low milk may be suckling more frequently and therefore consuming equivalent amount of milk suckled by kids of supplemented does. Feeding of kids with browse leaves in the second month may contribute to improve the growth rate of suckling kids. The moderate growth rates observed can be attributed to young age of kids (2-9 weeks) and adequate consumption of milk in early lactation. The mean ADG obtained were within the range of 59-83.9 g/day reported by Harry (1999) for SEAG kids between the ages of 0-16 weeks and Nga’mbi et al. (2008) in Angora goat kids at eight weeks. Table 5. Body weights and average daily weight gain (g d-1) of kids suckling supplemented and control does Group Long MSG Chopped MGH Whole ATP Milled ATP Control SEM P-value Initial weight( kg) 2.9 3.0 2.6 2.8 2.7 0.190 0.634 Weigh gain ( kg) 4.9 5.4 5.5 5.9 5.3 0.345 0.350 Final weight (kg) 7.8 8.4 8.1 8.7 8.0 0.297 0.295 ADG (g) 71.7 79.8 82.0 86.8 77.6 5.07 0.350 Conclusions This study has confirmed that processing by milling of Acacia tortilis pods improved digestibility, while chopping of grass hay (mixed) increased intake. Milled Acacia tortilis pod with low CF content was better utilized than whole pods. Inclusion in the diet of good quality supplements such as mixed grass hay, milled and whole Acacia tortilis pods increased milk yield of goats. However, at early ages, supplementation had no benefit on kid growth. Thus, processing of feed supplements such as Acacia tortilis pods and grasses would enhance the productivity of goats during the dry season in northern Kenya. 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Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.D and Lewis, B.A. 1991.Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber and non-stach polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci, 74: 3583-3597. Productivity measures and challenges facing small holder livestock farmers in humid North Central Nigeria Ogah, D.M.*, Ari, M.M. and Gyar, S.D. Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Nasarawa State University, keffi, Shabu-Lafia Campus and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Natural Science, Nasarawa State University keffi *Corresponding author: mosesdogah@yahoo.com, Abstract Smallholder livestock farming is an age long agricultural practice among rural communities of humid north central Nigeria. Majority of the animals kept by this small holders are ruminant mainly cattle, sheep and goat and to some extend pigs. This study was conducted in three states of north central Nigeria (Nasarawa, Benue and Plateau) with the objectives of evaluating the productivity of small holder subsistent livestock production system and to identify major challenges confronting this system of production in this region. A total of 111 smallholder farmers from 34 villages were interviewed using structured questionnaire and also physically verified to determine the herd distribution, productivity and farmers constraints. Major livestock reared by smallholder are bunaji cattle, West African dwarf sheep and goat and indigenous pigs. Three farming systems were identified nomads, crop-livestock farmers and those keeping only livestock, and varied between the three states in the zone. The farmers were keeping on an average 13.19 cattle, 6.61 sheep, 8.58 goat and 11.58 pigs per household. About 78% of the farmers were keeping at least a goat as against 38% of the entire farmers keeping at least one cow. Cattle was the only dairy animal others for meat purpose. Major challenges of the smallholders in the zone were disease, communal conflicts and seasonality of feed. With the poor production environment it was observed that overall performance of the smallholder production system was encouraging, and if adequate strategic planning for livestock development is adopted in this area there will be hope for improvement. Keywords: constraints, flock size, livestock, performance, smallholder. Introduction Livestock are living assets contributing to nutrition, food security and building wealth. The increasing consumption of meat in some developing countries, related to rising household income and rapid urbanisation, has been well documented ( Delgado, 2003). Among all the livestock that makes up the farm animals in Nigeria, ruminants, comprising sheep, goats and cattle, constitute the farm animals largely reared by farm families in the country’s agricultural system. Nigeria has population of 34.5million goats, 22.1million sheep and 13.9million cattle (Lawal-Adebowale, 2012). Though the population may have well gone far more than this currently. The larger proportion of these animals’ population are however largely concentrated in the northern region of the country than the southern region. Specifically about 90 percent of the country’s cattle population and 70 percent of the sheep and goat populations are concentrated in northern region of the country, likely to have been influenced by the ecological condition of the region which is characterised by low rainfall duration, lighter sandy soils and longer dry season. Because livestock have both multiple productive functions and jointly produce a range of social, environmental, economic and cultural benefits, goods and services that can contribute directly to food security, rural development and enhanced environmental sustainability, they are particularly important to small-holder, resource-poor farmers ( Swanepoel, 1999). In livestock production, suitable parameters for assessing health and productivity are those that measure production and also act as economic indicators (Martin et al., 1987). According to Momoh and Ochaba (2002), subsistence animal agriculture is the main contributor to the meat industry in Nigeria. This consists of small herds and flocks in the rural, urban and peri-urban areas. Characterization of small holder’s subsistence livestock production system in Nigeria have not received adequate attention in term of evaluation of the productivity performance of the livestock and some major challenges and remedies that could improve their performance, this study was aimed at evaluating the productivity of smallholder livestock in north central Nigeria and to identify challenges confronting the smallholder farmers in this region Materials and Methods Area of study The study was conducted in rural areas of three states in Nigeria. The states were Benue and Nasarawa and Plateau State. These States lies within the north central zone of Nigeria, extending from approximately 80 to 120 N and 4 to 7.31E.Annual rainfall of this zone are about 800-1100mm. The states are divided into local government areas as administrative units, with villages as micro human settlements. The zone lies in a low land area in terms of topography and have all forms of feature from mountainous to marshy areas around the river banks, all within the guinea savannah agro-ecological zone of the Country. The zone has about 4.5 million inhabitants Sampling method. Thirty four villages distributed in the three states were selected for the study including neighbouring settlement camps, with Nasarawa (15), Benue (8) and plateau (11). The selection criterion of these villages is the existence of a significant number of smallholder livestock farmers. The study was carried between February, 2013 to December, 2013. A pre-investigation study was earlier conducted, were information related to number of smallholder livestock keepers, flock size, distribution husbandry practice and accessibility were collected. A total of 111 small holder livestock farmers distributed in the three states were considered for the study. Data collection and analysis. Data were obtained from direct interviews and or/observations. 111 household were interview using a structured questionnaires. The structured questions were asked to each farmer in order to examine the farming system (nomad, crop-livestock or only livestock keeping), herd size and distribution and average production and reproduction of each animal species kept and major challenges confronting the activity. Physical verification were carried out in some cases to supplement the responses. Visit were normally in the morning and evening when farmers and the animals are available at home. The data analyses was performed using the SPSS .16 Abuja FCT Figure 1. Map of Nigeria indicating the sample zone for the study Results The distribution of livestock population by species within a state in the zone is presented in Table 1. A total of 34 villages were visited. The number of farmers interviewed were 111 with Nasarawa state having the highest number in all cases and Benue the least. The animal population in this zone were bunaji, West African dwarf sheep and goat and indigenous pigs mainly. Table1. Distribution of livestock population by states and species in north central Nigeria State villages contact farmer’s cattle sheep goat pig Nasarawa 15 53 262 182 342 128 Benue 8 26 124 142 172 169 Plateau 11 32 168 152 241 111 Total 34 111 554 476 755 408 Figure 2.Percentage distribution of livestock farming system in the zone Figure 2 outlined the distribution of production system and percentage distribution of the farming system among the smallholders. Three production system were identified, nomadic, crop- livestock farming and those keeping only livestock. Majority of the smallholders are practice crop-livestock farming 59 to 73 percent with Benue farmer having the highest concentration of crop-livestock farmers. Table 2. Percentage relative frequencies of herd size by animal type in the zone. Herd size category cattle% goat% sheep% pig% 0-5 5 24 44 11 6-10 2 62 38 15 11-15 15 12 15 52 16-20 32 2 3 14 21-30 40 - 2 5 >30 6 - - 3 The percentage relative frequency of herd size by animal type is presented in Table 2. For cattle majority of those keeping cattle have herd size between 11 and 30 cattle, for sheep and goat major herd sizes were found between 6 to 10 animals. While in pigs 52 percent have animals between 11 to 15. Table 3. Average number of animal per household in the zone Species number of household keeping Total number Average number of at least one animal of the species of animal animal per household Cattle 42 (38%) 554 13.19±2.68 Sheep 72 (65%) 476 6.61±1.34 Goat 88 (79%) 755 8.58±0.62 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 nasarawa benue plateau nomad crop-lives sole liv Pig 62 (56%) 408 11.58±1.52 The average number of animals per household is presented in Table 3. It was observed that sheep and goat are the animals most farmers keep in this zone. Majority of farmers (79%) were keeping at least one goat, about 65% of the farmer were maintaining at least one sheep, while 38% keep at one cow. The average number of cattle and pigs per household were higher compared to sheep and goat 13.19, 11.58 and 6.61, 8.58 respectively. Table 4. Average production and reproduction performance of the various animal species in the zone. Parameter cattle sheep goat pig Daily milk yield 1.52±0.21 NA NA NA Age at first birth (m) 48 11.2 11.8 13.2 Calving interval (d) 452 310 260 148 Litter size 1.00±0.01 1.23±0.20 1.63±0.03 9.87±0.71 Litter mortality 0.01±0.00 0.11±0.02 0.23±0.01 1.52±0.04 Number of birth per year NA 1.6±0.01 2.1±0.01 2.0±0.03 Survival index up to 90days 0.92 0.75 0.86 0.88 Offtake rate (%) 9 32 29 38 NA= not available. Table 4 present the average production and reproduction performance of the various animal species studied in the zone. Age at first birth were 48, 11.2, 11.8 and 13.2 months for cattle, sheep, goat and pigs, respectively. Calving or farrowing interval, litter size, mortality, number of birth per year, survival index and rate of offtake are outlines for each animal species in the zone. Table 5. Challenges facing smallholder farmers in the zone by rank Challenges States Nasarawa (n=58) Benue (n=26) Plateau (n=32) Disease 1 (1.21) 2 (2.44) 1(1.18) Conflict 5 (5.00) 1 (1.37) 4 (4.11) Lack of market 3 (3.42) 4 (4.41) 3 (2.87) Theft 4 (4.12) 3 (3.00) 6 (5.96) Poor water supply 6 (6.10) 5 (4.98) 5 (5.21) Seasonal feed 2 (2.41) 6 (5.99) 2 (1.87) Means of ranking (the lower the rank the greater the importance) of challenges facing the farmer Challenges confronting smallholder livestock owners (Table 5) were disease, intra ethnic conflict, lack of reliable market, theft, poor water supply and seasonal feed availability in that order. There were variation in the ranking of the various challenges with states, diseases and seasonal as most important challenges rank high in Nasarawa and Plateau while conflict in the case of Benue, this could be due to the fact that the two state share boarder and have tendency of shearing some similarities in the socio-cultural attributes . Discussion There was variation in the distribution of the animals by state due to several factors, which may include, proximity, responsiveness and cooperation of the farmers and availability of livestock. Among the animals investigated goat was observed to be the highest animal maintained by the farmers in the zone compared to cattle sheep and pig. On a state wise bases, Benue state had higher concentration of pig amongst its farmers compare to the two other states, the reason could be due to religious factors, as the state have higher concentration of Christians compared to a mixture of Muslim in the other two states. Farming system among the population studied suggest greater number of individuals in this zone are crop-livestock farmers. This has earlier been outlined, that Smallholder livestock keepers dominate crop–livestock systems, with livestock playing an essential role in highly diversified livelihood strategies that typically combine crops and livestock with off-farm activities (Ellis and Freeman, 2004; Deshingkar et al., 2008). Livestock contribute about 50% of the income of poor households in crop–livestock systems in some agriculture-based states of India, (Deshingkar et al., 2008). Of all the production system observed the nomadic farmers were least, this could be due to the fact that they are not permanently in one place and normally not indigenous people but are seasonal visitors to the zone, similarly, Benue State had the least number of nomads though it’s the state that lies around the river bank, the incessant crises between farmers and nomads is common here and must informed the low concentration of this group. The number of animals maintained per household observed here varies with other works, for instance, average number of cattle per house hold here varies significantly from reports of Akpa et al. (2011a) to 45 , the reason being that most of the nomads around this zones keep few cattle because of the incessant crises between nomads and farmers, similarly Akpa et al. (2010) reported herd size for goat 15.5 while FAO (2009) reported 19 for smallholders. Variation in number of animals maintained per household here with other studies agrees with submission of Belay (2003), who reported that number of livestock per unit area of cultivated land increased significantly with density of rural population. In the same vain the variation will not be unconnected with socio-cultural practice of the peoples and the economic status, cattle here were maintained mainly by the nomads while others by crop-livestock smallholder farmers. The Goat population is higher than all other livestock in this zone due to the fact that the animal is kept by most farmers because of its importance in socio-cultural practices of the people and the other attributes of the animal which include hardiness and disease resistant. Bunaji cattle is the main cattle breed in this zone and the only animal responsible for milk production, thus, the value for daily milk yield recorded here agrees with According to Wilson (1989) concern is often expressed at the poor reproductive performance of African indigenous livestock. The age at first kidding in this study (390 ± 72 days) was less than the first kidding age of 693 ± 36 days reported for Landim goats in Mozambique (Wilson et al., 1989). This could be rather due to the type of reproductive management system used than late sexual maturity (McKinnon, 1985). Kidding frequency and litter size are important components of an efficient kid production system. Litter size or number of kids in the litter as defined by Alexandre et al. (1999) is a total number of born kids per kidding and per goat. The litter size at birth is an important trait for selection of goats to produce next generation and increase of meat and milk production. Litter size seemed to be the most useful selection criterion for genetic improvement of meat production. The litter size for goat in this study of 1.63 this is comparable 1.7 as reported by (Akpa et al., 2011b) and to the litter size ranged of 1 to 4 with a mean of 1.847 earlier reported by (Amoah et al., 1996) but higher than the litter size of 1 to 3 reported by Amoah and Gelaye (1990). The result of litter size, litter mortality and number of birth of all the animals under consideration, were similar to what many scholars reported for smallholders in various part of the country. The offtake of the four animals under consideration in this zone indicate that pig has the highest offtake rate with cattle having the least. The low offtake from the cattle herds is in agreement with the results of Scoones (1990) and Musemwa et al. (2010) 9% that showed that cattle in communal areas are usually retained for their input into crop production as draft power and manure rather than their terminal benefit of cash and meat. Slaughters were, therefore, restricted to situations where an animal was either about to die or at funerals and other social gatherings. Though higher than The offtake rates of the cattle under communal tenure is mostly reported as being low (Tapson, 1982 (5,4%); Bembridge, 1987 (6,9%); Steyn, 1988 (7,5%)). In same vain for farmers keeping sheep goat and pig this animal tend to have high offtake because they are used in so many socio-cultural activities such as marriage, naming ceremony etc, this is also facilitate because of the size of this animals as they can be slaughter at family level. The result of survival index for all the animal were 92, 75, 86 and 88 percent for cattle, sheep goat and pigs, respectively. They high values recorded here might be an indication of adaptability to their environment. Disease ranked high as challenges to these livestock production in this zone, this might be due to lack of vaccination against common disease. Constraints to livestock production like feed problems as reported in present study is consistent with the findings of (Rekhis et al., 2007) who reported unbalanced nutrition as a major constraint in smallholder system. Management practices though not outlined here could also constitute constraint to livestock production to the smallholder farmers this was noted earlier by (Gwaze et al., 2009). Conclusion This study outlined production performance and constraints among the smallholder livestock farmers. The productivity of livestock in the studied smallholder herds were suboptimal, with the major problems being disease, seasonal feed availability and communal conflict. The variation in performance of the various herds indicates that an opportunity exists to raise productivity in the studied herds with improve input and managements. Acknowledgement We thank the smallholder farmers of Nasarawa, Benue and Plateau states who supplied us with information and allowed to assess their animal and their enthusiasm throughout the study. We sincerely thanks the ADP staff who were very supportive during data collection and also facilitated the link with the farmers. Many thanks to students of College of Agriculture Lafia who assist in data collection References Akpa G. N., Alphonsus, C., Dalha, S. Y. and Garba Y. 2010. Goat breeding structure and repeatability of litter size in smallholder goat herd in Kano, Nigeria .7(3) 1274-1280 Akpa,G. N., Alphonsus C., and Abdulkareem A. 2011a. Evaluation of herd structure of white Fulani cattle holdings in Zaria-Nigeria. Africa Journal of Animal and Biomedical Sciences 7(1), 128-131. Akpa G. 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The rangeland agenda for East Africa for the next decade Western, D. Effects of climate and land use changes on productivity and management of mixed livestock-wildlife herds in agro-pastoral and pastoral systems Ogutu, J.O. Institute of Crop Science, Bioinformatics Unit, University of Hohenheim Abstract Climate and land use changes have multiple effects on the production and management of mixed wildlife-livestock herds in pastoral rangelands of Africa. The effects are mediated through adverse effects of frequent and severe droughts, changing rainfall seasonality, deterioration, fragmentation and loss of rangelands. An increase in the frequency and severity of droughts impairs forage production, productive traits (growth, meat and milk yield and quality, egg yield, weight, and quality), reproductive performance, metabolic and health status, and immune response of animals. Reduced forage production, increased water scarcity and loss of rangelands reduce the carrying capacity and the buffering ability of agro-pastoral and pastoral systems. This results in increased risks owing to increased ecological variability, greater costs of product ion and reduced adaptability of animal genotypes. Better information and understanding of the nature and magnitude of the changes in climate (rainfall and temperature) and land use and their effects on animals are essential as a basis for developing management and selection strategies able to optimise productivity of mixed livestock-wildlife systems, improve the ability of animals to cope with environmental stress and reduce social vulnerability. Such strategies should hopefully better guide the evolution of mixed livestock-wildlife systems in the face of rising temperatures and extreme weather events. We analyze historic changes in two key components of climate (rainfall and temperature) and land use in relation to the dynamics of pastoral livestock and wildlife throughout Kenyan rangelands to understand their nature, quantify their magnitude and impacts on animals and characterize the management and productivity responses of mixed livestock-wildlife systems to the changes. Carbon sequestration in a semi-arid pastoral ecosystem of northern Kenya Dabasso, B.H.1*, Zerihun, T.2 and Hoag, D.3 1Kenya Agriculture research Institute, Marsabit research station, P.O Box 147, Marsabit, Kenya; 2 Tennessee State Department of Health, Nashville; 3Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO USA 80523-1172 *correspondence author: bulledabasso@yahoo.com Abstract Data on carbon sequestration in pastoral ecosystems is important for the purpose of assessing the contribution of pastoral ecosystems in reducing green house gas emissions and mitigating climate change. It also provides baseline information from which monitoring can be made if pastoral grazing management can be engaged for carbon credit trade. Nonetheless, real and accurate carbon data is scanty. Much available data is often based on limited carbon assessment in a specified range unit, which fails to capture spatial and temporal heterogeneity that characterize pastoral ecosystem. In this study we considered heterogeneity of a semi-arid pastoral ecosystem of northern Kenya by aggregating sample results taken during wet and dry seasons and from various landscape types. We found a mean carbon sequestration of 368.91 tons ha-1 across landscape types and seasons. The amount of sequestered carbon had important contribution in climate change mitigation and has potential to improve pastoralists' livelihood through carbon credit trade. Since carbon market requires additional sequestration on the existing carbon under normal practices, further research is necessary to establish grazing practices that will provide additional sequestration and facilitate pastoralists for carbon credit trade. Key words: arid lands, carbon, grazing, landscape types, seasons Background Carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered one of the Green House Gasses (GHGs) that result in global climate change through increase in atmospheric concentration. Since pre-industrial times, global CO2 has increased by 40% (IPCC 2013). Reduction of CO2 in the atmosphere is hence important in climate change mitigation. There is growing interest in reducing atmospheric CO2 concentration through carbon storage in plants and soils (Lal 2001). This process is termed as carbon sequestration. The potential of rangelands to sequester carbon in soils and vegetation has been acknowledged in many studies (e.g. IPPC 2013). The potential is mainly based on natural state of rangelands or rangelands moderately disturbed by grazing (Perez-Quezada et al. 2011). In pastoral ecosystems characterized by communal grazing, CO2 sequestration potential is hardly understood. Continuous grazing in pastoral ecosystems is often thought to reduce primarily productivity or species composition; and therefore no substantial carbon sequestration is assumed (Pineiro et al. 2010). This assumption is not supported by real and accurate carbon data. Carbon data is often collected in a single assessment of a certain range environment. Pastoral ecosystems are heterogeneous in nature, both in spatial and temporal dimensions (Qi et al. 2000). The spatial heterogeneity results from the variations in micro- climate, physical landforms and precipitation, and creates a skewed distribution of soil moisture and nutrients necessary for carbon sequestration. Temporal heterogeneity arises from seasonal difference in net primary productivity resulting from rainfall patterns and the variation in the grazing condition. More often than not, attempts to estimate carbon sequestered in pastoral ecosystems seldom consider the challenges emanating from rangeland heterogeneity and therefore assume uniformity. As Kratli and Schareika (2010) observed, an average of measurements taken from different sampling points to represent rather heterogeneous environments is misleading since asymmetric distribution of carbon that characterizes pastoral ecosystems is not captured. Studies that use this methodological approach are therefore misleading and result in incomplete accounting of carbon estimates in rangelands. This poses challenges for policy development that promote pastoralism as land use that provides carbon sequestration for climate change mitigation. Consequently, there has been general development of replacing pastoralism with other land use types without looking at associated environmental implications (Behnke and Kerven 2013). In this study we did carbon sequestration assessment in a semi-arid pastoral ecosystem of northern Kenya taking into account spatial temporal variability of range resources. We proposed the following two research questions:  What is the amount of carbon sequestered in semi-arid pastoral ecosystem of northern Kenya?  How does the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the environment influence carbon sequestration in a pastoral ecosystem? Study area This study was conducted in Marsabit central grazing land, located along the topographical gradient of Marsabit Mountain of northern Kenya. The topographical gradient stretches from the upper side of Marsabit Mountain through the transitional zone to the foot-slope. Diverse vegetation that consists of grassland, shrubland and woodland are found along the topographical gradient. The area is a semi-arid with annual rainfall ranging from 400 mm to 750 mm distributed over a long-rainy season (March - May) and short-rainy season (October - December). The prevailing livelihood option is pastoralism where cattle, sheep, goats and camels are kept in communal grazing lands. Materials and Methods A survey of the study site was conducted during which sample vegetation of grassland, woodland and shrubland were identified and purposively selected. Each vegetation type was considered as landscape type. The landscape types were replicated three times (n=3). Within each landscape type was a permanent plot of 400 m x 400 m, established using a Global Positioning System (GPS) and its borders marked with paint for future reference. From the centre of permanent plots, transects of 200 m in east, west, north and south directions were laid. At the interval of 30 m, nested sub-plots (of 10 x 10 m for trees, 4x4 m for shrub and 1 x 1 m for herbaceous) were established. Woody carbon (n = 72), herbaceous carbon (n = 72) and soil carbon (n = 72) were assessed for each landscape type within its nested sub-plots. The assessments were done for two consecutive seasons (wet and dry). Woody carbon assessment Using a flexible tape, the diameter at breast height (DBH) (1.3m above the ground) of all the trees within 10 x 10 m plots and basal diameters (BD) of all shrubs within the 4 x 4 m plots were taken. Both DBH and BD were recorded in prepared data sheets and carbon estimates within each plant were done using allometric equations as described by (Henry et al. 2011). The following is the allometric equation applied; Trees: Y = 0.1975xDBH1.1859, Shrubs: Y = 0.1936 (x1.1654) Where Y = Fresh weight of trees/shrubs biomass (Kg), x = DBH/BD in cm The results of allometric equation only provide fresh biomass estimates. In order to get the dry biomass, the results are multiplied by 60% and the carbon content taken as 50% of the dry biomass weight (Brown et al. 1999). Root carbon estimates were 20% of above ground carbon (Cairns et al. 1997). Both above ground and below ground carbon estimates within nested plots were converted to carbon ton per hectare. Herbaceous carbon assessment Prepared quadrant of 1 m2 was placed in each of 0.5 x 0.5 m sub-plot. Herbaceous materials within 1 m2 were then clipped at 1 cm stubble height. Clipped materials together with litters were put in sample paper bags and their fresh weights recorded. Herbaceous root materials were also excavated and fresh weight recorded. Both the above ground and root materials of herbaceous plants were oven dried at 80oc for 48 hours. Herbaceous carbon contents were calculated as 50% of oven dried herbaceous biomass. The results were recorded in a prepared data sheet. Sample results were then converted into carbon ton per hectare. Assessment of soil carbon Soil sampling was done in each 0.5 x 0.5 m sub-plot at a 30 cm depth using a soil auger whose volume-head had been pre-determined using the formula below; V = πrh , Where: V = Volume head, π =3.14 cm, r = head radius (cm), h = head height (cm). Soil samples were labeled and oven dried at 80oc for 48 hours. The oven dried samples were then sieved by passing through 2-mm sieve. Bulk density of each soil sample was then calculated using the following formula; BDsample = ODWsample/VAD Where: BDsample is the bulk density of soil sample (gcm -3), ODWsample is the weight of oven dried sample (g), VAD is the volume of soil auger head (cm3) The results were recorded in a prepared data sheet. An estimated 10 g sample of sieved soil was taken for carbon content analysis. Soil carbon (C) was determined through oxidation process and carbon concentrations read on the spectrophotometer at 600 nm. The concentrations (%) obtained from the laboratory were used to calculate carbon mass per unit area. Carbon contents in the samples were calculated using the indicated formula below; C (gram cm-2) = )BDsample * C% ) Where: BDsample is the bulk density of soil sample (gcm-3), C% is the percentage carbon concentration of the sample. The results were converted into carbon ton per hectare. Data analysis Aggregations of carbon from various carbon pools (above ground herbaceous, below ground herbaceous, above ground woody, below ground woody, soil carbon) were done and mean calculated for each landscape type. The Least Squares Difference (LSD) was used to separate the means. To evaluate the effect of landscape type and season on the carbon level of various carbon pools, a General Linear Model (GLM) was used and significance difference accepted at 5%. The GLM analysis procedure is as follows (SAS 1999, version 8); Model: yijk = μ +ρi + αj + εijk, Where: yijk is the observation from the jk combination of factors; landscape type, and season μ is the overall mean of carbon content, ρi is the effect of i factor of landscape type on carbon content αj is the effect of j factor of season on the carbon content; εijk is the error term Results and Discussion Carbon sequestered in the grazing landscape types of Marsabit central Calculations of the total carbon storage across all landscape types showed a mean carbon level of 368.91 ton ha-1. The result is in consistent with carbon sequestered for grazing areas of sub- Saharan African (see Matieu 2010). The established amount of sequestered carbon exists under a continuously grazed semi-arid pastoral ecosystem. Pastoral grazing management through herd mobility across grazing landscape types might have helped the maintenance of sequestered carbon. This therefore depicts importance of pastoral ecosystem in mitigating climate change. The contribution of pastoral ecosystem in climate change mitigation is even more significant when the vastness of the environment is considered. Grazing lands cover 40.5% of the terrestrial ecosystem, equivalent to 5250 Mha (White et al. 2000). The contribution of grazing lands in climate change mitigation is however seldom appreciated. Instead livestock production in the rangelands has been accused of emitting green house gases through enteric fermentation (see Steinfeld et al. 2006). The contribution of livestock production in rangelands to provide ecosystem services by maintaining carbon sequestration should be considered in order to balance the associated adverse effects of green house gas emissions (see also Herrero et al. 2009). Disaggregation of the above mean of sequestered carbon into carbon levels for various carbon pools indicate that 98.39% of the carbon is in the soils, 1.2% in above ground woody vegetation, 0.2 % in woody roots, 0.12% in above ground herbaceous and 0.07% in herbaceous roots. Any anthropogenic activities that might have adverse effects on soils will therefore have significant implications in reducing carbon storage in the grazing lands. Land use types such as cultivation are already found to reduce soil carbon storage due to disturbance of the soil surface (Jiao et al. 2009). A study by Wang et al. (2008) in Inner Mongolia, observed a 22% reduction in soil carbon when grazing land was converted into cultivated land. It is therefore important to guard grazing lands from degradation that will eventually interfere with soil condition. Effect of landscape types on the carbon sequestered in Marsabit central grazing lands Effects of landscape types were significant on carbon sequestration for all carbon pools (all P <0.05). The effects are also significant on total sequestered carbon (P<0.05). Shrubland had more total sequestered carbon than both grassland and woodland landscape types (see figure 1 above). Woodland had the least total carbon. Woodland had possibly had less herbaceous vegetation cover, which does not facilitate adequate rate of plant materials decomposition into the soils for soil carbon formation. Landscape type with more herbaceous cover tends to have a relatively higher rate of organic matter decomposition compared to woody type of vegetation (Rice 2005). These effects of landscape types on rangeland carbon sequestration demonstrated ecological variability of rangelands in terms of differences in the spatial distribution of plant communities. Rangelands are generally considered mosaics of diverse ecological conditions created by spatial variation in soils, topography and micro-climate (Scoones 1999). The ecological variations result in asymmetric distribution of carbon sequestration. Assessment of carbon content or biomass productivity should therefore consider the heterogeneous nature of the environment to avoid errors arising from asymmetric resource distribution (Kratli and Schareika 2010). Effects of seasons on the carbon sequestered in Marsabit central grazing lands Unlike the landscape types above, seasonal effects on the carbon sequestration are not significant for most carbon pools (all P>0.05). The seasonal difference in carbon sequestered is a proxy tool for assessing the implications of grazing intensity on rangeland carbon. Wet season is commonly viewed as a period of less grazing pressure because of abundance of grazing resources initiated by enhanced soil moisture content. On the other hand, dry season is seen as period of resource scarcity arising from a lack of or limited soil moisture. Evaluation of seasonal difference in the carbon sequestration of rangelands will thus help in understanding the implications temporal variability of rangeland carbon. In this study, lack of significance implies that livestock grazing and soil moisture variation did not impact the carbon sequestration of rangelands. These findings are consistent with other studies elsewhere (e.g Schuman et al. 2002). However, it is crucial to note that the impact of grazing and soil moisture gradient can be complex depending on type of ecosystem in question. As suggested by Pinero et al. (2010), soil carbon can decrease, increase or not change depending on ecological condition. These findings should be understood in the context of semi-arid ecosystem with annual precipitation of 400mm to 750mm. Conclusions and recommendations In this study we have established carbon sequestration in semi-arid pastoral ecosystem under continuous communal grazing, considering the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of range environment. The sequestered carbon has been possibly maintained by pastoralists’ grazing practices of herd mobility over diverse grazing landscapes to utilize patchiness of range resources. These grazing practices have to be upheld if contribution of pastoral ecosystem in mitigation of climate change is to be sustained. Furthermore, the largest proportions of the sequestered carbon are found in the soils, and any alternative land use to pastoralism that exposes soil carbon would therefore have adverse environmental effects. The observed variation of sequestered carbon with landscape types affirms the need to consider asymmetric distribution of range resources in assessment of carbon data. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Collaborative Research on Adapting Livestock System to Climate Change. The authors acknowledged contribution to field data collection by Mr. Walaga Hussein, Mr. Peter Geikuku and logistical support by Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit research station. References Behnke R, Kerven C. (2013). Counting the costs: replacing pastoralism with irrigated agriculture in the Awash valley, north-eastern Ethiopia. IIED Climate Change Working Paper no. 4. Brown S. L., Schroeder P. & Kern J. S. (1999). Spatial distribution of biomass in forests of the eastern USA. Forest Ecology and Management 123: 81–90. Cairns M. A, Brown S, Helmer E, Baumgardener G. A. (1997). Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia 111:1-11. Gascoigne W, Hoag D, Koontz L, Tangen B, Shaffer T, Gleason R . (2011). 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Strengthening livestock health and pastoral nutrition and livelihoods in Tanzania Gustafson, C.1,2, VanWormer, E.2, Kazwala, R.3, Yakes, E.4 , Makweta, A.3, Mwanzalila, M.3 and Mazet ,J.2 1Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA; 2One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; 3Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania; 4Department of Nutrition/Dietetics and Family and Community Medicine, University of Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA Abstract Pastoralists in semi-arid environments—whose livelihoods depend crucially on livestock—are threatened by climate change impacts on water, pasture, and disease dynamics. In the biologically diverse and economically important Ruaha landscape, pastoralists relying on livestock for food, economic security, and cultural preservation have felt the devastating effects of disease on animal survival and productivity. Research by the Health for Animals and Livelihood Improvement (HALI) project, a long-term partnership between Sokoine University of Agriculture and University of California, Davis, has identified diverse zoonotic diseases in livestock in this water-limited environment. During earlier livestock health capacity interviews, pastoralists repeatedly called for household-level education and better trained and equipped livestock extension officers to increase herd resilience to disease threats in their changing environment. Extension officer interviews echoed this need for livestock health training and diagnostic capacity. The interdisciplinary HALI team is working with local communities to identify key livestock diseases of concern and to develop and deliver livestock health and human nutrition education to pastoralists and extension officers. In partnership with local stakeholders, we intensively monitor and evaluate impacts on animal health and maternal and child nutrition and pastoralist livelihoods. The collaboratively developed education intervention will provide locally relevant knowledge and practices promoting adaptability and resilience of livestock systems, human nutrition, and pastoralist livelihoods. Background Livestock populations in semi-arid grassland regions are extremely vulnerable to climate change. These impacts may be particularly severe in Tanzania where productivity is extremely low, accounting for only 4% of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) meat production despite harboring Africa’s third largest national herd. Per capita calories from animal products are 18% lower in Tanzania than other SSA nations and 73% lower than the rest of the world (WRI, 2003). Animal numbers indicate that there is significant development opportunity for livestock keepers, but because of recent changes in livestock systems, vulnerability to climate change, disease, and other perturbations is similarly high. In the economically and biologically important Ruaha ecosystem, water scarcity currently limits the sustainability of livestock production and livelihoods. The economy of the region is closely tied to the Great Ruaha River, a critical freshwater resource for people, livestock, and wildlife, which also generates over 50% of the nation’s electricity through hydropower. In recent decades, large-scale hydrologic disruption, caused by river diversion for agriculture and intensive livestock grazing, has limited the delivery of freshwater ecosystem services, threatening the ecological integrity of the Ruaha region and the viability of pastoralist households. Pastoralists are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their reliance on their herds for nutrition and income, as well as higher risk of exposure to zoonotic diseases (Ellis and Swift 1988). Climate change-driven alterations in variability and intensity of rainfall will likely have direct impacts on livestock productivity, but also indirect impacts through alteration of disease dynamics and incidence (Ostfeld, 2009). Models of livestock systems in northern Tanzania suggest that disease risk can be more limiting to livestock populations than forage availability (Boone et al, 2002). In addition to increasing animal morbidity and mortality (especially during drought years), disease reduces livestock producer income due to quarantines and loss of public trust in meat products (Barrett et al., 2003). Response of disease vectors, animal hosts, and pathogens to climate change may increase outbreaks of diseases like Rift Valley fever, which can cause severe symptoms and even death in livestock and people (Gould and Higgs, 2009). Known diseases in the Ruaha region that have the potential to or have seriously impacted livestock production and could be exacerbated by climate change include zoonotic tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis), contagious bovine and caprine pleuropneumonia, East Coast Fever, trypanosomiasis, brucellosis, water-borne protozoal diseases, and Rift Valley fever (Clifford et al., 2008). Expected severe weather patterns and intermittent, extensive periods of drought, as well as human influences on local resources, are likely to increase disease impacts on already burdened livestock populations in the Ruaha landscape. In sub-Saharan Africa, semi-arid grassland systems face significant pressure from increasing human populations. Above average population growth in rural communities—especially surrounding protected wildlife areas (Wittemyer et al., 2008)—and consequent land conversion pressures from logging and agriculture can increase disease transmission among overlapping human and animal populations (Patz et al., 2004). Climate change may also increase risk of disease spillover among pastoralists, livestock, and wildlife by increasing contact around already dwindling water sources (Mazet et al., 2009) with direct consequences on pastoralist livelihoods. The wellbeing of pastoralists in Tanzania is inseparable from the health of their livestock. Livestock provide nutrition, fertilizer, draft power, income, cultural status, and wealth (Scoones and Wolmer, 2006). As a living, mobile bank, livestock herds offer an economic safety net, allowing pastoralists to sell animals when money is needed. However, the multifunctional role of livestock can strongly influence pastoralists’ decisions about when they should sell their animals. Osterloh et al. (2003) examined a number of hypotheses for the dearth of livestock sales by pastoralists in Kenya and Ethiopia. Rejecting cost-based explanations—e.g., lack of information, costs of transporting animals to market, complex property rights—they found that choosing to sell livestock appeared to be largely preference-based and occurred when cash was needed for household expenses or emergencies (Osterloh et al., 2003). Pastoralists’ ability to sell animals for emergency funds is highly dependent on the health, condition, and size of their herds. There are also important differences in male and female roles in pastoralist households that are intertwined with herd health and management. Because so much of household nutrition is derived from animal products—either directly, e.g. milk, or indirectly, e.g. the sale of a goat to purchase grain—the health of family members depends heavily on the health and productivity of their animals. Men, in general, manage sales of livestock, including money earned from livestock sales, and wages or salaries earned, while women manage production and income from other animal products and non-farm trade (Nguvava et al., 2009). In addition, many studies conducted in developing countries have found evidence that increases in women’s status, income, and control of resources correlate with increases in childhood health and nutrition outcomes, as well as expenditures on health and human capital (Quisumbing, 2003). Research on the nutritional status of women and children in pastoralist communities in Tanzania indicates widespread malnutrition. Sellen (2000) found that approximately 50 percent of women studied were chronically energy deficient; additionally, half of children exhibited growth retardation due to insufficient nutrition. Despite livelihoods based on animal production, pastoralists’ diets are often lacking in calories (Fratkin, 2001). Nyaruhucha et al. (2006) determined that approximately a third of pastoralist children in Simanjaro district were underweight and undernourished. They concluded that nutritional and hygiene education, environmental sanitation, and zoonotic disease prevention practices needed to be taught at household and village levels. Multiple pathways may yield improved pastoralist livelihoods. For one, global demand for livestock products is increasing rapidly, leading some to label the trend a “livestock revolution” (Rosegrant et al. 2001). Even with favorable conditions for improved pastoralist livelihoods, increases in climatic severity (e.g. extended periods of drought or sudden floods) can stress livestock and decrease forage availability, enabling disease outbreaks (Galvin et al., 2004). Therefore, building mechanisms to adapt to changing conditions is important. Increasing capacity of veterinarians, livestock extension officers, and pastoralists themselves to meet the requirements of local trade channels—promoting food safety and preventing seriously damaging outbreaks of livestock disease—can increase pastoralists’ wealth, nutritional status, and access to education (Scoones and Wolmer, 2006). Evidence exists that this type of strategy can significantly improve the productivity of these livestock systems. Pastoralists with access to a community animal health project in northern Tanzania experienced reductions in calf mortality between 59 and 93 percent (Nalilotela et al., 2001). Providing access to health services by training animal health specialists has also proved quite effective in disease recognition and surveillance; training workers on disease reporting in three districts of the Arusha region increased reported disease cases by 49 percent—to the highest levels in the country (Allport et al., 2005). Project Description The Health for Animals and Livelihood Improvement project is working collaboratively with pastoralist communities, university researchers, government veterinary officials, and stakeholders at the local and regional levels to provide and evaluate the impact of community- requested education on livestock health and human nutrition in rural Tanzania. During a previous research phase, we found that pastoralist households were experiencing heavy disease burdens (production-limiting infections and deaths) in their livestock herds (Gustafson et al., 2014). Additionally, both pastoralists and livestock extension officers felt that very little communication occurred between these groups. Both groups believed that they needed education on key livestock diseases and disease prevention, and district and regional government veterinarians also recommended education for pastoralists and extension officers as a tool to increase herd health and resilience. Through a series of stakeholder meetings, community focus groups, and surveys with pastoralist households and livestock extension officers, we identified the main local livestock diseases of concern, the types of education desired, and the delivery methods preferred for the education. The primary purpose of the project is to evaluate the impact of livestock and human nutrition education on herd health and productivity, maternal and child nutritional status, and pastoralist household livelihoods with the broader goal of increasing pastoralist household and herd resilience to environmental change. We use a variety of research methods to analyze the effect of education and training, including collecting longitudinal household-level data through surveys on livestock number and health, sales of animals and animal products, and disease prevention and management practices; anthropometric measurement of household members (height, weight, arm circumference, and hemoglobin level); and testing to examine the effect of training on extension officers’ and pastoralists’ understanding of livestock health and human nutrition topics. Accomplishments We have completed livestock health training and field practical workshops with all of the livestock and agricultural extension officers working in the Ruaha landscape study area. Veterinarians and representatives from governmental organizations and institutions of higher education, including the Tanzania Veterinary Laboratory Agency, Sokoine University of Agriculture, and the Iringa Rural District Veterinary Office, contributed to the trainings. Eighteen extension officers (six livestock extension officers and twelve agricultural extension officers) received training to enhance understanding of diverse aspects of animal health and disease, and to prepare them to participate in village-level education workshops for pastoralists. Extension officers received in-depth education and training on key local diseases of livestock (cattle, sheep, and goats) and other domestic animals (dogs and chickens); diagnostic sample collection, storage, and testing; disease reporting; meat inspection; post-mortem examination of carcasses; control of external parasites, such as ticks; and potential effects of climate change on disease. These workshops were extremely well received by local veterinary stakeholders. District level governmental representatives identified livestock health training as a critical need for all extension officers, and asked that the trainings be extended to other areas if possible. We also completed pastoralist educational workshops in 21 study villages, which reached a total of 459 participants, including 369 pastoralists and 90 health clinic officers, extension officers, and government officials. The education was developed to include pastoralists’ livestock health priorities identified in surveys and village-level focus groups, as well as findings from baseline nutrition work and livestock health interviews conducted with pastoralist households in Pawaga and Idodi divisions enrolled in the study. The 21 villages were split into four different groups, each of which received one of four types of education: 1) livestock health education and baseline zoonotic disease prevention and climate change education, 2) human nutrition (with special emphasis on women and children) and food preservation education, as well as baseline zoonotic disease prevention and climate change education, 3) livestock health, human nutrition, and baseline zoonotic disease prevention and climate change education, and 4) baseline zoonotic disease prevention and climate change education (comparison group). We included livestock and agricultural extension officers, who had previously attended a practical training and instruction course on livestock health that we led, to provide an opportunity for them to network with and provide education to pastoralist households. One of the aims of our work is to increase communication and trust between pastoralists and the village extension officers who provide livestock health services. Pastoralists’ lack of trust of extension officers’ abilities has been a major barrier to the local livestock health service system. We also included local human health center representatives to promote greater local health care utilization; in particular, to encourage pastoralist families to take their young children to the clinic for regular check-ups to assess health and nutrition. Summary The project has collected comprehensive information on the nutritional status of a large sample of pastoralist women and young children (261 women and 33 children between six and nine months old), the livestock diseases and symptoms of greatest importance to pastoralists in the Ruaha landscape (196 households), various ways in which the pastoralists use their animals and animal products, household-level socioeconomic status, and climate change perceptions. We have also provided education to nearly 400 pastoralists, and will reach more in future rounds of education. We are continuing to follow up with study households to measure the effects of education on outcomes related to livestock health, human nutrition, and livelihoods. Initial evidence from households indicates that they feel that the education has empowered them to respond more effectively to disease concerns, and that they have a better understanding of the importance of human nutrition. Pastoralists have also been reaching out to extension officers more regularly for treatment help when they observe diseases in their herds. Literature Cited Allport, M., S. Bahari, and A. Catley. 2005. The Use of Community Animal Health Workers to Strengthen Disease Surveillance Systems in Tanzania. OIE Sci. and Tech. Rev. 24.3 Barrett, C.B., F. Chabari, D.V. Bailey, P.D. Little, and D.L. Coppock. 2003. Livestock Pricing in the Northern Kenyan Rangelands. Journal of African Economies 12: 127-155 Boone, R.B., M.B. Coughenour, K.A. Galvin, and J.E. Ellis. 2002. Addressing Management Questions for Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, Using the SAVANNA Modelling System. African Journal of Ecology 40: 138-150 Clifford, D., R. Kazwala, and P. Coppolillo. 2008. Evaluating and Managing Zoonotic Disease Risk in Rural Tanzania. GL-CRSP Research Brief 08-01-HALI Ellis, J.E. and D.M. Swift. 1988. Stability of African Pastoral Ecosystems: Alternate Paradigms and Implications for Development. Journal of Range Management 41: 450-459 Fratkin, E.M. 2001. East African Pastoralism in Transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases. African Studies Review 44: 1-25 Galvin, K.A., P.K. Thornton, R.B. Boone, and J. Sunderland. 2004. Climate Variability and Impacts on East African Livestock Herders: The Maasai of Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 21: 183-189 Gould, E.A. and S. Higgs. 2009. Impact of Climate Change and Other Factors on Emerging Arbovirus Diseases. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 103: 109-121 Gustafson, C.R., E. VanWormer, R. Kazwala, A. Makweta, G. Paul, W. Smith, and J.K. Mazet. 2014. Pastoralist and extension officer education as a potential tool to mitigate diverse livestock disease concerns in a changing climate. Submitted to Pastoralism: Research, Policy, and Practice. Mazet, J., D. Clifford, P. Coppolillo, A. Deolalikar, J. Erickson, and R. Kazwala. 2009. 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Livestock, Disease, Trade and Markets: Policy Choices for the Livestock Sector in Africa. Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 269: 1-55 Sellen, D.W. 2000. Seasonal Ecology and Nutritional Status of Women and Children in a Tanzanian Pastoral Community. American Journal of Human Biology 12: 758-781 Wittemyer, G., P. Elsen, W.T. Bean, C. O. Burton, and J.S. Brasheres. 2008. Accelerated human population growth at protected area edges. Science 321: 123-126. World Resources Institute (WRI). Earthtrends Country Profiles, Tanzania, Agriculture and Food (2003). Available at: http://earthtrends.wri.org. Sub-theme 3: Market access: opportunities for enhanced access to local, regional and global markets Opportunities for enhanced access to local, regional and global markets Zemedu, L.S. Haramaya University, Ethiopia Corresponding address: zemedul@gmail.com Abstract Almost 33% of GDP of sub-Saharan African(SSA) countries come from Agriculture. Transforming agriculture from subsistence to market oriented and consequently realization of industrialization is direction of African development. In addition to crop farming, Livestock production and marketing in SSA countries is becoming among critical area of attention in African development. Africa imports livestock products mainly from developed countries with less than 5 % import from countries within Africa. The comprehensive African Agricultural Development Program (CAADP) developed by the will of African leaders gave high emphasis toward improving market access for SSA agricultural Products. The tariff and non tariff barriers (NTB) (Sanitary and Phytosanitary requirements for animal products, subsidies, etc) from developed countries together with the poor infrastructure and agro-processing industries in SSA countries hamper competitiveness of SSA animal origin products in the international markets. The huge opportunity for SSA countries is to focus on Intra regional trade in Africa until the SPS requirements of developed countries could be fulfilled. However, with the commitment of African politicians second phase of CAADP showed determination to move from rhetoric to action, where countries are requested to abide with Maputo declaration of investing at least 10 % of GDP on Agriculture, allocate at least 1% of GDP on research, maintaining at least 6% annual agricultural growth and strengthen the regional development communities (SADC, EAC, ECOWAS, COMESA, IGAD, etc). Sheep market integration in the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of Ethiopia Nigussie, A*. and Alemu, D. *corresponding author; aklil2002@yahoo.com Abstract This study examines the existence of the spatial market integration of the different pairs of sheep markets in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Using modern time series econometric techniques uncovered compelling pieces of evidence of strong steady state linkages of the various pair-wise combinations of the sampled CRV markets, with only an insignificant few segregated routes. The main conclusion of the study is that despite the geographic segregation of the sheep markets and the presence of fragmented and often inefficient distribution system, price signals and other market information are transmitted efficiently across the markets, thus negating the potential occurrences of unexploited arbitrage opportunities. Research on sheep price determinants in Central rift valley remained very limited. This study examined sheep price paid and offered price visa vise factors underlying price variations determinants. Based on their importance of sheep marketing sites, four markets from CRV were selected. The markets were surveyed on the main weekly market day for a period. Data were recorded on price, weight (kg), sex, age, color, body grade, buyers' purpose, buyer’s type and sellers at the market spot transactions. A total of 550 observations were recorded. Econometric model and descriptive analytical methods were used for the analysis based on live weight price paid and offered. The results showed that there was a considerable factors variation throughout the sample markets in price paid determinants. Keywords: Price integration; spatial transmission; cointegration; Granger causality; VAR; price paid; age; grade Dairy Ration Formulation Technology in Kenya: The Voices of the Stakeholders Irungu, R.1*, Muia, J.1 and Kariuki, I.2 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute P.O. Box 25 20117, Naivasha, Kenya; 2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute P.O. Box 30148 00200, Nairobi, Kenya. *Corresponding author: robertirungu@gmail.com Abstract An interview tool on dairy ration formulation technology was administered to dairy stakeholders in three prominent dairying districts Nairobi, Nakuru and Thika in Kenya. The objectives were: to document the challenges and opportunities in commercial feed manufacturing in Kenya; to determine the current role of feed additives in dairy feeding; to identify ration formulation computer packages currently in use; to evaluate challenges and opportunities for up-scaling and commercialization of proven formulated dairy feed rations and to explore the possibility of establishment of feed analysis centres. The challenges of commercialization of formulated feed rations included scarcity and high cost of ingredients. The opportunities included the large feed markets; well established ingredients supply chain and readily available technical support. Feed additives were available but few dairy farmers, rearing high producing dairy herds, benefited from this technology. There was no uniformity in approach and choice of computer software leading to their complexity. Stakeholders were enthusiastic on commercialization of formulated feed rations. They had capacity in training, essential capital and accumulated experience in financing the industry. Essential tools and equipment for field operations could efficiently and cost effectively be fabricated. Building capacity in feed analysis at the existing laboratories spread out in various dairying areas was the most viable approach. Simple ration formulation computer software should be developed, tested and users trained. Commercialization of feed rations is viable in Kenya as large feed markets, training capacity, financial credit, technical support and established ingredients supply chain exist. Key words: Computer packages, commercialization, Dairy, Ration, Stakeholders Introduction There are many opportunities in the Kenyan feed industry. These include the potential large feed market, wide choice in ingredient sources and established ingredient supply chain. The feed industry is well established and there is readily available technical support in feed formulation and additives. Kenya’s well established dairy industry requires manufactured feed to maintain its leadership in the East African Region in volume of milk produced annually. There is heavy investment in farmer education by private and public institutions to enable efficient and competitive dairy industry. The current study involved administration of an interview guide to Stakeholders and Collaborators in Nairobi, Nakuru and Thika. They included University of Nairobi, Egerton University, Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), Ministry of Livestock Development, Feed Manufacturers, Feed Distributors, Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI), Milk Processors, Agro-vet Stockists, Credit Providers and Groups including Youth, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), Farmer Field Schools (FFS) and Cooperative Societies (Co-ops). The objectives of the study were: to identify practical and cost-effective ration formulation packages for use at farm level; to explore the possibility of establishment of feed analysis centres (e.g. in VILs, ATCs, college labs) located in dairying regions across the country; to establish the possibility of adding value to dairy rations through use of appropriate additives (e.g. enzymes, Yeasac); to share experiences with feed manufacturers on challenges and opportunities of commercialization of formulated feed rations and to establish entry points to working with various relevant groups (e.g. youth, women, church) on commercialization of formulated feed rations. Materials and Methods An interview guide was used during discussions held among Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), University of Nairobi (UON), Egerton University (EU), Ministry of Livestock Development (MOLD), Headquarters, Brookside Dairies, Headquarters at Ruiru, Treasure Feeds, Ruiru and Nutrimix Ltd, Nairobi on available ration formulation packages (Table:1). The discussions also explored the possibility of establishment of feed analysis centres (e.g. in Veterinary Investigation Laboratories (VIL), Agricultural Training Centres (ATC), college Laboratories) located in dairying regions across the country. Together with these organizations, additionally Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), Nairobi was involved in discussions to establish the possibility of adding value to dairy rations through use of appropriate additives (e.g. enzymes, Yeasac). During these discussions experiences were shared with feed manufacturers on challenges and opportunities of commercialization of formulated feed rations. Establishment of entry points for KARI scientists to work with various relevant groups (e.g. youth, women, church) on commercialization of formulated feed rations were also determined using the interview guide. This interview guide was used during visits at Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI), KEBS, UON, EU, MOLD, Brookside Dairies, Treasure Feeds, Equity Bank, Headquarters, Nairobi, Kiplombe Farmers’ Cooperative Society, Eldama Ravine, Menengai Agro-vet, Nakuru, Youth Groups at Nderi and Rungiri in Kiambu and Mr. Kihika Ngamau at Nakuru who is an entrepreneur. Results and Discussions Commercial feed manufacturing in Kenya Challenges The challenges of commercialization of formulated feed rations included availability of ingredients in small quantities and the wide geographic spread. These caused high cost in bulking of row materials and high transport costs of row materials and feed distribution. These costs were aggravated by poor quality, high cost of ingredients with wide fluctuation in price and supply. Dishonesty was prevalent in declared quality of ingredients and finished products. Contracting in the cultivation of row materials such as maize, sorghum, cassava and soya bean was difficult due to high incidence of flouting of such contracts. Similarly row material supply contracts were flouted. The scarcity of local ingredients supply caused expensive importation from neighbouring countries including Tanzania and Uganda. Other challenges included unhealthy competition among feed manufacturers caused by low feed demand compared to the high capacity of the 60 registered feed millers in Kenya. The inadequately informed consumers and service providers e.g. stockists have led to opportunistic investment in feed compounding. For example, although there were 60 registered feed manufacturers in Kenya more than 120 exist. These have caused the existence of unprofitable small operations and feed formulae poaching. Furthermore, the sources of utilities e.g. infrastructure, power source are inadequate and expensive. Opportunities Numerous opportunities were enumerated by feed manufactures, stockists and service providers. These included the potential large feed market, wide choice in ingredient sources and established ingredient supply chain. There was a well established feed industry in Kenya and readily available technical support in feed formulation and additives. There was a pool of knowledgeable nutritionists in private practice, public institutions and Universities. Alternative feed ingredients were available including cassava, sorghum, lucaenea, Lucerne, maize and copra. The average milk yields of less than 10 kg daily currently on most Kenya farms could be sustained by replacing preformed protein sources such as cotton seed cake and sunflower cake with use of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) including urea. The current Government policy on expanding irrigated land hectares may contribute to stabilization of ingredient supply, quality and price. The cost of feed manufacturing machinery may reduce as Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI) was able to fabricate some of the feed manufacturing machinery. Kenya’s well established dairy industry required manufactured feed to maintain its leadership in the East African Region in volume of milk produced annually. There was heavy investment in farmer education by private and public institutions to enable efficient and competitive dairy industry. Such knowledgeable farmers will demand high quality feeds that are regularly supplied according to their production objectives. This will require customized feed formulae to supply the clients according to set standard by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS). Good relationship and trust with dairy farmers e.g. Brookside Dairy will benefit the dairy industry through efficiency and farmer empowerment. Another opportunity to enable commercialization of formulated feed rations was the availability of tailor made credit by financial institutions. Feed additives Nutrimix Ltd, Nairobi had franchise for leading European and Israel feed additive manufacturers. Nutrimix Ltd, Nairobi supplied premixes, vitamins and feed additives to feed manufacturers. NOVAS which is another feed additive supplier worked closely with academic staff at Egerton University. They supplied organic acids, biflex minerals, mycotoxine binders and enzymes. While feed additives are available, only a select group of dairy farmers, rearing high producing dairy herds, benefited from this technology. Majority of dairy farmers in the country required to improve their dairy practice before feed additives gain prominence. The feed additives required to meet World Trade Organization (WTO) and FAO Codex and ISO Standards. The convincing benefits of feed additives were discussed using the American and Israel dairy experience and evidence collected during visits to these countries by some of the institutions visited. Ration formulation software Nutrimix Ltd, Nairobi routinely provided backup on formulae to the feed industry in Kenya using several softwares. Various softwares were available and in use among the researchers in the Institutions visited including Excel Spreadsheet, PC dairy and Feed Formulator MOF-Dairy Edition (2010). However, there was no unified approach and choice of software as each type met the unique need for which it was developed. Majority of these softwares were complex in operation and information needs for functioning hence not friendly to farm level use. Simpler software needs to be developed, tested and users trained before final commissioning for farm level application. Up-scaling and commercialization of proven dairy ration options and funds Youth Groups The Youth Groups were enthusiastic on commercialization of formulated feed rations. It was felt that the demand was huge springing right from the individual households the youth came from, the existing groups, Cooperatives and the community. The Youth were particularly happy on the prospect of use of computer software in ration formulation, its application in feed formulation and the opportunity to provide feed formulae at a commission. Farmers’ Cooperatives Kiplombe Farmers’ Cooperative Society, Eldama Ravine was already providing formulated feeds and ingredients to their clients and they were keen to join in commercialization of formulated feed. They were ready to formulate their dairy meal with the assistance of KARI as they knew the benefits a neighbouring Cooperative was reaping. They were capable of training their members on the technology and provide loans for its implementation. Agro-vet shops and Private extension Menengai Agro-vet, Nakuru provided formulated feeds and ingredients to their clients and they were keen to join in commercialization of formulated feed. They owned a subsidiary business, Njiku Dairy Farm where they practised use of formulated feeds in high yielding dairy herd. Menengai Agro-vet ran private Extension Service on dairy farming and was willing to incorporate feed formulation and its commercialization. Private entrepreneurs Mr. Kihika Ngamau, an entrepreneur, felt that the commercial manufacturers are out of touch will farmers’ production situation. They were concentrating on their business profit hence over- pricing compounded feeds. As high yielding dairy herds require well balanced concentrates hence commercial dairying is receiving inadequate profit. He felt that the Project should target cost effective and readily available formulated feeds. These will receive great success as the current milk price is fairly good and farmers target high milk yielding herds. The high cost of replacement stock has encouraged dairy farmers to feed their current cattle adequately and also rear their own replacements. He recommended the need to induce specialization in dairy production to create efficiency and to vertically integrate feed production, feed processing, dairy production and processing and eventual marketing. Mr. Kihika recommended demonstration of Project benefits with a few carefully selected dairy herds for at least 6 months and use the herds as springboard to reach wider dairying community. The expansion could use individual dairy herds, existing groups particularly women groups who are well known in financial discipline and can be widely trusted. Stakeholders There was consensus among the stakeholders that the Project required to set a strict county and farmer selection criteria that may not be necessarily random in nature. At the onset a few counties and farmers or groups will be selected, intensively trained and supported on the technology and their success replicated later in the counties and among wider scope of farmers and Groups. This is borne out by the introduction of Model Farms in the Ministry of Livestock Development and Brookside Dairies, Ruiru. The model of intensive training spread out during the life of the technology and successful practitioners further trained as Training of Trainers was effectively used in a collaborative project among KARI-Egerton University-Catholic Dioceses of Nakuru. Financial institutions Equity Bank, Headquarters, Nairobi, felt the Project addressed real life dairying issues and was a good idea. They were keen to contribute to the success of the project and requested to be involved in the activities of the Project right from the beginning. This will enable the Bank to gauge the creditworthiness of participating farmers and groups early, train them during project events, with subsequent fast tracking of their credit with the Bank. Their experience when loaning in the dairy industry is that feeding the cattle was a big challenge that caused oscillation in milk production and loan repayment. They aimed at evening out loan repayment. Equity Bank ran loan packages to the dairy industry and had accumulated a wealth of experience in financing the industry. The Bank ran training programmes to build capacity of the borrower right from the onset including 8 weeks training on financial management, leadership, record keeping and group dynamics. They ran wide branch network at which preferably two officers had agriculture training and dedicated their time in handling agricultural credit and farmer capacity building. Equity Bank ran credit portfolio for individuals and groups. Equipment for field operations Discussions and a tour of facilities at Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI) convinced us that essential tools and equipment for field operations in the Project can efficiently and cost effectively be fabricated at KIRDI, Nairobi. Government Extension The Extension Services emphasised the importance of involving the youth continuously. The technology requires tailor making to match the clients’ needs and there was need to induce specialization in dairying. Entrepreneurs were to be encouraged to invest in feed production as commercial enterprise. Possibilities of forming private-public partnerships in livestock feed manufacturing was essential. There was need for efficiency in dairying particularly targeting reduction in feed costs. The Extension was keen to strengthen the use of commercial formulated feeds and search for alternative feeds in dairying. They had national coverage and would include commercial feed formulation in their extension messages to farmers. They were particularly enthusiastic to incorporate formulated feeds in the Model Dairy Farms extension approach currently in force at the ministry. Staff required training on feed formulation including Training of Trainers (TOT) for sustainability. Feed analysis centres A consensus was reached that, currently building capacity at the existing Veterinary Investigation Laboratories (VIL) spread out in various dairying areas was the most viable approach. However, additional capacity can be created at selected Agricultural Training Centres (ATC) and Brookside Dairies milk collection centres in the long run. Heavy investment was essential to train laboratory staff on use of modern equipment and computer software. The laboratories at Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), Nairobi, University of Nairobi (UON), Egerton University (EU) will remain as reference laboratories. To strengthen this role the laboratory at the Centre of Excellence at Naivasha required additional modern state of the art equipment and staff training. Conclusions The Kenyan feed manufacturing industry enjoyed large well established feed market, wide ingredient choices and established ingredient supply chain. There was readily available technical and financial support. The available software are complex in operation and information needs. Building capacity in feed analysis at the existing Veterinary Investigation Laboratories (VIL) was the most viable approach. Feed additives were not widely used as majority of dairy herds recorded low milk yield. Stakeholders were enthusiastic on feed formulation and commercialization of formulated feed rations. Training and financing were available to individuals and groups and essential tools and equipment for field operations could efficiently and cost effectively be fabricated. Recommendations Simpler software needed to be developed, tested and users trained before final commissioning. Majority of dairy farmers should improve their dairy practice targeting high milk yield. Up-scaling and commercialization of proven dairy rations is an important strategic action for Kenya to maintain its leadership in the East African Region in volume of milk produced annually. Commercialization of Rynchophorus phoenicis larvae at Mvog-Mbi market in Yaounde' Cameroon Meutchieye, F.1* and Niassy, S.2 1Department of Animal Science, FASA-University of Dschang, P.O. Box 188 Dschang – Cameroon; 2International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772- 00100, Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: sniassy@icipe.org Abstract Palm trees are important source of food and commodities in many African countries. However palm tree ecosystems are facing serious threats due to over exploitation of palm wood, wine and edible insects. The palm weevil Rhynchophorus phoenicis which is among the most consumed species of insects in Africa particularly in Western and Central Africa is a serious pest of palm trees Raphia sp and Elais guineensis. Both larvae and adults constitute an important source of protein to many communities and its consumption has been reported in more than 10 countries in the Sub-Saharan region. In Cameroon, the trade of R. phoenicis larvae is lucrative and is considered as woman business. In the Capital city Yaoundé, where this insect is considered as a delicacy, larvae are shipped from surrounding villages and delivered with raphia or palm fibers as food substrate to keep larvae alive up to 4days. A handful of 0.1L of palm weevil larvae costs 1000 francs (2 US dollars) which is quite a substantial income. Larvae pseudo reared on raphia palms using indigenous knowledge are much more preferred than those from palm oil tree. Although this commerce is still very informal, the value chain involves various actors who control the market between producers in numerous villages and the retailers in the city and since the demand of this insect is extremely high, this business could be associated to a serious threat to palm tree ecosystems in Cameroon. Therefore, in an attempt to conciliate both human interest and environment protection, we suggest a mitigating research programme between the consumption of this insect and the conservation of palm tree ecosystems in Africa. Keywords: Cameroon, edible insects, palms, trade, weevils, women Introduction Africa is the most susceptible continent in terms of food insecurity, with around one in four people estimated to be undernourished, and sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the highest prevalence of undernourishment at 24.8% (FAO, 2013). The region as a whole is extremely susceptible to frequent food crises and famines that are easily triggered by even the lightest of droughts, floods, pests, economic downturns or conflicts. However, a twin-track approach to reducing hunger and contributing to food security could be resolved by genuine usage of available resources in the sub Sahara humid belt. The rich biodiversity has huge potentials in term of non conventional food resources, mainly in the forest areas where Non forest timbers being exploited are numerous in Congo Basin (Hoare, 2007; Muafor et al., 2012). Tropical palms provide a wide array of commodities in almost all African countries. The list of goods includes roofing, stools and other crafted items such as mats, hats and baskets. Also palm trees offer beverages such as palm wine which is widely consumed in Sub-Saharan Afric. Palm trees including raphia, palm oil trees host a variety of natural insect commensalisms or pests. Among them Rhynchophorus phoenicis which is considered as a delicacy for Cameroon rural and urban dwellers (van-Huis, 2005; Dounias, 2004; Muafor et al., 2014). This insect is among the top most consumed coleopteran in Africa (van-Huis, 2003; 2005). Besides the various direct services and goods provided by cultivated or natural managed palms, socioeconomic importance of weevil larvae consumption evaluation could play a critical role for sustainable wide utilization of these resources. However, lack of relevant information for monitoring useful insects is persistently one of the challenges preventing to the take off of their possible domestication (Cicogna, 1992). It is also important to identify techniques of harvesting preservation for safety and sustainable use of this insect. Moreover, since Africa is one of the most susceptible continents to climate change and land degradation, it is of paramount important to find a resilient balance between ecosystem services provided by these palm trees and human use and their goods. The aim of our study was to assess the characteristics of R. phoenicis larvae trade in a large city like Yaoundé in Cameroon. We emphasized our focus on the key players involved in the business, the preservation methods and customer’s preference. Survey The survey and marketing analysis was built on direct observations in one of the main Yaoundé food market reputed for NTFP products, semi-structured questionnaire and site visits were applied between February and August 2014. All identified palm weevil regular traders were interviewed. Inference environmental assessment on palms ecosystems was derived from our findings. The Business of palm weevil in Yaoundé Actors The main actors in the business of palm weevil include harvesters, secondary collectors, middle women, restaurateurs, ambulant retailers and consumers (Fig.1). Figure 1: Palm weevil larvae market chain actors in Yaoundé (Mvog-Mbi) While harvesters and secondary collectors (both men and women) are all based in the rural areas, middle women build their supply networks on 2-3 weekly trips. Alongside larvae, they also collect mainly live African cat fish that they sell in Yaoundé. Sales in the rural villages are made after bargaining and relationships. The freshness, colour, size and motility of larvae are the main price determinants. Origins are numerous, but all connected to Nyong river confluent small rivers or marshy areas where raffia palms grow. The distances vary from 40-120kms from Yaoundé. Pricing and Preservation Larvae are sold alive, in a conventional cup of around 0.1L at a flat price of USD 2. Larvae are maintained alive by regular water sprinkling and the sorting of dead or softened individuals. Vendors believe that larvae will survive in the decaying palm fibres on which the feed for 5-7 days after harvesting. There is no particular arrangement for larvae maintenance. Customers’ preference According to palm weevil vendors, consumers’ preference was for larvae collected on raffia palms than those harvested on palm oil plants. Taste seems so different as well as final cooking aspects. Beside direct consumers buying for home consumption, palm weevil trade in Yaounde involves also professional restaurateurs who include some traditional recipes made up of this insect species in their proposed menu. Ambulant retailers buy palm weevil which they fry and sell in form of a brochette of 4 individual at USD 20 cents. Sales are made alongside the main urban avenues. Harvesting methods Weevil harvesting methods are related to palm wine (white starchy moderately alcoholic sap). Adult weevil lays eggs in the wounds made by palm wine collectors. The smell of decaying palm fibres and noise made by larvae (one should place his ear on the palm trunk) indicate the right state. Some haversters who have been doing this activity for long seem to have developed their own techniques to attract mature insect and facilitate egg laying in prepared raffia palm tree. Conclusion and implications Motives of larvae sales in Yaoundé Mvog-Mbi market are mainly for income generation. The trade is facilitated by already existing consumers’ networks, making the palm weevil larvae a delicacy as shown by Dounias (2004). As for other food items or commodities, trade chain actors are many, with permanent and seasonal actors, more or less related to cultural background with entomophagy (Defoliart, 1995; Hoare, 2007). Traditional knowledge and new technologies may brigde to possible domestication based on well balanced scientific development (Cicogna, 1992; Defoliart, 1995). However, taking into account the growing population in SSA and the exploitation of natural resources such as catfish based of wild harvesting, serious depletions are expected in a near future. Fosaranti (1993) already indicated that in a neighbouring country in Nigeria, palm trunks are deliberately cut to collect edible grubs. This practice is not sustainable. Sustainable diets are those diets with low environmental impacts that contribute to food and nutrition security and to healthy life for present and future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally accepted, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources. Sustainable diets can address the consumption of foods with lower water and carbon footprints; promote the use of food biodiversity, including traditional and local foods, with their many nutritionally rich species and varieties (FAO, 2010). Tropical palm tree contribute significantly in GHG reduction, hence there is a need to prevent massive destruction of raffia palm ecosystems which play variable roles for the communities. SSA is the only region of the world where hunger is projected to worsen over the next two decades unless some drastic measures are taken to reverse food insecurity. This implies that, while the population is rising, the number of adults available to produce food is disproportionately affected. Our study advocate for community mobilization through reforestation programmes but also capacity building in mass producing palm weevils. This will contribute strongly to increasing food security, which in turn helps promote economic diversification and growth. Since the business of palm weevil is lucrative, reforestation policies could serve as an incentive to generate higher incomes and creates income generating opportunities for populations in Cameroon and SSA. References Cicogna, M. 1992. First international seminar on farming of invertebrates and other minilivestock. Tropicultura 10 (4):155-159. Defoliart, G.R. 1995. Edible insects as minilivestock. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 306-321. Dounias, E. 2004. Weevil larvae Cameroonian case in Citlalli López & Patricia Shanley Eds Riches of the forest:For health, life and spirit in Africa. PP:9-12. FAO (2013) The State of Food Insecurity in the World - The multiple dimensions of food security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), Rome. FAO, IFAD & WFP (2012) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012: Economic growth is necessary but not sufficient to accelerate reduction of hunger and malnutrition. FAO, Rome. Fasoranti, J. O. & Ajiboye, D. O. (1993) Some edible insects of Kwara State, Nigeria. American Entomologist, 39, 113-116. Hoare, A.L. 2007. The use of non-timber forest products in the Congo Basin:Constraints and Opportunities. The Rainforest Foundation, 56p. Muafor, F.J., Levang, P., and Le Gall, P. 2014. A Crispy Delicacy: Augosoma Beetle as Alternative Source of Protein in East Cameroon. International Journal of Biodiversity Volume, Article ID 214071, 7 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/214071 Muafor, F.J., Levang,P., Angwafo, T.E. and Le Gall, P. 2012. Making a living with forest insects: beetles as an income source in Southwest Cameroon. International Forestry Review Vol.14(4): 1-12. Nzikou JM, Mbemba F, Mvoula-Tsieri M, Diabangouaya-Batela B, Malela KE, Kimbonguila A, Ndangui CB, Pambou-Tobi NP, Silou T & Desobry S Characterisation and Nutritional Potentials of Rhynchophorus phoenicis Larva Consumed in Congo-Brazzaville. Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences 2: 184-194. van Huis A (2003) Insects as food in sub-Saharan Africa. Insect Science and its Application 23: 163-185. van Huis A (2005) Insects eaten in Africa (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Heteroptera, Homoptera): Ecological implications of minilivestock: potential of insects, rodents, frogs and snails. (ed., pp. 231-244. Field testing a conceptual framework for innovation platform impact assessment: the case of MilkIT dairy platforms in Tanga region, Tanzania Pham, N.D.1,2, Cadilhon, J.-J.2* and Maass, B.L.3 1University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; 2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya; 3International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya. *corresponding address J.Cadilhon@cgiar.org Abstract This article studies the impact of innovation platforms in Tanga Region, Tanzania, set up by the MilkIT dairy development project to intensify smallholder production through feeds enhancement and value chain approaches. The conceptual framework used builds up from three socio- economic theories. The Structure-Conduct-Performance model of markets contributes its elegant assumption linking the way markets are organized with how market actors behave, which has an influence on market performance. The framework is transposed to study innovation platforms, which can be envisaged as market-enhancing institutions, according to New Institutional Economics, the second theory also contributing notions of transaction costs to the framework. The final theoretical contribution comes from business relationship marketing with its field-tested constructs for supply chain performance. This new conceptual framework applied to innovation platforms posits that the structure of the platform (how it is organized) has an impact on its members’ conduct (how they communicate and share information), which in turn influences platform performance targeted by members (feed availability and accessibility). Empirical data were collected from stakeholders involved in the MilkIT platforms through focus group discussions, key informant interviews and a survey of 121 farmers. Data were analysedusing principal components factor analysis followed by regression analysis. This study finds positive links between frequency, quality and modes of communication by livestock keepers with their perception of satisfactory feed availability and accessibility. On the other hand, results for members and non-members of the platform are not statistically significantly different, probably due to the very early stage of platform development. Keywords:Communication, feeds, livestock, value chain. Introduction An innovation platform is “a group of individuals (who often represent organizations) with different backgrounds and interests: farmers, traders, food processors, researchers, government officials etc. The members come together to diagnose problems, identify opportunities and find ways to achieve their goals” (Victor et al2013). These system-oriented approaches for stimulating technical, institutional and organizational innovations in agricultural value chains took shape in the 2000s (NederlofandPyburn 2012). They have since been widely recognized by multiple programmes as a tool to establish connections and networks among value chain stakeholders. These enhanced interactions in turn encourage innovative changes via concerted collaboration in addressing common bottlenecks and co-creating solutions. As innovation platforms are increasingly utilized, the importance of evaluating their impacts has also become a major concern of both researchers and development practitioners. Cadilhon (2013)developed a conceptual framework to address impact assessment of innovation platforms using quantitative research methods and proposed a field method for its empirical validation. The framework is based on three strands of literature: the Structure-Conduct-Performance model, New Institutional Economics, and Supply Chain Management and marketing. Zewdieet al (2013)conducted research following the method proposed to assess the impacts of Volta Basin Integrated Crop-Livestock platforms in Ghana. Theycould not come to a strong conclusion about the power and appropriateness of the conceptual framework regarding impact evaluation for the Volta Basin platforms. The authors identified certain limitations that might undermine the econometric results used to test the framework: small number of observations, young age of the platforms and lack of a control group. They suggested the framework be appraised through further empirical validations before coming to a reliable conclusion regarding its effectiveness. This paperattempts field validation ofCadilhon’s (2013) conceptual framework, based on data collected from twoMilkITproject dairy platforms at village level in Tanzania. The MilkIT project “Enhancing dairy-based livelihoods through feed innovation and value chain development approaches” aimsto improve availability and reduce seasonality of dairy feed in villages in Morogoro and Tanga regions using institutional and technical interventionsthrough innovation platforms. Innovation platforms have been established in a total of eight selected villages in the two regions during 2013 (Pham et al 2014). The research methodology is described in the next section. Section three discusses the research results, followed by main findings and limitations as well as suggestions for further research in the last section. Materials and methods The conceptual framework developed by Cadilhon (2013) is one of the first systematic models aiming at evaluating the impact of agrifood innovation platforms via a mixed approach of qualitative and econometric analysis. Figure 1 illustrates this framework with performance indicators adapted to the context of MilkIT project platforms in Tanzania. Due to time limitations, Communication and Feed Availability were selected as focus indicators of Conduct and Performance constructs, respectively, for further analysis. The choice of communication as conduct focus element was based on previous literature acknowledging communication within innovation platforms as an essential facilitator of innovation processes (Victor et al 2013). The choice of feed availability as focus for performance indicators came from the realization that feed was one of the major perceived constraints to milk production in the study area (Pham et al 2014), reflecting also the emphasis of the MilkIT project. Figure 1:Illustration of different Structure, Conduct and Performance elements (Cadilhon, 2013) adapted to MilkIT Tanzania platforms ‘Structure’‘Conduct’‘Performance’ IP “Structure” - Membership composition & diversity - Decision making process - Committees - Source of funding - Staff availability Individual ‘structure’ - Type of chain stakeholder - Gender - Level of education - Indicator of wealth External environment - Legal and regulatory framework - Cultural norms “Conduct” of IP members Information sharing Communication Coordination Joint planning Trust IP “Performance” indicators - Adoption of new dairy production practices & activities - Year round availability of feed - Improved market access (milk) - Access to livestock inputs & services - Increased milk production & productivity - Increased income from milk - Policy influence The data used for econometrically testing the framework was collected via 121 semi-structured interviews with questionnaires on Structure, Conduct and Performance information. Both the control and treatment samples were taken from the population of dairy livestock keepers in Mbuzii village, Lushoto district, and Sindeni village, Handeni district, in Tanga region, Tanzania. Treatment groups were platform members, defined by their attending at least one platform meeting. They included 31 platform members in Mbuzii and 28 members in Sindeni. Control groups were 30 and 32 dairy livestock keepersliving in Mbuzii and Sindeni respectively; theyhadnever attended any platform meeting. Due to the early stage and the composition of the platforms, all respondents were livestock keepers and hardly any of them played other roles in the studied value chains. During the two months of data collection in the field from December 2013 to February 2014, two focus group discussions were organized with about 10 platform members each in both villages. Together with multiple informal interviews with key informants, they provided qualitative information that helped in constructing the final analytical models and to support the econometrical results. Questionnaires used during fieldwork are available upon request from the corresponding author. The methods used for questionnaire design and data analysis were identical to those described by Zewdieet al (2013):quantitativedata collected from individual farmers were analysed using principal components factor analysis followed by regression analysis.In this paper, the relationships between Structure and Conduct will not be examined and discussed. The two models constructed to study the relationships between Conduct and Performance of MilkIT innovation platforms in Tanzania are defined as: F_avaiis a result of the factor analysis on performance indicators and represents Feed availability during dry season.F_acce is another performance factor which can be described as Market access to larger variety and better feeds. Divorcedandwidowed are dummy variables with value 1 indicating the respondent is divorced or widowed. Dummy variable edu1 indicates the respondent has never attended school if its value is 1. Dummy variable training indicates the respondent has attended at least a training course in dairy production or dairy feed and feeding. Storeand share are also dummies with value 1 if the respondent stores crop residues for the dry seasonor the respondent shares production information with others,respectively. Lncattleperacre and Lncattle are natural logarithm of number of cattle per acre or of total number of cattle owned. Comqf is a result from the factor analysis on communication indicators; this factor can be described as the level of quality and frequency in communicating about feed and feeding. Source1, source2, and source3 are factors combining different sources of communication and sharing information, indicating the level of exposure to information and interaction with stakeholders. Results and discussion No statistically significant difference was found between the control and treatment groups, in terms of Structure, Conduct and Performance data. This is probably due to the very young age of the platforms (4 months old): they are not yet providing any difference compared with “business as usual”: sharing information and technologies with neighbours and within other types of farmers’ organizations. Table 1: Regression results with Feed availability during dry season as dependent variable Dependent Variable Explanatory variables Beta t P>|t| Divorced 0.180 2.488 0.014 Factor 1: Feed availability during dry season Widowed 0.082 1.073 0.286 Edu1 -0.183 -2.008 0.047 Lncattleperacre -0.267 -3.111 0.002 Store 0.178 2.239 0.027 Comqf 0.201 2.398 0.018 Source1 0.164 1.967 0.052 Source2 0.169 2.193 0.031 Source3 -0.087 -1.018 0.311 Table 1 shows that improved quality and frequency of communication in feed and feeding issues enhanced respondents’ perception of having enough feed for their cows during dry season while Table 2 indicates that increased exposure to certain sources of information has a positive impacton accessing larger variety and better feed inputs. Table 2: Regression results with Market access to larger variety and better feeds as dependent variable Dependent Variable Explanatory variables Beta t P>|t| Factor 2: Market access to larger variety and better feeds Divorced -0.189 -2.387 0.019 Widowed 0.114 1.419 0.159 Share 0.204 1.838 0.069 Lncattle -0.170 -1.604 0.112 training -0.226 -2.468 0.015 Comqf 0.078 0.826 0.411 Source1 0.270 2.630 0.010 Source2 0.195 2.046 0.043 Source3 0.012 0.121 0.904 Listening to radio hasa significant positive impact on both feed availability during dry season and feed access.Likewise, contacting input traders, extension officers for feed information and communication viapaper-based materials like brochures and posters, among other information sources, do connect livestock keepers to the market and make inputs for feed more accessible to them. Besides, communication quality and frequency also improve the availability of feed during dry seasons in a statistically significant way. One apparently surprising relationship is the negative link between attending dairy and feed trainings and access to feed inputs. Information was gathered in Lushotoabout a group of poorer livestock keepers who attended some training by some other projects in the past, but few of them have made significant improvement in dairy production. They probably remain more disadvantaged than average and have less access to feed inputs. The observation is more obvious in Handeni where more livestock keepers claimed they attended multiple training courses but hardly any of them agreed that they were applying the skills and know-hows learnton their farms. The negative sign could probably be explained by the fact that the more disadvantaged farmers are usually selected for such kind of training and at the time of survey such training hadnot made a difference to them in terms of feed availability and accessibility. However, explanations for this require further investigation to come to a clear conclusion. One platform facilitator and research actor claimed that storing grass and crop residues should play an important role in improving feed availability, and this is proved to be true in the model, especially for livestock keepers in Lushoto, where number of cattle per household remains small. The number of cattle per acre of land negatively affects feed availability in both villages, regardless of the production scales and feeding systems. This is particularly crucial for Maasai people due to the long established tradition of increasing herd size for social status even if it may not be economically beneficial due to limited land and water. Field observations indicatedthat never attending school and being a widowed woman underminedlivestock production in general, especially in terms of access to market and feed availability. The regression model backs this finding only regarding the negative impact of being uneducated on feed availability during dry season. The significant impact of being divorced on the two dependent variables is surprising given that there is only one case in the sample, warranting further analysis. Considering the fact that the regression models use psychometric measurements to capture behaviours and perceptions, the adjusted R-squared of 0.447 and 0.306 for feed availability model and feed accessibility model, respectively, do capture a significant part of the relationships among Structure, Conduct and Performance, as hypothesized by Cadilhon (2013). Conclusions This research was designed to test a conceptual framework developed by Cadilhon (2013) to evaluate impacts of innovation platforms. The results of econometric models, backed by triangulation with qualitative data, indicate significant impacts of communication frequency and quality, as well as exposure to different sources of information, on livestock keepers’ perceptions of feed availability and accessibility. Results also point to the significant roles of education, production scale and practices on the two performance indicators studied. These findings confirm that platform facilitators’ investments into fostering communication between platform members are worthwhile because this communication has a positive impact on helping platform members reach their stated goals. Nonetheless, findings also point to individual situations described by the characteristics of members and their production system still playing a significant role in reaching stated productivity goals. Thus, innovation platform facilitators should also set up mechanisms that allow innovation processes to be compatible with the needs of individual members of the group. Some of the relationships posited between elements of structure, conduct and performance of innovation platforms in Cadilhon’s (2013) conceptual framework are empirically validated by this study. Future research is still needed to improve the framework’s testing in other contexts. Number of observationsshould be increased further to improve the performance of regression models. Questionnaires should be adjusted to reflect better the individuality of platform members and the type of performance indicators selected according to platform objectives. This would help further to collect relevant variables and avoid missing some meaningful factors. