Deutsche Gesellschaft f?r
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Promising and Underutilized Species
Crops and Breeds
Evy Thies
Evy Thies
Promising and Underutilized Species,
Crops and Breeds
Eschborn, July 2000
published by:
Deutsche Gesellschaft f?r Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Project: Managing Agrobiodiversity in Rural Areas
Department Rural Development
P.O. Box 5180
65726 Eschborn, Germany
Annette von Lossau
Email: annette.lossau-von@gtz.de
Beate Weiskopf
Email: beate.weiskopf@gtz.de
Homepage: http://www.gtz.de/agrobiodiv
Author: Evy Thies, GTZ
Email: evy.thies@gtz.de
Cover design: Wiebke Enwaldt
figur1, Berlin, Germany
Email: wiebke.enwaldt@snafu.de
Layout: Gerlinde Quiter, GTZ
Email:  gerlinde.quiter@gtz.de
T A B L E  O F  C O N T E N T S 
1 SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................1
2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................2
3 UNDERUTILIZED / PROMISING CROPS.....................................................................4
3.1 SOME FIGURES ABOUT THE EVOLUTION OF THE USE OF CROPS................................4
3.2 THE FARMER?S PERSPECTIVE..................................................................................5
3.3 IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES..................................................................7
4 UNDERUTILIZED/NEGLECTED ANIMAL BREEDS .................................................12
4.1 SOME FIGURES ABOUT THE EVOLUTION OF THE USE OF ANIMAL BREEDS................12
4.2 THE FARMER?S PERSPECTIVE................................................................................15
5  RELEVANT GTZ-PROJECTS AND COLLABORATORS.........................................19
6 RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE GTZ SECTOR PROJECT ......................................21
7 CITED AND BACK-GROUND REFERENCES:..........................................................22
ANNEX: RESOURCE PERSONS.......................................................................................24
Boxes
BOX 1: Major staple crops for food and energy supply 4
BOX 2: Definitions (IPGRI Strategy 1998) 8
BOX 3: Strategic elements (IPGRI Strategy 1998) 8
BOX 4: Criteria to categorize the status of animal breeds 13
Tables
Table 3.1: Main differences between high-yield and local crops 5
Table 4.1: Numbers of animal breeds categorized following the criteria
formulated in the Global Databank:
14
Table 4.2: Main differences between high-yield and local animal
breeds
15
Table 5.1: Relevant GTZ-Projects and collaborators 19
Figures
Figure 4.1: Percentage of each category for the sum of both mammalian 
and avian breeds
14
A B B R E V I A T I O N S 
AnGR Animal Genetic Resources
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CWANA Central and West Asia and North Africa
DAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GEF Global Environment Facility
GFAR Global Forum on Agricultural Research
GPA Global Plan of Action
GRPC Genetic Resources Policy Committee
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft f?r Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
IARC International Agricultural Research Center
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
NARS National Agricultural Research Systems
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
MoDAD Measurement of Domestic Animal Diversity
PGRFA Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
SADC South African Development Community
SSSP Sustainable Seed Supply Program
WWL-DAD World Watch List on Domestic Animal Diversity
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
1
1 S U M M A R Y 
The present study has been written on behalf of the GTZ Sector Project ?Managing
Agrobiodiversity in Rural Areas? to provide an overview about the current dialog and
initiatives concerning ?underutilized and neglected? crops and breeds. Some proposals for
activities are addressed to the GTZ Sector Project which are mainly designed as a
catalyst but do not constitute time-consuming additional activities. They aim at enhancing
collaboration with field projects that are concerned with underutilized/promising crops and
breeds.
The evolution of the use of genetic resources for food and agriculture is briefly illustrated,
from ancient times with a high level of diversity, to the green revolution which in the past
quite often ignored the importance of genetic diversity for the development and stability of
farming systems under difficult site conditions. Respective experiences led to an
?increasing endorsement at national and international level of the important role in
sustainable farming systems and human well-being of less-used crops and species,
particularly in less favorable and marginal lands? (Padulosi et al., 1999, IPGRI 2000).
Special attention has been given to ?the farmers perspective? concerning the choice of
varieties of breeds and crops. Two tables compare high-yield and local crops and animal
breeds under farm management, commercialization, ecological, and cultural criteria which
may bring advantages as well as disadvantages.
The analysis of the main publications and documents treating the issue of
underutilized/promising species, crops and breeds illustrates that the dialog and concepts
concerning Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) are much more developed than those
concerning Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR). Further analysis might show whether and
which of these concepts are transferable from PGR to AnGR.
Important initiatives at the international level and new approaches are presented. New
forms of partnership have to be developed between farmers, extension workers, the
private sector and research specialists that are conducive to a community-based
management of Plant and Animal Genetic Resources. These partnerships have to be
somehow institutionalized in the National Plan of Action on Plant Genetic Resources and
the National Animal Genetic Resources Management Plans. If they are not incorporated
on both levels, new approaches will not become sustainable. The newly-defined
?commodity chain approach? of the Global Forum on Agricultural Research may constitute
a framework to initiate partnership and to better take into account economic and market-
policy aspects.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
2
2 I N T R O D U C T I O N 
The present study has been written on behalf of the GTZ Sector Project ?Managing
Agrobiodiversity in Rural Areas? to provide an overview about the current dialog and
initiatives concerning ?underutilized and neglected? crops and breeds. The importance of
the issue is illustrated by the fact that there is an ongoing discussion regarding
terminology: whether to speak about ?minor?, ?neglected?, ?underutilized? or ?promising?
species, crops and breeds. The discussion is not yet finished, but there seems to be a
clear preference in favor of ?underutilized? or ?promising? species, crops and breeds. The
author herself has chosen the terms ?underutilized/ promising?.
