Assessment of agronomic practices in banana-coffee and banana-cacao systems in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo – an entry point for sustainable and diversified organic systems G. Blomme1, W. Ocimati2, L. Vutseme3, N. Safari Kitumaini4, M. Kamira4 and J. Ntamwira4,5 1The Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 2The Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, PO Box 24384, Kampala, Uganda; 3Catholic University of Graben, Butembo, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo; 4The Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, PO Box 327, Bukavu, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of Congo; 5Institut National pour l’Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques, PO Box 2037, Kinshasa1, Mulungu Research Station, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo. Abstract Banana-coffee systems in eastern DR Congo, which occupy the mid- and high- altitude undulating production landscapes, are over 60 years old, whereas banana- cacao sytems are more recent. Bananas provide shade for the young and mature coffee plants, and young cacao trees, while some annual crops, such as taro are often integrated in these production systems. Innovations to improve soil health, increase system yield and strengthen the sustainability of smallholder/out-grower systems have over the past decade gradually been introduced in the region by a diverse range of stakeholders including private sector companies, public sector, and research and learning institutions. Selection, multiplication and promotion of high yielding coffee, cacao and banana cultivars is ongoing. Promising agronomic practices include the integration of fast-growing nitrogen fixing hedge species as border or relay crops and intercropping with fast growing shade- and drought-tolerant grain legumes and legume cover crops, to provide soil stability, mulch and improve soil nutrient balance. For example, mucuna and chickpea, when established during the last month of the rainy season, can grow and produce large amounts of biomass or grain during the subsequent dry season months when no annual crops are in the fields. Other promising approaches include optimal banana mat structure and spacing for shade level management, organic fertilization formulations and doses (e.g., compost based on coffee pulp) and plantation rejuvenation approaches using clean planting materials. Keywords: agronomic practices, arabica coffee, cover crops, sustainable intensification, system diversification INTRODUCTION Bananas and plantains (hereafter bananas) are cultivated across the whole eastern belt of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) from the Ituri Province in the North to the South Kivu Province in the South, accounting for 20-25% of banana production in DR Congo (Bakelana, 2004). Banana is often grown in association with tree crops such as cacao and coffee and multiple annual crops. North and South Kivu provinces are the main areas of coffee production, while cacao is predominantly cultivated in the North Kivu and Ituri provinces (Downie, 2018). Coffee and cacao production area in eastern DR Congo has substantially increased over the past decade. Coffee bean sales from eastern DR Congo increased from 8,000 metric t in 2015 to 10,000 metric t in 2019, while cocoa exports increased from 660 metric t in 2000 to 40,000 metric t in 2019 (Downie, 2018; Lange and Neema, 2022). The reasons for this expansion include disease outbreaks on other crops, improved value chains/markets for coffee berries and cocoa, and an increased presence of cooperatives and exporting companies in the region. For example, in the Kabare region of South Kivu Province, the area occupied by banana has reduced from 18 to 12% over a 5-year period (from 2016 to 2021) (Safari, 2022). This can be attributed mainly to the devastating Acta Hortic. 1367. ISHS 2023. DOI 10.17660/ActaHortic.2023.1367.8 71 XXXI IHC – Proc. XII Int. Symp. on Banana: Celebrating Banana Organic Production Eds.: W. Ocimati et al. effect of Xanthomonas wilt disease of banana and sub-optimal management practices (Ntamwira et al., 2014; Blomme et al., 2017; Ocimati et al., 2018, 2020, 2021). In banana coffee and cacao intercropping, banana provides shade especially for the young trees and bunches in the period before coffee or cacao trees start producing berries or pods. In addition, banana provides ample amounts of mulch that can be applied around tree stems. Banana-coffee intercropping systems have been reported to be more productive than monocropped arrangements under east and central African conditions (Wairegi et al., 2014). Larger wooden trees are also often integrated into banana, coffee or cacao fields, to provide year-round shade, leaf litter, and can be a source of N