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Humidtropics CGIAR Research Program (http://humidtropics.cgiar.org/) and hosted by the MilkIT project on enhancing dairy-based livelihoods in India and Tanzania through feed innovation and value chain development approaches with technical support from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).Pham Ngoc Diep would like to thank MrShayoLekason, the extension officer in Handeni district and all the livestock keepers in the two villages for the time they shared with her. She also thanks her fiancé and friends for their continuous and loving support. References Birachi, E., van Rooyen, A., Somé, H., Maute, F., Cadilhon, J., Adekunle, A. and Swaans, K. 2013. Innovation platforms for agricultural value chain development. Innovation Platforms Practice Brief 6.ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Cadilhon, J.-J. 2013. A conceptual framework to evaluate the impact of innovation platforms on agrifood value chains development. Paper presented at the 138th EAAE Seminar on Pro- poor Innovations in Food Supply Chains, 11-13 September 2013, Ghent, Belgium.Available on 30 March 2014 from: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/33710. Nederlof, E.S. and Pyburn, R. (eds). 2012. One finger cannot lift a rock: Facilitating innovation platforms to trigger institutional change in West Africa. KIT Publishers, Amsterdam. Pham Ngoc Diep, Maass, B. and Cadilhon, J. 2014. Enhancing dairy based livelihoods in Tanzania: mid-term progress report of the MilkIT project. CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish Brief 6.ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Victor, M., Ballantyne, P.G., Le Borgne, E. and Lema, Z. 2013.Communication in innovation platforms.Innovation Platforms Practice Brief 7.ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Zewdie, A.M., Cadilhon, J.-J. and Werthmann, C. 2013. Impact of innovation platforms on marketing relationships: the case of Volta Basin integrated crop-livestock value chains in Ghana. Paper presented at the Volta Basin development challenge final scientific workshop, 17-19 September 2013, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Available on 30 March 2014 from: http://www.slideshare.net/CPWF/impact-of-innovation-platforms-on-marketing- relationships-the-case-of-volta-basin-integrated-crop-livestock-value-chains-in-ghana Smallholder Dairy Production: Analysis of Development Constraints in the Dairy Value Chain of Southern-Ethiopia Terefe, T.1*, Oosting, S.J.1 and van der Lee, J.2 1 Animal Production systems, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 2 Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research centre, Droevendaalsesteeg 16708PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands. *corresponding author; terefe.weldesilassie@wur.nl Abstract This study analyses development constraints of the smallholder dairy production system in the Dale and Shebedino districts of southern Ethiopia. Data were collected from 120 dairy producers, six focus group discussions and six key informant interviews. Two major dairy production systems were identified based on major agricultural activities: the coffee-based dairy production system and the enset-coffee-based dairy production system. Coffee-based dairy producers owned less local dairy cows and earned a higher income as compared to farmers in enset-coffee-based dairy production systems, which generated relatively more income from off- farm activities. Shortage of feed and feed resources, lack of access to improved breeds, market and credit services were the major dairy development constraints in the two districts. Rapid urbanization, rising income, and population growth were creating market opportunities for dairy development in the area. Market was found to be the driving force of dairy development. In response to increasing demand for dairy products, most of the dairy producers were willing to expand their dairy farming. Sustainable dairy development can be achieved through improving access to key resources, inputs and services in the dairy production value chine and markets. Key words: access to credit, dairy, inputs and services, off-farm activities Introduction In Ethiopia, for the next one to two decades, rapid urbanization and population growth are expected. Changes are also expected in policy environment towards market economy. Creates a large opportunity for smallholder dairy producer and private investors (Mohamed et al, 2004). The large and diverse livestock genetic resources, existence of diverse agro-ecologies suitable for dairy production, increasing domestic demand for milk and milk products, indicate the potential and opportunities for dairy development in Ethiopia. Dairy sub-sector contribute 33% of the agricultural and 12% of total gross domestic product(Solomon et al., 2003). It has also played a vital role in the lives of the dairying farmers by providing a source of subsistence through household nutrition (milk and meat), supplementary income and generating employment opportunity (Tegegne and Gebrewold, 1998). Dairy development has been hampered by multi-faceted such as genotype, feed resources and feeding systems, access to services and inputs, low adoption of improved technologies and marketing. Various dairy research and development projects have been carried out. But, the impacts were unsatisfactory and failed to meet their objectives (Ahmed et al., 2003, Lobago et al., 2007) due to inability to identify appropriate technologies, define, the dairy production practices and constraints (Ayenew et al., 2009). Appropriate information and proper documentation of dairy production systems will play a vital role to develop the dairy sector (Rey et al., 1993). Though, very little systematic research has been conducted on dairy development constraints along the dairy value chain. Therefore, it is necessary to identify major dairy development constraints along the value chain to improve dairy production and marketing system in the study area. Methodology Primary data were collected from a total of 120 farmers in two districts of Ethiopia (Dale and Shebedino). Multi-stage sampling procedure was followed to select six PA’s from both district in both districts based on dairy production potential, distance from the market (Dale district is closer to the market than Shebedino) and road access. Accordingly, 120 households were selected using a systematic random and stratified into three wealth classes based on dairy cow holding (having 1cow = low, 2 cow = medium and 3 cow = high wealth class). A structured survey was conducted to collect the relevant information for socio-economic characteristics, dairy production system, opportunities and constraints. In addition to the main survey work, a total six key informant interview and six focus group discussions were conducted. This provided additional information to characterize the dairy production systems in the area. Descriptive statistical tools (mean standard error) chi-square tests and one-way ANOVA were used to analyze quantitative data. Results Sources of livelihoods and the role of dairy cattle Agricultural activities were the main sources of livelihood for smallholder farmers in the study areas. However, relative importance of different livelihoods income sources were significantly different between the two districts (p<0.05). In Dale and Shebedino districts 79 % and 99 % of the respondents were engaged in agricultural activities, respectively. In Dale district 21% of the respondents were engaged in an off-farm activity, and only 1% respondents in Shebedino district. The major purpose of keeping cattle was “milk and manure” in both districts. In Dale the banking function had additional importance and in Shebedino meat production. Table 1. Income source and purpose of dairy animals in the study districts and wealth class of dairy producers in the study areas (percentage of respondent) Variables Development constraints and opportunities Feed and feed resources shortage, access to improved breeds, market and credit services were major development constraints identified by the respondents in the study areas. Dale district had more access to inputs and services than Shebedino district, significantly different between the two districts (P<0.05). Moreover, in Dale district 14% of the respondents perceived improved forage/pasture seed as the second most important constraint next to feed shortage. Market access was the second most important constraint next to feed shortages in Shebedino district (Table 2). Accessibility dairy related services like AI, veterinary, credit, training and consultancy were significantly different (P<0.05) between the wordeas. About 40 % and 32 % of the respondent in Dale and Shebedino district had limited access of dairy related services. However, accessibility of dairy related services was not affected by wealth class and not significantly different (P>0.05) (Table 2). Outcomes of focus group discussions as well as key informant interviews suggested that farmers were willing to improve and expand their farm if access to technology could be improved. However, there were still some dairy producers who were not willing to improve their farming practices due to various reasons. Particularly, producers in Shebedino district were less willing to improve than farmers in Dale district. The study showed that, between the two districts source of livelihood income was significantly different (P>0.05) (Table 2). According to response from key informant interview, old farmers relied more on their years of farming knowledge and experience, and seemed to have difficulties in adopting new technologies. On the other hand farmers pointed out that, demand for dairy products in the areas was rapidly increasing due to population growth. Discussion Based on the type of crop farming activities, two types of major dairy production system were identified: enset-coffee and coffee based livestock production systems in Shebedino and Dale districts respectively. This study in line with Tolera and Said (1992), Tesfaye et al. (2001) and Zewdu et al. (2003). Dairy farming plays a vital role in the coffee-enset based livestock production system by providing organic fertilizer for enset crop production. However, in the coffee based livestock production system the dairy cows were used as a source of the livelihood income by selling of milk and manure. This finding agrees with reports of (Chewaka 2006). Likewise, the main source of livelihood income compared to income generated through livestock husbandry. Source of income can potentially impact on dairy improvement efforts. Agriculture and off-farm activities were the main source of income in Dale district while, in Shebedino district a majority of the respondents did not have any other option to get an income other than selling cash crops. This due to distance from the urban area and infrastructure. Hence Dale district has good road infrastructure and near to the urban area than Shebedino. The current study showed that, access to input supply and service provision is significantly different between the dairy production systems. Accessibility of input and services would have great impact on the dairy sector development. This finding is in line with Tegegne et al. (2006) who found better access of input and service would have a positive impact on the dairy development program. Availability of dairy-related inputs and services were higher in coffee- based dairy production than enset-coffee based dairy production. This could be due to income source difference of the farmers (i.e. those households based on coffee livelihood earn much more income than in enset-coffee based crop livelihood) and experience in using dairy related input and services (in the former régime, Shebedino district under the administration of Dale district as a result different dairy development project they were give high emphases for Dale than Shebedino district so that the farmers had better understanding and experience in using of dairy related input and service). As stated in Tegegne et al. (2006), such better access to input supply would have a significant contribution in dairy development. Along with input constraints discussed in the previous sections, shortage of feed was a bottleneck in Shebedino than Dale district in the dairy development. This could be the apparent difference in the primary feed source between the two dairy production systems. Hence, in the coffee based dairy production system the primary feed source was crop residue and those farmers had no extra land to allocate for grazing, while natural pasture/grazing remains the main feed source in Shebedino district. However, very few dairy producers had limited access to improved forage/pasture seed and dairy animal were observed in Shebedino than Dale district. In other words, higher percentages of farmers in Dale districts relied on improving forage seed input, which were demanded more frequently by Dale district dairy producers than those in the Shebedino district. Evidence from the key informant interviews and personal observation in the study areas, the existing marketing structure involved different marketing agents/stakeholders such as dairy producers, farmer, trader, processors, cafeterias and restaurants as well as retailers that buy milk and resale. Tegegne et al. (2010) indicate that, marketing and access to market were the major common problems in both districts. As highlighted in the discussion with the key informants, the main reasons for weak market access includes lowly integrated and collaborated among stakeholders, distance of the markets, seasonal milk production, price fluctuation, lack of training and consultancy on how to handle and process milk and milk products. These results are in agreement with report of Tegegne et al. (2010). As noted in reports of Tegegne, Gebremedhin et al. (2006), most of the dairy producers had limited information on availability and importance of credit services for dairy-related activities like crop agriculture. Only few dairy producers in Dale district had access to credit service. Associated with this, about 93% of dairy producer used veterinary services, and the demand for service was significantly higher in Shebedino than Dale districts. This difference could be due to the fact that, dairy producers in Dale district keep improving breeds and also used different feeding management that limits exposure to diseases and parasite so dairy animal health management is far better than Shebedino districts. However, according to the key informant interview in both districts, there is a serious shortage of veterinary experts and limited access to veterinary drug. In this study, due to income source difference, market opportunities and objective of dairying coffee-based dairy farmers were willing to continue and improved production system than enset- coffee based dairy farmers. Dale district, compared with Shebedino showed a rapid urbanization. As a result, good quality and quantity of dairy products were increasing in demand. In order to improve dairy production in these districts, livestock departments from both district agriculture offices implemented synchronization program. This provides opportunity for smallholder producers to shorten the calving interval and improved dairy production. This well provides opportunity for smallholder farmers to use land, labour and feed resources efficiently and effectively to generate good livelihood income. Conclusion and recommendation The current study demonstrated that the majority of dairy producers in Dale district specialized and developed dairy production, and dairy farming became the second most important source of family income. Development of coffee-based dairy production involved more frequent use of modern dairy technologies with inputs leading to higher efficiency and a better product performance. Accessibility of farm resources, input supply, and service provision are major constraints to dairy development in these areas. Hence, implementation of synchronization programs as well as rapid population growth and urbanization of the regional capital, Awassa, and also Yirgalem and Dilla may provide huge opportunity for development of dairy farming in the region. Dairy production in the studied areas can be improved by organizing farmers into small and medium commercial dairy enterprises. Moreover, smallholder dairy producers need crucial institutional support (GOs and NGOs) to promote efficient input and service provisions to improve their dairy production system. This includes creating better access to dairy related technology, particularly, feed supply, marketing systems, veterinary and AI service, credit, extension and training. Another element of the production chain that deserves special attention is sustainable collaboration and integration of different value chain actors/stakeholders. Achievement of dairy development goal could be initiated from this. Acknowledgement The following are acknowledged for their contributions in getting this work done. The Enhancements of Dairy Development Project (SNV-EDGET) for funding this field based research activities and the Dutch government sponsored my study program that through Netherlands fellowship programs (NUFFIC). We would like to convey our deepest gratitude to the farmers willingly accepting to cooperate during the data gathering process which most times were strenuous. Reference Ahmed MM, Ehui S, Assefa Y (2003) Dairy development in Ethiopia, ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD). Ayenew, Y. A., Wurzinger R, M., Tegegne, A. & Zollitsch, W. 2009. Handling, processing and marketing of milk in the Northwestern Ethiopian highlands. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 21. Chewaka T (2006) The current status of dairy production in Yirgachefe area of southern Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Hawassa University, Awassa, Ethiopia, Lobago, F., Bekana, M., Gustafsson, H. & Kindhl, H. 2007. Longitudinal observation on reproductive and lactation performances of smallholder crossbred dairy cattle in Fitche, Oromia region, central Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 39, 395-403. Mohamed A, Ahmed A, Ehui S, Yemesrach A (2004) Dairy development in Ethiopia environment and Production Technology Division (EPTD) discussion paper (123). Rey, B., Thorpe, W., Smith, J., Shapiro, B., Osuji, P., Mullins, G. & Agyemang, K. 1993. Improvement of dairy production to satisfy the growing consumer demand in sub- Saharan Africa. A conceptual framework for research, Market-Oriented Smallholder Dairying Research Working Document. Solomon A, Workalemahu A, Jabbar M, Ahmed M, Hurnissa B (2003) Livestock marketing in Ethiopia. A review of structure, periformance and development initiatives, (Socio- economic and Policy Research Working Paperi 52. Tegegne A, Gebremedhin B, Hoekstra D (2006) Input supply system and services for market- oriented livestock production in Ethiopia. Tegegne A, Gebremedhin B, Hoekstra D (2010) Livestock input supply and service provision in Ethiopia: Challenges and opportunities for market-oriented development. Tegegne A, Gebrewold A (1998) Prospects for perii-urban dairy development in Ethiopia. Tesfaye A, Yirga C, Alemayehu M, Zerfu E, Yohannes A Smallholder livestock production systems and constraints in the highlands of North and West Shewa zones. In 'Proceedings of the 9th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia', 2001, pp. 49-71 Tolera A, Said A Prospects for integrating food and feed production in Welayta Sodo, Ethiopia. In 'The Complementarity of Feed Resources for Animal Production in Africa: Proceedings of the Joint Feed Resources Networks Workshop Held in Gaborone, Botswana, 4-8 March 1991', 1992, p. 309 Zewdu T, Agidie A, Sebsibe A (2003) Assessment of the livestock production system, available feed resources and marketing situation in Belesa district: A case study in drought prone areas of Amhara Region. Challenges and Opportunities of Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia, 165 Linking famers to high value livestock product markets in southern and eastern Africa: opportunities and challenges Katjiuongua, H.B. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Abstract Livestock is an important part of Africa's solutions in addressing its challenges related to food and nutritional insecurity, and poverty. Linking farmers to dynamic high value agricultural commodity markets through trade is viewed as important for economic growth and poverty reduction in a global economy. Yet, many factors on both the supply and demand sides combined with protective trade policies and stringent traceability requirements in global value chains hinder broad-based participation of many smallholder farmers in Africa, which currently is estimated to account for barely 2% of global business in livestock trade annually. We highlight trends, challenges and opportunities and draw lessons using examples from two beef value chains in Southern Africa targeting extra-regional, mainly European markets, and emerging intra-regional trade in milk and milk products in East Africa. Namibia and Botswana's beef exports to the European Union (EU) market present interesting cases of mixed success stories. As a small country, Namibia has consistently met high EU market quality and food safety requirements. With a smart marketing strategy Namibian beef exporters changed from selling a beef commodity product to selling key quality attributes in premium niche markets in the EU. On the other hand, Botswana's meat exports have suffered setbacks linked to traceability and animal disease threats that undermine its consistency as a meat supplier. Has their focus on the EU market undermined potential benefits from the growing regional markets? Trade in milk and milk products in eastern Africa provide an example of emerging intra-regional trade in livestock products. Analysis of trends in dairy production and trade shows that currently, even though only less than 1% of total dairy production is traded, only 11% of the traded products originate from within the region. The underlying reasons for the low trade volumes include: dominant small-scale production; growing local/domestic demand; consumer preference for liquid raw milk over processed milk products, the high perishability of milk; and, the high cost of transforming milk to easily traded products such as powder. However, low production costs and business factors suggest the industry has strong export potential. We discuss a way forward. Smallholder pig producers in Uganda and their pork consumption practices Roesel, K.1,2*, Ouma, E.A.1, Dione, M.M.1, Pezo, D.1, Peter-Henning, C.2 and Grace, D.1 1International Livestock Research Institute; 2Freie Universität Berlin. *Corresponding author: k.roesel@cgiar.org Abstract Pig production is thriving in Uganda and the demand for pork is increasing, therefore offering potential for smallholder farmers for increased income through pig production. A multi- disciplinary value chain assessment conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute aimed to identify constraints and opportunities for pig producers as well as shortcomings in the safety of pork products in three districts in Uganda. Tools from participatory research were used to assess pork consumption habits as well as knowledge, attitudes and practices on pork safety among 295 pig producers. Pork is widely popular and mostly consumed well-cooked. However, practices such as roasting may lead to the ingestion of undercooked pork, and accompanying dishes such as raw vegetables may lead to cross-contamination of the meat causing foodborne diseases. The scarcity of data on zoonotic pig pathogens, such as erysipelas, salmonellosis, brucellosis and pork-borne parasites require further research. Key words: food security, participatory research, pork safety, risk, women Introduction Over the past three decades, pig numbers in Uganda have at least quadrupled (FAO, 2011; MAAIF/UBOS, 2009) and 70% percent of the estimated 3.2 million pigs are in the hands of smallholder farmers, many of them women (MAAIF/UBOS, 2009). Pork per capita consumption in Uganda currently ranks highest in Africa at 3.4 kg per year (FAO, 2011). In a consultative process, the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock & Fish (CRP L&F), led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), has identified pigs in Uganda as one of nine selected livestock value chains where research for development has potential and is targeted to make an impact for poor producers and consumers (ILRI, 2011). Until 2012, little was known about how smallholder pig value chains in Uganda operate; where pigs come from and who eats them, constraints and opportunities in smallholder production systems and possible public health risks associated with pig farming and pork consumption. Materials and Methods The study was carried out under the Safe Food, Fair Food project which aims to improve food safety in selected CRP L&F value chains. In a multidisciplinary, multi-project approach in collaboration with the Smallholder Pig Value Chain Development project, a value chain assessment was conducted from November 2012 to February 2013 to evaluate various components from farm to fork: feeds, breeds, marketing, animal health, and zoonoses including food safety. Qualitative and semi-quantitative data on pork consumption, preparation as well knowledge, attitudes and practices on pork safety was collected in sessions on zoonoses with 295 randomly selected pig farmers (101 men and 194 women) in 34 villages in Masaka and Mukono districts of the Central region and Kamuli district in the Eastern region of Uganda. Tools from Participatory Epidemiology such as focus group discussions, ranking and scoring methods as well as Venn diagrams and seasonal calendars were used to answer a set of research questions, specifically: Who eats pork, when and why? What are reasons not to eat pork? What is the role of pork in farmers’ diets? Are pig keepers pork eaters? How accessible is pork? Do pig feeds compete with human food? How does knowledge, attitudes and practices increase or reduce the risk of pork-borne diseases? Results: Pig producers are generally pork eaters; 80% of the pig farmers in the survey (n=234/295) eat pork, whereas the proportion of male consumers is marginally higher (89%) than the female (74%). Consumption is driven by festivals such as Easter, Christmas, Uganda Martyr’s Day (June 3) and Independence Day (June 9). More pork is consumed when cash is available, for instance after the coffee harvest in Masaka during June/July. Less pork is consumed at the beginning of new school terms when pigs are sold to pay for school fees. The main quality criteria when purchasing pork is the cleanliness of the meat (rank 1), a moderate fat layer (rank 2) because too thick implies human disease and too thin indicates pig disease, the freshness of the meat (rank 3), the colour of the meat (rank 4), texture (rank 5) and smell (rank 6) of the meat. Pork ranks second after chicken in terms of taste and is occasionally given to children under five years as food for good growth. In rural sites, pork is believed to clear the skin, cure measles and make ‘strong bones’ whereas in the urban areas pork is sometimes believed to cure HIV/AIDS (Ejobi et al, 2013, unpublished). In the rural study sites, pig farmers rarely slaughter their own animals as they use the money generated from sales of live pigs for meeting family needs such as school fees. The closer to urban centres, the more frequently pork and other animal sourced food is eaten, e.g. weekly to daily, and pigs are kept for both sale and home consumption. The biggest constraint for eating more pork in rural areas is low income; other factors include religion or traditional beliefs. Some of the women who do not eat pork claimed that they were raised at times when women were denied pork because men believed that eating it makes women too strong and outspoken. Moreover, according to local tradition, elderly women are not supposed to eat pork, chicken and red meat. Almost all (93%) of the mothers emphasized that nobody eats offal, partly because pigs eat anything including faeces and snakes. Farmers across all sites, especially in rural settings, indicated they may eat meat from diseased pigs if they cannot find a market for their animals. Food for people does not compete with pig feeds as the animals are fed with leftovers or fattened during “times of plenty”, shortly after the seasonal rains. Raw pork is considered unsafe for human consumption and a potential carrier of diseases across all sites. Pork ranked fifth after chicken, fish, beef and eggs in terms of safety; milk ranked last. All pig farmers agreed that they can contract disease from pigs; symptoms described were worms (26%), stomach pain (20%), diarrhoea (16%) and fever (13%). It is believed that undercooked pork can cause madness or epilepsy in humans. Fifty percent of the participants have heard about food borne diseases in their community and 31% of them agreed that children are most affected. Food borne diseases are not considered fatal but weaken the person affected and reduce his or her ability to concentrate or work. At home, pork is thoroughly cooked for at least one hour and attempts are made to preserve the shelf-life of raw pork, for instance by smoking and roasting. When eaten outside of the homes, fried or roasted meat is usually consumed with raw vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage and onions. People have access to pork in all study sites, and about 70% is consumed outside the homes in pork joints. In the rural areas, consumers have less choice of butchers and the retailers are reported to slaughter diseased animals or sell products in a dirty and unsafe environment. Discussion and conclusion Pork is consumed widely and consumers have access to pork in all study sites but quality seems to be neglected in the rural sites where consumers reported less sources of pork and more meat sold from unsanitary outlets. Pork consumption on the occasion of Easter and Christmas often coincides with times of food scarcity. A safe product can therefore contribute to the protein supply of poor farmers and their families during seasons of food shortage. The consumption of offals is not commonly accepted and may need promotion as it provides a source of protein to those who cannot afford to buy pig meat. At present, offals are often discarded in the open and left for scavengers, potentially contributing to spread of disease and environmental pollution. While the meat is consumed hot, the preparation of pork dishes with raw vegetables on the side may lead to cross-contamination with foodborne pathogens. The pathognomonic signs of diamond skin disease (Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae) were reported in Kamuli district and pose a risk to people handling raw pork like butchers and house wives preparing the meat. The common misperception of the life cycle of Taenia solium causes in inefficient management of the disease risks. More research is required and currently conducted on pork parasites such as trichinosis and both porcine and human cysticercosis due to the common practice of roasting pork which may lead to the ingestion of parasitic larvae. Acknowledgements The study was conducted under the Safe Food, Fair Food project led by the International Livestock Research Institute and carried out with the financial support of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany, and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health, led by the International Food Policy Research Institute. References Ejobi et al., 2012. Participatory Rural Appraisal with Urban Pork Consumers in Kampala, Uganda, unpublished. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division 2011, accessed from http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#DOWNLOAD ILRI, CIAT, ICARDA, WorldFish Center. 2011. Smallholder pig production and marketing value chain in Uganda: Background proposals for the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries and Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2009. The National Livestock Census Report 2008 Vaccination as a way forward? A case study on how a poultry vaccination intervention influences poultry keeping in Kenya Lindahl, J.F.1*, Wyatt, A.2, Young, J.1, Young, M.3, Alders, R.3,4, Bagnol, B.3,5, Msyoki, D.6 and Grace, D.1 1International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; 2International Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K St, NW, Washington, DC 20006-1002 USA; 3KYEEMA Foundation, GPO Box 3023, Brisbane, QLD, Australia 4001; 4Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; 5Department of Anthropology, Witwatersrand University, Johannesburg, South Africa; 6Farm Input Promotions- Africa, Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: j.lindahl@cgiar.org Abstract Poultry is important for many poor small-holders, but infectious diseases, such as Newcastle disease can drastically reduce the poultry population in a village and affects the food security and the livelihood of many farmers. Newcastle disease vaccination can reduce the spread of disease, but may be hard to access for small-holders if there is not a supportive system in place. In this paper a district in Kenya is studied where there has been support for vaccination. It is shown that households in villages which had support were more likely to vaccinate, had more chickens and also know better the basic principle of a vaccine. The vaccinators themselves also reported that vaccination had improved the poultry keeping and the knowledge of the farmers. It is concluded that a supportive system is beneficial for increased vaccination. Introduction Poultry are crucial for the livelihoods of rural people all over the developing world (Alders and Pym, 2009) and they are often kept by poor small-holders. Poultry can be an important source of income and protein in the form of meat and eggs for households. In addition, profits from sales can be used to pay for other foods, school fees, clothes, etc. Commonly, poultry is reared by the women in the household (Bagnol, 2009). The relatively low cost of purchase, rapid reproduction and the fact that they are easily marketed make them a reliable source of income for the family, affordable even for poorer households. In addition to this, poultry production is one of the major growing industries in both developed and developing countries (Mack, et. al. 2013). In commercial production, poultry diseases hamper productivity and cause financial losses, whereas in small-holder farming, poultry diseases may severely affect the livelihood of families. Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral poultry disease that can have a high mortality in outbreaks and poultry owners may suffer from large losses of birds (Alexander, 2001; Gallili and Ben- Nathan, 1998). However, the occurrence of ND in backyard poultry often passes unreported and thus estimates of the true incidence is unknown (Alexander et. al., 2004). While many European countries have legislation requiring stamping out of infected poultry, vaccination is the only means of protection available in most parts of the world (Gallili and Ben-Nathan, 1998). Different strains of ND virus are more or less pathogenic and strains which cause little or no disease are used as vaccines (Gallili and Ben-Nathan, 1998; Seal et. al., 2000).There are several different commercial Newcastle disease vaccines available today, although these vaccines are often produced for commercial industry, with vials containing hundreds of doses, which are unaffordable and impractical for smallholder farmers (Spradrow and Copland, 1996). Therefore a good option in rural areas is to have a delivery system where a vial is distributed to many different households (Bagnol et al., 2013). In order to aid vaccine dissemination and with the goal to improve productivity in smallholder farming, vaccination programs are often launched in different areas with different duration. In Kenya, some villages are covered by community vaccinators, which reports to the district veterinarian. There are also active interventions to improve vaccinations, and a not-for-profit company, Farm Input Promotions Africa (FIPS-Africa), are supporting vaccinations through a system of village-based advisors, coordinated by a district coordinator. The coordinator receives batches of vaccines and sells these to the village-based advisors, which earn their living from vaccinating chickens in their village. The vaccine available for vaccination in 2011 in Kenya was the La Sota strain. In 2013 FIPS-Africa started distributing I-2 ND vaccine, a live, thermotolerant vaccine (Alders and Spradbrow, 2001). In this study we evaluate the influence of this intervention on poultry keeping in a district in Kenya. Material and methods Study areas and data collection In Kibwezi district, Kenya, FIPS-Africa, has been promoting vaccination against ND through village-based advisors since 2009. For this study a sampling frame of villages in Kibwezi was obtained and five villages that had benefited from the vaccination support by FIPS were randomly selected, as well as five villages that had not benefited. In each village 32 households were randomly selected for interview by trained enumerators and a total of 316 interviews were conducted during September 2011. Data were collected on the participant’s sex and age, gender of the household head, animals kept in the households, which animals were considered most important, and if poultry was considered important, the reasons for this. Further, data were collected on the losses of poultry during the previous year, if vaccination had ever been done and, if so for how long, and who decided on the vaccination, and who performed it. In 2013 a follow up on was performed and the FIPS-Africa district coordinator, seven village- based advisors and three community vaccinators were interviewed about vaccination routines, campaigns and how they perceived the impact of vaccination. Data analyses Descriptive statistics were performed using STATA 13 (STATA corp, Texas, USA). Univariable associations between count and continuous data were tested using t-test. Results Results from the 2011 survey In Kibwezi, 50.6% of the interviewed households were in villages that had received vaccination support. Only two households in unsupported villages in Kenya had ever used the ND vaccine. Of all households that had used ND vaccines, 72.9% (78/107) continued to use it after the first month. The majority of the households, 73%, reported having lost chickens during the last year to what they believed was ND. In villages where FIPS-Africa was active in 2011, the average number of chickens per household was 13.9, whereas in non-supported villages it was 11.1 (p=0.003). Households which had used the vaccine had on average 14.6 chickens, whereas the other households had 11.4 on average (p=0.001). In the village that had not received support, 23.1% correctly answered the question about what a vaccine does, that it protects against a specific disease, whereas in the FIPS-Africa supported villages, 48.8% knew this (p<0.001). In the majority of households, 72.8%, the household heads were male. Male-headed households had on average two more chickens than female-headed households (13.1 and 10.9 chickens respectively). Results from the 2013 follow-up interviews In 2011, all vaccinators had used La Sota ND vaccines, but in 2013 all village-based advisors reported using the I-2, whereas the community vaccinators still acquired La Sota vaccines from the local stores. Each vaccinator covered between one and 14 villages. All vaccinators stated that due the on-going vaccination work, fewer chickens were dying of ND and farmers were more knowledgeable about vaccinations and had more chickens per household. All village- based advisors knew that chickens should be vaccinated at least three vaccinations per year with I2. When asked to estimate how many households vaccinated at least 90% of the birds at least three times per year, the vaccinators stated between 20 and 94%, average 57%. Discussion This paper reports the influence of vaccination support in villages in Kenya, through a not-for- profit company FIPS-Africa. The use of vaccine was highly associated with vaccination support in the village; only two households from villages without support had ever vaccinated their chickens. The survey in 2011 showed that households in supported villages had better knowledge that a vaccine protects against a specific disease. The vaccinators in 2013 reported that farmers are becoming more knowledgeable. Correct knowledge about vaccines, especially that a vaccine only protects against a specific disease and that multiple vaccinations are required for full protection, is important for attitudes and continued vaccine use. Expectations that the vaccine will protect against all diseases are likely to make famers disappointed and more negative (Alders et al., 2002) and incorrect vaccination routines may result in vaccination failure, which may cause farmers to be less positive towards continued use. La Sota vaccine should be stored and transported under strict cold chain conditions, and this can be a challenge in remote villages (Foster et. al., 1999). High temperatures may reduce the efficacy of the vaccine, which could make farmers perceive that the vaccine is not working. The I-2 strain was especially selected for its thermotolerant capacities to be used in developing countries (Bensink and Spradbrow, 1999). The strain has been shown to give a good immunity and work well in village poultry (Tu et. al., 1998; Wambura et. al., 2000). All vaccinators that had changed vaccine during 2013 reported the benefits of this. There was no direct assessment of how many households actually vaccinated chickens the recommended three times a year in 2011; however the data suggested only a minority of farmers were vaccinating at this frequency. This is in accordance with a previous study in Tanzania (Knueppel et. al., 2010) that showed that only a small proportion of households (13- 20%) vaccinated the required amount of times, even if the vaccine was provided free by a project, or provided at a low cost. This is also in accordance with the reports of the vaccinators in 2013 with estimates as low as 20% of the number correctly vaccinating three times per year. The estimates on the number of chickens lost to ND in the households were based on the farmers’ own perception. ND can be peracute and fatal without preceding clinical signs, and signs can also be very diverse, and not pathognomonic (Alexander et al., 2004). There may therefore be some inaccuracies in these numbers, but farmers’ perceptions of chicken mortality are part of what informs their decisions and it is an important factor in understanding attitudes towards vaccination. All vaccinators reported increased knowledge about the effects of vaccines, and the positive effects of increased vaccination on poultry production. This is in accordance with studies showing that vaccination support projects increase the food security and egg consumption of mothers and children (Knueppel et al., 2010). In conclusion, a supportive vaccination system is important for sustainable and productive small-holder chicken farming. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge all the farmers participating in the study, all enumerators and facilitators for their help and cooperation. The authors would also like to acknowledge the Australian Government, KYEEMA Foundation and FIPS-Africa for their support to this project. References Alders, R., Anjos, F. dos, Bagnol, B., Fumo, A., Mata, B., and Young, M. (2002). Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: a training manual. Retrieved from http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20023040541.html Alders, R. G., and Pym, R. A. E. (2009). Village poultry: still important to millions, eight thousand years after domestication. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 65(02), 181. doi:10.1017/S0043933909000117 Alders, R., and Spradbrow, P. (2001). Controlling Newcastle disease in village chickens: a field manual. Retrieved from http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20013116043.html;jsessionid=EEB02743A862C101D8B 28C6E5A17E794 Alexander, D. J. (2001). Newcastle disease. British Poultry Science, 42(1), 5–22. doi:10.1080/713655022 Alexander, D. J., Bell, J. G., and Alders, R. G. (2004). A Technology Review: Newcastle Disease, with Special Emphasis on Its Effect on Village Chickens, Issue 161 (p. 63). Food and Agriculture Org. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?hl=enandlr=andid=VfxBZ0OsNSUCandpgis=1 Bagnol, B. (2009). Gender issues in small-scale family poultry production: experiences with Newcastle Disease and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza control. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 65(02), 231. doi:10.1017/S0043933909000191 Bensink, Z., and Spradbrow, P. (1999). Newcastle disease virus strain I2 – a prospective thermostable vaccine for use in developing countries. Veterinary Microbiology, 68(1-2), 131–139. doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(99)00069-3 Foster, H. a, Chitukuro, H. R., Tuppa, E., Mwanjala, T., and Kusila, C. (1999). Thermostable Newcastle disease vaccines in Tanzania. Veterinary Microbiology, 68(1-2), 127–30. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10501169 Gallili, G. E., and Ben-Nathan, D. (1998). Newcastle disease vaccines. Biotechnology Advances, 16(2), 343–366. Knueppel, D., Cardona, C., Msoffe, P., Demment, M., and Kaiser, L. (2010). Impact of vaccination against chicken Newcastle disease on food intake and food security in rural households in Tanzania. Food andamp; Nutrition Bulletin, 31(3), 10. Retrieved from http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nsinf/fnb/2010/00000031/00000003/art00006 Mack, S., Hoffmann, D., and Otte, J. (2013). The contribution of poultry to rural development. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 61(01), 7–14. doi:10.1079/WPS200436 Seal, B. S., King, D. J., and Sellers, H. S. (2000). The avian response to Newcastle disease virus. Developmental and Comparative Immunology, 24(2-3), 257–68. doi:10.1016/S0145- 305X(99)00077-4 Spradrow, P. B., and Copland, J. W. (1996). Production of thermostable Newcastle disease vaccines in developing countries. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 29(2), 157–159. doi:10.1016/S0167-5877(96)01067-7 Tu, T. D., Van Phuc, K., Dinh, N. T. K., Quoc, D. N., and Spradbrow, P. . (1998). Vietnamese trials with a thermostable Newcastle disease vaccine (strain I2) in experimental and village chickens. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 34(2-3), 205–214. doi:10.1016/S0167- 5877(97)00065-2 Wambura, P. ., Kapaga, A. ., and Hyera, J. M. . (2000). Experimental trials with a thermostable Newcastle disease virus (strain I2) in commercial and village chickens in Tanzania. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 43(2), 75–83. doi:10.1016/S0167-5877(99)00089-6 A framework for environmental ex-ante impact assessment of livestock value chains Notenbaert, A.1*, Lannerstad, M.2, Herrero, M.3, Fraval, S.2, Ran, Y.5, Paul, B.1, Mugatha, S.2, Barron, J.4 and Morris, J.4 1International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), P.O. Box 823-00621, Nairobi, Kenya; 2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya; 3CSIRO; 4Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD UK; 5Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), P.O. Box 242 18, 104 51 Stockholm Sweden. *Corresponding author: A.Notenbaert@cgiar.org Abstract Livestock and fish industries are a significant source of livelihoods and income globally. They are organised in complex market chains that employ at least 1.3 billion people globally and directly support the livelihoods of 600 million poor smallholder farmers in the developing world. Livestock and fish production, processing and marketing as well as the waste produced along the value chain also cause important environmental impacts. They include atmospheric and water pollution, global warming, soil degradation, water use and pollution and biodiversity loss. Efforts to maximize yields of milk and meat, and to ‘intensify’ livestock and fish production, need to be balanced with long-term sustainability and overall efficiency. We must figure out how to produce, process and market livestock and fish in ways that work for individuals, communities and the planet alike. It is thus important to assess environmental impacts before embarking on large-scale development projects geared towards livestock production and aquaculture intensification and value chain transformation. Here we present a generic conceptual framework for environmental ex-ante impact assessment of livestock and fish value chains. It is taking into account all value chain components, different spatial and temporal scales and environmental impacts across different dimensions. The framework guides users through a step-wise procedure for assessing how interventions are likely to change the production system and value chain. Through providing rapid results and flagging the main environmental issues, it can support evidence- based discussions of alternative development pathways. Key words: Sustainability, impact assessment, development, eco-efficiency Introduction Livestock and fish, as part of global ecological and food production systems, are key commodities for human well-being. Their importance in the provisioning of food, incomes, employment, nutrients and risk insurance to mankind is widely recognized (Herrero et al., 2010; Hall et al., 2011). Livestock and aquaculture systems, especially in developing countries, are changing rapidly in response to a variety of drivers. Globally, human population is expected to increase from around 7.2 billion today to more than 9 billion by 2050 (UN, 2012). Rapid urbanisation and increases in income are expected to continue in developing countries, and as a consequence the global demand for livestock and fish products will continue to increase significantly in the coming decades. Livestock and fish production as well as processing, transport, marketing and waste, however, can be the cause of important environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global warming, soil degradation, water appropriation and pollution and biodiversity loss. Most life cycle assessment studies that consider the whole value chain estimate that in developing countries on-farm activities are the greatest contributor to environmental impact (Fraval, 2014). The production of livestock and fish indeed depends on a variety of natural resources, such as animal and plant genetic resources, energy, water, air, land and its nutrients. Feed is grown on huge tracks of land thereby using water and extracting soil nutrients and thus impacting on soil fertility. Steinfeld et al. (2008) approximate that livestock utilise 3.4 billion hectares for grazing and 0.5 million hectares of cropland for the production of feeds (33% of arable land). This land use is closely linked to water cycles. Recent research (Heinke et al., in prep.) suggests that globally, the production of feed for the livestock sector appropriates 5,315 km³/year of evapotranspiration (ET) (9% of global ET). The authors found that feed production from croplands uses 37% of water allocated for crop production globally, and the biomass consumed by livestock from grazing lands appropriates 32% of the total ET from grazing lands. In terms of nutrients, livestock manure –considered a serious problem in the developed world– is a critical resource for agriculture in large parts of Africa, where soils are inherently poor (Rufino et al. 2006). Liu et al. (2010) estimated that manure contributes between 12-24% of the nitrogen input in nitrogen cycles on cropland in the developing world. Although animal manure can be a very effective soil amendment, in systems where the land supports livestock production, its availability at the farm level is often very limited. Bouwman et al. (2009) conclude that it was the introduction of synthetic fertilizers that allowed the explosive increase in livestock production. However, it has also been shown that heavy application of pesticides and fertilizers results in losses of plant and animal species (Reid et al. 2010) as well as secondary cascading effects on a larger scale e.g. destruction of coral reefs (Koop et al. 2001). Livestock production and aquaculture also impact biodiversity in several other significant ways. For example, land use with continuous cultivation of feed crops, e.g. soy monocultures, simplifies agricultural systems resulting in major biodiversity loss. Many livestock systems have, however, evolved over long periods and have a high level of biodiversity and impacts are consequently not always negative. Also, recent intensification has increased the productivity of livestock and fish production. Thus, fewer land resources are required per kg of produced product resulting in a decoupling of the linear relationship between production increases and environmental degradation (Reid et al 2010). Apart from using, competing for and impacting on the quality of water, soil and biodiversity, livestock are also an important contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. Estimates range from 8.5% to 18% of global anthropogenic GHG (O’Mara 2011). According to Steinfeld et al. (2008), methane from enteric fermentation, nitrous oxide from manure management and carbon dioxide from land use, contribute 25, 31 and 36% to the emissions of the livestock sector respectively. Further along the value-chain (VC), key resources used for meat, milk and fish processing include water, raw materials and energy. Processing often produces blood by-products and waste streams, while the facilities are also prone to disease spread. Food waste doesn’t only have a direct impact through e.g. emissions from landfills but plays an especially important indirect role. When food is wasted, the energy and resources that go into producing that food are also wasted and greenhouse gas emissions were needlessly produced. FAO (2013) estimate that roughly one third of the food produced in the world gets lost or wasted. Considering that the demand for meat, milk and fish is increasing, and these are only two of many sectors that will need to grow to satisfy human demands, more competition for natural resource can be expected, and existing and new trade-offs between food security, incomes and environmental sustainability are likely to occur. A revised agenda for managing sustainable growth of the livestock and fish sectors requires development of mechanisms for assessing the environmental impacts of interventions and investments in the sector, and identification of trade- offs between resource appropriation and ecosystem functioning. Consultations with environmental experts and local stakeholders from East Africa confirmed a clear demand for a tool that can flag potential environmental impacts of proposed interventions, often conceived for improving incomes and food security. This paper therefore presents a new framework for ex- ante assessments of environmental impacts of development interventions in livestock and fish value chains. It is developed based on reviews of existing frameworks and expert consultations and is able to address environmental impacts along the whole value chain. The framework is meant to support decision making and help prioritising development action of governments, donors, NGOs and farmer organisations. It is therefore envisioned to be implemented through a user-friendly tool allowing relatively rapid ex-ante estimation of multi-dimensional environmental impacts. The Comprehensive Livestock and fish Environmental Assessment for improved Nutrition, a secured Environment and sustainable Development framework (CLEANED) The framework’s building blocks The CLEANED framework is an indicator framework that takes the full value chain into account. It estimates biomass, water and nutrient flows and assesses four dimensions of environmental impacts across different spatial and temporal scales. Value Chain concept Although the majority of the environmental impacts of livestock and fish value chains can be observed pre-farmgate, natural resource and energy use during the production of inputs, processing or transport can be significant, thus assessment methods benefit from assessment and proper identification along the complete value chain. The main VC modules included in the framework are (i) the natural resource base, where feed is produced or retrieved, (ii) production of livestock or fish, (iii) processing, (iv) marketing, and (v) consumption. In addition, “waste management” is given special attention as a component that stretches along the entire value chain. These modules can be flexibly combined into a full value chain as appropriate in the local context. Although the flows, stocks and processes at the earlier stages of the value chain are treated with greater detail, the framework also considers user-input about flows and losses at later stages. An estimate of total food losses will be used to reduce natural resource efficiencies and thereby influence the size of the environmental impacts. Stocks and flows across scales The processes that are considered in the CLEANED framework include (i) nutrient flows, specifically N and P, (ii) the use of land resources, (iii) water and biomass use, and (iv) waste. Different processes, stocks and interactions play out at different scales. Scales are therein defined as logical groupings of land areas referring to the size of the unit over which processes operate or at which a problem is analysed. Examples include the field scale with e.g. the processes of infiltration and drainage. While water and nutrients also flow through the landscape, crop-livestock interactions and differences in manure and fertiliser application are mostly determined at the farm scale. Land use changes are mostly implemented at the farm scale, while indirect land-use changes often play out at the regional scale. The greenhouse effect on climate on the other hand is a global issue. The spatial scales explicit in the framework include farm, landscape and regional/global. Environmental impacts and pathways at different time scales Any intervention along the value chain can change the biomass, water and nutrient stocks and flows and by doing so cause environmental impacts. Some of the impacts are caused directly by the action and occur at the short temporal and small spatial scales. Some impacts, however, are indirect, are likely to occur in the future or as (unintended) externalities. The framework therefore takes the direct and indirect as well as immediate and long-term impacts into account. Key indicators The main environmental impact categories the framework aims to assess are: water use and quality, soil health, biodiversity and climate change. Table 1 lists the specific indicators to be estimated under each category. The trade-offs between these impact categories is an important consideration in the overall environmental assessment. Different existing methods can be utilised to quantify the indicators in terms of total use as well as efficiencies - per area and/or per livestock produce. Specific impacts and impact indicators are linked to one or several spatial scales and to specific temporal scales. The projected impacts will be compared against baselines and limiting constraints. Table 1: Main impact categories, associated indicators and scales Impact category Subcategory Indicator Rapid quantificati on ideas Spatial scale Temporal scale* Water Water quantity Soil moisture used for biomass production (m3 per time step of analysis) Cropwat , Kc-value estimation Farm, landscape short term: 1 yr Water quantity Streamflow and aquifers (m3 per time step of analysis) Water balance partitioning Landscape, regional /global short to medium term: 1-10 yrs Water quality Organic pollution in stream Manure managemen t and application Landscape short term: 1 yr Water quality Inorganic pollution in stream Risk scoring of fertilizer and pesticide application rates and locations Landscape short term Soil Soil erosion Sediment loss (kg/ha/timestep) RUSLE Farm, landscape short to medium term: 1-10 yrs Soil organic matter Soil organic matter IPCC – Tier 1 Farm medium to long term: 10-50 yrs Soil fertility N, P content in the soil Nutrient budget (NUTMON) Farm short to medium term: 1-10 yrs Biodiversity Crop and pasture diversity Diversity index Species distribution modelling Farm, landscape short to medium term: 1-10 yrs Animal genetic resources Diversity index Species distribution modelling Regional medium to long term: 10-50 yrs Landscape multifunctionali ty Number of landuses LU/LC Landscape medium to long term: 10-50 yrs Climate change Emissions CH4 emission IPCC guidelines, GLEAM, RUMIANT, LCA Regional/glo bal long term: 50/100 yrs N2O emission Regional/glo bal long term: 50/100 yrs CO2 Regional/glo bal long term: 50/100 yrs * when we feel the effect/impact (from column 1) Operationalizing the framework The framework guides users through a step-wise procedure. In a first step the baselines are set. A second step entails the actual ex-ante impact assessment so that the potential impacts can be compared against the baselines (fig 1). Setting the baseline Smallholder farming systems and livestock and fish value chains are highly heterogeneous, diverse and dynamic. These differences influence both the applicability and the potential impacts of interventions. This first baseline step therefore involves stratifying the region of interest in different strata or simulation units, assumed to respond homogeneously to the proposed changes, and describing each regarding (i) land use and management practises; (ii) stocks and flows at different spatial scales, (iii) the livestock or fish value chain in which it is embedded, and (iv) vulnerable and limiting resources. Different data sources feed into this step, such as existing databases, participatory mapping exercises, household surveys and expert opinion. Figure 1: Operationalization of the CLEANED framework Ex-ante impact assessment When assessing the potential impacts of interventions, scenarios of alternative intervention strategies need to be constructed and compared in reference to a baseline. The sub-steps are: (i) The description of the envisioned intervention(s): a myriad of interventions are possible. Examples include changing the cropping pattern and management, feeding practices, animal or herd management, milk treatment, transport or processing. A fairly detailed description of the envisioned interventions will need to be provided. The level of detail thereby needs to be in line with the envisioned assessment methods. Changes in relevant input variables will have to be specified or expected impacts qualified. The description of the intervention also needs to clarify suitability to or applicability in different environmental contexts and VCs; (ii) The assessment of local impacts: the calculation of quantitative indicator values can be done through the use of models or simple equations. These impact values will be combined with waste and re-use estimates to come up with overall impacts. A qualitative assessment, based on qualitative scores of input variables, is possible through the translation of these scores into quantitative input variables for quantitative output calculations. These can in turn be translated into a qualitative impact score based on the potential ranges estimated from existing data, literature review or expert opinion; (iii) Out-scaling: the stratification of the study area under step 1 aims at capturing the heterogeneity found in the region of interest. The assumption made for out-scaling is that agricultural strategies are likely to have the same relevance for areas falling in the same stratum and that the impacts can be widely applied across the landscape, region or country. Regional impacts are then calculated based on estimated levels of adoption of the promoted technology and a particular distribution of strata/simulation units. For some technologies and impact dimensions, specific models exist that estimate impacts at a larger scale, taking for example landscape or international trade interactions into account. In such case, and if time and resources allow, a more complex out-scaling exercise can be carried out, through the definition of spatially-explicit “scenarios” and feeding these into the larger-scale models; (iv) Flagging the potential risks: in a last step the projected impacts need to be compared with a critical value or assessed against identified constraints and limiting resources. The aim is to be able to flag important context-specific issues and provide a visualization of the overall environmental impact of the intervention and trade-offs between environmental dimensions at different time scales. Discussion, conclusion and implications Food security, poverty and nutrition are high on the global development agenda. Improving yields and farmer incomes are often seen as priorities and development actions are thus designed with these specific aims in mind. However, many proposed farming practices might damage the environment and generate greenhouse gases (GHG). In addition, there is increased competition for land, water, energy, and other inputs into food production. This framework is therefore designed to ensure that actions designed to improve incomes and food security in livestock and aquaculture value chains have a minimum environmental footprint while at the same time lifting people out of poverty. It is focusing on environmental impacts and is meant to complement other more commonly applied assessments such as cost/benefit analyses and feasibility studies. We envisage that the framework would be used in a range of ways. With up-to-date information and knowledge on production systems, it should help users to identify the likely impacts of the implementation of specific technologies. Second, the framework can be used as rapid screening and discussion tool, to screen sets of interventions in farming systems at the early stages of their development. For this, many of the data are likely to be qualitative in nature. A third practice would be to use the framework to quickly evaluate the impacts of a wide range of interventions, to identify sub-sets of promising specific interventions for evaluating using more detailed quantitative information, to estimate aggregated impacts in certain regions, or to link them to global and regional change models. The target audience for the framework are decision makers at different levels such as donors, government agencies and NGOs. It aims to provide them with a rapid ex-ante assessment highlighting potential positive and negative environmental impacts at multiple spatial and temporal scales and the trade-offs between them. Specific uses include evaluation of project proposals by donors and providing input in investment decisions of local implementers, both in the private and public sphere. An important question remains how to ensure its actual integration in the decision-making processes of these target audiences at different levels and a variety of local contexts. Acknowledgement The development of the framework was made possible through the financial support of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and both technical and financial support of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish. We would also like to thank all participants in the local and international consultation meetings for their generous intellectual input. References Bouwman, A. F., A. H. W. Beusen, and G. Billen. 2009. Human alteration of the global nitrogen and phosphorus soil balances for the period 1970–2050, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 23, GB0A04 FAO. 2013. Food Wastage Footprint, Impacts on natural resources. http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3347e/i3347e.pdf Fraval S. 2014. Review of live-cycle assessments for livestock, fisheries and aquaculture: perspectives for application to environmental impact assessment in developing countries. Consultancy report to ILRI. Giller K., Tittonell P., Rufino M., van Wijk M., Zingore S., Mapfumo P., Adjei-Nsiah S., Herrero M., Chikowo R., Corbeels M., Rowe E., Baijukya F., Mwijage A., Smith J., Yeboah E., van der Burg W., Sanogo O., Misiko M., de Ridder N., Karanja S., Kaizzi C., K’ungu J., Mwale M., Nwaga D., Pacini C., Vanlauwe B., 2011. Communicating complexity: integrated assessment of trade-offs concerning soil fertility management within African farming systems to support innovation and development. Agric. Syst. 104, 191–203. Hall, S.J., A. Delaporte, M. J. Phillips, M. Beveridge and M. O’Keefe. 2011. Blue Frontiers: Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia. Heinke J., Lannerstad M., Herrero M., Peden D., Notenbaert A. (in preparation). Livestock and water linkages dynamics. . Herrero M., Thornton P., Notenbaert A., Wood S., Msangi S., Freeman H., Bossio D., Dixon J., Peters M., van de Steeg J., Lynam J., Parthasarathy Rao P., Macmillan S., Gerard B., McDermott J, Seré C., Rosegrant M. 2010. Smart investments in sustainable food production: revisiting mixed crop-livestock systems. Science 327, 822-825. Koop, K., D. Booth, A. Broadbent, J. Brodie, D. Bucher, D. Capone, J. Coll, W.Dennison, M. Erdmann, P. Harrison, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, P. Hutchings, G.B. Jones,A.W.D. Larkum, J. O’Neil,A. Steven, E. Tentori, S.Ward, J.Williamson and D. Yellowlees, 2001: ENCORE: The effect of nutrient enrichment on coral reefs: synthesis of results and conclusions. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42, 91-120. Liu J., You L., Amini M., Obersteiner M., Herrero M., Zehnder A., Yang H. 2010. A high resolution assessment of nitrogen flows in cropland. PNAS 107, 835–840. O'Mara, F.P. (2011). The significance of livestock as a contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions today and in the near future. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 166-167, 7-15. Rufino M., Rowe E., Delve R., Giller K. 2006. Nitrogen cycling efficiencies through resource- poor African crop livestock systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 112, 261– 282. UN, 2012, World Population Prospects: the 2012 Revision - http://esa.un.org/wpp/ Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M., de Haan, C., 2006. Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. FAO, Rome, Italy. Sutton M., Oenema O., Erisman J.W., Leip A., van Grinsven H., Winiwarter W.. (eds). 2011. The European Nitrogen Assessment. Cambridge Univ. Press; available at http://go.nature.com/5n9lsq. Somali small ruminants pastoral producers knowledge and exploitation of livestock grading and pricing systems Wanyoike, F.1*, Mtimet, N.1, Ndiwa, N.1,Marshall, K.1 and Godiah, L.2 1International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; 2Terra Nuova *Corresponding author; f.wanyoike@cgiar.org Abstract This study focused on market participation and awareness about the informal livestock grading and pricing system among small ruminants’ producers in Somalia. Results confirmed the importance of small ruminants as sources of income in producer households and that producers are well versed with the grading system. Although participation by women in the rearing and marketing of small ruminants was found to be strong, market participation was found to be higher where sales decisions were made by men. Higher flocks of animals sold had a positive effect on market participation. Introduction Livestock is the leading economic sector in Somalia where animal production and marketing (both domestic and export selling) have persisted despite over 20 years of war and instability. According to FAO (2012), the livestock sector in Somalia accounts for 40% of the country’s GDP and 80% of foreign exchange earnings. At the household level, over 65% of the population is engaged in various ways in the livestock industry. Income earned from animal sales and other livestock related activities is used to buy food and other necessities thus impacting directly on food security and poverty. Sheep and goats are among the most important livestock species reared and marketed in Somalia. For example, in Somaliland (Northern part of Somalia) in 2011, over 3 million sheep and goats, valued at over 200 million USD, were exported to the Middle Eastern countries (mainly Saudi Arabia) at the port of Barbera (USAID, 2012). Besides export, a significant number of small ruminants are marketed domestically generating employment opportunities to the local population including women who are popularly involved in domestic meat selling and also production of useful by-products such as soap and ornamentals. As part of efforts to enhance market access for Somali livestock, Terra Nuova and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) conducted value chain studies of export marketing of livestock and also chilled meat in Somalia (Negasa et al., 2008; Mugunieri et al. 2012). The studies documented usage of an informal grading system in livestock markets. Based on levels of a number of important traits: age (adults v/s young), conformation (excellent, good, and fair), body condition (fat, normal, and thin), and sex (only male animals are exported), animals are categorised in 4 grades, that is, grade I, grade II, grade III, and local quality grade. Grade I represent the highest quality animals and these fetch the best price. Lower grades are discounted. The studies observed that the grading system presents an opportunity for farmers and other market intermediaries to realise higher profitability through improvement of the quality of the animals they sell. Although the studies by Negasa et al. (2008) and Mugunieri et al. (2012) generated useful information for enhancing market access by actors in export marketing of livestock in Somalia, they failed to include farmers in their analysis. This is despite the importance of livestock producers in the value chain both in terms of numbers and also the role that they perform. To address this dearth of information the current study focuses on market participation and awareness about the livestock grading and pricing system among the Somali sheep and goats producers. The study is motivated by the realization that producers cannot make deliberate efforts to exploit the grading system to realize higher incomes if they are not aware about it. Materials and methods Data for this study was collected from a random sample of 144 pastoral and agro-pastoral households who rear sheep and goats in Northern Somalia (Somaliland). The study area covered 3 livelihood zones including (i) West Golis pastoral zone where goats, camel, and sheep are the main species of livestock kept, (ii) Togdheer agro-pastoral zone where rearing of sheep, goats and also vegetable production are the main agricultural activities, and (iii) Hawd pastoral zone where rearing of sheep and goats is the main activity. During the sampling strategy, settlements in each livelihood zone were categorised into those located close versus far from livestock market. From each settlement category, 2 settlements were randomly selected. A list of households that kept sheep and goats in each sampled settlement was prepared with the help of local leaders. For a selected settlement with more than 60 households, 12 households were randomly selected plus an additional 6 ‘spare’ households. If a selected settlement had less than 60 households, it was combined with the next closest settlement, such that the total number of households in the settlement cluster exceeded 60. Subsequently, 12 households were randomly selected plus an additional 6 ‘spare’ households from the settlement cluster. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered on the most senior male and/or female in the sample households. If a sample household was not willing to be interviewed, it was dropped and replaced with a spare household. Descriptive statistics (means and frequencies) were used to evaluate the level of awareness about the grading system and also to investigate whether the producers made any deliberate efforts to exploit the grading system for higher returns. Modeling market participation Market participation measured as number of animals sold has a censored distribution and involves two decisions: (i) whether or not to participate in the market and (ii) how much to sell conditional on having decided to participate in the market. Where these 2 decisions are made sequentially, use of an ordered Tobit model (a form of a Heckman selection model) rather than an ordinary Tobit model to evaluate factors influencing market participation is recommended as the latter yields parameter estimates that are biased (Bellemare and Barrett, 2005). During the current analysis, however, the hypothesis that the 2 market participation decisions are made independently was strongly rejected indicating that an ordinary Tobit estimation could satisfactorily be used to analyze factors influencing market participation. The Tobit model was specified as follows: (1) Where denotes probability of market participation and intensity of market participation for the ith farmer; is a vector of unobservable latent variable; is a vector of unknown parameters; is a KxN matrix of explanatory variables; and is a Kx1 vector of unobservable error term. Results Table 1 presents a summary of the demographic features of the surveyed households. Although majority of the households were male-headed, women accounted for majority (56%) of respondents. In households where men were unavailable for interviews, a common explanation was that they were away in the bush with their livestock or they were just hanging out in market centres. Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the surveyed households Number of HHs interviewed 144 Gender of respondents (% of households) Male 44 Female 56 Gender of HHH in surveyed households (% of households) Male 85 Female 15 Age of household Mean 46 Std. deviation 13 Frequency of household heads with different levels of education None 77 Elementary 12 Intermediate 8 Secondary Graduate 3 Number of sheep and goats kept Mean 53 Std. deviation 45 Number of sheep and goats sold during the last 12 months Mean 9.4 Std. deviation 17.7 Owners of sheep and goats in households (% of households) Household head only 48 Spouse only 4 Jointly by household head and spouse 48 Others (Male child/relatives/ Business partners) 8 Providers of labor for sheep and Jointly in the household 53 goats activities in households (% of households) Male child 23 A woman in the household 12 Others(man/female child/business partner) 13 Decision makers on sales and purchases of sheep and goats in households (% of households) Jointly in the household 45 A woman in the household 10 Man in the household 39 Others (Male child/relatives/ Business partners) 9 Literacy levels were low with 77% of the household heads having had no formal education at all. The high incidence of illiteracy is attributable to the many years fighting which has disrupted provision of formal education in Somalia. On average a household kept 53 shoats. Commonly, shoats either solely belonged to a male head of household or to both the male household head and his wife/wives (48% of households in each case). Beside shoats, numerous farmers also kept other species of livestock including camel, donkeys, cattle and chicken. Rearing of camels was the most popular alternative livestock activity both in terms of numbers of farmers involved (19% to 31%) and also stocks of animals kept (on average 5.2 to 8.5 animals). Awareness about grades To evaluate farmers’ awareness about the informal livestock grading and pricing system, they were asked whether a grading system existed in the markets where they sold animals. Given the documented widespread usage of the grading system, farmers who claimed that there was no grading system in their destination livestock markets were assumed to be unaware about the grading system. To fully ascertain awareness, farmers who claimed to be aware about the prevalence of the grading system were probed on how the grading is done. Awareness about the existence of the grading system was high except for 6% of male farmers and 18% of women. The 2 percentages were however statistically different at 1% level. Three different answers emerged when respondents who claimed that a grading system existed in their livestock sales markets were requested to describe the categorisation of animals in the grading system. Majority of farmers (94% of men and 97% of women) correctly mentioned all four grades of animals. A few famers however erroneously left out the local grade in their description (2% of men and 1% of women) while others (4 % of men and 4% of women) said that the system comprises of only 2 grades. Many farmers were also spot-on when they were probed about the factors/attributes determining grade. Over 90% of men and also women knew that age, body conformation and nutritional status were important determinants of grade. Conversely, small numbers of men (8%) and also women (5%) were unaware that breed plays no role in influencing grade in sheep and goats. Interestingly, many farmers (about 90% of men and 91%-96% of women) viewed sex as an important determinant of grade perhaps because grading is commonly performed on male animals for export. Participation in markets Most households (81-83%) had sold some sheep and /or goats during the previous 12 months. On average a household had sold about 9 animals. This high number of farmers reporting sales of sheep and goats and also the relative high number of animals sold authenticate the importance of small ruminants as sources household income. While gender of household head had no significant effect on the number of animals sold, sales tended to be higher where sales decisions were made by men (14.2 animals) and lowest in cases the women made these decisions (4.4 animals). Grade I and II accounted for the largest proportions of the animals sold (35% and 38%, respectively) with grade III and the local grade accounting for only 14% and 13% respectively. On average, a grade I animal fetched 67.4 – 76.1 USD compared to 58.6 – 66.7 for grade II, 42.8 – 54.7 for grade III and 29.4 – 52.4 for the local quality grade. Table 2 presents the Tobit results of the determinants of market participation. The number of sheep and goats kept had a positive and significant effect on farmers’ participation in the marketing of these animals. This result is consistent with the expectation that farmers with large stocks are likely to have higher number of off takes. Stocks of large ruminants kept (camel and cattle) however had no significant effects on sales of sheep and goats. This finding is perhaps attributable to the fact that the different species of animals are kept by farmers for different reasons. Usually in pastoral areas, small ruminants serve as a source of regular income while large ruminants provide a store of wealth. The presence of large ruminants may therefore have no effect on sale of sheep and goats. Table 2. Tobit results of factors influencing market participation among sheep and goats producers OLS estimates Tobit estimates Coef. P>t Coef. P>t Constant 0.73 0.93 -7.13 0.46 Age of household head -0.04 0.77 -0.13 0.44 Main occupation of the household head (1=livestock keeping; 0=otherwise) 2.17 0.52 4.94 0.21 Sales decision maker Male household head 7.28 0.16 10.89 0.08 Jointly by spouses 2.07 0.68 5.00 0.40 Gender of household head (1=man; 0=woman) -7.56 0.16 -9.52 0.13 Scale of livestock activities Number of sheep and goats kept 0.13 0.01 0.16 0.01 Number of camels kept 0.06 0.89 -0.01 0.99 Number of cattle kept 1.01 0.51 1.57 0.36 Study site (control=Sheikh) Burao 5.51 0.19 10.83 0.03 Oodweyne 10.79 0.04 12.37 0.04 Proportion of Grades I & II animals sold less proportion of grades III & local quality grade 4.02 0.15 7.80 0.01 Consistent with results of the descriptive statistics, gender of household head had no significant effect on market participation. On the other hand, households where sales decisions were made by men tended to participate more in the market. Perhaps this results reflect a trend that has been reported in past studies of men assuming greater control of farming activities in cases where these tend to be important sources of household income. It was also found that farmers in Burao and Oodweyne participated more in the marketing of sheep and goats compared to their counterparts in Sheikh. This finding perhaps relates to differences in livelihoods in the 3 study sites. Unlike Sheikh which is an agro-pastoral area, Burao and Oodweyne are pastoral and therefore famers need relatively more cash to buy food from the market. The proportion of high grade animals (grades I & II) less low quality grades (grades II & the local quality grade) had a positive and significant coefficient. This suggests that as expected, farmers who regularly sold animals supplied higher quality animals as opposed to their counterparts who rarely participated in the markets. Conclusions and recommendations This study focused on market participation and awareness about the informal livestock grading and pricing system among small ruminants’ producers in Somalia. Results confirmed the importance of small ruminants as source of income to producers’ households and also indicated that the producers are well versed with the grading system. Consistent with findings in previous studies, participation by woman in the rearing and marketing of small ruminants was found to be strong implying that these activities provide a good entry point in promoting gender parity in economic welfare in producer households. Results from analysis of market participation suggested that decisions on whether to participate in the market and also on level of participation among the Somali small ruminant producers are made simultaneously thus contradicting findings of the study of Bellemare and Barrett (2005) in Kenya and Ethiopia that showed that the two decisions are made sequentially. There is therefore need for further investigations. Consistent with findings in other studies market participation was found to be higher where sales decisions were made by man. Higher flocks of animals sold positively affects market participation. Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank the Danish development co-operation DANIDA for funding this work. We also thank our partners from Terra Nuova NGO and the STVS staff. Disclaimer: The contents of this paper are the sole responsibility of the authors and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the Danish government. References Bellemare, M. and Barrett, C. 2005. An ordered TOBIT model of market participation: evidence from Kenya and Ethiopia. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 88(2): 324-337. FAO, 2012. Protecting Somalia’s leading livelihood assets. Somalia Livestock Issue No. 1. FAO Somalia Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU), 2012. Gender in emergency food security, livelihoods and nutrition in Somalia. FAO. Heckman 1979. Sample selection bias as a specification error, Econometrica, 47:153-161. Mugunieri, L., Costagli, R., Abdulle, M., Osman, I., and Omore, A., 2012. Improvement and diversification of Somali livestock trade and marketing: Towards a formalized grading system for export quality livestock in Somalia. ILRI discussion paper No. 12. ILRI Minette Flora De Asis, 2011. Overview of Somaliland’s Livestock Value Chain: Gender and Institutional Challenges of Women Livestock Traders. Paper presented in “Development on the margin” Conference in October 5-7, 2011 in Tropentag, Bonn Negassa, A., Costagli, R., Matete, G., Jabbar, M., Okuthe, S., Hassan, M., and Omore, A., 2008. Improvement and diversification of Somalia livestock trade and marketing. ILRI Discussion Paper 13. Nairobi: International Livestock Research Institute. USAID, 2012. Livestock exports from northern ports in the Horn of Africa. FEWS NET. Kenyan milk consumers' behaviour and perceptions of aflatoxin Walke, M.1, Mtimet, N.2*, Baker, D.3, Waithanji, E.2,Lindahl, J.2, Hartmann, M.1 and Grace, D.2 1University of Bonn, Germany; 2International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya; 3University of New England, Australia *Corresponding author: n.mtimet@cgiar.org Abstract Aflatoxin contamination in food is a human health threat in many developing countries. This study examines Kenyan milk consumers’ behavior related to, and perception of, aflatoxin contamination. The study considered two groups of respondents: raw milk consumers mainly located in peri-urban areas of Nairobi, and processed milk consumers located in urban areas. Results indicate that practically all raw milk consumers and the majority of processed milk consumers boil the milk before its consumption believing that the product is completely safe after boiling. Aflatoxin awareness is very high for the urban milk consumers and relatively high for the peri-urban ones. In both groups, almost half of the respondents who had heard about aflatoxin believe, or know, that it can be transferred into milk. Most respondents, however, did not know how to avoid aflatoxin-contaminated milk. Given the credence characteristic of aflatoxin consumer education and awareness raising programs alone will not be able to solve the problem. Efforts along the whole value chain and at the level of government are needed to reduce the use of aflotoxin spoiled feed and secure aflatoxin safe milk at the consumer level. Keywords: Aflatoxin, consumers, health, Kenya, milk Introduction Aflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by certain species of moulds, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.The problem is rooted throughout the food chain, and as freedom of choice in food is limited for a poor and food-insecure population, exposure to aflatoxin is a widespread and important public health threat in the developing world. Chronic exposure to aflatoxins increases the risk of liver cancer, suppresses the human immune system and has been estimated to cause annually about 26,000 death in Sub-Saharan Africa (Grace and Unnevehr 2013). Estimates suggest that there are more than five billion people worldwide at risk of chronic exposure to aflatoxins (Williams et al., 2004; WHO, 2005). Because Kenya´s climate is favorable to the growth of aflatoxin-producing moulds, the country faces a high risk of mycotoxin-related livestock and human poisoning (Lanyasunya et al., 2005). Humans are exposed to aflatoxins not only through staple foods such as cereals, but also through animal-sourced food such as meat, eggs, viscera and, especially, milk (Jarvis, 2002). When lactating animals consume significant amounts of aflatoxin-contaminated feed, the aflatoxin is metabolized, and a part of the metabolites is transferred into the milk (Lanyasunya et al., 2005; Lizárraga-Paulin et al., 2011). The most effective means of controlling aflatoxin in milk is therefore by restricting its presence in the cattle´s feed (FAO, 2005). As the partnership for aflatoxin control in Africa (PACA) (2013) highlights, one major challenge is the low level of awareness of the problem of aflatoxin – not only among resource- poor consumers and farmers, but also among decision makers, health professionals and extension workers. The current study is one step towards a better understanding of consumers´ awareness of aflatoxin. As the analysis also aims at revealing important insights in Kenyans´ milk purchase and consumption behavior it can serve as a starting point for future actions with respect to aflatoxin. Materials and methods The surveys were conducted in July and August 2013 using face-to-face interviews with consumers/buyers of raw and processed milk on public streets of the greater area of Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. Nairobi district is a very representative area for milk production and consumption due to its intensive dairy production systems and high human and cattle populations (Omore et al., 2005). Data for raw milk were collected in Dagoretti, a peri-urban poor area of Nairobi, which is situated in the west of Nairobi city. The processed milk survey was conducted in different urban areas of Nairobi characterized by mainly middle-income inhabitants such as Buru-Buru, Nairobi West and South C. For the selection of respondents, systematic sampling was conducted, pursuant to assumptions of randomness over time. Completion of each interview was followed by the contact with a subsequent interviewee. Refusal to participate (an early concern of the authors) was negligible making systematic bias concerning respondents´ characteristics unlikely. All categories of consumers were targeted, by carrying out the survey across different periods of time. This involved data collection from Tuesday until Saturday from 9 am to 6 pm for a 3-week period. Four interviewers led to a total sample size of 310 respondents for the raw milk questionnaire and 299 for the processed milk questionnaire. Results and discussion In the raw as well as in the processed milk survey there are almost equal proportions of male and females who answered the questionnaire. The majority of the interviewed consumers (around 80 percent) were between 21 and 40 years old. Respondents were asked about their milk purchase habits (Table 1). While in Dagoretti, and thus in the poorer peri-urban area of Nairobi raw milk is the first choice for the great majority of respondents, consumers in the urban areas in general indicated that they preferred processed milk. Cow milk consumption has been a sample selection criterion and thus all respondents consume cow milk. Other types of milk, such as goat and camel milk, play a negligible role in respondents’ milk consumption. Table 1. Milk purchase habits of Kenyan citizens: results based on the raw and processed milk survey Characteristic Raw milk sample (n=310) Processed milk sample (n=299) Characteristic level % Characteristic level % Quantity of milk 0.5 litre 12 0.3 litre 1 bought/purchase occasion 0.6 litre 18 0.5 litre 57 1.0 litre 38 1.0 litre 20 2.0 litres 9 2.0 litres and more 12 I don´t remember 10 Price per litre 40 KSH/litre 12 80 KSH/litre 20 50 KSH/litre 21 90 KSH/litre 43 60 KSH/litre 20 100 KSH/litre 11 65 KSH/litre 14 Other 10 70 KSH/litre 14 I don´t remember 16 Place of purchase* Shop 41 Shop 65 Producer/farmer 25 Super-/Hypermarket 77 Milk bar 25 Milk bar 1 Kiosk 15 Kiosk 6 Hawker 10 Hawker 1 Frequency of milk purchase More than once a day 22 More than once a day 14 Once a day 69 Once a day 55 Once/week< Chi=0.0009 Pseudo R2=0.2201 Note: GPV is the reference category. *, **, *** refers to significance level at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively Discussion The government para-vets (GPVs) are the most preferred and more widely used animal health service providers by livestock keepers than CAHWs and private para-vets (PPVs). This is consistent with Leonard et al. (2013) review which shows that, clients demand for service providers with superior competence. The better performance of GPVs (as indicated by farmers’ rankings) compared with CAHWs and private para-vets could be associated with the fact that government para-vets easily consult veterinarians who supervise them. Also, PPVs were perceived to be more cost effective than GPVs and CAHWs in terms of drugs, because most of the PPVs operate animal drug shops, thus retailing to other service providers. The CAHWs were ranked as having the highest operating costs and being the least accessible. This is attributed to the fact that CAHWs do not often have drugs available and livestock keepers have to pay the transportation cost of CAHWs to buy drugs from the nearest town and also pay for treatment charges. Yet, livestock keepers could call GPVs on their mobile phones, and have them come with drugs to treat sick animals or take advantage of their presence in the community when they visit other farmers. These results contradict the popular view that the presence of CAHWs will necessarily translate into better access and affordable service delivery. Catley et al. (2004) expressed this view in the past and recently by Lamichhane and Shrestha (2011). The higher a livestock keeper’s age and education level, the less likely they are to use CAHWs and PPVs, and the more likely they are to use government para-vets. This finding suggests that, all things being equal, advancing in either age, and increasing years of education decrease CAHWs and PPVs use compared to GPV use. This observation agrees with findings by Lamichhane & Shrestha (2011) in the Kaski District of Nepal. Their results show that an increase in age and higher education level increases demand for qualified service providers. CAHWs will need to acquire superior knowledge through adequate training in animal health care and refresher courses to remain valuable and active in the community. Livestock keepers that own more land and have higher incomes are also less likely to use CAHWs and PPVs compared to GPVs use. Land and income are measures of wealth, therefore farmers with more land and income could have the capacity to seek more qualified services. This concurs with findings of Irungu et al. (2006) in Kenya and Lamichhane and Shrestha (2011) in Nepal. Findings from this study show that, there is a trend toward government para-vets use compared to other service providers. The government animal health workers are better trained and have access to incentives which improves their capacity and performance. While the CAHWs may be useful in implementing disease control programs such as vaccination exercises, they are insufficient in meeting the animal health needs of farmers in marginal areas. This is could be attributed to the limited training of the CAHWs and lack of incentives. The limited number of government para-vets due to privatization policy of the government, inability of the private sector to fill the gap and low demand of CAHWs services is affecting the animal health sector. The current trends toward agricultural intensification and the associated risk of zoonotic disease emergences in developing countries, and other human health implications, it is imperative to boost the human capacity needs of the animal health sector. Therefore, ‘market smart’ alternative solutions involving strong public sector engagement in training more para-vets are essential to solve the human capacity challenge in animal health service delivery, while at the same time synergies between the private and public sectors must be harnessed. Training more qualified para-vets and establishing them in strategic communities could reduce costs and provide sustainable services to livestock dependent communities. These trained staff should be linked to private input dealers so they can get inputs at affordable prices. Alternatively, the poor could be targeted through a livestock service delivery voucher system. Government regulation in setting minimum standards for training of para-professionals and regular supervision by veterinary staff should also be enforced. References Awa, D.N. and Achukwi, M.D., 2010. Livestock pathology in the central African region: some epidemiological considerations and control strategies, Animal Health Research Reviews, 11, 235–44 Catley, A., Leyland, T., Mariner, J.C. and Akabwai, D.M.O., 2004. Para-veterinary professionals and the development of quality , self-sustaining community-based services Why community-based animal health workers are appropriate. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 23, 225–252 Cheng, S. and Long, J.S., 2007. Testing for IIA in the Multinomial Logit Model, Sociological Methods & Research, 35, 583–600 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 2011. World Livestock 2011: Livestock in food security, (FAO, Rome) Gearhart, A., Booth, D.T., Sedivec, K. and Schauer, C., 2013. Use of Kendall’s coefficient of concordance to assess agreement among observers of very high resolution imagery, Geocarto International, 28, 517–526 Irungu, P., Omiti, J.M. and Mugunieri, L.G., 2006. Determinants of farmers’ preference for alternative animal health service providers in Kenya : a proportional hazard application, Agricultural Economics, 35, 11–17. Kuunibe, N. and Dary, S., 2012. Choice of healthcare providers among insured persons in Ghana, Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 2 , 2222-2863 http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/RHSS/article/view/3383 Lamichhane, D.K. and Shrestha, S., 2011. Determinants of farmers’ choice for veterinary service providers in Nepal Mountains, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44, 1163– 1168 Leonard, D.K., Bloom, G., Hanson, K., O’Farrell, J. and Spicer, N., 2013. Institutional solutions to the asymmetric information problem in health and development services for the poor, World Development, 48, 71–87 Randolph, T.F., Schelling, E., Grace, D., Nicholson, C.F., Leroy, J.L., Cole, D.C., Demment, M.W., Omore, A., Zinsstag, J. and Ruel, M., 2007. Invited review: role of livestock in human nutrition and health for poverty reduction in developing countries, Journal of Animal Science, 85, 2788–2800 Zhu, C.W., Livote, E.E., Ross, J.S. and Penrod, J.D., 2010. A random effects multinomial logit analysis of using Medicare and VA healthcare among veterans with dementia, Home Health Care Services Quarterly, 29, 91–104 ILRI capacity building model: Experiences and lessons learned over the 40 years in livestock research and development Iddo, D. Delivery of biosciences capacity to African NARS through shared facilities: Experiences from the Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA) Ekaya, W.N.*, Harvey, J. and Djikeng A. BecA-ILRI Hub, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: w.ekaya@cgiar.org The Biosciences eastern and central Africa – International Livestock Research Institute (BecAILRI) Hub was established as a joint partnership between ILRI and AU/NEPAD, under the African Bioscience initiative – ABI, to provide access to affordable and world-class bioscience research facilities, empower and strengthen human resources in biosciences in Africa. The BecA-ILRI Hub is located at ILRI and managed as a shared research, capacity building, high- end biosciences technologies platform to support African scientists and institutions to address key agricultural productivity, food and nutritional security challenges. In Africa, building the capacity innational agricultural research systems (NARS) for effective, efficient and sustainable delivery of their mandate remains a key challenge and determinant of agricultural productivity gains. The BecA-ILRI Hubis demand driven program and responds to this challenge by focusing on agricultural improvement primarily in 18 countries in Eastern and Central Africa. Capacity building and research coupled with capacity building and technology development and application at the BecA-ILRI Hub focuses on five key themes:a) livestock productivity, b) crop improvement, c) climate change, d) food safety and improved nutrition, and e) harnessing the potential of orphan crops and livestock species for improved nutrition and income generation. The objective of the BecA-ILRI Hub's capacity building program is to support and strengthen the capacity of African NARS scientists and institutions to deliver their mandate. The main delivery mechanism is the Africa Bioscience Challenge Fund (ABCF), whichlargely focusesona competitive fellowship program (The ABCF fellowship), annual training workshops and institutional capacity building. The ABCF fellowship programtargets, supports and hostsa wide range of scientists from African NARS for up totwelve months at the BecA-ILRI Hub. While at the BecA-ILRI Hub, NARS scientists access available resources (a broad mentoring faculty of world class scientists from within and out of Africa, technologies platform, research support services and other opportunities for new partnerships development, collaborations and resource mobilization) to help accelerate their research agenda and in the long term ensure sustainable activities at home institutions. The BecA-ILRI Hub ABCF program also includes annual short training /enhancement courses (hands on molecular biology, bioinformatics, genomics, lab management, technical and scientific writing), Institutional capacity building and creating connections and sub networks between scientists. Since 2010, the ABCF program has contributed to hosting over 150 African research scientists, trained over 450 through short term courses, publishedover 100 peer reviewed manuscripts and conference proceedings. Other outputs of the ABCF program include the translation of research output into product development (including novel diagnostics tools for crop and livestock diseases), seminal discoveries (identification of new viruses of significance to animal and human health, established of wide crosses for expanding crops genetic repertoire and accelerated breeding) and other research-based evidence to engage with policymakers. To further respond to the needs and ensure broader support to African NARS, and at the same time lead the implementation of cutting edge biosciences research in support of African agricultural productivity, food and nutritional security, the BecA-ILRI Hub has established the following technologies platforms: Genomics, Bioinformatics, Diagnostics, plant tissue culture and transformation, mycotoxin and nutrition analysis, and molecular breeding. Their applications to a wide range of research topics and capacity building provides an ideal environment to build a critical mass of well trained and well equipped African bio-scientists to effectively address national, regional and continental agricultural productivity, food and nutritional security issues. Since full operation in 2007, the BecA-ILRI Hub is now a key research for development in Africa through ensuring that high quality, responsive and impact driven agricultural biosciences research is conducted in Africa. It also works to ensure that African bio-scientists are equipped to play key and leading biosciences research roles and effectively contribute to the global scientific knowledge. Enhancing the quality of capacity development for livestock research and development in Eastern and Central Africa Methu, J.N.* and Zziwa, E. Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa, (ASARECA). *Corresponding author; j.methu@asareca.org Abstract Most research for development funding in Africa reaches end users through competitive grants and the media is often awash with calls for proposals or concept notes from different funding agencies. Examples include ASARECA's Competitive Grants System (CGS), International Foundation for Science (IFS) of Sweden, and the African Biosciences Challenge Fund (ABCF) of Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (BecA) among others. The rationale behind competitive grants is that quality research should be conducted by individuals and within institutions with comparative advantage with regard to capacity. However, individuals and institutions with comparative advantage with regard to capacity are not evenly distributed across African countries and subregions. The result is that development assistance funding often tends to be well concentrated within a few countries, or within specific sub-regions within the continent. Achieving equitable development across countries on the continent and sometimes sub-regions within the continent is therefore often compromised when competitive grants are applied as the blanket mode of delivery of development assistance. Livestock research and development tends to be most affected as in general, there are fewer opportunities and grants that are made available for livestock research and development. Between 2010 and 2012, thirty-seven research calls were published by ASARECA in a competitive grants scheme, targeting researchers in 11 countries in Eastern and Central Africa, namely Burundi, DRC, Ethiopia Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Six of the calls or 16% were on livestock related subjects despite the fact that. Ninety-five (95) responses were received from a total of 564 scientists who participated in different partnerships to respond to the calls. Most of these participating scientists came from Kenya (23%), Uganda (20%) and Tanzania (16%), respectively, implying that about 70 % of the grants ended up in three countries, leaving the balance of 30 % to be shared between the other nine countries. In addition, 44%, 24% and 13 % of the individual principle investigators from whom the responses originated, and 38, 30 and 19% of the successful calls came from the same three countries respectively. Countries with higher numbers of personnel in their National Agricultural Research Institutions as determined by the numbers of PhD trained staff tended to attract more grants than those with a lower human resource capacity base. This paper argues that there is need for some kind of affirmative action in applying the competitive grants systems in delivering research for development resources if some level of equity in accessing research resources is to be achieved in Africa. Also more capacity building resources should be focused on countries whose ability to access resources for research and development is limited by their human resource capacities. Given the importance of livestock in the African economies, more of the capacity building resources should be focused on livestock related disciplines. Key words: Capacity for research and development, competitive grants, affirmative action The concept of Pan-African Centres of Excellence: An example of the Nelson Mandela Institute of Science and Technology Agaba, M.* and Mwamila, B.L.M. The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology, Arusha Tanzania *Corresponding author: morris.agaba@nm-aist.ac.tz Abstract Africa is at the cusp of transfiguration many ways. With a youthful and growing population, and changing demographics particularly rapid urbanisation present bright opportunities and inherent challenges, not least is the need to provide abundant highly nutritious food from a limited resource base, and to compete effectively in a knowledge dominated global economy. Many of the challenges are trans-boundary, and so require a pan African effort for example through centres of excellence. The African Union has promoted creation of centres of excellence to address biosciences capacity as exemplified by the Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA-ILRI) hub. President Nelson Mandela, proposed the creation of Centres of Excellence in Science Technology and Innovation in Africa to address the human capital development gap that limits transformation and effective use of Africa’s resources. The proposal is now embodied in a network African Institutions of Science & Technology (AISTs) whose essence is value- addition to Human Capital and natural resources for the sustainable development of SSA. We present here once such centre; “The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology (NM-AIST) in Arusha, Tanzania. NM-AIST is a graduate only, research intensive institution, with a mission to transform education and research in Africa, and to contribute a cadre of highly competent, scientists, engineers and technoprenuers that will lead the transformation of Africa to competitive global player. Rural veterinary service delivery in Kenya - Challenges and prospects Adediran, S.A.1*, Odede, O.2, Muraguri, L.1, Tindih, H.1 and Nuru, H.1 1Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicines (GALVmed); 2Sidai Africa Ltd, Kenya *Corresponding author: niyi.adediran@galvemed.org Abstract Animal health service delivery has been liberalized in Kenya transferring most of the roles from the public veterinary department to the private sector consisting of private commercial animal health service and product providers and non-profit nongovernmental organizations. This transition is yet to be regulated. A significant proportion of livestock in Kenya is in rural areas and is kept by small-scale producers or pastoralist areas. The provision of animal health products and services to these areas is fraught with many challenges: poor infrastructure rendering areas virtually inaccessible, few or no qualified extension staff, periodic disease outbreaks and droughts, feed scarcity, poor access to markets, poor quality and counterfeit products, ill-timed deworming and vaccination campaigns and generally poorly developed service delivery systems all of which ultimately result in great losses of livestock. These problems are compounded by lack of proper disease control strategies. In most cases, interventions are by veterinary departments and non-governmental organizations and are characterized by free product issuance, ill-timed vaccinations, deworming exercises, and belated drought response strategies leading to a culture of over-dependency on aid. Insecurity of investment, uncertainty in policy direction and weak private sector involvement has denied the sector of the benefits of sustainable business models. In response to these challenges, innovative stakeholders are embracing progressive approaches to animal health product and service delivery to encourage a more pluralistic, business-oriented and demand-driven approach to providing support, products and services to livestock farmers in rural areas. GALVmed has been working with partners to promote sustainable veterinary practices and service delivery. ECF vaccination has been a very successful example of how well planned disease control strategies can be adopted by farmers as routine practice. This presentation shares insights on the GALVmed-Sidai Africa Limited partnership and more specifically, on the veterinary franchise model as a practical example of rural veterinary product and service delivery. It highlights the workings of a fee-based system where farmers are trained on the value of disease control and pay the full cost of vaccines and other products. The use of qualified professionals to manage the commercial outlets ensures quality advice, service and products are provided to farmers. This model ensures that resource constrained livestock farmers, even those in the most inaccessible areas, obtain quality products and services thus assuring sustainable access to animal health services for improved livelihoods. Application of the decent work concept in labour and employment conditions on smallholder dairy farms in Nakuru County, Kenya Ogola, T.D.O.1*, Lagat, J.K.1, Kosgey, I.S.2, Kaufmann, B.3 and Margarita, L.3 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115 Egerton, Kenya; 2Animal Breeding and Genetics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115 Egerton, Kenya; 3DITSL,Gmbh Witzenhausen, Federal Republic of Germany. *Corresponding author; ogolatdo@gmail.com Abstract Smallholder dairy farms constitute the overwhelming bulk of all dairy enterprises in Kenya. The concept of decent work involves four interlocking elements, namely; employment, rights at work, social protection and social dialogue. Although employment relations are governed by labour laws which have a basis on the decent work concept, a fundamental gap in our knowledge exists about the employment situation of smallholder dairy farm workers. Consequently, a study on small farms and individual rights is very timely and highly significant for sound policy formulation. Data was collected with the use of a questionnaire through a survey in Nakuru County of Kenya in four divisions selected purposively. Respondents were identified through snowballing, resulting to 123 respondents. SPSS version 17 software was used for data analysis to obtain descriptive and inferential statistics. Results indicate that labour management was highly informal, with many smallholder dairy farms unable to match the terms or benefits envisioned in the decent work concept such as minimum wage, health insurance and social security for their workers. Workers also seemed to lack a collective voice or have no choice. Social and economic factor caused shifts in the extent to which various indicators were taken up, thereby, playing a role in compliance. Some that were identified include factors like the farmer’s principal occupation, size of land and the number of animals kept, whether one was a domestic migrant or not, education level of worker and milk marketing channel. Adoption also seems to be constrained in part by lack of linkages between trade union, employers and employees. While some factors may be amenable to policy change, others require attitudinal change. It is recommended that education, institutional or legal assistance be instituted to drive compliance with the decent work concept. There is need to provide incentives to encourage the formalization of jobs and, inter alia, support the enforcement of rules and regulations by allocating greater resources to labour inspectorates. Additionally, there is need for consciousness, progressive and supportive system that should include but not limited to farm labour unions, community groups, and advocacy organizations to provide support for basic social services and social security institutions whilst at the same incorporate extension and marketing agencies to make farmers more productive. The study contributes to the literature of decent work for smallholder dairy farms by providing empirical evidence on the practice. Key words: Decent Work standards, Working conditions, Smallholder dairy farmers, Kenya Introduction The employment relationship is the key point of reference for determining the nature and extent of employers’ rights and obligations towards their workers (ILO, 2006). Employment status influences quality of work. In today's labour market, growth in employment has taken place more in the informal market (ILO, 2002). Informal sector work has often been considered of low quality and precarious in nature (ILO, 2013). Workers in informal employment earned less, had volatile incomes, lacked access to basic public services and protections, and faced higher risks of poverty compared to workers in formal employment, lacked access to modern capital markets, to formal training and to official social security systems, among other employment challenges (Chan, 2013). Labour relations where they exist in informal situations are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees (ILO, 1993). Over the last decade, concerns on the nature of employment in informal sector, has led to a focus to improve the informal nature of employment to formality. The International Labour Organization (ILO), being uniquely placed through its tripartite structure and mandate, has taken up this challenge through the concept of decent work (ILO, 2003). Decent work refers to opportunities to work in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity (ILO, 1999). The decent work agenda focuses on four inseparable, interrelated and mutually supportive objectives: employment – this considers employment opportunities, stability and security at work; rights – encompasses adequate earnings, decent hours, combining work and family life, work that should be abolished, equality, freedom from discrimination, freedom from forced labour, child labour, and social protection – social security safeguards income and underpins health (ILO, 2011). It includes aspects such as security of income, access to minimum health, means to meet emergencies and need include ill-health, maternity needs, accidents, unemployment and safe work environment. Finally is dialogue – which entails social dialogue, voice and representation, employers’ and workers’ representation, participation in workplace decision-making and collective bargaining, and participation by workers in employers’ and civil society organizations. Individual countries ratify ILO conventions while taking into consideration their own social economic political and legal considerations. Tripartism ensure ownership of strategies, stability of national policies and fairness at home and in relation with donors and international organizations (ILO, 2003). Decent work, therefore, applies not just to workers in the formal economy but also to unregulated wage workers, the self-employed and home workers (Ghai, 2003, ILO, 2010). The Government of Kenya has enacted new labour laws that domesticated ILO conventions on decent work, thereby, providing a clearer legislative framework on issues like employment contract, hours of work and so forth (GOK, 2007a,b,c,d,e). As far as informal employment is concerned in Kenya, farm workers comprise the largest single category of wage jobs because farming is the dominant way of life for much of the population (World Bank, 2012). A key subsector of livestock sector where farmworkers play a critical role in the country is dairy farming. Small- and medium-scale dairy farms dominate the industry and contribute 75% of milk produced (Ouma et al., 2007; FAO, 2011). Farmers account for most (87%) of employment at the farm-level (Ouma et al., 2007). According to FAO (2011) farm level dairy activities are estimated to generate a total of about 841,000 full-time jobs (585,000 for full- time hired workers and 256,000 for self-employed/farm owners) up from 365,000. It has not been established whether the enactment of legal laws on decent work basis has given impetus to decent work practices on farms. Besides, there have been relatively few attempts to systematically unravel the relationship between smallholder livestock farms and employment, and labour practices from a decent work perspective. It is not clear whether the employment status in small-scale dairy farms is found in common experience as created or developed contrary to regulation. Often, there exists a weakness in our knowledge of employers’ willingness to adhere to both established and new areas of regulation. The current study investigated individual employment rights (IERs) in smallholder dairy enterprises in Nakuru County of Kenya. Research methodology Through a cross-sectional survey, data was collected from smallholder dairy farms during the period 2013, covering 5 sub-Counties of in Nakuru County, namely; Njoro, Mau Narok, Elburgon, Mauche and Bahati. Due to lack of a sampling frame within the area of interest, snowballing was used to identify farmers with workers. Farms initially contacted were interviewed and asked for the names of other farms with workers who were then interviewed. A total sample of 123 farms was reached. Structured interview questionnaires were used to collect data, which was administered on the farm workers and their employers. The questionnaire was designed to collect information on farm, farmers, workers’ characteristics and decent work indicators, and the decent work indicators; employment opportunities, rights at work, social dialogue and social security. For the first indicator, the variables of interest were employment opportunities, stability and security at work. On rights at work, the questionnaire captured adequate earnings, decent hours, combining equality, discrimination, and forced and child labour. Regarding to social protection, affiliation to insurance and pension scheme was captured. Finally on social dialogue, voice and representation, employers’ and workers’ representation, participation by workers in employers’ and civil society organizations workplace decision-making and collective bargaining was collected. Interviews were conducted by trained enumerators. The data was subjected to both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. In this study The Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSSv17) software was used for data analysis to obtain descriptive statistics so as to describe the attributes of the study population. Results and discussion Demographic and social characteristics of farm workers Seventy eight per cent of the farms had one employee, 17.1 % had 2 and 3.4%, representing 3 and 4 workers. Majority of the workers (85.4%) were male. Most (58.2%) of them were married and, together with singles (39.3%), formed the bulk of farm workers. The average age of the workers was 31.7 years. There was a distinctive concentration of farm workers in the age band of 19-35 years (69.1%) representing the youth. Full and productive employment Less than 13.0% of the employees had a written contract while most (85.4%) had an oral contract. Majority of the workers stated that contracts at the point of discussion were not detailed as they seemed to address only workers’ personal details and wages but avoided most other facts. A small number of workers (1.6%) were employed on a seasonal or casual basis. Rights at work Wages The current minimum wage was Kenya Shillings (Kes) 4,918 equivalent to Kes 208 per day for a farm employee in the rural areas. The most commonly reported wage was Kes 3,000 as reported by 24.8% of the workers. Based on the current minimum wage, 65% of the respondents were being paid below the recommended minimum. Using the median paid and comparing this to the absolute poverty line, employees earned two times the level of the rural poverty line. Therefore, while employment in dairy farming may not provide adequate income, it can help to some extent in cushioning the employee from economic challenges. There was a difference between workers level of education and amount the worker was paid. The effect of education was significant, (F4, 112 = 2.26, P = .067). Results indicated that the workers with university level of education were paid an average of Kes 8,750 (SD = 7,805); secondary level of education, Kes 5,039 (SD = 3747); vocational level Kes 4500 (SD = 4,822); primary level Kes 4,276 (SD = 2,238): no schooling Kes 4,063 (SD = 2528). Domestic migrants reported statistically lower wages (M = 3,983, SD = 1488) than did non-migrants (M = 4979, SD =3633), t(111.32) = 2.08, p = 0.04. There was marginal significant differences on average wages between workers taking part in decision making over those who did not F(3,110) = 2.197, p = 0.94. Essentially, this pointed out that employment relation may play a significant role with regards to whether salary was paid below or above the statutory minimum. Generally, amount of wages paid out increased with increasing income from the dairy enterprise. This was significantly difference at F (3,113) = 3.375, p = .021 with respect to income from livestock. Low income group may not be able to retain good and highly educated workers since they may be unable to match their terms. Large farms paid higher wages (M=6100, SD=4508) than smaller farms (M=3763, SD=1326), t(46.7)=-3.316, p<.002). Farmers who had slightly more animals (M = 5, SD = 3) were also able to pay better wages than those with a low number of animals (M = 1, SD = .7). These wages were (M = 6159, SD = 4899) and (M = 3911, SD =1324), t (test<0.01). Working hours Working time, combining work, family and personal time, annual leave and working on holidays On average, employees worked for slightly over 8.7 hours a day. Only 37.3% farms exceeded the threshold of 45 hours per week by between one to six hours. It is noted that for married farmers, workers spent significantly more hours (M=8.81, SD=1.62) than either worker who worked for widowed (M=8.25, SD=0.45) or single (M=7.67, SD=0.5). Married farmers were likely to be under pressure to produce more, not only for family consumption but also for sale. The desire to produce more could lead to longer working hours. Employees working hours differed by the market channel (t(22.94) = 7.98, P= 0.01), with those in the informal channel spending more hours than formal. This is likely as marketing in formal channel is done through established collection points unlike informal. There was significant effect for herd composition, with crosses requiring more labour hours (M = 8.41, SD = 1.33) than exotics (M = 8.87, SD = 1.62; t(118), P = 0.098). Working beyond the statutory minimum could, therefore, be as a result of the imperatives of the dairy enterprise. The proportion of workers with weekly rest periods was high at about 79.0%, with only 21.6% working beyond the recommended 6 days. Only 74.3% farm workers had leave facilities. Employees and days worked and work that should be abolished; Respondents aged 19 to 35 worked fewer days, averaging (M = 5.97, SD = 0.07) compared to above 6 for all other age groups of workers (F3, 103 = 4.19, p = 0.08). Females reported working on average significantly more days (M = 6.56, SD = 0.51) than men (M = 5.98, SD = 0.58), (t105= -3.67, P < 0.001). Only three workers were below the minimum age for hazardous work representing 2.4% of the farm workers interviewed. Occupational safety and health and social security protection Most workers (82%) made own provisions to protective equipment. Only 30.1% of the workers had attended training to ensure health and safety at work. About 46% of farm workers alluded to a health related issue sustained in the course of their work. The nature of injuries was not fatal, and related to cuts and wounds. None of the farm owners made any contribution to a social security scheme on behalf of their workers. Only 32.5% had affordable health insurance coverage. Many workers related non-contribution to uncertainty in employment. Social dialogue and employers’ and workers’ representation None of the respondents belonged to any union. All of them were unable to identify the union that represented agriculture workers, KPAWU (Kenya Plantation and Agriculture Workers Union). Membership to KPAWU was not limited to permanent workers but could extend even to non-permanent workers (Dolan, 2004). Conclusions The analysis in this study was built upon a decent work conceptual approach. The findings suggest that smallholder farms made a contribution to creating employment. Formal employment contracts are rare in the sector, and where work agreements do exist, key provisions in standard employment agreements are often absent. Low pay was a systemic problem across the sector, and workers rarely received employment benefits like health insurance or social security. It was evident that salaries provided workers with economic relief. Farm work can also be hazardous, and workers faced risks of exposure to chemicals as well as workplace injuries. Generally, aspects of decent work concept with the lowest uptake included social dialogue (100%), social security (health 67.5% + pension 100%) and wages (65,0%). Educational level of worker, whether a worker was a migrant or not also had an effect on the worker’s terms of employment. Further, economic conditions seemed to play a major role in the uptake of the decent work concept. Overall, farmer’s uptake of decent working codes followed a stepwise approach. This inferred that education or awareness campaigns were relevant to drive compliance. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the German Academic Exchange Service, i.e., Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD), in conducting the research. We are also thankful to staff Egerton University (Njoro, Kenya), Kassel University (Kassel, Germany) and Faislabad University (Faisalabad, Pakistan) for their support and moral advice to conduct the study. Thanks to the respondents for their cooperation during data collection. References Chan, M., 2013. Informal workers in the global horticulture and commodities value chains: A review of literature. Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing, Working Paper No 28. Chen, M.A., 2012. The Informal Economy: Definitions, Theories and Policies WIEGO. FAO, 2011. Dairy Development in Kenya. In: H. G. Muriuki (Ed.), FAO, Rome, Italy. Ghai, D., 2003. Decent work: concept and indicators. International Labour Review, 142(2). GOK, 2007a. Employment Act 2007. [Online] Available: kenyalaw.org (27th July, 2014). GOK, 2007b. Labour Institutions Act 2007. [Online] Available: kenyalaw.org (27th July, 2014). GOK, 2007c. Labour Relations Act 2007. [Online] Available: kenyalaw.org (27th July, 2014). GOK, 2007d. Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007. [Online] Available: kenyalaw.org (27th July, 2014). GOK, 2007e. Work Injury Benefits Act 2007. [Online] Available: kenyalaw.org (27th July, 2014). ILO, 1993. Resolution Concerning Statistics of Employment in the Informal Sector, Adopted by the Fifteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians. In: Fifteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians, 19-28 January 1993, ILO Geneva, Switzerland. ILO, 1999. Decent Work. Report of the Director General. International Labour Conference, 87th Session, International Labour Office Geneva, Switzerland. ILO, 2002. Decent Work and the Informal Economy. Report of the Director General, International Labour Conference, 90thSession, International Labour Office Geneva. Switzerland. ILO, 2003. Working Out of Poverty. Report of the Director-General, International Labour Conference, 91st Session, Geneva, Switzerland. ILO, 2006. Sector Note Decent Work in Agriculture. ILO, 2010. Extending the scope of application of labour laws to the informal economy digest of comments of the ILO’s supervisory bodies related to the informal economy. ILO, 2011. Decent work and poverty reduction. In: The Doha Forum for Decent Work held on 25th to 26th October, 2011, pp. 220 ILO, 2013. Measuring Informality: A Statistical Manual on the Informal Sector and Informal Employment. Ouma, R., Njoroge, L., Romney, D., Ochungo, P., Staal, S., & Baltenweck, I., 2007. Targeting Dairy Interventions in Kenya: A Guide for Development Planners, Researchers and Extension Workers. SDP/KDDP, Nairobi, Kenya. 50 pp. World Bank, 2012. Kenya at Work. Energizing the Economy and Creating Jobs. The World Bank, Washington D.C, USA. Available atwww.worldbank.org/kenya/keu (accessed on 3rd October, 2013). Sub-theme 5: Youth: The Future Hope? Agriculture transformation Agenda: Unlocking Agri-business opportunities for Youth Simalenga, T.E. Centre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and development for Southern Africa (CCARDESA). P/Bag 00357, Gaborone, Botswana. Corresponding address: tsimalenga@ccardesa.org Abstract Two out of three inhabitants of sub Saharan Africa are under the age of 25. It has been estimated that about forty percent (40%) of the total unemployed are youth and majority of them, 70%, live in rural areas. For those that are employed, low productivity, underemployment and meagre earnings characterise their agricultural profile. Agriculture remains a key driving force for economic development in the SADC region in which most inhabitants rely on agriculture directly or indirectly as their main source of livelihood. It remains the primary source of subsistence, employment and income for 61%, or 142 million of the region’s total population of 232 million. Agriculture accounts for close to 8% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP). Despite the importance of the sector in SADC’s economy, agricultural growth rates have been both low and highly variable across the region, averaging only 2.6% per annum in the last decade. Between 1960 and 2005, net per capita agricultural production decreased by about 40%. This suggests that agricultural production has not kept pace with population growth in the region. Youth unemployment is one of the major problems countries of the SADC are facing. Very limited gains have been achieved in addressing this challenge. The number of unemployed youths that are also out of school and not in any formal training or skills development programmes continues to rise. In response to this growing challenge, governments of SADC and civil society organizations have put in place programmes and projects that have to date achieved limited progress in sustainably addressing the challenge. Unlocking business opportunities in Agriculture will provide an opportunity for addressing this challenge. The paper highlights key areas which can stimulate business in agriculture for youth. These include: a) Provide support to the youths to establish and manage agribusinesses along the commodity value chains b) Support the development and implementation of ICT solutions for Agriculture markets c) Business opportunities in areas of renewable energy, green e-farming and mechanized agriculture d) Partner with private sector and support agricultural training institutions in the region to review training models and develop innovative skills training programmes and provision that meets the needs of the youths in modern economies of the region. Youth and Animal Farming – Landless Monogastric Farming to the Rescue? Charagu, P.K. Hypor Inc., A Hendrix Genetics Company Corresponding address; Patrick.charagu@hendrix-genetics.com Abstract The narrative regarding the farming community in Africa, and indeed all over the world, is that the average age of the farmer is getting higher and higher. The major cause is seen to be that young people are turning their backs on both farming and the rural community. The age-old questions that arise are what the barriers to entry are, and what could be done to encourage and incentivise the youth into animal farming in Africa. Some of the causes that have been identified and postulated are such as the prohibitive financial and land resources needed to make entry and the small financial reward to the inevitable hard work. Another is the lack of markets or access to markets. We offer that one of the solutions that could help on this journey of harnessing the youth in livestock farming in Africa is the concept of land-less monogastric system of livestock production. While not new it is less practised in Africa compared to the other regions. It’s effective use and success must be accompanied by the use of appropriate breeds and strains, feed quantity and quality, housing and disease control, as well as assured markets both at home and abroad. The need for resources can be less compared to large ruminant production in that one can start small and expand over time as circumstances permit. Monogastric farming tends to have quicker cash flow and hence gives opportunity for one to sustain themselves while pursuing expansion of the enterprise. Climate change and the choice of poultry production for youth entrepreneurship and food security in Tropical Africa Ahiwe, E.U., Emenalom, O.O. Etuk, E.B. and Uchegbu, M.C. Department of Animal Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 1526, Owerri, Nigeria. *Corresponding author: mannyahisco@yahoo.co.uk Abstract Facts on climate change and the choice of poultry production for youth entrepreneurship and food security in tropical Africa were reviewed. Climate change and animal production have always had a negative impact on each other, with livestock production accounting for about 18% anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in form of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) which is emitted when animals respire. On the other hand, the effect of climate change and global warming on livestock and crop production is on the increase and will continue to increase with the high rate of man’s industrial activity if not checked. In tropical Africa, there is an increasing demand for animal protein because of high increase in population and this is projected to double by the year 2050. To meet up with this increase in demand, various grass root or rural agricultural and youth entrepreneurship involvement is needed to ensure food security come 2050. However, this agricultural revolution will have great challenge on the environment because of the high rate of climate change that goes with industrialization and agriculture. Because poultry has low global warming potential, it has an advantage over other livestock. Poultry has lower GHG emission due to its low enteric methane production rates than ruminant livestock species. Poultry is cheap, readily marketable and nutritious; it can generate investment opportunity for teeming tropical African youths and rural populace. It is therefore concluded that to meet up with the ever increasing demand for animal protein and the need to achieve food security, various government agencies, banks, private sectors, civil society, rural co-operative societies, youth agencies in tropical Africa with the assistance of various international donor agencies can collaborate and play a more facilitating role through giving of loans, grants and adequate extension services to ensure that food security and youth empowerment is achieved within a friendly environment through profitable commercial poultry production. Keywords: climate change,entrepreneurship,food security, poultry production, youth. Introduction The issues of climate change have become very threatening not only to sustainable development of socio – economic and agricultural activities in Tropical African countries but also to the totality of human existence (Adejuwon et al, 2004). Climate change is considered to be the average pattern of weather in an area over a relative long period of time (IIPC, 2007). It is also defined as a change that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable period of time (UN,2007). United Nations framework report on climate change in 2007vividly elucidated that greenhouse gases(GHG) emission is increasing with negative impact on the environment and people. Many countries in Tropical Africa are expected to be more vulnerable to global warming (Mendesohn et al, 2000). Several Agricultural activities as well as man’s industrial activities have led to climate change and global warming which has seriouslyaffected the land and the cultivation of various crops such as cereal grains and legumes resulting in food-feed competition between human and animals for available feed materials(Mendesohn et al, 2000).According to FAO, 2007 report, livestock accounts for about 18% GHG emission in form of carbon dioxide,nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) which are emitted duringrespiration and manure production.The contribution of livestock to global greenhouse gas emission is quite significant with cattle,sheep,pig and poultry producing 180kg,8kg,1.5kg and 0.015kg methane emission per year respectively (WFC, 2014). Other agricultural activities such as deforestation bush clearing and machine intensive farming methods also contributes to the increase of carbon concentration with a corresponding increase in global warming (vermeulen,2012). World metrological organization in 1997 reported that various industrial activities such as burning of coal, oil and gas flaring are altering the composition of the atmosphere and contributing to climate change.Carbon dioxide is produced when coal, oil, and natural gas (fossil fuels) are burned to produce energy used for transportation, manufacturing, heating, cooling, electricity generation, and other applications. The use of fossil fuel currently accounts for 80 to 85% of the carbon dioxide being added to the atmosphere (WMO, 1997). It becomes imperative to source for human activities that will cause minimal negative effect on the Tropical African environment. Poultry production is one of such human activity.Poultry due to its low global warming potential has advantages over other livestock and most industrial activities(WFC 2014). Poultry can be reared intensively thereby devoiding any environmental stimuli and tend to produce more manure that can be used as fertilizer on nearby cropland (FAO, 2010). Poultry Production remains the backbone of most tropical African economies(Hussein et al, 2008). However, by-product from intensive poultry production if not properly handled, will be the concern and exacerbate the environmental problem (FAO, 2011). Poultry product is cheap, nutritious, readily marketable, and can generate Job/ investment opportunity for many teeming African youths and rural populace in Tropical Africa(UNECA, 2011).Therefore the objective of this review is to briefly discussClimate change and the choice of Poultry Production for youth entrepreneurship and food security in Tropical Africa. Impact of climate change in Tropical Africa. Climate change is a change in variables (Rosenzweig et al., 1993) that is a threat to the sustainable growth and development of the world, particularly for Tropical Africa (APF, 2007).Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to climate variability and change because of multiple existing stresses and low adaptive capacity(Salvador et al, 2004). Existing stresses include poverty, political conflicts, and ecosystem degradation.By 2050, between 350 million and 600 million people are projected to experience increased water stress due to climate change(Adejuwon et al, 2004).Climate variability and change is projected to severely compromise agricultural production, including access to food, in many African countries and regions.Toward the end of the 21st century, projected sea level rise will likely affect low-lying coastal areas with large populations(Adejuwon et al, 2004).Climate variability and change can negatively impact human health in Tropical Africa(Salvador et al, 2004). Climate change expressed as increased global average temperature is very likely due to increased concentrations of GHG in the atmosphere with origin from human activities (anthropogenic) since the mid-20th century. Correspondingly, continued or increased GHG emissions will cause further warming and it is very likely that larger changes in the global climate system than the ones observed until now will occur. FAO, 2007 reports that Extreme weather events such as droughts and floods are expected, increasing sea levels are likely, as well as higher average temperatures, deforestation, desertification, reduced animal and crop performance as well as coastal erosion. One of the main pathways taken to reduce the problem with climate change is to reduce GHG emission(FAO, 2007). Interrelationship between climate change and livestock production. There is a negative co relationship between climate change and livestock production (Olanrewaju etal,2010). According to report by (Mendelsohn, 2009), livestock are adversely affected by climate change through the following ways:  Low livestock productivity and high production cost: Climate change will affect livestock productivity directly by influencing the balance between heat dissipation and heat production and indirectly through its effect on the availability of feed and fodder.  Climate change is likely to cause the manifestation of vector and vector borne diseases, where an increase in temperature and humidity will create ideal conditions for malaria, sleeping sickness and other infectious diseases.  An increase in temperature and a change in the climate throughout the continent are predicted to cause recurrent droughts in most of the region which will cause dehydration and death of livestock animals. The FAO in 2007 projected that the number of livestock worldwide will double, so livestock-related GHG emissions would also approximately double.with livestock production accounting for about 18% anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in form of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) which are emitted when animals respire.(FAO,2007). As a result, a significant reduction in livestock raised worldwide would reduce GHGs relatively quickly. However this is not possible because Agriculture and livestock rearing are source of livelihood to the majority of the population in Tropical Africa(Hussein et al, 2008). The utmost concern should therefore be a better understanding of the potential impact of the current and projected climate changes on African agriculture and to identify ways and means to adapt and mitigate its detrimental impact(FAO, 2007). Choice of Poultry Production. Income improvements, increase in population and protein demands will pose a challenge to the environment (FAO, 2011; Mitloehner, 2010; FAO, 2009). However, this demand will desire for future growth of the poultry industry (Daghir, 2009; Dave, 2007; Abedullah and Maqbool, 2007).Because poultry have lower greenhouse gas emissions due to their lower enteric methane production rates than ruminant livestock species, Poultryindustry has advantage over other livestock industries because of its low global warming potential, ease toestablish, fast rate of income return, no-taboos and high nutritive values (FAO, 2010; Costa, 2009; Daghir, 2009; FAO, 2009). The involvement/entrepreneurship of youths in poultry production, the way forward. ‘Youths’ are defined as those between 15-24 years of age(UNECA,2009).For the purpose of this paper however, a ‘youth’ is defined as any person aged between 15-35 years of age. Sub-Saharan Africahas the fastest population growth projected between now and 2050 and the highest youth population in the world (UNECA,2011).It is crucial that governments factor this 'youth bulge' into national and social development planning.Despite the potential benefits of entrepreneurship, especially youth entrepreneurship, many sectors, including some members of the education system and the private sector, have failed to recognize its importance(ILO, 2010).Available data show that in recent years self-employment has emerged as an important source of employment, livelihoods, empowerment and economic dynamism in both developed and developing countries(ILO,2010).A sure way to help curb this youth unemployment issue that is threaten the peace and national security in various tropical African countries is adequate skill acquisition in poultry production(ILO, 2010).According to Kekeocha (1998), poultry render economic services to mankind. Poultry birds scientifically known as Gallus gallusreproduces freely under man’s care (Smith, 1990).The economic services rendered to mankind by Poultry includes its low GHG emission which can reduce issues relating to climate change, it’s use as source of meat and eggs as food; its droppings (faeces) for manure in crop-production and as feed for fish in aquaculture; the feathers and bones for ornamentals and decorative; the offal, meat and bones are also used in production of some animal- feeds and/foods ( Elenwo and Okafor-Elenwo, 2013). Compared to a number of other livestock species like cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and rabbits, poultry is easier to rear, less-laborious to cater-for and financially less expensive to maintain( Elenwo and Okafor-Elenwo, 2013). Poultry has fast- growth and high financial-returns; with few social, health and religious taboos against its consumption, usage and production than the aforementioned animals (Job, 1992). Kekeocha (1998) reported that poultry production is less-demanding for space as it can be done in relatively small spaces such as the backyard and wooden-cages (especially in vertical-tiers) making it suitable for youth involvement. Involvement of government, civil society, banks, international bodies to ensure food security come 2050. In most African countries,youth restiveness is becoming a common experience and this is expected to worsen come 2050 (Oluwale, 2013).African youths are industrious and productive yet 65% of these youths are unemployed.It becomes imperative for government,banks and various stakeholders to engage most unemployed youths in gainful activities such asfunding and training them in poultry production.in the past few years, various African countries through the backing of their government have organized programs such as Yes Youth Can (YYC),Agribusiness Development Program,(ADP), The smallholder poultry agribusiness Development (SPADE), African Development Bank (ADP), International fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD), Alliance for a green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), Bill and Melinda Gates foundation and various banks that have interest in giving low interest loans to various youths In tropical Africa. These governmental and non- governmentalagencies are the reasons behind the commendable progress in these past few years. However a lot still has to be done to ensure that more jobs are created to match the ever increase youth population in Tropical Africa(UN,2010). Meeting the food security target through poultry production Around 60 developing countries worldwide have already met the hunger - reduction target outlined by millennium development goal number one, to halve the proportion of chronically hungry people between 1990 and 2015.In Africa, the countries include Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Libya, Malawi, Niger, Nigeria,South Africa, Togo, Tunisia(FAO,2014). However a lot is still left to be done in other to achieve the ultimate goal for attaining food security come 2050 because in Tropical Africa, climate change will have negative impacts on the food security (Heather et al., 2010) of the people. Youth involvement is a major route of attaining this set goal because getting more African youth involved in poultry production will be pivotal to improving food security and economic well – being in the years to come.(FAO, 2014). Conclusion It is therefore concluded that poultry production can be a sure way to reduce greenhouse emission and thereby reduce the problem of climate change in Tropical Africa, poultry production can also be a vehicle that will aid reduce youth restiveness, produce youths that are job creators as well as ensure food security that will commensurate the ever increasing Tropical African population that is projected to double come 2050. Recommendation We thereforerecommended that government and private agencies in various Tropical African countries should adopt a more aggressive grass root approach in training, funding and setting up of monitoring committee for funds set aside for youth in setting up poultry farms. In the same vain honesty and patriotism on the part of our leaders in effectively disbursing these funds to well-trained deserving youths will lead to attaining this laudable crusade in various Tropical countries in Africa. Reference Abedullah, A. Maqbool and K. Bakhsh, 2007. Issues and economics of poultry production: A case study of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Pak. Vet. J., 27: 25-28. Adejuwon SA (2004). Impact of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Crop Yield in Nigeria, A Paper Presented at the Stakeholders Workshop on Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to Climate Change (AIACC), 2004: 2-8). APF, 2007. Climate change and Africa. Proceedings of the 8th Meeting of the Africa Partnership Forum, May 22-23, 2007, Berlin, Germany, Pp: 1-28. Costa, N.D., 2009. Climate change: Implications for water utilization in animal agriculture and poultry, in particular. Proceedings of the 20th Annual Australian Poultry Science Symposium, February 9-11, 2009, University of Sydney, Australia. 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Innovative application of mobile based technologies geared towards improving information exchange between researchers, extension services and farmers: A case of mobile based extension services and a farmer centric recording and feedback platform Akuku, B.O.1* and Kihara, A.2 1Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) headquarters, P.O Box 57811 00200, Nairobi; 2International Livestock Research Institute *corresponding author:bonface.akuku@kalro.org Abstract The small scale holder farmer faces a myriad of challenges in their day to day activities. The challenges range from lack of suitable breeds for their farming system to trouble accessing markets for their milk and meat. A common aspect of these challenges is access to relevant and actionable information. Access to accurate, timely and actionable information can make a big difference in the livelihoods of farmers. For example, reports indicate that farmers who use the iCow ITC platform recorded a 56% increase in milk production while Kilimo Salama another platform has enabled smallholder farmers to significantly increase their farm incomes. Mobile telephony, with a penetration above 80% is currently the most accessible technology in Africa, and this is rising. The price of smart phones has plummeted in the last 5 years making the smart phone and the mobile phone in general increasingly accessible to all including the low income population. It is therefore a need to develop innovative mobile phone-based platforms for the small scale farmer to remit and access valuable information to and from the research community on a near real time basis. The Virtual Agricultural Community (VAC) is an intelligent platform which aims at providing agricultural extension services through the mobile phone. Using an interactive voice response (IVR), the VAC platform aims at delivering research content and general information to the farmers by using a dial in service. The farmer would dial a specific number and will be automatically guided to different information using a prompt menu. This way the VAC is used as a medium to offer refresher tips to the farmers and possible solutions to their everyday questions. Most importantly, it can be used as a linkage platform where farmers can be referred to a practicing extension officer who can offer more advice and help if need be. High quality data is paramount in any research setting and the effects of working with bad data is catastrophic. To address the issue of high quality data capture and feedback of results, has been developed by the International livestock research Institute (ILRI has developed a real time recording and feedback system-the Ng'ombe Planner, which rides on the high penetration of mobile phones. Using the USSD protocol (an Okoa Jahazi like system). Ng'ombe Planner is a platform where farmers can record their day to day activities that take place in the farm, eg. milk records, calving events, deaths, diseases, preventive and curative activities, etc. Ng'ombe planner is accessible from any mobile phone by dialing a short code *384*4# or *384*4564# or by using an android or java application which can run on mid to high end devices. It is an interactive platform where the farmers choose the information to record or access. In addition, the farmers receive alerts and notifications on livestock keeping best practices. In cases of sickness reports, a practicing vet is notified to attend to the sick animal. Ngo'mbe planner is currentely being pilot tested in Kenya's western and Rift Valley regions. Improving Opportunities for Decent Youth Employment in Animal Agriculture in Africa Tibbo, M. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Corresponding address: markos.tibbo@fao.org Abstract With over 200 million people aged between 15-24 years, Africa has the youngest global population. Sixty-two percent of its population are under 25 years of age and estimated 11 million young Africans will join labour force every year for the next decade. Over 50-70% of them rely on agriculture for food, nutrition and employment. Youth unemployment and underemployment are major concerns facing Africa. Only 15% of youth have access to wage employment in most African countries. Agriculture remains the principal employer and producer in Africa. A profitable agriculture sector can create significant employment opportunities for the youth. Eight-five percent of rural households in Africa depend on Animal Agriculture. The subsector offers real opportunity as it contributes 40% of agricultural GDP in most African countries. Estimates of milk production (in tons) in 2000 and 2012 has increased from 14.5 to 25.8 million, egg from 1.2 to 1.9 million, meat from 7.8 to 11.6 million, respectively. Respectively, estimated consumption increase by 2030 for milk, egg and meat will be 107, 155, and 170 percent. Creating opportunities for decent employment for African youth along the whole livestock value chain – feed, breeding, veterinary services, fattening, marketing, product processing – by making young women and men as explicit target groups in policies, strategies, and programmes. Addressing key constraints such as access to productive assets, land, markets, capital and skills would be essential. Research should be conducted to advise policy makers by generating evidence on youth employment in the sector. Actions should target adapting existing education, training, and extension services to the needs of the young men and women. Proven methodologies such as farmer field schools, community-based animal health workers, etc. can be used for on-the-ground capacity building and outreach approaches. Support should be provided for youth focusing on inclusive SME’s by creating an enabling environment for small business in the sub-sector. Increasing information and knowledge sharing, and networking among and within countries in shared production systems with high potential for transferability of experiences are paramount importance. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) Attracts Youth into Profitable Agriculture in Kenya Irungu, R.*, Mbugua, D. and Muia, J. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 25 20117, Naivasha, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. *Corresponding author: robertirungu@gmail.com Youth cherish technology, efficiency and innovations and accommodate entrepreneurial risks. The study documented examples of profitable use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in agriculture among youth in Kenya, assessed ICTs use and commonly used tools, documented challenges, benefits and impacts and suggested future ICTs use. Profitable ICTs were exemplified by 'Mkulima Young Champions' who lead in digital initiatives, drew youth into farming, helped them learn among themselves, traded and overcame agricultural challenges. Using radio, SMS and social media, they discussed agricultural topics and shared successes. Mkulima Young's Facebook, was vibrant where youth posted photos and videos, asked questions, discussed issues and interacted. Most youth obtained information from internet hence internet was best platforms to market and promote agriculture to youth. They used internet and social media to obtain information. Most commonly used tools were MS Office and spread sheet in records keeping. Voice messages and SMS assisted timely accessing market prices, reaching clients, sharing production information and money transactions. The ICTs content should be relevant to targeted youth, valuable, localized and dependable. ICTs savvy youth operated intensive, efficient and profitable farms, producing diverse and branded products for niche markets. These youth transformed the community use and access to ICTs and influenced community economic status. Smart phone technology will revolutionize access and use of ICTs and fiber optic cable installation increased bandwidth and coverage, stimulating ICTs use among the youth. You Tube, Twitter and WhatsApp should be expanded and widely popularized among youth. The role of intergenerational learning in Africa's agricultural systems Mwaura, G.M.* and Achieng, L. University of Oxford, School of Geography & Environment. *Corresponding author: grace.mwaura@st-hildas.ox.ac.uk Abstract To transform the face of African agriculture, there is need to heighten the adoption of innovations and scaling up of sustainable agricultural practices which will lead to increased productivity, food security and inclusive growth. However, the adoption of such innovations seems to be declining among the ageing African farmers. It is therefore prudent to shed more light on the young prospective African farmers, who are more adoptive of new technologies, are risk takers and innovative in their everyday life. Furthermore, the African youth are now, as most authors claim, the hope for food security in Africa. Nevertheless, the possibility of intergenerational learning between the older and the young farmers cannot be completely ruled out, simply because the former, practice the traditional agricultural methods which are not preferred and perceived as unattractive to the youth. Based on field visits and interviews conducted with young farmers in Eastern, Western and Central regions of Kenya, between March and May 2014, we found instances where the young farmers learnt from the old farmers and vice versa. This paper uses these cases to explore such intergenerational learning opportunities and their possible impacts on the agricultural sector and on the various generations of farmers in Africa. Our findings indicate the increasing potential in enhancing intergenerational learning opportunities to increase adoption of agricultural innovations, increase productivity, and provide Africa’s future agricultural sector a youthful face. Keywords: Youth, Agriculture, Intergenerational learning, Africa Introduction Agriculture is a major economic activity and the primary occupation and lifestyle for the majority of the citizens living in rural Africa. A majority of these are the old, rural, women, averaging at 50 years and uneducated youth unable to migrate to urban areas. On the other hand, Africa has vast productive land, the labour force, and favourable weather conditions yet is unable to feed its population. New research indicates that most of the ageing population farm for subsistence purposes, thus limited technology transfer and uptake in the farming practices which brings out the difference between farming in Europe and in Africa (Elgar, 2013). Subsistence farming means that most smallholder farmers do not do so with an entrepreneurial plan in mind. Where subsistence production leads to surplus, it is sold in markets, and when the markets are flooded, the farmers incur huge losses due to lack of post-harvest techniques and skills at the smallholder farm level. It is therefore necessary to transform African agriculture by embracing innovations and new technologies and to start viewing agriculture as an agribusiness. Skills, capacities, new partners, and farmers are required to make this happen. The current generation of farmers, it is evident, is slow in adopting new agricultural technologies and changing their attitude on agriculture as a business and not a task for the rural poor. The task of feeding Africa and the rest of the world, is therefore, inevitably placed in the hands of the growing African youth population. Africa is young with almost 50% of this population being young under the age of 24 years. Of these a majority, 35 per cent are unemployed (Waikenda, 2014). They are seen as more innovative, risk takers, adaptive to change and more energetic as compared to their older counterparts. They are a risk, yet an opportunity for Africa. Research purpose and aim The aim of this paper to provide cases where intergenerational learning, knowledge sharing, and partnerships could effectively influence successful and sustainable agribusinesses between young and older people in their family and community. Intergenerational learning in this paper is defined as the transfer of knowledge from one generation to another, in this case, from the old to the young farmers and vice versa, which leads to a transformation in way of doing things. While there exists a narrative of disconnection of youth from agriculture, we argue that intergenerational learning and partnerships could be a bridge in enabling young people join the agricultural sector, while allowing the older farmers to learn from young people’s innovations and technology use. Those advocating for the transformation of African agriculture believe that the young people, particularly because of their numbers and their unemployed status, are the future of Africa’s agriculture sector. However, for their effective engagement in the sector, there is need to intervene in the hierarchical relationships often found among farming families inhibiting young people from becoming successful investors in the agricultural sector. Methods This paper is based on doctoral work researching ‘Youth, Livelihoods, and Politics in Africa’, with a particular focus on youth and agriculture in Kenya. Field visits and interviews were conducted with educated young farmers and older farmers and have been augmented with secondary data and key informant interviews. Intergenerationality was considered based on how older people were involved (or not involved) in the initial stages of shaping the young person’s career, starting up the agribusiness and in continued support and advice to the young farmers. We also considered the aspects of children involvement in family farms. Intergenerationality became evident particularly when young people were making decisions on career choices, acquiring land for their agribusinesses, acquiring capital, and in other cases in providing practical training on some of the farming practices. In the following sections, we first discuss how the young learnt from and shared with the old. The following we tackle cases of old learning and sharing from the young, including in the transfer of technologies. The paper then makes conclusions and recommendations for this conference’s considerations. Young learning from the old The dignity of labour Farming is as dignified as office work. It is important for the young generation to understand that all types of work should be respected and that no occupation should be considered more superior than the other should, which is the dignity of labour. Once this concept has been clearly understood, there will be high possibilities of eradicating the negative perception about agriculture among the youth. Previous arguments on the perceptions of agriculture support its lack of lustre as a white collar job. It is the activity of the rural and hopeless poor with no other alternatives to earn a livelihood. This makes most young people loose respect for the sector at whatever level. Yet, as Margaret Njoroge, 55, argued, agriculture is equally dignified work for its major contribution to countries’ economies, family livelihoods, and human wellbeing; a lesson for young people to learn from the old. “….In that training which we are suggesting, even other farmers and older people than us can come and talk to the youth and show them the dignity of labour, the importance of farming and why it is important to feed yourself then you can sell the surplus…” Margaret Njoroge, 55 years, Embu County Young people, even those trained in agriculture avoid getting involved for fear of being perceived as poor and desperate. If agricultural transformation is to be achieved, there need to be a change in how we view the sector. Current efforts to publicize proud young farmers have been assisting in giving dignity to youth agriculture like those of Mkulima Young, Seeds of Gold, and Mkulima Ni Ujuzi among others. Traditional and sustainable farming practices The application of indigenous knowledge and practices and the growing of indigenous crops are all linked to the older generation of farmers and are largely suitable for sustainable agricultural practices. As evidenced in the field, most of the older farmers used organic manure reducing soil degradation and increasing its productive capability. On the other hand, interview young farmers were more familiar with inorganic fertilizers and had little information on the potential damage to the soil. They also largely grow exotic fast growing crops which require more water and inputs to grow. Lessons learnt from the old included mixed farming practices, crop rotation, mulching, rain water harvesting techniques, cross-breeding, and use of organic pesticides and insecticides among others. In animal husbandry, young farmers learnt how to identify early stages of sickness among their animals, how to handle the reproductive health of their animals in a traditional and productive way as well as in maximising on local feeds that increase meat and milk quality. Persistence and Resilience of farmers Young people have a lot to learn from older farmers on persistence and resilient. Despite numerous failed seasons, most old farmers will plant year after year- they do not give up on their only source of livelihood. Young people learn how to be persistent on the farm- but in addition could do so while looking for opportunities to manage the risks involved. This is an important aspect that could lead to sustainability in agribusiness among the youth. Being given the clear facts by their older counterparts of the difficult situations that may be accompanied by their farming projects and that the key is not in giving up but in persistence. Rogers Kaleve for instance, after observing his father in his childhood who tried to grow trees on the farm year after year with no success is one such learning opportunity. He quit his teaching career and dedicated his time to learning and practising tree farming- agroforestry- on his family land in Kitui. He has not only planted agroforestry trees for timber, fodder, and fuel, he has also planted a fruit orchard which he is able to maintain with rain water harvested from run-off. His tree farming first failed, but he has kept trying until now when he is reaping from his fruit and fodder trees. Old learning from the young Depending on the community’s perception in the value of the young farmers’ contribution in agriculture, the older farmers also learn a lot from the young given that they are educated and have the potential of aiding them with the challenges that they face on and off farm. Some of the things that the old could learn from the young are such as risk management strategies, new technologies and its transfer, value addition, market pulling, transport, and the importance of equal participation of men and women in agriculture. Risk Management Risks in agriculture include in weather unpredictability, marketing, post-harvest techniques, value addition and in pests and diseases. The older farmers are an easy prey to the middle men, who buy their produce at low prices, because they lack access to market information. Young farmers interacting with older farmers provide diversified sources of market information as well as opportunities for market pulling to attract better market prices. Some youth in rural areas are now involved in transport businesses eliminating the link between middle men and farmers and the market. A young farmer, Eric Mumo, having the flexibility to travel to different markets is able to look for the best markets to sell his product then transport it there. By this, he is able to avoid the middle men, and make maximum profits. Other young people are also using marketing information Apps like MFarm and Mkulima Young to get the prices of products before they can sell to middle men. Due to lack of post-harvest technologies, older farmers will sell their produce on harvesting, when the prices are low. Young people have come in between to provide storage facilities, and trading in the harvest. For instance, they buy and store cereals during the harvest and sell back to the community during the drier and planting seasons- lowering the risks of higher prices on food in the rural areas. Other alternatives have been in processing of such products and packaging for example sun-drying mangoes, sun-drying and milling bananas and re-selling in new and niche markets. Further, young people have been able to use technology, particularly ICT to gain information on better farming methods, when is best to plant- based on weather and market conditions. This information is shared with older farmers. For instance, Martha Otieno,29, a young farmer in Homabay county helped an 80 year old woman gain a profit of Ksh50,000 just by advising her on how she could increase the production from her farm. The old woman was able to double her yield that season and as a result boost her income and improve her livelihood. Transfer of new knowledge and technologies As it is with most farmers in Kenya, there is a trend that one cannot practice nor adopt a certain technology unless he/she has seen it working for the other person. Since the young farmers are the ones who are known to be the risk takers and easier adopters of technology, most of them have adopted newer farming technologies like greenhouse farming, hydroponic farming, and drip irrigation among others. The young farmers use their farms as demonstration plots to highlight their success stories to the community and try to convince them to follow suit. If technology becomes a part of the older farmers’ practices, then, the need to practice agribusiness rather than subsistence farming will make much sense to them. This is the case with Eric Mumo and Rogers Kaleve both of whom have brought new farming practices to rural Kitui. Mumo with advanced horticultural and dairy farming has challenged his community on the potential of growing more on their farms. Kaleve with agroforestry has on the other hand proofed to his community that farms become more productive with trees intercropped. Value addition is also another aspect that could help increase the income of the older farmers and reduce the risks of post-harvest loss. Erick Muthomi, 27, is one of the young farmers who practices value addition of Bananas. He realised that there was a problem in his village where most banana farmers were incurring losses from their banana farming and saw the need to bring in the aspect of value addition to help them increase their income and reduce the losses. The young farmers are trained on these aspects and have the potential of sharing the knowledge with the old. Gender representation Gender representation in agriculture can be achieved through intergenerational partnerships. From our fieldwork, there were more male young farmers than young female farmers. Young women were more challenged than men in accessing land for farming were. Jacklyne Adongo, 21, a farmer in Siaya, leased land through her male friend as none of the male land owners would accept her request to become a young unmarried female farmer. In her culture, land is owned by men, which they then give to their wives to work on. It is unacceptable for a young unmarried woman to be farming on her own- this is connoted with rebellion and unruly woman. Young women are also discouraged by their peers, older women and their community members on their inability to farm. However, it is their success stories that may change the perception of the community members and give the young women equal chances to engage in farming. In the case of Mercy Kimalel,29, her father was sceptical about her engaging in farming and even tried to discourage her but it is her success story that changed his mind. She is now a fulltime poultry farmer, and even supports her family. On the other hand, young men are encouraged to get into agriculture, make profits, and grow their agribusinesses so that they can proposer in society. if they can continue supporting their counterpart young women, agricultural transformation would rise a notch higher. Conclusion and recommendation Our findings indicate that intergenerational learning and partnership does enable transfer of knowledge, skills, and change of perceptions and attitudes towards agriculture. Bridging the gap between the old and the young farmers and having them collectively work together towards spearheading Africa out of food insecurity, through agribusiness has proven to be important. However, some of the crucial matters that need to be put into consideration are how the community members view the youth and their contribution in agriculture, the socio-cultural aspects that could hinder intergenerational learning from taking place, strong political leadership, and mutual accountability in the agricultural sector. All generations have a unique role of play in agricultural transformation, and thus platforms for collaboration should be facilitated. References Brooks, K., Zorya, S., Gautam, A., & Goyal, A. (2013). Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in Africa (Policy Research Working Paper No. 6473). The World Bank Bryceson, D. F. (2002). Multiplex livelihoods in rural Africa: recasting the terms and conditions of gainful employment. Journal of Modern African Studies, 40(1), 1–28 Dalla Valle, F., Klemmer, A., & Fotabong, E. (2011). Youth, Decent Employment and the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) Elgar, G. (2013). Transmission of Traditional Agricultural Knowledge. Intergenerational or International Examining Youth’s Involvement in Agriculture FANRPAN. (2011). Developing Capacities and Opportunities for Youth Engagement in the Agricultural Value Chain and Transformation (Policy Brief Series No. 11 (2)) FANRPAN. (2012). Engaging Youth in Climate-Smart Agriculture (Policy Brief Series No. 12 (1)) FAO. (2014). Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions. Rome Filmer, D., & Fox, L. (2014). Youth Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa (Africa Development Series). Washington, DC: The World Bank Odhiambo, G., O. (2011). Higher Education quality in Kenya: a critical reflection of key challenges. Quality in Higher Education, 17(3), 299–315. Waikenda, M. (2014). Agriculture can create a million jobs for youth. Nairobi: Standard digital. Can We Use Animal Agriculture Transformation to Solve Youth Unemployment in Africa? Imumorin, I Animal Genetics and Genomics Lab, Office of International Programs, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853. USA Corresponding author; igitwo@cornell.edu Abstract The UN estimates that Africa’s population is about 1.1 billion representing 15% of the world’s population and continues to grow rapidly, doubling in the period 1982–2009, and quadrupling from 1955–2009. The challenge of feeding and employing this population is further exacerbated by a large youth bulge. About 44% of the total population of sub-Saharan Africa is below the age of 16 years, making it the youngest region in the world, and by 2050, it is estimated that 60% of Africans will be living in cities. All of these combined with rising incomes and globalization will drive demand for livestock products. With the high unemployment among African youth, animal agriculture can plan an important role and provide a promising platform to develop jobs and careers to meet the rising demand for livestock products through carefully calibrated policy prescriptions and smart approaches to supply expanding markets that takes into account the realities of globalization, access to land, affordable credit, technical training, new technologies, environmental concerns and climate change. Plans must include finding appropriate financing models, providing vocational technical training, building sound small and medium scale businesses through innovative policy interventions by Government, private sector and international donors using partnership models that will assisting the development of efficient value chains in animal agriculture to reduce youth employment. The long term negative implications for failing to harness the energy and entrepreneurial spirit of this large segment of Africa’s population means that efforts must begin right away to deliberately craft and implement policies to address this challenge by stakeholders in the public, private and civil society sectors. Women workload and their roles in livestock production in pastoral and agro-pastoral communities of Ethiopia: Case of Afar Nigussie, A.1*, Hoag, D.2 and Alemu, T.3 1Ethiopian Institutes of Agricultural Research, Werer Agricultural Research Center, Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Gender Research, Ethiopia; 2Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Colorado State University, and Feed the Future Innovation Lab: Adapting Livestock System to Climate Change, Ethiopia; 3Gender, Development, Monitoring and Evaluation, Ethiopia. *Corresponding author: aklil2002@yahoo.com This study was conducted in three districts of special pastoral and agro pastoral communities’ wereda of the Afar Regional State. It emphasized on the women workloads in livestock production for labor and time saving technologies on the pattern of allocation of time by women for household activities, livestock management and other activities. The t statistic and regression were used to analyze and summarize the data .Results from the t-test revealed that there was a significant difference in time use with respect to household activities, fetching water and production of livestock management in MHH and WHH. The result of the multiple regression analysis showed that in MHH male labor and farm size were found to be the most important factors in influencing output, whereas in WHH it was only male labor. The elasticity of the factors influencing output were found to be 0.57, 0.11, 0.04, -0.05, 0.38 for male labor, women labor, number of livestock in a year, livestock ownership and farm land ownership respectively in MHH. In WHH, the elasticity were 0.46 for male labor, 0.32 for women labor,- 0.04 for number of livestock in a year, -0.09 for livestock ownership, and .0.038 for farm land ownership. Households in MHH were found more efficient in allocating the resources like male labor and farm land. Whereas in both of the areas, women labor was found to be used inefficiently implying that the spare time gained was minimal to used it in productive activities for livestock productions which states that women spent more time on household activities compare to men. Keywords: labor, time, livestock, crop, elasticity, household activities INTRODUCTION Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy and women are the backbones of the food production system (MOFED and UNICEF, 1994) and they are the key to agricultural production. Out of the total subsistence agricultural production, they are responsible for about 50%. As some reports indicate women constitute 50% of the total population and contribute around 65% of the labor-force in agriculture (TGE and UNICEF, 1993a). Social definitions of which tasks should be carried out by men or women vary from one society, region, class or ethnic group to another. This variability indicates that the division of labor is determined not by the physical differences between sexes, but by the social definitions of proper relationship between women and men (Shmink et al., 1988) this allotted for women task to vary with cultural thoughts from district to districts. We can see now a day that subsistence production of women or women’s poverty is attracting much attention. This is because of the deterioration of the rural sector to the point where a growing number of countries like Ethiopia have become net importers of food stuff and the uncontrollable migration to urban centers, because of labor difference to the production system and which create several problems with politically unsettling implications. The condition of the Ethiopian women, especially in rural areas, is appalling. They perform laborious household tasks, such as grain grinding, fuel wood and water fetching which states that women labor is series. These activities sap much of their energies, which could have otherwise been spent in more productive farming activities. In fact, as statistics show women’s labor-force participation rate is much lower than that of men and they are generally crowded in low skilled, low paying activities (GOE, 1995). However; in total hour spent per day, women spent approximately 25% more than men. We can see nowadays that subsistence production of women or women’s poverty is attracting much attention (Wudinesh 1991). This is because the cultural definition of women responsibilities biased with sex categorization is making the more an efficient in contribution to production process. So far, there is ample evidence that most efforts towards increasing the productivity of the pastoral sector and the real incomes of rural producers have been accompanied by an intensification of labor within the pastoral household (EIAR 2012). This has primarily increased women’s workloads in the absence of any measures to alleviate their already extremely heavy domestic burden typically involving several hours a day fetching water and pounding grain among other things. It, therefore, stands to reason that very little can be achieved in terms of increasing rural women’s labor productivity without taking into account (a) the exact modalities of their participation in livestock work and (b) the intrinsic limitations imposed on such work by other time-consuming household tasks( MoA 2012). The purpose of this study was to assess women performance, labor allocation patterns and observes the difference in the level of burden shouldered by women in livestock production and crop production. The objectives followed to pursue this purpose are:  To identify the types of daily work performed by women and men to quantify time spent.  To identify the most burdensome tasks and find out whether assistance received in women’s daily work activities through improved technologies are effective in bringing about a reduction in women’s workload. Methodology Descriptions of the Study Area Afar is one of nine regional states situated in the north-eastern part of Ethiopia, it borders Oromiya region in the south, Tigray region and Eritrea in the north, Djibouti and Somalia region in the east, and Amhara region in the west. The altitude of the region ranges from 1500 m.a.s.l. in the western highlands to -120 meters below sea level in the Danakil/Dallol depression. It has an estimated population of 1.2 million of which 90% are pastoralists (56% male and 44% female) and 10% are agro-pastoralists. The livestock population is estimated to be about 4 Million. Administratively, the region is divided into five administrative zones which are sub-divided in to 29 woredas. The regional capital, Semera is located in zone one (Dubti Woreda) some 600 Kms North-east of Addis Ababa on the main Addis–Djibouti tarmac road. There are 323 rural farmers associations and 32 urban kebeles. Afar region of the sample woredas Amibara, Afambo and Ewa are characterized by an arid and semi-arid climate with low and erratic rainfall. Temperatures vary from 200c in higher elevations to 480c in lower elevations. Rainfall is bi-modal throughout the region with a mean annual rainfall below 500 mm in the semi-arid western escarpments decreasing to 150 mm in the arid zones to the east. The region receives three rainy seasons. The main rain, karma accounts for 60% of annual rainfall and is from mid June to mid September. This is followed by rainy showers in mid December called dadaa and a minor rainy season during March to April called sugum. Disruptions on the performance of any rainy season will impact on the availability of pasture and water as well as the overall food security situation of the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. Figure 2. Sample woredas Types and Methods of Data Collection To collect information that was relevant to the objectives of the research, the following methods were employed:  Check list was developed for a pilot survey to the Amibara, Afambo and Ewa districts with categorizing the sample households in to two groups as male headed household (MHH) and women headed households (WHH). This checklist was used as a background to develop the formal questioner for data collection protocol.  Household questionnaires were designed to solicit information about, the type of activities performed by men and women in the field and at home, manpower requirement of each job and the frequency of doing the work in year, were prepared and administered to participating households.  Focus group discussions have also been held using questioners for the clan and elders.  