For at least 12,000 years, humans have actively practiced plant and animal breeding. By
simply paying close attention to differences among and within the crops they grow, and
the animals they breed, farmers have selected and developed an impressively rich legacy
of crop and breed variety.
In the 1920s, Vavilov identified geographic centers of crop diversity that in most cases
correspond to the regions where crops were first domesticated. There were, for example,
probably over 100,000 rice landraces under cultivation in Asia, with at least 30,000 in
India alone (Tuxill, 1999). Out of approx. 7,000 cultivated species, 30 or so crop species
have become intensively and widely used and are now the basis of much of the world?s
agriculture (Padulosi et al., 1999).
According to numerous publications of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and others, an estimated 12 % of the
world?s population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on products obtained
from ruminant livestock ? cattle, sheep and goats. Approximately 40 % of the total land
available in developing countries can be used only for forage production. Animals account
for 19 % of the world?s food directly. They also provide fuel, credit facilities, spread
employment, draught power and fertilizer for crop production etc., bringing their overall
contribution to above 30% (FAO estimate). In addition, animals serve as very important
cash reserves in many mixed farming and pastoral systems.
Many of the landraces were lost with the ?green revolution? that introduced high-yield
varieties of crops to boost food self-sufficiency in famine-prone countries.
The high-yield crop varieties were widely distributed, often with government subsidies to
encourage their adoption, and they displaced local crops from many farmland areas. The
?pushing forward? of high-yield crops in developing countries through subsidies in the
widest sense has quite often eliminated farmers? economic rationale.
The livestock development effort in the 20th century in developing countries has seen a
more devastating biological approach than the green revolution. Genetic development of
animals has occurred primarily for higher input and in comparatively low stress
environments. However, concepts ignoring the very complex adaptation of AnGR have
rarely kept to this promise and have instead quite often reduced the gene pool.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
3
Now, ?there is an increasing endorsement at national and international level of the
important role in sustainable farming systems and human well-being of less-used crops
and species, particularly in less favorable and marginal lands? (Padulosi et al., 1999,
IPGRI 2000).
Such attention stems from developments such as:
? Food security and nutrition: many underutilized crops and breeds are nutritionally
rich and adapted to low input agriculture.
? Environmental changes and ecosystem stability: climate changes, degradation of
land and water resources have led to a greater appreciation of those crops and animal
breeds which are better adapted to stress and difficult environments where they play a
strategic role in maintaining a diversity rich and hence more stable environment.
? New market opportunities: new tools are available to transform useful plant species
and animal products into diverse products or to extend the shelf life of perishable
crops and products. The movement of people across countries and regions provides
opportunities for strengthening markets of underutilized crops and breeds in which
immigrants identify their own culture and traditions. Tourism represents an
increasingly important source for supporting local commodity chains built around
underutilized species. The high standard of living in industrialized countries generates
demands for more natural food and environmentally-friendly products, a demand
which can also be met by underutilized species.
? Increased attention to indigenous knowledge: underutilized species hold great
genetic diversity, and a vast heritage of indigenous knowledge is linked to these
species (Padulosi et al., 1999, Frison et al., 2000).
Hence there is the potential to make a ?promising? crop out of one which is underutilized.
Some of these opportunities, especially the better adaptation of local breeds to difficult
environments, are also valuable for AnGR. The author formulates some proposals
concerning the role of the GTZ Sector Project in supporting relevant initiatives and
towards overcoming obstacles in the promotion of underutilized/promising species, crops
and breeds.
Chapters 3 and 4 provide a resum? of facts, current discussions and strategic
considerations for crops and breeds, respectively. Chapter 5 provides information on GTZ
projects dealing with underutilized/promising crops and breeds, and a list of resource
persons is attached in annex 1. Recommendations to the GTZ-Sector Project can be
found in chapter 6.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
4
3 U N D E R U T I L I Z E D  /  P R O M I S I N G  C R O P S 
3 . 1 S o m e  f i g u r e s  a b o u t  t h e  e v o l u t i o n  o f  t h e  u s e  o f  c r o p s 
According to Bermejo et al. (1994), today only 150 plant species are cultivated, 12 of
which provide approximately 75 percent of the world?s food, and four of which produce
over half of it. Prescott-Allen et al. (1990) state that common figures in literature range
from seven plant species providing 75 % of human nutrition to 30 plant species providing
95 % of human nutrition.
According to the ?State of the World?s Plant Genetic Resources?, the three major cereal
crops (wheat, rice and maize) provide more than half of the world?s total food
requirements. 70%, 74% and 57% of the areas planted with wheat, rice and maize
respectively are planted with modern varieties (Alexandratos 1995, cited in Virchow 1999).
However, when food energy supplies are analyzed on a sub-regional level, a much
greater number and type of crops emerge as significant (see Box 1).
BOX 1: Major staple crops/products for food energy supply
Staple crops Products
Wheat 23 % Sugar 9 %
Rice 26 % Soybean Oil 3 %
Maize 7 % Other vegetable Oils 6 %
Millet & Sorghum 4 %
Potatoes 2 % Others 18 %
Sweet potatoes 2 %
Source: Adapted from FAO 1996
Many of the major staple crops are the subject of private sector research programs and
mandate crops to a CGIAR ? Center (Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research) and are therefore largely promoted and represented in gene banks. However,
this emphasis on a handful of major crops has narrowed the number of species upon
which global food security depends. The consequences of crop failures due to unforeseen
stresses, pests and diseases are potentially catastrophic (Prescott-Allen et al., 1990).