when leguminous trees are integrated. Intercropping of annual crops is often practiced in these systems, especially when the coffee/cacao trees and/or banana plants are young and generate limited shade. The use of external inputs is restricted in these cropping systems, e.g., the use of inorganic fertilizer is limited or perceived as too expensive. In general, farmers do not have many livestock, and hence have limited access to manure. However, coffee/cacao and banana, when intercropped, compete for resources (i.e., light, water and soil nutrients). Cropping systems that limit interplant competition, and fully use specific niches (e.g., borders, open spaces within fields), need to be devised/fine-tuned, for sustainable and optimum whole field or farm productivity. Although not commonly practiced, the establishment of N-fixing leguminous cover crops or shrubs, grasses or tithonia as intercrops within or as hedges around banana, coffee or cacao plots can provide additional nutrient-rich biomass for use as mulch or for processing into compost (Blomme et al., 2022). In addition, cuttings or biomass from these plant species can also provide animal fodder, while livestock manure can be used to fertilise the coffee or cacao trees and thus make the system more sustainable and productive. This study was carried out to map the agronomic practices carried out on coffee-banana or cacao-banana systems, with emphasis on identifying innovations that contribute to enhancing system sustainability and productivity. The aim of the study was to identify entry points for improving the coffee-banana or cacao-banana systems using organically sound approaches. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study lays the foundation for promoting sustainable agro-ecological intensification practices for organic coffee-banana and cacao-banana systems across farms and landscapes in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Focus group discussions and household surveys were conducted in coffee-banana intercropping systems along the Minova-Bukavu and on Idjwi island (South Kivu) road axis and in cacao-banana systems in the Beni region of North Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo). Sites were purposedly selected according to various criteria, including the dominance of banana and coffee or cacao, and the presence of large private producing or exporting companies (e.g., Olam, Esco, Coopérative des producteurs agricoles du Cacao (COPAC), Virunga chocolate) as demand partners and sources of knowledge on good field management practices. In addition, the high likelihood to encounter positive deviant farms where novel or un-common sustainable intensification and diversification (SID), and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) practices are carried out was considered. Five sites were visited for the coffee-banana surveys in South Kivu province, namely, Katana, Bugarula, Buzi, Mbinga sud and Lugendo (Figure 1). At each site, two focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out, giving a total of ten coffee-banana system FGDs. Farmers were selected with the help of agronomists employed by the coffee or cacao exporting companies, and through a snowball sampling approach. Each FGD comprised of 10 experienced coffee-banana producers, aged 20 and above. Mixed groups of men and women were targeted. In addition, coffee-banana system household surveys were carried out with at least 15 farmers per site, giving 77 farmer interviews in total in South Kivu. A structured coffee-banana questionnaire was used for the HH surveys. Minor adjustments/tweaks were made to the HH questionnaire for use in the FGDs. The surveys were administered by experienced DR Congolese scientists. 72 Figure 1. The geographical position of each coffee-banana and cacao-banana system focus group discussion (FGD) in, respectively, the South Kivu and North Kivu provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo. A similar approach was made for the cacao-banana surveys in the North Kivu Province. Here 5 sites (Mavivi, Mabalako, Mangina, Kabasha and Mutwanga) were selected, 20 FGDs were carried out and a total of 75 HH surveys were conducted. In the South Kivu province, interviewed coffee farmers were affiliated to Olam, a large coffee export company, or large private coffee plantations, while in the North Kivu Province, interviewed farmers were linked to COPAK, ESCO and Virunga chocolate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Who are the interviewed coffee-banana and cacao-banana farmers? Of the selected farmers, those in the range of 31 to 60 years old dominated coffee (64%) and cacao (63%) production in South and North Kivu, respectively. Sixteen percent of farmers were below 31 years old, while 21% were above 60 years old. Female