After data collection, the questioners were fed to the computer and data cleaning has been done and ready to analysis. Analysis of Data Simple analytical tools such as percentages and averages were employed to descriptive analyses. To find out if there is a significant mean difference between WHH and MHH t-test was used in the analysis. The formula for the test was: t= 1- 2 1- 2 Where: 2 = (n1-1)S1 2 + (n2-1) S2 2 n1+ n2 - 2 1 - 2 = 2+ 2 n1 n2 Cobb-Douglas production function was also estimated in order to capture the difference in labor productivities in agricultural activities between the two sample household type i.e. the MHH and WHH (Dillon and Heady, 1998). The Cobb-Douglas production function of the form was employed: P = ω Mα Wβ Yλ Where: P = production level of livestock ω = a constant M= male labor hour in activities W= women labor hour in activities Y= livestock ownership α, β, and λ are the elasticity tests Since productivity level of any point involves sampling errors, the differences in the productivities were evaluated in terms of errors attached to each elasticity coefficients. This was done by using simple statistical tests, which included the following steps. First, the elasticity of production necessary to give a marginal product in MHH equal to the marginal product of the same resource in WHH was computed. The aim was to compare Em, the elasticity actually derived for MHH with Ew1, the elasticity necessary to give equal elasticity. The value was computed in the following way: Ew1 = Eww ww w w ww Where: Eww= elasticity of WHH Ew1=elasticity of MHH, necessary to give Ew =elasticity of MHH = the geometric mean in WHH =the geometric mean of in MHH ww=the geometric mean of factor WHH w=the geometric mean of factor in MHH The standard error, S, for the pooled variance is computed as: S = S2+ ww w S 2 ww w ww Where: S2W = the variance for a particular factor in MHH S2ww = the variance for a particular factor in WHH To define the labor force of different age groups the labor power unit (lpu) was used. The LPU is defined as a physically and mentally healthy, average person. A person defined as a full labor power unit works eight labor power hours (lph) per day (Wudnesh, 1991). Table 3: Labor Power Unit of Different Age Groups Age group in years 7-9 10-12 13-14 15-64 65-69 70-75 Labor power unit (lpu) 0.3 0.5 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.2 Source: Wudnesh, 1991 According to Wudnesh (1991) the labor input of household members in each activity will calculated as follows: LHY=T*N*F Where: LHY= labor/hour/household/year T= time taken to do the job N= number of people engaged F= frequency per year RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive Analysis Characteristic of household The women headed household was found to have about 32% of the total family members in the sample while women where 17%. And when we compare to the men headed household having 26% men member while 18% women in their families. The average household size was 5.6 and 4.2 persons with a range of 2 to 10 and 1 to 9 for men and women headed households, respectively. As the t-test shows the mean difference was statistically significant (t=4.7, p=0.01). This implies that men headed households have larger family size than women headed households. In addition to the un-scaled family size, adult equivalent (AE) that takes care of age and sex of individuals was also computed (Table 2). Accordingly, the mean family size was 4.4 and 3.2 in MHH and WHH, respectively, which is statistically different (t=4.6). Saito et al. (1994) also indicated that WHH had relatively lower family size as compared to MHH in their study conducted in Kenya and Nigeria. The result is also consistent with that of Dejene (1994) and Addis et al. (2000). Table 4: Average family size of the households in AE Sex MHH WHH Total t-value Men family member 2.6 1.5 2.1 5.2*** Women family member 1.8 1.7 1.8 0.7 Total 4.4 3.2 3.8 4.6*** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The age structure of sample households shows that the average age of male household heads was 46.6 compared to 47.8 years for women heads with the minimum and the maximum age of 17 and 80 for MHH and 21 and 75 years for WHH, respectively. This difference was statistically significant (t=-0.5, p=0.6) at 10%. Regarding economically active family members (15 to 65 years), the MHH had larger economically active members (2.4) than WHH (1.7), significantly different at 1% probability level (t=4.0). The age distribution in both groups shows that the economically active age groups constitute the largest share of the family members (Table 3). Table 5: Average family size by age group Age group MHH WHH Total t-value <5 year 0.5 0.3 0.4 2.5** 5-14 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.7* 15-65 2.4 1.7 2.1 4.0*** >65 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.2* Total 4.4 3.2 3.8 4.6*** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The educational status indicates that about 66% of the WHH were illiterate; about 13.8% attended literacy classes while around 20.2% had primary education. In contrast, about 45.3% of MHH were illiterate, 12% attended literacy classes while 22.6% had primary education. On the average, head of men households attended 2.7 years of schooling while that of women heads attended 0.8 years. This shows that there is a significant difference (t=4.6, p=0.01) in terms of access to formal education between MHH and WHH (Table 4). Table 6: Literacy rate of household head Literacy MHH WHH Total Illiterate 45.3 66 55 Read and write 12 13.8 12.9 Grade 1-6 22.6 20.2 21.4 Grade 7-8 10.6 - 5.7 Grade 9 and above 9.5 - 5 χ2=15.9 p=0.003 Mean years of schooling 2.7 0.8 1.7 χ2 is the Chi-square Source: Own survey 2013 In most sub-Saharan Africa, the adult literacy rate of men is almost twice that of women and the enrolment of boys is almost twice as that of girls in secondary school. Gender based educational discrepancies tend to be greater in countries where incomes are lower (Saito et al., 1994; Saito and Surpling, 1992). Studies conducted by Addis et al. (2000), Tiruwork (1998) and Dejene (1994) in Ethiopia also show that WHH have less access to formal education in rural Ethiopia. Regarding marital status of the sample respondents, about 40% of WHH were widow and 70.2% of MHH were married (Table 5). The difference is quite significant as shown by the chi- square value of 33.9. Table 7: Marital Status of the Sample Households Marital status MHH WHH Total Single 2.4 15.2 42.2 Married 70.2 - 35 Widow - 40.7 5.7 Polygamy 27.4 30.4 10 Divorced - 13.7 7.1 Total 100 100 100 χ2=33.9 P=0.00 χ2 is the Chi-square Source: Own survey 2013 This study analyzed differences in social and human capital outcomes of women headed and women in male headed pastoral households. Summarizing gender dynamics within pastoral households and communities is by no means simple. Quisumbing & Pandolfelli (2008) found that African households are complex and diverse, that gender roles are equally intricate and are embedded in herding, crop and non-agricultural production systems. The role and responsibility are not only dynamic but also react to changing economic and development conditions. The approach with which roles and responsibilities are manifested can be reinforce; at the same time tests the existing norms, patterns and stereotypes in the pastoral community. Yet the following table depicts one strand of gender matters in sample area and was determined whether the gender facilitation is an integral part and parcel the women workload research. Table 6 shows the differences in training received by women household heads and women in male headed households in the 2011/12, 2012/13 and three years prior to 2011. An analysis of the results shows that women household heads attended on average about three trainings in three years ago while women in male headed household attended on average less than one training per year during the same time period in related livestock production. The difference in the training attendance was found to be highly statistically significant. Additional observation shows in 2011/12 and 2012/13 there are no statistically significant differences between the number of trainings that women household heads and women in male headed households received. This can be attributed to the low training (capacity building) interventions in the pastoral community with governmental offices or non-governmental in Afar regional state. The results therefore can indicate that stagnant development though further research is advisable for the cause. Table 8: Mean differences training WH and WMH pastoral households Training WHH WMHH ATT Mean Standard Deviation Mean Standard deviation Three years ago 3.14 2.01 0.82 1.48 1.66*** 2011/2012 1.32 0.27 0.36 0.56 0.76 2012/2013 0.23 0.44 0.20 0.50 0.03 ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively These findings have two major implications. Firstly although there was an increment in number of trainings, the headship of a household determined to a large extent participation of women in the community. Women in male headed households were less likely to take part in capacity building and skills development exercises in many cases the male member of the households was the sole participant. Women, however, who were heading a household, were more likely to participate in training activities despite that in many cases women headed households have more time constraints due to limited labor and other productive resources. These findings are a reflection of the decision making process in many pastoral households in the region, with the male household member being the sole decision maker and therefore participant in development activities. Women household heads, although more vulnerable, are better able to participate in development initiative related to livestock production system, as they are in many cases, also the only sole decision maker. Apart from different training, membership and engagement in community leadership roles were also analyzed for women headed households and women in male headed households in community related with the livestock production process. Table 7 shows that there were statistically significant differences between the levels of membership into community co-operatives between women in male headed households and women household heads. The results indicate that the majority of WHH (69.2%) had membership while women in male headed households stated (17.0%). The difference between the levels of participation of 52.2% was found to be statistically significant at the 10% level of confidence. Furthermore, those women who household heads were also more likely to have membership into more than one community group as compared to women in male headed households. This is the case as the majority of the female household heads who had membership into a farmer were found to have active membership into more than one group (84.6%) while a very small percentage of women in male headed households (7.9%) who had membership into a group were found to have membership into more than one. The difference in the levels of participation in more than one group was 76.6% and this was found to be highly statistically significant. Table 9: Difference in membership and community leadership Group membership Households ATT WHH WMHH Membership a pastoral community co-operatives 69.2 17.0 52.2* Membership more than one co-operatives 84.6 7.9 76.7*** Leadership position 46.2 20.5 25.7* ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: survey data computed, 2013 The implications of these findings are that women household heads in the intervention community were more likely to be empowered as compared to women in male headed households this could be for different reasons like access and control over different resource including information. These are important factors that increase self reliance which is an important aspect for empowerment. Generally, women headed households in many pastoral communities in sample districts are worse off as compared to male headed households in terms of socio economic standing. This is due to limited access to resources such as livestock, finance and labour. This study demonstrates that the use of innovation systems concepts in implementation of agricultural research and development programs can create a potential to increase their participation in which can allow them to have greater linkages with service providers and access to information and new knowledge including creating an opportunity to have access over finance with conditions of small scale co-operatives that can link them to the market system. Indicators for access to energy sources people can access in their natural environment. Both female and male respondents state to access a number of three energy sources on average. However, there is considerable variation ranging up to six different sources. The reason for this might be the combined use of different energy sources, e.g. wood used in combination with kerosene oil for cooking, different purposes of the sources, e.g. kerosene oil used for lightning and wood for cooking. And last but not least, costs involved in using the different sources differ. Kerosene oil is expensive as compared to wood, which is cheap or free in case of the nearby bush encroachment areas (Table 8). Three energy sources collected directly or indirectly from the natural environment are fuel wood, dung cakes, and leaf litter. It is apparent from Table 8 that fuel wood has the greatest importance for households. Whereas fuel wood is used for cooking, lighting, and heating, the much less common energy sources of dung cakes and leaf litter are predominantly used for cooking. Overall, striking gender differences in knowledge about access to water sources and very similar perceptions about women and men’s access to energy sources are apparent in the workload survey. Table 10: Household use of natural energy sources Respondents Fuel wood Dung cakes Leaf litter Men 14.2 0.0 5.1 Women 100 17.6 42.3 Source: survey data computed, 2013 Household Activities Household activities include bread baking, injera baking, preparing wet, grain grinding, water fetching, fuel-wood collecting, washing clothes, house making and cleaning barns. Out of all these, the ones, which are performed daily are baking, wet making (soles for traditional food) and water fetching, whereas fuel wood collection and barn cleaning are performed daily or once in two days depending on the livestock owned and availability of fuel wood. The others, injera baking, grain grinding, washing clothes are done weekly, once or twice a month according to the habit of each household. As the figures in both sites show bread baking, injera bakes, wet cooking, grain grinding and house cleaning were entirely women activities in the area, while the other activities were shared between the two sexes and still the proportion is high for women. From all the activities, fire wood collection consumed much of women’s time due to the fact that the distance traveled was too long and the frequency of collecting was between once a days to once in two days. Bread baking also consumed much of their time because it is prepared and consumed daily. It is eaten with wet which also needs to be prepared daily and so making it also took much time. Water fetching occurred frequently because the water point was near to the households at the time of the survey since there was good rain. Grain grinding also occurred mostly once in a week or twice by traditional millstone grinding on hand or going to the nearby grinding mill. In study areas, fuel-wood fetching ranked first in consuming man hour. Bread baking, wet making, water fetching, washing clothes, barn cleaning, injera baking and grain grind consumed time in decreasing order. In the sample area; water fetching time on average a need for 422.15 man power unit (mpu) per year per household in WMHH. Similarly, in wood collection, we can observe the same trend, i.e., the value from to 599.33 mpu in WHH. Table 11: Average labor-hour in percent spent on household activities Activities MHH WHH Men Women Men Women Bread baking 0 100 0 100 Injera baking 0 100 0 100 Preparing wet 0 100 0 100 Grain grinding 0 100 0 100 Water fetching 25 75 18 82 Fire wood collecting 33 67 22 78 Washing clothes 20 80 0 100 House cleaning 0 100 0 100 cleaning barns 10 90 0 100 Source: Own survey 2013 The Gender Division of Labor in Livestock Production In both places women households participated actively in sowing, weeding, transporting and storing of cereals and pulses. Whereas male were very active in land preparation, plowing, weeding, harvesting and threshing in crop production. With respect to livestock production, women were active in barn cleaning, herding small ruminants, milking (shoat and cow) and preparing manure dung. And men were active in the remaining activities. When the processing part is considered, it is associated with women. All activities except taken herds to a distance rage and milking came were performed by women. Decision making on when to sale livestock products like milk and how to use the products was made by the senior woman of the household. Men usually decided when to sale livestock especially cattle and camel, and where to her animals. In production and marketing, men had control over majority of the sales, even though women had also control over the sale of some. Burdensome Tasks Burdensome tasks are those which take much of the women’s time and, which are at the same time tiresome. They are continuous, i.e., they take long time and appear frequently. When performing these tasks, women get exhausted. Milking, barn cleaning, Grinding by hand, carrying water from long distances, traveling long distances to collect fire-wood were the major burdensome tasks identified. Water Fetching Information gathered from observation and interview showed that, water in the selected households, is used for drinking (for household and livestock at home), cooking, washing clothes, taking bath. And the households fetched water from rivers and springs that were far away. In comparing the difference in labor hour between the selected households, the man-hour has been used as a common unit. The length of time taken was 9 months to avoid the effect that the presence of rain can cause. The average man-hour is calculated per 9 months per household using the formula: ALH=T*N*F*270 Where: ALH=average labor-hour per 270 days per household T=time (hr) required for fetching water/day N=number of people involved (lh) F=the frequency of fetching water After the average man-hour requirement was calculated, t-test was used to see if there was a significance difference. Using the surveyed data, the t value for fetching water and the average man-hour requirement was calculated. The results are given in (Table 10). Table 12: Mean difference in water fetching WMHH WHH Average labor-hour per house hold per 270 days 422.15 936.44 t-value 7.16*** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The calculated t-value shows that man-hour requirement in the WMHH for fetching water was significantly different from the WHH at 1% significance level. This means that women in WHH spent more than double the time spent by those living in WMHH. Wood collection Woods were commonly used for baking, cooking, house and barn making etc. The households ground the different wood for baking injera and bread, making wet and other purposes. In both of the study sample, it was learnt that, they carry in frequently in small amounts. The average man hour per household per year was calculated as a unit of comparison between the household. The average man-hour per household in a year was calculated using the following formula: ALH=T*N*F*12 Where: ALH = average labor-hour per 12 months per household T = time (hr) required for collecting wood/day N = number of people involved (lh) F = the frequency of collecting wood The average labor-hour requirement and the t-value for collecting wood for the household were calculated, and these are given in Table 11. Table 13: Mean difference of collecting wood WMHH WHH Average labor-hour per house hold per 12 months 219.23 599.33 t-value 6.35*** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The resulting value of t value 6.4 was compared with theoretical value with degrees of freedom. The computed value was found to be significant at 1% level of significance which shows that more women in the WHH spent much time in collecting wood for different purposes and they spent 599.33 hours per year. Livestock management With respect to livestock management which includes herding, barn cleaning, taken caring sick animals, etc. The households used traditional way of managing livestock while in all MHH and WHH. It was also found that there was a difference in man-hour requirements in the study sampled household. This was analyzed using the average man-hour requirement for the task per household per year. The average was obtained as: ALH=T*N*E Where: ALH = Average labor-hour per household per a year T= Time (hr) needed to livestock management N = Number of people involved in the activity E = Number of livestock From data of the survey, the following information was generated. As shown in Table 12, the average man hour per household per year was 714 for WMHH and 1058 for the WHH. Table 14: Mean difference in livestock management WMHH WHH Average labor-hour per house hold per 12 months 813.7 1454 t-value 7.21*** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 From the value of t, it could be inferred that there is significant difference between the two households in the time used for livestock management processing at 1% level of significance which indicates that women headed households spent more time in different types of livestock management in the pastoral community of the sample districts. From the information gathered from formal survey, focus group interview and observation, there is a strong justification that showed the extra time gained in WMHH had been used for producing forages and milk sales the nearby. The average production of forage and milk selling purpose per household per year was used to compare the difference between mean productions in WMHH and WHH. Summarized information on backyard production is given in Table 13. Table 15: Mean differences in forage production at the backyard WMHH WHH Average labor-hour per house hold per 12 months 363.2 122.9 t-value 4.44** ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The above t-value, can be inferred that a significant difference existed in the production levels of forage at 0.05 level of significance. In fact, discussion made with women in MHH confirmed the above result. One woman said “previously, let alone producing forage much in our backyards for feed, we did not even have enough time to manage sick livestock but at moment my daughters are involved in other responsibilities in helping so that we are trying to manage the forage production for animal feed”. Production Functions Production function is the mathematical relationship between the quantity of output and the quantities of inputs required in the production process. It is represented as Y= f(x1, x2… xn), where Y is the output and the Xi is the inputs (Heady and Dillon, 1998). Results of this study depicts that MHH have access to labor and time saving technologies as shown in descriptive statistic analysis. And it is also found that these technologies have helped them to get spare time and energy as compared to the WHH. Fitting production functions in the two sample categories was shown the marginal productivities and which in turn explain difference between them if there is any, which could be a result of the freed labor citrus paribus. The Cobb-Douglas production function was estimated for MHH and WHH, respectively as follows. PMHH= 0.74M0.57 W0.11L0.04Y-0.05F0.38 (1.07) (0.14) (0.08) (0.11) (0.12) (0.16) PWHH= 3.57M0.46 W0.32L-0.04Y-0.09F0.25 (0.88) (0.16) (0.12) (0.09) (0.07) (0.11) Where: M=Male labor hour in production activities (Mlpu) W=women labor hour in production activities (Wlpu) L=Number of livestock in the year Y=Livestock ownership (Tlu) F=Farm land ownership (Ha) P=Production level of livestock Numbers in bracket are standard errors of the regression estimates. From these estimated function for MHH, it could be observed that labor hour was the most important factor as it affected gross output significantly (p<0.01). The other important factor was land size, which affected output positively and significantly. The remaining variables, women labor, livestock ownership, and number livestock in a year, were found to be marginal in influencing output. The estimated production function for MHH showed that the most important factor which affected output level significantly was male labor. Women labor and farm land size also affected output respectively. The other factors specified in the model had minimal effect in influencing output. The adjusted coefficient of multiple determinations is a statistic which gives the proportion of the variation in the output observations explained by the fitted function. Correction has been made for the size of the sample studied. The values were 87.3 and 80.3 percent for MHH and WHH, respectively, with standard errors of 0.27and 0.22. In both cases, the estimates were more than three times of their standard errors. Therefore, the values were significant at 1% level. One can argue that the majority of the variability is captured by the regressed function. For each input resource, the estimated coefficients (elasticity) indicate the expected percentage increase or decrease in production that would occur if the amount of the input resource was increased or decreased by 1 percent other input factors being held constant. And because of the models' nature, the estimates of the elasticity remain unchanged over the range of input levels to which the function is fitted and to which it might be applied. On the other hand, the sum of the elasticity is an indication of the returns to scale under the assumption that no relevant input factors have been excluded. The sums of the estimates were 1.05 and 0.91 for MHH and WHH areas, respectively. These results imply the existence of constant returns to scale in the operation of the farms. This shows that a proportional change (increase or decrease) in the levels of all of the inputs together will bring a proportional change (increase or decrease) in the level of the output. Each of the elasticity for the two areas, except for livestock, was less than one indicating that diminishing returns hold true for the particular resource. That is, a 1 percent increase in input or use of the particular resource results in an increase in the level of production by less than 1 percent. Whereas decreasing returns (an increase in input level resulting in a decrease in the level of output) was shown in livestock estimates in both samples. Tests of Differences in Marginal Productivities of Factors Table 16: Marginal productivities of resources in MHH and WHH WHH MHH t-value labor(male) -0.08 WHH 0.46 MHH 0.54 Labor ( women) 0.00043 WHH 0.13 MHH 0.35 Livestock 0.001 WHH -0.09 MHH -0.07 Land -0.79 WHH 0.57 MHH 0.26 ***, ** and * indicate significance at 1 %, 5% and 10% respectively Source: Own survey 2013 The figures in the middle two columns of Table 14 are the elasticity coefficients which would have been necessary, considering the mean quantity of resource and product in the area of comparison, to give a marginal productivity equal to that computed in the area of contrast. For instance the elasticity of 0.54 for male labor in WHH. In comparing the 0.54 elasticity, as a constant, against the actual elasticity of 0.46 in a null hypothesis sense, we obtain a value of t=-0.08; a value which is not significant at an acceptable probability level for t. Considering the quantity of resources used, it is concluded that mean marginal productivities in WHH were not significantly lower than in MHH. So the assumption that the released labor of women will be transferred to agricultural activities, which will be reflected through increment in their marginal productivity, did not meet its target here. Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions  Differences in access to and control over critical resources such as animals, land, and income by men and women reflect gender power relations in the study areas. Women in pastoral communities have limited access, ownership, and control over critical assets such as land and livestock.  Skewed and unequal gender divisions of labor often characterize pastoral livelihoods, disadvantaging women in terms of heavy workloads that negatively impact their productive works and work life balance and limit their access and participation in community development and governance institutions.  As droughts have become more frequent in recent years, water sources in the district have become scarce and the quality of water has declined. Women in all the case study sites reported increased shortages of water, which means that collecting water has become more difficult and arduous in terms of increased time, effort, and personal energy required, and also results in adverse effects on their health and wellbeing.  Customary and statutory institutions undervalue women’s agency, knowledge, and decision making power in social governance and policies, thereby undermining the goal of inclusive and representative governance in the clans.  In comparison to pastoral men, women in the case study areas are at the margins of development interventions and their voices and needs remain unheard. They continue to have limited access to development resources, trainings, extension services, credit, and inputs. Hence, development efforts aimed at supporting pastoralist are unable to have meaningful and equitable impact. Recommendations  Identify and promote gender-sensitive and culturally appropriate workload management technologies and development practices that create economic and decision-making opportunities and decrease the workloads of pastoral women are more efficient in contributing to empower women.  Ensure greater gender analysis and integration in research and analysis of pastoral livelihoods in order to fill urgent gaps in knowledge and encourage gender positive development.  Strengthen gender integration and focus in policies, strategies, and program implementation to ensure greater impact and development efforts, as well as the expansion of women’s security and tenure over land and property.  Raise awareness and document the traditional knowledge, and capacity building of pastoral women in managing critical resources and adapting to climate and other drivers of change, which are critical for sustaining livelihood and minimize the work load to contribute more to the productive activities.  Strengthen pastoral women access to development services such as trainings and employment through affirmative action (e.g., women scholarships, quotas, gender sensitive policies, dedicated gender desks in local governance offices, etc.) in order to ensure equitable and sustainable development. 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Access to Resources and Productivity of Female-headed Households: The Case of East Gojjam and North Shoa, MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. UNICEF 1994. Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls, Policy review E/ICE/1994/L.5. Wudnesh Hailu (1991),Rural family of Ethiopia: Economic activities, household analysis, and standard household type comparisons: a case study of Denie and Wondo-Kosha. Wudinesh Hailu. 2003. Gender and the Agricultural Economic Sector. In: Gender Policy Dialogue Series No.1.Gender and Economic Policy, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. SECTION B: POSTER PRESENTATION Sub-theme 1: Which Way for Smallholder Production Systems? Documenting concordance and discordance of Y-chromosome, mtDNA and autosomal markers on origin of domestication and routes of goat global divergence: a review Getinet, M.1,2*, Tadelle, D.2, Agaba, M.3, Mwai, O.4, Djikeng, A.3 and Tesfaye, K.1 1Addis Ababa University, department of Microbial, Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 2International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 3Bioscience for eastern and central Africa (BecA), Nairobi, Kenya; 4International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: yafetgetinet@gmail.com Abstract Domestic goat, which is the first ruminant animal domesticated from its closest wild relative C. aegagrus in the Middle East before 10,500 year ago, is drawing the attention of the world to meet the future needs. This is because they are well adapted to a variety of climatic conditions and have a wider geographical distribution than any other domestic animals. The high versatility, moderate size and hardy nature of goats have also made them the most ideal as a food resource not only in the lengthy commercial and exploratory journeys that took place in the Old World a long time ago but also in these days at which global warming is challenging and food deficiency is significantly affecting much of the world. In this paper numerous scientific reports revealed with archaeological and radiocarbon evidences, maternal and paternal origin molecular data sets and autosomal marker based evidences have been compiled. Hence, though there are limited efforts made on identifying these domestic goats, they showed very weak genetic variations between populations found within and across regions compared to other livestock species. Despite there is still uncertainty on where the exact origin of domestication was from and discordances on route and time of divergence including their introduction in various parts of the world, the archaeological as well as molecular evidences indicated that domestic goats had followed various routes to be diverged though out the world at various times. The earliest arrival region of domestic goat is the Mediterranean region (including northwest Africa) and Europe. However, they were arrived in South and Central American and Australian region very recently compared to other parts of the world. Though there is disagreement between the archaeological and mtDNA based evidences about time of introduction, domestic goats arrived in to North east Africa before the recent expansion. From the six haplogroups identified, lineage A is found in almost all parts of the world and has taken the highest share of expansion; whereas the remaining haplogroups found, relatively, in limited regions. This significant coverage of lineage A only might contribute for the present weak global genetic variation. In general, the limited efforts made on domestic goat in combination with the weak between genetic variations could have combined contribution on the limited management and conservation implementation on goat populations found in various parts of the world. Key Words: Capra aegagrus, domestic goat, genetic variation, haplogroup, Introduction Genetic studies of livestock populations focus on questions of domestication, within and among- breed diversity, breed history and adaptive variation (Lenstra et al., 2012). In these days goats, which are among the livestock populations, are widely distributed throughout the world (Abdel- Aziz, 2010), Asia and Africa account for about 81% of the total populations (Garrine, 2007). Recently, in terms of breed and population, there are >1,000 goat breeds (Dong et al., 2012; http://www.fao.org/corp/statistics/en/) and >868 million goats which are kept around the world (Nomura et al., 2012). Various activities which include commercial trade, thieving, warfare, or the migration of people with their livestock (Clutton-Brock, 2000) and the exploratory movements of humans throughout the world during the expedition and colonial expansion era had majorly contributed for the current wider distribution of goats (Porter, 1996). Apart from that, the rapid global spread of domestic goats worldwide was probably the result of the actively transportation of goat for trade in all over the Mediterranean basin during the Phoenician, Greek and Roman periods can be a very good pinpointing for the above assumption (Pariset et al., 2009). Goats, especially in these days of the challenging and upcoming desertification due to global warming, are imperative to the subsistence economy of many of poor people. They have drawn the attention of the world in terms of being essential to meet the future needs (Scherf, 2000), especially, in many developing countries to exploit marginal agricultural areas where other domestic animals cannot be easily kept and in developed countries for the production of high quality products and the achievement of sustainable development of rural areas (FAO, 2007; Pariset et al., 2009; Castel et al., 2010). However, breeding programs and selection schemes in goats are less advanced than in other livestock (Pariset et al., 2009). Genetics, apart from radiocarbon evidences, is proving to be one of the most powerful tools available for the investigation of origins, diffusion patterns, taxonomy and other unresolved questions surrounding goat domestication (Luikart et al., 2006). With this respect, C. hircus is to the growing list of domestic animals that have been widely surveyed for mtDNA sequence variation (Luikart et al., 2001). However, the structure and distribution of mtDNA variation in domestic goats are qualitatively different from the patterns observed in other large Eurasian herbivores domesticated for food, skins and fiber (cattle, buffalo, pigs, and sheep) (Luikart et al., 2001). In contrary to the strength on molecular tools in investigating the origin and domestication of goats in particular, the radiocarbon evidences have very weak strength due to the rapid radiation occurrence and the limited fossil record (Manceau et al., 1999). As a consequence, number of species, phylogenetic relationships and the evolutionary history of Capra species are poorly understood (Pidancier et al., 2006). In addition, those reports which have been made so far have some sort of concordance and discordance to each other. Therefore, this review aims to scrutinize various reports made on the origin and domestication of indigenous goats globally and to lay global picture about how indigenous goats had been diverged. Origin of goat domestication Copious scholars have contributed for the study of origin and sources of domestication and molecular phylogeography of domestic goats (C.hircus) using various molecular techniques like Y-chromosome, mitochondrial D-loop sequences (control region in general), cyt b gene (figure 1) and autosomal (eg. microsatellite) markers. Source: http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~tgschurr/labwork/labwork_text.html Goat domestication was an integral part of the rise of agriculture (Fernández et al., 2006) and the adoption of agricultural practices throughout much of the world (Luikart et al., 2006). Goat, which is called the ‘‘poor man’s cow’’ (MacHugh et al., 2001), were almost certainly the first ruminants to be domesticated along with their close relative sheep (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982; Zeder et al., 2006). It is believed that the goats might have been domesticated in high, rocky mountain regions extending from the Taurus Mountains of Turkey into Pakistan (Epstein, 1971) in 10,500 years ago (Zeder and Hesse, 2000), and then spread quickly following patterns of human migration and trade (Luikart et al., 2001; Fernández et al., 2006). However, in regard to the specific location of domestication, the origins of domestic goats still remain uncertain and controversial (Sardina et al., 2006). South-west Asia (Iran and Iraq) is the most likely origin of the domesticated species of the bezoar, C.aegagrus (Payne and Wilson, 1999) and South of Levant (Horwitz et al., 1999) (Figure 2). On the other hand, Mehrgarh (the archeological site in Pakistan) is considered as one of the ancient centers of goat domestication (Sultana et al., 2003). In contrary to this, because of a divergent mtDNA lineage (lineage C) found in Switzerland and Slovenia and that of a distinctive Y-chromosome lineage (lineage 3) it was suggested that the origin of goats is in the Balkans or the Carpathian Mountains region of Romania (Luikart et al., 2006). However, as admitted by the authors the limited sample size and absence of the ancient samples to verify during analysis could not convince and also seems inconsistent with Fernandez et al. (2006) and Pereira et al. (2009). The mtDNA analysis of Fernández et al. (2006) had also revealed another origin of domestication, Southern France, for the third event of domestication (haplogroup C) in 7,500 years ago. This finding denies the hypothesis of domestication stated by Luikart et al. (2001) for lineage C, which is far from putative domestication centers (Naderi et al., 2008) and questions the previous premises of domestication in general. Figure 2. Origin of domestication of C.hircus Source: Naderi et al., 2008 Global divergence and divergence routes of domestic goat Key: Origin of domestication C a s p ia n S e a Persian Gulf Black Sea Figure 1. MtDNA The domestic goats had been diverged following various routes of divergence globally from its initial domestication areas; and hence, it had been followed two paths (Mediterranean and Danubian routes) to be gone into Europe and was aligned with the routes of Neolithic culture diffusion in the region (Fernández et al., 2006) had also indicated how Mediterranean Sea had a key role in the history of livestock also in post-Neolithic times, when civilizations like Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Berbers probably introduced new species of animals and new breeds of livestock in southwest Europe arriving by sea (Pariset et al., 2009). The archaeological data and radiocarbon dates on bones indicated that, in Western Europe goats are believed arrived earlier through Mediterranean route compared with the second route of divergence (Danubian route) (Zilháo, 2001; Voruz, 1999; Guilaine, 2003). Whereas, dispersion of the three types of lineages across Asia from the domestication centre followed two main routes (the Silk Road and the Khyber Pass) (Devendra and Nozawa, 1976). The later route to Asia was one of the known Silk Road in the world found between Afghanistan and Pakistan and served for the migration of the Nubian type, which had descended from the Savannah type, to Indian subcontinent. Similarly, the former route to Asia served for expansion of both Bezoar- type and Savannah-type goat (Devendra and Nozawa, 1976). Based on the microsatellite study, the East Asian cluster corresponded morphologically to the Bezoar type and the Mongolian cluster corresponded to the Savannah type (Nomura et al., 2012). Taiwan goats are direct descendants of Chinese indigenous goats during the seventeen century by immigrants, and the Savannah type reached back to Mongolia from the Indian subcontinent and China (Nomura et al., 2012). The results of microsatellite DNA markers in genetic subdivisions of East Asian indigenous goats were consistent with the migration history of goats and also with morphological and geographical classifications (Nomura et al., 2012). In relative to other works conducted on origin and diversification of goat populations, Amills et al. (2008) had tried to fairly address wide geographical distribution of the populations and reported the existence of genetic variation at continental level despite smaller the sample size used in many of the studied populations. According to Naderi et al. (2008), the haplogroups of the wild bezoar didn’t reduce in population size since the Early Holocene suggesting the bezoar populations were not modified so much by humans. Despite the inherent and unavoidable bias of sampling, haplogroup A is the earliest (~10,000 YA) expanded lineage and is kept throughout the world including Africa and partly to Asia, haplogroup F and G in Europe and D in Asia (Luikart et al., 2001; Naderi et al., 2007&2008; Pereira et al., 2005&2009) especifically in India together with lineage E (Joshi et al., 2004). The global coverage of this haplogroup (A) is 89% in Asia, 98% in Europe and 100% in Middle East and Africa (Pereira et al., 2005). However, these last two regions are still poorly characterized. Based on the sequence of mitochondrial control region, there is an absolute predominance of lineage A (no other lineages other than lineage A) in the Atlantic archipelagos and South and Central America (Amills et al., 2008). Whereas lineages B, C, D, F and G are absent in South and Central American (SCA) goats (Amills et al., 2008), and are also very rare or even absent, in Europe (Luikart et al. 2001; Joshi et al. 2004; Naderi et al. 2007). Haplogroups B, D, F and G are found in domestic goats, but their contribution is very low (7.69%) (Naderi et al., 2008). Though the origin and evolution of haplogroup C is still remain controversial, it is present with very low frequencies in Europe (2%) and Asia (1%) (Pereira et al., 2005), and it is not found in Near Eastern populations rather in Europe (eg. Portugal, Slovenia, Switzerland) and Mongolia which represent recent secondary expansion (Luikart et al., 2001). This distant place in between suggests being an old origin (Pereira et al., 2005); however, the sampling employed was less comprehensive. In contrary to this, lineage C is found in Pakistan (Sultana et al., 2003). On the other hand, in the Iberian Peninsula lineage C has a very low frequency (<5%) and lineages B, D, F and G seem to be completely absent (Amills et al. 2004; Azor et al. 2005; Pereira et al. 2005; Naderi et al. 2007). This finding is consistent with Fernández et al. (2006) report that explains both lineages A and C, which are currently coexisting in Europe but rare (<0.5%; i.e. only in Switzerland and Slovenia) in the modern sample compared to the ancient for the later lineage (C), were represented among the first populations of domestic goats moving into western Europe. This implies high nucleotide diversity within the ancient sample. The presence of the two lineages (i.e. A & C) in southwestern Europe since as early as the beginning of the Neolithic may result from either the succession of different waves of goats bearing different haplotypes between the first Impressa (7,700–7,500 B.P.) and Cardial (7,500– 7,000 B.P.) time periods, or from one wave bearing all of the diversity as early as the first Impressa steps (Fernández et al., 2006); i.e the first arrival of goats to this region, based on this mtDNA analysis, is consistent with the first of waves arrival of Neolithic farmers (7,500 YA) through the Mediterranean route. In contrary to the above findings about the lesser global coverage of lineage C, it is mentioned that the bezoar haplogroup C has a widespread geographic distribution compared with the other haplogroups (B, D, F and G) (Naderi et al., 2008). MtDNA lineage B was detected only in the southern and eastern Asian countries of Pakistan, India, Malaysia, and Mongolia (Pereira et al., 2005; Luikart et al., 2006). Nomura et al. (2013) had also strengthened that B1 sub-haplogroup (second largest haplogroup) is inherited by 4.4% of the goats and their distribution areas is limited to East, Southeast, and South Asia; whereas, sub-haplogroup B2 is kept in China-Mongolian regions. Haplogroup B is the result of a second domestication event (Luikart et al., 2001) and that, like haplogroup C, represents a relatively recent expansion (Pereira et al., 2005). Haplogroups A and C show conspicuous rapid expansion and haplogroups B and G show slow expansions; however, population size of haplogroup F has been slowly declined (Nomura et al., 2013). Compared to Naderi et al. (2007), Nomura et al. (2013) reported highest bootstrap value of haplogroup A (53%; 94%, respectively). However, based on Y chromosome analysis, Luikart et al. (2006) found out moderate (64%) bootstrap estimate for C. falconeri (the second closest taxon to domestic goat) to be apart from C. aegagrus. Unlike the absence of a strong phylogeographic structure in the Spanish peninsula, European, African and Asian populations that might be understood in the light of much more ancient and extensive introgression events, the ancestral Canarias goat mitochondrial haplotypes (ancestral haplotypes of the domestic goats) are still highly ubiquitous in some of the breeds providing a recognizable population structure (Amills et al., 2004). On the other hand, even though the magnitude of contribution of the Atlantic archipelagos to the large-scale process of livestock exportation to America has been less well-studied, from the historical perspective Iberian livestock was extensively transported from the South of Spain and Portugal to America, and similarly from Portugal, Africa and Canary Islands to Cape Verde by Portuguese sailors during the 15th century (Rodero et al., 1992). The similar haplotypes obtained in Cape Verde with Canary Islands (Amills et al., 2008) can be a very good witness. However, based on the mtDNA analysis, there is an indication that the initial goats (i.e. variant B) arrived in the Canary Islands by the first settlers 3000 years ago (Amills et al., 2004). Capote et al. (2004) had also indicated that the first inhabitants of the Canary Islands settled the archipelago carrying with them a small number of domestic animals in 2200 years ago. Despite the time variation seen in both above reports, the first settlers of the Islands are believed to be the Berber people of Morocco though there is no clear evidence till now. Especially the caprine breeds of more likely North African origin in the Canary Islands, which were isolated for 1700 years until Spanish colonization, had an important influence in the constitution of the American mosaic of breeds and breed types (Capote et al., 2004). It is also reported the majority of the Canarian domestic animals, which were found before the conquest, are of virtually unknown origin; but most probably they are assumed from the African continent, for instance, the three types of Canarian Caprines (Fresno et al., 1992). However, mtDNA analysis of Pereira et al. (2009) couldn’t support the above assumption of gene flow between populations from the Canary Islands and the Maghreb (North West African countries except Egypt) rather the Y- chromosome analysis. Analysis of the Y chromosome revealed the presence of the three main haplotypes (Pereira et al., 2009) with the most frequent haplotype Y2 reaching 76.09% frequency in Morocco. Haplotypes Y1A and Y1B occur at 19.57% and 4.35% frequency, respectively, which is consistent with Amills et al. (2004) though it contradicts the mtDNA analysis of Pereira et al. (2009). In support of the mtDNA analysis, the plot of pair wise FST genetic distances indicates that the Canary goats are closer to Middle East goat than North Africa goat (Pereira et al., 2009) suggesting the Canary goats diverged from the centre of origin via Mediterranean Sea instead of terrestrial routes. This idea can be strengthened by the presence of strong phylogeographic relationships among Canary island populations compared with other regions (Amills et al., 2004). In general, though there is discordance between the mtDNA and Y-chromosome one can render the transportation of male flock from Asia to Morocco and then moved to Canary Islands. But, still it does not necessary mean the origin of Canarian goat populations is only from Africa. The mtDNA output (the maternal origin) has also a strong implication about the other origin of Canarian goats directly from the center of origin via Mediterranean Sea. The presence of variant A found in some of the breeds in the Canary Islands (Amills et a., 2004) might be because of the introgression between the native goats (variant B) with other European and African breeds in 500-600 years ago following the Spanish colonization (Capote et al., 1999). Y-chromosome analysis also re-evidenced the presence of bidirectional gene flow between Africa and southern Iberia (Pereira et al., 2009). However, there is no any genetic footprint of Iberian goats rather Canarias’s in South and Central American (SCA) which was explained in such a way that Iberian populations had a poor phylogeographic structure at the time of the American colonization, rather the Canarian goats contributed to the foundation of the current genetic pool of SCA goat breeds (eg. two Andean populations of Chile and Argentina are descended from Canarian goats) (Amills et al., 2008). The morphological similarity between Canarian and American goats is the other supporting evidence about the contribution of the Canarian goats to their American counterparts (Capote et al., 2004). In connection with this, there is a high diversity of mtDNA lineages in Moroccan populations with 54 different haplotypes (Pereira et al., 2009) which are similar in number and type of South and Central American goat haplotypes (Amills et al., 2008) that all belong to haplogroup A. Besides, Pereira et al. (2009) didn’t report the existence of this variant B in Morocco. However, there is no any concrete evidence about either the transportation of goats from the Canary Islands to SCA had been performed at a considerable scale or after one or few introduction events, rapidly disseminated in SCA (Amills et al., 2008). Still the point which needs to be clear is that if variant B is found in Canary Islands and Morocco, and all haplotypes found in SCA that belong to lineage A are descendants of the Canary Islands why variant B is not found in SCA? This could possibly be due to the limited coverage of the study populations in SCA and small sample size used and/or might be because of the absence of examining the divergence from the Y-chromosome perspective. The other possible reason is variant B might be extinct in SCA. The regional analysis of genetic diversity suggests nucleotide and haplotype diversities are particularly reduced in two Andean populations located in Chile and Argentina compared to Cape Verdean goats implying these two populations descended from Canarian goats (Amills et al., 2008). On the other hand, goats were first introduced to Brazil by the Portuguese settlers during the beginning of 16th century (Machado et al., 2000). Few decades before, “Undefined breed” (UDB) represents approximately 95% of the total Northeast Brazilian goat population (Programa, 1979). Even though there is very limited reports of molecular data on the introduction of goats into the African continent, the archaeological data indicate that domestic goats were first introduced into the African continent from Southwest Asia through the eastern Sahara and Red Sea Hills in 7,000 year ago (Hassan, 2000). Similarly, the archaeological data evidenced that goats and sheep spread rapidly from the Near East into the central Sahara and Ethiopian highlands between 6,500 BP and 5,000 BP (Clutton-Brock, 2000) and later expanded to south because of, besides to the tsetse barrier, the increasing aridity of North Africa (Smith, 1992). Radiocarbon dates of goat and sheep bones from various archaeological sites along the North African coast (dated 6,000 BP at Grotte Capeletti in Algeria or 6,800 BP at Haua Fteah in Cyrenaica, Libya) are similar to those excavated in the eastern Sahara, suggesting a very rapid dispersal of small ruminants from Southwest Asia into North Africa between 7,000 BP and 6,000 BP (Hassan, 2000). In contrast to this, mtDNA diversity (in the “big” lineage A) suggested recent time of expansion (<3,000 years ago) in the African continent via south of Saharan desert (Luikart et al., 2006). The route of introduction into the African region is believed either through the present-day Sahara desert by overland diffusion or along the Mediterranean coast (Hassan, 2000) (figure 3). The mtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses strengthened the use of both Mediterranean route in the east-to-west movement of domestic goats and the terrestrial transport along the North African continent (Pereira et al., 2009). Apart from the introduction into Africa the median joining trees revealed how goats were introduced in to Europe (Pereira et al. (2009); hence, the following is summary of goats introduction into other regions:  Mediterranean Sea to Morocco to Algeria to Tunisia; Mediterranean Sea to Algeria to Tunisia; Morocco to Algeria  Near East via Mediterranean Sea to Iberia peninsula back to south Europe; Near East via Mediterranean Sea to Morocco; Near East via Mediterranean Sea to Algeria; Near East directly to Egypt; Near East via Mediterranean Sea to Sicily to South Europe /from South Europe back to Sicily However, there is no any indication of Median joining network on the movement of domestic goat from Egypt to North Africa (e.g Morocco) rather this route might be extended from Egypt directly to Ethiopia following the Nile rift valley. The absence of Egypt route to North West Africa seems contradictory with the archeological findings. Figure 3. Global divergence routes of domestic goat: (adapted from Luikart et al., 2001; Sultana et al., 2003; Joshi et al., 2004; Amills et al., 2004&2008; Pereira et al., 2005&2009; Caňón et al., 2006; Fernández et al., 2006; Naderi 2007&8; Nomura et al., 2012). Identified gaps and the way forward Sample size and sampling in general highly determine to reveal the exact source of origin of domestication and divergence of species. The report made by Nomura et al. (2013) can be a very good indication of how sampling matters in revealing the divergence of animals and organisms in general, while sampling other haplogroups were overlooked rather focused on haplogroup A and B1. The contribution of other haplogroups other than haplogroup A might be masqueraded to see other origins of goat or level of confirmation of the haplogroups in the same origin (MacHugh and Bradley, 2001). Haplogroup A takes the lion share of the present divergence of goat globally (Luikart et al., 2001). Similarly, some works conducted earlier, like Luikart et al. (2001&2006), were addressed with few number of sample size and the wild samples were from zoo where hybridization is possible and provenance can be dubious. With respect to sample size, Luikart et al. (2006) confirmed that samples from additional wild populations of C. falconeri, the second closest specie next to C.aegagrus to domestic goat, are needed to reject the possibility that C. falconeri gave rise to cashmere breeds or to other domestic goats from eastern Asia. Despite the wider area coverage Amills et al. (2008) had also used small sample size. On the other hand, inferences about the location of origin from a single type of pattern of molecular data (e.g., diversity levels) should only be made with caution because they can be unsatisfactory or even potentially misleading; rather it is advisable to incorporate information from several analyses, such as the geographic distribution of lineages and also historical or temporal distributions (e.g. using ancient DNA) (Luikart et al., 2006). In addition, despite the highest informativeness of mtDNA for the study of origin and divergence of species it is suggested to complement the efforts made by mtDNA with Y chromosome since the later has a nature of being non-recombination (MacHugh and Bradley, 2001). The effort made in combining mtDNA with Y-chromosome in the study of origin and divergence of goat populations is very much limited. Luikart et al. (2006) had also suggested that ancient DNA sequencing in combination with extensive sampling of contemporary local breeds provides exciting potential as a method of inferring the origins and diffusion of domestic taxa; especially, combining archaeozoological and ancient DNA studies to assess the pattern of diffusion of DNA lineages through time and space would be very informative. Because of the variation in fruition of vitality of the two DNA types it is highly required to combine the nuclear DNA with mtDNA for the study of population structure. References Abdel-Aziz M. 2010. Present status of the world goat populations and their productivity. Lohmann information. Vol. 45 (2), Oct. 2010. Amills, M., Capote, J., Toma`s, A., Kelly, L., Obexer-Ruff, G., Angiolillo, A. and Sanchez, A. 2004. Strong phylogeographic relationships among three goat breeds from the Canary Islands. Journal of Dairy Research (2004) 71 257–262. Amills, M., Ramı´rez, O. Toma`s, A. Badaoui, B. Marmi, J. Acosta, J. 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Documenting Domestication: New genetic and archaeological paradigms. U N I V E R S I T Y O F C A L I F O R N I A P R E S S. Berkeley Los Angeles London. Zilháo, J. 2001. Radiocarbon evidence for maritime pioneer colonization at the origin of farming in west Mediterranean Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:14180-14185. Improving milk production of dairy goats using locally available feed resources in semiarid areas of central Tanzania Chenyambuga, S.W.1*,Msaki, D.T.1, Ndemanisho, E.E.1 and Komwihangilo, D.M.2 1Department of Animal Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania; 2National Livestock Production Research Institute, P.O. Box 202, Mpwapwa, Tanzania. *Corresponding author: chenyasw@yahoo.com and chenya@suanet.ac.tz Abstract In Tanzania dairy goats kept in rural areas are fed on natural pastures and cereal crop residues using the cut and carry system. These natural pastures and crop residues have low protein content and digestibility. On the other hand commercial concentrates are not readily available and/or too expensive for small-scale farmers, hence, are rarely used in goat feeding. An on-farm experiment was conducted for a period of 90 days to evaluate the effects of supplementing dairy goats with diets containing locally available protein sources on feed intake, weight gain and milk yield. Three iso-protein diets were formulated based on Ficus thoningii leaf meal (FLM), Melia azederach leaf meal (MLM) and sunflower seed cake (SFC) as sources of protein for treatments T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Treatment T4 was based on the farmers’ feeding practice. A total of 24 lactating does were used and six does were randomly allocated to each treatment. Milk production of does fed T3, T2 and T1 increased from 1.9 to 2.9, 1.7 to 2.5 and 1.6 to 2.3 l/day. Does supplemented with T3 produced the highest total milk yield (230.6 ± 9.5 l) while those on T4 had the lowest yield (140.2 ± 9.8 l). It is concluded that supplementation of MLM containing diet improved milk yield to the same level as supplementation with diet containing SFC, hence, MLM can substitute SFC in dairy goat diets and thus reduce the feed costs and increase the profits of dairy goat production. Keywords: Dairy goats, leaf meal, milk yield, sunflower seed cake, supplementation Ethnoveterinary practices against common parasitism in smallholders' goat farming systems in southern Cameroon Meutchieye, F.1*, Njayou, N.A.2, Tebug, T.T.1, Tchouankui, N.H.2, Tchouagoue, E.R.2, Simeni, K.F.2, Ayissi, D.S.1, Choupamom, J.3, Ebangi, L.A.3, Djomika, J.T.4 and Agaba, M.5 1Department of Animal Science, University of Dschang, Cameroon; 2Institut des Sciences de la Santé, Université des Montagnes, Bangangte, Cameroon; 3Institut de la Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, Mankon, Cameroon; 4 Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, Yaoundé, Cameroon; 5Biosciences in eastern and central Africa, ILRI, Kenya *Corresponding author: fmeutchieye@gmail.com Abstract Goats are present in majority of smallholder production systems in Cameroon. Among constraints, parasitic diseases have been hampering productivity and viability of flock. In order to understand solutions implemented by farmers, a participatory survey have been undertaken in southern region of Cameroon from October 2013 to March 2014. Majority of farmers did make use of indigenous knowledge to treat their animals, using a total of 29 plant species belonging to the 18 following families: Anarcadiaceae, Annonaceae, Asteraceae, Combretaceae, Commelinaceae, Cypereaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Guttifereae, Hyacinthaceae, Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae, Musaceae, Palmaceae, Sapindaceae, Solanaceae and Stertuliaceae. Medicinal preparation recipes varied from maceration to ashes of leaves, fruits, bark or roots. The effectiveness of curative treatments is under experimental screening for better utilization. Key words: Caprine, Diseases, Husbandry, Treatments. Introduction Goat farming plays various roles for African populations, particularly to address poverty insecurity (Ikwuegbu et al., 1994) and animal protein in a context of fast growing demand (Ayissi-Mbala, 1992). Health management has been pointed out as one of the major constraints to higher productivity in dominant smallholder goat farming systems in Cameroon (Ndamukong et al., 1990; Manjeli et al., 1996). Besides the so called modern treatments, indigenous knowledge constitutes a source of solution for many livestock keepers (Tambi, 1989; Halewood, 2003). The essence of our present study was to contribute to the inventory of usual plants involved in goat ethnoveterinary treatments against parasitic diseases. Material and methods A total of 650 goat keepers were randomly surveyed in Cameroon southern humid regions based on the information that they were used to ethnoveterinary practices. Besides the local names, recipes and treatment modes, plant portions were collected, and photos taken. Species samples were formally identified using recent botanical keys and confirmed by the National Herbarium. Results Our preliminary findings show that goat farmers made use of diverse plant resources, derived from their cultural background and their direct environment. For majority, recipes were collected either from other farmers or from their relatives. Dosages were dependant mostly on symptomatic observations and experience of goat farmers (data not shown). The table 1 here below gives the list of plant species identified. Table 1: List of families, plant species and parts used in goat ethnoveterinary treatments Family Species Parts used for treatment Anarcadiaceae Pseudospondias macrocarpa A. Rich. Engl Leaves Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers Fruits (edible) and leaves Asteraceae Chenopodium ambrozoides Linn Conyza sumertrensis (Retz) E. Walker Laggera pterodonta (DC.) SchumBip. exOliv. Vernonia amygdalina Vernonia guineensis Benth Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Combretaceae Terminalia mollis M. A. Lawson Leaves and barks Commelinaceae Commelina zenkerii Leaves Cypereaceae Cyperus articulates Linn. Leaves and rhizomes Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris kirbi (HR.) Alton. Rhizomes Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L Leaves, stem and flowers Fabaceae Crotalaria sp Tephrosia vogelii Hook.F. Leaves Leaves Guttifereae Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. Psorospermum febrifugum Spach Leaves and barks Leaves Hyacinthaceae Scilla sudanica A. Chev Leaves Myrsinaceae Maesa lanceolata Forssk Leaves Myrtaceae Psidium guyava Eucalyptus sp Leaves Leaves Musaceae Musa sapient Leaves Palmaceae Elaeias guinensis Nuts (edible) and leaves ashes Sapindaceae Paullinia pinnata L Leaves Solanaceae Nicotina tabacum Linn. Physalis peruviana L. Solanum aculeastrum Sw Solanum incanum L Solanum torvum Sw Leaves Fruits (edible) and leaves Fruits Fruits (food additives) Fruits Stertuliaceae Cola nitida Barks As displayed by table 1 here above, leaves appeared to be the mostly used, followed by fruits and barks. Roots or pseudo stems (rhizomes) were less frequent. Plants parts were used as decoction, or powder, served alone with water or barely in a combination with other mineral (salts, bicarbonates) or organic (palm oil) ingredients. Discussion, conclusion and implications Use of available plant resources for their animal treatments has been frequently reported in smallholder goat keeping (Ndamukong et al., 1990; Ademosun, 1994; Manjeli et al., 1996). Goat farmers like other livestock keepers adopt slowly new technologies when they are convinced to have better and customized solutions at hand (Tambi, 1989; Halewood, 2003). Some of their claims after laboratory screening showed very interesting and promising results against parasites (Pamo et al., 2002). Cameroon smallholder goat farmers have a variety of treatments against parasitic diseases of their animals, generally developed by slow and long term experiences. Besides the better husbandry practices to improve health status of the flock, subsequent analysis of various plants chemical composition could be useful for drug discovery and development, for better use in rural contexts. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support provided by the Biosciences eastern and central Africa hub at the International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI Hub) and by the Swedish Government through the Project SWE010-GDL which made this work possible. Special thanks to Tacham Walters Ndam, Ethnobotanist for the identification of collected species. References Ademosun, A.A., 1994. Constraints and prospects for small ruminant research and development in Africa. Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network; AICC, Arusha, Tanzania; 7-11 December 1992 Edited by: S.H.B. Lebbie; B. Rey; E.K. Irungu. Ayissi-Mbala, J.P. 1992. Short-run demand for goat meat in Cameroon. Proceedings of the First Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network, ILRAD, Nairobi, Kenya, 10-14 December 1990. Edited by Rey; S.H.B. Lebbie; L. Reynolds. Halewood, M. 2003. Ressources génétiques, savoirs traditionnels et droit international. In CIP- UPWARD (ed), Conservation and Sustainable Use of Agricultural Biodiversity : A Sourcebook. Volume 3, pp: 501-513. Ikwuegbu, O. A., Tarawali G., and Njwe, R. M. 1994. The role of the West African Dwarf goat in the economy of the smallholder arable farmer in the sub humid zone of Nigeria. Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network; AICC, Arusha, Tanzania; 7-11 December 1992 Edited by: S.H.B. Lebbie; B. Rey; E.K. Irungu. Manjeli, Y., Tchoumboué, J., Téguia, A., Zango, P. 1996. Productivity of West African Dwarf Goats under traditionnal management in the western Highlands of Cameroon. World Review of Animal Production, Vol. 31 (1-2): 88-92. Ndamukong, K. J. N., Sewell, M.M.H., and Asanji, M.F. 1990. Traditional sheep and goat production in North West province, Cameroon. Proceedings of the Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network, Bamenda, Cameroon, 18-25 January 1989. Edited by R. Trevor Wilson and Azeb Melaku. Pamo, E.T., Tapondjou, L., Tenekeu, G., and Tendonkeng, F. 2002. Bioactivit de l’huile essentielle des feuilles de l’Ageratum houstonianum Mill sur les tiques (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) de la chèvre naine de Guin e dans l’ouest Cameroun. Tropicultura, 20 (3): 109-112. Tambi, E.N., 1989. Smallholder livestock production: Constraints on the adoption of improved technologies. Proceedings of the fourth annual workshop held at the Institute of Animal Research, Mankon Station, Bamenda, Cameroon 20-27 October 1987. Edited by A.N. Said and B.H. Dzowela. Phenotypic features of Cameroon native goat under traditional management Meutchieye, F.1, Katchouang, A.S.1, Tangomo, T.1, Ayissi, D.S.1, Agaba, M.2 and Manjeli, Y.1 1Department of Animal Science, University of Dschang, Cameroon; 2Biosciences in eastern and central Africa, ILRI Hub, Kenya. *Corresponding author: fmeutchieye@gmail.com Abstract In order to assess genetic variability of native goats under traditional conditions, a total of 511 mature goats were sampled in 2 agro ecological zones, Coastal (n=262) and High Humid Savannah (n=249) regions. According to coat color patterns polymorphisms, goat populations are highly variegated with IPa and IPs equal to 1. Coat colors varied from solid black to full white, with many black, red, brown, and white combinations, with black predominant. Mean body measurements were as follows: live body weight, 22kg; height at withers, 50cm; body length, 57cm; horn length, 9cm; heart girth, 67cm. While goats in High Savannah region tended to be slender, those of Coastal were mostly compact. Goats were kept for meat (household consumption or sales alive). Our findings show the tendency of smallholder goat farmers to maintain genetic diversity, based on visible polymorphisms for different purposes. Further investigations will help to understand the rationale and widely management strategies applicable to domestic animals under similar conditions. Key words: Cameroon, Genetic resources, Husbandry, Variability visible, polymorphisms. Introduction Native genetic resources are seriously threatened all over the world for many reasons (Danchin- Burge, 2002). Varieties of tools have been developed to evaluate and monitor animal genetic resources, among which visible polymorphisms are important in domestic species (Lauvergne et al., 2011). Based on metrics and coat variability, experimental studies were done in Africa (Bourzat et al., 1993; Khemeci et al., 1996) and in Europe (Bouchel et al., 1997) to estimate goats’ population diversity. Our study aimed at assessing genetic variability in Cameroon native goat populations under traditional management. Material and methods A total of 511 mature and unrelated goats were randomly sampled in 2 agro ecological zones, Coastal (n=262) and High Humid Savannah (n=249) regions. Coat colour patterns developed by Lauvergne et al., (1993) were applied while body measurements were collected following the method described by Bouchel et al., (1997). An individual data sheet was used integrating collection sites waypoints. Results It appears from our study that the Cameroon native goats displayed all the existing coat colour patterns, with very new combinations as shown by table 1 here below. a. Eumelanic b. Badger face c. Spotted legs Eumelanic d. White belly Eumelanic e. Front mantled f. Back mantled g. Chamoisé h. Wild i. White without list j. Phaeomelanic k. White belly Phaeomelanic l. Variegated Figure 1: Coat color patterns identified in Cameroon native goats Cameroon native goat populations are highly variegated with index to Agouti locus (IPa and IPs) equal to 1. Coat colors varied from solid black to full white, with many black, red, brown, and white combinations, with black predominant. Mean body measurements were as follows (data not shown): live body weight, 22kg; height at withers, 50cm; body length, 57cm; horn length, 9cm; heart girth, 67cm. While goats in High Savannah region tended to be slender, those of Coastal were mostly compact. Goats were kept mostly for meat (household consumption or sales alive). Discussion, conclusion and implications Goats keepers in many tropical countries tend to maintain high visible polymorphisms in their flock (Lauvergne et al., 1993; Khemeci et al., 1996). Some of the qualitative traits are regarded as indicators of important breeding characters (Ozoje, 2002). Thus, Cameroon goat populations are variegated and could be considered as primary or traditional populations, with a high maintenance of recent mutants (Lauvergne et al., 2011). The variability of body measurements could be explained by spatial and ecological conditions (Dossa et al., 2007). Some of the body measurements are evolution indicators and selection potential in goats (Lauvergne et al., 1997). Our study shows that Cameroon native goats are belonging to traditional or primary populations, giving thus high possibilities to selection for development of breeds depending on targeted objectives. This study also shows that better management policies are needed for proper conservation and utilization purposes. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support provided by the Biosciences eastern and central Africa hub at the International Livestock Research Institute (BecA-ILRI Hub) and by the Swedish Government through the Project SWE010-GDL which made this work possible. References Bouchel, D., Lauvergne, J.J., Guibert, E., Minvielle, F. 1997. Etude morpho-biométrique de la chèvre du Rove. Hauteur au garrot (HG), profondeur du thorax (PT), vide sous-sternal (VSS) et indice de gracilité sous-sternale (IGs) chez les femelles. INRA Prod Anim. 148 (6) : 37-46. Bourzat, D., Souvenir-Zafindrajaona, P., Lauvergne, J.J., Zeuh V. 1993. Comparaison morpho- biométrique de chèvres au Nord Cameroun et au Tchad. Revue Elev. Méd. vét. Pays trop. 46 (4): 667-674. Danchin-Burge, C. 2002. Les races locales caprines : du délaissement au développement. D partement de G n tique, Institut de l’Elevage. pp.17 http://www.inst- elevage.asso.fr/html1/IMG/pdf/BilanOuest03.pdf Dossa, L.H., Wollny, C., Gauly, M., 2007. Spatial variation in goat populations from Benin as revealed by multivariate analysis of morphologocal traits. Small Rumin. Res. 73: 150– 159 Khemici, E., Mamou, M., Lounis, A., Bounihi, D., Ouachem, D., Merad, T., Boukhetala, K. 1996. Etude des ressources g n tiques caprines du nord à l’aide des indices de primarité. Animal Genetic Resources Information, N°17: 61-71. Lauvergne, J.J., Millar, P., Meutchieye, F. and Bouchel, D. 2011. Visible genetic polymorphisms in domesticated animal species (Review). CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2011 6, No. 060 Lauvergne, J.J., Bouchel, D., Minvielle, F., Guibert, E. 1997. Etude morpho-biométrique de la chèvre du Rove.II. Longueur d’oreille (LO) et indice auriculothoracique (Iat) chez les femelles. INRA Prod Anim. 148 (6): 501-510. Ozoje, M.O. 2002. Incidence and relative effects of qualitative traits in the west African dwarf goat. Small Rumin. Res. 43: 97-100. Optimizing calf feeding, survival and weaning weights on smallholder farms for increased availability of replacement heifers in Kenya Kiragu, J.W.1, Badamana, S.M.2, Mitaru, B.N.2, Kabuage, L.W.2 and Irungu, K.R.G.1 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Naivasha, Kenya P.O. Box 25, Naivasha, Kenya; 2Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Department of Animal Production. P.O. Box. 29053-00625 Nairobi. *Corresponding author: judykiragu@yahoo.com Abstract Situation analysis is often the starting point in projects supporting interventions to improve dairy calf and heifer rearing on smallholder farms. The objective of this study was to evaluate various calf rearing practices on smallholder farms in Nyandarua County, Kenya and suggest improvements based on recommended standards. A survey was conducted on smallholder farms in Nyandarua County using questionnaires and farm visits to characterize calf rearing practices and determine factors limiting performance. Mean farm sizes was 3.5±1.8 ha. Most of the farmers were females, with a primary level of education, and majority kept 1-3 milking cows that yielded 5-10 milk/cow/day). Major dairy breeds were Friesian, Ayrshire and crosses with an average of 6 heads cattle per farm. The study revealed that, both pre-weaning and post- weaning calf nutrition and management was poor in over 50% of the survey farms especially during the dry season. Major problems included delayed colostrum feeding, inadequate milk feeding, inadequate concentrate supplementation, poor housing and high calf mortality rates. Overall, the body condition score of the weaned calves was poor, ranging from 1.3 to 2.5 especially during the dry season an indication of weaning stress. Napier grass (Penniseturm purpureum), natural pastures and forage legumes formed the major feed resource for weaned calves especially during wet season while crop residues were used during dry season. However, these feeds were low in crude protein (CP<80g/kg DM) and high in fibre (NDF >600g/kg DM) indicating that calves fed these forages could have low feed intake and poor growth. Nutritional improvement could be achieved by supplementing low quality tropical forages with forage legumes which are cheaper than concentrates and have ability to improve rumen microbial activity and animal performance for early weaned calves. Keywords: Smallholder farms, calf rearing practices, milk feeding, housing, weaning and mortality Introduction Kenya is the leading milk producer in Eastern Africa and produces an estimated 4 to 5 billion litres of milk annually from a herd of about 4 million dairy cows (Wanbugu et al., 2011). Much of this milk is produced by smallholder dairy farmers who account for 80% of the national milk production (Wambugu et al., 2011). Sustainability of the dairy production on the smallholder farm depends on efficiency of rearing dairy calves for replacements of low producing cows. However, smallholder dairy farmers in the tropics experience suboptimal production and high calf mortalities which can go up to 50% due to underfeeding (Moran 2011). In Kenya, smallholder dairy farms have recorded 10-30% calf mortality (Gitau et al., 1994) whereas the target calf mortality in well managed herds should be less than 5% (Umoh, 1992). Lack of dairy replacements heifers is one of the major limitations to the development of smallholder dairy production in Kenya. Calf survival is paramount for increased number of replacements heifers for selection and breeding. Proper nutrition is fundamental for calf growth and for the general profitability of the dairy industry. In rearing calves, the strategy is to optimize rumen development and growth while minimizing stress and diseases. This can be achieved by proper feeding of the calf with sufficient milk, 3 to 4 litres/day depending on the body weight and concentrates to stimulate rumen microbial development (Baldwin et al., 2004). Successful rearing of dairy calves depends on good nutrition, housing management and control of infectious diseases (Drackley, 2005). A situation analysis in the smallholder farms is essential to tailor interventions on improving dairy performance particularly calf and heifer rearing. The development of appropriate feeding strategy for young stock requires farmer’s participation and experimental trials to be conducted on their farms. Good calf rearing is important as it ensures availability of good future replacement heifers. In Kenya, young calves in most smallholder dairy farms perform poorly as most farmers have limited knowledge on proper calf feeding regimes and good management practices. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate various calf rearing practices on the smallholder farms in Nyandarua County, identify constraints limiting calf performance and make recommendations for improvements. Materials and Methods Survey areas The survey was conducted on smallholder farms in two divisions (Ol-Kalou and Ndaragua), Nyandarua County, Kenya using questionnaires and farm visits. Nyandarua County was selected because it is predominantly agricultural area, with dairy farming as an important economic activity and smallholders comprising over 80% of the farmers. Questionnaire Survey A formal survey was conducted using structural questionnaire on 85 smallholder dairy farms in Ol-Kalou and Ndaragua division of Nyandarua County. The questionnaire was pre-tested in a pilot study and modified before the main survey. The questionnaire captured household data including general farm characteristics, livestock production systems, calf rearing and feeding systems, calf management and health constraints. Feeds that were available to the calves were evaluated according to the type of forage. Different species from the forage bundles were separated and identified. Growth data of calves on selected farms were monitored monthly using body condition score on 20 randomly selected farms for comparison. The data collected from the survey farms and from the comparative study farms provided information enabling characterization of current farmers’ practice and ranking of constraints. Feed sampling and analysis: Available feeds used in the ration of dairy calves were sampled (grass, protein rich forages and concentrate supplements) during the wet and dry seasons and subjected to chemical analysis according to Association of Official Analytical Chemists (1990) and Van Soest et al. (1991). Statistical analysis: The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPPS) version 16 for Windows (SPSS 2004). Cross tabulations and chi-square analysis were used to determine associations. Results Farm household characteristics Majority of the farms (53.2%) were managed by women (Table: 1). This scenario has been reported in other developing countries such as Ethiopia and Uganda which have adapted dairying (Kabirizi et al., 2004). Most farmers (61.2%) had primary level of education. Educated farmers were able to interpret, make informed decisions and apply technical advice. Majority (72.4%) of the sampled farmers were fulltime dairy farmers and many of them had more than 10 years of experience in dairy farming. The farmers were smallholder mixed farmers with less than 10 ha/household. Land was intensively utilized for production of food crop and livestock. Table: 1. Demographic and household characteristics of smallholder farmers in Ol-Kalou and Ndaragua divisions of Nyandarua County, Kenya Household characteristics Survey study sites Ol-Kalou N=59 Ndaragua N=26 Overall mean Gender of household head (%) Female Male Age of the house hold head(years) Average land size (Ha) Highest education attained by household heads (%) None Primarily level Secondary level Tertiary level Livestock farming experience (years) Household’s major activities (%) Full time farmers Business and other employments 52.5 47.5 43.5±2.2 2.71±1.2 16.9 67.8 8.5 3.4 8±6 65.2 34.8 53.8 46.2 45.3±2.2 4.86±3.8 19.2 46.1 15.4 11.5 12±4 79.6 20.4 53.2 46.8 44.4±2.26 3.48±1.8 17.6 61.2 15.3 5.8 10±3 72.4 27.6 Dairy cattle were important in supplying milk, meat and household income. The cattle comprised 52% of the livestock species on the farms. Herds were composed of various cattle breeds including, Friesian (42%), Ayrshire (17%), Crosses (29%) and other breeds (12%). Other livestock species included sheep (41%), goats (7%), chicken (28%) and 4% donkeys. The large dairy breeds (Friesian and Ayrshire) have higher nutritional demands and performed poorly under smallholder feeding conditions due to feed scarcity (Bebe et al., 2008). The impact of feed inadequacy resulted in low cattle performance (Kabirizi et al., 2004). Basal feeds on smallholder farms The chemical composition of the available feeds for both dairy cattle and young stock in Nyandarua are shown in Table: 2. Napier, natural pasture and crop residues contributed the largest proportion of diets for weaned calves, which was in agreement with studies reported in developing countries. The feed composition varied with seasonal rainfall pattern and with plant species. Most grasses and crop residues were low in CP (43-79g/kg DM CP) and high in fibre (>600g/kgDM NDF) especially in the dry season which could limit feed intake and growth of young ruminants. However, protein rich forages grown as supplementary feeds contained three times as much crude protein (143-230 g/kg DM CP) compared to grass forages and were low in crude fibre (<600 g/kg DM) indicating their potential as protein supplements to low quality grasses (Norton and Poppi, 1995). Table 2. Chemical composition of feeds fed to weaned calves during dry and wet season on smallholder farms in Nyandarua County, Kenya Dry season Wet season Feed resources CP NDF CP NDF Napier grass Pasture Legume Crop residue (Maize Stover) 8.6±2.56a 6.7±1.61b 20.3±1.98c 3.4±13.0d 59.99±4.5a 69.49±6.6b 40.38±4.0c 77.9±9.20b 11.6±3.4ab 9.4±2.78b 23.7±2.81c 5.7±2.56d 51.45±8.0a 65.6±6.31b 30.4±5.32c 65.1±11.33b abcd Means with different superscript within a column are significantly different (P<0.01) Growth performance The growth pattern of calves, measured by body condition score, during wet and dry seasons are shown in Figure: 1. There was great variation in body condition score (BCS) of weaned calves with lowest score (1.3) during the dry season and improved score (2.8) during the wet seasons a reflection of seasonal variation in feed quality with rainfall pattern. Similar pattern of decline of daily gain (BW) from birth to weaning has previously been reported in other studies (Das et al., 1999; Kiragu et al., 2012). This supports our finding that, tropical forages cannot provide adequate nutrients for optimum growth of young stock unless supplemented with energy and protein rich feeds. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 Age in Months B o d y c o n d it io n s c o re s Dry season Wet season Figure: 1. Body condition score of young stock on smallholder farms in Nyandarua County Table: 3 shows the nutritional, management and health practices by smallholder farmers. Majority of the farmers (76%) on average owned at least one calf while 13 and 11 % of them owned 2 or more than 3 calves respectively. This indicated the need to rear more calves to replace old cows and herd expansion. Colostrum feeding was well adopted in (65%) as farmers fed colostrum to their calves within the first 6 hours after birth. Calves were housed separately from adult cattle on 73% of the farms. Most of calf pens were poorly maintained in majority (74%) of study farms. Majority of smallholder farmers, (98%), reared their calves artificially on whole milk. Most farmers, (88%) used bucket feeding method and fed their calves milk twice a day (76%) while 14% of them fed their calves milk thrice daily. Majority of the farmers (60%) dewormed their calves against parasites every three months. The preferred anthelminthic were broad spectrum (75%). Many farmers (79%) did not introduce solid feds to calves until the calves were 3 weeks of age, in with the belief that rumen was not developed. Supplementation was not common with more than 53% of the farms not supplementing and majority of the farmer who supplemented using low quality crop residues and grains. Weaning age ranged between 3 and 6 months. Majority of the farmers (76%) weaned their calves between 3 to 4 months of age. Most farmers housed calves in poorly maintained pens. Out of 22% of the farms, at least one calf had died during the past 2 years. More males (58%) than female (42%) were reported dead. Major of the diseases that caused death, as perceived by farmers, included diarrhoea, pneumonia, East Coast fever (ECF), starvation and helminths. Table: 3. Nutrition and management factors associated with calf performance in 85 smallholder dairy farms in Nyandarua as given in a questionnaire survey Factor Farm category Number (n) Percent Number of calves on the farm 1 65 76 2 11 13 3 9 11 Colostrum feeding Less than 6 hours 56 65 After six hours 29 30 Type of milk feeding feeds Whole milk 83 98 Milk replacer 2 2 Method of milk feeding regime Bucket 75 88 Residual calf suckling 10 12 Amount of milk feeding More than 4L/ day 62 73 Less than 4L/day 25 27 Frequency of feeding milk Three times daily 12 14 Twice daily 73 86 Time of introduction of water and solids Before3 week of age 18 21 After 3 weeks 67 79 Supplementation with concentrate No supplement 46 53 Legumes 20 25 Concentrates 19 22 Weaning age of calves Less than 3 month 9 11 3 to 4 months 65 76 5 to 6 months 11 13 Condition of calf house clean 22 26 Poor 63 74 Calf mortality in the past 2 years None 66 78 Yes 19 2 Sex Females 8 42 Males 11 58 Age at death 0-1month 9 47 2-3month 6 32 4-6 month 4 21 Season Wet 11 58 Dry 8 42 Farmers’ perception of cause of calf death none 66 78 Diarrhoea 5 6 Pneumonia 8 9 East Coast Fever 7 8 Helminthes 2 2 Discussion According to the study, majority of smallholder farmers were females who were mostly involved in the mixed dairy farming enterprise for economic gains. This indicates that smallholder dairy farming provided self–employment to women, contributing significantly to poverty alleviation. Farmers kept small number of dairy animals herds which could be managed with scarce feed resource. Sustainability of the dairy herds depended on well reared calves to replace low producing cows. Hence, the aim of the study was train farmers about calf rearing especially women to enable then get technical information to optimize growth and survival of future heifers productivity Practically, all the farmers were aware of the importance of colostrum feeding to their new born calves especially for the first few days of birth. Colostrum supplies a wholesome diet to the neonate and plays significant roles in calf’s host defense mechanism system. Colostrum has 14% crude protein which aids in prevention of mortality and morbidity (Fisher 2000). Feeding colostrum immediately after calving (less than 6 hrs) to calves using the bucket was recommended. The few farmers who delayed colostrum feeding or left the calf to suckle the dam were discouraged. Godden (2009) recommended that the calf should not suckle directly from the dam to avoid contamination from pathogens on the udder. Adequate milk intake by calves during the first 3 months of age was very important for good health and fast growth. However, it was evident that some farmers (25%) underfed (<4lt/day) their calves leading to retarded growth rates and high mortalities. It is recommended that calves should be fed 10% of their body weight as milk, together with solid feeds to stimulate rumen development (Khan et al., 2007). It is recommended that water and solid feed be continuously available to dairy calves by 3 day of age ( Drackley, 2005). Very few farmers (22%) indicated that they used concentrate or crushed maize grain only to feed calves which is a similar practice as recorded by Lyimo et al. (2004), who noted that some farmes used only maize bran as the calf concentrate. In some cases, calves were fed on contaminated maize which was milled and mixed with bran. Maize grain averaged 9-12% CP, yet dairy calves requirements was 130-160g CP/kg DM in calf concentrates (Lyimo et al., 2004). However, few proportion (25%) of farmers supplemented with protein rich forages such as Lucerne, vetch and sweet potato vines. The protein rich forages provided cheap protein supplement and fiber essential for stimulating rumen microbial development for early weaning (Khan et al., 2007). It is worrying that 53% of the farmes in both study farms did not use concentrate wgich they considered expensive. This was despite that creep feeding enables early weaning and hence some milk saving. Farmers provided their calves with poor-quality feeds mainly Napier grass, natural pastures, and dry crop residues. The proportion of feeds and quantities offered was determined in most farms by their availability. The nutritional value of these feed according to the analysis were lower than legumes and varried with seasonal rainfal pattern (Table 2). There was scarcity of protein as majority (53%) of farmers did not supplement with concentrates. This was disadvantageous in that most tropical forages are of poor nutritional content as well as low palatability and thus do not provide enough nutrients to meet the calf’s requirements for optimal growth (Changa et al 2011). Weaning age was higher than the average (7-8 weeks) often recommended in other studies (Kehoe et al. 2007; Kiragu et al., 2008). Probably, this late weaning age often was due to unavailability of high–quality feeds, especially concentrate supplements. The earlier that rumen activity is initiated, the earlier the calf will utilize substantial amounts of dry feed. The overall calf mortality rate of 22% in the farms was slightly higher than the 20.7% reported in farms in Muranga (Gitau et al., 1994). Both values were higher than the16% mortality reported in Zimbambwe (Moran, 2011). However, calf mortality in well-managed farm did not exceed 5% during the first 30 days of life in some farms in Nigeria (Umoh, 1982). Diarrhoea, pneumonia, tick borne diseases and worm burden were the main diseases of young calves on the farms which agree with other reports (Gitau et al.1994). These diseases have been recognized as major constraints in livestock production in Kenya. CONCLUSION  The results of this study show that majority of smallholders raised their own replacements and research interventions have to focus on calf rearing methods, supplementation, weaning strategies, calf housing and health management  Cultivation of protein rich forages for improvement in feed quality is recommeneded. References AOAC (1990). Official Methods of Analysis.15thedition.Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, Virginia. Bebe O (2008). 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(2007) Effect of weaning age and milk feeding frequency on dairy calf growth, health and rumen parameters. Livestock Science. 110: (3), 267-272 Kiragu, J.W, B.N.Mitaru, S.M. Badamana, L.W. Kabuage, T.A.Ngatia; J.N. Kariuki, T. K. Muasya and K.R.G.Irungu (2012). Performance of Sahiwal and crossbred calves reared on restricted amount of milk and grazing and the strategies for improvement. Proceedings of the 13th KARI Scientific Conference, 21st to 27th November, 2012. Nairobi, Kenya. Kiragu J.W, Mitaru B N, Siamba dn, Irungu K.R.G and Ngatia S.K (2008). Strategies for early weaning of dairy calves based on forages and solid feeds on growth and rumen function. Paper presented at the 11th Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Biennial Scientific Confrence, 10th- 14th November 2008, Nairobi, Kenya. 17. Lyimo. H.L.N.,Mtenga, L.A., Kimombo, A.E., Hveelplund T., Laswai G.H. and Weibjerg, M.R., (2004). A survey on calf feeding systems, problems and improvements options available for the smallholder dairy farmers of Turiani in Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Dairy Development, 1(23), 1-8 Moran J.B (2011). Factors affecting high mortality rates of Dairy Replacement Calves and Heifers in the Tropics and Stratergies for Their Reduction. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science 24. No. 9:1318-1328. Norton, B.W., Poppi, D.P. (1995). Composition and nutritional attributes of pasture legumes. In: D’Mello, J.F.P., Devendra, C. (Eds.), Tropical Legume in Animal Nutrition. CAB International, Wallingford, pp. 23-47. SPSS. 2004. SPSS for introductory stastics, Use and interpretation. Version12. Lawrence ErIbaum , Associates, Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersey, London. Umoh. J. U. (1982). Relative survival of calves in a University herd in Zaria, Nigeria. Br. Vet J., 138; 507-514. Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. and Lewis, B.A. (1991): Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science.74:3583-3597. Wambugu, S, Karimi L andd Opiyo J 2011. Profuctivity trends and performance of dairy farming in Kenya. Publication of the Tegemeo Institute, Egerton University, Kenya, pp.45. Population viability analysis of the Kenya Sahiwal cattle breed Kamiti, D.N.1, Kahi, A.K.1, Bett, R.C.2 and Ilatsia, E.D.3* 1Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, 20115, Egerton, Kenya; 2Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya; 3Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 25, Naivasha, Kenya. *Corresponding author: evansilatsia@yahoo.com Abstract Sahiwal cattle genetic resources are an integral part of the livelihoods of pastoral communities where they play both tangible and intangible roles. However this important genetic resource is faced with challenges that make it vulnerable to extinction and consequently threatens the livelihoods of its primary dependants. The objective of this study was therefore to conduct a population viability analysis (PVA) of the main herd of the breed at the National Sahiwal Stud (NSS) so as to predict the likely future status of the herd population under the current management practices. Population viability analysis was conducted using VORTEX version 9.98 to assess its extinction probabilities and to compare different management scenarios. The results showed that the population size was predicted to increase at a deterministic rate of 12.5% and stochastic rate of 3.2% per year before any truncation due to limited carrying capacity (K). Female mortality prolonged generation time for both males and females whereas male mortality had no effect on generation time. High proportion of breeding males improved genetic diversity of the herd while increased breeding females increased the viability of the herd. The study revealed that the Sahiwal population is stable and not going extinct, as theoretically perceived. Key words: extinction, management, NSS Introduction An increasing number of livestock breeds are at a risk of extinction in the near future due to changes in production systems, mechanization, loss of rangeland grazing resources, droughts, floods, disease outbreaks, inappropriate breeding policies and practices, and increasing human population growth (FAO,2007a). Over the past 15 years, about 300 of 6000 breeds of farm animals identified by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have become extinct (Scherf, 2000; FAO, 2007). A field literature survey revealed that sub-Saharan Africa is home to a total of 145 cattle breeds, out of which 47 (about 32%) are considered to be at risk of extinction (Rege, 1999). Already a total of 22 breeds (about 13%) previously recognised in the continent have become extinct in the last century (Rege, 1999). According to a report by Reist-Marti et al., (2003), nearly half of the current cattle diversity and cattle breeds in Africa will be lost in the next 20-50 years if conservation measures to reverse this trend are not developed and implemented. Current phenomena that include climate change and rapid population growth makes conservation of livestock species that our future food supply could someday depend upon vital. They provide important benefits and have many valuable characteristics such as disease resistance, extreme climate tolerance, high milk production, and the ability to utilize poor pastures (FAO 2007). It is therefore crucial to assess the extinction probabilities of livestock breeds whose statuses are not yet known so as to develop and implement management measures that would increase survival of such breeds. Populations with comparatively low effective population sizes and long generation intervals are particularly vulnerable to the risk of extinction (Zachos et al., 2009). Sahiwal cattle breed is one such breed with relatively small sub- populations located in Asia and Africa (Ilatsia et al., 2011a). Despite its immense economic contributions to the livelihoods of pastoral communities, the breed faces several challenges that include high risks of inbreeding, drought related challenges, competition from exotics and indiscriminate crossbreeding (Ilatsia et al., 2011a; Ilatsia et al., 2011b). Therefore, the Kenya Sahiwal cattle breed is vulnerable to extinction and consequently a population viability analysis (PVA) is crucial so as to form the basis for putting in place strategies that will enhance conservation and sustainable utilization. The objective of this study was thus to conduct a PVA of the main herd of the breed at the National Sahiwal Stud (NSS) so as to predict the likely future status of the breed population. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to determine the most influential parameters affecting the breed viability. Methodology The modeling exercise required a set of parameters to describe the biological characteristics and stochastic events of the herd. The herd was chosen because it constitutes purebred Sahiwal cattle and is the leading source of breeding stock for both pastoralists and other nucleus herds. The input parameters were as follows: breeding system, age of first reproduction, age of reproductive senescence, offspring production, breeding pool, mortality, catastrophe, carrying capacity (K), population augmentation and harvest, iterations and years of projection, inbreeding depression, and initial population size. Data analysis Population viability analysis was conducted to assess extinction probabilities. In this study, VORTEX Version 9.98 software (Lacy, 1993) was used for the analysis. It simulates deterministic and stochastic factors affecting the dynamics of a population. Each simulation was run for 500 iterations, running 100years with quasi-extinction threshold defined as a population size less than 50 individuals. Demographic information was obtained for each projection at annual intervals. Not all parameters included in the PVA model are likely to be equally important in influencing the population’s long-term viability. Therefore a sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the parameters most sensitive to the survival of the main herd of the Kenya Sahiwal cattle breed. The value of parameters used in baseline model and sensitivity analysis are summarized in Table 1. Each parameter was given variable levels while all other parameters were kept constant. The impact of a change of the selected parameters was assessed using VORTEX version 9.98. Table 1: Input values for the baseline model and sensitivity analysis parameters Parameter Baseline model Sensitivity test Age of first offspring for males 2 2-10 Carrying capacity 3000 1500-6000 Initial population size 1200 250-3000 Maximum age of reproduction 15 9-20 Percent adult females breeding 85 5-85 Percent males successfully siring offspring 2.5 0.5-5 Percent mortality of females from age 0 to 1year 20 0-50 Percent mortality of females from age 1 to 2year 5 0-50 Percent mortality of females from age 2 to 3year 5 0-50 Percent mortality of males from age 0 to 1year 22 0-50 Percent mortality of males from age 1 to 2 year 5 0-50 Percent mortality of males from age 2 to 3 year 5 0-50 The sensitivity index for each parameter was calculated following Pulliam et al. (1992) as: )//()/( PPxxSx  Where: ∆x/x is the change in a parameter resulting from a change of ∆P/P in input variable P. Results and discussion The aim of the baseline model was to assess the current management scenario at NSS and to be used as a basis for conducting sensitivity tests. The prediction revealed that the Sahiwal population is stable and not going extinct, as theoretically perceived. Over the years, the population size is poised to increase gradually after which it will be constrained by the K. According to the results, the population size was predicted to increase at a deterministic rate of 12.5% and stochastic growth rate of 3.2% per year before any truncation due to limited K. However, the original heterozygosity of the population will be lost with time, an observation that is directly linked to the closed nature of the breeding programme, (Meyn and Wilkins, 1974), where there is very limited exchange of genes among the existing nucleus herds(Ilatsia et al., 2011c). The basic model showed that generation length for males was shorter than for females. These results contradict an earlier preliminary study on the population structure of the breed by Muasya et al., (2011) that showed shorter generation length in dam lines compared to sire lines. This contradiction could be expected because the baseline model used in this study ignored the influence of progeny testing. Sensitivity test Carrying capacity: Increased K resulted in large population size after 100 years. Reducing K by half resulted in final population size decrease by 50.0% while doubling K increased the final population size by 62.7%. Carrying capacity had very minimal effect on population heterozygosity whereas doubling K increased heterozygosity of the population by 0.5% only. When K is fixed to a certain number of individuals, increasing the initial population size does not promote population growth. According to a field study by Ilatsia et al., (2011a), majority of Sahiwal genetic resources are owned by pastoralists particularly the Maasai. Thousands of hectares of land traditionally owned by the Maasai pastoralists in Kenya are being lost to commercial enterprises, mining, industries and urbanization. In addition to the frequent droughts experienced in these areas, the result would be reduced K of the land. Initial population size: All other factors held constant, initial population size had no significant effect on both the final population size and genetic diversity after 100 years. This means that even when the initial population size is small, the genetic diversity of the initial population can be conserved reasonably well if the population growth rate and the K are large enough. Proportion of breeding animals in the breeding pool: The simulations showed that genetic diversity of the breed population is improved when the proportion of breeding males in the breeding pool is increased. Increasing the proportion of breeding bulls by 2% increased heterozygosity of the population by 0.5%. The low percentage of breeding bulls in the NSS herd has no effect on population’s viability but is not enough to sustain long term genetic diversity. Muasya et al., (2011) reported low effective population size for the Kenya Sahiwal cattle breed which is also an indication of low genetic variability. Expansion and close interactions of the existing breeding farms would result in a concomitant increase in the number of available breeding bulls thus and reverse the decreasing genetic diversity. An increase in breeding females increased the viability of the herd. Reducing the proportion of adult breeding females to 30% caused a negative population growth rate and induced population extinction. Furthermore, it reduced mean final population size by 63.0% and induced loss of heterozygosity of the population. Mortality: The sensitivity tests also revealed that changes in female mortality has strong effect on population growth rate. In contrast, male mortality (up to 50%) across all age classes has no significant impact on population growth rate. When mortality rate of females of all age groups increases, both deterministic and stochastic population growth rates decrease. Young females aged 0 to 1 year have the greatest influence on deterministic growth rate than the other age groups whereby a unit increase in mortality of this age group reduces deterministic growth rate by 8%. Also, the generation time for both males and females increases. The reduced impact of male mortality on population viability can be attributed to the polygenous mating system of the breed. Age at first reproduction: The population losses up to 1.65% of its initial genetic variability when the age at first offspring of males is increased to ten years(i.e. progeny testing). The parameter has a significant effect on generation time for males explaining the long generation intervals in sire lines within the herd. Increase in maximum age of reproduction promotes population growth and conserves genetic variability of the population, while prolonging the generation time for males and females. The continuous use of genetically superior bulls for a long period without replacement at the NSS therefore contributes to the prolonged generation intervals of sire lines and therefore reduces the rate of genetic progress within the breed. Conclusion For the maintenance of the Sahiwal breed genetic diversity, it is necessary to increase the proportion of breeding males. Currently, breeding bulls are the only route for improving Sahiwals in the pastoral herds. Female survival was observed as key in ensuring persistence of the breed and therefore needs to be considered in management and breeding strategies. The most influential parameter affecting viability of the NSS population is the proportion of adult breeding females in the breeding pool. Genetic erosion of the herd can be controlled effectively through monitoring male mortality and increasing the number of available breeding males. Acknowledgements We thank the Kenya Stud Book and the National Sahiwal Stud for providing us with data. References FAO. 2007. The state of the world’s animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. Ed. Barbara Rischkowsky and Dafydd Pilling. Rome, Italy. FAO. 2007a. Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration. available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1404e/a1404e00.HTM. Ilatsia, E. D., Roessler, R., Kahi, A. K., Piepho, H. P. and Valle Zárate, A. 2011a. Production objectives and breeding goals of Sahiwal cattle keepers in Kenya. Implications for a breeding programme. Tropical Animal Health and Production. (In press). Ilatsia, E. D., Migose, S. A., Muhuyi, W. B. and Kahi, A. K. 2011b. Sahiwal cattle in semi arid Kenya: Genetic aspects of growth and survival traits and their relationship to milk production and fertility. Tropical Animal health and Production (In press: doi 10.1007/s11250-011-9845-x) Ilatsia, E. d., Roessler, R., Kahi, A. K., Piepho, H. P. and Valle Zárate, A. 2011c. Evaluation of basic and alternative breeding programs for Sahiwal cattle genetic resources in Kenya. Animal Production Science. 51:682-694. Lacy, R. C. 1993. VORTEX: A computer simulation model for Population Viability Analysis. Wildlife Research. 20:45-65. Meyn, K. and Wilkins, J. V. 1974. Breeding for milk in Kenya, with particular reference to the Sahiwal stud. World Animal Review. 11:24-30. Muasya, T. K., Kariuki, J. N., and Muia, J. M. 2011. Population structure of the Sahiwal breed in Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 23(9)2011. Pulliam, H. R., Dunning, J. B. and Liu, J. 1992. Population dynamics in a complex landscape: a case study. Ecological Applications.2:165-177. Rege, J. E. O. 1999. The state of African cattle genetic resources I. Classification framework and identification of threatened and extinct breeds. Animal Genetic Resources Bulletin. 25:1-25. Reist-Marti, S. B., Simianer, H., Gibson, J., Hanotte, O., Rege, J. E. O. 2003. Weizman’s approach and conservation of breed diversity: an application to African cattle breeds. Conservation Biology. 17:1299-1311. Scherf, B. 2000. World watch list for domestic animal diversity. Third edition. Rome, FAO. Zachos, F. E., Hajji, G. M., Hmwe, S. S., Hartl, G. B., Lorenzini, H. R. and Mattioli, S. 2009. Population viability analysis and genetic diversity of the endangered red deer Cervus elaphus population from Mesola, Italy. Wildlife Biology. 15:175-186. Evaluating agro-ecological adaptation, farmers' preferences and on-farm socioecological niches of selected forage grasses and legumes in Sud-Kivu, Eastern DR Congo Muhimuzi, F.L.1, Paul, B.K.2*, Bacigale, S.B.1, Chiuri, W.L.2, Wimba, B.M.M.3, Musale, D.K.3, Bwana, V.M.1, Balemirwe, P.M.1, Imani, C.1, Amzati, G.1, Mushagalusa, G.1 and Maass, B.L.2 1UniversitéEvangélique en Afrique (UEA), Bukavu, DR Congo; 2International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kigali, Rwanda; 3Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomique (INERA), Bukavu, DR Congo. *Corresponding author: B.Paul@cgiar.org Abstract Inadequate quantity and quality of livestock feed is a persistent constraint to productivity of mixed crop-livestock farmers in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Researcher and farmer managed on-farm trials were established in four different agro-ecologies, and data was collected between October 2012 and April 2014. Forageslegumes includedCanavaliabrasiliensis (CIAT17009), Stylosanthesguianensis (CIAT11995) andDesmodiumuncinatum (cv. Silverleaf, supplied as ILRI6765),while grasses wereGuatemala (Tripsacumandersonii)and Napier (Pennisetumpurpureum) French Cameroon and a local line. Agronomic performance was highly dependentwith agro-ecological conditions. While all legumes showed similar performance on fertile soil (6.1-6.9 t DMha-1), herbage production was highly variable on poorer soils (0.3-4.1 t ha-1). Guatemala grassproduced less biomass (1.3-2.6 t ha-1 season-1) than Napier (3.4-10.1 t ha-1) across sites. Farmers ranked forages according to selection criteria chosen by them – mainly biomass production, animal preference and drought tolerance. Farmers preferred C.brasiliensis(mid to low altitude sites) and D.uncinatum(high altitude site) and French Cameroon. Socio-ecological niche trials revealed that the choice of forages and integration into farming systems depend on topography, land availability and tenure. In high altitude, erosion prone sites with high population pressure, grasses were preferred over legumes and mainly grown on field contours (53-60% of farmers) and anti-erosive hedges (25-30%). Across all sites, forage legumes were most often intercropped with maize and cassava. Future research is needed to assess uptake of improved forage technologies and impact on livestock productivity and farmers’ livelihoods. Key words: mixed crop-livestock systems, Napier grass, Desmodiumuncinatum, Canavaliabrasiliensis, Stylosanthesguianensis Introduction Farmers in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) traditionally are mixed crop-livestock farmers. From 1996,cattle has become target of war and mixed farming was threatened with complete breakdown, lacking manure to sustain intensive cultivation (Cox, 2012). Continuous conflict has severely reduced livestock holdings to 0.2 - 0.5 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) which is too low to satisfy subsistence or regular sale (Maass et al. 2012; Ouma et al. 2012). However, livestock presents a credible pathway out of poverty. Despite its low productivity, the flexible smallholder backyard production systems provide a steady source of animal protein for household consumption and sale when need arises (Maass et al. 2013). Consequently, livestock property, especially cattle, is an important wealth criterion for farmers (Zozo et al. 2010).In addition to a general lack of knowledge and skills in animal husbandry and lack of access to veterinary services (Zozo et al. 2010), scarcity of quantity and quality livestock feed, especially in the dry season, is considered one of the main constraints for livestock production. Grazing on natural pasture and collection of roadside grasses constitute the main feeding system, while only 37% of farmers cultivated forages on small plots contributing 6% to the livestock diet (Bacigale et al. 2013).Improved forages could play an important role in improving livestock production while decreasing soil erosion and improving nutrient cycling. Previous research has evaluated adaptability of forage shrubs(Katunga et al. 2014a) and herbaceous legumes in Sud Kivu (Katunga et al. 2014b).For this study, researcher-managed agronomic trials as well as farmer-managed socio-ecological niche trials with few shortlisted forage legumes and grasses were established in four sites with contrasting agro-ecological conditionsin order to evaluate i) agro-ecological adaptation of improved forages grasses and legumes; ii) farmers’ preferences for improved forage species; iii) on-farm niches for forage grass and legume cropping. 