Active broadening of the species portfolio for agriculture and food security is essential. A
much larger range of plants than the above mentioned major staple crops are important
from a local, national or regional perspective. These include:
? Locally important crops like yam, proso millet, fonio, bambara groundnut, oca,
taro/cocoyam, canihua, breadfruit, Amaranthus and buckwheat
? Vegetables, fruits and other species including wild species and weeds
? Multipurpose trees
? Crops which can contribute to agricultural diversification including uncultivated or little
cultivated species with alimentary or agricultural potential.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
5
Some of these crops have started to be promoted through special networks such as the
Bambara Groundnut Network or the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA)
Networks for rocket, various types of hulled wheat, pistachio nuts and oregano.
3 . 2 T h e  f a r m e r ? s  p e r s p e c t i v e 
This chapter tries to analyze the key question ?Why are certain crops neglected and/or
underutilized?? from the farmer?s point of view.
The use of a certain crop depends mainly on the choice of the farmer, and the farmer?s
choice is above all an economic one. If he is a subsistence farmer, the objective is to
ensure the food security of the family and this, in most cases, is based on a high diversity
of local crops coupled with risk avoidance. There is no money for external inputs like
fertilizers or pesticides. A commercial farmer, on the other hand, will maximize monetary
income taking into account prices on the world market and subsidies for particular high-
yield crops. Many farming systems are situated between these two extremes, but the
choice of crop varieties, whether diversification or concentration is preferred, above all
follows economic considerations.
The following table compares high-yield and local crops under farm management,
commercialization, ecological, and cultural criteria. The criteria may represent advantages
as well as disadvantages, and some of them fit into more than one category.
T a b l e  3 . 1 :  M a i n  d i f f e r e n c e s  b e t w e e n  h i g h - y i e l d  a n d  l o c a l  c r o p s 
High-yield crops Local crops
Farm management criteria
High production ? high risk Low production ? low risk
High production cost Low production cost
Yield stability through fertilizers and pest
management
Yield stability through diversity
Subsidies on particular crops (e.g. EU) may
influence choice of varieties
Subsidies on particular crops (e.g.
development projects or EU) may influence
choice of varieties
High private sector interest Low private sector interest
One product (e.g. grain) Several products (grain, straw, feed for
livestock etc.)
Homogeneous ripeness Heterogeneous ripeness
Homogeneous germination Heterogeneous germination
Homogeneous products suitable for export Heterogeneous products, difficult to export
Often not well adapted to mixed farming
systems
Traditionally adapted to mixed farming
systems
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
6
High fertilizer input Low fertilizer input
Sometimes highly vulnerable to pests Locally adapted to pests
Sophisticated and integrated pest
management
Very little or no pest management
Certified seed, hybrid seed Local seed supply systems
Seeds have to be bought, royalties have to
be paid for patented seeds
Part of the harvest may be saved as seed
for the next season
High dependency on supply networks
(seed, fertilizer etc.)
Communal or local supply networks
Extension of new techniques necessary Traditional knowledge in most cases
sufficient
High machinery input High manual work input
Commercialization criteria
Product corresponds to ?modern? nutritional
habits
Product corresponds to local nutritional
habits
Product for regional, national and
international markets
Products for subsistence, local and
regional markets
High marketing and cash potential Low marketing and cash potential
Dependency on world market prices Local market may be disturbed through
food for work programs or food security aid
Ecological criteria
Highly sensitive to climate (drought,
excessive rain, frost etc.)
Locally adapted to climate variations
Highly sensitive to site conditions Adapted to difficult site conditions
From the ecological point of view often an
?alien element? (in the sense of the ?alien
species? which are subject to the
implementation of the CBD)
Ecologically adapted
Replacement of natural and locally adapted
vegetation
May correspond to natural vegetation, e.g.
in agroforestry systems
Cultural criteria
Traditional role of women may be
undermined
Traditional role of women promoted
Internationally defined names Vernacular names for different phenotypes
(may correspond to different genotypes)
Internationally promoted and often
subsidized
Often neglected by research and the
international donor community
Quality criteria focus mainly on uniformity,
site etc.
Quality criteria focus mainly on nutritional
values
Source: own elaboration
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
7
Various constraints on the use of many underutilized/promising crops have to be
mentioned that go beyond the farmer?s rationale:
? Economic constraints and counter-productive incentives
? The limited availability and poor quality of germ plasm and seeds
? The limited availability of information
? Difficulties in or lack of knowledge about processing, handling and marketing
? Lack of farmer-driven participatory research, breeding systems and on-farm
management
? Change in nutritional habits, consideration of minor, neglected and underutilized crops
as crops of the poor, and preference for ?modern? crops
? A lack of knowledge or awareness of their potential and uses.
Some of these constraints are subject to national, regional and international legislation,
others subject to research, marketing or extension services. The following chapter
describes the most important international initiatives active in these fields.
3 . 3 I m p o r t a n t  i n t e r n a t i o n a l  i n i t i a t i v e s 
The German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)
financed from November 1993 to June 1997 a project implemented by GTZ at the
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) with the title: ?Genetic resources
of neglected crops with good development potential: their conservation, use and breeding
status?. This project collaborated with numerous national and international research
centers and contributed considerably to the IPGRI ?Strategy for Neglected and
Underutilized Species and the Human Dimension of Agrobiodiversity? which was
developed in 1998.
The goal of the Strategy has been defined as aiming ?to enhance the contributions that
neglected and underutilized species can make to food security, better livelihoods for the
rural poor, and conservation of biodiversity? (IPGRI, 1998).