farmers only accounted for 18 and 13% of the selected coffee- and cacao-banana farmers, respectively. Tree age and diversity The cacao plants were predominanly young (75% below 10 years) with none exceeding 30 years, which shows that cacao cultivation and expansion is a relatively recent phenomenon in the North Kivu Province. With respect to coffee plantations, 60% of the plantations fell below the age of 30 years, 38% between 31 and 60 years, while coffee trees as old as 61-80 years (2%) still exist within the landscapes. Coffee was first introduced during colonial times in the South Kivu Province, and some of the first trees planted are still standing, due to regular stumping (i.e., rejuvenating plants through regular cutting down of big/old branches). Only Arabica coffee clones were found to be cultivared on the study farms in South Kivu Province. Three cacao types (‘Criollo’, ‘Forestero’ and ‘Trinitario’) were cultivated in the North Kivu landscapes. ‘Criollo’ (95% of farms) and ‘Forastero’ (93%) dominated, while ‘Trinitario’ (3% of farms) was cultivated by a minority of farmers. ‘Forastero’ is a high-yielding cultivar, while ‘Criollo’ has very high-quality cocoa beans that are aromatic and lack bitterness and are 73 thus more expensive and used in luxury chocolate (Garnsworthy, 2010). ‘Trinitario’, which is a cross between ‘Forastero’ and ‘Criollo’ is not widely spread globally. Though ‘Criollo’ and ‘Trinitario’ beans have a better quality, they have a lower yield (Garnsworthy, 2010). Planting densities Diverse planting densities (spacings) were used for both coffee and cacao in South and North Kivu, respectively. Coffee spacing varied between 1 m2 (1×1 m) and 16 m2 (4×4 m), with a 4 m2 (2×2 m) being dominant (65% of farms). For the cacao crop, a spacing from 4 m2 (2×2 m) to 20 m2 (4×5 m) was reported/ observed, though most farmers (76%) had a 9 m2 (i.e., 3×3 m) spacing. The spacing of coffee and cacao trees influences the level of competition with banana and other intercrops, thus influencing the ability of intercrops to thrive. For a successful integration of banana and other intercrops within these tree crops an appropriate spacing that minimizes competition for light and other resources will need to be explored. Coffee/cacao intercropping, and plant species diversity on farm Coffee and cacao intercropping with banana, agroforestry trees and other crops was practiced on 79 and 99% of farms, respectively. Only 14 to 18% of the farms planted bananas and trees, as providers of shade for the young coffee and cacao trees, whereas 73 and 40% of the coffee and cacao farms, respectively, established young trees within old banana fields. Other benefits of bananas included: i) food provision (20 to 83%), ii) income (14%), iii) soil organic matter (SOM) enhancement (9-17%), iv) supply of mulch (5%), v) soil erosion control (3%), and vi) weed control (3%). A diverse but often sparse banana planting density is used or retained in the coffee/cacao fields to minimize shading and competition. Varying with the age of the cacao/coffee plants, the banana spacing varied from as wide as 200 m2 (20×10 m) in mature coffee fields to as low as 4 m2 (2×2 m) in the young fields, with a spacing of 16 m2 (4×4 m) dominating (27% of farms). For the cacao crop, the banana spacing varied between 144 m2 (12×12 m) and 16 m2 (4×4 m). Depending on farmers production objectives, alternative combinations of plant densities for banana and the tree crops that would minimize trade-offs needs to be explored. A total of 78 and 79% of coffee and cacao farms, respectively, had tree intercrops. Of these, most of the coffee (72.8%) and cacao (70.7%) farms had a total of 1 to 3 tree species on farm. The most predominant tree species in the coffee fields included Grevillea spp., and Ficus spp., whereas Maesopsis emini, Cordia spp., Albizia spp., oil palm and Markhamia predominated in cacao fields (Table 1). In addition to providing shade, trees were reported to add SOM (3-8%) and mulch (5%), supply firewood (4-31%), provide foof/fruits (4%), act as a windbreak (3%), provide additional income (1%), provide planks for construction (1-8%) and prevent soil erosion (1%). The common food intercrops on coffee fields included beans (69%), groundnut (28%), soybean (24%) and squash (7%). Other coffee intercrops, but to a less regular frequency, included the cover crops Mucuna (5%) and Desmodium (3%), and the food crops maize (3%), tomato (3%), eggplant (1%), pepper (1%), cassava (1%), taro (1%) and sweet potato (1%). In predominantly young cacao fields, beans (74%), cassava (43%), banana (30%), and to a lesser extent maize (17%), grountnuts (15%), rice (12%), soybean (12%), pineapple (4%), sorghum (3%), taro (1%) and coffee (1%) were also intercropped. The performance of intercrops in coffee and cacao fields highly depends on the level of shade. Coffee farmers reported good intercrop performance in young coffee fields (12%), in widely spaced coffee stands (73%) or in coffee fields that are pruned annually (5%). Up to 59% of cacao farmers reported poor performance of intercrops in cacao fields, with 27% of farmers mentioning that intercropping is feasible in young cacao stands (up to 4 years after planting). The more robust plant structure of cacao trees, their fast growth, and associated shade can explain these observations. 