1. Materials & Methods The experiments were conducted in four sites with contrasting agro-ecological conditions representative ofSudKivu: Muhongoza and Nyacibimba (Kalehe and Kabareterritoires, high altitude), Tubimbi (Walungu, mid-altitude) and Kamanyola (Walungu, low altitude) (Table 1). Table1:Study site characteristics Site Altitude (m) Longitude Latitude Slope (%) Soil fertility Erosion Muhongoza 1548 02°04'491'' 028°54'450'' 5 - 10 Medium Medium Nyacibimba 1955 02°29'626'' 028°47'654'' >10 Low Strong Kamanyola 940 02°44'885'' 029°01'847'' <5 High None Tubimbi 1100 02°47'821'' 028°35'382'' <5 Low None The first trial, the Forage Legume Trial (FLT), tested the species of C.brasiliensisCIAT17009, S.guianensisCIAT11995 and D.uncinatumcv. Silverleaf. These legumes had previously been shown to perform well in the study area (Katunga et al. 2014b). Seeds were obtained from Karama Research station of the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB) in Eastern Rwanda. D. uncinatumcv. Silverleaf is already naturalized in the study area and was used in this trial as local check. The second trial, the ForageGrass Trial (FGT), used three varietal materials namely P.purpureumcv.French Cameroon, P. purpureumlocal and T.andersonii.Cuttings of P. purpureumcv.Cameroon and of T.andersoniiwere retrievedfrom INERA Mulunguwhile those of P. purpureumlocal were obtained in the respective sites and used as local check. The two trials were established in a completely randomized block design and lasted six months from October 2012 to April 2013. Nochemical fertilizers norpesticideswere applied.Fresh biomass was harvested only once inside an area of 1m2 (for FLT) by cutting any green material 15 and 10 cm above the soil (for C. brasiliensis andS. guianensis/D. uncinatumrespectively) whereas for FGT the fresh biomass was cut above 50cm inside a surface of 6m2 in order to allow regeneration of the plants. A homogeneous sample of at least 100g was collected on each of three replications for each forage variety. Samples were oven-dried at INERA-Mulungu at 75°C during 48 hours to obtain dry matter content (DM). The percentage soil cover was observed before harvest of biomass,referring to the Braun-Blanquet method (Podani, 2006).The average height of plants (in cm) was taken on five plants in each plot from the plant snare up to the top of the leaf without taking into account the floral part.Farmersindividuallyrankedfodderthey preferredaccording to theselection criteria providedby themselves.An additional on-farm study was carried out from October to December 2013 to assess socio-ecological niches for forages. 79 interested farmers per sitevolunteered to test cultivation ofimprovedforagesin their fields.Two packageswere availedto eachfarmer:a packageofforage legume seeds(C.brasiliensisCIAT17009, S.guianensisCIAT11995, L.purpureusCIAT22759andDesmodiumdistortum) of about 60-100g for eachspeciesand a packof at least 40cuttings perspeculationofgrasseswhoseGuatemala(T.andersonii) andNapier(P.purpureum) cv. French Cameroonandthelocalone.Farmerswere freeto choose where and how to integrate this forage materials in their farming systems.Descriptive analysesandgraphswere madeusingMicrosoftOffice Excel.Thevariance analysiswas madeforeachparameterand the AMMI test(Additive main effects and multiplicative interaction) for GxEinteractionsfortheFLTandANOVAforunbalancedFGTdue to the bare plots observed in Kamanyola for Napier, local variety.These analyses wereeffectiveusing thestatistical softwaresR2.4.0consoleandGenstatDiscovery Edition3. Duncan's test based ontheleast significant difference(LSD) was used toseparate the means. Results 3.1 Agronomic performance The agro-ecological conditions of different sites significantly influenced the DM yield in FLT (P<0.001), without any significant difference between the varieties (P=0.86) except in Nyacibimba where we observed two yielding groupswith D. uncinatumbeing the best forage (Table 2).Also for the height, the influence of the sites was very large (p<0.001) without any significant difference between species (p=0.51). Soil covering largely depended on site conditions (p<0.001) and the varietal genotypes (p<0.001) tested under the FLT. C.brasiliensisperformed best in terms of height and soil cover, except in Nyacibimbawhere D. uncinatumwas best for the two parameters. Table 2: DM yield (kgha-1), height (cm) and soil cover (%) of the tested forage legume species Species Site Nyacibimba Muhongoza Kamanyola Tubimbi DM yield (kg ha-1) C. brasiliensis 2117,94b 3213,99a 6887,49a 1522,35a D. uncinatum 5433,02a 2611,50a 6091,97a 322,08a S. guianensis 1642,28b 4153,36a 6690,96a 2128,58a LSD0,05 interaction= 1691,2 F 23,038** 3,15ns 0,19ns 2,52ns LSD 0,05 1689,9 1717,9 3738,5 2275,9 Height (cm) C. brasiliensis 36,93b 48,42a 45,67a 40,38a D. uncinatum 61,73a 27,62b 53,33a 15,11b S. guianensis 30,90b 42,34ab 53,13a 41,45a LSD0,05 interaction= 11,08 F 15,85* 4,11ns 1,9ns 25,40** LSD 0,05 16,154 20,584 16,65 11,707 Soil cover (%) C. brasiliensis 66,67b 86,67a 96,67a 68,33a D. uncinatum 100,00a 66,67b 68,33b 16,67a S. guianensis 37,50c 65,00b 73,33b 63,33b CV (%) 9,79 5,37 12,76 31,62 LSD0,05 interaction= 16,14 F 66,53*** 28,55* 6,68ns 9,97* LSD 0,05 15,094 88,608 22,982 35,443 For the FGT (Table 3), the ANOVA analysis showed that the three forage varieties behaved very differently in each site with regard to the DM yield (p<0.001), the plant height (p<0.001) and soil cover (p<0.001). Two DM yielding groups are formed across all the sites with P. purpureumcv. French Cameroon always in the first group. The same variety grew higher everywhere except in Nyacibimba where the local P. purpureum showed a best height parformance. In Muhongoza and Kamanyola, all the grass varieties covered the soil in the same way as they formed only one homogeneity group, whereas in Nyacibimba and Tubimbi two groups were observed after ANOVA analysis with P. purpureum cv. French Cameroon providing the best soil cover. Table 3: DM yield (kgha-1), height (cm) and soil cover (%) of the tested forage grass species Species Site Kabare Kalehe Kamanyola Tubimbi DM yield (kg ha-1) P. purpureum cv. French Cameroon 5594,20ab 3455,17ab 10119,70a 3586,82a P. purpureum local 7479,61a 6203,56a - 1918,16b T. andersonii 1261,63b 2369,82b 2586,18b 2414,53a LSD0,05 interaction=3549 F 4,81ns 4,92ns 53,09** 0,37ns LSD 0,05 5710,9 3499,9 5541,9 Height (cm) P. purpureum cv. French Cameroon 228,93a 239,10b 280,80a 238,13a P. purpureum local 270,07a 278,83a - 183,27a T. andersonii 143,93b 116,90c 149,40b 156,10a LSD0,05 interaction= 3549 F 23,81** 592,83*** 53,49* 2,82ns LSD 0,05 51,601 13,623 77,461 Soil cover (%) P. purpureum cv. French Cameroon 80,00a 64,00a 83,33a 73,33a P. purpureum local 66,67b 70,00a - 40,00b T. andersonii 66,67b 78,33a 86,67a 86,67a LSD0,05 interaction=14,99 F 16,00** 3,83ns 0,21ns 10,40ns LSD 0,05 7,5565 14,447 31,258 29,266 Values followed by different letters are significantly different at a significance level p = 0.05. 3.2 Participatory evaluation Generally, the preference ofthese foragesby farmerswereguided by the followingcriteria:1)FLT: biomass production,leaf size, animal preference, recovery andadaptation(drought tolerance); and2)FGL: biomass production, animal preference,adaptationin the area, their use in erosion control, their tillering powerand thenewly introduced varietyin the arealike theP.purpureumcv.FrenchCameroon.For the FLT(Fig 1a), the first choice in high altitude wasD. uncinatum (40% of choice in Kalehe and 70% inKabare) and the second choice wasC. brasiliensis (46% in Kalehe and 55% inKabare) with a low consideration of S. guianensis inKabare. In mid altitude(Tubimbi) and low (Kamanyola) altitudes, the first choice among legumes was brought on C. brasiliensis (61.11% and 70% respectively) and the second chosen legume wasS. guianensis (55.56%) andD. uncinatum (50%) respectively for Tubimbi andKamanyola. In FGT farmers were much more attracted by the on-ground vigour of the different materials. ThusP. purpureum cv. French Cameroon, a new variety which quickly adapted to the area and produced enough biomass was the first choice across all the sites (86% in Kalehe, 70% in Kabare and 61.11% inTubimbi) except inKamanyolawhere it was second ranked (60%) afterT. andersonii(38.89%) which is already used against erosion and for livestock feeding.Genderhad noinfluence on the choiceof forages. Figure 1. participatory variety selection of (a) forages legumes and (b) forage grasses 3.3. Socio-ecological niche Overall,women weremoreactivein on-farm experimentation ofimproved foragesacross all the sites with 73% of volunteering farmers being female. In total, 79 farmers participated in the on- farm trials (data not shown). Farmers’choicefor on-farm cultivation of improvedforages was different and related to land size and topography. In general, most of farmers(51%) chose to growlegume andgrasses simultaneously.In KabareandKalehe(highaltitude), the majority offarmerspreferredto experimentwith grasses only andthose who cultivatedlegumes did so on small plots only(Fig. 2a). Thisis due to themountainous topography andthe scarcity of arableland.In Kamanyola (low altitude), 75% of interested farmers grew legumes due to the land ownership system. Smallholder farmers survive through a seasonal or annualland hiring system,where cultivation ofperennialgrassesis not allowed by the landlords. Also,freely roaming animalsin the villagedo not allowcontrolledforage cultivation around households. InTubimbi (mid altitude),74% of farmers decided to growbothgrasses and legumes(Fig. 2a). Farmers’ integration of forages into their farming system varied according to sitesas well asthe botanical familyofthese forages(Fig. 2b). In KabareandKalehegrasseswereintegrated around field edges(60% and53% respectively) and in hedgerows for erosion control(25% and30% respectively). The choice of thesesocio-ecological nichescan be explained with scarcity of arableland due to high population pressure and themountainous topography and high altitude ofthese twosites.The sametrend wasobservedamong53%offarmers inTubimbi, but47%offarmersalso cultivatedforage grasses in pure stands near thehouseholds. Forage legumes were mostly intercropped with other crops such as maize and cassava across all sites. Especially in Tubimbi, legumes were planted on small plots around the homesteads and mixed with natural forages in order to improve nitrogen intake of animals or(Fig. 2b). Figure 2: Types of forages cultivated (a) and integration of forages into farming systems (b) Discussion Ourresults showed thatforage legumesbehaveddifferently in the different study sites.S.guianensis showed a stable productionofbiomassin all the four sites. This confirms findings from other studies which have shown that S. guianensisadapts well toall climates(Hussonet al.2008) and a variety of soil conditions (Wortman&Kirugu2008).However, the biomassproduced in the foursites waslower than that obtainedinMadagascar(Hussonet al. 2008).Biomass yieldofD.uncinatumvariedacross all the four sitesalthough it performed well,exceptin Tubimbi. Highest production was observed inKamanyolaand the lowest inTubimbi, this is probably due to the fertile soil inKamanyola and the plant diseases and pests that are observed in Tubimbi (Katunga et al.2014).C.brasiliensiscovered the soil well;that is why itis alsomainly used asgreen manureand infallowand erosion control(Burleet al. 1999).The participatory varietal selectionrevealed thatD.uncinatumisthe first farmers’ choice inhigh altitude sites(KabareandKalehe). The farmers’ choiceisdictatedbybiomass production and especially by its preference bysmall animals. Inlow and midaltitude sites(KamanyolaandTubimbi),C. brasiliensiswasmost preferred byfarmers.Inthese areas,thebiomass production was the main selection criteria for farmers, exceptinTubimbi whereS.guanensisis second choice because of its preferencebysmall animals. P. purpureum yielded good biomass in all sites.However,the best yieldswere observedin KaleheandKabare(highaltitude) for thelocal varietyand in TubimbiandKamanyola(low and midaltitudes) for French Cameroon variety. The local variety did not perform well inKamanyola which is probably due to the hotand dry climate(Maass et al., 2010). Biomass produced byP.purpureumwithin the range of observations made in other studies under non-fertilization (Mannetje, 1992). However,FrenchCameroonshowedhigher yields than those obtainedwhenP.purpureumwasgrown in association withforage legumesin easternKenya (Njoka- Njuriet al., 2006) and less than thosefoundin WesternKenya(Nyambatiet al., 2010).T.andersoniigenerallycoveredthe ground well anddue to this it is an attractive option forerosion controlin thearea. Participatory selection ofgrassesrevealed thatP.purpureumcv.FrenchCameroonis generally thefirstchoiceby farmers,exceptin Kamanyolawhere the choicewasfocused onT.andersonii.Farmers were interested in the varietyFrenchCameroon because it isnew to the area,but also because of its high biomass production. Thesocio-ecological niche trialsrevealedthat in general women weremore interestedin cultivating foragecrops.However, the preference offorage type and the integrationinto farming systems did notdepend on gender,buton topography ofthe area,land availability, land tenure andthedominantanimal husbandry systems. Therefore, in KabareandKalehe(highaltitude), where the topography ismountainous withland prone to erosion, farmers preferred to cultivateforage grassesat the edge offields andon hedgerows.This resultisalso related tothe small land average land sizes available to farmers, as is the casethroughoutSouth Kivuwhere households survive withan average of0.4ha (Ouma et al.2012). On the other hand, legume forages are preferred by farmers if perennial cropping is not allowed due to land tenure, divagating animalsand land without erosion problems. Acknowledgement Ourgratitude goesto farmer’scavy-keepers,membersof InnovationPlatformsfromKabare, Kalehe,Kamanyola andTubimbi for their unreserved collaboration. Also, we gratefully thankUEA/Bukavu,INERA, CIAT, theBecA/ILRI-CSIRO forpartnershipand the Australian Government(AusAID)forfunding thisresearch. References Bacigale, S. B., Paul, B. K., Muhimuzi, F. L., Mapenzi, N., Peters, M., & Maass, B. L. 2014. Characterizing feeds and feed availability in Sud-Kivu province, DR Congo. Tropical Grasslands - ForrajesTropicales, 2, 9–11. Burle M.L., Lathwell D.J., Suhet A.R., Bouldin D.R., Bowen W.T. and Resck D.V.S. 1999.Legume survival during the dry season and its effect on the succeeding maize yield in acid savannah tropical soils.Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad), 76 (4): 217-221. Cox, T.P. 2012.Farming the battlefield: The meanings of war, cattle and soil in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo.Disasters, 36 (2), 233-248 Husson O., Charpentier H., Razanamparany C., Moussa N., Michellon R., Naudin K., Razafintsalama H., Rakotoarinivo C., Rakotondramanana T. et Seguy L., 2008. Stylosanthesguianensis: Manuel pratique du semis direct à Madagascar. Volume III, Antananarivo, Madagascar : CIRAD : 12 pp. Katunga, M. M. D., Muhigwa, B. J. B., Kashala, K. J. C., Kambuyi, M., Nyongombe, N., Maass, B. L., & Peters, M. 2014a. Agro-Ecological Adaptation and Participatory Evaluation of Multipurpose Shrub Legumes in Midland South-Kivu, Eastern D.R. Congo, American Journal of Plant Sciences, 3, 1–9. Katunga, M. M. D., Muhigwa, J. B. B., Kashala, K. J. C., Ipungu, L., Nyongombe, N., Maass, B. L., & Peters, M. 2014b. Testing Agro-Ecological Adaptation of Improved Herbaceous Forage Legumes in South-Kivu, D.R. Congo.American Journal of Plant Sciences, 5, 1384– 1393. Maass B.L,, Katunga M,D,, Chiuri W,L, and Peters M. 2010. Diagnostic survey of livestock production in South Kivu.Working Document no. 210, Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya, 36pp. Maass, B. L., Musale, D. K., Chiuri, W. L., Gassner, A., & Peters, M. 2012. Challenges and opportunities for smallholder livestock production in post-conflict South Kivu, eastern DR Congo.Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44(6), 1221–32. Maass, B. L., Chiuri, W. L., Zozo, R., Katunga, D., Metre, K. T., & Birachi, E. 2013.Using the “livestock ladder” to exit poverty for poor crop-livestock farmers in South Kivu province, eastern DR Congo. In B. Vanlauwe, G. Blomme, & P. van Asten (Eds.), Agro-ecological Intensification of Agricultural Systems in the African Highlands (pp. 145–155). Routledge, New York. Njoka-Njuri E. N., Njorui M.G., Abdulrazak S.A. and Lureithi J.G. 2006.Effet of intercropping hercacous legumes with Napier grass on dry matter yeild and nutrition value of the feedstruff in semi-arid region of Estern Kenya.AgriculturaTropicaetSubtropica, Vol. 39(4). Nyambati E.M., Muyekho F.N., Onginja E. and Lusweti C.M. 2010. Production, characterization and nutritional quality of Napier grass [Pennisetumpurpureum (Schum)] cultivars in Western Kenya. African Journal of Plant Science, Vol. 4(12), pp 496-502. Ouma, E., Birachi, E., Pypers, P., Vanlauwe, B., Ekesa, B., Blomme, G., Chianu, J., Bouwmeester, H., van Asten, P. 2012.CIALCA Baseline Survey. CIALCA Technical Report 17 Pypers, P., Sanginga, J.-M., Kasereka, B.,Walangululu, M., Vanlauwe, B. 2011.Increased productivity through integrated soil fertility management in cassava-legume intercropping systems in the highlands of Sud-Kivu, DR Congo.Field Crop Research, 120 (1), 76-85 Wortman C. and Kirugu B., 2008.Adoption of legumes for soil improvement and forage by smallholder farmers in Africa. Field Crops Research, 48: 35-43 pp. Zozo, R., Chiuri, W. L., Katunga, D. M.& Maass, B. L. 2010. Report of a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) in the Groupements of Miti-Mulungu and Tubimbi, South Kivu/DR Congo. CIAT Working Document No. 211 Effects of yeast cultures addition to urea treated and supplemented wheat straw on intake and milk yield of dairy cows Kashongwe, B.O.1*, Migwi, P.K.1, Bebe, B.O.1, Ooro, P.A.2, Onyango, T.A.3, Osoo, J.O.2 1Egerton University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Sciences P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya; 2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Njoro P.O. Njoro 20107, Kenya 3Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Naivasha P.O. Box 25-20117 *Corresponding author: okashongwe@gmail.com Abstract The study evaluated effects of feeding urea-treated / supplemented wheat straw based diets with addition of yeast culture (YC) as a dry season feed for dairy cows. Wheat straw, being abundant and underutilized in producing areas can be important to help smallholders sustain production, especially during dry seasons. Wheat straw diets with containing 3.6% urea and 5.8% molasses were formulated to raise non-protein nitrogen levels and fibre degradation in the rumen. Yeast was included at two levels: 0 and 10g/cow/day, and was mixed with commercial dairy meal to improve on fibre degradation and milk yield. Two experiments were conducted. Firstly, an in sacco dry matter degradability (DMD) trial, in which three steers were used in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with a 3x2 factorial arrangement to determine effects of yeast culture addition to urea treated and supplemented wheat straw on intake and rumen degradation parameters. Secondly, feeding trial with eighteen lactating cows in a 3x2 factorial arrangement at two levels of yeast culture (0 and 10g/cow/day) and three types of urea interventions (i.e. No intervention (WS); addition of urea to straw at the time of feeding (USWS) and 7 days incubation of straw with urea (UTWS)). Yeast cultures addition had no effect on rumen pH and NH3-N but urea intervention showed an effect on rumen pH with USWS being lowest (p<0.05). Both urea interventions and yeast culture addition had no effect (p>0.05) on dry matter intake, milk yield and milk composition but they increased (p<0.05) propionate yields Feasibility of Biogas Digesters in Rural Farm Households: Evidence from Cattle Producers in the Tigray Region of Northern Ethiopia Berhe, M.1*, Hoag, D.2 and Girmay Tesfay, G.1 1Mekelle University, Ethiopia: College of Dry-Land Agriculture and Natural Resources, Department of Natural Resource Economics and Management, P.O.Box 231 2Colorado State University, USA: Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics Fort Collins, CO 80523-1172 * Corresponding author: melakuberhe@gmail.com Abstract Given several options of energy sources, biogas digester is one of the environment friendly technologies to address the current energy crisis particularly in developing countries. Land degradation caused by continuous deforestation for domestic traditional energy use has become by far the most crucial subject in the dryland areas of northern Ethiopia, Tigray. This study was conducted to investigate whether the biogas digesters introduced in northern Ethiopia have contributions in replacing the traditional energy sources. Panel data gathered during 2010, 2011 and 2012 from the districts of Hintalo-Wejerat and Ofla in the Tigray Regional State was used for this purpose. A total of 300 households were selected to estimate a 99 percent confidence interval for the mean yield of Teff. The sampled respondents were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires enriched with ideas gathered from group discussants and key informants. The descriptive cost-benefit comparisons and econometrics results revealed that though the biogas digesters contributed in replacing the traditional energy sources, many farmers still depend on fire-wood consumption because of lack of injera stove. It was further found that the amount of bio-slurry applied on farm plots during 2010, 2011 and 2012 was 31, 47.5 and 63.3 quintals respectively. Although the bio-slurry that came from the biogas digesters was with its superior nutrient content, the farmers applied insufficient quintals of per hectare on their land plots. This calls for farm-based extension services through trainings, workshops, demonstrations, information dissemination, and experience sharing to increase their knowledge on the use of biogas energy and bio-slurry. Key Words: Ethiopia, biogas, bio-slurry, fixed-effect, fuel-wood Introduction In recent decades, there have been keen concerns about environmental issues mainly related to unsustainable use of biomass energy in the developing countries (Oyedepo, 2012). The research findings reported by Bystriakova et al. (2005) showed that 55% of the wood exploited from forests is for fuel-wood energy consumption. For example, tropical deforestation is responsible for 20 to 25 percent of global CO2 emissions (IPCC, 2000; Moutinho, 2005). In terms of greenhouse gases emissions, global deforestation is accountable for its consequent impacts by about 17% to 25% of the total release (Strassburg et al., 2009). Biomass energy source is particularly important for most of African countries, whereby more than 90% of the fuel-wood is extracted from natural forests (Amankwah, 2011); this is because the majority of the people don’t have access to electric power (Bugaje, 2010). In the continent, the extensive use of forest land for fuel-wood energy, agricultural expansion, and the decrease in animal waste materials and plant remnants into the soil are the major causes for land degradation (Brown, 2006; Mshandete and Parawira, 2009; Arthur et al., 2011). Given several options of energy sources, many researchers have advocated biogas technology to address the above energy crisis particularly in Africa. Although various research works have been done on the promising contributions of biogas technology across many parts of the world (Smil, 1993; Richard, 2008; Bakhareva, 2008; Abbasi, 2010; Chand et al, 2012), information regarding Africa, particularly of Ethiopia, is still at its early stage and needs further continuing study (Dawit, 2012; FAO, 2013). Besides, most of the existing researches have been done using cross sectional dataset gathered from a single year, which couldn’t allow us to see the impacts of biogas plants on farmers’ crop productivity, and energy replacement (Baltaji, 2005). So as to fill such gap, this study was intended to use panel data of three years with special reference to northern Ethiopia, Tigray. The introduction of biogas technology in Ethiopia is very crucial because the country is the home to the largest cattle population in Africa and it is one of the most biomass-energy dependent countries in the world (Dawit, 2012). Like that of the nation, in the Tigray Regional State, many people extremely rely on biomass for cooking and lighting thereby contributing to deforestation, loss of soil nutrients, and depletion of organic matter (Zenebe et al; 2010). In recognition of the continual problem of deforestation due to unsustainable biomass use in the area, the overall purpose of this study was, to investigate the role of biogas digesters in replacing fuel-wood energy and crop productivity Materials and Methods Region Description and Sample Size This research was based on panel data gathered during the years 2010, 2011 and 2012 from the districts of Hintalo-Wejerat and Ofla in Tigray Regional State. The altitude of the study areas range 1500 to 2540 and 2100 to 2450 meters above sea level for Hintalo-Wejerat and Ofla respectively. The household survey was then carried out within each panel year (2010-2012). Data for this study was collected via survey of farmers that have installed biogas digesters through the government program. Since these two districts have been chosen by Ethiopian Ministry of Energy and Mining for pilot demonstration to the entire areas, this study was also concurrently purposed to investigate the contributions of biogas adoption to the rural farmers. Out of the total 942 cattle owners already adopted biogas digesters; 300 households were randomly taken and sampled proportionately for 36 females and 264 males. Descriptive and Econometric Analyses To analyze the contributions biogas digesters, comparisons of costs and benefits were made using descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, measures of central tendency and dispersion. The strength and direction of relationships between different selected independent variables and the level of biogas contributions were examined using statistical tests. In order to identify the actual contributions of biogas digesters across the three years of panel data, fixed effect model was used to eliminate the time invariant unobserved effects. A panel data analysis is an important tool used to identify the effects of explanatory variables on the dependent variable Teff_kg in this case. Teff (scientific name Eragrostis tef.) is the major cereal crop cultivated in Ethiopia, used mainly to make flour. Teff_kg is our dependent variable which may help to see the impact of bio-slurry that comes from the biogas plant on farmers’ crop production in the study areas. Results Socioeconomic Status of the Respondents The average age of the respondents was estimated about 46.4 years with a minimum of 24 and maximum 74. On average, each household was constituted by the family members of 5.5 having a minimum of 2 and maximum 11 members. Of the total interviewed respondents, 264 were male biogas adopters whereas the remaining 36 were females. The overall land size in hectare cultivated by the respondents was about 1.97. Each respondent owned an average number of 8 cattle, where the mean cattle possessed by each farmer varied between a minimum of 5 and maximum 14. Estimated Expenses to Erect Biogas Digesters All expenses necessary for the construction of the biogas digester include initial costs, material costs, operating costs, and opportunity costs. While the industrial materials and skilled labor accounted for Birr 4900 was shared by the local government and was recognized as social cost since it is the incremental costs for the government, the individual farmers took part to cover 60 percent accounted for Birr 6900 of the total cost. In the study areas, the total cost required for functioning a biogas plant was estimated to be about Birr 11397. The mean annual expense saved due to the installation of biogas digester was Birr 1196 which would have been gone to purchase firewood, charcoal and kerosene. Benefits of Biogas Technology for the Rural People The amount of money saved from fire-wood, charcoal and kerosene energy sources after biogas installation was Birr 294, 902 and 72 respectively. The t-test statistics revealed that the mean difference in annual expenses for energy consumption before and after biogas installation was estimated to be statistically significant at less than 1% probability level. Further, the average saved money that replaced chemical fertilizers of both urea and DAP by bio-slurry fertilizer was estimated to be 1118 birr which had statistically significant difference compared it with before adopting biogas at 1% probability level. Financial and Econometric Results of Biogas Digesters in Tigray The biogas digesters in the study areas were presumed to be viable economically feasible if the Net Present Value (NPV) is positive, the internal rate of return (IRR) is greater than the existing capital cost (interest rate) and a payback period of less than seven years. The major indicators whether the biogas digesters in the study area are feasible or not have been tested using the financial indicators such as benefit-cost ratio (1.72) greater than unity, Net Present Value (NPV) was 1114.03 which is greater than zero and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) about 8 percent exceeding the existing interest rate (5%). The regression result of fixed effect model shows that bio-slurry has statistically significant effect on the crop yield, Teff at 1% probability level. Discussions The disproportionate number of males and females is in agreement with the study done by Dawit (2012), in which he indicated the persistence of unbalanced share of burden of collecting and managing traditional fuels by women eventually results in disproportionate lack of access to education and income, and inability to get away from poverty. In adopting biogas digesters, the major cost components were starting capital, operation and maintenance throughout its lifetime. According to Thu et al. (2012) the biggest problem observed with fixed dome digesters for rural farmers is investment costs. Likewise, the big cost in the study area was the money spent on initial investment which accounted for Birr 11, 239. The annual operation cost spent during the three panel years was on average Birr 293. In the study area, the average cattle holding was estimated about 5.2 which enabled them to adopt biogas technology which in turn promotes the replacement of firewood and charcoal by biogas energy and the use of its by-product (bio-slurry) for boosting the production of organic farming. As indicated by Chand et al. (2012), biogas is sustainable source of energy that can be used for an indefinite period without damaging the environment. Apart from energy consumption, the extended use of biogas technology could reduce GHG emissions and help launch low carbon-growth strategies (WB, 2011). In the study area, the amount of money saved from charcoal and fire-wood energy sources after biogas installation was Birr 294 and 902 respectively. The substitution of fuel-wood energy sources by biogas energy can mitigate climate change by sequestrating carbon in the form of conserving the natural forest (Abbasi, 2010). Moreover, the amount of money saved from kerosene energy utilization due to biogas installation was Birr 72. This finding conforms to the study made by Gautam et al. (2009) that in many areas where biogas has been installed, the use of kerosene has decreased considerably while it needs to be imported from outside otherwise. The average amount of bio-slurry applied on farm land during the years 2010, 2011 and 2012 was 3100, 4750 and 6330 kg respectively. A meaning full comparison for the effects of slurry applications on Teff yield on the same plot (P1) during 2010 and 2012 shows that the amount of bio-slurry on farm plot (P1) attributed for Teff yield increment from 904 kg to 1214 kg. This finding is by far smaller than the amount recommended by FAO (2012); which was found that Indian farmers generated two tons of bio-slurry manure per year from a 1m³ of biogas digester. Furthermore, Vasudeo (2004) has indicated that the amount of bio-slurry needed to prepare one hectare of land and to entirely substitute the purchase of chemical fertilizers (DAP and UREA) is five tons of bio-slurry fertilizer per season. Although the bio-slurry that comes from the biogas digester has superior nutrient content, the biogas adopters in the districts of Ofla and Hintalo-wejerat only applied insufficient quintals/ha of slurry fertilizer on their land plots during the three consecutive years. The increased amount in the yield of Teff implies that the application of bio-slurry fertilizer contributes to enrich the soil fertility of their plots which led to increase farm yield. This is consistent with the findings indicated by Edward (2012) in the sense that bio-slurry application on farm plots increases 60% of crop yield. Hence, the increased amount of Teff yield that comes from the increasing application of bio-slurry using the biogas digesters further shows the positive contribution of bio- slurry as organic fertilizer. Conclusion and Implications This study has aimed to find out the feasibility of biogas digesters as source of energy for replacing fuel-wood as well as the use of bio-slurry as organic fertilizer for improving crop yield with reference to Teff crop. The study indicated that farmers have made crop yield improvements due to the application of slurry from biogas digesters across the three panels. In the case of energy contributions from biogas digesters, fire-wood saved was estimated to be 100 to 200 kg and charcoal was 300 to 500 kg. Though the annual consumption of fuel-wood decreased from 17.0 quintals to 9.8 quintals each year, majority of the households still depend on fuel-wood consumption due to lack of injera stove. The application of bio-slurry for substituted chemical fertilizer with saved money of Birr 656 and 868 respectively for DAP and UREA. The econometric results further confirmed that the bio-slurry was statistically significant at 1% probability level and was positively related with the dependent variable teff yeild. In light of expanding the contributions of biogas technology, the following issues might help to promote its utilization among the rural dwellers and to enlarge its accessibility as widely as possible:  Enable the farmers to be fully detached from using fire-wood and charcoal by providing cooking and injera stoves.  Conduct farm-based experiments on the applications of compost, bio-slurry, chemical fertilizer, and mix of each aiming for demonstration and experience sharing, thereby increase crop yield.  Famers should know how much bio-slurry is required to totally substitute the chemical fertilizers and the level of mix of bio-slurry with DAP and urea. Acknowledgement We are grateful to the Livestock Climate Change Collaborative Research Support Program (LCC-CRSP) at Colorado State University for its research fund and technical guidance. Further, we would like to thank the cattle owners who adopted biogas digesters, all discussants and agricultural experts in the study areas for their cooperation in providing valuable information. References Abbasi, T. 2010. Biomass energy and the environmental impacts associated with its production and utilization. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Science direct, PP 919– 937. Amankwah, E., 2011. Integration of Biogas Technology into Farming System of the three Northern Regions of Ghana. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, pp 76- 85. Andersen, D. 1986. Declining Tree Stocks in African Countries. World Development, pp 863- 864. Arthur, R., Baidoo, M.F., Antwi, E., 2011. Biogas as a potential renewable energy source: A Ghanaian case study. Renewable Energy. pp 1510-1516. Bajgain, S., Shakya, I.S., 2005. The Nepal Biogas Support Program: A Successful Model of Public Private Partnership For Rural Household Energy Supply, first ed. Repro Vision Press Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal. Bakhareva, A. 2008. A Solid Outlook for the Growing Market. Frost and Sullivan, Green Energy. http://www.frost.com/prod/servlet/market-insight-top pag?docid=145919370, Accessed: 14 August, 2013 Baltaji, H. 2005. Econometric analysis of panel data. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, West Susex, England PP 4. Brown, V.J. 2006. Biogas a bright idea for Africa. Environmental Health perspectives, PP: 301- 303. Chand, B., Bidur, P., Upadhyay, Rejina, M. 2012. Biogas option for mitigating and adaptation of climate change: Rentech Symposium Compendium, PP 5-9. Edwards, S., Fentaw E. & Hailu, A. 2012. Bioslurry as an organic input for improved agricultural production. http://www.springer.com/, Accessed: 3 May, 2013 FAO. 2013: A review of scientific literature on the co-product of biogas production, by Lennart de Groot and Anne Bogdanski, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy Gautam, R., Baralb, S., Heart, S. 2009. Biogas as a sustainable energy source in Nepal: Present status and future challenges; Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, PP 248–252. IPCC. 2000. Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry.Special Report of the IPCC, edited by R.Watson, I. Noble, B. Bolin, et al. Cambridge, UK: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Mshandete, A.M., Parawira, W., 2009. Biogas technology research in selected sub-Saharan African Countries. African Journal of Biotechnology, pp 116-125. Oyedepo, S.O. 2012. On energy for sustainable development in Nigeria. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, pp 2583– 2598 Parawira, W., 2009. Biogas technology in sub-Saharan Africa: status, prospects and constraints. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol, pp 187–200. Richard, S.J. 2008. The Economic Impact of Climate Change, Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin, Ireland Strassburg, B., Turner, R.K., Fisher, B., Schaeffer, R., Lovett, A., 2009. Reducing emissions from deforestation—the combined incentives, mechanism and empirical simulations. Global Environmental Change, pp 265–278. Smil, V. 1993. Energy in World History. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 187. Vasudeo, G. Biogas Manure (BgM): A viable input in sustainable agriculture-an integrated approach. International Seminar on Biogas Technology for Poverty Reduction and Sustainable Development, 18-20 October 2005, Beijing, China, (2005). World Bank. 2011. Wood-Based Biomass Energy Development for Sub-Saharan Africa Africa Renewable Energy Access Program (AFREA) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK GROUP N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Zenebe, G., Alemu, M., Menale, K., and Gunnar, K. 2010. Urban Energy Transition and Technology Adoption: The Case of Tigrai, Northern Ethiopia, Environment for Development Discussion Paper Series, EfD DP, PP 10-22. Past dairy feeding interventions and lessons learnt in Tanzania Kimambo, A.E., Laswai, G.H., Bwire, J.M.N., Wassena, F.J., Mangesho, W., Lukuyu, B. and Maass, B.L. Abstract Seasonality of feed resources availability in terms of quality and quantity is a common feature in Tanzania. Most of the time the animals are poorly fed and, hence, their production potential is not realized. Therefore, increased milk production from the existing dairy herd will depend on on-farm feed interventions that ensure year-round availability of both quantity and quality of feeds offered to the animals. A number of feeding interventions have been tested in different parts of the country, some with good results. Introduced technologies included cultivation of fodder grasses that was a package with heifer in trust programs and other projects; treatment of crop residues with urea that was introduced in Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions. Strategic crop residue harvesting through stripping and topping of stover for dry season feeding was introduced in Kilimanjaro region. Supplementation of dairy animals with concentrates at different levels of offer and urea molasses mixtures have also been introduced in different parts of Tanzania. Despite their technically demonstrated usefulness, the socio-economic dimension was rarely considered and, therefore, adoption and sustainability of these interventions have been low (at about 15%) or even abandoned after the end of project. Possible causes for low adoption are suggested to be the short duration of the projects, or high capital investments and low transfer of technology from one generation to the next. This paper reviews such interventions and adoption status for teasing out the possible lessons learnt and strategies to be taken for improved uptake of dairy production technologies and innovations Keywords: dairying, feed interventions uptake, institutional set up, underfeeding Introduction Increased milk production from the existing dairy herd in Tanzania will depend on feeding interventions because most animals are underfed and, hence, their production potential is not realized. A feed intervention is a process of overcoming the barriers that prevent proper feeding of dairy animals according to their requirements in terms of quantity and quality of feeds offered. The main source of feed for dairy animals in Tanzania is from rangelands regardless of the production system used to raise them (Kimambo et al., 2007). Feed availability in the rangelands is seasonal, where feed is enough for three months during the rainy seasons, while it is scarce both in quantity and quality during the dry seasons (Msangi et al.,2001). Thus, the main constraint for livestock that rely on rangelands is lack of good quality feed throughout the year. Most smallholder dairy farmers do not cultivate forages but depend on natural pastures available in communal areas, forests and wetlands (Mtengeti et al., 2008). For landless smallholder farmers who rely on rangelands for feed, dry season feeding is also a big problem. Farmers can travel for long distances to search for green chop in the wetlands and riverbanks. In so doing, the cost of feeding becomes very high and, in many cases, the animals are underfed during this period. As a result, the products from such a system become expensive and often unavailable. After reviewing some of the typical feed interventions and assessing their current use, we discuss possible reasons for success or failure. Establishment of cultivated pastures and fodder To minimise the reliance on natural pastures as a source of feed for dairy animals, the practice of cultivating forages on farm has been introduced and adopted in some farming systems. For instance in Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions, planting of high-yielding forage plants, such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Setaria spp. and multipurpose trees (MPTS) was driven by the high price of milk for the producers and scarcity of feeds due to land shortage. Intensive forage gardens of grass/legume intercrops in the Tanzanian highlands produce yields of more than 48 tons/ha of fresh material (Mtengeti et al., 1989). This cut-and-carry system requires forage species that re-grow throughout the growing season. Thus, bi-annuals and perennials are suitable forage species and more popular than annuals because they reduce labour requirements. Project farmers to whom the technologies for increased fodder production were introduced showed a positive impact of technology adoption and milk production. However, due to limited resources in terms of project duration, money and planting materials, the technologies were not widely disseminated. The introduction of cultivated fodder crops as contour ridges as a means of land management for controlling soil erosion in Lushoto and Amani highlands, Usambara Mountains in Tanga region, has made the adoption of the technology fairly sustainable (Teendwa et al. 2007). However, studies by Massawe (1998) in Mgeta, Morogoro region revealed that the uptake of cultivating high-yielding forages including Setaria (e.g., Setaria splendida), Guatemala (Tripsacum andersonii) and Leucaena leucocephala, accompanying the introduction of dairy goats in this area, was not evident 10 years after the end of the project, even though both the number of goat-keeping farmers and the number of goats had increased. This observation may imply that farmers found their traditional practices better than the introduced strategies due to availability of natural pasture and shrubs throughout the year in this area. Improved use of crop residues Crop residues as dry season feed are widely used in Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions; most commonly these are rice straw, maize stover, bean straw and haulms, and banana plant residues (Shem et al., 1995). Utilization of crop residues by ruminants is generally poor due to high fiber and lignin levels. Different techniques for improving the quality and, hence, utilization of crop residues as feed for dairy cattle have been introduced and tested in the 1980s and early 1990s. These techniques included chopping, partitioning and treatment with urea Chopping was achieved through tractor-mounted chaff cutter or manual use of knife. Chopping minimises selection and facilitates blending the stover with urea-molasses mixture and treating with urea Crop residue partitioning, involves removal of the nutritious leaves and top part of the stem for feeding. While the lower part of the stem being discarded for use as fuel or left in the field for soil conservation purposes. This innovation was introduced and adopted in Kilimanjaro region in the 1980s. This technique improved intake and minimized transport costs of stover from the lowlands to the highlands (Massawe 1999). Stripping before the leaves are totally dry, particularly for maize, produce good quality residue. Said and Wanyoike (1987) in Kenya showed that it was possible to harvest 1 ton/ha of dry matter of green maize through defoliation before the grain harvest without affecting the final grain yield. In the study in Tanzania by Shirima (1994), where different stover harvesting techniques were practiced, he reported higher nutritive value of stover stripped before grain harvest, where crude protein (CP) content and in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) were 10.8% and 75.3%, respectively, while that harvested after grain harvest was 3.3% for CP and 51.7% for IVOMD. Table1: Effect of urea treatment of different straws on crude protein (CP) content and dry matter (DM) degradability of the treated and untreated crop residues in Tanzania Type of straw CP content (%DM) Untreated Treated Change CP (%) Source Bean straw 8.0 13.0 +5.0 Mgheni et al. 1991 Bean straw 4.9 7.8 +2.9 Kimambo et al. 1991 Maize stover 4.0 8.9 +4.9 Kilongozi 1992 Maize stover large scale (Kilimanjaro) 3.0 7.2 +4.2 Kimambo et al. 1991 Maize stover small scale (Kilimanjaro) 2.3 10.6 +8.3 “ Rice straw 4.3 11.6 +7.3 Mgheni et al. 1994 Maize stover 5.7 14.7 +9.0 Kiangi 1979 Wheat straw 4.7 13.8 +9.1 “ Rice straw 3.7 14.8 +11.1 “ 48 h Dry matter degradability (%) Bean straw 52.4 51.0 -1.4 Kimambo et al. 1991 Bean straw 58.0 53.7 -4.3 Maize stover 43.5 57.4 +13.9 Kilongozi 1992 Maize stover large scale (Kilimanjaro) 66.4 72.1 +5.7 Kimambo et al. 1991 Maize stover small scale (Kilimanjaro) 64.9 71.5 +6.6 Kimambo et al. 1991 “Maize stover small scale (Kilimanjaro) 61.9 72.0 +10.1 Kimambo et al. 1991 Rice straw 61.7 64.3 +2.6 Mgheni et al. 1994 The improvement on the quality of maize stover and rice straw by treating them with urea was introduced and tested in Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions by an FAO Dairy Development Programme and Dairy feeding systems Research project in Hai district, Kilimanjaro region funded by IDRC (Canada) in the1980s (Ørskov,1987). The activities were implemented by both small and large scale farmers. The effects of urea treatment on improving the CP content and 48h dry matter degradability are shown in Table 1. In addition, increased ME intake from 54.9 for untreated to 60.8 MJ/day for urea-treated rice straw by growing steers was reported by Kimambo et al. (2002) and increased stover intake by growing bulls from 72.7g/kgW0.75 for untreated to 89.4g/kgW0.75 for urea-treated maize stover was stated by Kilongozi (1992). Higher milk yield was reported for cows fed urea-treated maize stover (10.1 kg/day) than for those fed untreated stover (9.5 kg/day) (Masimbiti 2002). Similarly, Kilongozi (1992) observed an increase in body weight gain from 96.0 g/day for bull calves fed untreated stover to 236.9 g/day for those fed urea-treated stover, while Shem (1993) working in Moshi obtained an increase in DM intake from 2.5 kg/day for untreated stover to 3.67 kg/day for urea-treated and body weight gain from 104 g/day for untreated stover to 203 for urea-treated stover. It is clear from Table 1 that urea treatment increased the CP content of the treated materials, but its effect on DM degradability was not clear having increased the degradability of rice straw and maize stover, but not the one of bean straws. Even though it was demonstrated that, treating both rice straw and maize stover with urea improved their quality, the technology was poorly adopted after the project. The reasons for low adoption could be high labour requirement for preparation of the stover before the treatment and the small benefit in terms of increased milk yield. The cost for urea as fertilizer was subsidized by the government, which made it cheap during that time. However, currently the cost for urea (1200 Tsh/kg) is higher than that of cotton seed cake (450 Tsh/kg). Therefore, it is unlikely that farmers will be tempted to use urea for improving the CP content of straws. Thus, locally available and much cheaper chemicals for improving the quality of these popular feeds need to be researched. Use of manual box baling Maize stover is the most important crop residue fed to dairy cattle in Kilimanjaro region. This feed is normally harvested or gathered from the lowlands and transported to the highland areas where dairy cattle are kept. The main constraint in using this feed is the high transportation cost (Massawe 1999) because it is transported in loose form. To make transport of larger loads possible, manual box baling was introduced. Baling increased the load weight in a 1 ton pickup from 160 kg to 262 kg air-dried weight and reduced the cost of transportation from 106 to 71 Tsh per kg DM of stover (Massawe 1999). The technology of manual box baling has been adopted by individual farmers, where it was introduced and used not only for maize stover but also for other conserved forages. However, when this technology was introduced to people who were selling forage along the road side, it was not adopted (Massawe 1999) because it decreased the bundle size, hence, lowered its value. It would appear that this technology would have been more adopted if it was introduced to the potential buyers of forage because if they demanded for baled forage then the sellers would have to bale it. Use of urea molasses mixture/block Urea molasses mixture to supplement poor quality roughage was introduced in Kilimanjaro region by an FAO Dairy development program (Ørskov,1987). Urea molasses mixture was prepared in collaboration with a Sugar Company in Moshi, and the product was transported to the villages using tankers and stored in storage tanks that were installed in different villages. Farmers could purchase small amounts of the mixture according to their requirements. Feeding of urea molasses mix with bean straw during the dry season maintained high intake of straw of up to 10 kg per day and milk yield of 5.8 kg/day (Shem 1986). Similarly Nkya et al. (1999) observed an increase in DM intake from 10.1 kg/day to 12 kg/day and milk yield from 6.7 l to 11.2 l/day when cows receiving adlib grass hay and 6 kg of maize bran were supplemented with urea molasses blocks, while supplementation with urea molasses mixture increased milk yield from 6.7 to 8.8 l/day. Similarly, the growth rate of grazing dairy heifers during the dry season was improved from 76 g un-supplemented to 203 g/day for those supplemented with urea molasses block. Also energy and protein intake were more than doubled (Aboud et al., 1999). Uptake of the technology was good when the project was functional, but it was only maintained for three years after the project ended. The main weakness identified that led to non- sustainability of the project was the lack of an entrepreneur who would have distributed the molasses urea mixture that was previously distributed by the project as perceived by the farmers. In addition, privatization of the sugar company reduced the government control on how the company was run and increased the price of molasses. Moreover, molasses urea mixture was also used for illegal distillation of local alcohol, where the use of urea molasses mixture was considered a better raw material than pure molasses. Supplementation techniques for increased milk production Different supplementation techniques for increased milk production have been introduced and tested. Feeding of concentrates to dairy animals was one of the packages that were introduced with heifer in-trust projects in different parts of the country. This is probably the most widely known feeding intervention although the extent of adoption differs in respect to formulation and quantity to be offered. Mixing ratio of 3 parts energy source and 1 part protein source and feeding of 2 kg during the morning milking and 2 kg during the evening milking were suggested (Teendwa et al., 2007). The recorded increase in milk yields per cow per day were 3.5 l in Tanga, (Urassa, 1999), 2.62 in Kibaha (Urassa et al., 2011) and 4.8 in Arumeru (Urassa et al., 2013). However, adoption rate of concentrate feeding has been low where it was introduced. A study in Tanga (Teendwa et al., 2007) showed that, even though more than 97% of farmers were aware of the technology of feeding concentrates to dairy cattle, only 15% were practicing it. Urassa (2012) found that farmers were feeding about 2 kg/cow/day of concentrate in Kibaha and 2.5 kg/cow/day of concentrate in Arusha instead of the recommended amount of 4 kg/cow/day. The reason for this type of adoption is the perceived concept that concentrate feeding was expensive (Lyimo, 2003). In fact, sometimes the ingredients are expensive when purchased in small quantities compared to bulky purchase. The low uptake for concentrate feeding where farmers were compounding feeds at a different ratio and feeding smaller quantity than that recommended by the experts could be due to high cost of the feed ingredients, unavailability and low price of milk, which makes it uneconomical to supplement as perceived by the farmers (Teendwa et al., 2007). However, studies on concentrate supplementation in Tanga revealed that increase in supplementation over what the farmers were feeding was economical with profit margins ranging from 114-184 Tsh/cow/day. Similarly, Urassa et al. (2011, 2013) observed a doubling in milk yield and profit margin per cow per day that ranged from 228-263 Tsh in Kibaha and 964-1229 Tsh in Arumeru, when properly formulated concentrate was fed on top of what farmers were feeding. Lack of credit facilities for purchasing inputs could also contribute to the low adoption rate and intensity of adoption. Studies in Arumeru district where the use of different cheaper sources of ingredients, such as bran of pigeon peas and green gram to replace part of maize bran (for concentrate formulation) was introduced, adoption was limited by the inability of the farmers to purchase the different ingredients individually. However, when a stockiest was encouraged to purchase and formulate the dairy concentrate, several non-project members copied the practice (Urassa et al., 2013). Use of water melon as a source of water and protein supplement Water melon (Citrullus vulgaris) was tested on-station at Mpwapwa research institute (Shayo et al., 1996, 1997) and its use later up scaled in some villages in Dodoma and Singida regions, and more recently in Hanang district of Manyara region. It was found that chopped water melon in a bucket of 20 liters is equivalent to 20 liters of normal drinking water. About 1.6-4.8 t/ha are produced equivalent to 1.6-4.8 tonnes of water. Water melons are used during the dry season in agro-pastoralist communities for the calves and pregnant cows that cannot walk long distances searching for water and feeds. Water melon seeds are used as protein supplements and were found to increase hay intake and milk production. Conclusions and recommendations  Several technically sound feed interventions for improved dairy production have been introduced in Tanzania.  Uptake of such technologies and innovations beyond project duration has been low.  Socio-economic considerations may have lacked so that appropriateness and cost of the technologies and methods used for dissemination could have hindered uptake.  There is, therefore, not only a need to change approaches or the method of dissemination of some proven technologies to farmers, but also location-specific socio- economic conditions need to be investigated.  Lately, multi-stakeholder innovation platforms have been established in Tanzania (Pham et al. 2014) that may help overcome most important constraints first, before feed interventions have greater chance of adoption. Market quality and breed quality are among those most important factors (Duncan et al. 2013).  Finally, the scarcity of published research with focus on feed interventions for dairy in Tanzania is striking and deserves greater attention in capacity building and extension. Acknowledgement Financial support by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to the MilkIT project is gratefully acknowledged. References Aboud, A.A.O., Kimambo, A.E. Laswai, G.H. and Moshy, D.P.K. 1999. Effect of Molasses urea blocks and strategic dry season supplement to yearling heifers raised on low quality roughages. Sudan Journal of Animal Production 12:17-34. Duncan, A.J., Teufel, N., Mekonnen, K., Singh, V.K., Bitew, A. and Gebremedhin, B. 2013. Dairy intensification in developing countries: Effects of market quality on farm-level feeding and breeding practices. Animal, 7(12): 2054-2062. Kiangi, E.M.I. 1979. Ammonia treatment of low quality roughages to improve their nutritive value. MSc Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Kilongozi, N. 1992. Urea treatment of maize stover. The effectiveness of the cost of the method relative to improvement in feeding value. MSc Dissertation, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. Kimambo, A.E., Shem, M.N, Mgheni, D.M., Raymond, F.M. and Kajege, C.M.M. 1991. Experiences on straw treatment with urea in Kilimanjaro and Arusha Regions. Proc. SAREC Conf., Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. Pp. 105-111. Kimambo, A.E., Aboud, A.A., Laswai, G.H., Mtakwa, P., Nkenwa, D.D., Antony, N. and Mtamakaya, J.D. 2002. Investigation on quantity and physical-chemical quality of wood ash in improving the feeding values of poor quality roughages feeds for ruminants. Proc. Joint 29th Scient. Conf. Tanzania Soc. Animal Prod. and 20th Scient. Conf. Tanzania Vet. Assoc. (Eds. Kazwala, R.R. et al.), 3-5 Dec. 2002, AICC-Arusha, Tanzania. Pp. 170-182. Lyimo, B.J. 2003. Investigation on the type, quantity, and quality of feeds fed to dairy cattle in Morogoro from October to December 2003. BSc. Special Project report SUA, 2004. Masimbiti, W. 2001. Utilization of urea treated maize stover in rations for dairy cows in Zimbabwe. MSc Dissertation, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, 55 pp. Massawe, N.F. 1999. Strategies based on participatory rural appraisal for improving the utilization of forages to increase profitable milk production on smallholder farms in Tanzania. PhD thesis, The University of Reading, UK. Massawe, N.F., Owen, E., Mtenga, L.A., Romney, D.L., Ashley, S.D. and Holden, S.J. (1998). Stripping of leaf sheath and husks combined with manual box bailing as a strategy towards efficient and economical use of maize stover. Proc. Scient. Conf. TSAP 25: 233-237. Mgheni, D.M., Kimambo, A.E., Sundstol, F. and Madsen, J. 1994. The influence of urea supplementation or treatment of rice straw with urea and fish meal supplementation on rumen environment and activity in sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology 49: 223- 235. Mgheni, D.M., Raymond, F.M., Kajege, L.M.M. and Kimambo, A.E. 1991. Effect of different levels of urea, moisture and treatment time on nitrogen content, intake and organic matter degradability of Bean straw (Belabela variety). Proc. Scient. Conf. TSAP 18: 123–131. Mtengeti, E.J., Urio, N.A. and Mngulwi, E. 1989. Yield and nutritive value of Guatamala and Elephant grasses at different stages of growth. Proc. TALIRO/SAREC Conf., LPRI Mpwapwa, Tanzania, 14-15 March 1989, pp. 71-76. Mtengeti, E.J., Phiri, E.C.J.H., Urio, N.A., Mhando, D.G., Mvena, Z., Ryoba, R., Mdegela, R., Singh, B.R., Mo, M., Wetlesen, A., Lørken, T. and Reksen, O. 2008. Forage availability and its quality in the dry season on smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania. Acta Agriculturae Scand Section A, 58(4):196-204. Nkya, R., Shem, M.N. and Urio, N.A. 1999. Dry season supplementation of dairy cows with urea molasses-urea mix in the Morogoro region in Tanzania. Proc. Final Research Co-ordination Meeting of a Co-ordinated Research Project Organized by the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. 7-11 September 1999, Vienna, Austria. 1102 pp. Ørskov, E.R. 1987. Consultancy report on Animal feeding in the assistance to smallholder Dairy Development in Kilimanjaro/Arusha Region, Tanzania, during the period 8-21 August 1987 Pham, N.D., Cadilhon, J.-J. and Maass, B.L. 2014. Field testing a conceptual framework for innovation platform impact assessment: the case of MilkIT dairy platforms in Tanga region, Tanzania. 6th All African Conference on Animal Agriculture, 27-30 Oct. 2014, Nairobi, Kenya. (Accepted for oral presentation). Said, A.N. and Wanyoike, M.M. 1987. The prospect of utilizing urea treated maize stover by small holder dairy farmers in Kenya. In: Utilization of Agricultural By-products as Livestock Feeds in Africa. Proc. Blantare Malawi, Sept 1986. ed Little DA, Said AN, Kategile JA, Sibanda S, Naga MA, Nuwayapa MY. ARNAB/ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 1987. Sarwatt, S.V. and Njau, F.B.C. 1990. Feeding systems for smallholder dairy farmers in Morogoro urban. In. Proc. TSAP 17th Scient. Conf., Arusha, Tanzania. Shayo, C.M., Ogle, B. and Udén, P. 1996. Water melons (Citrullus vulgaris) as the main source of water for cattle in central Tanzania. Tropical Grasslands 30: 308-313. Shayo, C.M., Ogle, B. and Udén, P. 1997. Comparison of water melon (Citrullus vulgaris)-seed meal, Acacia tortilis pods and sunflower-seed cake supplements in central Tanzania. 1. Nutritive value and influence on the rumen environment. Tropical Grasslands 31: 124-129. Shem, M.N. 1986. Dry season feeding practices in small holder farms in the Kilimanjaro region Tanzania. MSc Dissertation, University of Guelph, Canada. Shem, M.N. 1993. Evaluation of the locally available feed resources on smallholder farms on the slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro. PhD Thesis Aberdeen University, LOCATION. Shirima, E.J.M. and Wiktorson, H. 1994. Utilization of maize leaves and tops prior to harvesting as fodder for livestock. TSAP Conference Series, 21:169-181. Teendwa, A.A.P., Kimambo, A.E. and Lazaro, E.A. 2007. Farmers’ awareness and adoption of the available feed improvement technologies for dairy production. Proc. 2nd Joint TSAP/TVA Scientific Conference, AICC, Arusha, Tanzania, 29th Nov. - 1st Dec. 2007. Urassa, J. K. 1999. Study of the factors influencing milk out put of dairy cattle under smallholder farms in Tanga region. MSc Dissertation, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, 186 pp. Urassa, V.C. Kimambo, A.E. Laswai, G.H and Assey, R.J 2011. Feeding strategy for improving milk production of cross-bred cows under smallholder-farmers in Kibaha District, Tanzania. In: Proc. 34th Scient. Conf. Tanzania Soc. Animal Prod. TSAP Conference Series, 34: 184- 194. Urassa, V.C., Kimambo, A.E., Laswai, G.H. and Assey R.J. (2013). Supplementation strategy for improving milk production of cross-bred cows under smallholder-farmers in Arumeru district, Tanzania. Paper presented at ASARECA LFP end of project and Scientific conference, Peacock Hotel, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 26-29 November 2013. Effects of season and location on cattle milk yield and milk prices in Tanga and Morogoro Regions, Tanzania Wassena, F.J.1*, Mangesho, W.E.2, Chawala, A.3, Laswai, G.H.4, Bwire J.M.N.2, Kimambo A.E.4 and Maass, B.L.5 , Lukuyu, B.6 1 CIAT, c/o P.O Box 3004, SUA, Morogoro, Tanzania; 2 TALIRI, Tanga; 3 TALIRI, Mpwapwa, Tanzania; 4 Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Morogoro, Tanzania; 5 CIAT, P.O Box 823- 00621, Nairobi, Kenya; 6 ILRI, P.O Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya Corresponding author: f.j.wassena@cgiar.org Abstract The study was conducted in 4 villages of Kilosa and Mvomero districts in Morogoro Region and 4 villages of Handeni and Lushoto districts in Tanga Region. The aim was to compare differences in cattle milk produced and milk producer prices based on location and seasons in the two regions. The study applied the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) for gathering data through focus group discussions and individual interviews. Data on rainfall pattern throughout the year, milk produced per household per day, and milk prices received in Tanzanian Shilling (TSh)/litre were gathered. The daily amount of milk produced per household was higher (p ≤ 0.05) in Handeni (mean 28.7 litres) and Kilosa (mean 23.3) districts than for Mvomero (mean 7.9) and Lushoto (mean 4.1) districts. There were also differences (p ≤ 0.05) in milk producer prices, in Mvomero (mean 708 TSh), Lushoto (mean 491 TSh), Kilosa (mean 450 TSh) and Handeni (mean 425 TSh) with an overall range from 200-1000 TSh/litre of milk. Seasonality of rainfall had effects on both milk produced and milk prices. On the other hand, local feeding systems influenced milk produced per household, while marketing channels affected milk prices. More research on the use of innovation approaches to address issues of prices and seasonal milk supply, as well as training and use of improved forage technology were possible options recommended to achieve a year-round similar level of milk production. Key words: FEAST, milk production, milk price, seasonality, dairy value chain Introduction In Tanzania, like many other African countries, milk is produced mainly by small-scale farmers dispersed across the countryside, who are relatively isolated from the urban consumers. Their surplus production is small and often highly seasonal, in part owing to the low intensity of dairy production systems and their sensitivity to local weather conditions (Mdoe and Wiggins, 1996). Seasonality is reflected by large variations of milk production and supply between the months. There is a decrease in milk production and consumption levels being below domestic demands for milk and milk products in the past two decades (Swai and Karimuribo, 2011). According to Schooman and Swai (2011), privatization of the dairy sub-sector resulted in decontrolled prices for milk and milk products mainly in large cities and towns. It is within the urban and peri-urban areas where much of the marketed milk is consumed due to higher demand by the growing population (Kurwijila, 2002). Milk in rural areas is mostly consumed within the producing households, in surplus and less marketed during the rainy season; and in very low supply during dry seasons (ILRI, 2005; Schooman and Swai, 2011). The only common marketing channels exist through direct sales to consumers/neighbours and through smallscale milk vendors. This study explores seasonal variations in milk production and milk prices received among smallholder farmers, suggesting pilot options that may improve productivity and prices of milk. The general objective was to assess the influence of location and season on cattle milk production and producer prices in Morogoro and Tanga regions. The following research questions were addressed. What are effects of season on milk production and milk prices? What is the effect of location on milk production and milk prices? And what are the possible options for stabilizing milk production and producer milk prices? Methodology Description of the study area The study was conducted within the MilkIT project in Kilosa and Mvomero districts of Morogoro region and Handeni and Lushoto districts of Tanga region. Selection of the districts was based on their production and marketing channels, either both production and marketing take place in rural areas (‘rural-to-rural’ in Kilosa and Handeni districts) or production in rural but marketing to urban areas (‘rural-to-urban’ in Mvomero and Lushoto districts). Two villages were purposely selected from each district. Sampling frame Farmers were selected purposively representing each hamlet within a village, with reasonable representation of men and women. To assure representation of every hamlet, two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in each village involving 20-25 persons per FGD; 6 to 7 farmers were selected from three wealth groups (based on land size or number of cattle) out of the FGD group for subsequent individual interviews. The interviews were done using the structured questionnaire of the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST, version 5.3; Duncan et al., 2012). A total of 104 interviews were held from February to March 2013, involving 58 men and 46 women. Data collection and analysis The parameters assessed through individual interviews were average milk produced per day/household throughout a year and average price received for milk per litre. Data on rainfall pattern was collected through FGDs on a 0-5 scale and converted to percent (%). Collected data were compiled in the FEAST Beta data sheet and analyzed using MS Excel and SAS (2002). Pairwise comparisons between means of all variables were computed using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Results and Discussion Annual rainfall distribution Rainfall was highest from March to May in all districts, with the peak in April, and lowest from July to October except for Mvomero and Lushoto, where relatively high rainfall was also experienced in October and November, respectively (Figure 1). Figure 1: Estimated average rainfall (in %) throughout the year in Kilosa, Handeni, Mvomero and Lushoto districts of Tanzania based on 4 assessments by farmers per district Average household milk production in four districts (location effect) Average milk produced per household per day was higher (p ≤ 0.05) in Handeni and Kilosa than in Mvomero and Lushoto (Table 1). The difference is marked between the feeding systems practised in the areas. Zero-grazed improved cows usually produce more milk per cow (up to ten times) compared to the traditional zebu cattle, which are mainly kept under extensive systems (Kurwijila et al., 2012; NBS, 2007/2008). The difference between feeding systems may implicate the very different levels of milk produced (White et al., 2002). Also, the districts with a dominant practice of extensive/pastoral systems (Handeni, Kilosa and partly Mvomero) have substantially higher average milk produced per household compared to the district with semi- intensive/zero grazing systems (Lushoto) due to the large number of cows milked in the former. The increased amount of milk produced or supplied in Tanzania is mostly reflected by number of cattle, rather than improved productivity (Kurwijila, 2002). Table 1: Estimated average daily milk production per household in four districts of Tanzania Milk produced (litres/household/day) District N Mean SE Range Kilosa 311 23.8a 2.12 0.25 – 48 Handeni 256 28.7a 2.33 0.50 – 53 Mvomero 272 7.9b 3.09 1.00 – 12 Lushoto 146 4.1b 2.24 0.50 – 27 * Least squares means with different superscripts are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) Average household milk production in different months of the year (seasonal effect) The seasonal trends of milk production per household in the different districts mostly reflect the rainfall pattern, except for Lushoto (Figure 2). Smallholder dairy systems are portrayed to be highly sensitive to local weather, thus, affecting milk production (Mdoe and Wiggins, 1996). During the rainy season, milk produced was high due to availability of pasture (in terms of biomass) for grazing and water for the animals in extensive production (Handeni, Kilosa and Mvomero) as well as for animals that rely on collected fodder in zero-grazed areas (Lushoto). Currently, the milk yield level in Lushoto is below the amount of at least 15 litres per cow per day to be expected from improved cows (Msanga and Kavana, 2002). During the dry season, the decline in milk production per household, especially in the extensive system, is highly likely due to shortage of water and pastures as shown by low rainfall and decline in quantity and quality of available feeds, which are among the major constraints towards increased milk production in Tanzania (Mdoe and Wiggins, 1996; Mtengeti et al., 2008; Njombe et al., 2011). The uniform distribution in the amount of milk produced from January to October in Lushoto, with only a slight decline in November and December, could be attributed to the feeding system where farmers who practise zero-grazing search for green chop in the flood plains and on river banks and also supplement some concentrate to their animals. Access to supplementary feeds like concentrates is unlikely in the extensive areas where the animals rely alone on grazing natural pastures. Rural-to-rural marketing channel Rural-to-urban marketing channel Figure 2: Estimated daily milk production in litre per household throughout the year in (a) Kilosa, (b) Mvomero, (c) Handeni and (d) Lushoto districts of Tanzania Average milk producer prices (location effect) There was a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in milk prices among the four districts (Table 2). The higher milk prices in Mvomero could be due to the closeness to urban markets. For example, milk from Wami Sokoine village is sold to Morogoro Urban due to short distance between the village and Morogoro Municipality. Similarly, Manyinga village, also in Mvomero, is situated in the urban surroundings of Turiani, where people working in Mtibwa Sugar Company are settled and probably purchase milk directly from the farmers. It has been shown that villages that are closer to urban and peri-urban market channels get higher prices and reliable markets for their milk, due to higher demand driven by urban population growth (Kurwijila, 2002; Muriuki and Thorpe, 2002). On the other hand, proximity to milk collection centres for dairy processing factories can have implications on milk price due to a monopoly-like price control (Cadilhon et al., 2014). Farmers who sell their milk to processing factories like Tanga Fresh (Handeni, Lushoto, Kilosa and Mvomero) and Tan Dairy (Mvomero and Kilosa) claim to receive lower prices as compared to those selling their milk directly to individuals or a kiosk. The latter have more windows for price negotiation, thus, likely to receive better prices than the former who have limited negotiation power. The organization of producers could complement the good practices of value chain development through their linkages and shareholding in the processing facilities, hence, the ability to effect on price control (NIRAS, 2010). The Tanga Dairy Platform, a multi-stakeholder forum, has already played a role in helping to increase the milk price for producers who deliver to Tanga Fresh Ltd. milk factory (Cadilhon et al., 2014). Table 2: Mean (±SD) producer milk price in four districts of Tanzania Price of milk in TSh per litre # District N Mean SE Range Kilosa 209 450.00c 8.37 200 – 700 Handeni 240 424.58d 7.81 200 – 1000 Mvomero 282 708.15a 7.21 400 – 1000 Lushoto 180 490.55b 9.02 300 – 600 * Least squares means with different superscripts are significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) # At the time of research TZS100 ≈ US$0.06 Average milk producer prices in different months of the year (seasonal effect) Higher milk prices in some months (Figure 3) correspond to low milk production due to the onset of the dry season that decreases feed and water availability to the animals, thus, large numbers of cattle migrate to suitable grazing areas. This situation is severed in extensive systems. The indicated lower prices (Figure 3) during March to May reflect the season when rainfall is at the peak (Figure 1), and plenty of milk is produced (Figure 2). According to Kurwijila et al. (2012), seasonality of rainfall (and access to water) is extreme and reflected in producers’ management of their animals’ in dairy systems, resulting in severe seasonality in terms of milk volumes produced. Obviously, this affects milk price stability as well. There is still unclear information on the supply and demand of milk and the capacity of dairy processing industries to accommodate the plenty of milk available during wet seasons in Tanzania, and meet the increased consumer demand during dry seasons, on the other hand. Rural-to-rural marketing channel Rural-to-urban marketing channel Figure 3: Average milk prices (in TSh/litre) received throughout the year in (a) Kilosa, (b) Mvomero, (c) Handeni and (d) Lushoto districts of Tanzania Conclusions and Recommendations Milk production per household in the four districts of Tanzania was affected by the number of milked cows relative to farming or feeding system practiced in the areas and the season of the year, while the milk producer price was influenced by marketing channels (rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban) and season of the year. The possible options recommended for optimizing milk production and stabilizing milk producer prices include; more research on how to stabilize milk prices in situation that will favour all actors along the milk supply chain, particularly producers, and ensure stable flows along the rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban marketing channels. Testing an innovation systems approach with multi-stakeholder platforms that facilitate linkages among different dairy value chain actors may be one pathway to success (Ayele et al., 2012; Cadilhon et al., 2014). Also, drought-tolerant forages should be introduced that will reduce feed shortage, hence, help to support more uniform milk supply throughout the year and, eventually, stability of milk prices. However, research should focus more on understanding under which conditions producers are willing to take up improved feed/forage technologies than on the technology per se. Lastly, producers need regular training on how to enhance milk production and obtain marketing skills. Acknowledgement Financial support by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to the MilkIT project is gratefully acknowledged. We thank for the unreserved collaboration and openness in sharing views and experiences by all survey respondents and the participation of facilitators from SUA, TALIRI and MilkIT district and village extension staffs. References Ayele, S., Duncan, A., Larbi, A. and Khanh, T.T. 2012. Enhancing innovation in livestock value chains through networks: Lessons from fodder innovation case studies in developing countries. Science and Public Policy 39(3): 333-346. Cadilhon, J.-J., Pham, N.D. and Maass, B.L. 2014. The Tanga Dairy Platform: fostering innovations for more efficient dairy chain coordination in Tanzania. Presented at the FAO- hosted session on ‘Enabling more inclusive and efficient agricultural and food systems in Africa’ at the IFAMA 2014 World Forum, 16-19 June 2014, Cape Town, South Africa. Duncan, A., York, L., Lukuyu, B., Samaddar, A. and Stür, W. 2012. Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST): A systematic method for assessing local feed resource availability and use with a view to designing intervention strategies aimed at optimizing feed utilization. Questionnaire for Facilitators (Version 5.3); updated: 15 June, 2012. ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Accessed 15 Oct. 2014 from: http://www.ilri.org/feast. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 2005. Bridging the regulatory gap for small- scale milk traders. ILRI Briefing Paper, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Accessed 15 June 2014 from: http://www.ilri.org/ilripubaware/Uploaded%20Files/200481194330.03BR_ISS_BridgingTheRe gulatoryGapForSmallscaleMilkTraders.htm. Kurwijila, L.R. 2002. Dairy development in Tanzania: Country paper. In: Smallholder Dairy Production and Marketing – Constraints and Opportunities. Rangnekar, D. and Thorpe, W. (Eds.). Proceedings of a South-South workshop held at NDDB, Anand, India, 13-16 March 2001. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Anand, India, and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya. Accessed 15 Oct. 2014 from: https://ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/South_South/ch17.htm#TopOfPage Kurwijila, L.R, Omore, A. and Grace, D. 2012. The Tanzania Dairy Industry. Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, 7 pp. Accessed 16 Aug. 2014 from: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/33865/TanzaniaDairyIndustryOverview201 2.pdf?sequence=1 Mdoe, N. and Wiggins, S. 1996. Dairy products demand and marketing in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. Food Policy 21(3): 319-336. Msanga, Y.N. and Kavana, P.Y. 2002. Performance of F1 Frisian x Boran crossbred bulls and their off-springs to Tanzanian shorthorn Zebu managed under the extensive traditional system. In: Proceedings of the First Collaborative Research Workshop on Food Security May 2003. Batamuzi, E.K. and Tarimo, A.J.P. (Eds.). TARP II SUA Project, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, pp. 196-200. Mtengeti, E.J., Phiri, E.C.J.H., Urio, N.A., Mhando, D.G., Mvena, Z., Ryoba, R., Mdegela, R., Singh, B.R., Mo, M., Wetlesen, A., Lørken, T. and Reksen, O. 2008. Forage availability and its quality in the dry season on smallholder dairy farms in Tanzania. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, section A – Animal Sciences 58(4): 196-204. Muriuki, H.G. and Thorpe, W. 2002. Smallholder dairy production and marketing in Eastern and Southern Africa: Regional synthesis. In: Proceedings of the South-South Workshop on Smallholder Dairy Production and Marketing – Constraints and Opportunities. Rangnekar, D. and Thorpe, W. (Eds.). Proceedings of a South-South workshop held at NDDB, Anand, India, 13-16 March 2001. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Anand, India, and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya. Accessed 15 Oct. 2014 from: https://ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/South_South/Ch18.htm#TopOfPage. NBS (National Bureau of Statistics). 2007/2008. Livestock Sector – National Report – Census of Agriculture 2007/2008. NBS, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Accessed 18 Aug. 2014 from: http://www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/Agr2007-08/Livestock_Sector_National_Report.zip. Njombe, A.P., Msanga, Y., Mbwambo, N. and Makembe, N. 2011. The Tanzania dairy industry: Status, opportunities and prospects. Paper presented at 7th African Dairy Conference and Exhibition, Movenpick Palm Hotel, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 25–27 May 2011. http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&file=uploads/media/Dairy_Indust ry_Status_in_Tanzania_2011.pdf&t=1476780913&hash=04ff9fef18e115ba601f8cc2d3d39dd 23094f102. NIRAS. 2010. Survey on dairy products market in Tanzania, final report. NIRAS Finland Oy, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Accessed 15 Oct. 2014 from: http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&file=uploads/media/Final_Dairy_ Market_Report_12_1_.5.2010.pdf. SAS. 2002. TSAS/STAT software. Release 9.2. SAS Institute, Carry, North Carolina, USA. Schooman, L. and Swai, E.S. 2011. Marketing, handling and physical quality of raw marketed milk in Tanga region of Tanzania. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 23(9): Article #191. Accessed 8 July 2014 from: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd23/9/scho23191.htm. Swai, E.S. and Karimuribo, E.D. 2011. Smallholder dairy farming in Tanzania: Current profiles and prospects for developments. Outlook on Agriculture 40(1): 21–27. White, S.L., Benson, G.A., Washburn, S.P. and Green, J.T.Jr. 2002. Milk production and economic measures in confinement or pasture systems using seasonally calved Holstein and Jersey cows. Journal of Dairy Science 85(1): 95-104. Testing technologies for sustainable pig farming systems in Busia County, Kenya. Emongor, R. A.1** Ogali I.2, Njaja C. J2 and Kundebule P.3 1 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Headquarters P.O. Box 5711-00200, Nairobi, Kenya. 2 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Veterinary Research Centre, P.O. Box 32, Kikuyu, Kenya. 3 Ministry of Livestock Development, Department of Veterinary Services. Teso South District, P.O. BOX 50-50403, Amukura, Kenya Abstract Pig farming in rural Kenya and pork consumption has increased substantially in the past decade but there is a threat to human health from porccine cysticercosis infections. A collaborative study funded by ASARECA was carried out to validate the Taenia solium Penside porccine cysticercosis diagnostic kit and Taenia solium vaccine (TSOL18) in order to provide more effective disease detection and control methods for these pig farming systems. A baseline survey was undertaken Busia County in the months of May and June 2013. A random sample of 205 pig producing households, 14 pig traders and 5 service providers were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Lingual examination of the pigs and blood samples were collected from pigs and human subjects for validation of the vaccine and diagnostic kit. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 12 for windows. Results showed that farmers kept on average 4 indigenous pigs per household. Sixty percent of the respondents consumed pork at least once per month. The main rearing systems for piglets were free range (57 %), tethering (34%) and pens (5%). Adult pigs were kept under tethering (93%), under free range (5%) and in pens (2%). Pigs were mainly fed on kitchen leftovers (75%) and 23% of respondents left them to scavenge. Ten out of 200 pig serum samples came from pigs that were positive of porcine cysticercosis on lingual examination. Pig production was profitable but the production system needs to be improved by using better production technologies. Key words: Teso South Sub-County, pig production systems, disease control, value chain Introduction Pig farming in rural areas of Kenya and pork consumption has increased substantially in the past decade. Indigenous pigs are mainly kept by smallholder farmers under free range conditions in western Kenya (Githigia et al., 2005; Mutua et al., 2012). Keeping pigs under these conditions may be beneficial to farmers because they require low inputs but it is against the laws of Kenya (GOK, 1972). Also, keeping pigs under free range conditions may pose health risks to the farmers and consumers of pork produced in these production systems. For these pig production systems to be sustainable there was need to tackle issues related to animal health to reduce the risk to farmers and consumers. The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) is promoting technology uptake through a validation project through a partnership of institutions in six countries in the Eastern and Central Africa region. The aims of the project are to validate a vaccine (TSOL18) produced in Australia and Diagnostic Kit produced at International Livestock Institute (ILRI). The vaccine and diagnostic kit trials have yielded promising results in countries such as Cameroon. The vaccine is made of recombinant larvae stage of the pig tapeworm (Taenia solium) and is administered to naive pigs together with an anthelmintic, oxfendazole. There were four regimes which were validated including one, which has been tried previously. In addition, the disease (porcine cysticercosis) is commonly diagnosed by lingual examination of a pig. Therefore, ASARECA is also involving the six countries in the ECA region to validate a simple rapid test, which uses antibody detection. The test was developed by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya and uses serum. The test is quick, specific and three times more sensitive than the lingual examination. If these two technologies are successful and adopted by farmers who raise their pigs on free- range systems, the vaccine along with the test kit shall make a remarkable advancement towards reducing the threat of humans from neurocysticercosis through safe pork. The aim of this baseline study was to establish the status of pig production and value chain with emphasis on awareness, prevention, control and treatment of the disease in the study areas in Kenya. Materials and methods Study area The study to validate TSOL18 vaccine and pen side diagnostic kit was undertaken in Teso South District Busia County. Teso South District is found in Busia County of western Province, Republic of Kenya. Teso South District, boarders Butula to the East, Namable to the North and Busia to the South, Teso North to the North and the Republic of Uganda to the west. It has two Divisions, Chakol and Amukura which are divided into 13 administrative locations and 38 sub locations. The District covers 300.7km2 with 225.525 km2 under various Agricultural activities. The total human population is 137,924 (GoK, 2010). The district has approximately 27372 households of which approximately 10,300 households were involved in pig farming. Teso South District was chosen for the study because it has a high population of indigenous pigs reared for pork by farmers under free range conditions and may be ideal for testing the vaccine and diagnostic KIT for T Solium. Data and data sources The study used both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from the various actors in the pig value chain using structured questionnaires. The actors interviewed included pig farmers, pig traders, service providers and people suffering from epilepsy in the communities. The questionnaires were structured to capture data on household demography such as level of education, age of the farmers, information on sanitation, information on management of the pig enterprise and knowledge of the disease, its transmission and control in the study area. Secondary data was collected from government ministries and other sources to provide general information on the farming systems and other relevant information to the study. Sampling procedure, data collection and analysis Multi-stage sampling procedure was followed. Teso South District was purposively chosen from the 7 districts that comprise Busia County because it has high number of households keeping indigenous pigs. All the two Divisions (Amukura and Chakol) of South Teso were selected for the study. Three sub-locations were randomly selected in Chakol and 2 in Amukura. In Chakol Division the three sub-locations were: Ngelechom, Amase and Adungosi Sub-locations. In Amukura Division; Apokor and Odioi/Asurete sub-locations were selected for the study. Simple random sampling was used to select pig farmers from the lists of pig farming households provided by the Assistant chiefs of the selected Sub-locations. Where the selected farmer was not willing to respond or could not be found, the farmer was replaced by the name directly below or above on the list. A total of 205 household which kept pigs were randomly selected and interviewed by trained enumerators using structured questionnaires. Data entry was done using MS Excel and data analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 12. Descriptive statistics was done. Results and discussion Household characteristics The average farm size was 3 acres. Sixty two percent of the households were male headed whereas 38 % were female headed. The education level of those interviewed was low as 12% had no formal education, 64 % had primary level education and 6 % had secondary level of education. The low levels of education might have an impact on the uptake of technology and especially adopting complex disease control measures. About 13 % of the respondents were in the age category of 18-30, 54% were in the age category of 31-50 and 32 % were over 50 years. The main occupation of the respondents was agriculture (84%), business (6%) and other off-farm occupations such as teaching, juakali, sand mining etc (10%). Pig husbandry and management On average farmers kept 4 pigs per household. The maximum number of pigs kept was 17 and the minimum number was 1. The average number of piglets’ age 0-3 month old was approximately 2. All the sampled farmers kept indigenous pigs. Pig farmers tended to manage young and adult pigs differently in different seasons. In the rainy/planting season, 57 % of the respondents kept piglets free range, 34% kept them under tethering and 5% kept them in pens. In the rainy/planting season, 93% of the respondents kept adult pigs under tethering, 5% under free range and 2% in pens. In the dry/harvesting season, 58 % of the respondents kept piglets’ free range, 34% kept piglets under tethering and 5% kept them in pens. In the harvesting season, 90% of the respondents kept adult pigs under tethering, 8% under free range and 2% in pens. Scavenging pigs may destroy crops especially in cases where the farm holdings are small resulting in a lot of conflict between neighbours. Pigs in the study sites were mainly fed kitchen leftovers and scavenging for food. Forty five percent of the respondents fed their pigs on kitchen leftovers, 30 % scavenging and kitchen leftovers which implies that 75% of respondents depended on these two forms of feeding. The remaining 30% fed pigs on a mixture of scavenging, kitchen leftovers and commercial waste products. Only 2 % fed their pigs on commercial feed or commercial waste products. These results concur with those of Mutua et al, 2012 who reported that 83% of the 164 smallholder pig farmers they interviewed fed pigs on kitchen leftovers in western Kenya. Information on pork consumption Sixty four percent of respondents consumed pork at least once a month, 22% less than once a month but at least once in a year, 4% consumed pork less than once a year and 10% never consumed pork. The results indicate a high consumption of pork by the community in the study sites. Approximately 90% of the respondents purchased pork from local butcheries and a small number (1%) indicated that they obtained their pork from home. Approximately 86% of the respondents indicated that they consumed pork in a fried state, 2% boiled and 1% barbequed. Economics of pig farming Cost of feeding pigs Pig producers interviewed indicated that on average it cost them KES 795.72 to feed a pig per month. The minimum cost of feeding pigs per month was zero and the maximum cost of feeding one pig per month was KES 4500. The pig production system in the region is low input and low cost, therefore there is room for improvement and increasing profit margins. Fraction of piglets sold and price Approximately 14% of interviewed farmers did not sell any of their piglets and 28 % sold all the piglets born on their farms. On average 67% of piglets were sold off to other producers. The minimum number of pigs sold was zero and the maximum was a hundred percent. The mean price of the piglet depended on the month when it was sold. The mean age at which piglets are sold was 1.78 (approximately 2) months. The minimum age at which piglets are sold was 1 month and the maximum was 18 months. The mean price per piglet was KES 926.75. The minimum price for a piglet was KES 700 and the maximum was KES 4000. Pigs are normally ready for slaughter on average at the age of approximately 14 months. The minimum number of months pigs are sold for slaughter was 4 and maximum of 113. The mean value of the pig at slaughter was KES 3834.41. The minimum price obtained was KES 500 and the maximum was KES 10000. Profitability of pig farming Pig farming in the area was profitable (Gross Margin = Revenue –Cost, this translates 3834.41- 795.72 = 3038.69 per pig) even though the nature of the management system (free range) may have negative outcomes for crop production in the study site. This enterprise could contribute significantly to household incomes and welfare if better methods of rearing pigs were introduced and farmers trained on the same. Pig meat (pork) is popular with the consumers because it is much cheaper (1kg of pork costs Ksh 200) than beef (1kg beef costs Ksh 280). Some consumers also indicated that they preferred pork because it was soft and easier to chew. Awareness of Porcine Cysticercosis From the respondents, porcine Cysticercosis in not well known to the community. This implies that little is done by the community to control it. When asked what the farmers do in case the pig is infected with the disease, 98 % did not respond to the question (not applicable), 1% sold it and 1% destroyed it. This implies that infected animals may end up being slaughtered for food. Ten of the 200 pig serum samples came from pigs that were positive of porcine cysticercosis on lingual examination which gives a prevalence rate of 5%. This figure sharply contrasts with the data obtained from the District veterinary Office which indicated zero cases of porcine Cysticercosis. The staff in the department may not have the required skills to detect the disease due to their level of qualification as the highest level of education attained by the service providers was certificate (67%) and Bachelors, (33%). Epileptics According to key informants, epilepsy was quite common in many parts of Teso South District but they could not link human epilepsy to pig farming. Among the farmers interviewed, approximately 4% indicated that someone in their household suffers from epilepsy. Among the pig traders approximately 28.6% indicated that someone in their household suffered from epilepsy (the sample size for pig traders is small (14 traders) resulting in higher percentages). From the results, there is reasonably high incidence of epilepsy in the study site. It was not possible to link the incidence of epilepsy to eating pork. The study team will undertake further research involving households with cases of epilepsy. Protocol on how to get human blood samples to test for the incidence of porcine cysticercosis in humans was be organized. Adoption of the TSOL18 vaccine and penside diagnostic kit All the service providers interviewed indicated that they would strongly recommend the vaccine and kit for use in their area and county. They suggested that the vaccine and kit could be recommended for use by vet service providers (50%), traders and meat inspectors (25%) and vet service providers, traders, meat inspectors and farmers (25%). As to who should pay for the diagnostic kit, they suggested that it should be paid for by the government (75%), government and farmers (25%) of the respondents. Conclusions and recommendation The study concluded that: • Pig farming was increasing in importance in the study sites. Indigenous pigs were mainly kept by both gender but more prominently by women and youth. The pig enterprise could contribute significantly to income of women and youth in the study areas leading to improvement in income and food security of pig producing households.. • Pigs were mainly kept under free range conditions. This coupled with low levels of knowledge on Porcine Cysticercosis could be a precursor to pre-disposing communities to Taenia Solium infections. • The pig enterprise could contribute more to the households’ incomes and welfare if better methods of rearing pigs could be introduced and farmers’ capacity build up. • Porcine Cysticercosis was not well known to the community; therefore little is done to by the community to control the disease. • There was low level of knowledge about the control measures of the disease. The T. Solium and penside diagnostic kit was not well known to all the respondents (farmers, traders and service providers). • Majority of the respondents were willing to adopt and use the T. Solium vaccine and penside diagnostic kit. • Incidences of epilepsy were quite common among the households of those interviewed. It was not possible to link the occurrence of epilepsy with pork consumption. This required more research involving human samples. Recommendations • There is need to build the capacity of farmers, traders and service providers on porcine Cysticercosis in Teso South Sub-County. • The pig value chain should be strengthened in the study area as the pig enterprise has the potential to increase incomes and food security of participating households. • More research is required to determine the link between pork consumption and the incidences of epilepsy reported in households of pig farmers and pig traders. • A policy recommendation on the pig farming in the study area is required. • Research to validate the T. Solium vaccine and the penside diagnostic kit should proceed so that farmers, traders and service providers can be able to use it to control the disease in pigs in Teso South District and other parts of Kenya. Acknowledgements The authors thank ASARECA for funding and KALRO Management for facilitating the study. Special thanks to value chain actors in South Teso Sub-County and all stakeholders for their contribution. References Githigia, S.M., Murekefu , A. and Otieno, R.O. 2005. Prevalence of porcine cysticercosis and risk factors for Taenia solium taeniosis in Funyula Division of Busia District, Kenya. The Kenya Veterinarian 29: 37–39. GOK. 1972. Government of Kenya, The Laws of Kenya , Revised Edition 1972. The Animal Diseases Act. Chapter 364. Kagira, J.M., Kanyari, P.W., Munyua , W.K. and Warui GoK, 2010. The 2009 Kenya Population and Housing census Volume 1 A. Population Distribution by Administrative Units. KNBS Mutua, F.; Dewey, C.; Arimi, S.; Ogara, W.; Levy, M and Schelling, E. 2012. Improved pig production and health in western Kenya: URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/604. Accessed on: 15/05/2014 Influence of parity and body condition score at parturition on initiation of postpartum ovarian activities Hoka1.A.I, Gicheru2 M., Indetie3, W.D. Odongo4, H. 1 KARI-National Beef Research Centre, P.O. Box 3840, Nakuru. 2 Department of zoology, KenyattaUniversity, P.O Box 43844 (00100), Nairobi. 