In this context, IPGRI has formulated definitions for the terms ?neglected? and
?underutilized? which are social rather than biological. For IPGRI, ?neglected? refers to the
lack of attention given to useful species by research and development institutions.
?Underutilized? refers to the status and trends in the distribution of uses of a species by
farmers and consumers. However, most of the species and varieties are both neglected
and underutilized.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
8
BOX 2: Definitions
Neglected species are those grown primarily in their centers of origin or centers of
diversity by traditional farmers, where they are still important for the subsistence of local
communities. Some species may be globally distributed, but tend to occupy special niches
in the local economy and in local production and consumption systems. While these crops
continue to be maintained by socio-cultural preferences and local use practices, they
remain inadequately characterized, and neglected by research and conservation.
Underutilized species were once more widely grown but are falling into disuse due to
various agronomic, genetic, economic and cultural factors. Farmers may find these
species less competitive than other crop species in the same agricultural environment.
Consumers may be influenced by changing food culture, ease of processing and
availability. The eco-geographic decline of these species may erode their genetic base
thus restricting future development options.
Source: IPGRI Strategy 1998
The following strategic elements have been developed by IPGRI, focusing on the
promotion of neglected and underutilized crops:
BOX 3: Strategic elements
Strategy for the promotion of neglected crops:
? Support on-farm conservation strategies
? Support the documentation of diversity and sustainable uses by farmers
? Support the monitoring of genetic resources use for eventual expanded deployment or
improvement
? Support policies and frameworks that return the benefit of future genetic resources
development of neglected crops to farmers in the areas where they are maintained
Strategy for the promotion of underutilized crops:
? Support the networking of scientists and germ plasm users interested in extending
production and the utilization of the crop or species
? Identify constraints to increased use within the production to consumption system, as
well as areas for improvement (marketing, cultural, informational, genetic) that support
a broader range of uses
? Focus attention on the need to conserve and maintain genetic resources ex situ and in
situ to support promotion, commercialization, or rapid expansion of use
? Promote the wide deployment of underutilized species in similar ecosystems to
increase the security of the genetic resources and to add to the sustainability and
productivity of ecosystems
Source: IPGRI Strategy 1998
IPGRI places clear emphasis on those species which are crucial for food security, poverty
alleviation and equity in economic development.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
9
During the GTZ/IPGRI-project, criteria have already been developed for the selection of
neglected and underutilized crops that are to be further studied (IPGRI, July 1997):
? Crops of local or regional importance
? Good socioeconomic and agricultural development potential
? Linkages with IPGRI and other projects
? Amount of information available for monographs (scientifically neglected)
? Amount of germ plasm accessions collected and described
? Danger of genetic erosion
? Selection of crops with (1) importance as staple food, (2) specific ecological adaptation
(infertile, salty or temporarily flooded soils, swamps, semi-arid regions, high altitudes),
(3) wide botanical diversity (different families, trees/shrubs/annuals?)
? Awareness of possible problems (becoming a weed)
? Geographical distribution of the diversity and of the (potential) production areas
? High probability of establishing networks
On this basis, the GTZ/IPGRI-project has coordinated work on 25 carefully-selected
neglected or underutilized crops, and the following monographs can actually be
downloaded from the Internet: www.cgiar.org/ipgri/doc/download.htm
? Bambara groundnut, pulse (Vigna subterranea);
? Black Nightshades, vegetable (Solanum nigrum and related species);
? Breadfruit, fruit (Arthocarpus altilis)
? Carob tree, fruits (Ceratonia siliqua);
? Cat?s whiskers, vegetable (Cleome gynandra);
? Chayote, vegetable (Sechium edule);
? Coriander, spice (Coriandrum sativum);
? Grass pea, pulse (Latyrus sativus);
? Hulled Wheat (various), cereals (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. spelta);
? Niger, oil plant (Guizotia abyssinica);
? Oregano, spice (Oreganum spp.);
? Peach palm, fruit (Bactris gasipaes);
? Purgier nut, oil plants (Jatropha curcas);
? Pili nut, fruit (Canarium ovatum);
? Safflower, oil plant (Carthamus tinctorius);
? Sago palm, fruit (Metroxylon sagu);
? Tef, millet (Eragrostis tef) and
? Yam Bean, tubers (Pachyrhizus spp.).
Additional titles will follow. Several workshops and conferences, e.g. on Safflower,
Bambara groundnut or Purgier nut, have taken place and networks have been
established.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
10
Important partners of the GTZ-project at IPGRI are the International Center for Under-
utilized Crops (ICUC) ? UK, and the Bureau of Science and Technology for Development
of the USA National Academy of Sciences (BOSTID/NAS).
The dialog on underutilized/promising species is currently very active within the
International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC), the CGIAR and its Genetic Resources
Policy Committee (GRPC), which has been considering the question of extending the
base of food security by including underutilized/promising crops in the farming systems
research programs of IARCs.
In October 1998, a System Review of the CGIAR took place and the System Review
Panel proposed the following mission statement:
?To contribute to food security and poverty eradication in developing countries through
research, partnership, capacity building and policy support promoting sustainable
agricultural development based on environmentally sound management of natural
resources? (GRPC, 1999)
This mission statement was endorsed by the CGIAR. The System Review Panel
recommended the widening of the food security basket by including underutilized crops in
the integrated gene and natural resources management programs of IARCs. GRPC
decided to convene a conference on the theme ?Enlarging the basis of food security: role
of underutilized species?, and this workshop took place from February 17th to 19th 1999 in
Madras, India.