74 Table 1. Tree species intercropped with coffee and cacao in the South and North Kivu provinces, respectively. Tree species on coffee farms Frequency (%) Tree species on cacao farms Frequency (%) Grevillea robusta 49.4 Maesopsis eminii 35.9 Ficus spp. 20.5 Cordia sebestena 28 Erythrina spp. 16.9 Albizia chinensis 21.3 Avocado (Persea americana) 13 Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) 21.3 Maesopsis eminii 5.2 Markhamia obtusifolia 20 Tetradenia riparia 5.2 Cedrela odorata 13.3 Citrus aurantium 3.9 Spathodea campanulata 10.7 Mango (Mangifera indica) 3.9 Acacia spp. 6.7 Cedrela odorata 2.6 Khaya anthotheca 4 Eucalyptus spp. 2.6 Alstronia congensis 4 Leucaena diversifolia 2.6 Flemingia semialata 2.7 Mumbalembale (Spathodea campanulata) 1.3 Leucaena diversifolia 2.6 Papaya (Carica papaya) 1.3 Grevillea 2.7 Prunus africana 1.3 Avocado (Persea americana) 2.6 Orange tree (Citrus sinensis) 1.3 Prunus africana 2.6 Entandrophragma cylindricum 1.3 Gliricidia sepium 1.3 Terminalia catappa 1.3 Mango (Mangifera indica) 1.3 Erythrina spp. 1.3 Coffee in general did not impact negatively on species diversity, with only 13% of farmers reporting a decline in species diversity on their farms. In contrast, up to 89% of cacao farmers reported a reduction in species diversity due to the introduction of cacao on their farms. The high shade levels provided by the more robust cacao trees can explain this difference. In addition, the loss of species diversity could partially be explained by farmer’s fear to damage coffee or cacao roots, while intercropping. Surprisingly, 35 and 5% of coffee and cacao farmers, respectively, reported an increase in crop diversity. This could be attributed to the integration of shade trees on coffee and cacao farms. Good agronomic practices and innovations in coffee-banana and cacao-banana systems Tables 2 and 3 provide the good and innovation agronomic practices observed and reported during the FGDs and household surveys. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Coffee and cacao are often intercropped with banana, larger agroforestry trees, and annual crops when shade at ground level is limited. There is a wide set of good agronomic practices that are being applied by small- and large-scale organic coffee-banana and cacao- banana-farmers. Most of these practices were introduced through coffee research projects, large exporting companies and private plantations. However, some innovative practices were introduced by small-scale farmers, such as growing passion fruit on large wooden shade trees in coffee fields, the cultivation of taro under coffee-banana shade to produce edible leaves, the establishment of Vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) as hedges around fields for erosion control and as a source of mulch during the dry season months and the establishment of pineapple plants as hedges around cacao fields. There are also more recent innovations such as N fixing cover crops that have been shown to improve soil health and overall system performance and if integrated could potentially improve the productivity of these systems. Practices such as the installation of hedgerows of fast-growing shrubs, grasses, leguminous 75 N-fixing cover crops, better suited multi-purpose shade trees, and the integration of small livestock should be further researched and/or scaled to contribute to the creation of more sustainable and resilient coffee-banana and cocoa-banana production systems. Table 2. Good agronomic practices and new innovations reported in the coffee-banana systems in the South Kivu province. Good agronomic practices Practice details and recommendations Optimal coffee tree Optimal timing and interval of application, and extent of stumping/pruning highly affects pruning/stumping period coffee yields. Coffee berry production is optimal on young branches. In order to achieve and intervals this, coffee trees should be regularly stumped (i.e., cut off 4- to 5-year-old stems), while older branches should be pruned after berry harvesting. Emerging suckers can replace stumped stems Arching All farmer groups reported that arching of young coffee trees is essential to stimulate the growth of multiple tree branches for optimal coffee tree structure