3East African Animal Productivity Project, P. O. Box 30028,Nairobi.4School of biological Sciences, Nairobi University, P. O. Box 30119 (00100) Nairobi, Kenya. Corresponding author: indetie2001@yahoo.com Abstract Adverse effect of postpartum body weight loss on resumption of ovarian function may be mediated by secretion of reproductive hormones. The effects of parity and body condition score at parturition on metabolic and endocrine profiles were studied using 30 Friesian dairy cows grazing on improved pastures. Milk production was recorded daily whereas body condition score was measured every 2 weeks using a method used by Lowman et al., 1976. Metabolites and hormonal profiles were measured 30 days prepartum to 90 days postpartum. Non- esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were measured using NEFA (ACS-ACOD MEHA) kit. IGF-1 was measured using IGF-1 (ACS-ACOD MEHA) kit Milk progesterone was determined daily for 90 days postpartum using sensitive radioimmunoassay techniques using IAEA/FAO 1999 protocal. Plasma Leptin concentration was determined every 4 days according to the method used by Delavaue et al 2002.Data collected was analysed using SAS 2012. The statistical model included the effects of parity, BCS at parturition, days including pre- and postpartum periods and interactions. Primiparous cows had low milk yield and body condition score <3during early postpartum periods.They also had higher concentration of NEFA than the multparous cows. Most hormone concentrations diminished within 1 week postpartum whereas IGF-1 increased from day 42 postpartum. Leptin concentrations decreased shortly prepartum and remained low upto day 42 postpartum. Initiation of ovarian activity postpartum was early in multiparous cows of body condition score 3 as indicated by the high concentrations of progesterone 42 days postpartum. This indicated that body condition score of 3 at parturition and parity3 and 4 influenced early initiation of postpartum ovarian activity.There was a high correlation of leptin and IGF-1, and during this time the cows resumed their normal cycle as indicated by the levels of progesterone. Therefore leptin, IGF-1 and progesterone were good indicators of resumption of ovarian activity postpartum.Making use of and manipulating these indicators could allow for early postpartum breeding availing more replacement stocks, meat and milk in the market this will lead to increased profit attracting youths into dairy farming. Key words: ovarian activity, postpartum, Friesian cow Introduction Genetic selection for milk production during the last decades has been associated with decreased reproductive efficiency (Lucy, 2001). The resumption of ovarian cyclicity after parturition is closely related to the negative energy balance (EB) in this period; the time to the beginning of the recovery of the EB is positively correlated with the time to first ovulation (Butler et al.1981). Butler & Smith (1989) found that cows that lost less than 0.5 units of body condition score (BCS) during the first 5 weeks post-partum had higher conception rates at the first service than cows that lost more than 0.5 BCS. The physiological pathways by which the hypothalamic– pituitary–ovarian axis is informed about the energetic status of the animal are complex, and involve several metabolites and hormones, such as the growth hormone (GH)–insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) system, insulin, thyroid hormones and leptin. It has been proposed that the effect of negative EB on the resumption of ovulation may be mediated by the secretion of IGF-I (Spicer et al. 1990) Although GH concentrations are usually high in early lactating ruminants, the intrahepatic production of its mediator IGF-I is diminished (Chilliard 1999). Circulating concentrations of IGF-I in the peripartum period are good indicators of the capacity of energy-restricted cows to resume cyclicity after parturition (Robert et al.1997). Cows with ovulatory estrogen-active follicles have higher circulating IGF-I concentrations during the first 2 weeks than cows with anovu-latory follicles (Beam & Butler1997,1998) Both insulin and IGF-I are known to stimulate in vitro steroidogenesis and proliferation of bovine thecal and granulosal cell cultures (Spicer et al,,19193:Spicer and Stewart 1996). Likewise, cows that ovulated within 35 days postpartum present higher IGF-I concentrations as well as higher glucose and insulin and lower non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentrations (Huszeniczaet et al.,2001). Cows in postpartum negative EB have lower concentrations of thyroid hormones induced by altering central and peripheral mechanisms (Pethes et al., 1985, Capucoetet al., 2001) . A role of these hormones in regulating steroid-ogenesis has been reported (Spicer 2001) but data regarding their effect on ovarian function in vivo are limited and controversial (Huszenicza et al.,2002). Problem Statement The demand for nutrients during late pregnancy to support fetal growth and lactation after parturition is a major challenge in improving cattle productivity. Poor fertility in tropical cattle is a result of nutritional factors due to seasonal variation of forage quantity and quality. The shortage of protein was considered to be more critical than energy. However, it has been shown that under good nutrition average milk yields of 12 to 15kg per day can be achieved representing 140 to 300% increase over the median milk yield per day. Low milk production may result in below optimal calf growth (mean weight gain of 0.21kg per day) causing delayed age at puberty and 1st calving that averages 41 months (Odima et al., 1994). This may also cause a high rate of calf morbidity and mortality of 27% and 22% respectively, resulting in high reproductive wastage thus, affecting the ability of farmers to select female replacements (Gitau et al., 1994). Justification Reproductive performance has been associated with nutritional status of cows as demonstrated by its effect on puberty in heifers (Rhodes et al., 1996). Nutritional influence on reproductive function is mediated at the ovarian level through the effects of nutritional metabolites acting as signals that influence hormonal action on gonads to perform an appropriate reproductive activity. Negative energy balance (NEB) after parturition impacts negatively on conception due to competing needs of nutrients between reproduction and lactation, resulting in lactation anoestrus, although the physiological mechanism that a dairy cow undergoes to adapt to lactation requirement should be basically similar among different production systems, the energy demands due to grazing may modify the important transformation that take place during this period. Dry matter intake in these production systems is usually lower than in confined systems and may be insufficient to sustain the high milk yield that can be achieved with genetic potential. It has been proposed that the effect of negative energy balance on the resumption of ovarian function may be mediated by secretion of IGF-1 hormone (Lucy, 200). Various metabolic and endocrine blood and milk traits such as NEFA, insulin, ketone bodies, IGF-1 (Lucy et al., 1992), milk fat, protein, lactose, fat: protein ratio and fat: lactose ratios (Heuer, et al., 1999) have been shown to be related to EB. Postpartum cows have low concentrations of reproductive hormones induced by altering central and peripheral mechanism (Pathes et al., 1985; Capuco et al., 2001). A role of these hormones in regulating reproduction has been reported (Spicer, 2001) but data regarding their effect on ovarian function in vivo are limited and controversial (Huszenicza et al., 2002). Therefore the objective of this study was to use levels of progesterone to determine indicators of postpartum ovarian cyclicity of Friesian dairy cows. Materials and Methods Study Area and Selection of Experimental Cows The study was conducted at KARI-Lanet within Nakuru Count, Kenya. KARI-Lanet has two agro- ecological zones 3 and 4 (Pratt and Gwyne, 1977). The farm is 1600 metres above sea level and has a bimodal rainfall pattern with an annual mean of 800 mm (ranges from 534 to 1049 mm) and 83% relative humidity. Average maximum and minimum temperatures are 26oC and 10oC respectively. Agro-ecological zone 3 had relatively good pastures but zone 4 had natural harsh pastures characterized by Pennisetumcatabasis (Manyatta grass) and Pennisetum clandesteim (Kikuyu grass). KARI-Lanet dairy farming is on small scale comprising of 60 heads of Friesian dairy cows mainly ranching in zone three with ad libitum supplementation for water, mineral and salts. Experimental Design A total of 30 in-calf cows (7 months) of differing parities (0-4) were randomly selected from a herd of Friesian dairy cows kept at KARI-Lanet. Selection was purposive and was based on parity; body condition score (BCS) and pregnancy status. The cows were grazed on improved pastures (Elba Rhodes) for 8 hours a day, minerals and water were given adlibitum. The cows were dewormed strategically postpartum using Levafax diamond (Noorbroke) to control internal worms, and they were dipped once a week using almatix (Almandine Corporation, Switzerland) distributed by Unga feeds. Measuments of Variables Cows were milked twice daily and milk production recorded. Body condition score determined every 2 weeks from one month prepartum until 3nd month postpartum using a scale 1 (emaciated) to 5 (very fat) according to Edmonson et al (1989). At the same time, body weight was determined using Dalton weigh band. Cows were classified according to BCS at parturition into lean cows (<3) or fat (>3). Estrus was checked twice a day after day 30 postpartum whereas P4 levels were checked daily 30 days prepartum to 90 days postpartum. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed using levels of milk progesterone day 21 post insemination and was confirmed at day 70 by rectal palpation. Milk samples were aseptically collected in the evening by stripping 10 mls of milk into collection bottles each containing one tablet of sodium aside as preservative. The milk samples were immediately transferred to reproductive physiology laboratory and kept at 4˚C awaiting processing. The milk was centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 30 minutes to separate skimmed milk, the skimmed milk was used for determination of progesterone levels.. The skimmed milk was stored in labeled 5 ml plastic vials and kept at 4oC until assaying for progesterone. Progesterone (P4) was determined using the ‘self coating’ Radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique as described by FAO/IAEA, (1999). Blood samples were obtained twice a week from day 30 prepartum to 90 days postpartum. Blood was aseptically collected from jugular vein into heparinised 20 ml tubes. The blood was centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 15 minutes; plasma from the blood was stored at -20 0C until analysis. Metabolite and Hormone Determination Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were determined every 4 days from 30 days prepartum to 3 months postpartum using NEFA kit (Randoxlab.ltd. Crumlin.co.Antrim, UK). Urea, Plasma leptin concentrations were quantified according to 125 IRIA of Delavoud et al (2001. Insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-I) was determined using IGF-I (ACS-ACOD MEHA) kit. Progesterone (P4) was determined using the ‘self coating’ Radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique as described by FAO/IAEA, (1999) Statistical Analysis Milk production, BCS, metabolites and hormonal concentrations were analysed by mixed procedure (SAS, Version 9.1). The statistical model included the effects of parity, BCS at parturition. Postpartum days were categorized in the intervals of 10 days during the experimental period (day 0 = day of parturition). A general linear model was used to study reproductive parameters and fixed effects were parity and BCS at parturition. Turkey Kramer tests were used to analyze differences between groups. Correlation coefficients were calculated to study relationships between variables. Factors affecting the initiation of ovarian cyclicity were evaluated by regression analysis using backward elimination procedure. The independent variable was the re-initiation of ovarian cyclicity and the dependent variables included parity, BCS at parturition, body weight, milk production, urea, NEFA, IGF-1 and leptin. Regression analysis was performed to study the relationships between leptin and BCS, leptin and NEFA, leptin and IGF-1 before and after parturition in cows with low and high BCS at parturition Results and discussions Lean (BCS<3.5) cows produced less milk as compared with fat cows and had a smaller BCS during the experimental period. BCS was affected by parity. This finding agreed with the finding of Bayram et al (2012) who reported that thinner cow at calving could not achieve their genetic milk yield potentials due to lack of body reserves that would support increasing the milk yield at the beginning of lactation. Multiparous cows had a higher BW than primiparous cows (450kg ± 7 vs 340 ± 7 kg, P = 0.0001). Parity and BCS at parturition affected BW changes during the experimental period. There was significant difference (P<0.05) in weight loss with multiparous cows losing less (0.9kg/day) weight than primiparous cows.(1.4kg/day) early in lactation. A strong correlation between BW and BCS was found for primiparous cows (r = 0.89, n = 15, P < 0.0001) and multiparous cows (r = 0.84, n = 15, P < 0.0001). NEFA concentrations started to increase before parturition; in primiparous cows they reached peak concentrations at day 21 and in multiparous cows at day 16 and started to decrease thereafter. The increase observed in NEFA concentrations was higher for primiparous cows and levels remained high for a longer period. Effects of parity and BCS at parturition were found in IGF-I concentrations; primiparous cows and lean cows had lower concentrations of IGF-I . Concentrations of IGF-I started to decrease 21 days before parturition in all cows to reach half of the prepartum values after parturition. The IGF-I concentration differed according to category, primiparous cows had a steeper decrease than multiparous cows and remained lower for more days but they tended to recover IGF-I concentrations faster. There was also an interaction between BCS at parturition and days postpartum: IGF-I in fat cows fell more sharply than in lean cows. Leptin levels decreased sharply before parturition and –in contrast with the pattern of the other hormones – concentrations remained low during the sampling period, BCS at parturition affected leptin concentrations. Leptin concentrations (nmol/l) during late pregnancy and the first 2 weeks of lactation were higher in cows with higher BCS. Leptin concentrations in primiparous cows presented a steeper peripartum decay than multiparous cows, P = 0.066, and reached a lower level postpartum (P < 0.01). Fat cows presented a steeper peripartum decay when compared with lean cows (P < 0.05). The leptin nadir in lean cows was reached 10 days before that in fat cows. Conclusions Bbody condition score 3 at parturition and parity3 and 4 influenced early initiation of postpartum ovarian activity. Recommendatios Body condition score 3 and 4 should be recommended for early breeding postpartum Routine use of IGF1 levels postpartum is a good indicator of ovarian activity REFERENCES Vanholder T., Leroy J.L.M.R., Van Soom A., Maes D., Coryn M., Fiers T., deKruif A., Opsomer G., 2006. Effect of non-esterified fatty acids on bovine theca cell steroidogenesis and proliferation in vitro.AnimReprodSci 92:51-63. Vanholder T., Leroy J.L.M.R., Van Soom A., Opsomer G., Maes D., Coryn M.,de Kruif A., 2005. Effect of non-esterified fatty acids on bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis and proliferation in vitro.AnimReprodSci 87:33-44. Leroy J.L.M.R., Vanholder T., Mateusen B., Christophe A., Opsomer G., deKruif A., Genicot G., Van Soom A., 2005. Non-esterified fatty acids in follicular fluid of dairy cows and their effect on developmental capacity of bovine oocytes in vitro.Reproduction 130:485-495 Gong J.G., 2002. Influence of metabolic hormones and nutrition on ovarianfollicle development in cattle: practical implications. Dom AnimEndocrinol 23:229-241. Blache D., Chagas L.M., Martin G.B., 2007. Nutritional inputsinto thereproductive neuroendocrine control system—A multidimensionalperspective. Reproduction, Suppl 64:124–139. Chagas L.M., Bass J.J., Blache D., Burke C.R., Kay J.K., Lindsay D.R., Lucy M.C., Martin G.B., Meier S., Rhodes F.M., Roche J.R., Thatcher W.W.,Webb R., 2007. New perspectives on the roles of nutrition and metabolic priorities in the subfertility of high-producing dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 90:4022–4032. Spicer LJ, Alpizar E &Echternkamp SE 1993 Effects of insulin, insulin-like growth factor I, and gonadotropins on bovine granulosa cell proliferation, progesterone production, estradiol production, and (or) insulin-like growth factor I production in vitro. Journal of Animal Science 71 1232–1241. Spicer LJ & Stewart RE 1996 Interactions among basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) on cell numbers and steroidogenesis of bovine thecal cells: role of IGF-I receptors. Biology of Reproduction 54 255–263. Spicer LJ 2001 Leptin: a possible metabolic signal affecting reproduction. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 21 251–270 Spicer LJ, Tucker WB & Adams GD 1990 Insulin-like growth factors in dairy cows: relationship among energy balance, body condition, ovarian activity and estrous behaviour. Journal of Dairy Science 73 929–937. HuszeniczaGy, Kulcsar M &Rudas P 2002 Clinical endocrinology of thyroid gland function in ruminants. VeterinarniMedicina 47 199–210. HuszeniczaGy, Kulcsar M, Nikolic JA, Schmidt J, Korodi P, Katai L, Dieleman S, Ribiczei-Szabo P &Rudas P 2001 Plasma leptin concentration and its interrelation with some blood metabolites, metabolic hormones and the resumption of cyclic ovarian function in postpartum dairy cows supplemented with Monensin or inert fat in feed. In Fertility in the High-Producing Dairy Cow, pp 405–409.Ed. MG Diskin. Edinburgh: British Society of Animal Lucy MC 2001 Reproductive loss in high-producing dairy cattle: where will it end? Journal of Dairy Science 84 1277–1293. Butler WR & Smith RD 1989 Interrelationship between energy balance and postpartum reproductive function in dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 72 767–783. Chilliard Y 1999 Metabolic adaptations and nutrient partitioning in the lactating animal.In Biology of Lactation, pp 503–552.Eds J Martinet, LM Houdebine& HH Head. Paris: Inserm/INRA. Capuco AV, Wood DL, Elsasser TH, Kahl S, Erdmann RA, Van Tassell CP, LefcourtA&Piperova LS 2001 Effect of somato-tropin on thyroid hormones and cytokines in lactacting dairy cows during ad libitum and restricted feed intake. Journal of Dairy Science 84 2430– 2439. Beam SW & Butler WR 1997 Energy balance and ovarian follicle development prior to the first ovulation postpartum in dairy cows receiving three concentrations of dietary fat. Biology of Reproduction 56 133–142. Beam SW & Butler WR 1998 Energy balance, metabolic hormones, and early postpartum follicular development in dairy cows fed prilled lipid. Journal of Dairy Science 81 121– 131. Pethes G, Bokori J, Rudas P, Frenyo VL &Fekete S 1985 Thyroxine, triiodothyronine, reverse- triiodothyronine, and other physiological characteristics of periparturient cows fed restricted energy. Journal of Dairy Science 68 1148–1154. Roberts AJ, Nugent RA, Klindt J & Jenkins TG 1997 Circulating insulin-like growth factor 1, insulin-like growth factor binding proteins, growth hormone, and resumption of oestrus in postpartum cows subjected to dietary energy restriction. Journal of Animal Science 75 1909–1917. Butler WR, Everett RW &Coppok CE 1981 The relationships between energy balance, milk production and ovulation in post-partum Holstein cows. Journal of Animal Science 53 742–748. Assessment of mineral content of various sweet potato cultivars grown in Highland of Kenya as animal feeds Kinyua, J. 1, Mbuku, S. 1, Musalia, L. 2, Migwi, P. 3, Gachuiri, C. 4, Muriithi, G. 1 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute-Lanet, 3840-20100, Nakuru. Chuka University, P.O. Box 109-206400, Chuka. Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Njoro. University of Nairobi, P.O. Box Nairobi. * Corresponding Author jimmy.kinyua@yahoo.com Abstract Mineral content of a feed remains when water and other volatile constituents are burnt and lost by volatilization. Mineral demand by ruminant animals is determined by two factors; the host animal requirements and ruminal microorganism. Ruminants require essential minerals as part of their feed for tissue growth and regulation of body functions. Microorganism when they become deficient of minerals, microbial pool size decreases subsequently decreasing digestibility of forage and consequently the feed intake. One cheap and easily obtainable source of mineral for ruminants within the Kenyan Highlands is sweet potato vines and storage roots. Six sweet potatoes cultivars; Naspot1, 103001, Kemb23, Gweri, Kemb36 and Wagabolige were grown in three agro-ecological zones in three different Counties in the Kenya Highland. In each site, a total of 18 plots were allocated three replicates of each cultivar at random, later the plots were split into two portions. Samples of sweet potato vines weighing 0.5 kg, defoliated at day 75, at day 150 both from unratooned and ratooned (3 samples) were collected and oven dried to a constant weight, milled to pass 3 mm screen. This was repeated with sweet potato storage root samples harvested at day (150 days) both ratooned and unratooned. The samples were analysed for mineral content using Near Infra Red Spectrometer. There was difference and interaction in mineral content of SPV due to Zone (P<0.05) and cultivars (P<0.05). Cultivar 103001 had the highest content in all the zones under different managements. There was difference and interaction in mineral content of the SPV due to cultivar (P<0.05) and management (P<0.05), cultivar 103001 had relatively high content across the managements. There was difference and interaction in mineral content of SPR due to Zone (P<0.05) and cultivar (P<0.05). There was difference and interaction in mineral content of SPR due to Cultivar (P<0.05) and management (P<0.05). Generally the ratooned had higher content than the unratooned, Kemb23 had the highest content in both management. Sweet potato vines of Cultivar 103005 and SPR of Kemb23 grown in in various zones were observed to be appropriate as mineral source for cattle. Key words: Assessment, mineral content, sweet potato cultivars, Highland, Kenya, animal feeds Smallholder dairy cattle productivity in different production systems in Nyahera, Kisumu County Muhuyi, W.B Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Beef Research Centre, P.O. Box 3840, 20100 Nakuru, Kenya Abstract Milk production has made a significant contribution to the rural economy of Nyahera farmers as it is a major source of income and employment. The objective of the study was to analyse productivity of dairy cattle in different production systems and to identify constraints and opportunities to improve dairy cattle enterprises. Longitudinal data were obtained from 20 smallholder farmers in Nyahera division. Data and information were obtained by means of questionnaires and data sheets. Collected data included production system, breed, herd structure and size, milk yield, lactation length and calving interval. Herd structure and size were collected at the beginning and end of the year. Data were subjected to analysis of variance using GLM procedures (SAS 1996) to obtain mean estimates. It was concluded that crossbreds of Zebu with the dairy breeds, mainly the Friesian and Guernsey, had increased milk production and had threefold exceeded milk yield from Zebu cattle. Introduction Nyahera is in an agro-ecological zone with sufficient rainfall which is adequate and exceeds 1,000 mm per year. To increase milk production, farmers have crossbred Zebu cattle with bulls of the Friesian and Ayrshire which are kept in bull camps established by the Kenya Finland Livestock Development and Ministry of Livestock Development. Crossbreeding of Zebu cattle with dairy breeds has been found to be an efficient strategy to increase the dairy cattle population based on crossbreds with 50% genetic inheritance of the dairy breeds. These crossbreds are able to produce more milk than Zebu cattle in a tropical production environment as a result of the additive and heterotic effects due to additive breed differences (Bhat et al., 1978; Bondoc et al., 1989). Dairy cattle genotypes consisting of purebreds and crossbreds are managed in extensive grazing, semi-zero grazing and zero-grazing systems. The basal feeds in the production systems are natural pastures and Napier grass. Minimal quantities of sweet potato vines, fodder trees, Desmodium uncinatum are provided when available, particularly in the wet season. Supplementary feeds of dairy meal and mineral lick are fed to dairy cattle at milking time. Although milk production is the main economic activity there is no organised milk marketing as milk is sold to Kisumu town by individual farmers and by middlemen and milk prices are low and variable. Therefore, the objective of the study was to analyse productivity of dairy cattle in different production systems and to identify constraints and opportunities to improve dairy cattle enterprises. Materials and Methods Study area Longitudinal data were obtained from 20 smallholder farmers in Nyahera division in Kisumu County. Nyahera is at an altitude of 1,200-1,500 m above sea level in marginal sugar zone II with an average annual rainfall of 1,500 mm and distribution is bimodal with a peak in April and November. Natural vegetation is woodland savanna and the dominant natural grasses were Hyperrhenia and panicum species. Established fodders included Napier and Bana grass, Leucaena leucocephala, sweet potato vines and Columbus grass. Data collection and processing Data and information were obtained by means of questionnaires and data sheets from smallholders farmers in Nyahera. Collected data included production system, breed, herd structure and size, milk yield, lactation length and calving interval. Herd structure and size were collected at the beginning and end of the year. Daily milk yield were recorded twice a day in the morning and afternoon and summed up to obtain lactation yield. Number of days in milk were recorded as lactation length. Calving interval was derived from two consecutive dates of calving. Data were subjected to analysis of variance using GLM procedures (SAS 1996) to obtain mean estimates. Results Herd Management In Nyahera area, smallholder farmers manage dairy cattle in extensive grazing (EG), semi-zero grazing (SZG) and zero-grazing systems (ZG). Of the 20 farmers selected for this study, it was found that 70% practised zero-grazing, 10% extensive grazing and 20% semi-zero grazing. Average farm size varied across production systems. Zero-grazed farms had an average farm size of 10.84 acres, farm size under semi-zero grazing was 4.75 acres, extensively grazed farms were relatively large and the average farm size was 15.25 acres. Herd structure and size of the different sex-age groups varied with the production system and farm size. There was a large proportion of females in the herds and they accounted for 55-88% of the herds and cows were 22-33% of the herd size. Cows in milk were 80% in extensively grazed herds, 83% in semi-zero grazed herds and 100% in zero-grazed. Breeds In Nyahera where cattle improvement was being carried out by the Ministry of Livestock Development and Kenya Finland Livestock Development Programme extensively grazed herds had a large proportion of Zebu cattle (83.3%) and there were few Ayrshire cattle (16.7%). There was a reduction of Zebu cattle to 27% in semi-zero grazed herds. However, the proportion of the Ayrshire cattle increased to 18% and that of Friesian cattle was to 14% in semi-zero grazed herds. It was observed that Friesian-Zebu crossbreds increased significantly to 32% and Ayrshire-Friesian crossbreds were 9%. Zero-grazed herds had a relatively large proportion of Friesian cattle which were 48%, Ayrshire cattle were 16%, Zebu cattle decreased to 16% and the proportion of Jersey cattle was 7% and it was also found that in this production system, they were low percentage of crossbreds of Friesian-Sahiwal, Friesian-Jersey and Friesian-Zebu. Since the crossbreds had 50% of the genetic inheritance of the dairy breeds, they were suitable for the production systems in this area (Osman and Russel, 1974 and Bhat et al., 1978). Semi- zero and zero production systems had a significant proportion of crossbreds and extensively grazed herds had no crossbreds. Milk production The mean lactation yield was 1,823.62 ± 1,080.81 kg with a coefficient of variation of 59.26% (Table 1). The Friesian and Ayrshire cows had high lactation yield exceeding 2,000 kg and this was higher than the mean lactation yield of the herds in this site. Zebu cows produced the lowest milk yield of 427.00 kg. The crossbreds of Friesian-Zebu, Ayrshire-Zebu and Guernsey- Zebu were 2 to 3 times higher in milk yield than the Zebu milk yield and this was evidence of heterosis (Demeke et al., 2004). This significant increase in milk yield of crossbreds justified the upgrading programme of Zebu cattle to the exotic dairy breeds in Nyahera. The mean lactation length were 264.50 ± 86.19 with a coefficient of variation of 32.57%. Table 1. Milk yield, lactation length by breeds in Nyahera Breed n LY (kg) LL (days) Zebu 1 427.00 212.00 Friesian 2 2,716.00 ± 901.19 366.00 ± 98.31 Ayrshire 2 2,121.50 ± 1,446.03 186.50 ± 43.13 Friesian-Zebu 1 1,046.00 217.00 Ayrshire-Zebu 1 1,653.00 294.70 Guernsey-Zebu 1 788.00 200.00 Mean 8 1,823.62 ± 1,080.81 264.50 ± 86.19 Herd productivity Evaluation of herd productivity of herds in different production systems showed that there were differences in herd productivity parameters (Table 2). Extensively grazed herds had the lowest gross margin of Kshs. 37,840.00. However, the gross margin increased in semi-zero grazed herds to Kshs. 90,075.00 and slightly increased in zero-grazed herds to Kshs. 100,109.00. Cost benefit analysis indicated that cost of inputs in the dairy enterprises was low in extensively grazed and zero-grazed herds but the cost of inputs was relatively high in semi-zero grazed herds and this correspondingly affected benefits to investment which were low in semi-zero grazed herds. In extensively grazed and zero grazed herds benefits were high. Farmers with semi-zero and zero grazing systems were able to hire workers for feeding and milking cows. Table 2. Herd productivity parameters by production system in Nyahera Productio n system (n) Farm size (acres) Herd size Offt ake rate % Cows in milk % Calf mortality (%) Numb er of worke rs Gross margin CB BC EG 2 3.50 5 - 80 20 - 37,840 0.21 4.12 SZG 4 6.91 9 14 83 15 2 90,075 0.45 2.17 ZG 10 4.43 6 18 100 5 2 100,109 0.23 4.36 Discussion In Nyahera most dairy cattle were maintained in zero-grazing systems as 70% of the farmers preferred this production system. Farmers who practiced extensive grazing were 10% and semi- zero grazing were 20%. Farmers adopted the intensive production system due to small farm size so that they could increase dairy cattle productivity per unit area. In extensive grazing systems cattle were grazed on natural pastures on the farm and on common land reserve along the roadsides and in the forest. After harvesting cattle were fed on maize stover. However, since the forage grazed was of low and variable quantity and quality, cattle were fed cut natural pastures, sweet potato vines and Napier grass in the homestead. Dairy meal and mineral lick were provided to cattle but this was not done consistently. Water for cattle was obtained from boreholes, rivers and roof catchment. In semi-zero and zero grazing systems, cattle were confined and fed on cut Napier grass, Rhode grass, Columbus grass, sweet potato vines, Desmodium intortum and crop residues. Dairy meal and mineral lick were provided to cattle. Water for cattle and domestic use was obtained from boreholes, piped water, roof catchment, springs and rivers. Stocking rates were variable in production systems and it was found that extensively grazed farms were under stocked with one livestock unit per 1.56 acres. In semi-zero grazed herds the stocking rate was 1.66 Lu to one acre and for zero grazed herds 1.15Lu to one acre. In this area an attempt has been made to improve the quantity and quality of feeds across the wet and dry seasons to maintain cattle productivity. For sustainability of the dairy production systems on small farms, Napier grass, Rhodes grass, sweet potato vines and Desmodium intortum have been established in mixtures and in rotation with maize to provide high quality feeds for dairy cattle. Fodders are top dressed with nitrogenous fertilizers after cutting for rapid growth. Farmers have been trained to conserve surplus forage and fodder in the wet season in the form of hay (Suttie, 2000) and silage (Titterton and Bareeba, 2000). Conserved hay and silage provided good quality feed for dairy cattle in the dry season. Kevelenge (1987) reported that cattle productivity can be maintained by feeding crop by-products supplemented with forage legumes at a rate of 45-50% of the total ration. In this area, different genotypes were kept on farms in the three production systems. Purebreds and crossbreds were in similar proportion in semi-zero and zero grazed herds. The purebreds were Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey and Zebu. Crossbreds were Friesian-Zebu, Ayrshire- Zebu and Guernsey-Zebu and they had 50% genetic inheritance of the dairy breeds. The half bred crossbreds were adapted and productive in this area as they showed improved milk yield, growth rate and fertility and this was in agreement with Cunningham and Syrstad (1987) and Bondoc et al., (1989). However, to realise the genetic potential of crossbreds it is important that they are provided with adequate good quality feeds and proper health management. In this study, it was found that purebreds outyielded Zebu cattle by 400% and whereas, the average milk yield of crossbreds exceeded that of the Zebu cattle by 300% (Table 5). Milk yield was significantly variable between and within production systems due to differences in genotypes, feeds and feeding systems. Zebu cows produced the lowest milk yield of 427 kg, crossbreds were intermediate in the range of 700-1,700 kg, while the Ayrshire and Friesians produced the highest milk yield of over 2,000 kg in a lactation. The high milk yield in semi-zero and zero grazed herds was as a result of confinement and feeding cows with good quality forage and fodder and supplementing them with dairy meal and mineral lick. Herd productivity analysis showed that there were differences between production systems. Extensive grazing systems realised a low gross margin of Kshs. 37,840.00 and the gross margin of semi-zero grazing systems increased to Kshs. 90,076 and for zero grazing systems was Kshs. 100,109.00. The low gross margin of extensively grazed herds was due to low herd productivity because the Zebu cattle with low milk yield were predominant. Calf mortality rate of 20% was high and this reduced the number of cattle raised and as a result this decreased the number of cattle for sale. In semi-zero grazed herds, the high calf mortality reduced the offtake rate and this affected herd productivity. Zero grazed herds were productive as all cows were lactating and producing milk for sale. Calf mortality was low and the offtake rate was high indicating that there were cattle raised for sale to generate income. Cost benefit analysis of the production systems showed that the cost of inputs was low in extensively grazed and zero grazed herds but was high in semi- zero grazed herds. Therefore the returns to investment were high in extensively grazed and zero grazed herds. To minimise cost of inputs, it is important that inputs are obtained at an affordable price. Analysis of herd structure and size indicated that there were more females (55-88%) than males in the herds. This is because cows were required to produce milk and calves. Female calves were retained and raised after weaning to replace old cows. Male calves were culled and sold after weaning. The predominance of more females in the herds was in agreement with a herd survey by Sands et al., (1982) in Western Kenya. Although bulls were used for breeding, farmers preferred using communal bulls in bull camps to reduce maintenance cost. Steers were used for ploughing and carrying fodder to cows. Heifers were raised to replace old unproductive cows. Conclusion It was evident from this study that crossbreds of Zebu with the dairy breeds, mainly the Friesian and Guernsey have increased milk production and they have exceeded Zebu milk yield by 300%. However, the mean lactation yield of crossbreds in this site was 1,662 kg and this is 41% of the milk yield potential of 4,000 kg per lactation which is expected from the F1 crossbreds. Increased milk yield can be realised by feeding of dairy cattle on a balanced ration that has adequate energy, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Crossbreds with improved growth rate, fertility and milk yield are used for milk production in the three production systems. From the analysis of the genotypes in the herds in the production systems, purebreds and improved dairy crossbreds have increased to 60% and the proportion of Zebu has decreased to 40%. Most of the productive dairy cattle genotypes were found in semi-zero and zero grazed herds. With several generations of crossbreeding, improved dairy cattle population will replace Zebu cattle in the herds. Besides feeding of dairy cattle, the other constraint noted was failure to keep pedigree and performance records of cattle by farmers. Research and extension staff should train farmers to keep records in a simplified standard format. There is no organised marketing of milk in this area. Farmers should be mobilised to form a dairy cooperative society to market milk and assist farmers get farm inputs. References Bhat, P. N., V. K. Taneja and R. C. Garg. 1998. Effects of crossbreeding on reproduction and production traits. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48 (2): 71-78. Bondoc, O. L., C. Smith and J. P. Gibson. 1989. A revient of breeding strategies in developing countries. Anim. Breeding Abstracts 57 (10): 819-829. Cunningham, E. P, and O. Syrstad. 1987. Crossbreeding Bos indicus and Bos Taurus for milk production in the tropics. FAO Animal production and Health paper No. 68. Kevelenge J.E.E. 1987. General considerations on use of the by-products for livestock feeding in Kenya. Beef Research Centre Lanet. In: Proceedings of Animal Production Society of Kenya Symposium held on 28th November 1987. Osman, A. H. and W. S. Russel. 1974. Comparative performance of different grades of European-Zebu crossbred cattle at Ghurashi Dairy Fram, Sudan. Trop. Agric. Trinidad 51: 548-549. Sands, M.W., H.A. Fitzugh, R.E. McDowell and S. Chema, 1982. Mixed Crop Animal Systems on small farms in Western Kenya. Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. Technical Reports Series No. 17, Winrock International Morrilton, Arkansas 72110 Cornell University Ithaca, New York and Ministry Livestock Development, Kenya. SAS (1996). SAS STAT Software. Changes and enhancement through release 6.11. SAS Inst. Inc. Cary. NC USA Snyders P. 1992. Fodder management and protein gap on zero-grazing farms based on Napier grass. Suttie, J.M. 2000. Hay and straw conversation for small-scale farming and pastoral conditions. In: FAO plant production and protection series No. 29. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Kingdom, Rome, 2000. Titterton, M. and F.B. Bareeba, 2000. Grass and legume silages in the tropics. Proceedings of the FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Silage. 1st September – 15 December 1999. In: Silage making in the tropics with particular emphasis on smallholders. 15BN 92-5- 104500-3 FAO 2000. Food and plant production and protection paper 161. Contribution of the maize-cassava intercrop system to feed availability in coastal lowland Kenya Lewa1*, K. K., H. M. Saha2, R.W. Muinga3, L.C. Mambo1, W. S. Chivatsi1, G. S. Munga1 and S. Bimbuzi1 1Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation, PO Box 16 - 80109, Mtwapa, Kenya 2Pwani University, PO Box 195 - 80108 Kilifi, Kenya; 3Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation, PO Box 57811 - 00200 Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: Lewa.Kadenge@kalro.org; lewakk@yahoo.com Abstract Many farmers in coastal Kenya practise maize-cassava intercropping system to address food security needs. The system produces many by-products which are not used for human consumption hence currently go to waste. These by-products offer opportunities for bridging feed availability during the deficit months of January – March through conservation in form of silage. An on centre study was conducted at KALRO Mtwapa to assess the potential production of feed obtainable from a maize-cassava intercropping system. Two plots of one hectare each were planted with the maize-cassava intercrop. Plot 1 was planted under shade which is the more common farmer practice while plot 2 was without shade. Pwani Hybrid 4 (PH4) maize and cassava variety Shibe were planted in both plots and given the recommended agronomic practices. The results showed that a total DM yield of 35.16 and 34.98 t ha-1 for plots 1 and 2, respectively, was obtained from the maize-cassava intercrop and which did not differ significantly. Results of the study also showed that cassava produced higher leaf yield under shade than when grown in the open. One hectare of the maize-cassava intercropping system can provide sufficient material for 5-6.7 t of silage which is enough to support 4 livestock units for 120 days. The study recommends promotion of cassava–based silage among the smallholder dairy farmers who practice maize-cassava intercropping. Introduction Dairy productivity in coastal Kenya is relatively low. This has mainly been attributed to inadequate and low quality forages. Farmers in Kenya’s coastal region depend on forages to feed livestock. Forage production is rain fed; and therefore feeds are plenty during the rainy season and scanty during the dry spell. The region has a bimodal rainfall pattern with long rains in April to July and short rains in October to December. The latter rains are often unreliable. A severe dry spell occurs between January and March which reduces forage production. Year round feed availability is crucial for dairy cattle productivity. It is positively correlated to milk production; hence milk production is therefore low during the dry season when a premium price is offered due to the low supply. Research efforts were made in coastal lowland Kenya to improve feed availability since early 1990s through promotion of Napier grass planted in leucaena or gliricidia alleys (Mureithi et. al., 1996). However, there has been low adoption of the alley farming system. This was attributed to, among others, the farmers’ preference to grow maize first at the onset of rains; then forage crops; and the seasonal availability of natural forages (Mureithi et. al., 1997). Further research targeted food security through integrated crops and livestock production systems (Njunie and Wagger 2003; Saha et. al., 2008; Njunie et. al., 2013). These systems integrate food and feed production since coastal Kenya is characterized by a mixed farming system where farmers grow crops and keep livestock. The maize-cassava intercropping system is practised by many farmers in the region (Mureithi et. al., 2000) to address food security. Maize and cassava are the highest ranked food crops. Planting of the two crops is usually staggered such that cassava is planted between maize rows about two to three weeks after planting maize. The maize-cassava system offers potential for feed availability through the use of by-products which are not used for human consumption and which would otherwise go to waste. The by-products offer opportunities for bridging feed availability during the feed deficit months of January to March through conservation as dry maize stover, cassava leaf hay, dried cassava chips and silage. Conventional silage making involves mixing Napier grass, leucaena or gliricidia and molasses. Maize bran is used instead of molasses due to the unavailability and high cost of the latter. Maize bran may be purchased from maize millers but it can also be generated at the household level from processing locally grown maize through pounding. Maize bran has a crude protein content ranging from 53 to 135 g kg-1DM (Muinga et. al., 2011; Juma et. al., 2006).Useful by- products from a maize crop include: cobs, with CP content of 22 g kg-1DM (Urio and Kategile, 1987) and metabolisable energy (ME) content of 10.5 MJ kg-1DM (Donkoh and Attoh-Kotoku, 2009), and stover, with CP content of 52 g kg-1DM (Juma et. al., 2006). The dry matter (DM) potential yields of cassava leaves may be as high as 34 t ha-1 and their CP content ranges from 167 to 399 g kg-1 (Ravindran, 1990; Marjuki et. al. 2008). The average crude protein content of 210 g kg-1 DM of cassava leaf, as reported by Ravindran (1990), is similar to that of gliricidia leaves used in the conventional silage making (Muinga et. al., 2011). Agunbiade et. al., (2004) reported the ME content of cassava leaves as 7.6 MJ kg-1 DM. Most of the leaves are currently returned to the soil as a green manure and are therefore underutilized as a feed resource. In coastal Kenya, there is limited use of cassava leaf as green vegetable. Most unmarketable cassava roots also go to waste after cassava harvesting and some of them are consumed at home. To avoid such wastage of useful material from cassava production, the leaves and unmarketable roots may be used, together with Napier grass, to make cassava-based silage. Cassava-based silage technology would therefore be more suited to the farming conditions of the smallholder dairy farmers in coastal Kenya with a high chance of adoption and potential to improve milk production during the dry season. The cassava-based silage technology involves mixing Napier grass and cassava leaves with dried or fresh cassava chips. The cassava chips serve as the source of readily available carbohydrates, replacing maize bran or molasses in the conventional silage. A situational analysis carried out in April 2012 to establish the status of fodder conservation in Kwale and Kilifi Counties of coastal Kenya found low uptake of silage technology by the farmers (Lewa et. al., 2013). The respondents attributed this to lack of skills and knowledge (63%), insufficient feed materials (13.7%) and high cost of silage making (10.1%). Among others, the study recommended the use of low-cost inputs for silage conservation, which could be addressed through the use of cassava leaf and unmarketable cassava roots. The objective of this study was therefore to evaluate the contribution of the maize/cassava intercropping system to material that may be used for silage making to enhance dry-season feed availability in coastal Kenya. Materials and methods The trial was planted at KALRO Mtwapa, at altitude 15 m above sea level, latitude 3o56’S, longitude 39o44’E, in the coastal lowland AEZ 3 (CL3). The site is characterized by light sandy soils classified as Orthic, Acrisol or Luvisol. The general textural composition of the soil is 82.8% sand, 9.6% silt and 7.6% clay. The site receives a mean annual rainfall of 1200 mm, with relative humidity of 65- 95%, and temperatures ranging from 29 to 30oC. (Jaetzold et. al., 2012). A maize-cassava intercrop was planted on 2 ha of land in two plots. Plot 1 was under shade. This is most common in farms where tree crops such as coconuts and mangoes are grown. Plot 2 was without shade. In both plots, Pwani Hybrid 4 (PH4) maize was planted on 14 May, 2012 at a spacing of 100 x 50cm, two plants per hill and given the recommended agronomic practices. Cassava variety Shibe was intercropped on 6 June, 2012 at a spacing of 100 x 100cm. The maize crop was harvested on 18 September, 2012, while cassava was harvested on 24 May, 2013. Harvesting data was collected and stored in Excel computer files. During harvesting from both plots, ten rows of maize, in a plot area of 10 m2, were harvested to determine grain yield. Four rows of maize from a net area of 4 x 10 m were used determine stover yield. The stover was harvested by chopping it at the base of the plant. In addition, two rows of cassava, from a net area of 2 x 10 m, were harvested to determine root yield. After maize harvesting, maize grain was taken for pounding (50 kg by the traditional pestle and mortar and 50 kg by a commercial maize miller). From the commercial miller, maize siftings or dust-like fine material was obtained. The pounding by hand produced normal maize bran with visible testa, in addition to the sifted grain. After harvesting the cassava, total number of roots were recorded and weighed; marketable roots were sorted out, counted and weighed. The rest of the roots (their number and weight) were recorded as unmarketable roots. The green meristematic portion of the cassava plants (young leaves and stem) were harvested and weighed. The number of stakes per plant was recorded, to give an indication of the amount of planting material that would be available for use in the subsequent cropping season. A sample of the feed material was dried in an oven at 105oC to constant weight to determine the DM (AOAC, 1990). The GLM procedure of SAS (2003) was used to compare the productivity of the two plots and t-test was used to compare the two maize-cassava production system at P=5%. Results and discussion Productivity of the maize-cassava intercropping system Several maize and cassava products were obtained from the intercropped system (Table I). Cassava yield was generally not affected by shade. There was no differences (P>0.05) for all cassava products in both plots apart from cassava leaf yield which was higher (P<0.05) under shade. Probably the increased production of leaves by cassava under shade was the crop’s mechanism of ensuring adequate capture of light through increased total leaf surface area and less senescence. In contrast, maize yield was significantly depressed (P<0.05) under shade. However, the total DM yield (all products) from the cassava/maize intercrop was 35.16 and 34.98 t ha-1 for Plots 1 and 2, respectively and was not different (P<0.05). This shows that the total production of the maize-cassava intercrop was not affected by shade. The system produced between 19.12 - 21.98 t DM ha-1 and 1.23 - 2.38 t DM ha-1 of marketable cassava tubers and maize grain respectively which would ideally be used for human consumption. Table I. Summary yield of products from the maize-cassava intercrop (t DM ha-1) Product Plot 1 Plot 2 LSD Total cassava tubers 30.48 28.71 6.662 Marketable cassava tubers 21.98 19.12 7.951 Unmarketable cassava tubers 8.50 (27.9%) 9.59 (33.4%) 2.924 Cassava leaves 1.67 b 1.25a 0.393 Total DM yield of cassava 32.15 29.96 Maize grain 1.23 b 2.38a 0.410 Sifted maize grain (machine pounded) 1.20 b 2.31a 0.399 Siftings (machine pounded) 0.03 b (2.4%) 0.06a (2.5%) 0.011 Pounded maize grain (hand pounded) 1.12 b 2.16a 0.373 Pounded maize bran (hand pounded) 0.11 b (8.9%) 0.21a (8.8%) 0.037 Cob weight 0.28 b 0.53a 0.200 Stover weight 1.50 b 2.11a 0.436 Total DM yield (maize grain + cob + stover) 3.01 5.02 Total DM (total maize + total cassava) 35.16 34.98 Means bearing different superscripts within a row are different (P<0.05). Figures in brackets indicate a given product as a proportion of the total DM yield of the crop. The other products – unmarketable cassava tubers and cassava leaves are often left in the farm as waste. These would be available for livestock feeding if properly processed (Table II). The feeds available for livestock from the maize-cassava intercrop system ranged from 10.88 to 18 t DM ha-1. The protein and energy from these products can be estimated from their nutrient composition in Table II from data at KALRO Mtwapa laboratory. Table II. Feed components and their protein and energy composition* of the products available for livestock feed from the maize-cassava intercrop Product Yield (t DM ha -1) CP (g kg-1DM) ME (MJ kg-1DM) Unmarketable cassava tubers 8.0 - 9.0 30 15 Cassava leaves 1.0 - 1.5 210 7.6 Homemade maize bran 0.1 - 0.2 100 12 Cobs 0.3 - 0.5 22 10.5 Stover 1.5 - 2.0 52 7.6 Total DM yield 10.9 - 18.0 *Source: KALRO Mtwapa laboratory data Number of animals that can be supported by the maize-cassava intercropping system Silage from the above system would be limited by cassava leaf production to 5 - 6.7 t DM ha-1. With an estimated intake of 3% of a cow’s body weight, the requirement of a 400 kg cow would be 1440 kg for 120 days. The DM from one hectare would therefore be adequate for 3 – 4 cows during the dry season after allowing for wastage. Additionally a mature cow (400kg) with a stover intake of 1% of its live weight will consume 4 kg daily or 480 kg in the 120 days of forage scarcity. Therefore, the 1.5 t DM of stover or 1500 kg DM would be adequate for 3 cows for 120 days (1500/480) for maize-cassava production under shade. Without shading, the 2110 kg DM stover will be adequate for 2110/480 or 4 cows for 120 days. With proper feed budgeting, dairy farmers in coastal Kenya can sustain milk production during the dry season and benefit from the premium prices offered by the buyers due to milk scarcity. Conclusion and recommendations One hectare of the maize-cassava intercropping system can provide sufficient material for 5 - 6.7 t of silage which is enough to support 3-4 cows during the 120 days dry period and a similar number from maize stover. Thus the maize-cassava intercropping system can contribute positively to feed availability without compromising the human food requirements through the use of stover, cassava leaf and unmarketable roots. Cassava based silage is therefore recommended for promotion among the smallholder dairy farmers who practice maize-cassava intercropping. Acknowledgement The authors thank the Director General KALRO for the financial support through the Eastern Africa Agricultural Productivity Project (EAAPP) to carry out this study and publish the results. They are also indebted to the Centre Director, KALRO Mtwapa and the technical support team that participated in this study. References Agunbiade, J.A., A. Susenbeth and K.H. Sudenkum. 2004. Comparative nutritive value of cassava leaf meal, soya beans, fish meal and casein in diets for growing pigs. J Anim. Physiol and AnimNutr (Berl) 88(1-2):30-38 AOAC (Association of Analytical Chemists). 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. 14th Edition. Washington DC, USA Donkoh, A. and V. Attoh-Kotoku. 2009. Nutritive value for feedstuffs for poultry in Ghana: Chemical composition, apparent metabolisable energy and ileal amino acid digestibility. Livestock Research for Rural Development 21(3): pp 1 – 8. Jaetzold, R., H. Schmidt, B. Hornetz and C. Shisanya. 2012. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya Vol. II: Natural Conditions and Farm management Information. 2nd edition Part C East Kenya Subpart C2 Coast Province: Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya. Juma, H.K., S.A. Abdulrazak, R.W. Muinga and M.K. Ambula. 2006. The effects of supplementing maize stover with gliricidia, clitoria or mucuna on performance of lactating Jersey cows in the coastal lowland of Kenya. Tropical and Subtropical Agro ecosystems Journal 6(1):1-8. Lewa K.K. and R.W. Muinga. 2013. Status of fodder conservation among smallholder dairy farmers in coastal Kenya. Paper presented at the Animal Production Society of Kenya 2013 Annual Symposium held at Golf Hotel, Kakamega, Kenya, April 9-11, 2013. Book of Abstracts pp 34-35 Marjuki, H.E.S., D.W. Rini, I. Artharini, Soebarinoto and R. Howeler. 2008. The use of cassava leaf silage as a feed supplement in diets for ruminants and its introduction to smallholder farmers. Livestock Research for Rural Development 20(6) Volume 20, Article #93. Retrieved April 11, 2014, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd20/6/marj20093.htm Muinga, R.W., S. Bimbuzi, H.M. Saha and J.G. Gethi. 2011. Effect of cassava roots and leaves inclusion on the quality of Napier grass silage. pp 74-78. In S.M. Mbuku and J.O. Ouda (Eds.). Proceedings of the annual scientific symposium of the Animal Production Society of Kenya. 2011. Driving Livestock Entrepreneurship towards attainment of Food sufficiency and Kenya Vision 2030. APSK: Nairobi. Mureithi, J.G., M.N. Njunie, R. W. Muinga, R. Ali W. Thorpe, and C.D. Mwatate. 1997. Factors affecting adoption of planted forages in Coastal Lowland Kenya. Paper presented at the American Society of Agronomy Conference (ASA), USA. 26th –31st October, 1997. 17p. Mureithi, J.G., H.M. Saha, M.N. Njunie, G.M. Kamau, T.L. Munga, A. Blokland, F.K. Muniu, M.B. Muli, A. Ramadhan and E. Wekesa. 2000. An appraisal of methods used by farmers to manage soil fertility in coastal Kenya. Proceedings of the 15th Annual General Meeting of the Soil Science Society of East Africa. Nanyuki, Kenya, 19 - 23 August 1996. pp. 371- 386. Njunie, M.N. and M.G. Wagger. 2003.Use of herbaceous legumes for improving soil fertility and crop yield in maize cassava cropping systems. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 69 (1), 49-61. Njunie, M.N., A. Mzingirwa and A. Ramadhan 2013. Identification of alternative forage legumes for push-pull technology in coastal lowlands Kenya. pp 75-81. In E. Ilatsia, J. Kariuki, R.W. Muinga, T. Onyango and R. Wainaina (Eds.). Proceedings of the 1st Techno Fair of innovations and stakeholders’ open day 12 November 2013. RDCoE Naivasha, and the 1st EAAPP Mini-conference. 13-15 November 2013. Morendat Training Centre. Kenya. Ravindran, V. 1990. Cassava leaf meal. In P.A. Thacker and R.N. Kirkwood (Eds.). Non- traditional feed sources for use in swine production. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, MA. Saha, H.M., L.S. Wamocho, F.K. Lenga, and J.G. Mureithi. (2008). Effect of legume plant density and intercropping on performance of maize and mucuna. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. (2008) 74(1), 1-9. SAS (Statistical analysis systems). 2003. User’s guide for personal computers. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina. USA Urio, N.A. and J.A. Kategile. 1987. Maize stover and cobs as a feed resource for ruminants in Tanzania. pp 37-44 In D.A. Little and A.N. Said (Eds.). Utilization of agricultural by- products as livestock feeds in Africa. Proceedings of the ARNAB Workshop, held at Blantyre, Malawi. September 1986. ILCA. Effect of cassava based napier grass silage on milk production during dry season in coastal Kenya Munga G.S*1, L.C Mambo1, S. Bimbuzi1 and R.W Muinga2 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute P.O. Box 16 Mtwapa-80109, Kenya; 2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 57811-00200 Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: gmunga2000@yahoo.co.uk Abstract Forage production in coastal Kenya is rain fed, hence forages become scarce during the dry season leading to reduced milk yield. During this period, dairy cows are fed on poor quality agro by-products like maize stover, mango leaves and dry grass from fallow land. Silage making using molasses or maize bran is hampered by unavailability and high costs. Cassava is widely grown in coastal Kenya and constitutes about 30% of the national production. A study was carried out at KARI Mtwapa to determine the dry matter content, nutrient composition, dry matter intake and daily milk yield of cows fed five different types of cassava based Napier grass silages and freshly chopped Napier grass and gliricidia ration (control) during the dry season. Twenty four lactating Jersey cows were selected from a herd that grazes on natural pastures and supplemented with gliricidia and maize bran. The five cassava based napier grass silages were made in combination with dry or fresh cassava chips, cassava leaf or gliricidia The cows were randomly assigned to the six treatment diets replicated four times. Each cow was housed separately in a zero grazing unit. Data on feed intake, daily milk yield and liveweight change was collected for four weeks. Results indicated that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in dry matter percentage, Crude protein, dry matter intake and average daily milk yield among the treatment diets. The pH of the different silages ranged from 4.4 and 4.8 indicating that dry and fresh cassava chips, and cassava leaves can be used to make quality silage without compromising the performance of the dairy cow. Key words: cassava, dairy feeding, Feed Intake, Napier grass silage Introduction Farmers in coastal Kenya mainly depend on forages to feed livestock (Muinga et al., 1999a, Ramadhan et al., 2008). Forage production is rain fed, and therefore forages become scarce during the dry season leading to reduced milk yield. Coastal Kenya produces only 40% of its milk requirements (MoLD, 2010). This is mainly due to low genetic potential of the animals, disease challenge and low quantity and quality of feeds. The area has a bimodal rainfall pattern with long rains in April to July and short rains in October to December. The greatest shortage of livestock feed is experienced in January to March, especially when the short rains fail. The rainy seasons are associated with high biomass production and animals are fed on a variety of feeds, including weeds from the arable land while the planted forages are spared for the dry season (Muinga et al., 1999a). Farmers in the region are encouraged to grow Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) in leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) or (Gliricidia sepium) alleys (Mureithi et al., 1996) to improve the quantity and quality of forages. During the short dry period in August to September, crop residues like maize stover are available for livestock feeding but their contribution to milk production is negligible due to low protein content and digestibility. As a result of feeding such residues, dairy cattle suffer severe nutritional stresses resulting in decreased productivity that include low calving rate, low birth weight, high calf mortality, low weaning weight, reduced mature body size, low growth rate (delayed maturity) and low milk production. Silage technology was adapted for coastal Kenya to conserve excess forage towards the end of the rainy season for providing high quality feed for the dry season (Mambo et al, Undated). Molasses as the recommended source of carbohydrate in silage making is not readily available in coastal Kenya. A technology was therefore developed where maize bran is used instead of molasses (Muinga et al., 1999b), but it is also scarce and costly. Cassava roots are a potential substitute for maize bran while the leaves may be used as a protein source (Muinga et al, 2011). Cassava (Manihot esculentum) is widely grown in coastal Kenya which produces 30% of the national production. KARI Mtwapa developed and disseminated high yielding (50-70 t ha-1 of fresh roots) and disease/pests tolerant cassava varieties (Gethi et al., 2011) where the leaves, excess and unmarketable roots can be used for livestock feeding. A study was carried out at KARI Mtwapa to determine the potential of cassava based silages on sustaining milk yield in the dry season. Materials and method The study site, feeds and cows The study was carried out at KARI Mtwapa (3o 5’S and 39 o44’E). The site is in Coastal lowland agro-ecological zone three (CL3) receiving annual rainfall of 1200mm. in two seasons. Existing Napier grass in gliricidia alleys and cassava intercropped with maize were used. Normal agronomic and cultural practices were carried out to optimize yield. The cassava roots were harvested from an existing crop of Shibe variety which was about 12 months old, washed and chopped using a motorized cassava chipper. Cassava chips were solar dried for three days to moisture content of 10.5%. The existing gliricidia was cut back in May 2012 and allowed to re- grow to maturity before harvesting. Gliricidia leaves and stems less than 5mm diameter were used to make silage or fed fresh to cows in the control diet. The forages were pre wilted for a day before ensiling. Napier grass was chopped using tractor power take off (PTO) driven chaff cutter. Recommended ratio of 70: 25: 5 (Napier grass:protein:energy) sources (Mambo et al, undated leaflet) was used to make five types of silage combinations in November 2012. 1. Napier grass + gliricidia + maize bran (Conventional silage). 2. Napier grass + cassava leaves + Fresh cassava chips silage. 3. Napier grass + cassava leaves + dry cassava chips silage. 4. Napier grass + gliricidia + Fresh cassava chips silage. 5. Napier grass + gliricidia and dry cassava chips silage. Twenty four lactating Jersey cows were selected from a herd at KARI Mtwapa which grazes on natural pastures and supplemented with gliricidia and maize bran at milking. The cows were in early to mid-lactation with a mean body weight of 290 kilograms. The cows were balanced for daily milk yield, live weight and parity prior to assigning to the diets. Treatment diets and design There were six treatments diets made up of the five types of silages while a sixth group was fed on freshly chopped Napier grass ad libitum and 8 kg gliricidia (control) in two equal proportions in the morning and evening in a completely randomized block design (RCBD). Each of the treatment diets was supplemented with three kilograms maize bran and 60 g of mineral premix per day. Each treatment was replicated four times and each cow was an experimental unit. The cows were housed randomly in individual pens in two well ventilated zero grazing sheds. The cows were allowed one week acclimatization period in the experimental enclosures prior to commencement of data collection. Clean cool water was provided at all times. Refusals were collected and weighed every morning prior to giving fresh feed and the difference from what was offered used to determine feed intake. The animals were hand milked twice per day at 6.00am and 4.00pm and weighed using a standard cattle weigh bridge. Feed sample collection and analysis Samples of Napier grass, gliricidia, maize bran and silages were collected during the experiment for analysis of nutrient composition (Crude Protein (CP), Phosphorus (P), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and pH at KARI Muguga. Samples were analyzed using the association of analytical chemists (AOAC) procedures. Data collection, management and analysis Feed offered and refused was recorded daily and used to calculate feed intake, milk yield at each milking was recorded and totaled to determine daily milk yield per cow. Weekly live weights per cow was recorded. Data was stored in Excel sheets and subjected to analysis of variance using the General linear model of SAS 2003. The differences were separated using the least significant difference (LSD) and reported at P=0.05. 4982 Results and Discussion Nutrient composition of Napier grass, Gliricidia, silages and pH of the silage diets The nutrient composition of Fresh Napier grass, Gliricidia and maize bran are given in table 1. Crude protein content of Napier grass and gliricidia was 11.6% and 29% respectively was higher than that was reported by Muinga, et al (1999) at 10.3% and 21.4%. There was no difference in nutrient composition among the silages (P>0.05), although the silage composed of Napier grass, cassava leaf and fresh cassava chips showed a slightly high CP content at 18.5% (Table 2). This suggests that cassava leaf can be used as a replacement for gliricidia as a source of protein. The pH of silages of 4.4 to 4.8 (Table 2), is an indication of good quality silage (Moran, 2005) as a result of proper fermentation process. Nguyen et al, (2000) obtained good quality silage by ensiling cassava leaves with as little as 5% of cassava root meal. This shows that maize bran, Fresh or dry cassava chips are good sources of fermentable carbohydrates. These results are in line with the findings of Muinga, et al, 2011 who found that fresh or dry cassava chips and cassava leaves can be included in Napier grass based silage without compromising on the quality. However, fresh cassava chips should be preferred if they are for immediate use to save on costs of drying the chips (Kiura, et al 2010). Grass or legume silage are well preserved at pH 4.3 to 4.7 (http://www.hill-laboratories.com/file/fileid/45347). Table 1: Nutrient composition of forages, silages and pH of silage Diets fed to lactating Jersey cows at KARI Mtwapa Nutrient composition% Treatment No. Ration description CP NDF P pH 1 Napier grass 11.6 72.68 0.25 - Gliricidia 29.0 41.20 0.25 - Maize Bran 15.94 56.74 0.26 - 2 Napier/Gliricidia/Maize bran silage 16.47 62.36 0.25 4.4 3 Napier/Cassava leaf/Fresh cassava chips silage 18.54 67.37 0.25 4.4 4 Napier /Cassava leaf/Dry cassava chips silage 16.85 58.76 0.25 4.4 5 Napier/Gliricidia/ Fresh cassava chips silage 15.35 69.96 0.25 4.8 6 Napier/Gliricidia/Dry cassava chips silage 16.35 60.43 0.25 4.5 LSD 10.41 11.2 0.01 - Feed intake Results showed that there was no significant difference in feed intake (p>0.05) of the basal diet among the treatments (Table 3). However, fresh Napier grass intake (3.3 kgsDM -day) was significantly different from silage ration consisting of Napier grass, gliricidia and fresh cassava chips silage (5.1 kgs DM - day). All treatments had an overall mean feed intake of 7.2 kg DM per day. The low intake (3.3 kgsDM –day) of fresh Napier grass as a basal diet may be attributed to the advanced stage of growth (highly lignified - Table 1) at the time of harvesting at the peak of the dry season (February and March 2013).The intake of silages were not significantly different. The total feed intake for fresh napier grass, fresh gliricidia was the highest (8.1 kgsDM - day) as a result of 100% consumption of the tender gliricidia component daily. Good quality of these silages is further confirmed by the acceptance of the feed as demonstrated by the total voluntary feed intake (VFI) of 6.3 to 7.7 kgsDM / animal /day (Table 3). As napier grass matures, the leaf:stem ratio declines (Kariuki, 1989, Karanja, 1984 cited in Kariuki 1998), causing a change in the chemical composition with a reduction in feeding value. Kariuki, (1998) demonstrated that chemical composition affects voluntary feed intake and animal performance in terms of milk yield or body weight gain. Table 2: Mean Daily Dry Matter Intake (kgs DM) of Basal diet and Supplements used in treatment rations fed to lactating Jersey cows at KARI Mtwapa Treatment rations fed to experimental animals Basal diet Intake – (KgsDM) Supplements Total Intake (Kgs DM) Gliricidia Maize bran T1 3.3c 2.2 2.6 8.1 T2 4.3 bac - 2.6 6.9 T3 3.7bc - 2.6 6.3 T4 4.7bac - 2.6 7.3 T5 5.1a - 2.6 7.7 T6 4.1bac - 2.6 6.7 Overall Mean 4.2 - 2.6 7.2 *Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Note: T1= Fresh Napier grass (adlib) + Fresh gliricidia (8 kg) and 3 kg maize bran, T2= Napier grass + gliricidia + maize bran (Conventional silage) + 3 kg maize bran, T3= Napier grass + cassava leaves + Fresh cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T4= Napier grass + cassava leaves + dry cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T5= Napier grass + gliricidia + Fresh cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T6= Napier grass + gliricidia and dry cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran Milk yield and weight changes There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in mean milk yield and weight changes among the treatments with an overall mean daily milk yield of 7.2 litres per cow although the Napier grass, gliricidia leaf and dry cassava chips silage gave higher yields (7.4 litres) relative to Napier grass, cassava leaf and fresh cassava chips which had the least (6.1 litres) table 4. There was a general weight loss among the treatments ranging from 2.81 kgs for cows receiving adlib fresh napier grass, 8 kgs gliricidia leaf and 3 kilograms maize bran and 4.36 kilograms for cows fed on Napier grass, gliricidia and maize bran silage (Table 4). Animal performance is closely associated with the capacity of a feed to promote effective microbial fermentation in the rumen and to supply the quantities and balance of nutrients required for different productive states Beever, 1997; Sniffen et al, 1992;AFRC, 1992 cited in Kariuki 1998). Milk yield or weight gain is closely related to intake, forage composition and digestibility. This emphasizes the importance for successful ensiling which maximizes nutrient preservation that is achieved by harvesting the crop at the right stage. Table 4: Mean Daily milk yield and weight Changes of Jersey cows fed on fresh Napier grass/Gliricidia and different cassava based silage rations at KARI Mtwapa Treatment rations fed to experimental animals Milk yield/cow/day (Litres) Weight change/cow (Kgs) T1 6.93a - 2.81a T2 7.09a - 4.36a T3 6.06a - 4.06a T 4 6.26a - 4.06a T5 6.66a - 3.75a T6 7.39a - 4.06a LSD 2.34 3.51 *Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Note: T1= Fresh Napier grass (adlib) + Fresh gliricidia (8 kg) and 3 kg maize bran, T2= Napier grass + gliricidia + maize bran (Conventional silage) + 3 kg maize bran, T3= Napier grass + cassava leaves + Fresh cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T4= Napier grass + cassava leaves + dry cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T5= Napier grass + gliricidia + Fresh cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran, T6= Napier grass + gliricidia and dry cassava chips silage and 3 kg maize bran Conclusions From the results of this study, it can be concluded that Cassava based Napier grass silage can sustain milk production during the dry season. The use of cassava chips (fresh or dry) as source of soluble carbohydrates to replace maize bran in silage fermentation process does not compromise the quality of Napier grass silage. Cassava leaf can be used as a substitute for gliricidia as a source of protein in dairy cattle diets. Inclusion of fresh or dry cassava chips and leaves in Napier grass silage does not compromise quality, intake and daily milk yield of lactating dairy cattle. Recommendations Further trial is necessary to confirm the developing positive trends in animal performance observed from the results further into the dry season. Promote adoption of improved cassava varieties. Explore practicability of synchronizing harvesting calendar of cassava with Napier grass silage making so that cassava leaf and unmarketable cassava roots can contribute to livestock feeding. Create awareness among livestock farmers about the specific niche cassava has in the improvement of dairy rations through preparation of complete silage for dry season feeding. Acknowledgements The authors sincerely thank the Eastern Africa Agricultural Productivity Project (EAAPP) for funding this work whose outcome will improve livestock productivity and commercialization of cassava. The Director – KARI and Centre Director – KARI Mtwapa for providing a conducive environment for successful implementation of the project. Also our gratitude goes to the staff at Mtwapa who contributed immensely in various ways. References Gethi, J. G., R. W. Muinga, H. M. Saha, and B. M. Muli. 2011. Dissemination, promotion and maintenance of new cassava varieties in coastal and Dry Mid-altitude areas of Kenya. End of Project Report (FS 2006 057). KARI Katumani and Mtwapa, Kenya. http://www.hill-laboratories.com/file/fileid/45347 28/03/2014 Inc., Cary, North Carolina. USAKiura, J. N.; Ndung’u, J. M.; Muli, B. M., 2010. Processing cassava into chips in coastal Kenya: commercial potential is in the future. 12th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference:Transforming Agriculture for improved livelihoods through Agricultural Product Value Chains. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Available at http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/ Mambo, L. C., R. Ali, R. W. Muinga and M. N. Njunie. Undated. Make Napier plus legume silage for more milk in the dry season. Extension leaflet. KARI Mtwapa Ministry of Livestock Development. Department of Livestock production. Coast Province. 2010. Annual Report. Moran, J, 2005. Making quality silage. In Tropical dairy farming: Feeding management for smallholder dairy farmers in the humid tropics. Lanlinks 2005. 312pp. Available at www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view-file&file-id=SA0501083.pdf 28/03/2014. Muinga, R.W, Bimbuzi, S. and Mambo, L.C. 1999a. Nutrient composition of locally available feedstuffs in coastal Kenya. Agricultural Research and Development for sustainable resource management and increased production. Proceedings of the sixth KARI Scientific Conference held on 9 - 13, November at KARI Hqts, Nairobi, Kenya 1998. pp 594 – 596 Muinga, R.W., Mambo, L.C. and Bimbuzi, S. 1999b. Napier grass and legume silage for smallholder farmers in coastal Kenya. Agricultural Research and Development for sustainable resource management and increased production. Proceedings of the sixth KARI Scientific Conference held at KARI Hqts, Nairobi, Kenya on 9 - 13, November 1998. pp 287 – 293 Muinga, R.W; S. Bimbuzi; H.M Saha and J.G Gethi, 2011. Effects of cassava roots inclusion on the quality of Napier grass silage. Proceedings of the Animal production Society of Kenya 2011. Available at apsk.or.ke/APSK- Documents/PDF/proceedings2011/muinga.pdf. 26/03/2014 Mureithi, J. G., Njunie, M. N., Muinga, R. W., Ali Ramadhan, A., Thorpe, W. and Blokland, A.1996. Growing fodder crops in coastal Kenya. Recommendations for growing fodder crops and feeding dairy cows in coastal lowland Kenya. KARI, RRC – Mtwapa. Information Bulletin No.1, March 1996. Nguyen Thi Loc; Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly; Vo Thi Kim Thanh and Hoang Nghia Duyet. 2000. Ensiling techniques and evaluation of cassava leaf silage for Mong Cai sows in Central Vietnam. Available at www.mekam.org/sarpro/locmay30.htm Ramadhan, A., J.N. Kiura and M.N. Njunie. 2008. Dairy production in coastal Kenya: The current status. Proceedings of the 11th KARI biennial conference at KARI Headquarters, 10-14 November 2008. Book of Abstracts, pp. 10 SAS (Statistical analysis systems). 2003. User’s guide for personal computers. SAS Institute Sub-theme 2: Pastoral Systems: Options for Tomorrow Devolution of Customary Rangeland Governance Institutions: Impacts on Pastoral Livelihoods and Rangeland Management in Borana Plateau, Southern Ethiopia Wassie,Y.T.1 and Mellisse, T.B2 1Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia; 2Faculty of Production Ecology and Resource Conservation, Wagenningen University, the Netherlands For centuries, the Gadaa customary communal resource governance Abstract Pastoralism founded on extensive livestock keeping, seasonal herd mobility and rangeland resources use flexibility governed by strong indigenous institutions locally called 'Gadda System' has endured for centuries as the major livelihood strategy of over a million patoralists in Borana Plateau of Southern Ethiopia. However, today, the age-old pastoral systems and livelihood strategies of the Borana plateau are facing mounting pressure from multitude of stress factors including climate variability, frequent droughts and weakening of the customary institutions leading to increased conflicts and resource degradation. In particular, recent changes in the customary rangeland governance institutions are affecting the livelihoods and livestock production systems of the Borana people. This study which was funded by the USAID's special research programme for 'Adapting Livestock Production Systems of East Africa to Climate Change' was carried out to investigate the impacts of changes in the customary resources governance institutions and pastoral policy shifts on pastoral livelihoods and future of rangeland management in the plateau. The study was conducted at 8 pastoral and agro-pastoral associations (PAs) of four districts namely Yabello, Dire, Dill and Teltele in the Borana zone of Southern Ethiopia. Household Survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 117 households stratified into three socio-economic classes (Rich, medium and poor). Additionally four Focus Group Discussions were conducted at four separate PAs. Findings of the descriptive statistics indicted that the mean household TLU over the last five years was 62 and 20 for pastoral and agro-pastoral peasant associations respectively. Overall household livestock size over five years indicated a declining trend especially for pastoral households with sharp falls during the 2010/11 drought period while the total TLU is increasing after the 2010/11 shock. Analysis of the status of the customary Gadda institutions over 10 year showed substantial weakening both in the roles and power of the institutions. Compared to 10 years back, currently, only 25 % of the Gadda customary rangeland governance and use arrangements are functioning whilst 75 % are shared with the newly introduced government system in agro-pastoral communities. In pastoral communities in contrast, nearly 50% of the customary rules and arrangements are functioning whilst 50% are shared with the formal administration forming a new hybrid governance system locally called 'Core' or committee. Underlying causes for the weakening of the customary institutions were found to be replacement of the traditional pastoral 'Gendas' or local clan-based governance units/ by formal peasant associations governed by government administration, expansion of agriculture and privatization of communal rangelands. Results of the linear modeling between institutional weakening and pastoral livelihood assets and access to communal rangelands indicated strong correlation where mean household livestock size and frequency of conflicts is significantly affected by the change in institutional arrangements with r2 of 0.86 and 0.64 respectively. The impact was pronounced for the poor and women headed households who depended on the customary rules and mutual support systems to ensure their access to the scarce resources. Overall, the study revealed that pastoral livelihoods in Borana are highly dependent and mingled with the sustainability of the customary institutions and resource use arrangements, and hence the roles and legitimacy of the these institutions need to be reinforced and constructively integrated if need for the future of pasroralism to remain as the viable means of livelihood for the Borana people. Key Words: Borana plateau, institutional change, livelihood impacts, pastoralism Crop – Livestock integration systems in arable areas of Marsabit County, Northern Kenya Golicha, D.* and Charfi, H. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit Research Centre. P.O. Box 147, 60500, Marsabit, Kenya *Corresponding author: golichdub@yahoo.com Absract There are arable areas of arid northern Kenya which has potential both for livestock and crop production. These areas include mountain, footslopes and oasis areas. This arable zone is inhabited by resource-poor agropastoralists with limited capacity to access modern inputs for crop and livestock production. While the comunities living in arable areas of northern Kenya pursue both livestock and crop production, it is not clear whether livestock and crop components are interdependent. Sociological survey method and key informants were used to study farmers with both crop and livestock components. The study revealled that 93% of farm labour is provided by people but not oxen, camel or donkey as expected in ideal intergrated systems. 77% of interviewed farmers throw away most of produced manure instead of using it for field fertilization. Crop residues are not stored and used in times of feed scarciy, but 71% of interviewed farmers release livestock to feed on crop residues directly from farm which in most cases livestock tample and destroy residues. The study concluded that farmers in arable areas of northern kenya diversified sources of livelihhods to crops and livestock production. However, crop and livestock components are not intergrated. The study further recommend for disemination on sustinable crop-livestock integration systems by agricultural extension officers and other development agents. Introduction Crop-livestock integration system involves interdependency among crop and livestock components. This system can be viable, both ecologically and economically. However, it is knowledge intensive and sometimes, farmers are not realizing its benefits. Crop-livestock integration has been beneficial for fragile arid and semi-arid environments. Similarly, resource- poor farmers with low financial ability to access external inputs, has option of benefitting from integration system (Williams et al., 1995; Powell et al., 1996). In arable areas of northern Kenya, the interactions between crop and livestock enterprise is blurry both at farm and regional level. Problem statement Mountain, footslopes and oasis areas of northern kenya have potential for both livestock and crop production systems. However, the human population living in these zones mainly depend on famine relief food due to food shortage. Low nutrient contents and acidic propoerties have been noted in the soils within Mountain areas of northern kenya (Muya et al., 2010). Climate variability coupled with unsustainable farming practices have negatively impacted on production capacity of these important arable zones. While farmers in arable areas of northern kenya, are known to pursue both crop and livestock production. The relationships between crops and livestock at farm or regional level is not clearly understood. This study seeks to understand crop – livestock integration systems in key potential areas of northern kenya. Method of study Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from farmers with crop farms and livestcok. Purposive sampling method were applied to identify the respondents. The data was analysed using SPSS computer software. Resulsts and Discussions Sources of power in the farm Farm operations for crop farmers of northern kenya is mainly provided by people. 93% of the respodents are providing farm power for themselves (Fig. 1). 40% of the resepondents are using animal power, including oxen and donkey. Donkeys provide power for watering livestock, especially calves, while oxen provides power during planting and also weeding (Fig. 1.1). In northern Kenya, the power provided by people is the most important and commom than power provided by the animals. However, animal power is very important among farmers in sub- saharan Africa (FAO, 2011). In northern Kenya, even farmers owning livestock (cattles, camel, donkey) still use human power which is more common in the area. The common use of human- power by farmers in northern kenya, reduces interdependency among crop and livestock components. Animal power has shown to improve tillage and allows water infiltration within the arable zones of northern Kenya (Obanyi et al, 2011). However, when animal power is less used, there is chance of soil compaction and reduced crop yield. Fig.1 Sources of power in the farm Sources of labour Number of farmers using (n=55) Percentage People 51 93 Animal/Livestock 22 40 Machineries/Tractor 4 7 Farm Operations Source of power Farm operations Oxen Planting/furrowing Camel Planting/watering calves Donkey Watering calves/kids Tractor Open up land Use of crop residues The agropastoralists communities in Marsabit County feed 71% of their crop residues with their livestock (Fig 2). Communities in this region are historically pure pastoralists, hence livestock play important role in their lives. The community in the region makes tradeoffs when it comes to use of crop residues. Fertilization of crop field using residues is less important to the communitity in question when it comes to use of residues. Furthermore, crop residues are not fed to all livestock but fed to cattle calves and few home-based livestock. Jaleta et al 2012., also showed competing uses of crop residues among farmers of Kenya. Contrary to the case in northern Kenya, in Nigeria the full use for crop residues for soil fertilization has been reported (Bagayoko et al. 1996). The findings of this study compares well with others, where the importance of crop-residues in feeding the livestock has been shown in arid and semi-arid environment. Further, it was reported that crop-residues are the only source of feed during drought and late dry peiods in arid and semi-arid environment (Valbuena et al., 2012). Howevwer, In Marsabit, county crop residues are not managed or stored, but animals are allowed to graze directly. This can result to damage and loss of crop residues, through trampling by livestock. Moreover, 100% of crop-residues are fed to livestock with no residues used for soil fertilization which can potentially result to nutrients imbalance. Fig. 2. Use of crop residues Use of crop residues Number of interviewed farmers (n=55) % Plough back to farm for fertilization 10 18 Use it for mulching 7 13 Preserve for future use 3 5 Release livestock directly to feed on residues 39 71 Burn to clear farms 2 4 Just leave it on farms without planned use 3 5 Production and utilization of Manure Farmers in Marsabit County produces approximately two wheelbarrows of manure per day (Fig. 3). Manure are mainly produced from cattle (55%) and small stock (30%). Camel manure is not utilized since the farmers frequently change boma (night enclosures) for them. 77% of the respondents throw away Over 75% of collected manure. While 46% use some manure for field fertilization (Fig. 3.2). This is an ineffeciency within the production system. Throwing away of manure is attributed to lack of knowklege on manure use and importance. Additionally, heaps of manure with no management lies in each and every village visited for the study. This can result to N losses through volatilization and contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Similar studies has reported on advantages of livestock manure for soil fertilization within the intergrated systems. For, example, Liu et al 2010, reported that over 23% of nitrogen is provided by manure in crop-livestock integrated system. In northern kenya, manure is neither sustainably used nor managed. Fig. 3. Quantity of manure produced per day Livestock species Average quanity of manure produced by one farmer per day (wheelbarrows) (n=55) Indigenous cattle Small stock Others Average manure per day (wheelbarrowa) in Saku 1.31 0.45 0.14 1.95 Average in Moyale 0.81 0.7 0.4 1.91 Average in the 1.06 (55%) 0.58 (30%) 0.27 County (15%) Average 1.91 wheelbarrows Fig 3.1 Use of Farm Yard Manure Farm size Amount of manure applied by single farmer per season (Wheelbarrows) (n=55) One acre 3.03 wheelbarrows Fig 3.2 Utilization of livestock manure Livestock Manure use Percentage of each use Used for farm fertilizaation 43.4 Thrown away 76.8 Burn - Used for Biogas - Cash flows in the integrated production systems The potential benefits of integration, where cash from one component support the other componenet is non-existent in Marsabit County. Although, the farmers with both crop and livestock enterprise earns more annual income than farmers with only one componenet (Fig. 4), there is no cash flow from one component to another. This finding compare well with other finding, For example, Liyama et al., 2007, reported that households with intergrated crop- livestock earn higher income than those with single production systems. Contrary to the finding of this study, Homann et all, 2007 reported scenario in Zimbabwe where women farmers sell goats to develop crop component. This is a missing link in the crop and livestock production system of Marsabit County. Fig 4. Annual income Livelihood systems Average annual income (KES) Crop production alone 20,000 Livestock production alone 35,000 Both crop and livestock production 55,000 Conclusion There is diversity within production systems of northern kenya, i.e. crop production and livestock keeping. Diverse production systems are not necessary integrated. There is no clear-cut conectivity between livestock production and crop farming in northeren kenya. There is therefore need to build the capacity of farmers on crop-livestock intergrated systems. Agricultural officers also need to be trained on intergrated system so that they can pass this knowledge to farmers. This findings provide entry point to more indepth research on the crop-livestock production in Marsabit County, Northern Kenya. Further research is recommened on management of crop residues and animal manure, conservation agriculture in crop-livestock systems, and study on nutrient flows and balances. References Bagayoko, M., S.C. Mansou, S. Traoré, and K.M. Eskindrige. 1996. Pearl millet/cowpea cropping system yields and soil nutrient levels. African Journal of Crop Science 4: 453–462. Duncan A., Tarawali S., Thorne P., Valbuena, D., Descheemaeker, K., and Homann-Kee Tui S. (2013). Integrated crop-livestock systems − a key to sustainable intensification in Africa. Tropical Grasslands – Forrajes Tropicales (2013) Volume 1, 202−206 FAO. 2011. World Livestock 2011 – Livestock in food security. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na-tions), Rome, Italy. www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2373e/i2373e.pdf Herrero M; Thornton PK; Notenbaert A; Msangi S; Wood S; Kruska R; Dixon J; Bossio D; van de Steeg J; Freeman HA; Li X; Parthasarathy Rao P. 2009. Drivers of change in crop- livestock systems and their impacts on agro-ecosystems ser-vices and human well- being to 2030. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. Homann S; van Rooyen A; Moyo T; Nengomasha Z. 2007. Goat production and marketing: Baseline information for semi-arid Zimbabwe. ICRISAT (International Crops Research In-stitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Jaleta M., Kassie M. and Shiferaw B. (2012). Tradeoffs in crop residue utilization in Mixed crop – livestock systems and implications for conservation agriculture and sustainable land management. Internationational Association of Agricultural Economist, Triannual Conference, Foz do Iguacu, Brazil, 18-24 August, 2012. Liu J; You L; Amini M; Obersteiner M; Herrero M; Zehnder AJB; Yang H. 2010. A high-resolution assessment of nitro-gen flows in cropland. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107:835–840. Liyama M., Maitima J. and Kariuki P. (2007). Crop-livestock diversification patterns in relations to income and manure use: A case study from Rift Valley Community, Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. (2)3, pp. O58 – 066. McIntire J., D. Bourzat, and P. Pingali. 1992. Crop-livestock interaction in sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Regional and Sectoral Studies. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. 246 pp. Obanyi S., Ngutu M., Muya M., Charfi H., Mamo S., Geikuku P., Thuranira G. (2011). Adaptive studies on soil fertility management, water harvesting and saving technologies for integrated crop production systems in mountain and oasis areas of northern Kenya. Final Technical Report, KARI Marsabit, Kenya Powell, J.M., Fernandez-Rivera, S., Hiernaux, P., Turner, M.D., 1996. Nutrient cycling in integrated rangeland/cropland systems of the Sahel. Agric. Syst. 52 (2/3), 143-170 Rufino, M., (2008). Quantifying the contribution of crop-livestock integration to African farming. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. Tarawali, G. A synthesis of the crop – livestock production systems of dry savannas of west and central Africa. Consortium of international Agricultural Centres, Niger, 23 – 45pp. Williams, T.O., Powell, J.M., Fernandez-Rivera, S., 1995. Manure availability in relation to sustainable food crop production in semi-arid West Africa: Evidence from Niger. Quarterly J. Internat. Agric. 34 (3), 248-258. Valbuena D; Erenstein O; Homann-Kee Tui S; Abdoulaye T; Claessens L; Duncan AJ; Gerard B; Rufino MC; Teufel N; van Rooyen A; van Wijk MT. 2012. Conservation Agriculture in mixed crop-livestock systems: Scoping crop residue trade-offs in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Field Crops Research 132:175−184. Chemical composition of Cactus species and Prosopis juliflora as Drought-resilient Feed resources in Kenya Syomiti, M.1,2,3 *, Maranga, E.1, Obwoyere, G.1, Gebru, G.4 and Dana, H.3 1Egerton University; 2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute; 3Colorado State University, 4MARILEthiopia. *Corresponding author: syomitimargaret@yahoo.com Abstract Two plant species; cactus (Opuntia spp) and Prosopis juliflora were sampled in Baringo, Laikipia, Naivasha and Machakos counties for evaluation of nutritional quality. Different plant parts were sampled for chemical analysis; old and young leaves, ripe and unripe fruits of different cactus species, mature and young barks, green and dry leaves and pods and seeds of P. juliflora. Dry matter ranged from 158 to 180 g/kg DM for young and mature cladodes of spineless Opuntia respectively and 153 to 172 g/kg DM for young and mature cladodes of spiny Opuntia respectively. Crude fibre (CF) ranged from 134 to 305 g/kg DM for spiny young and old Opuntia respectively and 254 to 323 g/kg DM for spineless Opuntia species (young and mature cladodes). CF content of Opuntia species increased with increase in maturity. High content of starch was observed in all the Opuntia species. Higher starch content was reported in the mature cladodes than the young ones. Spiny Opuntia had higher reported starch content ranging from 243 to 61g/kg DM (mature and young cladodes respectively) as compared to spineless Opuntia which ranged from 95 to 61 g/kg DM. High contents of starch was also recorded in both ripe and unripe fruits of spiny Opuntia, ranging from 146 and 136 g/kg DM (ripe and unripe spiny Opuntia fruits respectively). Mature cladodes of spiny Opuntia had higher recorded ash contents than young shoots, ranging from 54 to 39 g/kg DM. Old barks of P. juliflora had the highest ash content (144 g/kg DM) as compared to other parts, with 124 g/kg DM reported for the young barks. Prosopis seed had the highest CP content (400 g/kg DM), and starch contents (129 g/kg DM). High CP content (150 g/kg DM and 200 g/kg DM) was reported for dry and green leaf meals respectively. The study revealed high contents of starch in Opuntia spp, high CP content in Prosopis pods, seed and leaf meals. The high energy and CP pools available in Opuntia species and Prosopis juliflora can be exploited as livestock feed supplements in rangelands experiencing energy and protein imbalances due to feed quality variability and frequent droughts posed by climate change Key words: Resilience, Climate change, Livestock, Feeds Introduction The problem of animal feed supply and quality is aggravated in arid and semi-arid regions by scarce and erratic rainfall that limits the growth of herbaceous species and biomass in rangelands. Thus, livestock in such regions have to survive on recurrent shortage of feed resources of insufficient nutritional value for most of the year (Robles et al, 2008). These drought conditions, exacerbated by climate change will force pastoral communities to look for alternative plants species as forages. Cactus species and Prosopis juliflora are such lesser- known and under-utilized feed resources in Kenya. Although Prosopis species has been reported to improve livestock production in the Kenya’s rangelands, pastoral communities have perceived it as a noxious plant responsible for decay of animals’ teeth, with subsequent death due to starvation. The problem of Prosopis species has elicited mixed reactions by the community members in Baringo County (Syomiti, Unpublished data). In the absence of concrete information about the nutritional significance of Prosopis species in addition to negative community perceptions about its forage value there are many that have expressed the need for an external support to manage the spread or eliminate it altogether and replace it with desirable plant species. However, prosopis spp can provide many of the needs of populations living in dry lands of the world, and have the potential to provide much more if knowledge on their utilization is expanded. For instance, a feeding trial in India on livestock using rations containing up to 45% of Prosopis spp components yielded a 1.5% of cattle body weight with acceptable live weight gains (Tewari et al, 2000). On the other hand, cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) is drought tolerant and makes use of little moisture in the rainy season to produce large quantities of forage and has high carrying capacity than any other drought tolerant fodder in arid and semi-arid areas (Tegegne, 2001). It remains green and succulent during drought thus supplying the much needed energy, water and vitamins to livestock in dry periods. Opuntia ficus-indica withstands severe defoliation and has good regeneration ability. This plant material can be easily and inexpensively established and is quite promising because of its low maintenance costs. Due to its anatomic and physiological constitution, Cactus withstands a wide range of soil types as well as harsh climatic conditions. Thus the, development of plausible pastoral systems should incorporate Cactus establishment as a suitable soil conservation plant material. It is also a promising plant for arresting desertification (Nefzaoui and Ben salem 2001 and De kock 1980). The fact that Cacti combines drought tolerance and water use efficiency, it produces a large quantity of forage that remain green and succulent in dry periods and makes it the best fodder option in the changing climatic situations (Nefzaoui and Ben salem 2001. The purpose of the current study was to establish the feed value of cactus species and P. juliflora as potential, alternative drought- resilience feed resources in Kenya’s rangelands. Materials and methods Location of the Study The study was carried out in four pilot administrative counties of Baringo, Laikipia, Naivasha and Machakos, Kenya. Purposive sampling of these study sites was used due to availability of large tracks of spiny and spineless cactus species and P. juliflora. These zones are located in agro- ecological zones IV and V, with annual rainfall between 500-1000 mm and 300-600 mm respectively. Sampling of plant materials Different parts of spiny and spineless cactus species and P. juliflora sampled for nutritional evaluation were; young and mature cladodes/shoots, ripe and unripe fruits, P. juliflora leaves (green and dry), pods (green and dry) and bark (from a mature and young tree stem). A duplicate sample weighing 500 g was collected and dried in an oven at 60oC for 48 hours, ground to pass through a 1-mm sieve and stored in plastic bottles at room temperature for subsequent chemical analyses. Chemical analysis Dry matter (DM) content of the feed, crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), starch and ash were determined by the Near Infra Red reflectance (NIR). Data analysis Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used for data analysis for computation of nutrient means. Results The chemical composition of different parts of Cactus species and Prosopis juliflora are shown in Table 1. The results indicated that crude protein (CP) and ash content of different plant parts varied greatly between species and maturity stage. The CP content of spineless Opuntia spp was higher than that of spiny Opuntia ranging from 115 to 145 g/kg DM (for mature and young cladodes respectively), and 120 to 135 g/kg DM (for mature and young cladodes) respectively. Variations were observed between CP content of young and mature cladodes of both spiny and spineless Opuntia species (Table 1). Low contents of dry matter (DM) and crude fibre (CF) were also reported in both spiny and spineless Opuntia species. Dry matter ranged from 158 to 180 g/kg DM (young and mature cladodes of spineless Opuntia respectively) and 153 to 172 g/kg DM (young and mature cladodes of spiny Opuntia species respectively). Crude fibre ranged from 134 to 305 g/kg DM for spiny Opuntia species (young and old Opuntia species) and 254 to 323 g/kg DM for spineless Opuntia species (young and mature cladodes). Table 1: Chemical Composition of Different parts of Cactus and Prosopis juliflora species (g/kg DM) Species Part Chemical composition DM CP CF Starch Ash Spineless cactus Mature cladodes 180 115 323 95 44 New cladodes 158 145 254 61 26 Spiny cactus Mature cladodes 172 120 305 243 54 New cladodes 153 135 134 61 39 Ripe fruit 120 111 327 146 9 Un-ripe fruit 133 122 294 136 32 Prosopis species Young leaves 890 263 142 110 98 Mature leaves 900 143 192 42 20 Mature green leaves 627 200 186 - 110 Mature dry leaves 833 150 230 - 59 Dry Pods meal 926 218 322 107 79 Green pods meal 780 109 275 25 88 Ground Seed meal 920 400 - 129 - Mature bark 910 0 860 126 144 Young bark 890 33 584 79 124 Variations in CF were also observed in young and old cladodes of both spiny and spineless Opuntia species, with increase of CF content with plant maturity. However, higher content of starch was observed in all the Opuntia species cladodes. Higher starch content was reported in the mature cladodes than the young ones (Table 1). TABLE 2: Prosopis Pods comparison with other sources of non-conventional animal feed ingredients Feedstuff ME (MJ/kg DM) CP (%) CF (%) Cost (Kes/Kg) Rank (Weighted Index) Prosopis seed meal 9.9 399 7.3 - 1 Sunflower seed cake 7.95 27 28 24 2 Prosopis pod meal 12.95 21.8 20.1 - 3 Maize germ 11.51 12.4 10.2 21 4 Wheat bran 8.37 15.5 15 18.4 5 Molasses 9.8 2.9 0 35 6 Rice polishing 10.04 8.2 31.9 18 7 Source: Kyuma, 2010 Note: Calculation of a weighted index of the nutrient composition of key nutrients is commonly used in rating of feedstuffs Spiny Opuntia had higher reported starch content ranging from 243 to 61 (for mature and young cladodes respectively) as compared to spineless Opuntia cladodes which ranged from 95 to 61 g/kg DM. High contents of starch was also recorded in both ripe and unripe fruits of spiny Opuntia species ranging from 146 and 136 g/kg DM (ripe and unripe spiny Opuntia fruits respectively). Mature spiny Opuntia cladodes had higher recorded ash contents than young shoots, which ranged from 54 to 39 g/kg DM. Mature barks of P. juliflora had the highest ash content of 144 g/kg DM as compared to other parts, with ash content of 124 g/kg DM reported for the young barks (Table 1). Prosopis seed meal had highest reported CP content (399 g/kg DM) and starch contents of 129 g/kg DM (Table 2). Young Prosopis leaf meal had substantial CP content of 260 g/kg DM as compared to 146 g/kg DM for older shoots. Discussion Spineless Opuntia species had higher recorded levels of CP content which ranged from 115 to 145 g/kg DM (for mature and young cladodes respectively), than that of spiny Opuntia which ranged from 120 to 135 g/kg DM (for mature and young cladodes respectively). This can be attributed to the formation of the spines, which can be speculated that some of the plant protein is channeled to spine formation with subsequent lignifications of these spines. Variations observed between CP content of young and mature cladodes of both spiny and spineless Opuntia species (Table 1) is in agreement with Mustafa et al (2007) who reported higher CP content of soybean straws as the plant matured. Low contents of DM and CF reported in both spiny and spineless Opuntia species were expected. According to Ben Salem et al. (1996), Opuntia species is a succulent plant with approximately 90% water, which can sustain livestock without water for about 60 days in drylands which experiences water scarcity. The reported low CF contents of Opuntia is in agreement with findings by Firew et al. 2007, who reported average low CF content of 14.5% in Oputnia species. Strategic supplementation of Opuntia species with high DM content feeds such as cereal straws and hay is required to control bloat and oxalate poisoning in Opuntia (Nefzaoui and Ben Salem, 2001). Higher content of starch was observed in all the Opuntia species cladodes, with higher starch content reported in the mature cladodes than the young ones (Table 1). Opuntia being a succulent drought tolerant plant with high reported starch content can be effectively utilized as non-conventional feed ingredient in ration formulation in rangelands. Spiny Opuntia species had higher reported starch content (with higher reported levels for mature spiny cladodes than young spiny cladodes) as compared to spineless Opuntia cladodes. High contents of starch were also recorded in both ripe and unripe fruits of spiny Opuntia species. These results reveal that starch content of Opuntia species increases as the plant matures. This would be useful information with respect to domestication and agronomic management of Opuntia as livestock feed. Higher starch content in spiny Opuntia can be attributed to the spines, which upon hydrolysis can be reduced to simple sugars. However, the spines pose a limitation as livestock feed. According to Kang’ara and Gitari (2010), the spines can be eliminated by passing the cladodes through a borne fire for livestock feeding. This is in agreement with reports by Syomiti (Unpublished data), where agro-pastoral communities in Nyeri North used cactus to feed their livestock during droughts and applied fire to remove the spines. Highest ash contents reported in the mature barks of P. juliflora is an indicator of high mineral content. Prosopis seed meal was reported to have highest levels of CP content (400 g/kg DM), which is comparable to those of other conventional feed supplents such as sunflower seed cakes (Table 2). This indicates that P. juliflora can be a valuable non-conventional protein supplement for livestock in drylands. However, inclusion levels in feed rations is required due to the fact that livestock, mainly small ruminants were reported to lose teeth after consuming large quantities of P. juliflora (Choge et al. 2002), with subsequent starvation to death. Reports by Kyuma (2013) indicated that pastoral communities perceived prosopis species as a noxious weed. Prosopis leaf meal had substantial CP content of 150 g/kg DM and 200 g/kg DM for dry and green leaf meals respectively. However, green leaf meal of Prosopis species is reported to have high anti-nutritional factors owing to mainly condensed tannins, thus slow drying in a shade reduces the tannins levels thereby increasing the feed intake ( Koech et al. 2011). Fig 1: Goats browsing on prosopis in Marigat Fig 2: Cactus sampling activity in Baringo (Source: Syomiti, 2013) (Source: Syomiti, 2013) Conclusions and recommendations Cactus (Opuntia) species, Prosopis seed and pod meals are ideal non-conventional feedstuffs, and can be recommended as alternative feed resources for substituting scarce conventional protein and energy feed sources in Kenya’s drylands. Promotion of cactus-Prosopis based feed rations in the rangelands is required to enhance resilience in pastoral communities for sustainable livestock production in the wake of climate change. Acknowledgement The authors of this manuscript are grateful to the Livestock-Climate Change Collaborative Support Program (LCC-CRSP) of Colorado State University, who financed the study. The reviewers of this manuscript who assisted immensely in adding value to this paper are also appreciated in advance. References Ben Salem H, Nefzaoui, A., Abdouli, H. y Orskov, E.R. 1996. Effect of increasing level of spineless cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica var. inermis) on intake and digestion by sheep given straw- based diets. Animal Sciences, 62: 293-299. Choge S. K., Ngunjiri F. D., Kuria M. W., Basaka E. A and Muthondeki J. K. 2002. Status and Impacts of Prosopis in Kenya. Technical Report produced by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute and Forest Department. 