The most important proposals of the workshop were:
? To introduce the expression ?promising? instead of underutilized, neglected or minor ?
the distinction between neglected and underutilized has been abandoned;
? To commission a survey on individuals and organizations which are active in the field
of promising species/crops;
? To do regional surveys on relevant research centers, processing and marketing
companies;
? To initiate 3 to 5 pilot projects on selected crops which consider the whole commodity
chain;
? The redefinition of the role of the IARCs as primarily catalysts for the National
Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and other initiatives
The latest event dealing with underutilized/promising species/crops was the Global Forum
on Agricultural Research, which took place in May 2000 in Dresden, Germany.
IPGRI was requested by the GFAR Steering Committee to prepare a document on ?The
role of underutilized plant species in the 21st Century? (Padulosi et al. 2000). The potential
inherent in underutilized/promising species has already been mentioned in the
introduction. To enhance the use of underutilized species, the authors propose to take into
consideration the following points:
? Many underutilized species have multiple uses and do not belong to any one specific
category of crops
? The potential of some underutilized species to become commodity crops should not be
underestimated
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
11
? Some underutilized species are essentially geared to the market, while others are
important for subsistence farming
As strategic domains the authors mention the following needs:
? To promote participatory research in order to take into account the important role of
farmers in terms of knowledge, local uses and conservation efforts
? To ensure the availability of genetic diversity, accessible to the main users, and
ensuring that benefits are distributed to the farmers who have maintained and
developed the genetic diversity in the form of land races*.
? To document and disseminate information
? To promote processing and value-adding activities, e.g. improve storability and
develop low-cost processing methods
? To develop new markets and promote marketing while establishing and investigating
the whole commodity chain
? To foster synergies and networks at national, regional and international levels
? To adapt legal and policy frameworks, and to enhance public awareness.
The currently promoted approach is the ?commodity chain approach?, which is focused on
important crops that are currently not fully covered by the CGIAR-mandate. The approach
is judged relevant for traditional commodity crops, such as citrus, cacao, coconut, coffee,
cotton, oil palm, pineapple, rubber, sugar cane etc. as well as for underutilized crops
which, while important on a local/regional level, are not of global importance. The
commodity chain has technical, organisational, economical and consumption aspects that
could be looked at in a system-based approach to identify constraints that act as limiting
factors in the system, as well as unexploited potential (Frison et al., 2000).
Global and Regional Commodity Programs will be initiated that take into account all
stakeholders, competitiveness within the chain itself and external competitiveness (land-
use and consumption alternatives, substitute products etc.), and the initiation of
partnerships. An example of a Global Program is PROMUSA, focusing on the genetic
improvement of Musa. The international Bambara Groundnut Network could become a
Regional Program.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
12
4 U N D E R U T I L I Z E D / N E G L E C T E D  A N I M A L  B R E E D S 
4 . 1 S o m e  f i g u r e s  a b o u t  t h e  e v o l u t i o n  o f  t h e  u s e  o f  a n i m a l 
b r e e d s 
According to numerous publications of FAO, ILRI and others, an estimated 12 % of the
world?s population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on products obtained
from ruminant livestock ? cattle, sheep and goats. Approximately 40 % of the total land
available in developing countries can be used only for forage production. Animals account
for 19 % of the world?s food directly. They also provide draught power and fertilizer for
crop production, bringing their overall contribution to above 30%. In addition, animals
serve as very important cash reserves in many mixed farming and pastoral systems.
Within the Global Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources
(AnGR) FAO is developing the Global Early Warning System. The bases of this system
are databases for breed inventory and description, and for monitoring the conservation of
animal genetic resources. The first breed survey was undertaken in 1991 in all countries
outside Europe (where such a survey had already been conducted by the European
Association for Animal Production), and concentrated on the ass, buffalo, cattle, goat,
horse, pig and sheep. Later on further groups of species such as the camelidae and birds
were also added.
Data on AnGR is recorded in the FAO Global Databank for Animal Genetic Resources
which forms the basis for the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS).
DAD-IS can be found in the Internet: http://dad.fao.org/en/Home.htm. Registration is
required. Access to DAD-IS is free of charge. Training tools for animal genetic resources
are under development. FAO also produces the journal ?Animal Genetic Resources
Information ? AGRI?. All volumes of AGRI as well as further relevant documentation on
AnGR management are available from this website.
When the second edition of the World Watch List on Domestic Animal Diversity
(WWL ? DAD) was prepared in 1995, the database comprised 3,882 breeds from 28
species. By 1999 it already contained information on 5,300 breeds from 35 species. As of
July 2000 the Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources contained 6,379
breeds from 30 mammalian and avian species.
In the analysis of the Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources, breeds are
classified into one of seven categories: extinct, critical, critical-maintained, endangered,
endangered-maintained, not at risk, unknown.
This categorization is based on overall population size, number of breeding females and
the trend in population size, i.e. whether the population size is increasing, decreasing or
stable. A further consideration in categorization is whether active conservation programs
are in place for critical or endangered populations. When relevant information is not
available, a conservative approach is taken and the breed is categorized in the higher risk
category. Box 4 shows the criteria used to categorize the status of breeds, as formulated
in the Global Databank:
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
13
BOX 4: Criteria to categorize the status of breeds
Extinct breed A breed where it is no longer possible to recreate the breed
population. Extinction is absolute when there are no breeding
males (semen), breeding females (oocytes), nor embryos
remaining. In reality, extinction may be realized well before the
loss of the last animal, gamete or embryo.
Critical breed A breed where the total number of breeding females is less than
100 or the total number of breeding males is less than or equal
five; or the overall population size is less than or equal to 120 and
decreasing, and the percentage of pure-bred females is below 80
%.