formation. N-fixing Erythrina trees 20% of farmer groups reported that coffee trees growing under the shade of Erythrina as shade providers for trees grow better and yield higher compared to other tree species (e.g., Maesopsis coffee eminii which has a large crown). Erythrina trees are leguminous and thus fix nitrogen. Erythrina trees drop their leaves during the dry season, thus providing a soil mulch cover which gradually releases the fixed N into the soil. Erythrina trees can also be easily multiplied through cuttings Optimal coffee tree and Farmers use diverse spacings ranging from 1×1 to 4×4 m, with 2×2 m being dominant shade tree and banana for coffee trees, shade trees (2×2 to 10×10 m) and banana (2×2 to 10×20 m, with 4×4 planting density m being dominant). Research indicates that optimal Arabica coffee tree spacing that leads to higher yields is 3×1.5 m, while 4.5×3 m is recommended for banana. Ideally, in coffee-banana intercropping systems, 700-800 banana mats ha-1 should be combined with 2,000- 2,400 trees ha-1 for Arabica or 1,000-1,200 trees ha-1 for Robusta (Wairegi et al., 2014). Efforts to ensure appropriate spacing of trees, bananas and coffee is recommended or should be promoted Taro under shade of A taro cultivar is cultivated under coffee-banana shade to produce edible leaves. In coffee-banana, to addition to providing food, the cultivation of taro minimizes evapo-transpiration and increase plot level splash erosion due to rain drops productivity Vetiver grass hedge Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) is established as hedges around fields for erosion around coffee-banana control and as a source of mulch during the dry season months plots Ring application of Compost or manure are applied in the form of a ring around coffee trees, at a distance compost and manure at of 20-30 cm from the coffee tree stem, ensures optimal use as manure or compost plot level wastage through erosion or usag by weeds is prevented Ring application of mulch Mulch is applied in the form of a ring around the coffee trees, at a distance of 20-30 cm at plot level from the coffee tree stems, to ensure optimal use, as not enough mulch can be obtained to mulch the complete plot Tree lines as windbreaks Grevillea spp. are often planted as windbreaks at the edge of coffee-banana fields. around coffee-banana Grevillea spp. tree trunks and branches are cut into high quality planks, which are used fields for house construction. These wooden planks are also sold on the market and contribute to income generation No or minimum till in All groups of famers reported that a good coffee-banana plot management package to coffee-banana fields on include superficial or no tillage to prevent root damage and erosion. For example, ring hilly terrain weeding was reported by 30% of farmers Management of banana Desuckering of banana mats and the removal of old banana leaves should be carried mats in young and out regularly in order to control banana canopy shade levels. The removed shoots and mature coffee fields leaves can be used as mulch or added to compost heaps 76 Table 2. Continued. New innovations Innovation details and recommendations New coffee cultivars (e.g., There is a low diversity in currently grown coffee varieties, with only 20% of farmers ‘Mulungu’, ‘Kabare 16’, growing up to 4 coffee cultivars. Coffee cultivar selection was carried out by the World ‘Rumangabo’, ‘CATIMOR’ Coffee Research project and by Virunga Coffee for high tree yield, good coffee bean and ‘SL28’) quality, resistance to pests and diseases and drought. Some of the selected coffee cultivars are now being multiplied by Virunga Coffee and INERA, at 3 sites, for wide dissemination in the South Kivu Province. These coffee cultivars can be ordered through INERA-Mulungu Hedges of Tithonia and/or 70% of farmers reported that they protect their coffee-banana fields against erosion Tripsacum grass and through the installation of herbaceous/grass hedges and ditches. These practices also ditches positively contribute to plot level yields. Tripsacum grass cuttings are also a source of fodder for cattle and small ruminants. Animal manure can subsequently be applied on the coffee-banana fields. Tithonia cuttings can be used as mulch Coffee-tithonia or coffee- Higher coffee yields were obtained when tithonia or crotalaria is integrated in coffee crotalaria intercropping fields. Coffee and Tithonia/Crotalaria can be grown in alternating lines Integration of the The integration of mucuna/desmodium can be done during the establishment phase of cover/fodder crops banana-coffee plots (i.e., years 1 and 2) when ample light is still available at soil level. mucuna and desmodium These cover crops can also be integrated in coffee monocropped fields and in in coffee-banana plots temporary gaps