59pp (unpublished). Firew T, Kijora C and Peters K. J 2007. Effects of incorporating cactus pear (Opuntia ficus- indica) and urea-treatment of straw on the performance of sheep. Small Ruminant Research, Volume 72, pp. 157–164 Koech O. Kipchirchir, Kinuthia R. Ngugi and R.G. Wahome. 2011. Use of Dry Land Tree Species (Prosopis juliflora) Seed Pods as Supplement Feed for Goats in the Arid and Semi Arid Lands of Kenya Journal of Arid Environment ,Volume 5 ,Issue 2 Pg 66-73 Kyuma R, 2013. Prosopis Utilization as animal feeds trials in Garissa – Kenya Wathajir Group Farm - Community Prosopis utilization pilot project. Proceeding of Tanzania Society of Animal Production Annual Scientific Conference. 22nd - 25th October 2013, Olasit Garden, Arusha, Tanzania Mustafa A F, Garcia J C, Seguin P and Marois- Mainguy O, 2007. Chemical composition, ensiling characteristics and ruminal degradability of forage soybean cultivars. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 87:623-629. Nefzaoui, A.y and H. Ben Salem.2001. Opuntia spp: a strategic fodder and efficient tool to combat desertification in the WANA region . In: Mondragon,C. and Gonzalez, S. (eds.). Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as forage : FAO Plant Production and protection Paper, 169 pp73-90 Tegegne F. 2001. Nutritional value of Opuntia Ficus- indica as ruminant feed in Ethiopia in:Mondragon,C. and Gonzalez, S. (eds.). Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as forage: FAO Plant Production and protection Paper, 169 pp73-90 Implications of Constrained Mobility on Livestock Production and Pastoral Livelihoods of Borana Plateau, Southern Ethiopia Beyene, T.1, Yibeltal, T.2, Dana, H.3 and Desta, S.4 1Wageningen University, The Netherlands; 2Natural Resources Economics Specialist, Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Ethiopia; 3Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Colorado State University, USA and 4MARIL (Managing Risk for Improved Livelihoods) Research and Development, Private Company, Ethiopia. *Corresponding author: beyteklu@gmail.com Abstract In the Borana plateau of Southern Ethiopia, mobility has long served as a tool for pastoral adaptation to climate variability. However, this tool is increasingly constrained by different forms of rangeland fragmentation. The current study was conducted to assess the pattern and trend of mobility constraints and commensurate implications on pastoral livelihoods using focus group discussions, semi-structured questionnaires and personal observations. Different forms of rangeland fragmentation, such as expansion of cropping, bush encroachment, land appropriation and settlement, were reported as the major drivers of mobility constraints. Almost all respondents ranked the expansion of cropping as the leading factor constraining mobility. The average number of cattle and small ruminants per household showed a strong positive relationship with the distances in seasonal herd mobility (R2= 0.769 & 0.748), respectively. Consequently, the gap between the rich and poor economic classes, in terms of cattle holding per household, has widened by 83.6% and 93.7% in agro-pastoral and pastoral systems, respectively. Rangeland fragmentation induced mobility constraints have reshaped the status of livelihood assets and widened the gap between the rich and poor pastoralists, which could increase the vulnerability of the poor. Thus, investigation on the sustainability of both systems, equitable utilization of private enclosures and the trade-offs between area of crop expansion and livestock holding is recommended. Key words: Borana, constrained mobility, land fragmentations, pastoral livelihood Introduction In the horn of Africa, pastoralism remains a dominant form of land use that supports the livelihood of 15 to 20 million people (FAO 2010). The Borana plateau of southern Ethiopia supports more than one million of these people (Kamara et al. 2003; CSA 2008). Pastoralism is predominantly practiced in arid or semi-arid ecosystems like the Borana, where climate is a limiting factor for vegetative structure, function, and dynamics available for grazing or internal ecological processes (Behnke et al. 1993; Hiernaux 1996). In such an ecosystem, availability of resources required for livestock, such as forage and water, are variable both spatially and temporally and to large extent unpredictable (Niamir-Fuller 2000). The Borana plateau is no exception; it is characterized by recurrent droughts where rainfall variation creates a vicious cycle of massive cattle losses every 5 to 6 years (Desta and Coppock 2002). There is insufficient rainfall to sustain agriculture. Therefore, pastoralism has long existed as the single most important and viable means of sustainable livelihood strategies of Borana pastoralists (Tache and Irwin 2003). The existence of such an entrenched system is due to the fact that the people that live there have developed strategies over time that solved a number of problems related to making a living on the dry lands. Livestock mobility is one of the most important ways that African pastoralists have historically managed uncertainty and risk (Bassett 1986; Scoones 1994). It creates an opportunity for pastoralists and their livestock to respond to gradients in forage quality by matching their distribution to spatially variable peaks and valleys (Coppock et al. 1986; Scoones 1995; Fryxell et al. 2004). Hence, mobility enables pastoralists to take advantage of pasture resources that are only seasonally accessible and spatially variable (Coughenour 2008). Despite the importance of mobility as a management tool in the Borana, expanding crop cultivation in pastoral areas is inducing land fragmentation by removing the most productive lands from the grazing herds (Coppock 1994; Angassa and Oba 2008). Moreover, fragmentation of rangelands in Borana has been aggravated by bush encroachment, sedentarization and in excess fencing of private grazing lands (kalos) (Angassa and Oba 2008). Increasing land fragmentation has restricted the area available to pastoralists (Hobbs et al. 2008), resulting in less grazing land and water (Boone et al. 2005 and Thornton et al. 2007). Consequently, the total area and overall diversity and condition of the remaining rangelands have also declined, further threatening traditional pastoralism (Freudenberger 1993) and accelerating the declining rate of livestock ownership per capita and production per livestock unit (Oba 2001; Ehui et al. 2002). Although different studies have been conducted in Borana, the issue of rangeland-fragmentation induced mobility constraints, and its implication on livestock population dynamics and pastoral livelihood assets, has received little attention. Thus, there is little information available about how land fragmentation has been influencing mobility, or on the consequences of constrained mobility on livestock population, herd composition and income. Therefore, the objectives of this study are: (1) asses the pattern and trend of mobility constraints and their drivers, and (2) evaluate implications of constrained mobility on livestock population and pastoral livelihood assets in the Borana plateau of southern Ethiopia. Study area The Borana zone is located in the Southern tip of Ethiopia between 3°36’– 6°38’N & 3°43’- 39°30’ E. The climate of the area is arid and semi-arid. Rainfall is bimodal, with the long rainy season in March–May and the short rains in September–November, followed by the long dry season. Average annual rainfall varies from 353 - 873 mm (McCarthy et al. 2002). The total population of the Borana zone is approximately 1.1 million; 84% live in rural areas and 16 % live in urban areas (CSA 2007). Pastoralism is the major economic activity of the Borana people. Mobility of livestock is the main strategy used by the pastoral communities for climate- related risk management and efficient utilization of communal range resources. The mobility takes two forms: the first is the movement of the satellite herds and locally called “Godaanssa Foorraa”, takes place during rainy season to lowland areas where there are no permanent sources of water while the second type is moving the herds to other regions, further away from the homestead locally called as “GodaanssaWarraguda”. It is takes place during acute drought or conflict. Methods Sampling design A multi-stage sampling method was employed to select sample households. Accordingly, eight pastoral associations (PAs) were selected from four districts. From each PA, 15 households were sampled, the 15 sample households were distributed to the three socio-economic classes in each PA based on the proportion of households in each socio-economic class. Finally, random sampling was used to select the sample households from each socio-economic class in each of the eight PAs accounting a total of 120 sample households. Data collection methods Interview method. The interviews were held with each household head and took up to 3 hours to complete. Respondents were asked to recall herd histories and mobility routes from 2008 to 2013. They were also asked to recall introductions of cropping and pastoral associations, banning of fire, occurrence of bush encroachment and fencing for kalos from 1974 to 2013 in a stepwise fashion. The years 1974 and 1991 represent regime change in Ethiopia through the fall of the Feudal system and Durg, respectively. To collect the required information, a semi- structured questionnaire was prepared and the initial version of was pre-tested. The survey was administered through face-to-face interviews. In addition to household survey, focus group discussions were also held in four pastoral associations (PAs), two were in agro-pastoral (Harallo and Hid-Ale) and the rest were in pure pastoral regions (Higo and Kenchero). In each group discussion a total of 10-12 participants representing all socio-economic classes, gender and the local Gadda administration (Rabaa Gaddas) were included. Secondary data collection. Secondary data was also collected to better understand the factors that have caused mobility constraints and to determine if they confirm farmer perceptions. Data collected includes pastoral development issues (implemented rangeland improvement activities), accessibility of infrastructure and agricultural extension activities implemented for the last four decades. Statistical analysis The collected data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Repeated measure analysis was employed to plot the relationship the relationship between mobility constraining factors, rank and farming system. The relationship between distance in mobility, livestock holding and number of watering points were examined using Pearson correlation analysis. The sources of mobility constraints on pastoral livelihoods were ranked using index values (Table 1). Index values were computed using the formula: Index = (4*nrank 1 + 3*nrank 2 + 2*nrank 3 + nrank 4 of constraint i)/( sum 4*nrank 1 + 3*nrank 2 + 2*nrank 3 + nrank 4 for all constraints i-I), where n is the frequency that respondents ranked each constraint i-I (Teklu et al. 2011). Qualitative data is also compiled, summarized and used to support discussion under respective sections. Results Factors constraining pastoral mobility in Borana plateau Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia had well-planned herd mobility routes for their livestock across heterogeneous landscapes. During focus group discussion with representatives of pastoralists and key informants, they explained that communal owned rangelands have been the basis for mapping such routes in a way to detect resources available in a spatially and temporally variable landscape. However, since 1970 the effectiveness of such well-planned herd mobility has been deteriorating rapidly due to fragmentation of communal rangelands. In this regard, establishment of pastoral associations, bush encroachment, private enclosures, agricultural expansion and settlement were listed as the major mobility constraints from rangeland fragmentation in both agro-pastoral and pastoral systems (Fig. 1). Accordingly almost all respondents in agro-pastoral systems (APS) pointed to expansion of cropping as the major cause of mobility constraints, followed by private enclosures (kalo). In pastoral systems (PS) more respondents indicated bush encroachment as the major mobility constrains, followed by private enclosures (Fig. 1). Fig 1. Mobility constraining factors ranked by agro-pastoral (a) and pure pastorals (b) respondents (1= highest; 2= medium; 3= low & 4= very low) Settlement and expansion of private enclosures further exacerbates the disruption of the Borana pastoral system by constraining mobility. Another newly emerging mobility constraint in Borana is private enclosures (kalos). Following agricultural expansion, private enclosure was the second most ranked mobility constraining facts in agro pastoral system. This indicated that land appropriation is becoming increasingly apparent in agro-pastoral systems compared to pastoral systems. a b Consequences of constrained mobility for livestock production and income Cattle, sheep, goats and camels were the dominant livestock types reared by the local community of both farming systems in Borana. The average number of cattle and small ruminants per household showed a strong positive relationship with the distances in herd mobility, with an R2 value of 0.769 and 0.748, repetively (Fig. 2). For example, agro- pastoralists with 5 head of cattle travelled approximately 10 kilometres per trip compared to pastoralists with 40 head travalling about 40. Causality is impossible to identify at this time. In arid and semi-arid ecosystem like Borana, the continuation of herd mobility and existence of communal rangeland is necessary to maintain large numbers of livestock holding per household and let pastoral systems function. Figure 2. The relationship between seasonal mobility and cattle, small ruminant holding per household (a) and box and whisker plots of income from sale of livestock distributed for wealthy, medium and poor economic class of agro-pastoral and pastoral systems (b) of Borana zone (Agro-pastoral=44; pastoral=73) in Borana zones of southern Ethiopia Figure 4b shows the disparity among different socio-economic classes in terms of income from livestock has widened in the last half a decade. Almost all respondents in the agro-pastoral system earned less than twenty thousand Ethiopian birr from selling livestock, while up to seventy thousand Ethiopian birr per annum was earned in the pastoral system (Fig. 2b). Respondents categorized in the poor economic class of the pastoral system earned income from livestock almost equivalent to the respondents categorized under wealthy economic class of agro-pastoral system (Fig. 2b). Causality is again illusive, but it is clear that the poor in both systems are not earning enough from livestock to more than barely sustain themselves Implications of constrained mobility on pastoral livelihood outcomes Reducing vulnerability is the primary livelihood outcome for pastoralists to survive and thrive in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Livestock mobility is a means of managing uncertainty and risk in prevailing harsh and erratic conditions in those regions. Therefore, mobility constraints could influence the livelihood activities by which pastoralists struggle to attain their livelihood. As shown in table 1, respondents of both agro-pastoral and pastoral systems ranked eight livelihood outcomes that has been significantly influenced by mobility constraints over the last half a decade. Limited access to grazing land was ranked 1st ,with an index value of 0.228 and 0.283 in agro-pastoral and pastoral systems, respectively, as consequences of mobility b constrain on pastoral livelihood outcomes. Reduction in herd size was ranked 2nd , with the index value of 0.179 in the agro-pastoral system, while limited access to watering points had an index value of 0.185 in the pastoral system (Table 1). Compared to pastoralists, higher numbers of agro-pastoralists ranked the occurrence of trespassing conflict and shift in diet from milk to crop as consequences of mobility constraints. In addition, a higher number of agro-pastoralists ranked moving out to towns (abandoning livestock keeping and cropping) with the index value of 0.075 as a livelihood strategy compared to the pastoral system. This indicated a decline of agro-pastoral systems’ carrying capacity to be able to accommodate the increasing population pressure. Table 1. Value index for consequences of mobility constraints on pastoral livelihood outcome in agro-pastoral and pastoral systems of Borana zone Variables Agro-pastoral system (Sample size, n=44) 1st rank 2nd rank 3rd rank 4th rank Indexa Reduction in herd size 8 19 0 0 0.179 Shift from cattle to sheep and goat 4 3 1 5 0.065 Limited access to grazing land 26 3 0 0 0.228 Limited access to watering points 12 3 1 5 0.129 Loss of communal rangeland 7 10 2 1 0.127 Trans passing conflict 9 7 4 1 0.133 Moving out to towns 1 9 0 6 0.075 Shift in diet from milk to crop 0 6 6 2 0.065 Pastoral system (Sample size, n =73) Reduction in herd size 7 11 7 0 0.114 Shift from cattle to sheep and goat 10 2 1 4 0.079 Limited access to grazing land 35 13 3 2 0.283 Limited access to watering points 3 23 15 11 0.185 Loss of communal rangeland 11 9 10 12 0.156 Trans passing conflict 10 5 7 9 0.118 Moving out to towns 1 2 6 7 0.044 Shift in diet from milk to crop 1 1 2 3 0.021 a Index = (4*nrank 1 + 3*nrank 2 + 2*nrank 3 + nrank 4 in row)/( sum 4*nrank 1 + 3*nrank 2 + 2*nrank 3 + nrank 4 for all rows) Conclusions In Borena zones of southern Ethiopia the different types of development intervention options that have been implemented since 1970 have caused rangeland fragmentation, which reduced mobility. Consequently, the accessibility of resources required for livestock rearing has declined. The decline in the accessibility of such resources (water and pasture) has resulted in a shift from pastoral to agro-pastoral systems. This system shift has caused a decline of livestock holding per household, a change in livestock species composition and socio-economic inequality among pastoralists. In the newly evolving systems, agro-pastoral, although cropping, has been considered an alternative livelihood strategy. However, its coexistence with livestock in arid and semi-arid ecosystems of Borana has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, evaluating the sustainability of a newly evolving system could enable policy leaders and decision makers to design different alternatives options that would enhance the resilience, adaptability, reliability and productivity of newly evolving system in a way to coexist with pastoral system which has been practiced since time immemorial. Acknowledgements The research was funded by USAID's 'Adapting Livestock Production systems to Climate Change'), Colorado State University, USA. We are indebted to thank the pastoralists who participated in this research. Our thanks are extended to experts from pastoral development offices in Yabello, Teltele, Dillo and Dire. We also extend our gratitude to the research office in Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources for their cooperation in providing necessary facilities such as vehicles and reading materials. Our special thanks go to Mr. Ashenafi Burka for his great support in producing the study area map. Literature cited Angassa, A. 2007. The dynamics of savanna ecosystems and management in Borana, southern Ethiopia. [thesis]. Environment and development studies department of international environment and development studies, NORAGRIC, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Angassa, A., and G, O.B.A. 2008. 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Opportunistic management for rangelands not at equilibrium. Journal of Range Management 42: 266–273. Changing pattern of local rainfall: Analysis of 50-year record in Marsabit central, Northern Kenya Dabasso, B.H.1* and Okomoli, M.O.2 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit research station, P.O. Box 147, 060500, Marsbit, Kenya; 2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Agriculture and Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 14733, 00800, Nairobi, Kenya *Correspondence author: bulledabasso@yahoo.com Abstract Understanding rainfall patterns in the face of increased climate variability and change is crucial in determining management strategies of the associated risks. Analysis was done for 50-year rainfall data (1961-2010) collected on daily basis from a meteorological station in Marsabit central area of northern Kenya. The data was computed for yearly and seasonal rainfall pattern. The results showed reduction in yearly rainfall totals by 521.85 mm, long-season rain totals by 262.836 mm, and short-season rain totals by 109.76 mm. The pattern will adversely affect crop and livestock production unless adaptation measures are identified and supported. Key words: adaptation, climate variability and change, dry lands, rainfall trend Introduction In sub-Saharan Africa greater proportion of agriculture is rainfall dependent. Change in rainfall pattern associated with climate change would therefore impact on agriculture and food security in the region (Gornall et al., 2010). The importance of understanding rainfall patterns in the context of changing climate cannot therefore over-emphasized (Omondi et al., 2014). Understanding rainfall patterns helps in developing climate change adaptation strategies for rural communities dependent on rainfall agriculture. Yet, it is actually unclear how rainfall pattern evolve particularly in the tropical regions of Eastern African both in terms of magnitude and direction. The common view has been that present tropical areas with already high rainfall will have even enhanced rainfall –“wet-get-wetter”- (Chou et al., 2009). This concept was based the assumption that increased air circulation in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) will trigger more precipitation. Based on this concept, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2014), in their Firth Assessment Report (AR5), projected a modest increase in rainfall in eastern Africa. However, the concept of “wet-get-wetter” have been criticised for failing to acknowledges key other processes that affect rainfall pattern. Chadwick et al., (2009), suggested that the tropical convergence can be distorted by complex pressure patterns created by topography or distribution of water bodies which might create shifts in atmospheric air circulations. Implication of anthropogenic or climate-induced changes on vegetation cover is also another key process that influence rainfall pattern and seldom emphasized in the IPCC projections. Increase atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration associated with climate change is assumed to trigger increase in vegetation cover and consequently result into increased rainfall scenario through feedback process between oceans, atmosphere and land surface (Melillo et al., 1993). But areas with more anthropogenic activities which are destructive to vegetation may actually counteracts any gains in rainfall associate carbon dioxide increase (Brooks, 2006). IPCC projections on rainfall patterns had therefore certain limitations that make them unreliable for particularly for locational-specific rainfall scenarios. Despite these limitations, policies on climate change adaptation strategies for local communities are continuously shaped by IPCC projections. There is need to understand locational-specific implication of climate change on rainfall pattern, not only for climate preparedness and early warning but also for developing context-specific adaptation strategies (Omondi et al., 2014). This study was generally aimed at evaluating long-term pattern of rainfall in Marsabit central, northern Kenya. Northern Kenya is arid and semi-arid region, epitomised by frequent occurrences of normal and below-normal rainfall. Although climate variability is an inherent phenomena in the dry lands, increased climate variability and change present additional challenge for pastoralists in northern Kenya, manifested in the frequent occurrence of dry and drought conditions. Nonetheless, rainfall pattern is seldom understood, yet it is of crucial importance in pastoral risk management. Materials and Methods Study area Marsabit central is situated on the slope of Mount Marsabit which is cold and sub-humid area in the midst of arid surroundings. The area has an annual rainfall of 400 – 800 mm, distributed bio- modally long-rains season (March to May) and short-rains season (October to December). The area historically serves as dry season grazing reserves for lowland pastoralists, but it has now attracted farming and human settlements. Significant proportions of lowland pastoralists have now settled and engage in agro-pastoralism as key livelihood option. Farming is rain-fed where crops including maize and beans are grown on small scale for subsistence. Livestock species including cattle, goats, and donkeys are kept in semi-sedentary system. In the recent past, crop and livestock production have negatively been impacted by frequent reoccurrences of seasonal failures causing continuous shift to camel keeping and Miraa (Khat) farming (Dabasso, 2012). Camels keeping and Miraa farming are usually thought to be resilient livelihood systems. Data collection and analysis Long-term daily rainfall data (1961 – 2010) were sought from Marsabit metrological station from which yearly rainfall totals, seasonal rainfall totals, and yearly number of dry-days and rainy- days were calculated. Daily rainfall were aggregated into monthly and yearly totals. Monthly rainfall were aggregated for long-rain season (March – May) and for short-rain season (October – December). Rainy-day was adopted as any day with equal to or more than 1 mm of rainfall while dry-day was taken as any day with less than 1 mm of rainfall. Both rainy and dry-days were then counted for each year from daily data by inserting “count if” function in the Microsoft excel. The yearly rainfall totals, seasonal rainfall totals, yearly number of rainy-days and dry- days were analysed for linear patterns. Descriptive statistics on averages, maximum, minimum, standard deviation and total change over time were calculated and tabulated for each of the rainfall variable. Result Trend in yearly and seasonal rainfall totals A declining trend of yearly and seasonal rainfall totals were observed over 50-year period (Figure 1. and 2.) Yearly rainfall has reduced by more than 500 mm from 1961 to 2010 (Table 1.). Figure 1. Trend of yearly rainfall totals in Marsabit central from 1961 to 2010 Table 1. Analysis of yearly rainfall totals from 1961 to 2010 Rainfall attribute Value Mean (mm) 759.495 Standard deviation (mm) 347.487 Maximum (mm) 1816.8 Minimum (mm) 73.5 Total change calculated from trend line (mm/50 years 521.85 Seasonal rainfall trend Table 2. Analysis of seasonal rainfall data from 1961 to 2010 Rainfall attribute Long season rainfall Short season rainfall Mean (mm) 386.4326 294.0884 Standard deviation (mm) 197.343 201.5881 Maximum (mm) 864.5 1042 Minimum (mm) 13.2 60.0 Total change calculated from trend line (mm/50 years -262.836 -109.76 Figure 2. Trend of seasonal rainfall totals in Marsabit central, 1961-2010 3.3 Trend in the number of rainy and dry days Yearly number of rainy days have decreased by more than 10 days while dry days increased by more 19 days (Figure 3 and Table 3). Figure 3. Trend in the yearly number of rainy and dry-days in Marsabit from 1961 to 2010 Table 3. Analysis of annual rainy and dry days in Marsabit from 1961 to 2010 Rainfall attribute Rainy day Dry day Mean 55.127 305.08 % of yearly total 15.3 84.7 Standard deviation 18.52 21.21 Maximum 93 342 Minimum 12 231 Total change calculated from trend line (no./50 years -10.143 19.656 Discussion and Conclusion Our analysis of the 50-year rainfall record (1961 -2010) had demonstrated decreasing trend of yearly rainfall totals, seasonal rainfall totals and yearly number of rainy days. However, a trend of rainfall recovery was observed from 1980 but only lasted up to 1991. Although, the rainfall recovery trend from 1980s was comparable to what had been suggested for African Sahel as result of changing climate (Daie et al., 2004; Maynard et al., 2002), our findings indicate continuing aridity in the study area. Whilst we could not directly attribute the observed pattern of aridity to global climate change, but it is imperative to note that change in rainfall had occurred. The observed rainfall changes are opposite scenario to the projections of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014) on rainfall pattern in eastern Africa. Using a case study from northern Kenya, our study provide evidence for oppose rainfall trend in eastern Africa. Two different thoughts can be advanced to explain our findings. First, the study area might had experienced anthropogenic activities which are destructive to vegetation cover and therefore possibly resulted into human induced-climate change. Second, complex pressure created by east African highlands causing atmospheric air divergence in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Our findings are consistence with results from similar rainfall analysis of 1960 to 2009 for central parts of Kenya (Funk, 2010). Similar trend of aridity had also been observed in some parts of African including East Africa (Lyon and Dewitt, 2012), West Africa (Nicholson et al., 2000) and southern Ethiopia region (Viste et al., 2012). The observed rainfall tendency is also in line with common perceptions among farmers in Kenya (Ovuka and Lindqrist, 2000). Recent shifting of agro-pastoralists to camel keeping and Miraa (Khat) farming in Marsabit central might have been prompted by numerous experiences of seasonal failures. Camels are well adapted to harsh climatic conditions while the Miraa shrub can grow even with minimal moisture content. Identifying and supporting farmers’ adaptation strategies is important to cushion livelihoods against the adverse consequences of decreasing trend of rainfall. Acknowledgement This research was funded by Rockefeller Foundation (RF) through KARI Climate Change Research Fund. Reference Brooks N. (2006). Drought in the African Sahel: Long term perspectives and future prospects. Working paper 61. Tyndal centre for climate change research Chadwick R, Boutle I, Martin G. (2013). Spatial patterns of precipitation change in CMIP5: Why the Rich don’t get Richer in the Tropics, Journal of Climatology 26, 3803 - 3822 Chou C, Neelin J, Chen C, Tu J. (2008). Evaluating the “Rich-Get-richer” mechanism in Tropical Precipitation Change Under Global Warming, Journal of Climate, volume 22, 1982 - 2005 Dabasso B. (2012). Indigenous Knowledge of Climate Variability and Forecasting; A perspective of Borana Pastoralists from northern Kenya, East African Agriculture & Forestry Journal, 78(1), 89-96 Dai A, Lamb P, Trenberth K, Hulme M, Jones P, Xie P. (2004). The recent sahel drought is real. International Journal of Climatology 24, 1323-1331 Funk C. (2010). A climate Trend Analysis of Kenya, Famine Early Warning Systems Networking – Informing Climate Change Adaptation Series, No. AFP-P-00-03-00027 Gornall J. Betts R. Burke E. Clark R, Camp J. Willet K, Wiltshire A. (2010). Implications of climate change for agricultural productivity in the 21st century, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 365:2973-2989 IPCC. (2014). Summary for policy makers: In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea,T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32. Lyon B, Dewitt D.G. (2012). A recent and abrupt decline in the East Africa long rains, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L02702 Maynard K, Royer J.R, Chauvin F. (2002). Impact of greenhouse warming on the West African summer monsoon, Climate Dynamics 19, 499-514 Melillo J, McGuire D, Kicklighter D, Moore B, Vorosmarty C, Schloss A. (1993). Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production, Nature Vol.263, 234-240 Nicholson S.E, Some B, Kone B. (2009). An Analysis of Recent Rainfall Conditions in West Africa, Including the Rainy seasons of the 1997 El Nino and the 1998 La Nina years, Journal of Climate, Vol. 13, 2628 – 2640 Omondi P.A, Awanga J.L, Forootan E, Ogolla L.A, Barakiza R, Girmaw G.B, Fesseha I, Kululetera V, Kilembe V, Mbati M.M, Kilavi M, Kinguyu S.M, Omeny P.A, Njogu A, Badr E.M, Musa T.A, Muchiri P, Bamanya D, Komutunga E. (2014). Changes in temperature and precipation extremes over the Greater Horn of African region from 1961 to 2010, International Journal of Climatology 34: 1262 - 1277 Ovuka M, Lindqrist S. (2000). Rainfall variability in Murang’a District, Kenya: Meteorological and farmers’ perception, Geogr. Ann., 82 (1): 107 - 119 Viste E, Korecha D, Sorteberg A. (2012). Recent drought and precipitation tendencies in Ethiopia, Theor Appl. Climatology 112: 535 - 551 Pastoralism in Kenya and Tanzania: Challenges and opportunities in animal health and food security Wakhungu, J.1,2,3*, Wesongah, J.3, Galgalo, T.2, Msalya, G.4, Delia, G.1, Unger, F.1 and Alonso, S.1 1International livestock research institute; 2Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology; 3Field epidemiology and laboratory training program; 4Sokoine University of Agriculture *Corresponding authors: jameswakhungu@yahoo.com Abstract Pastoralism is used to describe a society that derives majority of their food and income from livestock. This form of farming system is largely practiced in the arid and semi arid land (ASAL). It is estimated that 70% of the landmass in the horn of Africa is dry land; in Kenya 80% of the landmass is classified as ASAL, while approximately half of Tanzania consists of dry land. These dry lands support wild resource harvesting, tourism but most importantly livestock rearing. It is estimated that over 75% of cattle herds in Kenya and 90% in Tanzania are kept by pastoralists who supply the bulk of meat consumed in the countries. In this paper we present current animal health challenges and opportunities being faced by pastoral farmers in Tanzania and Kenya based on primary data collected in Kajiado county, Kenya and Tanga and Morogoro regions in Tanzania. In the midst of many challenges and opportunities, food safety and food security are never assured amongst the pastoralists. We highlight pastoral community high livestock dependency for food and income, market access to livestock products, access to animal and human health services, livestock-wildlife interaction, factors that hinder increase of livestock assets and explore the knowledge of disease and exposure to zoonosis within the pastoral community. Key words: Cattle, Community, farmers, herd’s, zoonosis Introduction Livestock are an important food security source to the pastoral community and will remain to be so in the many years to come (Hesee and MacGregor 2006). Amongst this community livestock is a form of savings as well as financial capital for cash and socially it is the basis of wealth description (Aklilu and Catley 2010). Animal source food (e.g. meat, milk) does provide high quality protein with essential amino acids that are highly bio-available in these food products compared to those from plant sources and is highly liked and valued among the pastoral communities.(FAO, 2011). Opportunities for pastoral farmers immensely depend on the livestock assets that they own. However, they do also face social, economic and environmental challenges that hinder their capacity to harnessing these opportunities. Animal diseases, inaccessible animal health services, erratic weather patterns and high number of dependents are among the major constraints to pastoralist. Endemic diseases that affect production are one of the major challenges faced by pastoralists and they hinder the growth of livestock assets thus reducing the animal product harvested for both domestic consumption and commercial use, and limit the safe utilization of animal products. The objective of this paper is to describe the challenges currently being faced by pastoralist and to discuss opportunities available for these farmers in Kenya and Tanzania. Material and methods This was a cross-sectional study among pastoralist communities in Kajiado County (Kenya), and Tanga and Morogoro regions (Tanzania). A structured questionnaire was administered to 177 pastoral cattle farmers with a focus on animal management practices, knowledge on animal health and zoonosis and access to animal and human health services. In addition, the study did also investigate the socioecomonic status of the farmers, including the farmers’ level of dependency on livestock vis-a-vis other economic activities. Results Pastoralist in both countries depend largely on livestock for survival as a regular source of income and source of food, with 37% (n=65) of the interviewed herd owners declaring total dependency on cattle rearing for livelihoods. In spite of the high dependency on livestock assets, animal diseases remain one of the major constraints in pastoral areas; tick borne infections and trypanosomiasis were listed as leading endemic diseases in Kenya and Tanzania respectively. Pneumonic condition, mastitis and abortions were also among conditions highly mentioned that impede growth of livestock assets. Tick control in the herd is primarily the farmers’ responsibility in both countries (i.e. government does not conduct tick control campaigns) and 99.4% (n=176) of farmers declared practicing tick control on their cattle herds, with hand spray being the most commonly method used (67.3% of all respondents). Despite 45.2% (n=80) of the pastoral farmers confirming that they apply acaricide once a week on their cattle, tick borne infections were listed as the most common disease conditions affecting the herd. Access to quality veterinary services is a challenge in pastoral areas; most government veterinarians (i.e. local veterinary services) whom the pastoralists look up to for help and advice are not easily accessible, and this gap is not filled by private animal health practitioners, who are unavailable in pastoralist areas, as a result, 91.53 % (n=162) of the respondent declared they do administer veterinary drugs by themselves. The relatively frequent presence of veterinary drug stores (Agrovets) has enhanced accessibility of veterinary drugs among pastoral farmers, but professional advice on drug administration was largely lacking. Inconsistent vaccination regimes to the common livestock diseases, inaccessibility of professional advice from extension workers and constant interaction between livestock and wild animals are some of the other factors that seem to have enhanced endemicity of livestock diseases. Practices that promote transmission of zoonotic disease from animal to human were found to be common among pastoral communities in the study. 77.97 % (n=138) reported to consume raw milk and milk products, while 25.42 % (n=45) indicated to consume milk from cows that are sick and under medication. Forty nine percent (n=88) of pastoralist will consume an animal that dies in the farm, while 22% will call in the local butcher to buy the animal/carcass who will eventually sell the meat to other members of the community, potentially enhancing transmission of zoonotic infections and the risk of consumption of meat with veterinary drug residues. The availability of weekly animal market days within major Townships in pastoral areas offers constant marketing avenues for live animal from pastoral farmers; these markets are also the main source of replacement stocks and breeding animals. Despite having almost constant milk production amongst pastoral dairy herds with its peak during rainy season, marketing opportunities and channels for this produce are not well defined. Less than 1% of the pastoral farmers stated selling their milk to milk processors and only 15% sell to milk vendors who eventually sell it to neighboring township as raw milk. The majority of pastoralists consume in the family all the milk produced by their animals either as raw milk or processed as fermented milk or ghee. Milking and milk marketing activities remain majorly a task of women among pastoralists. With high numbers of mixed animal species in the livestock herds of pastoralists, the quantity of manure available in most cattle bomas is immense. However, only 5% of the pastoral farmers (primarily those living close to crop farmers) did indicate to sale the manure, while 28.5% who practice agro pastoralism use this animal product in their own farms. Discussion and conclusion The findings of this study do indicate that pastoralists in Kenya and Tanzania are facing serious challenges in managing their livestock assets. With the observed increase in human population within the region, the demand for animal protein source is also on the rise and pastoral areas are looked upon to continue supplying the ever increasing demand for animal products especially the red meat. The enormous challenges in the pastoral areas requires multifaceted approaches from relevant stakeholders and more so encouraging public-private partnership investments in the animal health sector within the pastoral areas to build capacity and enhance animal management skills. Diversification on economic activities, with more focus on marketing of other livestock products like manure and milk will significantly reduce over dependency on sale of live livestock to meet basic family needs. Social transformation of the pastoralists, especially by capitalizing on women through capacity building on clean and consistent milk production, marketing and processing will create more interest from milk processors and upscale milk collection, hence improved returns from milk sales. To ensure sustainable food safety and security, functional extensional services in ASAL areas must be enhanced. Acknowledgment This work was funded by the CGIAR (Agriculture for Nutrition and Health) and the federal ministry for economic cooperation and development, Germany. The International Livestock Research Institute and Sokoine University of Agriculture provided field work support. We thank the Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program in Kenya and Jomo Kenyatta university of Agriculture and Technology for scientific input. References Aklilu Y and Catley: 2010 Livestock exports from pastoralist areas; An analysis of benefits by wealth group and policy implication Pg 12 FAO 2011; World Livestock 2011: Livestock in food security, Food and agricultural organization of the united nations, Italy Hessee C and MacGregor 2006: Pastoralism; dry land invisible asset? IIED issue paper No 142. The effects of climate variability on Prosopis juliflora spread, vegetation trends and livestock dynamics in the drylands of Kenya Kyuma, R.1*, Wahome, R.2, Kinama, J.3 and Wasonga, V. O.1 1Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi,Kenya, P.O Box 209053-00625, Nairobi, 2Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, Kenya, P.O Box 209053-00625, Nairobi, 3Department of Plant Science and Crop protection, University of Nairobi, Kenya, P.O Box 209053-00625, Nairobi. *Corresponding Author: kavilakyuma@yahoo.com; kavilakyuma@gmail.com Abstract The effects of climate variability and Prosopis juliflora invasion on pastoral livestock production and pastoral livelihoods have not been assessed. A study was conducted to determine the effect of climate variability and Prosopis juliflora spread on other vegetation trends and livestock population dynamics in Kajiado County, Kenya. The effects of climate variability on the spread of Prosopis, vegetation dynamics and livestock populations were analysed. Monthly mean temperatures and total monthly rainfall amounts over the last 20 years varied widely, with mean temperatures ranging between 280C to 400C and total monthly rainfall amounts ranging from 0mm to 213mm, respectively. Cattle population decreased from 7,200 to 2,100 between 1990 and 2013and sheep and goats’ population increased from 14,000 to 20,000 in the same period. Climate, vegetation, and livestock population trends are analysed over the study period. Dry season vegetation and Prosopis NDVI trends, derived from MODIS 250m satellite imagery (2000-2014) were developed. Prosopis clusters, participatory mapped with the help of the local informants were used to isolate the Prosopis NDVI from the other vegetation. There was association between climate variability, Prosopis invasion and livestock population dynamics. Correlation coefficients for Prosopis spread against shoats are 0.2 and 0.3 and coefficients for Prosopis spread against rainfall were 0.4 and 0.2 in Olkiramatian and Ngurumani respectively. The rate of spread of P. juliflora was highest when rainfall was most erratic. Changes in land cover types and soil types were directly associated with the spread of Prosopis while specific areas likely to attract next spread of Prosopis were identified. Overall rainfall was highly variable in amounts, with declining trends; and the mean temperatures increased over the years of the study period while vegetation cover declined, especially during the long dry seasons. At the same time, Prosopis cover, sheep and goats populations increased while cattle populations declined. Keywords: Prosopis juliflora, climate variability, vegetation, livestock, trends, drylands. Sub-theme 3: Market access: opportunities for enhanced access to local, regional and global markets Analysis of the economic performance of peri-urban smallholder pig producer enterprise in Masaka and Mukono Districts of Uganda Lule, P.M.1,2*, Ouma, E.1, Elepu, G.2 and Pezo, D.1 1International Livestock Research Institute, plot 106 Katalima Road, P.O. Box 24384, Kampala, Uganda; 2Department of Agribusiness and Natural Resource Economics, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. *Corresponding author: mullule@yahoo.com Abstract The study examined the performance of the smallholder pig farmers in Mukono and Masaka districts of Uganda. The benchmarking survey was carried out in four sub-counties of these districts using structured questionnaire interviews on a random sample of 132pig farmers. The analysis of the performance was based on gross margin assessments. The results showed that smallholder pig farmers earn positive gross margins ($51 per pig unit). The pig farmers located in peri-urban and urban areas (urban-urban value chain) make higher gross margins than those in the rural areas (rural-urban value chains). Several interventions were identified to further improve the performance of smallholder pig producers. These include improved linkages to markets and business development service providers through collective action and other simple and affordable technology innovations to reduce on feed costs. Key words: Performance, Pig units, Herd inflows and outflows, peri-urban. Introduction Piggery is an important enterprise in Uganda. About 1.1 million households are involved in pig production as a source of food and income (UBOS, 2012). Uganda has the highest per capita consumption of pork in East Africa estimated at 3.4 kg/ year in 2010. At the national level, pork is the second most consumed type of meat after beef hence making it an important source of proteins. Pork production in Uganda in 2012 has been estimated at 115,000 metric tonnes from 1,916,000 slaughtered animals (FAOSTAT, 2014). In Kampala alone an average of 300-500 pigs are slaughtered in a day(Tatwangire, 2012). Although pig production is gaining prominence among smallholders, it is non-existent in the Uganda government livestock sector prioritization of enterprises that could get smallholders out of poverty (Malaiyandi et al, 2010). In Uganda piggery is considered to be too risky for investment due to the endemic presence of African swine fever (Netherlands Embassy, 2012). However, there is a huge potential for growth in the pig sector if constraints are minimized. At the production level, some of the constraints include parasites and diseases, high cost of inputs, inadequate capital, expensive feeds as a result of erratic feed supply associated with price fluctuation and seasonal availability, inadequate advisory services, lack of good quality breeding stock, poor and unorganized marketing, expensive veterinary drugs and uncontrolled pig movement (Ouma et al., 2014) . Although many smallholders are involved in the pig enterprise, there is lack of information on the economic performance of the enterprise in Uganda. This paper aims to fill this gap by generating evidence on the economic performance of smallholder peri-urban pig farms in Masaka and Mukono districts of Uganda using household survey data. Materials and Methods Producer level household surveys were conducted between May to June 2013 in Masaka and Mukono districts of Uganda. These districts were selected due to their high pig population density and potentials of the enterprise for pro-poor development( Ouma et al., 2014). Four sub- counties and ten villages representing peri-urban pig production areas including Katwe-Butego and Kabonera in Masaka district; Mukono Town Council and Kyampisi in Mukono district were covered. Kabonera and Kyampisi were included in the survey, though compared to the rest, they are relatively far from urban towns but target the urban markets. Katwe-Butego and Mukono Town Council are typical urban-urban value chains. The sampling frame of the study was pig keeping households in the study sites. Lists of pig keeping households were generated by the Veterinary departments in both districts, in collaboration with the local councils of the respective villages within the sub-counties. A random sample of 132 pig keeping households was then drawn for interviews by using STATA 11 software from the lists of pig farmers. The data was analysed using statistical package of STATA 11 and Microsoft Excel 10. Data concerning herd inflows and outflows, revenues and costs associated with the pig enterprise were collected. To assess the performance of the smallholder pig production, gross margins were estimated. To calculate the revenues, the pig sales of the preceding 12 months were determined and the inventory was valued so that the total revenue of the household could be valued. Several variable costs including labour, feeds, veterinary costs and breeding services were covered. The gross margins were calculated per pig unit. In order to define a pig unit, a table of live weights was adopted from Mutua (2012) that had estimated pig weights in Uganda (Table 1) Table 1 Estimated pig weights in Uganda Average actual live weights of pigs in Uganda, kg Pig Units equivalency Young Pigs≤ 5 months 17.7 0.3 Market age pigs>5 and≤10 38.2 0.6 Breeding Pigs>10 months 62.2 1 Source: ( Mutua, 2012) A pig unit was defined as equivalent to a breeding sow of more than 10 months of age which has an average live weight of 62.2 kg. Based on these, equivalence pig units were estimated for the different categories of animals (Table 2). Table 2 Pig units for different pig categories Category Pig units Piglet/weaner 0.3 Gilts/finisher 0.6 Sow 1.0 Boar* 1.2 * A boar was assumed to be slightly heavier than the sow (74.6 kg live weight) Gross margins To calculate the gross margins the following formulae was adopted: Where GM is the annual gross margin in Uganda shillings per pig unit; is the total revenue from the pig enterprise and consist of the following parameters; sales of pigs, value of the inventory and boar service. is a vector of price associated with the output/service; is the annual number of pigs sold, owned or number of times the boar serviced; is a vector of input prices is the annual quantity of the input used in the pig enterprise and is the summation of all the variable costs. The revenue sources that were considered included sales, the inventory (pigs, piglets, gilts, finishers, weaners, sows and boars) that farmers held and the revenue got from boars servicing the sows in the neighborhood. The inventory value was calculated using the market prices of the different pig type categories. The costs included feeds (swill, fodder crops and feed concentrates), labor (family and hired labor), veterinary health costs (drugs and treatment fees), breeding services (taking the sow to the boar) and the losses. Results Gross margins The average gross margin per pig unit for the two districts under study was Uganda shillings 126,815 for one year ($51)2 (Table 4). Producers held a slightly higher value of animals than what they sold off per pig unit (inventory value, UShs 155,861 per PU vs. total sales UShs 117,028 per PU). When the sources of feeds were analyzed, concentrate feeds cost the highest (UShs 85,926 per PU) while the fodder crops were the least cost (UShs 965 per PU). Considering the only two sources of labor, family labor cost (UShs 27,585 per pig unit) more than hired labor (UShs 9,158 per PU) showing high labor investments by smallholders in the pig enterprise. This may proxy the importance of the enterprise to the household livelihoods. Total losses were UShs 36,129 per PU, mainly due to piglet mortality, but theft was also a major source of losses. The payment for boar services was also included, because it represents a change in inventory, given that the service is paid mostly in kind in the form of one piglet to the boar owner. Table 4: Annual gross margins in Uganda shillings per pig unit in the study area Variable n Mean SEM Pig Units 132 6.48 1.7 Revenue Total sales 132 117,028 117,292.6 Inventory Value 132 155,861 117,516.5 Boar Service Revenue 132 29,579 91,095.5 Total Revenue 132 302,468 Variable costs Concentrates feeds cost 132 85,926 93,946.8 Fodder crops cost 132 964 4,118.3 Swill cost 132 2,839 7,101.1 Family Labor 132 27,582 23,541.8 2 1 USD=Uganda Shillings 2500 based on the exchange rate at the time of the survey Hired Labor 132 9,158 19,009.2 Veterinary health cost 132 8,644 8,617.0 Boar service Cost 132 4,411 5,257.2 Total Costs 132 139,524 Losses Mortality losses 132 29,589 43,949.2 Other losses 132 6,539 8,947.5 Total losses 132 36,128 Margins Gross margins 132 126,815 1 US dollar = 2500 Uganda shilling at the time of study When we compare the different value chain domains the urban-urban value chains had higher gross margins (UShs 136,157 - 170,160 per PU) than the rural-urban value chains (UShs 76025-124,918 per PU) (Table 5). Generally, Mukono district had higher gross margins per pig unit compared to Masaka district, possibly due to its close proximity to Kampala city, which represents a large demand centre. Table 5: Gross margins per value chain domain Value chain domain type District Gross Margins Urban-urban Masaka 136,157 Mukono 170,160 Rural-urban Masaka 76,025 Mukono 124,918 Effective mean 126,815 Discussion In general, pig production is a profitable enterprise for the smallholder pig farmers, since it yields positive gross margins. In Nigeria and Malawi similar studies have been done on the pig production systems have also positive gross margins(Ezeibe A, 2010) and (Mbaso & Kamwana, 2013).The producers located in peri-urban and urban areas(urban-urban value chain) make higher gross margins than those in the rural areas(rural-urban value chains). The reasons for the higher margins in the urban areas are; close proximity to the lucrative markets, less transaction costs, especially on transportation and having much more accessibility to market information than their counterparts in the rural areas. For the same reasons mentioned earlier farmers in Mukono district have higher gross margins than Masaka because of the close proximity to the biggest pork consuming area in Uganda (Kampala city). The highest cost component was on feeding, especially from purchased concentrate feeds. Efforts to minimize such costs through alternative feeding strategies from technological innovations such as balanced diets that utilize locally available feed resource may go a long way to further improve smallholder performance. For example, farmers need to make better use of the nutritious but cheaply available fodders, such as sweet potato vines, cassava and yam leaves while applying smart and strategic use of concentrates for supplementation. Economic losses can also be reduced if farmers control early piglet deaths, which represent on average UShs 29,589 per pig unit. Proper feeding of the sows to increase milk production, and good hygiene to reduce diarrheas are some of the management measures that will help to reduce mortality in piglets. In conclusion, the pig enterprise is a profitable and important enterprise for the pig farmers in Uganda. It performs better in the urban areas than in the rural areas and can be better improved through linkages with lucrative markets and service providers through collective action and other simple and affordable technology innovations. Acknowledgements The authors thank the staff of Mukono and Masaka district local governments for their support during the study and to the participating farmers for their time and openness to provide the needed information. Funding was provided for by the International Fund for Agricultural Development - European Union (IFAD-EU), in the framework of the Smallholder Pig Value Chain Development (SPVCD) Project led by ILRI in Uganda. References Ezeibe A. (2010). Profitability analysis of pig production under intensive management system in nsukka local government areaof enugu state, nigeria. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, 1, 48–54. FAOSTAT. (2014, January 1). FAOSTAT. Choice Reviews Online. doi:10.5860/CHOICE.48- 2430 Malaiyandi, S., Bayite-Kasule, S., & Mugarura, S. (2010). Enterprise Budget Survey: An Analysis of Crop and Livestock Enterprises Uganda Strategy Support Program (USSP) Working Paper No. 5. Retrieved from http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/usspwp05.pdf Mbaso, M., & Kamwana, B. (2013). Comparative analysis of profitability among feeder-pig, pig- finishing, and farrow-to-finish production systems under the Smallholder Improvement Management System in Ntcheu District of Central Malawi. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 25(Article #175). Retrieved from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd25/10/mbas25175.htm Mutua, F. (2012). Better weight estimates for animal healthcare and sales :A simple but poweful livestock value chain tool DAAD fellowship report. Netherlands Embassy, U. (2012). Identification of livestock investment opportunities in Uganda Identification of livestock investment opportunities in Uganda. Arnhem. Ouma, E., Dione, M., Lule, P., Pezo, D., Marshal, K., Roesel, K., … Jagwe, J. (2014). Smallholder pig value chain assessment in Uganda : results from producer focus group discussions and key informant interviews (p. 150). Tatwangire, A. (2012). Uganda smallholder pigs value chain development: Past trends, current status and likely future directions. UBOS, U. (2012). The 2012 Statistical Abstract, (June). Determinants of milk market participation among Sahiwal farmers in Kajiado and Narok Counties, Kenya. Mukundi, J.M.1*, Obare, G.A.1, Murage, A.W.2 and Ilatsia, E.D.3 Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya; 2International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Habitat Management Project P.O. Box 30-40305, Mbita Point, Kenya; 3Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), National Animal Husbandry Research Centre (NAHRC), P.O. Box 25-20117, Naivasha, Kenya. *Corresponding author: jonbumu@yahoo.com Abstract Pastoralists mostly depenod on livestock production and small scale crop production for food and income. To improve pastoralists’ livelihoods, Sahiwal cattle were introduced by Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). This breed of cattle is resilient and dual purpose in nature with the benefits of both improved milk and beef production and better adapted to harsh conditions that pertain to Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs). With potential expected increase in milk production, the market profiles both in terms of output levels and channels are likely to change, yet the underlying factors of this change are unclear. Using a random sample of 384 pastoralist households from Narok and Kajiado Counties, this study analyzed factors that influence market development in pastoral areas, using Double hurdle (DH) model in order to provide information on possible effects on the output market changes contingent on increased production as a result of increase in number of Sahiwal cattle breed for milk market development. From the results it was noted that factors influencing decisions in marketing had different effects on decision to participate and extent of participation. The results indicated that the Sahiwal cattle increased market participation because of increased marketable surplus. Farmers who had high income levels participated in market because they could meet transaction costs associated with marketing and increased distance reduced level of participation because of increased transaction costs. Groups were a source of market information and they therefore reduced the level of information asymmetry. Training of farmers in diversification on farm sources of income and group formation was necessary to increase market participation. Keywords: Double hurdle, Milk market participation, Pastoralists, Sahiwal. Introduction With its adaptability to the ASAL climate, Sahiwal genetic resources can contribute to increased milk production and hence offer a source of livelihood. For this to be realized, access to market for the surplus milk is inevitable. Nonetheless, access to rural markets is characterized by many factors that determine the ability of farmers to participate in these markets or not. Several studies have evaluated the factors that determine market participation and the extent to which farmers involve themselves in different markets. In these studies, various factors have been observed to influence decisions on market participation. For example Bellemare and Barret (2004) in their study on determinants of livestock market participation in Kenya and Ethiopia found that high transaction cost that was determined by market accessibility negatively influenced the decisions by farmers to participate in the market. This was emphasized by Ehui et al. (2009), Omiti et al. (2009) and Makhura et al. (2001) who noted that factors that lowered transaction cost were likely to influence farmers to participate in markets. Conditions and circumstances in different areas vary and also with different products in the market. This shows that decisions on market participation are likely to be influenced by environment and situations that surround the farmer. Unfortunately, most of the market participation studies have not been conducted in areas where the Sahiwal genetic resource have been introduced as a dual purpose breed, and one that have a likely effect on market participation. Although livestock dynamics are expected to allow the rural poor to contribute to the growing market most pastoralists lack reliable marketing outlets that could provide full benefit especially from Sahiwal cattle genetic resources (Devendra, 2001; Omore et al., 2004). There are constraints that restrain farmers in pastoral areas from selling cattle milk thereby failing to get the benefits from the market. To achieve these benefits it is necessary to address constraints within the milk marketing system and ensure that the farmers participate in milk markets. This study therefore aims at determining the factors that influence participation in milk markets among the pastoralists. The information generated from this study can be used to draw insight on relevant interventions to ensure pastoralists participation in milk market enhancing market development. Methodology Study area Narok County lies within latitude 0o 50’ and 2o 05’ South and within longitudes 35o 58’ and 36o 05’ East. It has a population of about 850,920 persons with poverty rate of 38.3% (GoK, 2009). About 70% of the people in Narok have primary education and only about 7% have attained secondary education (Gok, ibid). Kajiado County lies within latitude 01o 53’ South and within longitudes 36o 47’ East. It has a population of about 687,312 persons with poverty rate of 11.6% (GoK, ibid). About 62% have primary education and about 12% have attained secondary education (GoK, ibid). Data Narok and Kajiado Counties were purposively selected because of the presence of pastoralists having a priority of keeping Sahiwal cattle. Multistage sampling technique was then used. The sample unit constituted of individual households from pastoralist and three hundred and eighty four households were sampled. Data was collected between December 2012 and January 2013 using a pretested structured questionnaire through personal interviews. Empirical model To determine the factors influencing decision and extent of market participation a Double hurdle model was used. The choice of this model was based on the fact that the decisions to participate in the market and how much or the level of participation can be made jointly or separately by the farmer (Berhanu and Swinton, 2003). Other models such as Tobit model assumes that the two decisions are affected by the same set of factors (Greene, 2000). When censored data models such as Tobit are used in market participation analysis, the factors leading to participation are assumed to be the same as those that determine the intensity of participation. If a given farmer characteristic is known to have positive influence on decision to participate in the market then it may lead to prediction that a farmer will choose to participate in the market (Teklewold et al., 2006). Double-hurdle model generalizes the Tobit model by allowing for a separate first hurdle which represents a farmers’ decision to participate in market, and a second hurdle which represents the decision about how much to sell in the market. A sale is realized only after both hurdles are cleared, the two decisions can be modeled as dependent on or independent of each other (Cragg, 1971). Explanatory variables may appear in both equations or in either of one and a variable appearing in both equations may have opposite effects in the two equations (Teklewold et al., 2006). In the double hurdle model, it is assumed that if a household make a decision to participate in the market, the resulting observation for sale is positive and the Double-hurdle model is then represented as; eZQPYP s  11 )0()1( (1) 1Y defines the market participation decision and takes the value of 1 if the household made a decision to participate in market and a value of 0 if no participation, Qs represents quantity or value sold in the market, Z 1 is the set of variables that enter the first hurdle defining factors that affect the discrete probability of market participation,  is a parameters to be estimated and e is an error term that is normally and independently distributed with a mean of zero. When 11 Y then the quantity sold is represented in an equation as; uXQs  1 (2) where, Qs represents quantity or value sold in the market, 1X are set of variables that enter the second hurdle defining factors that affect the discrete probability of intensity of participation,  is a parameter to be estimated, u is an error term that is normally and independently distributed with a mean of zero. The dependent variable (participation) refers to whether the farmer had sold milk or not and the dependent variable in the second hurdle refers to the amount of milk that was sold. Description of variable used in the analysis Herdsze (the total number of cattle owned by the household) is a continuous variable measured by number of cattle kept. A marginal increase in herd size is expected to positively influence decision on market channel choice and market participation because of the expected marketable surplus. Bardhan et al. (2012) found that increased production of milk positively influenced market participation among the smallholder dairy farmers in Uttarakhand. Education_Level (the education level of the household head) is a categorical variable indicating the number of years that the household head has schooled. Household with more years of education are more likely to accept new ideas to improve household income as well as find information on production and market therefore enhancing market participation. In a study by Holloway et al. (2000) education was found to have a positive effect on quantity of milk supplied to the markets in Ethiopian highlands. The variable Occupation (the main occupation of the household head) is a categorical variable showing various activities that farmers engaged in to earn their livelihoods. Main occupation of the household head is likely to influence the level of income thereby positively or negatively influencing the choice of marketing channels and market participation. Age (age of the household head) is a categorical variable and is often used as a proxy for experience in farming. Studies by Tiunza et al., (2001) and Ouma et al., (2010) reported positive effect of age on market participation. Tldsze (total land size owned by the household in acres) is a continuous variable measured in acres. Land may have a positive influence on participation by enabling pastoralists to produce more milk generating surpluses for selling as observed by Omiti et al. (2009). A study by Bardhan et al. (2012) noted a negative influence on market participation with more land for the household because dependence on dairying as supplementary income decreased with increase in land size. The variable Grupmebersp (household member belonging to a group or association) is a dummy with 1 indicating group membership and 0 indicating non membership to groups. Participation of household to groups increases access to information important both in production and marketing. Variable Totacattle_milkprod (total amount of milk produced per day) is a continuous variable measured by litres of milk produced by the household. A marginal increase in amount of milk produced is expected to have significant effect on amount of milk surplus marketable and consequently have an influence on decision to participate in the market. Femaleown_milk (who make decision on use of milk) is a dummy variable with value of 1 for wife, 0 others. Women have been observed to own and market most of the milk among the pastoralists and therefore women ownership of milk is likely to positively influence participation in the milk market. Income (total income from live animal sales plus milk sale per year) is a continuous variable measured in KES with the annual income from sale of all livestock and livestock products. Pastoralists with high total incomes are likely to participate in markets because they are able to meet transaction costs such as transportation of milk to the market. Increased income is also likely to enable farmers invest on Sahiwal cattle and other input leading to increased production positively influencing market participation. Tdist (total distance covered to the point of milk sale) is included in the model to capture transaction costs and its role in influencing market participation. Many studies have found distance to influence decisions in market participation. For example Omiti et al. (2009) and Ouma et al. (2010) noted that long distances reduced market participation and the amount sold due to increased transaction costs. It is expected that farmers located far from the markets increase travel time and costs which impact negatively on market participation. Tsah (total number of Sahiwal cattle owned) is a continuous variable, the higher the number of Sahiwal breed a farmer has the more likely they are to participate in the market and to have marketable surplus. Acs_road (access to all weather roads) is a dummy variable introduced to capture effect of market access on milk marketing decisions expected to influence market participation positively. Markets are sources of information and likely centers for milk collection by the buyers. Ease of access to marketing points increases interaction between farmers and buyers reducing transaction costs. Narok (Narok County) is a location dummy introduced to get the effect of location of the farmer. The influence on market participation is likely to be positive or negative. The variable buyer (milk sell points) is a categorical variable representing marketing channel choices by the farmers. Presence of different types of buyers is expected to influence farmers differently participate in milk markets. Results and discussion Analysis of descriptive results This section provides descriptive summaries of famers’ socio-economic factors. Tables 1 and 2 presents the descriptive statistics of key variables used in this study. Chi2 ( ) or t-test were used where appropriate for statistical significance or else, for differences between Counties. Several variables showed significant mean differences between Counties in the study area. Descriptive statistics for farmers’ socio-economic characteristics Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. Table 1: Descriptive statistics for variables used in the analysis Variable Mean Standard deviation Amount of milk sold 30.090 45.373 Age Below 35 0.177 0.382 Age 35-45years 0.260 0.439 Age Over 45 years 0.564 0.497 Distance to the market 4.305 6.975 Access to good roads 0.275 0.447 ln income 13.223 1.185 Female milk use decision 0.826 0.380 Retailer buyer 0.195 0.397 Processor buyer 0.086 0.280 Middlemen buyer 0.379 0.486 Neighbor buyer 0.096 0.295 Average milk price 34.036 11.096 ln amount of milk sold 3.102 1.028 ln total number of cattle sold 3.445 0.966 ln total Number Sahiwal 3.677 1.471 ln total land size 4.249 1.708 ln Herd size 4.275 0.973 Group membership 0.468 0.500 Occupation farmer 0.849 0.358 Agro-pastoralist 0.636 0.482 No formal education 0.400 0.491 Primary education 0.249 0.433 Secondary education 0.184 0.388 Tertiary education 0.166 0.373 The data revealed varied trend in the mean and standard deviation of the variables considered. Econometric results The results from the empirical analysis are presented below in two sub-sections. In the first section determinants milk market participation are presented and discussed. Then, the determinants of level of participation in milk market are presented and discussed in the second section. STATA version 11 was used in data management and analysis. Factors influencing milk market participation Table 3 presents the double hurdle results on market participation. The variable representing income earned from livestock sales had positive significant influence on milk market participation. The households with high levels of income from livestock sales had a higher probability of participating in milk markets. Lapar et al. (2003) observed that farmers with high level of income participated in milk markets because they could bear risk associated with marketing. This suggests that well-off households in terms of high income levels participated in milk markets possibly because they could meet the transaction cost of participating in markets. There was positive significant relationship between amount of milk produced and the decision to participate in milk market as presented in Table 3. Households that produced more milk had a higher probability of participating in milk markets. This indicated that with increase in amount of milk produced the pastoralists were likely to make a decision to sell milk possibly because of increased marketable surplus. The results are consistent with findings by Bardhan et al. (2012) in their study among smallholder dairy farmers in Uttarakhand who found that increase in production increased farmers participating in markets. Table 3: Double hurdle coefficients of factors influencing milk market participation Variables Whole sample Kajiado Narok Neighbor buyer 1.935 (0.612)* 1.982 (1.153)*** 7.648 (8.858)*** Middlemen buyer 2.154 (0.364)* 2.693 (0.728)* 2.690 (0.787)* Processor buyer 1.461 (0.542) * 1.013 (0.834) *** 2.036 (1.068) Retailer buyer 1.734 (0.529)* 2.234 (0.792)* 6.435 (7.473)** Female owner -0.192 (0.412) 0.693 (0.690) -1.307 (0.957) Narok county 0.631 (0.245) * - - Age over 45yrs 0.473 (0.377) 1.874(1.332) 0.391 (0.662) Age 35_45yrs 0.167 (0.436)*** 0.950(1.364) -0.454 (0.807) Primary education -0.103 (0.330) 1.415(1.456) -0.696 (0.538) Secondary education -0.272 (0.383)** -0.617(0.895)** -0.507 (0.587) Access to good roads 0.591 (0.283) ** 1.164 (0.476)* 0.371 (0.442) ln Income 0.161 (0.188) * 0.2238 (0.313) * 0.289 (0.326)** Distance to market 0.719 (0.172) 0.925 (0.242) 0.994 (0.311) Number of Sahiwal 0.012 (0.001) * 0.001 (0.000) *** 0.051 (0.000) * Herd size -0.011 (0.002) * -0.001 (0.002) -0.010 (0.000) *** Group member 0.291 (0.305) *** 0.437 (0.493) *** 0.806 (0.793) *** Milk produced 0.784 (0.301)* 1.468 (0.628)** -0.021 (0.621) Land size -0.111 (0.093) 0.132 (0.168) -0.224 (0.195) Constant -3.150 (2.029)** -7.258 (3.601)** -1.074 (3.427)** Whole sample Kajiado Narok Number of observations 334 148 186 Wald chi2(17) 71.250 32.070 18.980 Prob > chi2 0.000 0.001 0.089 Log likelihood -1214.004 -484.705 -708.164 Note: *, ** and *** denote significance at 1%, 5% and 10% confidence level. Standard errors are in parenthesis Source: Survey data, 2013. The location of the farm had a positive significant influence on decisions of the farmers to participate in the milk markets. From the result farmers from Narok County were more likely to participate in milk markets. This is probably because farmers in Narok County produced more average milk as observed in differences between County means and this was likely to increase amount of milk available for marketing positively influencing market participation. There was a positive significant relationship between the neighbours, middlemen, processors and the retailer buyers on farmer’s decision to participate in milk market in the whole sample. The middlemen had the highest influenced followed by the neighbours. The plausible reason could be that the neighbours and the middlemen were easily accessible to the farmers and they provided an easily accessible market for sale of the surplus milk. These findings were in tandem with Enete (2009) who found that presence of buyers who were easily accessible to the farmers made them to sell surplus produce. These buyers also offered average higher prices and this could possibly influence the farmers to participate in milk markets. This indicated that presence of milk buyer influenced decision of the pastoralists in participating in milk markets. The education level (secondary education) of the household head had a negative significant influence on decision to participate in the milk market as compared to farmers with no formal education. This is probably because with more education the farmers are able to look for other jobs and diversify income sources and consequently use milk for consumption at home. This was in line with Lapar et al. (2003) in a study on smallholder livestock producers in Philippines who established that educated farmers had opportunities for off-farm employment. These findings were inconsistent with Holloway et al. (2000) in a study on Transaction Costs, Cooperatives and Milk-Market Development in the Ethiopian highlands and found that educated farmers were able to gather more information influencing market participation. Ownership of Sahiwal cattle significantly influenced the decision to participate in milk markets positively; the influence was highest in Narok County because on average they had higher numbers of Sahiwal breeds than their counterparts in Kajiado. Farmers in Narok County had large number Sahiwal cattle as observed from the means in chapter four, table 2, consequently farmers in Narok County produced more milk than their counterparts in Kajiado. High milk production from Sahiwal cattle was likely to influence marketing of surplus milk. Sahiwal cattle represent an asset base for milk production in pastoralist area and an increase in asset base is likely to influence participation. This was in line with Dovonan and Poole (2014) and Amanikwah et al. (2012) who indicated that investment in assets scaled up the level of production positively influencing participation. Access to all weather roads had a significant positive influence on market participation significant in Kajiado County as presented in Table 3. The households that had access good roads that were accessible at all times were likely to participate in milk markets. Buyers in the rural areas bulk milk from various households or collection points, ease of access to this households and collection points maximizes on the profits by reduction of transaction costs associated with poor road infrastructure. Dovonan and Poole (2014) observed that improvement of market access through accessible roads increased probability of market participation. Pastoralists’ membership to groups and associations positively and significantly influenced the decision to participate in the milk markets as presented in Table 3. The households that were members of organized groups had a higher probability of participating in milk markets. This implied that groups were a source of market information and this reduced the level of information asymmetry between the farmers and milk traders. Barret and Christopher (2008) stated that smallholder farmer participation to groups influenced the decision to sell farm produce. The herd size negatively and significantly influenced participation in whole sample and Narok County. Households with large herd sizes were unlikely to participate in milk markets. This indicated that dependence on dairying as additional source of income decreased with increase in herd size. Herd size indicated level of wealth in a household and the higher the income from cattle sale the less likely a household was to look for supplementing incomes. Bardhan et al. (2012) in their study noted that farmers with low incomes sold more milk to supplement their lower incomes. The age between of 35 to 45 years had a positive and significant influence on market participation as presented in Table 3. With increase age of the household heads it was likely that the farmers would sell milk. The possible reason could be that with increase in age farmers were likely to be more experienced and needed more resources to cater for the growing family needs. With increase in age farmers were likely to have high capital which increases level of production, positively influencing market participation. Factors influencing the level of participation in milk Table 4 presents the double hurdle results on extent of milk market participation. The household income had positive significant influence on amount of milk sold in the market in whole sample and Narok County. This indicated that poor households sold little amount of milk in the market. This could be explained by low level of production among the poor households or inability to meet the transaction costs that are associated with increased volumes marketed. The amount of milk produced had a positive significant relationship with amount of milk sold as presented in Table 4 This indicated that increased milk production increased the amount that was sold. This was in tandem with the findings by Omiti et al. (2007) who found that increased production led increased level of market participation. Table 4: Double hurdle coefficients of factors influencing the level of participation in milk market Variables Whole sample Kajiado Narok Neighbor buyer -43.542 (13.505)* -39.801 (22.032)*** -44.183 (18.454)** Middlemen buyer -11.291 (9.337) *** -1.748 (9.802) ** -21.263 (14.295) Processor buyer 3.302 (5.194)*** 7.072 (3.273) ** 0.272 (4.591) Retailer buyer -13.616 (10.856) *** 3.166 (11.212) -23.984 (17.030)*** Female owner -2.222 (9.000) 17.622 (13.068) -8.465 (12.712) Narok county -4.23 (3.130) - - Age over 45yrs 4.047 (9.283)** 13.782(13.285)** 5.489 (11.474) *** Age 35_45yrs 4.980 (10.429) 5.343(14.709) 3.041 (12.626) Primary education 10.893 (8.168) 19.384(12.152) 3.624 (10.034) Secondary education -7.167 (9.738) -8.716(14.580) -3.788 (10.889) Access to good roads 6.502 (7.621)*** -2.722 (8.411) 7.676 (11.320) ln Income 12.099 (6.086)** 5.037 (7.378) 16.011 (8.718)*** Distance to market -0.483 (3.430)*** 2.020 (3.942) -1.827 (5.530) Number of Sahiwal 7.878 (3.988)** 4.812 (3.786) 13.107 (7.275)*** Herd size -0.037 (0.019)* -0.023 (0.015) *** -0.041 (0.029) ** Group member 2.603 (7.225) -1.075 (8.897) 3. 440 (10.258) Milk produced 101.400 (8.881)* 91.094 (9.140)* 107.262 (14.922)* Land size -0.073 (2.228)* -0.401 (3.558) -1.144 (3.300)* Constant -513.630 (76.023)* -393.081 (96.421)* -556.117 (105.899)* sigma cons 34.484 (2.243)* 25.803 (2.395)* 37.815 (3.285)* Whole sample Kajiado Narok Number of obs 334 148 186 Wald chi2(17) 71.250 32.070 18.980 Prob > chi2 0.000 0.001 0.089 Log likelihood -1214.004 -484.705 -708.164 Note: *, ** and *** denote significance at 1%, 5% and 10% confidence level. Standard errors are in parenthesis Source: Survey data, 2013. Though land size did not significantly influence decision to participate in milk market in whole sample and Narok County as presented in table 3 in previous section, it had a negative significant influence on amount sold as presented in Table 4 Pastoralists are likely to keep breeds that produce meat if they had large land sizes and this is likely to explain the inverse relationship between extent of participation and land size. The number of Sahiwal cattle owned per household had a positive significant relationship with amount of milk sold. Farmers who had large number Sahiwal cattle were likely to produce more milk consequently having more marketable surplus. When farmers raise their asset base in production in increasing number producing units, more is likely to be produced for sale. These findings are in tandem with those of Amanikwah et al. (2012) who found that increased capital base led to increased level of market participation which resulted from increased production. The amount of milk sold in the market was positively and significantly influenced by the age of the household head (age category of over 45 years) as presented in Table 4 Level of investment and experience is highly correlated with age. Farmers are likely to have high level of production and networks for milk market with age. This corroborated with findings Staal et al. (2006) who established that experience which was highly correlated with age influenced the level of market participation. When the available buyers for the surplus milk were the neighbors, middlemen and the retailer buyers, their influence on amount of milk was negative and significant. This implied that these buyers could not buy large quantities of milk because of possibly their low handling capacity and they were not in a position to trade with large milk capacities. The processors had a positive relationship with amount of milk sold in the market probably because of their capability to handle large amount of milk. The distance covered to the market hand a negative significant influence on amount of milk sold. The distance increases the cost of transaction that the farmers incur in delivering milk to the market and this is likely to reduce amount sold. Barret and Christopher (2008) in their study on Smallholder Market Participation in Eastern and Southern Africa found that reduced cost of transaction by improvement of market infrastructure positively influenced amount sold. Conclusion In enhancing market participation among the pastoralist actors should note that household total income play a significant role. This therefore indicates that innovations to increase income among the poor households can be instrumental in exploiting marketing opportunities. Interventions to reduce risk of household reduced income are pivotal by training farmers on diversification on income generating enterprises. Increasing number of Sahiwal cattle breeds owned by the farmers through breeding programs and awareness is essential. The groups provided information and financial services to the farmers and these are critical in accessing market opportunities. Increasing social capital among the pastoralists is therefore of great value in enhancing access to markets. Development agencies need to focus on infrastructure development to ensure that farmers can easily access the markets. Acknowledgements The authors greatly acknowledge the Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management of Egerton University, for providing a favorable environment for doing this work. We would like to appreciate Kenya Agricultural Research Institute through East African Agricultural Productivity Project for financial support during the field research and all the staff, enumerators and farmers who made data collection a success. References Amankwah K., Klerk L., Oosting S.J., Sakyi-Dawson O., Van Der Zijpp A. J. and Millar D. (2012). Diagnosing constraints to market participation of small ruminant producers in northern Ghana: An innovation systems analysis. Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences. 60– 63(2012)37– 47. Bardhan, D. Sharma, M. L. and Saxena R. (2012). Market Participation Behavior of Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Uttarakhand: A Disaggregated Analysis. Agricultural Economics Research Review. 25(2): 243-254. Barrett, C. B., and Christopher B., (2008). Smallholder Market Participation: Concepts and Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa. Food Policy. 33(4). Available at SSRN:.http://ssrn.com/abst ract=1846692. Bellemare, M. F. and Barrett, C. B. (2004). 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G. M., Kenyanjui, M., Owango, M. and Staal, S. (2004). The Kenyan dairy sub-sector: A rapid appraisal. SDP research and development report. Nairobi Ouma E. A., Jagweb J., Obare G. A. and Abeled S. (2010) Determinants of smallholder farmers’ participation in banana markets in Central Africa: the role of transaction costs. Agricultural Economics. 41 (2010): 111–122 Staal, S. J., Baltenweck, I., Njoroge, L., Patil, B. R., Ibrahim, M. N. M. and Kariuki, E. (2006). Smallholder Dairy Farmer Access to Alternative Milk Market Channels in Gujarat. Contributed Paper International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Brisbane, Australia on12th - 18th August, 2006 on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Health in High and Low Income Countries. Teklewold, H., Dadi, L., Yami, A. and Dana, N. (2006). Determinants of Adoption of Poultry Technology: A Double-Hurdle Approach. Journal of Livestock Research for Rural Development. 18(40). Tshiunza M., Lemchi J. and Tenkouano A. (2001). Determinants of Market Production of Cooking Banana in Nigeria. African Crop Science Journal. 