Endangered breed A breed where the total number of breeding females is between
100 and 1,000 or the total number of breeding males is less than
or equal to 20 and greater than five; or the overall population size
is greater than 80 and less than 100 and increasing and the
percentage of pure-bred females is above 80 %; or the overall
population size is greater than 1,000 and less than or equal to
1,200 and decreasing and the percentage of pure-bred females is
below 80 %.
Critical-maintained breed and endangered-maintained breed
Categories where critical or endangered breeds are being
maintained by an active public conservation program or within a
commercial or research facility.
Breed not at risk A breed for which none of the above definitions applies and where
the total number of breeding females and males is greater than
1,000 and 20 respectively; or the population size is greater than
1,200 and the overall population size is increasing.
Population size data is now available for 4,198 (66%) of the 6,379 breeds which are in the
Global Databank. Of those with population data 1,334 breeds (32%) are classified at a
high risk of extinction. Breeds classified at a high risk of extinction are those that are
categorized as critical or endangered but which are not maintained, as maintained breeds
are presumed to be at less risk of extinction than those that are not under such
management. Because the quality and effectiveness of management programs under
which breeds are maintained are likely to vary considerably, 32 percent is considered to
be a conservative figure. When all breeds, including those that are maintained, are
considered, 1,686 breeds are classified at risk ? or 30 percent of breeds with data on
population size. Extrapolating this figure to include all breeds (including those without
population data) recorded in the Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources
would mean that 1,913 breeds are at risk (Scherf 2000, personal communication).
The following table shows the respective numbers of mammalian and avian breeds. The
figure further down shows the percentages of each category for the sum of both
mammalian and avian breeds (Data was provided by Scherf (FAO) in July 2000).
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
14
unknown 
23%
critical
8%
critical-maintained
1%
endangered
13%
endangered-
maintained
4%
not at risk
39%
extinct
12%
T a b l e  4 . 1 :  N u m b e r s  o f  a n i m a l  b r e e d s  c a t e g o r i z e d  f o l l o w i n g  t h e 
c r i t e r i a  f o r m u l a t e d  i n  t h e  G l o b a l  D a t a b a n k : 
unknown critical critical-
maintained
endangered endangered
maintained
not at risk extinct
Mammalian
breeds
1247 338 62 602 177 2200 704
Avian
breeds
209 142 20 253 93 296 36
Total 1456 480 82 855 270 2496 740
F i g u r e  4 . 1 :  P e r c e n t a g e  o f  e a c h  c a t e g o r y  f o r  t h e  s u m  o f  b o t h 
m a m m a l i a n  a n d  a v i a n  b r e e d s 
The quality of data on Domestic Animal Diversity is variable. Breeds in developed
countries are much better documented than those in developing countries. It is up to the
country focal points and contact persons (government nominated) to provide correct,
comprehensive and up-to-date data on all AnGR. In some cases, the judgement if a breed
is in danger of extinction or not seems to be quite subjective, and many breed descriptions
in the DAD-IS are still incomplete.
Only some of the breeds at risk that have been mentioned by resource persons from all
over the world to the author of the study, such as the I-Pig or the Sahiwal cattle, have
already been included in the 1995th World Watch List. Nevertheless, they can be found in
the DAD-IS, and the World Watch List is currently being revised. In this context FAO is
preparing the ?first report on the State of the World?s animal genetic resources?. Draft
guidelines for Country Reports have just been formulated and are accompanied by a set
of background questions to support the preparation of the Country Reports. ?Subject to
approval by the Commission", it is anticipated that the preparatory process for Country
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
15
Reports will be launched in September 2000 and the deadline for the submission of the
Country Reports will be 31st December 2001? (FAO, 2000a).
4 . 2 T h e  f a r m e r ? s  p e r s p e c t i v e 
An important reason for the loss of animal genetic resources is the fact that husbandry
and breeding approaches have been transferred from high input ? high output production
systems in developed countries to the developing world, where most agricultural
production involving domestic animals occurs in stressful, medium-input and high stress,
low-input production systems. The performance of high-input high-output breeds may be
appealing to farmers and may lead to a loss of interest in local breeds.
Many people, scientists and farmers alike, believe that indigenous breeds are not
productive, that they are incapable of contributing to increased agricultural production; that
they are, in a word, redundant. According to several studies conducted by the
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), indigenous breeds can be as productive
as ?exotic? breeds under improved smallholder management where their adaptation to the
environment gives them an advantage over the ?exotic? animals (ILRI, 1997).
The key question is the same as for crops: ?Why are most breeds neglected and/or
underutilized?? from the farmer?s point of view.
The following table compares high-yield and local breeds under farm management,
commercialization, ecological, and cultural criteria. The criteria may represent advantages
as well as disadvantages, and some of them fit into more than one category.
T a b l e  4 . 2 :  M a i n  d i f f e r e n c e s  b e t w e e n  h i g h - y i e l d  a n d  l o c a l 
a n i m a l  b r e e d s 
High-yield breeds Local breeds
Farm management criteria
High production ? high risk Low production ? low risk
High production cost Low production cost
One product (e.g. meat or milk) Several products (meat, milk, leather, wool
etc.)
No uses other than production Several uses possible, e.g. draught,
transport, meat-production
Production as first objective, manure for
fertilizer and fuel in second place
Manure for fertilizer and fuel may be more
important than production
Sensitive to diet, special feed demands Adapted to local food supplies, moderate
diet and feed demands
Generally not hardy Generally hardy
Highly vulnerable to diseases Disease resistance, tolerances, e.g.
trypanosomiasis
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
16
High veterinary input Low veterinary input, traditional veterinary
existing practices
Often not well adapted to mixed farming
systems
Traditionally adapted to mixed farming
systems
Extension of new techniques necessary Traditional knowledge in most cases
sufficient
Needs mating partner of the same breed Stock exchange and selection on
community level
High dependency on supply networks
(veterinary products, semen etc.)