within intercropped fields. These cover crops enhance soil fertility through N fixation and prevent soil erosion, while they also strongly suppress weeds and thus weeding costs Plantain as a shade A minority of farmers reported that plantains, due to their often-limited suckering provider behaviour, compete less with coffee trees for light. In addition, plantain bunches fetch higher prices on the market. The plantain canopy also prevents occasional hail stones from damaging coffee leaves, flowers or berries. Plantain leaves are used as mulch in coffee plots. In addition, plantains are often used as windbreaks to protect coffee trees. Plantain fruits contain higher amounts of ProVitA, compared to other Musa cultivars grown in eastern DR Congo, thus contribute to healthier diets. Integration with other banana cultivars needs to be supported by regular desuckering Passion fruit plants Passion fruit plants are planted at the base of large shade trees in coffee fields and the climbing on large wooden shade tree stems and branches serve as support for the growing passion fruit vines shade trees Table 3. Good agronomic practices and new innovations reported in the cacao-banana systems in the North Kivu province. Good agronomic practices Practice details and recommendations Good cacao field 60% of farmers reported that good cacao field management including regular weeding, management regular cacao tree pruning, composting of pod waste, mulch and compost application improves cacao yields Pruning period The pruning of cacao trees is essential in the management of a cacao field. When done efficiently, pruning helps to increase the tree’s productivity. Ideally, a cacao tree should be maintained at a height of approximately 3 to 4 m in order to facilitate management and harvesting. Cacao trees should not be pruned while flowers are present. Pruning generally takes place twice a year. The first pruning takes place just after the main harvest, and the second pruning is carried out five months later. The objective of pruning is to give the cacao tree a structure that will help to maximize its production capacity Shade for the cacao 100% of farmers use a combination of large trees and/or bananas/plantains to provide trees, provided by shade for their cacao trees. A diversity of tree species and banana/plantain cultivars is banana/plantain and used. It would be important to determine the most appropriate species/cultivars for large trees optimum cacao tree yields 77 Table 3. Continued. Good agronomic practices Practice details and recommendations Cacao, and Farmers use a diversity of plant spacings for cacao (2×2 to 4×4 m) and shade trees (3×3 banana/plantain and to 12×12 m). Cacao is ideally spaced at 4 by 4 m resulting in a stem density of 625 stems large shade ha-1. Plantain/banana are often cultivated between the cacao rows to provide shade during treespacing the establishment phase but are most often removed after 3 years. Agroforestry systems dominate in mature cacao fields and larger shade trees include timber and fruit trees (spaced 16 by 8 m) and leguminous trees (evenly spaced 8 by 8 m) are integrated New innovations Innovation details and recommendations Cacao-papaya 1.3% of farmers use papaya to provide shade for their cacao trees. Papaya trees provide intercropping latex (or papain) and fruits. Papain is exported through export companies, while the papaya fruits are sold on local markets Plantain as a shade 73% of farmers use plantain to provide shade and windbreaks to protect for their young provider cacao trees. Plantain canopy also prevents occasional hail stones from damaging cacao leaves, flowers or pods. Plantain leaves are used as mulch in cacao plots. Plantain fruits contain higher amounts of Pro-Vitamin A carotenoids, compared to other Musa cultivars grown in eastern DR Congo, thus contribute to healthier diets. Plantain bunches from North Kivu are exported to neighbouring Uganda Pineapple as a hedge 3.9% of farmers plant a line/hedge of pineapple to control soil erosion in their cacao plots. for soil protection The sale of pineapple fruits on local markets provides additional income to farmers Management of Desuckering of banana mats and the removal of old banana leaves should be carried out banana mats in young regularly in order to control banana canopy shade levels. The removed shoots and leaves cacao fields can be used as mulch or added to compost heaps ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the Directorate General for Development, Belgium (through the Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA)) and the OneCGIAR funders (through the Transforming Agri-Food Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA) initiative) for funding this study. 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