9(3): 537-547. Milk supply contracts and default incidence in Kenya Mailu, S.K.1*, Will, M.2, Mwanza, N.M.3, Nkanata, K.M.4 and Mbugua, D.K.1 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Naivasha; 2Private consultants; 3Agriculture Sector Development Support Programme; 4Kenya Methodist University * Corresponding author; kmailu@gmail.com. Abstract Using cross sectional data from all 47 Counties in Kenya, the presence of contract breaches between the producers and chain intermediary node is investigated. Most farmers do not engage in contracting and for those who do, many of these contracts are found to be informal. In addition, most of these contracts (whether formal or informal) were breached. However, some buyers appear to be associated with contract breaches. A distinct pattern emerges showing that larger milk producers are more likely to make formal contracts than small producers while the results also confirm that most of the contracts between farmers and individual consumers as well as traders and middlemen are informal and subject to contract breaches. Using a multiple correspondence analysis, these associations between contract breaches and farmer characteristics are explored. Results indicate that collective action institutions might encourage formalization of contracts while households that do not engage in some form of collective action engagements in most cases make informal contracts although both formal and informal contracts are equally subject to contract breaches. An examination of the underlying institutional, psychological and sociological drivers to contract breaches is recommended as such information can reveal how best to upgrade successful contract farming arrangements. Keywords: Transaction costs, multiple correspondence analysis Introduction Though dairy production in Kenya is the most commercialised in the Eastern African region, there are few production contracts at producer level linked to cooperatives, self-help groups, milk bulking/cooling centres and processors (Pelrine, 2009). With a share of almost 80% in raw milk supplies, small-scale farmers dominate dairy sector in Kenya. While only a small fraction of milk produced enters the formal market, the growth in demand for value-added dairy products, not only in the country but also within the East African Community (EAC), offers opportunities for making dairy farming more profitable for smallholders. To make this value chain more inclusive requires assurances of a stable supply of raw milk meeting food safety and quality standards, reduction in production and transaction costs thereby making raw milk supply a more stable and remunerative enterprise for smallholders. Many constraints confront smallholder farmers who often find it difficult to participate in markets for their products. Milk is perishable and bulky and moreover, in many occasions, producers cannot make short term investment decisions to cease production e.g. milk producers have already committed up-front investments and cannot easily abandon such investments at the drop of a hat. Low production by dispersed producers can also result in further power imbalances between buyers and sellers especially when producers act alone and have low access to market information. High transaction costs can also result from the lack of assured markets, high marketing costs (due to fragmented value chains), high costs of monitoring and quality assurance, high transport as well as dealing with contract breaches. Furthermore, seasonal volatility of raw milk supplies is pronounced due to predominantly rain-fed production system where many smallholders do not apply supplementary feeding mainly due to high feed prices. Following the deregulation of milk prices in 1992, many milk marketing innovations emerged to complement the then state controlled Kenya Co-operatives Creameries. Compared to other commodities (e.g. maize) facing high price volatility, the dairy sector stabilized somewhat though some volatility persisted with one of the main causes being weather related factors (Karanja et.al., 2003). This can be further compounded by climate change which a study by Kabubo-Mariara (2008) suggesting that livestock enterprise choices can be influenced by climate change variables such as temperatures reducing the probability of farmers keeping dairy cattle and increasing the probability of holding beef cattle. Contract farming (CF) involving forward agreements specifying obligations of partners in a business transaction can be an avenue for some to bridge these barriers or share the imminent risks present in production and marketing in uncertain environments. Contracts can be efficient in linking producers to markets and are also effective in integrating smallholders into mainstream markets (Costales and Catelo 2009). However, contracts per se are not a panacea for all these challenges though successful CF models share in a number of characteristics. These include being able to fairly share value between business partners who have a voice to influence key decisions, including business risks and rewards (Vermuelen and Cotula, 2010). In the dairy sector, some farmers have made such contracts with firms while other farmer groups are vertically integrated and have ventured into both processing and distribution of milk and milk products. However, this number is still small and still, many farmers still appear to prefer spot market transactions. Abdulai and Birachi (2008) identified three coordination mechanisms employed by producers and traders in the dairy value chain and showed that written contracts were sparingly used compared to verbal contracts and spot market transactions. They also demonstrated that the extent of advance price information as well as time taken to sell milk and physical distance separating players in the business transaction tend to influence the type of coordination mechanism chosen by market players. Fischer and Qaim (2011) also demonstrate that in the case of bananas in Kenya, more diversified farmers are less likely to market collectively though previous benefits from collective marketing positively influence their intensity of group participation. Peer pressure from groups on the other hand can reduce behaviors such as side selling (Fafchamps, 2004) and trust based relationships nurtured over time can act as an enforcement mechanism (Fafchamps and Minten, 2001). In Kenya the success of the horticulture industry is partly attributable to CF and Hoeffler (2006) and Wainaina et.al (2012) argue that CF is beneficial to both potato and poultry farmers respectively. There is still debate about the definitive role of CF in Sub-Saharan Africa (see Oya, 2011) though CF is credited to have played a significant role especially during the immediate post colonial period in Kenya when tea and coffee farmers were able to form cooperatives to market their produce. Cases of side selling outside the contract are real however, and which, from a firm’s perspective, maintain supply risks for which contracts are entered into in the first place (Glover and Kusterer (1990). Reasons for contract breach include poor contract design, mistrust between contact partners or even contracts not made on sound analysis and planning by both parties. For instance, using an experimental approach on contract design in Vietnam, Saenger et.al., (2012) show that although sanctions on farmers to produce milk of high quality can induce quality increases, they are not as effective as bonus payments. In another paper from that study population, a gender dimension suggests that female farmers decision to trust in a contract arrangement may be different from that of men—they are less likely to trust when the cost of trusting is higher (e.g. in the presence of collusion) but are more trusting overall (Torero and Viceisza, 2011). A number of research articles have also shown that trust improves the outcomes in exchange implying that contractual arrangements—especially verbal ones relying on trust can still function with little enforcement if trust is maintained between the parties in the contract (Fafchamps and Minten, 2001). Will, (2013) puts special emphasis on the importance of trust in CF relationships (see pp. 22, 25, 28). An information asymmetry advantage can be gained by sellers who if in long term interactions, can lower prices to some clients—who Granovetter, 2005a refers to as “known others”—a situation that can enhance fragmentation of the market and inhibit formation of a single equilibrium price. Fehr and Schmidt (1999), Fehr et.al., (2007) suggest that fairness considerations can also determine the presence of contracts if some societal members are inequality averse, which in turn has support from some insights from psychology such as loss aversion (see Kahneman 2003). This paper briefly summarizes the contractual landscape for milk at the farm level and describes the relationship between milk producers and the business partners whom they supply raw milk. The paper goes further and attempts to make links between contractual failure and some business partner characteristics. Methodology Data used in this paper comes from a recent (2013) nationally representative sample of households in 47 counties commissioned by the Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP). A total of 12,654 farming households were interviewed after being selected using the proportionate to population size technique, based on the total number of farming households in each county. Actual data collection was performed by enumerators drawn from respective counties and who in turn were supervised by a county coordinator who oversaw their recruitment and training after going through similar introduction to the study objectives and tools. A structured questionnaire was used to capture data necessary for the exercise. This survey instrument was designed to capture a range of indicators for use by the ASDSP in its monitoring activities. Among the comprehensive list of parameters measured in this survey were household socio-economic characteristics, level of production and productivity for major agricultural and livestock commodities, consumption, marketing, and food / nutrition security, access to financial and insurance services. Following enumerator recruitment was a pre-test of the instrument after which actual data collection commenced in late September 2013 and ended in October 2013 while data entry was undertaken thereafter by clerks recruited and trained for the purpose. In this paper, the authors explore for overt reasons and/or characteristics that maybe associated with contract breaches. This paper does however not try to establish the existence of different business models employable. Many studies on contract farming employ a transaction cost economics approach. This study does not take that route; rather, it relies on simple questions relating to the existence of contracts between milk producers and buyers of their product and tries to relate these variables to explore for patterns. The characteristics of milk producers (households) that may influence the choice of contract include membership to organizations/associations which other authors (see Shiferaw et.al., 2006) suggest are important in overcoming some of the market failures. Such groups are a source of solidarity where members have a sense of moral economy and sense of group identity conferring a normative and extraeconomic meaning to economic action (Granovetter 2005b). Productivity of milk (measured by the amount of milk produced over the course of 12 months) is also used as a parameter where high production expected to force producers to gravitate towards contracting due to issues of bulkiness and perishability of milk (see Goldsmith, 1985 cited in Baumann, 2000, p.20). Milk production data for each household is estimated and ranked from highest to lowest from which four groups of equal frequency. The notion of bounded rationality comes into play since farmers are limited by the amount of knowledge they have when making the contract. Access to market information is important to farmers since it reduces risks in the way of making them likely to choose the best contract partner. Distance to output markets is used as a measure of the costs involved in bringing milk into the market. Respondents also gave responses about the partner with whom they made contracts with, the type of contract (whether formal or informal) as well as whether the contract was breached or not. Using this information, the authors use an exploratory technique to explore and establish the nature of associations between these sets of variables. We employ Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA); a technique that can reveal latent patterns in complex data sets, thereby helping to describe these patterns geometrically by locating each variable as a point in low-dimensional space. To implement this analysis, we use the FactoMineR (Hasson 2007 quoted in Lê et.al. 2008) a package for multivariate data analysis with R (R Development Core Team 2014). Results and discussion Close to 47.3% (5,985) of the 12,654 respondent households produced milk from camels, cattle, goats or sheep. Of the milk producers, 16.7% had contracts for the sale of milk during the 12 month reference period. Many of these contracts were informal (64%) while the remainder were formal. These contracts were made between milk producers and cooperatives, institutions (public & private), traders, consumers, processors, hotels or even supermarkets. The most common parties with whom milk producers made contracts with included traders (hawkers, middlemen etc) and individuals; contracts that in most cases are informal. This complements the findings in many sector reports which show the informal milk marketing system to be handling most of the milk output. Cooperatives as well as milk processors make up another category of buyers who mainly made formal contracts with milk producers. Institutions (both private and public) as well as hotels also made contracts with producers though the frequency of these contracts was comparatively small (Table 1). Most of the contracts were breached (60%) while for the remainder, respondents said there wasn’t breach of contract—although a portion of them were not committal with their answer or avoided it altogether. Table 2: Number of milk sale contracts, types and the status of contract Type of contract With whom contract was made Was contract honoured? No Yes Silenta Formal Cooperatives 57 33 25 Hotels 10 2 1 Individuals 8 7 2 Private institutions 6 1 2 Processors 66 19 18 Public institutions 5 2 2 Traders 27 7 8 Informal Cooperatives 20 6 11 Hotels 38 9 6 Individuals 105 52 42 Private institutions 5 3 1 Processors 14 1 1 Public institutions 6 1 0 Traders 139 42 38 a Respondents failed to divulge the status of these contracts Households contracting with private institutions (though a small number) produced an average 20,600 litres during the year whereas those selling to processors produced an average 14,700 litres during the same period. Those contracting with hotels on the other hand were producing 11,200 litres whereas farmers contracting with traders and hawkers were producing about 6,900 litres a year. Those contracting with public institutions and individual consumers were producing an average 5,600 litres and 4,100 litres on average. As shown on table 1 above, many contracts were made with individual milk consumers as well as traders and were mainly informal contracts. Of these households that had some form of milk sale contract, majority (70%) did not have a member of the household belonging to an agricultural group/association during the preceding 12 months. Of those that had household members belonging to these groups, membership was dominated by produce marketing types (53%), while input access and marketing comprised 11% of these groups while the remainder were groups of various shades such as seed production groups, savings and credit, soil & water conservation groups, water resource management among others types. Slightly over half (54%) of the respondents with contracts had a household member accessing market information in the last 12 months preceding the interviews. This is in contrast to a figure of 35% for all milk farmers in the sample signifying that households that have contracts go out of their way to obtain market related information. These results suggest that farmers who enter into contracts seek market information and are more likely to be engaged in common interest groups that have an interest in serving farmer’s need for marketing assistance. Results from the MCA are summarized on figure 1 below.  Quadrant 1: Contracts appear to be made by farmers who have the lowest production indices selling their milk mainly to individual consumers. These farmers in addition do not seek for market information and output markets are far from the farm. This group of farmers is also likely to be without representation in agricultural groups and many contracts are breached.  Quadrant 2: Farmers enter into formal agreements with cooperatives and among this particular group of farmers; some of their household members participate in produce marketing groups.  Quadrant 3: Farmers making contracts with private and public institutions as well as processors are informed (have access to market information) and this group appears to also have comparatively higher production indices. These farmers have household members belonging to input access and marketing groups as well as other collective action group types.  Quadrant 4: Farmers here make informal contracts with hotels and traders. Figure 3: MCA plot of variables using R package FactoMineR Conclusion and recommendation These results provide a glimpse into the contractual landscape that describes the Kenyan case and suggests that contracts are entered into by farmers whose production is fairly higher than average. Contract breaches have an institutional dimension and do not depend much on the formality of the contract. The findings illustrate that informal and formal CF co-exist with none of the types guaranteeing more reliable compliance or featuring higher risks of default. Given the diversity of situations, business attitudes, farmer and buyer capacities, socio-cultural structures and local environments, it seems rather difficult to come up with a blueprint for designing farming contracts. On the contrary, agreements have to be negotiated case by case. Further studies utilizing data on psychological and sociological profiles of players engaged in milk market contracting (which would enrich the analysis) may be required to tease out the drivers of the patterns described in the paper. Results from the MCA give interesting insights into structural particularities and possible success factors of different CF scenarios. While the prevailing situation in quadrant 1 suggests a need to promote the upgrading and up-scaling of existing informal CF as well as local cottage level value addition through capacity building measures, quadrants 2 to 4 lend themselves to a more in-depth assessment to identify good practices for up-scaling more CF agreements. In conclusion, CF schemes will only be sustainable if both parties realise a profit (incentive for compliance) and if risks are shared with both partners working towards minimising risks of the joint CF venture. 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(2012) Impact of contract farming on smallholder poultry farmers’ income in Kenya, Selected Paper presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) Triennial Conference, 18-24 August, 2012, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil Will M. (2013) Contract farming handbook: A practical guide for linking small-scale producers and buyers through business model innovation, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) An analysis of indigenous chicken marketing Participation decisions: The case of producers from Makueni County, Kenya Ayieko, M.O.D.1*,Bett, E.K.1 and Kabuage, L.W.2 1Department of Agribusiness Management and Trade, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya; 2Department of Agricultural Resource Management, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya *Corresponding author: ayiekodav@gmail.com. Abstract Indigenous chicken(IC) are important in Kenya for food security, income generation, employment and improved livelihoods. However despite these benefits the producers are constrained in participating in the high value markets. A purposive Multi stage sampling was used to sample 130 households from Makueni County. The data was collected using a structured questionnaire, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. This data was then analysed using descriptive statistics and a probit econometric model. The decision to participate in IC high value market was significantly influenced by education level of household head, processing, the age of household heads, group membership, the flock size and Region. Therefore it is recommended to form farmer groups for increased productivity, collective marketing and enhanced value addition. Introduction Agriculture contributes 25% to the Kenyan GDP (Gross Domestic Product), through export earnings (65%) and by offering informal employments to 18% of the Kenyan citizens (RoK, 2010). There is a strong link between the agriculture sector and the growth of the economy, which is shown by the prominent role of Agriculture in the Vision 2030 (RoK, 2010). According to RoK (2010) the Livestock sector is one of the major sub-sectors in agriculture. The sub-sector includes the dairy, beef, camel, poultry and other emerging livestock such as fishery and bee keeping. First it provides raw materials to other industries such as agro processing. Secondly it uses inputs from other industries. Consequently any external interference to this sub - sector impacts on the supply chain and the economy of Kenya. The indigenous chicken (Gallus domesticus) is found within the livestock subsector and constitutes 76% of the poultry flock in Kenya (RoK, 2010). Nearly all rural and peri-urban families in Kenya keep a small flock of free range chicken, which has an average number of 13 birds, which contributes to the social, economic and cultural welfare (Nyaga, 2007). There is an increase in chicken consumption in Sub Sahara Africa including countries like Kenya (Hazell, 2007). The per capita consumption in meat has risen from 14.9 kg in 1991 to 16 kg in 2007 and is expected to rise to 22 kg in the year 2050 (FAO, 2009).This rise has been due to preference given to IC in comparison to exotic chicken and red meats (Upton, 2000). The IC is lean, with an organic origin and fetches a premium in the markets (Ndegwa et al., 2000). Finally urbanization has also been a factor associated with this rise in demand of IC in the urban and peri-urban areas (Delgado, 2005). The IC market has three levels that vary in terms of the operations, products, location and number of participants that are found at each level (Bett et al., 2012). At the third level the consumers are willing to pay higher prices to get safe and quality products; with product differentiation, value addition, packaging of products and no division of IC into smaller units (Gamba et al., 2005). Makueni County is one of the main producers of IC in Kenya, however there are challenges faced by producers of indigenous chicken in production and marketing of IC. These challenges prevent the producers from fully participating in the IC high value markets. This consequently impedes on the ability of IC to alleviate poverty and improve livelihoods of the producers. Therefore there is a need to determine the influence of socioeconomic factors on producer participation decision in IC high value market. These consequently result into recommendations on improving the participation of producers in the IC high value market. The overall objective of this research was to analyse the participation of producers of indigenous chicken from Makueni County in the high value markets. This was achieved through determining the factors that affect decision to participate in IC high value market. Zeberga (2010) studied the marketing of eggs in Yigrelam and Alaba regions of Ethiopia. Bett et al., (2012) did a study on Linking utilisation and conservation of indigenous chicken genetic resources to value chains. A few of these studies have attempted to analyse the participation of producers in specific market segments. Most of the studies have looked at participation in the broad market for an agricultural product. One of these segments is the high value market (high end) segment in the IC market. Consequently there is a gap on information on participation of producers in the IC high value market. It is this gap that this study attempted to fill. Methodology Study Site Makueni District, found within Makueni County, lies between Latitude 10 35′, South and Longitude 37010′ East and 38030′ East. The District covers 8,009 km2 with an altitude of 600m – 1,900m above sea level. The district has rainfall variability with an annual range of 800 – 1,200mm per year in the hilly areas and less than 500mm per year in the other regions. The Temperature range in the District is 20.20C – 24.60C (RoK, 2005).The study area was one of the areas that were targeted by KAPAP project for intervention in the meat value chains for enhanced income to producers and poverty alleviation for improved livelihoods. Sampling Design and Sample Size The sampling design that was used was a survey design. This was comprised of three stages. First a purposive random sampling was used to select Makueni area from among IC producing areas in Kenya. Secondly a simple random sampling was used to select three regions (divisions).This divisions were Kee, Kaiti, and Wote in Makueni from where 130 households were selected using a simple random sample. A structured questionnaire was then used for data collection. Data Collection The data collection was done by trained enumerators from the area to overcome challenges in language and due to their familiarity with the locality. The study used both primary and secondary data. Data Analysis The data obtained was analysed through qualitative and quantitative means. The Data collected was used to analyse the participation in the high value markets. This section presents the methods that were used to analyse data collected from the households. The Probit model It is also assumed that the dependant variable follows a normal distribution. The Probit model was used to identify the factors that affect the decision to participate by producers from Makueni County in the high value market. This equation was a Maximum likelihood Probit equation. The dependent variable is a dummy showing the decision to participate in the indigenous chicken high value market (PHVM). Y=X1β1+U1 U~N (0, 1) PHVM=1 if Y>Y* PHVM=0 if Y≤ Y*, where PHVM is Participation in indigenous chicken high value market. Where Y1i is latent dependant variable which is not observed and Y*=0.X1 is a vector of variables that were assumed to affect the household decision to participate in indigenous chicken market.β1 is a vector of the unknown parameter in the participation equation.U1 is the residuals that were independently and normally distributed with a mean of zero and a constant variance. Results and discussions Factors influencing participation in Indigenous chicken high value market There are 6 out of the 12 independent variables that influence the decision to participate in the IC high value market. These included age of house hold head, education of the house hold head, family size, number of IC owned and the region dummy as shown in Table 2. Age of household head had a negative effect on the decision to participate in IC high value markets. This may imply that household head are less likely to decide to participate in IC high value market as age increases. The results are consistent with those of a study by Berhanu et al., (2011) that found a negative relationship between age of household head and participation in milk value addition by dairy farmers in Ethiopia. The education of the house hold head has a positive effect on the decision to participate in IC high value market. This may imply that household heads that were literate made the decision to participate. The literate households may have information on the benefits of high value market. This may lead them to decide to participate in IC high value market. The findings are consistent with the findings by Bett et al., (2012) that found education to positively influence participation in IC market in Kenya. Table 1: Summary of results of household socioeconomic characteristics Variable Mean Std.Deviation Min Max Age of Household head(years) 43.89 13.77 21.00 86 Distance to main road(Kms) 3.24 2.33 0.30 11 Distance to market(Kms) 6.45 3.43 0.50 15 Credit access(Kshs) 4,776.54 6,828.05 0.00 70,000 Family size(Number) 6.07 2.17 2 11 Total indigenous chicken owned(Number) 13.03 9.15 0 50 Other livestock owned(Number) 6.45 5.27 0 28 Source: Survey Data(2013) N=130 Survey Data(2013) N=1 Table 2: Results of Probit equation Variable Coefficient Std error Z P>z Age of household head -0.02 0.01 -2.00 0.07* Sex of household head 0.01 0.25 0.04 0.98 Education of household head 0.69 0.32 2.16 0.03** Family size -0.04 0.07 -0.57 0.58 Land size 0.03 0.06 0.50 0.69 Other livestock unit -0.04 0.03 -1.33 0.16 Distance to road 0.21 0.29 0.72 0.47 Distance to market -0.48 0.30 -1.60 0.11 Market price -0.00 0.00 -0.00 0.89 Flock size 0.03 0.01 3.00 0.03** Group member 0.52 0.25 2.10 0.04** Processing 0.66 0.34 1.94 0.05** Region 0.50 0.27 1.85 0.06* Constant 2.35 1.55 1.52 0.13 Source: Own computation *significant at 10%, ** significant at 5%, ***significant at 1%; N=130 The results show that the being a member of a farmer group has a positive influence on the decision to participate in IC high value market. The producers that belong to farmer groups are likely to participate in IC high value market. This may be as a result of the benefits that are offered by operating as a group of farmers. These benefits may include better access market information, discounts and bargain power. These results are consistent with those of Jagwe et al., (2010) that show that farmers who belonged to farmer groups were likely to participate in the banana markets in Burundi, Rwanda and Democratic republic of Congo. The number of indigenous chicken owned has positive influence on decision to participate in IC high value market. This may imply that those with more IC are likely to make the decision to participate in IC high value market. This may be due to the fact that they are sure of continuous supply of IC. These results are consistent with those of Bett et al., (2012) that showed that the number of IC owned positively influence participation in IC market since the size of the flock size allowed producers to participate in IC market. The form in which indigenous chicken is sold has a positive influence on the decision to participate in IC high value market. This may imply that producers that sold their IC after slaughter were likely to decide to participate in IC high value market. It may also imply that IC high value market accepted processed IC. The results are consistent with those of Agbogo et al., (2011) that showed a positive relationship between processing and participation by women in cassava markets in Nigeria. 404 The results show that the region where the producer is found has a positive influence on the decision to participate in the IC high value market. Jagwe et al., (2010) reported that region positively influenced participation of farmers in banana marketing. Conclusions and recommendations The aim of this study was to determine the factors that have an effect on the decision of producers to participate in IC high value market. The decision to participate in high value market was significantly influenced by processing of IC, age of household heads, education level of household heads, farmer group membership, flock size(number of IC owned) and Region where producer comes from. Therefore it is recommended that and collective action should be used to enhance productivity, processing and marketing of IC .The Government should also improve on the infrastructure ,while improving on dissemination of technology through extension and access to market information that will enhance productivity. References Agbogo,E,A.,Akah,B.,andTiku,N,E.,(2011).Effect of value addition on benefits of women participation in cassava products marketing in Cross River State,Nigeria.African Journal of Extension .7(2). Bett, H.K. Bett, R.C., Peters K.J., Kahi A.K., & Bokelmann, W., (2012). Linking Utilisation and Conservation of Indigenous Chicken Genetic Resources to Value Chains. Journal of Animal Production Advances, 2 (1), 33-51. Delgado, C, L., (2005).Rising Demand for meat and milk in developing countries: Implications for grasslands-based Livestock production, Presented at 20th International Grassland Congress, Dublin, Ireland. Gamba, P., Kariuki, D., Gathigi, B., (2005).Urban Domestic consumption patterns for Meat: Trends and Policy implications Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development Working Paper No 17/2005. Gitau, R., (2009).Agricultural Policy making in Sub Saharan Africa: Kenyas Past Policies. Issue 34 of working paper Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, Nairobi, Kenya. Hazell, P., (2007).All African review of experiences with commercial agriculture: Case Study on Livestock. Jagwe, J., Machethe, C., and Ouma,E.,(2010) .Transaction costs and smallholder farmers participation in banana markets in the Great Lakes Region of Burundi, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo African Journal of Agricultural Research. 6(1), 302-317. Meseret,M, Solomon ,D. and Tabelle ,D.,(2011).Marketing system, socioeconomic role and intra household dynamics of indigenous chicken in Gamma Wereda, Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 23(131). Muthee, A., (2009) Poultry Value Chain Assessment and Situational analysis with Girls Lens in Suba and Bunyala Districts Report. Nairobi Ndegwa, J.M., Norrish, P., Mead, R., Kimani, C.W. and Wachira, A.M. 2000. A research process and methodology focusing on indigenous Kenyan chicken. Proceedings of the International Network for Family poultry Development symposium during the XXI world’s poultry congress, 20-24 August 2000, Montreal, Canada, pp3-12 Nyaga, P. (2007). Poultry Sector Country Review. FAO Animal Production and Health Division, Emergency Centre for Trans boundary Animal Diseases, Socio Economics, Production and Biodiversity Unit, FAO,Rome,Italy. Okeno, T, O., Kahi, A, K., and Peters, K, J., (2011) Characterization of Indigenous chicken Production systems in Kenya. Tropical Animal Health production 405 Republic of Kenya (2010). Agriculture Development Strategy (ASDS) 2010-2020. Government Printers, Nairobi. Kenya. Upton, M., (2000). The Livestock Revolution, Implications for smallholder Agriculture: A Case Study of Milk and Poultry Production in Kenya. A policy Discussion Paper, 1, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome. An Overview of Kenya Dorper Sheep Value Chain Status Kariuki, S.N. Dorper Breeders Society of Kenya *Corresponding address: contact@rimpaestates.com Background Information Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL), make up over 80% of Kenya's total land surface, supports over 25% of the human population and over half the livestock population. These areas are characterized by a very fragile ecosystem with frequent drought occurrence, scarce and erratic rainfall. The main economic activity of the ASAL is nomadic pastoralism, which utilizes 24.2 million hectares (50%), while ranching and other livestock keeping utilizes 15.1 million hectares (31%.) . The remaining 9.1 million hectares or 19% is used for crop agriculture including agro- pastoralism. The livestock sub-sector contributes 10%-15% of GDP and 30% of AgDP for both red meat sub- sector (cattle, sheep, goats, and camels), the white meat sub-sector (pigs, poultry) and other products (milk, hides/skins). Kenya is estimated to have about 28 million goats and 18 million sheep, majority being indigenous breeds. Majority of small ruminants reared in Kenya (over 58% sheep and 66% goats) are kept in ASAL zones which predominantly practice pastoral-nomadic system of livestock production. These are zones where breeding strategies for the small ruminant flocks face a delicate balance between adaptation and productivity. The small ruminant breed for this harsh environment is determined by their ability to withstand prolonged severe droughts, walk over long distances in search of water and pastures, and utilise poor quality forages for their physiological needs. Origin of Dorper Sheep and its Current Worldwide Appeal The Dorper sheep is a composite breed of South Africa developed at Grootfontein in year 1940- 50 by the Department of Agriculture in partnership with some farmers with the sole objective to produce maximum number of lambs with good mutton qualities, which could be marketed off arid and extensive grazing conditions. It was developed through the crossing of the Blackhead Persian ewes with the Dorset Horn rams. A breed society was established in 1950 in the Republic of South Africa. The Dorsian (White variety) was affiliated to Dorper society in 1964. The Dorper sheep thrive in arid to semi-tropical climate and are suitable for areas with rainfall of only 100mm to 760 mm. Although this breed was developed originally for the more arid areas of the South Africa, today they are widely spread throughout South Africa. The breed has performed well in Namibia and has been exported to many other countries throughout the world including Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Mauritius, Malawi, Burundi, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Canada, USA and Australia. 406 The Dorper sheep was introduced into Australia in 1996 through embryo transfer technology. At first, the Dorpers received opposition from the mainstream wool sheep industry, but once the Australian industry understood the unique benefits the Dorper could contribute to their lamb enterprise the breed was meet with spirited and enthusiastic demand. The natural productivity of the Dorper in Australian environment has seen rapid uptake of the breed in the lamb industry. The growth and excellent muscularity of the breed combined with its maternal attributes and ease of management has contributed to the breed being one of the fastest growing sheep breeds in Australia. This has helped the Australian breeders develop the Australian Dorper and White Dorper to a standard where their genetics are sought after world wide. A sale of an Australian White Dorper ram to Brazil for USD 45,000 in 2000 highlights this demand. Dorper sheep was introduced in the U. S. A in 1995 and they are currently the largest of the meat sheep that can shed their hair and wool coat, are medium sized, are docile, polled and low maintenance, less worm drenching is required and tail docking is not required, can breed out of season with twins being the usual. These few examples illustrate how adaptable Dorper sheep is and the way different countries have developed their lines for market purpose. Any country can uptake Dorper and exploit its special attributes for the benefit of its farmers. Current Dorper Production Systems in Kenya With regard to the production system, the majority of Dorper sheep populations are located in arid and semi-arid zones of Kenya. The keepers pursue a nomadic pastoralism production system which is ecologically forced but makes full exploitation of arid and semi-arid rangelands. The limitation in nomadic pastoralism is that it does not make systematic genetic improvement of productive traits tenable but emphasize on ensuring and promoting traits for survival. The major production systems are characterized by extensive production with mixed indigenous breeds in un- controlled breeding. The superior quality of Dorper is haphazardly used to upgrade the indigenous breeds while the progenies benefit from disease and helminthes resistance of the local breeds (e.g. the Red Maasai). In most cases pastoralists will have one Dorper breeding ram in their flock at any one time. Livestock keepers are keen to avoid inbreeding though some level of inbreeding in pastoralism system is not ruled out when replacement stock is selected within the same flock. Occasionally, bought in breeding ram are introduced from superior flocks to maintain the genetic improvement of the flocks. Ranchers are extensive producers but they are sedentary and practice programmed grazing regime and organised off-take system to ensure they strike the balance between livestock numbers and resource availability. They are commercial breeders and just like pastoralist their main breeding objectives are to maximize survivability and growth under hard climatic conditions. Ranchers are a major source of breeding materials for many smallholder livestock keepers. They also provide a steady supply of mutton to the local red meat market. In agro-pastoral and high optimal zones, Dorpers sheep is reared under sedentary and mixed farming small holder system. In this system the herds are relatively small and their numbers depends on land not put to crop cultivation. The breed is popular because of its faster growth and higher productivity than the indigenous. The breed fetches higher local market prices than the indigenous sheep or even meat goats. Challenges Faced by Dorper Sheep Breeders in Kenya 407 A major challenge experienced by the Dorper sheep breeders is availability and affordability of quality breeding rams. In most cases rams are gotten from commercial ranchers, government farms, fellow pastoralist and stud flock breeders. From among these sources, only government farms and stud flock breeders can assure the quality of the rams due to consistent record keeping. The cheapest source is from government farms due to their specific mandates in livestock improvement. As more farmers embrace Dorper breeding, the price of rams ranges between USD 280 and USD 505 per ram from commercial ranchers and stud breeders. In government stations the price for prime Dorper rams goes for between USD 168 to 280. This disparity in prices between private farms and government farms is due to subsidized price in state owned stations and farms. The other source is by importation mainly from SA where an imported breeding rams goes for not less than USD 2247 CIF. These are prices that small holder livestock keepers and nomadic pastoralist cannot easily afford. This forces desperate farmers to go for rams available in local livestock markets. The risk is that these rams are not registered have no records and their performance is not ascertained. The other important challenge is natural resource availability, accessibility, utilization, sustainability and prudent management. Given the nature of the landscape in the ASAL, natural resources and ecology are very fragile leading to severe shortages and eventual loss of livestock and conflicts. Another major challenge in this sub-sector is marketing, where it is characterized by inefficiency, imbalance, poor structure, lacking information and infrastructure. Livestock producer’s organizations are not in place or lack capacity to streamline the market conditions. Proposed Strategic Approach to these Challenges Adoption of stratified production system where breeding and production is done in stud flocks, the finishing of rams is done in feedlots, production of cheap feed supplements for use in dry season, livestock insurance to cover drought and associated risks, revamping veterinary services in ASAL and organised marketing system which all inclusive in the value chain. Suggested Strategic Targets Dorper Sheep Genetic Improvement and Conservation a) To put in to use the advances in biotechnology in promoting Dorper sheep genetic improvement and conservation programmes. b) To expand national and regional trade and increase access to Dorper sheep genetic resources for counties and countries. Establish and Strengthen Baseline Information Needs for Dorper Sheep Production. a) Community mobilization in to Dorper Sheep Learning and Breeding Groups (DSLBG). b) Collect information and build databases on the Dorper Sheep in Kenya. c) Cataloguing, characterizing and data basing of Dorper sheep genetic resources. d) To improve access to Dorper sheep baseline information to stakeholders. e) Mapping the amount and distribution of Dorper sheep and documentation of traditional production knowledge systems in order to facilitate their on-farm improvement and conservation. 408 Identify Ecosystem (Natural Resource) Management Practices and Associated Techniques and Policies to Promote Positive and Mitigate Negative Impacts on Dorper Sheep Genetic Resource. Genetic resources have been conserved over time through social systems that reinforced conservation because of their usefulness. The maintenance of breeds depends both on natural selection and on farm management. In order to develop a cohesive national Dorper sheep genetic improvement and conservation strategy, it is important to understand the ways in which these two interact, their relative importance and resource input. Develop Linkages Between Dorper Sheep Genetic Improvement and Conservation and Use and Benefit Sharing. a) Remove adverse policy restrictions for animal genetic resources. b) Commercialize animal genetic improvement and conservation services. c) Develop Benefit-sharing agreements among various players in Dorper sheep value chain. d) Market creation and support for commercialization of production of superior breeding materials. Strengthen Community Management of Natural Resources and Dorper Sheep Production a) Encourage and facilitate formation of farmer organisations, community based groups/community based organizations (CBG/CBOs), b) Build the capacity of the community groups/farmer organisations in planning and management of animal genetic resources, and their performance evaluation. c) Use of mass media and other avenues to regularly provide information relating to Animal Genetic Resources Develop Appropriate Partnerships Among Stakeholders Across the Dorper Sheep Production Value Chain Towards Dorper Sheep Genetic Resource Conservation. A major component of a national strategy should be to give official recognition and support to those institutions playing an intermediary role between communities and government agencies. NGOs/CBOs/FBOs/Farmer Organisations/Associations and livestock research organizations partner to help and facilitate local, county or national participation and involvement in Dorper sheep improvement and conservation. Resources. Presently, it is the private sector in Kenya that ensures food security for the rural population and sustains local management systems for animal genetic improvement and conservation. The livestock breeding market is not very commercialized, but control of breeding Dorper sheep is determined more by market potential than by cultural practices. Promote Access, Benefit Sharing and Indigenous Knowledge Among Players in Dorper Sheep Genetic Improvement and Conservation Programmers. At present, the recognition of indigenous knowledge rights for farmers’ varieties and traditional knowledge of animal genetic resource is problematic. In general, only the results of research and development obtained on the basis of traditional knowledge is commercially valuable and that after many years of research investment. Put in to Use the Advances in Biotechnology in Promoting Dorper Sheep Genetic Improvement and Conservation Programmes. 409 Animal genetic improvement and conservation specialists should be aware of the models presently available to national governments to formulate policies related to biotechnology in livestock production. That is AI, ET and heat synchronization techniques among others. Expand the County, National and Regional Trade and Increases Access to Dorper Sheep Genetic Resources for Farmers. a) Integration of trade and biodiversity issues into national legislation and regulations. b) International cooperation is needed on identification, early warning, monitoring e.g. biological controls. Approaches to Protecting and Promoting Dorper Sheep Enterprises in Kenya 1). Promote and safeguard livestock farmers’ rights to adequate land, water, veterinary services and security of their assets. 2). Promote and Strengthen livestock and livestock based economies through value-addition and product diversification 3). Empower livestock farmers through capacity building of their groups and organisation and encourage their individual and corporate involvement and participation in policy making 4). Authorities to adequately invest in provision of essential services to livestock farmers and also provide conducive environment and regulations for private sector service providers to effectively operate Conclusion Dorper sheep has the potential to transform the livelihoods of many livestock keepers in ASAL and thus ensuring food security. Dorper sheep has a potential market niche that can sustain the mutton value chain. The Dorper Sheep Breeders Society of Kenya has laid down a sound approach to ensure continued genetic improvement of the sheep, development of market links and farmers advisory network in the country. With climate change and its challenges to the availability of natural resources that can support livestock enterprises, Dorper stands out as a breed of choice due to its unique adaptive characteristics. The Dorper Sheep Breeders Society of Kenya makes a passionate appeal to policy makers, researchers and project developers to mainstream Dorper sheep enterprises in the national livestock agenda. Enhancing participation in the formulation and compliance to international standards to improve market access Coly, R., Bellinguez, A., Wamwayi, H. and Elsawalhy, A. African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR), P. O. 30786-00100 Nairobi, Kenya Abstract Africa’s inability to satisfactorily meet Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) standards is one of the major constraints affecting access to market for Africa’s animal resources and products. The situation is compounded by the growing consumers’ awareness and demand for safe and 410 quality food, which is increasingly becoming a driver for trade and access to market for food of animal origin. Moreover, Africa suffers low capacity in the delivery of animal health care services in terms of policy and regulatory environments, human, financial and physical resources. As a result, its animal health delivery systems are often unable to meet the sanitary standards demanded by the trading partners, preventing African countries from accessing lucrative markets outside or on the Continent. Furthermore, international standards governing global trade in livestock commodities are set with insufficient participation of African countries, which also affects ownership and compliance. This poster outlines how current activities of the African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR) in the SPS area contribute to improve market access for livestock commodities. These include building capacities to enhance compliance with international sanitary standards including their domestication in national regulations, establishing livestock certification and identification and traceability systems, supporting the harmonization of standards, regulations and related interventions at regional and continental levels and the participation of African countries in international standards setting. The preparation of coordinated and harmonized African positions for animal health standards is highlighted. Key words: common positions, compliance, coordination, harmonization Assessment of the smallholder aquaculture value chain in Eastern Kenya for sustainable fish breeding Oyieng, P. E.1*, Charo-Karisa. H.2, Kahi. K. A.3 and Ojango. J.M.K.4 1Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O Box 536, Egerton-20115, Kenya. 2The State department of Fisheries, P.O Box 58455, Nairobi-00100, Kenya. 3Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O Box 536, Egerton-20115, Kenya. 4International Livestock Research Institute P.O. Box 30709-00100 Nairobi Kenya. * Corresponding author: edpancras@gmail.com Abstract Aquaculture production in Kenyais one of the key areas targeted under the national economic stimulus program (ESP) of 2010. The sector is however in initial stages of development and there is a great need for information to support decision making as the sector grows. This study aimed to outline and identify key actors and possible interventions along the aquaculture value- chain in Eastern Province of Kenya, one of the regions targeted in the ESP. Through the evaluation of information provided by farmers, traders and key informants in the target area, it was evident that the current value chain can be divided into three main links: Production, Marketing and Consumption. Several challenges and gaps were identified along the value-chain that need to be urgently addressed. Of primary concern is the continuous sourcing of brood stock from the wild with no selection and improvement program in place, in addition to skewed marketing structures resulting from weak infrastructure and uncoordinated information sharing. The aquaculture value chain in Eastern Kenya however is still in very early phases of development, but has great opportunities for change in order to impact the livelihoods of small- holder fish farmers. Keywords:Aquaculture, fish breeding, value chain 411 Introduction Aquaculture is afast-growing food-producing sector in the world, and is now competing capture fisheries as the main source of fish (FAO, 2010). World aquaculture production attained an all- time high in 2010, at 60 million tonnes (excluding aquatic plants and non-food products), with an estimated total value of US$119 billion. Africa has increased its contribution to global production from 1.2 percent to 2.2 percent in the past ten years, albeit from a very low base. In 2010, Kenya contributed 0.94% (12,154 tonnes) to the total aquaculture production in Africa (FAO, 2012). Aquaculture production in Kenya is still insignificant on a global scale though there is a great potential for aquaculture activities that are not yet fully explored. Fish farming systems in the country are still underdeveloped and practiced at low levels of intensification (Mbugua, 2008). In order to exploit the potential of aquaculture in the country, sustainable fish breeding programmes need to be developed. These can best be introduced once the existing environment, actors and interventions required have been identified and their potential economic merit determined. A value chain approach is proposed to identify the different phases of production, processing and delivery of aquaculture products, and the key constraints and opportunities within the production system. Through value chain analysis, people and organizations that need to be involved for an intervention to succeed are identified, and their specific roles mapped out(Ashley and Mitchell, 2008). Adequate knowledge on the smallholder aquaculture value chain is currently lacking. This study aimed to outline and identify key interventions required along the value chain for aquaculture in Eastern Kenya, a region targeted for poverty reduction through improved use of inland water resources as part of the national Economic Stimulus Program (GoK, 2010). Methodology The study was carried out in Meru Central, the first district in Eastern province where aquaculture was introduced under the ESP. The district lies to the east of Mt. Kenya covering a total area of 2,982 km2 of which 1,952 km2 is for human settlement. Through one-on-one interviews with government officials and researchers at the main national aquaculture research station located in Sagana, key actors involved in aquaculture production within the area were identified. Stratified random sampling techniques were then used to determine key informants who would provide information that would inform mapping of a value chain for aquaculture production within the area. Focus group discussions with farmers and fisheries officers within each division and targeted questionnaires were used to identify key constraints to aquaculture development within the area. A total of 198 famers (112 from Meru, 42 from Nkubu and 44 from Mburuguti); 13 traders and 10 key informants provided information. Existing literature and available secondary data were also used to provide information on aquaculture within the area. Data collated was evaluated and descriptive statistics generated using the SPSS (Version 20) computer software. Results and Discussion Actors identified in the aquaculture value chain 412 The main aquaculture value chain actors identified and the proportionate access of their services by members of the communities within the target area are presented in Table 1.Three main links were determined in the value-chain: production, marketing and consumption. The largest number of actor categories were identified at the production level. These included Farmers, input suppliers and extension service providers (Table 1). Table 3: Main actors in the aquaculture value chain in Meru central and their proportionate contribution within the sites Chain position Value chain actors Roles Proportion of respondents accessing different services Production Farmers  Fish rearing  Fish marketing  Transportation of the harvest to the market Input supplies Hatcheries  Brood stock selection  Fingerling production with minimal selective breeding 99% Manufactured feeds 26.7% Own formulated feeds 73.3% Extension services Gov’t extension agents  Provision of extension services e.g. good feeding practices and pond management services 78.9% Marketing Local Fish traders Local community  Selling fish  Convenient packaging and value addition  Marketing and advertisements of the products 65.3% Local market 25.5% Urban markets 1.1% Institutions/hotels 4.5% Consumption Consumers  Purchase fish from fish farmers and fish traders  Taste and preferences dictates market trends At the input supply level, fingerlings availed to farmers by hatcheries were obtained from brood stock sourced mainly from the wild with few coming from some cultured fish. Wild brood-stock from rivers were used mainly to reduce inbreeding within cultured populations. For supply of feeds, some farmers mixed various ingredients to produce their own feeds, however, they were not aware of the requisite nutrient requirements for aquaculture production.Odame et al 2008 noted that farming inputs primarily seed, feeds and fertilizer, have an enormous potential to leverage the efforts of farmers. The extension services were provided by the District Fisheries Office (DFO). Non-Governmental organisations (NGOs) and research institutes were not involved in the provision of the extension services.A schematic presentation of the value chain is presented in Figure 1. 413 Figure 4: Schematic presentation of the smallholder aquaculture value chain The range of wholesalers, retailers and other middlemen in the fish distribution chain was diverse; however, there was no active organized marketing body. Most traders in the district are small entrepreneurs serving local markets, having limited knowledge of market demand, and using very basic means of transport (bicycles, and motor-bicycles), storage, and trading. Lack of cold storage, affects the fish quality and lowers the bargaining power of fish farmers as they have to sell their fish at reduced prices at the end of the day to avoid losses resulting from spoilage. The small-holder farmers rarely get market information, giving the traders an upper hand in obtaining higher profit margins than the farmers. Key constraints in the value chain and possible solutions The key constraints that were identified along the VC and their possible solutions are presented in Table 2. Table 4: Key constraints and possible solutions along the aquaculture value chain Key constraints Possible solutions Poor marketing system: Farmers and hatchery lack communication links to necessary market information for their produce. Poor infrastructure, lack of aquaculture product diversification.  Develop a good marketing system (domestic and international) to provide the producer a remunerative price.  Develop a market information system  Promote and facilitate value addition for aquaculture products  Develop market infrastructure (e.g. roads)  Develop investment in aquaculture through public private participation. Lack of access to credit and business know how: Microfinance can help the poor meet their financial needs to engage in aquaculture. The initial  Provide formal credit facilities to farmers  Develop business oriented extension services. Input suppliers:  Broodstock and fingerlings  Feeds  Fertilizers  Extension services Producers (Fish farmers) Restaurants/ Hotels/School Local fish traders market Urban market Consumers 414 investment capital for aquaculture (pond construction, production costs, including seed and feed) requires access to credit or other sources of financial capital. Inadequate certified quality seeds and low outputs: This is a major problem facing most parts of the country. Most farmers are forced to rely on each other for seeds. Such seeds are sometimes of poor genetic quality.  Breeding programmes to expand access to improved aquaculture genetic material  Promoting an integrated aquaculture production system  Promote diversification of aquaculture products through recruitment of new aquaculture species.  Enhance collaboration and linkages with relevant research institutions/stakeholders to undertake a demand driven research. Inadequate training programs for extension agents and farmers: Training programs to equip extension agents with necessary and current knowledge and technologies on aquaculture are lacking hence farmers lack the know-how.  Train extension agents in current aquaculture related technologies and effective means of extension service provision.  Production of technological extension package for both farmers and extension agents.  Adequate funding of the extension departments Lack of affordable good quality feeds: This forces farmers to use poor quality feeds that result in poor production.  Develop standards for fish feeds  Promote best practices in processing and storage of feedstuffs  Research on using locally available feed materials for feed formulation and production of affordable feeds Poor record keeping by farmers: Inefficient statistical data collection has impeded information dissemination on viability of aquaculture.  Farmers should be trained on record keeping and its importance Weak policies and legal framework: The sector operates without a comprehensive policy and legislation. This has reduced management and research effectiveness, discouraged investment and constrained production and growth.  Develop an aquaculture policy and legislation  Develop a national aquaculture master plan  Develop aquaculture operating procedures Aquaculture development Aquaculture production in the region and Kenya at large is mainly practiced by smallholder fish farmers.However, the fish farming systems are still underdeveloped and practiced at low levels of intensification. In order to fully exploit the potential for smallholder aquaculture farmers in the country, there needs to be an integration between intensification and breeding. For the breeding programmes to successful and sustainable, meeting the needs of the various stakeholders in the aquaculture sector, a value chain approach should be adopted. A value chain approach will help in addressing the various problems or challenges along the value chain that would help boost the efficiency in this subsector. Value Chain Analysis (VCA) can assist in identifying ways in which the end user can benefit through creation of value (Bett et al, 2012). Ashley and Mitchell (2008) noted that VCA can also inform many different kinds of interventions whether or not their overall aim is to enhance performance of the chain through addressing of specific constraints and market failures.The improved fish species through breeding programs have their challenges and specificities as to how they can be delivered to their end users. A value chain approach in the implementation of the breeding programmes will be able to create vital links 415 between the science component with the other components of the value chain like policies, gender, knowledge management/capacity development and markets, hence making the breeding programmes sustainable Conclusion Several gaps exist in the value-chain that need to be addressed both at the production and marketing levels. Of primary concern is the lack of a directional selection and improvement program for brood stock of various strains of fish. Suppliers of brood stock to a high extent use wild stock for breeding, resulting in a random quality of fingerlings being availed to farmers who are then unable to guarantee any specific quality of fish for the market. The marketing of fish products is also skewed with traders rather than primary producers reaping the highest profit margins from the sale of fish. The aquaculture value chain in Eastern Kenya is still in very early phases of development, but has great opportunities for change in order to impact the livelihoods of small-holder fish farmers. Acknowledgement The authors wish to acknowledge Sagana Aquaculture Centre, Kenya, which through the Kenya Agricultural Productivity and Agribusiness Project (KAPAP) provided support and facilitation to perform the research. References Ashley C and Mitchell J. 2008. Doing the right thing approximately not the wrong thing precisely: Challenges of monitoring impacts of pro-poor interventions in tourism value chains.Working Paper 291. Overseas Development Institute, SNV and IFC, London. Bett H. K, Bett R. C, Peters K. J, Kahi A. K. and Bokelmann W. 2012. Linking Utilization and Conservation of Indigenous Chicken Genetic Resources to Value Chains. Journal of Animal Production Advances, 2 (1), 33-51. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2012. Designing and implementing livestock value chain studies – A practical aid for Highly Pathogenic and Emerging Disease (HPED) control. FAO Animal Production and Health Guidelines No.10. Rome. Government of Kenya (GoK). 2010. Kenya Vision 2030: A Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya, GoK: 43-76. Mbugua, H. M. 2008. Aquaculture in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges. Retrieved May,2013,from: http://www.fisheries.go.ke/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=12&Itemid =94.pdf. Odame H, Musyoka P andKere J. 2008. How national public policies encourage or impede agribusiness innovation: cases of maize, tomato and dairy in Kenya. A component of the World Bank Institute and the Governments of Denmark and Ireland study on How National Public Policies Encourage or Impede Agribusiness Innovations. 416 Sub-theme 4: Africa's human capacity challenge for animal agriculture: which way now? Dairy information topics and their importance to smallholder dairy farmers in Limuru and South Kinangop sub-counties, Kenya Mbugua, D.K.1*, Matofari, J.2, Ngigi, M.2, Irungu, K.R.G.1, Nyambati, E.M.1, Mailu, S.K.1 and Kariuki, J.N.1 1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Naivasha. P.O. Box 25 Naivasha 20117; 2Egerton University Njoro. P.O. Box 536 Egerton *Corresponding author: david.mbugua22@gmail.com Abstract Dairy cattle farming is important in providing milk, meat, manure and as farmer assets in Kenya. It creates employment for smallholder farmers, traders, processors and input suppliers. However, milk production is below the cattle’s expected potential. Among the factors attributed to this low production is farmer’s insufficient access to technical information. The study objectives, therefore, were to determine the number of dairy management topics farmers accessed and rating of these topics. Cross-sectional survey design was used where systematic and purposeful sampling procedures were applied. Data analysis were by the use of descriptive (frequencies, percentages and mean) and inferential statistical tools. Dairy farming in Limuru was characterised by more female managed enterprises while South Kinangop had more male managers. Male farmers had more education than females in both study areas. There was significant difference in number of topics accessed among gender. However, farmer education positively correlated with number of dairy information topics accessed. Most accessed information were pest and disease control, fodder production and conservation and making feed rations. The least accessed information to farmers were milk marketing, accessing credit, seasonal production control and cattle recording with the official dairy recording services. There was no difference in rating importance of breeding management, milk hygiene and recording cattle which showed concurrence on importance attached to these management practices in the sub-counties. With varying education level, there were no differences in rating of some of the topics although younger farmers appreciated importance of home based value addition, breeding, record keeping and hygiene. Extension efforts should be geared towards farmer education on control of breeding, production control, record keeping and livestock feed management with emphasis placed on female farmers who had least access. Key words: Dairy, information topics, access, smallholder dairy Introduction Dairy cattle farming is important in providing milk, meat, manure and capital asset to farmers in Central Kenya. It is a significant source of employment to small holder farmers, traders, processors and input suppliers. However, milk production, even in high potential areas, is below lactating cows expected potential (Wambugu, 2000). One of the factors attributed to this low production is the farmer’s insufficient access to technical information which has shown to reduce efficiency in resource use for dairy farming (Makokha et al., 2004). In agriculture, the role of extension has traditionally been vested in public extension predominantly within the ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Fisheries. The extension services have an important role in sharing knowledge, technologies and agricultural information in order to transform subsistence farming to modern and commercial agriculture (GoK, 2012). 417 Insufficient technical information flow has remained the main hindrance to the dairy sector. In particular, information on dairy cattle management that includes appropriate feeding practices, required milk quality standards, management of livestock diseases, appropriate breeding methods, value addition, access to credit and market requirements are key constraints to enhancement of productivity. This study focused on Limuru and South Kinangop Sub-counties where dairy farming is intensive and extensive systems respectively. There is lack of information about specific dairy farming information required by dairy farmers practicing intensive farming in Limuru and extensive farming in South Kinangop Sub-counties Objectives 1. To determine the number of dairy management topics that farmers accessed 2. To determine the farmers rating on important dairy farming information in the two sub- counties Methodology The study used cross-sectional survey design using systematic and purposeful sampling procedures where transects were drawn in each location and every 5th household on either side of the road visited in Limuru and South Kinangop sub-counties (Figure 1). The household owner, spouse or other senior member of the household was interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Where none of these were present, or the household did not have dairy cattle, then the next household was picked. Responses were based on farmer recall for a period of one year preceding the study. The sampling frames were the locations in the two sub-counties. Ngecha, Rironi and Limuru locations were sampled in Limuru sub-county based on different exposure levels of government extension service (Wambugu, 2000) while in South Kinangop sub-county, three locations (Nyakio, Njabini and Magumu) were sampled (Figure1 ). The sample size was a proportion of the dairy households that were 63 and 281 households in Limuru and south Kinangop respectively. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 20. Results and discussion Farmer characteristics Limuru dairy farmers practiced intensive dairy farming South Kinangop mainly practiced extensive farming. Proportionally, Limuru sub-county had more female dairy farmers while South Kinangop had more male dairy farmers (Table 1). This implies that labour in dairy farming is provided mainly by women in Limuru and men in South Kinangop. Men were more involved in off-farm employment activities in Limuru, being peri-urban compared to South Kinangop which mainly is a rural setting. Males had more education than females in both study areas. Farmers with post primary education were more in Limuru (49%) than in South Kinangop (33%) sub- counties. In both sub-counties, most farmers had attained at least primary level of education. 418 Figure 1: Study sites of Limuru and South Kinangop Sub-counties in Kenya 419 Table 1. Gender and education level of smallholder farmers in Limuru and South Kinangop sub-counties Source: Survey data (2010) Farmer education level and access to dairy topics Farmer education level was positively correlated with the number of dairy topics accessed. However, using Mann-Whitney test for independent samples, there was significant difference in number of topics accessed, (p=0.258) in the two sub-counties. There was significant (p=0.000) and positive correlation (+0.249) in number of topics accessed and education level. Mburu (2013) reported that significant relationship between age and education of smallholder farmers and access to agricultural information using different channels Gender and information topics accessed Women role in agricultural labour has continually grown (World Bank, 2012) and therefore their role, responsibilities, access to resources including agricultural information is required. Men accessed more dairy information topics compared to their female counterparts. Using Mann- Whitney test for independent samples, there was significant difference (p=0.003) among gender in number of dairy information topics accessed. This asymmetry showed that training should focus on female dairy farmers more than to male farmers. The national extension policy (GoK, 2012) has identified the challenge of developing comprehensive and dynamic extension packages that consider client socio-economic conditions and gender among other issues. The information packaging should address this information asymmetry among gender. The least accessed dairy information by farmers in the two study sites were milk marketing, accessing credit, production control in wet and dry seasons and recording of dairy cattle with the dairy recording services of Kenya (DRSK) (Tables 2 and 3). In both study sites, female farmers had least access to information on production control in wet and dry seasons and recording of cattle. More female farmers seemed to have accessed information on calf rearing compared to male famers. Sensitization on new technologies through visits by technical staff and discussions during sector meetings has been shown to promote adoption of technologies (Nsabimana and Masabo, 2005). To control the perennial production of milk production fluctuation between dry and wet seasons, extension efforts should be geared towards farmer education on control of breeding, record keeping and livestock feed management. Utilizing inclusive dairy value chain platforms, credit provision should complement technical training in feeding, breeding and marketing. Farmer characteristics Category Limuru South Kinangop Total Gender n % n % n % Male 27 43 151 54 178 52 Female 36 57 130 46 166 48 Education level Non formal 10 16 34 12 44 13 Adult education 0 0 7 2 7 2 Primary 22 35 149 53 171 50 Secondary 21 33 81 29 102 30 Tertiary 10 16 10 4 20 6 420 Table 2: Gender responses on dairy topics accessed (%) Dairy farming topics accessed Sub-county Limuru (N=63) South Kinangop (N=281) Male Femal e Male Female Pest and disease control 8.7 11.7 12.2 9.9 Fodder production and conservation 9.6 14.8 11.6 10.8 Making feed rations 5.7 7.4 11.3 9.8 Livestock housing 3.0 3.5 5.2 3.8 Calf rearing 1.7 4.8 2.6 2.8 Feeding management 5.2 4.8 5.5 3.6 Milk hygiene and quality control 2.2 5.2 2.4 0.9 Production control in wet and dry seasons 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.1 Accessing credit 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 Marketing milk - - 0.6 0.4 Record keeping 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 Recording dairy cattle 0.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 General husbandry 4.8 4.3 2.6 2.5 Total 42.6 57.4 55.0 45.0 Source: Survey results, 2010 Most accessed dairy topics were pest and disease control, fodder production and conservation and making feed rations. 421 Table 3: Dairy topics accessed and farmer level of education Dairy topic accessed Non formal Adult literacy Primary Secondary Tertiary Limuru South Kinangop Limuru South Kinangop Limuru South Kinangop Limuru South Kinangop Limuru South Kinangop Pest and disease control 18.2 19.4 - 21.9 19 23.4 22.1 20.4 22.2 25 Fodder production 24.2 25 - 21.9 26.2 22.7 22.1 21 25 22.7 Making feed rations 15.2 16.7 - 21.9 14.3 22.7 9.1 19.7 16.7 22.7 Livestock housing 9.1 7.4 - 3.1 6 9.6 7.8 9.1 2.8 9.1 Calf rearing 6.1 4.6 - 9.4 6 4.7 3.9 6.8 13.9 4.5 Feed management 9.1 6.5 - 6.3 13.1 8.8 9.1 10.7 5.6 9.1 Milk hygiene 6.1 3.7 - 0 4.8 2.4 11.7 4.9 5.6 4.5 Seasonal Production control 0 0.9 - 0 0 0.2 0 0.6 2.8 0 Accessing credit 3 0 - 0 0 0.2 0 0.3 0 0 Record keeping 0 0 - 3.1 0 0.4 2.6 1.3 0 2.3 Recording dairy cattle 0 0 - 0 0 0 2.6 0.3 0 0 General husbandry 9.1 13 - 9.4 10.7 4.3 9.1 4.2 5.6 0 422 Farmer rating of information topics In the current study, farmers were asked to rate the most important to the least important topics that they felt could assist in improving milk production and sales. In both sub-counties, there was no significant difference in rating for breeding management, milk hygiene and recording cattle (Table 4). This indicated concurrence on importance attached to these management practices in dairy farming regardless of level of intensification in production. There was significant difference in rating for pest and disease control, fodder production and conservation, feed ration formulation, livestock housing, calf rearing, home based milk value addition, production control in wet and dry seasons and record keeping. Under the extensive system in south Kinangop sub-county, farmers had more experience in livestock diseases especially tickborne diseases compared to Limuru where intensive production was practiced. Due to limitation in land for grazing in Limuru, farmers attached a lot of importance to feed production and conservation compared to south Kinangop farmers who had more land allocated to grazing. Due to the same reason, livestock housing was considered more important in Limuru. Milk marketing challenges were more evident in south Kinangop where gluts affected farm income more than Limuru. Marketing was therefore rated more highly in south Kinangop compared to Limuru where due to proximity to urban markets and strong co-operatives, milk marketing was less challenging. With varying education level, there were significant differences in rating of feed formulation, livestock housing, breeding management, milk hygiene, record keeping and recording of cattle. Similarly, with varying age of the farmers, there was significant difference in rating for breeding management, milk hygiene and quality control, homebased milk value addition and record keeping. Younger farmers were more likely to appreciate importance of home based value addition, breeding management, record keeping and hygiene. 423 Table 4: Farmer rating in importance of dairy management topics Figures with* are statistically significant (p<0.05). Analytical test used was Kruskal-Wallis Test for independent samples which unlike ANOVA, does not place restriction of normal distribution of observations. Conclusions and recommendations In both sub-counties, male farmers had attained more education than their female counterparts. Proportionally, more Limuru farmers had attained secondary and post secondary education compared to those in South Kinangop. Farmer education level was positively correlated with number of information topics accessed. Female farmers accessed significantly less number of information topics compared to male farmers indicating that training should focus more on female farmers. A further study is required to understand why female farmers accessed less dairy information for extension intervention to reduce the asymmetry. Least accessed dairy information to farmers in the two study sites were milk marketing, accessing credit, production control in wet and dry seasons and recording of dairy cattle with the dairy recording services of Kenya (DRSK). To control the perennial production of milk production fluctuation between dry and wet seasons, extension efforts should be geared towards farmer education on control of breeding , production control, record keeping and livestock feed management with emphasis placed on female farmers who had least access. References Government of Kenya, 2012. National Agricultural Sector Extension Policy (NASEP), June 2012. Agricultural Sector Co-ordination Unit (ASCU) Makokha, S., J. Karugia, S. Staal, and O. Kosura, (2004). Combining stated and revealed preference methods: A dairy adoption case study of western Kenya. http://www.smallholderdairy.org/Makokha et al., 2004 dairy adoption western Kenya- KARI pdf. Accessed July 23rd, 2009. Dairy topics Variable that influence rating of topics Years of experience Education level Gender Age group Sub- county Primary occupation Pest and disease control 0.238 0.708 0.987 0.670 0.000* 0.426 Fodder production and conservation 0.147 0.308 0.097 0.801 0.038* 0.034* Feed ration formulation 0.864 0.007* 0.216 0.276 0.015* 0.380 Livestock housing 0.038* 0.003* 0.582 0.203 0.000* 0.023* Calf rearing 0.275 0.439 0.625 0.791 0.000* 0.622 Breeding management 0.038* 0.034* 0.062 0.003* 0.144 0.349 Milk hygiene and quality control 0.087 0.007* 0.148 0.002* 0.091 0.647 Home based milk value addition 0.318 0.342 0.761 0.001* 0.009* 0.319 Production control in wet and dry seasons 0.113 0.058 0.018* 0.113 0.000* 0.459 Record keeping 0.016* 0.049* 0.062 0.000* 0.000* 0.071 Recording cattle 0.014* 0.000* 0.015* 0.935 0.310 0.024* 424 Mburu P (2013). Factors influencing access to agricultural information by smallholder farmers through ICT channels in Deiya location Kiambu County. MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi, November 2013. Nsabimana and Masabo, 2005. Factors influencing adoption of agricultural technologies in Kiruhura District of Rwanda. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, Vol.7. Pp 759-760. African Crop Science Society, 2005 Wambugu, M.N., 2000. Extension and its effect on dairy cattle nutrition and productivity in smallholder dairy enterprises in Kiambu District. MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya World Bank, 2012. Gender issues in monitoring and evaluation in agriculture, November 2012. Accessed at http:www.genderinag.org/files/gender issues in monitoring and evaluation inAgriculture.pdf on 4th April 2014 Factors influencing smallholder dairy farmers' participation in voluntary compliance of decent work practices in Nakuru county Kenya Ogola, T.D.O.1, Lagat, J.K.1, Kosgey, I.S.2,3, Kaufmann, B.4 and Margarita, L.4 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Egerton-20115, Kenya; 2Department of Animal Sciences, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536 -20115 Egerton, Kenya; 3Laikipia University, P.O. Box 1100-20300 Nyahururu, Kenya; 4DITSL,Gmbh Witzenhausen, Federal Republic of Germany *Corresponding author; Isaac_kosgey@yahoo.co.uk Abstract The decent work concept is based on four pillars, namely; employment, employment rights, social dialogue and social security. However, the uptake of decent work practices in smallholder dairy farms in Kenya is poorly understood. This paper explores the linkage between socio- economic status of smallholder farmers and compliance to decent work standards. Data was obtained using purposive and snowballing, which resulted in 123 farmers being interviewed. Three index scales were constructed to measure decent work based on a composite index founded on the four pillars of social security, social dialogue and employment rights. Ordinal logistic regression was used as a tool to model the composite index with respect to ages, marital status, literacy level, gender, income source, level of income and breed. The analysis revealed that there was a significant relationship between decent work level, breed of dairy animal and education level of the respondent. Consequently, policies that would address inadequate genetic capacity of dairy animals and ensure improved literacy levels for the general populace could enhance decent work interventions. For education, this can be partnerships between labour organizations with adult literacy or extension institutions and programs to incorporate general awareness campaigns. Key words: Socio-economic characteristics, Decent work, Smallholder dairy farmers, Ordinal logistic model Introduction 425 During the last decade, extensive labour market reforms have been undertaken in Kenya in an effort by policy makers to improve the performance of the country’s labour markets. Essentially, the laws were to lead to improved labour standards for all workers and, consequently, contribute towards formalization of informal employment and achievement of decent work. These laws were set out through the Employment Act (GOK, 2007a), Labour Institutions Act (GOK, 2007b), Labour Relations Act (2007c), Occupational Safety and Health Act (GOK, 2007d), Work Injury Benefits Act (2007e). An aspect of these reforms has been ensuring that labour laws are in consonance to the decent work concept. The concept entails four main pillars, namely; employment rights, social security and social dialogue (ILO, 1999). Related to these four pillars are several elements as criteria for quality employment. These elements include equal opportunity and treatment in employment, adequate earnings and productive work, decent hours, stability and security of work, safe work environment, social benefits, and combining work and family life (Anker et al., 2002; Bescond et al., 2003; Bonnet et al., 2003; Ghai 2003). Dairy production in Kenya plays an important role in economic growth and employment. According to Ouma et al. (2007), close to 1.8 million small-scale farmers are involved in dairy farming. Farmers also account for most (87%) of employment opportunities at the farm-level. Labour laws in Kenya under the decent work framework represent opportunities for workers in the dairy sector but at the same time exciting challenges for smallholder’s dairy farmers in the country. Better labour practices can be achieved by proper implementation or adherence to labour laws. Factors which can affect the employment relationship and or dairy operations include characteristics of the employer, employee, external product market and characteristic of the job itself (Chantalakhana, 1999; Bewley & Forth, 2010). Research on determinants to non- compliance to labour regulation is scarce (Marshall, 2007). The current study was designed to evaluate the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of the dairy farmers and compliance to labour codes associated with decent work conditions, and borrows heavily from adoption studies. Current economic theory of adoption is based on the assumption that the potential adopter makes a choice based on maximization of expected utility, subject to prices, policies, personal characteristics and natural resource assets (Just & Zilberman, 1983; Caswell et al., 2001). With the decision to comply or to not to comply, the producer is choosing the alternative that maximizes utility. Methodology The study was undertaken in Nakuru County, Kenya. A purposive and snowball sampling technique was employed in the selection of respondent farmers in the study area, resulting in 123 smallholder dairy farmers being interviewd. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the socio-economic features of the farmers and the ordinal logistic model used to capture the degree of association between farm and farmer’s characteristic influencing compliance to labour standards governing the employment relationship. To operationalize the model, the dependent variable, the Cumulative Decent Work Index (CDWI), was constructed using four key decent work pillars; employment, employment rights, social security and social dialogue. Each indicator had a number of sub-indicators. These corresponded to employment contract, adequate wages, working hours, working days, provision of leave, social security in terms of health insurance and pension, and being a membership to a workers’ union. Each sub-indicator was assigned a quantitative rank of 1 or 0 based on the field survey. The total score for a respondent was obtained by summing up the score obtained on the sub-indicator. Depending on the extent of compliance of improved technologies, the respondents were categorized as low, medium or high adopters. 426 Given the dependent variable (was of ordinal categorical nature derived through summing up all sub-indicators of decent work pillars) an ordered logit model was employed to estimate the influence of independent variables (farm socio-economic and farm factors) on decent work practices categories. The ordered logit model is built around a latent regression in the same manner as the binomial logit model. This was presented as y* = ß’x + Ɛi, where y* is the underlying latent variable that indexes the level of compliance of decent work practices making, x a vector of parameters to be estimated and Ɛ the stochastic error term. The latent variable exhibits itself in ordinal categories, which could be coded as 0, 1, 2, 3, …, j. The response of category j is, therefore, observed when the underlying continuous response falls in the jth interval as shown below: y = 0 if y* ≤ 0 = 1 if 0 > y* ≤ ∂1 = 2 if ∂1 > y* ≤ ∂2 = 3 if ∂2 > y* ≤ ∂3 = j if ∂j-1 ≤ y* The foregoing is a form of censoring, with the ∂’s being unknown parameters to be estimated with ß (Green 2000). The independent variables presented in Table 1 below were selected for the study. Table 1. Description of Variables and their Hypothesized Signs Variable Description Age Age of farmer Sizeland Farm area (acres) [genFar=1.00] Gender of farmer (1= Male, 2=Female) [A9b=1.00] Breed of animal ( 1= exotic, 2 = cross or indigenous) [iwincome=1.00] Income from livestock (1=<5000, 2=5001-10000, 3=10001-30000, 4=>30000 [hgrdelc=1.00] Level of education (1=Illiterate, 2= Primary, 3= Secondary, 4= University, 5= Vocational [wymsourc1=1.00] Source of income (1=farming ,2= farming and other) [forinf=1.00] Milk selling channel (I=formal, 2=informal) Results and discussion Factors affecting tier level of decent work practices The ordinal logistic model (OLM) model fitted established that systematic effects on tier level of decent work practices was related to the animal breed and education level. In relation to animal breed, the B coefficient was .985. This indicates that farmers with exotic animals were 2.78 times more inclined than farmers with crosses or indigenous animals to employ more decent work practices. This implied that inadequacy of genetic capacity (genetic differences may indirectly play a role in farmers’ uptake of decent work practices). Crossbreeds may deny farmers income through lower productivity. It has been shown that breed group affects lactation (Kiwuwa et al., 1983). According to Nicholson et al. (2004), ownership of dairy cows can result in positive outcomes for smallholder households, notably higher incomes associated with increased milk production and sales. Therefore, selection might contribute to improving economic net merits of dairy cattle and contribute to achieving decent work. By having exotic 427 pure breed dairy cows may imply that the marginal cost of implementing certain labour practices decreases and, therefore, producers may be more likely to take up more decent work practices. There was a strong association between level of education and decent work index. This was particularly true for farmers who were either illiterate or had not proceeded beyond secondary school level of education. The significant positive coefficient for farmers who had not received formal education and primary school level of education was 3.947 and 2.26, respectively. Illiterate farmers and those with primary school level of education were 52 and 9.73 times more likely to employ more decent work practices, respectively. This suggests that decent work programmes specifically designed to reach this unique group has potential. The extent of post- primary education does not seem important, probably due to farmers being of similar magnitude in the three computed compliance level on decent work practices of high, low and medium. Consequently, there is need to improve on awareness campaigns for this group of producers. There appeared to be relatively little relationship between income levels and compliance to voluntary adoption of decent work practices. However, with respect to compliance to voluntary uptake of labour practices, producers deriving income in the range of 10001-30000 were 0.19 times more likely while those with 5001-10000 and <5000 were15 times and 0.10 times more likely, respectively. Generally, as income increases, producers are likely to employ more decent work practices. Although similarly insignificant, those selling milk through the formal channel were more likely than those selling informally to employ more decent work practices. Table 2: Relationship between farmer and farm attributes and extent of compliance to labour practices by smallholder dairy farmers from ordinal regression model Attribute Estimate Std. Error Wald df Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Threshold [comp1 = 1.00] -.646 1.910 .115 1 .735 -4.389 3.097 [comp1 = 2.00] 3.601 1.978 3.314 1 .069 -.276 7.477 Location Hmdcinco -.140 .135 1.081 1 .299 -.405 .124 Age .010 .019 .307 1 .580 -.026 .047 Sizeland .117 .103 1.288 1 .257 -.085 .319 [genFar=1.00] .171 .482 .126 1 .722 -.774 1.117 [genFar=2.00] 0a . . 0 . . . [A9b=1.00]* .985 .581 2.873 1 .090 -.154 2.124 [A9b=2.00] 0a . . 0 . . . [iwincome=1.00] -2.229 1.395 2.551 1 .110 -4.963 .506 [iwincome=2.00] -1.868 1.275 2.148 1 .143 -4.367 .630 [iwincome=3.00] -1.614 1.240 1.693 1 .193 -4.045 .817 [iwincome=4.00] 0a . . 0 . . . [hgrdelc=1.00]** 3.947 1.818 4.714 1 .030 .384 7.510 [hgrdelc=2.00] 2.689 1.143 5.534 1 .019 .449 4.930 [hgrdelc=3.00] .675 .733 .846 1 .358 -.763 2.112 [hgrdelc=4.00] .718 1.070 .451 1 .502 -1.378 2.814 428 [hgrdelc=5.00] 0a . . 0 . . . [wymsourc1=1.00] -.040 .480 .007 1 .934 -.981 .901 [wymsourc1=2.00] 0a . . 0 . . . [forinf=1.00] .165 .527 .098 1 .754 -.868 1.198 [forinf=2.00] 0a . . 0 . . . a. This parameter was set to zero because it was redundant. *Significant at 10%; **significant at 5%; ***significant at 1%. Conclusion The major factor that influenced farmers’ level of compliance related to the breed of the dairy animal and literacy level. Therefore, policies that would address inadequate genetic capacity of dairy animals and ensure improved literacy levels for the general populace could enhance decent work interventions. With regards to education, partnering with adult literacy classes, agriculture programmes and labour organizations to incorporate more information and exposure regarding decent work practices could be an important contact point. This will strengthen capacity of the farmers and facilitate integration into decent work practices. However, further theoretical and empirical research is needed to develop a deeper understanding of the detailed determinants of the compliance decision. Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the German Academic Exchange Service Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst (DAAD) in conducting the research. The authors are thankful to the University of Egerton, Kassel University and Faislabad University academic and administrative staff, and colleagues for their support and moral advice to conduct the study, and direct and indirect contributions to this study. Thanks to the respondents for their time, patience and cooperation during data collection. References Anker, R., Chernshev, I., Egger, P., Mehran, F., & Ritter, J., 2002. Measuring Decent Work with Statistical Indicators. Working paper No. 2, Policy Integration Department, International Labour Office Geneva. Bescond, D., Chataignier, A., & Mehran, F., 2003. Seven indicators to measure decent work: An international comparison. International Labour Review, Special Issue: Measuring Decent Work, 142(2), 179-212. Bewley, H., & Forth, J., 2010. ‘Vulnerability and Adverse Treatment in the Workplace’ Employment Relations Research Series 112, Department for Business Innovation & Skills, September URN 10/1127. Bonnet, F., Figeroa, J., & Standing, G., 2003. A family of decent work indexes. International Labour Review, Special Issue: Measuring Decent Work, 142(2), 213-238. Caswell, M., Fuglie, K., Ingram, C., Jans, S., & Kascak, C. (2001). Adoption of agricultural production practices: Lessons learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project. United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report No. AER792. Chantalakhana, C., 1999. Research priorities for smalholder dairying in Falvey, L. & Chantalakhana, C. 1999 (eds) .Smallhoder Dairying in the tropics. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya 462pp Ghai, D., 2003. Decent work: Concept and indicators. International Labour Review, 142(2). 429 GOK, 2007a. Employment Act 2007. GOK, 2007b. Labour Institutions Act 2007. GOK, 2007c. Labour Relations Act 2007. GOK, 2007d. Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007 GOK, 2007e. Work Injury Benefits Act 2007 Green. W.H., 2000. Econometric Analysis, 4th ed., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ILO, 1999. Decent work, Report of the Director-General, International Labour Conference, 87th Session, Geneva, Switzerland. Just, E. R., & Zilberman, D., 1983. Stochastic structure, farm size and technology adoption in developing agriculture .Oxford. Economic . Paper 35 (2): 307-328. Kiwuwa, G.H., Trail, J.C.M., Kurtu, M.Y., Worku, G., Anderson, F.M., & Durkin, J., 1983 Crossbreed dairy cattle productivity in Arsi region Ethiopia Crossbred. ILCA Research Report No.11 International Livestock Centre for Africa. Marshall, A., 2007. Explaining non-compliance with labour legislation in Latin America: A cross- country analysis. Discussion paper International Institute for Labour Studies Nicholson, C. F., Thornton, P. K., & Muinga, R. W. (2004). Household‐level Impacts of Dairy Cow Ownership in Coastal Kenya. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 55(2), 175-195. Ouma, R., Njoroge, L., Romney, D., Ochungo, P., Staal, S., Baltenweck, I., 2007. Targeting Dairy Interventions in Kenya: A Guide for Development Planners, Researchers and Extension Workers. SDP/KDDP, Nairobi, Kenya. 50 pp. Smallholder dairy farming in Tanzania: farming practices, and animal health and public health challenges and opportunities Alonso, S.1*, Toye, P.1, Msalya, G.2, Grace, D.1 and Unger, F.1 1International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; 2Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania *corresponding author: s.alonso@cgiar.org Abstract Smallholder dairy farming is seen as a viable and promising activity to support the livelihoods of cattle keepers in low income countries. This farming system, characterized by small herds of improved cattle raised under zero-grazing, is proven to lead to better milk yields, but also to require more constant and demanding inputs and resources to sustain production. Moreover, endemic diseases and the poor knowledge on disease control by farmers, along with the limited availability of veterinary services presents challenges for effective farming. We conducted a cross sectional survey among smallholder dairy farmers in Tanzania to understand the farm management practices, animal health, access to veterinary services and knowledge and attitudes towards public health of farmers. We aimed to understand the challenges being faced by farmers and the opportunities to overcome these. In addition, we collected blood samples from sick animals for screening for a range of cattle diseases. Milk production was found to be suboptimal, with only few lactating animals in each herd and average milk yields of 9 liters per day. Cattle diseases were an important threat to farmers, but they lacked knowledge and capacity on disease prevention and control. Farming and milk harvesting practices were in general acceptable, but farmers had very poor knowledge on zoonosis and on practices that 430 can mitigate milk contamination. Improvements on farming practices could be made to limit public risk of direct and milk-borne disease transmission to farmers and consumers. Keywords: milk, smallholder dairy farmers, farm management, animal disease, zoonosis. Introduction Livestock is an essential source of nutriment and wealth for humans worldwide. Despite controversial opinions such as the environmental impact of intensive livestock farming and the negative health effects of excessive meat consumption, animal derive food products remain not only the most efficient source of micronutrients to sustain life, but represent a basic source of income and basis of livelihoods for many farming communities around the world. Livestock farming must be effective in producing the biggest yields with the lowest inputs. The high mechanization levels and production effectiveness achieved in richest countries contrast with the inefficiencies in livestock production in low income countries, where the scarce environmental resources and limited access to inputs and markets conditions the capacity of farmers to maximize outputs. Nevertheless, in these countries farmers depend on livestock as a main basis of the family diet and income. In East Africa, the predominantly large extensively raised herds are proving challenging to achieve appropriate yields and smallholding zero- grazing farming is looked up as an alternative that can provide greater yields and more sustained incomes. In this type of farming system, farmers keep small numbers of improved (crossbreeds) animals that have the potential to produce better yields, but are also more demanding in terms of environment and nutritional requirements, among others3. In addition, the system presents many challenges, and the appropriate context and infrastructure need to be available to ensure farmers are supported with the necessary services and inputs that will help maximize the benefits and outcomes of this type of farming. This study aimed at assessing animal farming practices among smallholder dairy farmers and the animal health situation and management in the herds. We also explored the knowledge and practices towards public health protection. We finally conduct a critical analysis of the animal health and public health challenges faced in this type of farming system and discuss opportunities for improvement. Materials and methods We conducted a cross sectional survey among smallholder dairy cattle farmers in three districts in two regions (Morogoro and Tanga) in Tanzania between October and December 2013. A structured questionnaire was administered to participating farmers collecting information on farm management practices, animal health, access to veterinary services and knowledge and attitudes towards public health. In addition, a blood sample was collected from 1-3 animals in each farm and was subjected to laboratory screening for presence of antibodies against a range of major animal diseases known to be affecting cattle in East Africa along with common cattle diseases whose presence in Tanzania is unknown. Results A total of 53 farmers participated in the study, most of which (75.5%) were located in Tanga region, predominantly in Lushoto district. Smallholder dairy farmers kept between 1-12 animals (mean=4) but only an average of 1.1 lactating cows (range 1-4) at the time of visit. Almost 80% of the farmers practiced mixed farming (crop and livestock keeping), which is in fact a common feature among livestock keepers practicing zero-grazing. Farming was the most important economic activity in the family and 64% of the farmers kept other livestock, primarily small 431 ruminants and poultry. Farming practices were quite standard across participants, and farmers proved knowledgeable about basic concepts on livestock farming. Farmers declared animal disease as a common problem, and East Coast Fever was often mentioned as the most prevalent disease. However, many farmers were unable to name a cattle disease. Lack of knowledge on animal diseases compromises the farmers’ ability to fight livestock disease. In fact, most farmers do not apply health checks or require health certificates when buying animals, and only rely on external appearance when selecting animals to purchase. Only half of the farmers declared conducting tick control (mainly spraying), but not frequently enough. This emphasizes an important lack of knowledge and awareness among farmers on how to recognize, deal and prevent common cattle diseases. Farmers produce and market milk. Hygiene practices during milking were appropriate but the standards could be increased, especially considering that most of the lactating cows in the farms had evidence of subclinical mastitis. Over half of the interviewed farmers declared being unable to recognize an udder with mastitis. This means milk from mastitic cows is regularly harvested, marketed and consumed. Farmers showed limited knowledge on zoonotic disease, suggesting that practices to limit arrival of zoonotic pathogens in the milk and to protect farmers of directly transmitted zoonosis are not commonly used. Discussion Smallholder cattle production has the potential to provide a constant and sustained source of income and meat and milk to farming communities in Africa. This farming system requires an appropriate context that ensures constant availability of feeds and water avoiding the need to move herds in search of pasture and water and it may therefore not be a suitable and effective system in all ecosystems. Moreover, high yielder breeds require appropriate herd management to maximize production. Farming management can be boost and farmers need to be equipped with the necessary knowledge and tools for animal disease prevention and control. Raising awareness of milk safety and quality would be essential to ensure health protection among milk consumers and farming families. Acknowledgments This project was conducted with the financial support of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany, and the CGIAR (CRP Agriculture for Nutrition and Health). The International Livestock Research Institute (Kenya) and Sokoine University of Agriculture (Tanzania) supported the field and laboratory work. We thank staff and MSc students from SUA and ILRI for their support during field work. References Tebug, S.F., Kasulo, V., Chikagwa-Malunga, S., Wiedemann, S., Roberts, D.J., Chagunda, M.G. 2012. Smallholder dairy production in Northern Malawi: production practices and constraints. Trop Anim Health Prod, 44: 55-62. Onono, J.O., Wieland, B., Rushton, J. 2013. Productivity in different cattle production systems in Kenya. Trop Anim Health Prod, 45: 423-430. Zvinorova, P.I., Halimani, T.E., Mano, R.T., Ngongoni, N.T. 2013. Viability of smallholder dairying in Wedza, Zimbabwe. Trop Anim Health Prod, 45: 1007-1015. Models of Farmer Field Schools targeting livestock farmers in semi-arid/arid regions of Kenya: Case of Kenya Semi-Arid Livestock Enhancement Support (K-SALES) Program July 2014 Jaquez, C., Kahiu, I. and Gikonyo, S.* International Development Division, Land O'Lakes *Corresponding author: steve.gikonyo@idd.landolakes.com Abstract Farmer Field Schools (FFS) is an approach to farmer training developed in the late 1980’s to address a common problem of pest management on rural farms in Indonesia. Without quality extension services, farmers were applying highly toxic pesticides; causing harm to themselves,the environment and developing pesticide-resistant pests. A system of large-scale decentralized education of farmers was called for to the remedy the situation. Farmers, through hands-on training and peer-to-peer learning, were expected to become “experts” in managing their production systems and increasing overall production. Since these first steps, the FFS model has been replicated and adapted throughout the world. Seen as an entry point into rural communities for training on improved production technologies and techniques, the model often serves as link to public and private sector training and peer-to-peer learning. Although FFS has been widely used in farmers training (Arnould and Deborah, 2011), it has greatly evolved and adapted and undergone various innovations and developments. FFS’s may not always be the panacea they have been made out to be. Often driven by the international development community, the life of a FFS often mirrors the lifecycle of the project supporting the initiative. The success of a FFS can be influenced by the production system it is targeting. Efforts to include fee-based extension services have had varying success. Focusing on the use of FFS’s in Kenya, this study profiled and reviewed available FFS models, analyzed their structure and identified their strengths and weaknesses. In addition the study elaborated on their appropriateness and applicability in training beef, sheep and goat farmers in the semi-arid areas and suggest appropriate models with specific reference the value chains being supported. The in-depth analysis showed that FFSs have not gained as much popularity in the livestock agriculture as in crops. Moreover, where the concept has been applied in livestock enterprises, it has been largely for dairy and village chicken production. These productions systems follow a cyclic/seasonal calendar unlike beef cattle and shoats which have longer production cycles spanning across seasons / years. Based on these observations, the study proposed a non- cyclic 3 model with a modular curriculum that allows the producers freedom to choose topics they have knowledge and skills deficiency.