Communal or local supply networks
Highly subsidized, provision of exotic
genetic material
Not subsidized
Commercialization criteria
Product corresponds to ?modern? nutrition
habits (e.g. low fat content)
Product corresponds to local nutrition
habits (e.g. high fat content, taste)
Products mainly for commercialization Animals as savings account, products for
subsistence and for commercialization
High private sector interest Low private sector interest
Poor longevity High longevity, less costly to system
Ecological criteria
Highly sensible to stress (low nutrition
level, disease, water, temperature, altitude,
swamp etc.)
Locally adapted to a range of stressors
Sites in extreme climates (arid climates,
high altitude, cold and long winters) rarely
usable by exotic breeds
Locally adapted breeds offer an important
potential for the use of special sites like
semi-arid or mountainous regions
From the ecological point of view often an
?alien element? which can even devastate
the environment (heavy cattle breeds on
slopes)
Locally adapted to vegetation cover etc.
Low genetic variability High genetic variability
High input demanding Low input demanding and very efficient
Cultural criteria
Rarely cultural or religious importance Often cultural or religious importance
Internationally recognized names and
breed standards
Vernacular names for different pheno-types
(may correspond to different genotypes)
Traditional role of women may be
undermined
Traditional role of women often promoted
Internationally promoted and often
subsidized (aggressively promoted by
private sector)
Mostly neglected by research and the
international donor community
Source: own elaboration
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
17
The table shows that high production exotic breeds demand high input and that breeding
of them is only reasonable if the farmer can verifiably benefit from the better
commercialization potential. That is: easy access to markets, access to transport facilities,
access to particular feed and veterinary products, appropriate mating partners or access
to semen etc.. If, on the contrary, farmers need a wide variety of products, first for
subsistence and second to sell on the local markets, and if site conditions are difficult and
if farmers wish to minimize risk, high-yield varieties will not fulfill the promise of
sustainable economic development. Moreover, they will create new dependencies and
farmers will have to accept higher levels of risk.
However, local breeds do not a priori automatically represent an optimum choice.
Carefully-targeted crossbreeding, for example, can have dramatic effects of dairying on
household income, as a study in East Africa, carried out by ILRI in close collaboration with
the Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI),
has demonstrated. Households on the Kenyan coast with crossbred cows earned more
than one-third of their cash income from dairying, compared with only 6% for households
with local cows. Even more dramatic was the difference in actual household income ?
households with crossbred cows had monthly incomes nearly 21 times those of
households with local cows (ILRI, 1997).
K?hler-Rollefson (2000) cites a number of traditional breeding practices and objectives
from community-based management of Animal Genetic Resources in India and Africa:
? Social restrictions against selling female breeding stock outside the community
? Stock Exchange
? Selection based on various criteria
? Offspring testing
? Communal ownership of male breeding animals
? Avoidance of inbreeding
? Castration
? Pedigree keeping
? Maintaining adaptation
These breeding practices and objectives have to be studied in view of their transferability,
taking into account the particular breed, the socioeconomic and cultural framework as well
as the site conditions. An important challenge will be to better understand these practices,
the vernacular names, the concepts about races and breeds (for local tradition defines
more races than science recognizes), and the farming systems.
One important question for Plant as well as for Animal Genetic Resources is what kind of
diversity is needed to keep a maximum range of choice for later breeding options. In any
case, new livestock breeding strategies are needed in order to meet the increasing
demands for milk, eggs, meat and other animal products of growing human populations.
ILRI therefore has developed a project called ?Genetic Diversity for Improving Livestock?.
With this project, ILRI is pursuing ?a new paradigm" which involves the genetic
characterization of indigenous livestock breeds and the conservation and use of this
valuable biodiversity through modern breeding techniques. The goal is to develop a basis
for more effective conservation and utilization of indigenous genetic populations of cattle,
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
18
Asian buffalo, sheep, goat and yak. The identification of the ancestral species and of the
domestication events should lead to a further increase in productivity through
crossbreeding within species. The first phase of this covers a 5-year period (ILRI, 2000,
homepage). However, additional funding is still being sought for implementation.
The GEF Council adopted a framework for GEF activities concerning the conservation
and sustainable use of biological diversity important to agriculture in October 1998. A
respective draft operational program has been prepared for discussion at the GEF Council
meeting in May 2000 (GEF/C.15/Inf.). The draft program stipulates among the numerous
expected outcomes the following monitoring outcome: ?Surveys of trends in using land
races, under-utilized crops, and other rare species, as well as breeding of traditional
livestock and the in situ conservation of their wild relatives?.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
19
5 R E L E V A N T  G T Z - P R O J E C T S  A N D  C O L L A B O R A T O R S 
In the following those GTZ-projects and collaborators contacted by the author in the
context of another study1 that are working more or less directly on neglected and
underutilized crops and breeds are listed. Further resource persons and references can
be found in the annex.
T a b l e  5 . 1 :  R e l e v a n t  G T Z - P r o j e c t s  a n d  c o l l a b o r a t o r s 
Burkina Faso ? PSB (Program Sahel Burkina): In daily work it is difficult to
distinguish between Agrobiodiversity and Biodiversity. Many
multipurpose trees are as important as crops for subsistence. Thus,
the project has chosen a wider approach in the sense of integrated
resource management.
Bolivia ? PROQUIPO (Potosi): Transformation and commercialization of
Quinoa
? IRUPANA (La Paz): Transformation and commercialization of
Kaniwa
? CERETARHUI (Cochabamba): Transformation and
commercialization of Tarwi
? PROSANA: In the project region rice and noodles are often
substitutes for traditional food, but their nutrition value is inferior. In
addition, cultivation of the Andean cereals is more time-consuming
than the cultivation of other crops, which leads to an ongoing
reduction of the area under traditional crops. In order to reverse this
situation, public and private initiatives seek to promote the
cultivation and consumption of traditional crops. In the department
of Santa Cruz, for example, incentive measures, such as better
technical and institutional advice and better access to micro credits,
are being developed. Genetic improvement of traditional crops is
done in several institutes, but it seems that the improved breeds
are quite sensitive to pests and plant diseases.
Dominican
Republic
? Work is being done on Cajanus cajan. In the Dominican Republic
?gandul? (Cajanus cajan) is considered to be very important. The
autonomous University of Santo Domingo (Universidad Aut?noma
de Santo Domingo) and the Secretar?a de Estado de Agricultura
have done successful research on varieties not sensitive to
photoperiodism. However, examples of the ?San Crist?bal? variety
disappeared in 1979 and this strain has not yet been restored.
Gandul is important for both local and exterior markets (Country
report, FAO 1996).
Gambia ? International Trypanotolerance Center (ITC): trypanosoma-
tolerant N?Dama-cattle, Baoul?-cattle, Djallonk?-sheep and West-
African goat
                                                
1 Thies, E., 2000. Bottlenecks and needs of German development cooperation in the
field of management of agricultural biodiversity.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
20
Morocco ? Arganeraie: Local multipurpose tree species Argania spinosa.
Oulmes cattle, Deman sheep
? Project ANOC/DLG: Oulmes cattle, Deman sheep
? PROLUDRA: Date palms, 223 varieties and 2337 natural hybrids
Pakistan ? Livestock and Dairy Development Project: Various local breeds
Peru ? Proyecto de Desarollo Regional Jaen, San Ignacio, Bagua: some
wild form of fruit: Passiflora/Granadilla and Chirimoya; Coffee
variety ?typica?, some local cacao breeds
SADC
Malawi
? SACCAR: Studies: ?Evaluation of indigenous livestock genotypes
in Zimbabwe?; ?Evaluation of biodiversity, production and socio-
economic impact of rural poultry in Lilongwe and Mzuzu agricultural
development divisions?; ?Valuation of indigenous farm animal
populations and breeds in comparison with imported exotic
breeds?; ?Some socio-economic factors affecting the Conservation
and Utilization of farm animal genetic resources in Malawi?.
? Several regional projects and networks coordinated by SACCAR
SADC
Zimbabwe:
SSSP
NGO-activities
? SSSP has had some success with improved sorghum varieties,
especially with the variety ?Macia? developed by ICRISAT
? ENDA-ZW: Cereal crops landrace germ plasm collection,
characterization and development
? CTDT: Seed-Fairs-collection of all crop germ plasm important for
marginal low resource farming communities; characterization of
indigenous crop varieties, in situ village based gene-banks and
participatory extension approaches in quality seed provision
systems. Reintroduction of cultivation and utilization of indigenous
vegetables
? ITDG-ZW: Seed-Fairs for identifying, accessing and multiplication
of crop variety diversity used in low potential farming sector; germ
plasm exchange between farmers and communities; bee-keeping
and honey processing
? VECO: Promotion of quality local seed supply systems based on
both the farmer and improved varieties
Vietnam ? SFDP: Study on the conservation of autochthonous pig breeds: I-
pig
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
21
6 R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S  T O  T H E  G T Z  S E C T O R 
P R O J E C T 
Bearing in mind that being informed is part of the terms of reference of the staff, the
author has preferred to formulate only recommendations which can function as a catalyst,
but do not constitute important additional activities. The activities proposed in the following
mainly aim at enhancing collaboration with field projects concerned with
underutilized/promising crops and breeds.
? The GTZ Sector-Project should get in contact with the most relevant projects and
resource persons listed in chapter 5 and the annex, respectively, and initiate case
studies on the promotion of underutilized/promising species within project work.
? Document success-stories and lessons learned (failures), particularly on neglected
and underutilized crops and breeds, will facilitate awareness-raising within GTZ and
other partners.
? Promote concept to stress sustainable farming systems that require adapted genetic
resources.
? In order to raise awareness within GTZ and partner-countries, a brochure on selected
underutilized/promising crops and breeds should be produced. Starting with some
eight species, this brochure could be progressively completed in cooperation with
interested projects and other partners.
? Projects concerned with agricultural development should be initiated to choose a
region-typical animal or plant as an ?agrobiodiversity-logo?.
? The Regional Program concept of the commodity chain approach developed by the
Global Forum on Agricultural Research should be promoted, especially in regionally-
functioning projects such as ITC, SSSP and the Project ?Postgraduate Education in
Agriculture? (SACCAR) in the SADC region.
Analysis of the main publications and documents treating the issue of
underutilized/promising species, crops and breeds illustrates that dialog and concepts
concerning PGR are more developed than those concerning AnGR. However, further
analysis might show whether and which of these concepts are transferable from PGR to
AnGR. This analysis should be done at two levels: the field level and the international
conceptual level. The GTZ-Sector Project could contribute to this analysis through the
encouragement of field projects to ?test?, for example, the commodity chain approach
while dealing with underutilized/promising breeds.
Underutilized and Promising Species, Crops and Breeds
22
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