Effects of climate change on food security and nutrition in India: A systematic review Abhishek Das a, Shalander Kumar a,*, Kavitha Kasala a, S. Nedumaran a, Pradnya Paithankar b, Abhay Kumar b, Ayushi Jain b, Vijay Avinandan b a International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Hyderabad, India b World Food Programme (WFP) India Country Office, New Delhi, India A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Climate change effect Food security Nutrition Systematic review India A B S T R A C T Climate change poses a complex challenge to food and nutritional security, impacting human health, well-being, and sustainable development. India, facing heightened vulnerability in agriculture and a growing population surpassing 1.3 billion, requires a detailed examination of these effects. This examination will serve as a crucial resource for shaping policies, directing research efforts, and fostering public discourse. This systematic review thoroughly analyzes the impact of climate change on food and nutritional security in India. Examining 231 articles, the study delves into various dimensions, including availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. The review utilized Web of Science, PubMed, and CABI review, employing 100 different keywords. Temperature variations, erratic rainfall, and extreme weather events disrupt crops, livestock, poultry, and aquaculture pro duction (food availability), leading to food shortages, income loss, and elevated food prices (accessibility), especially affecting low-income groups. Indirectly, climate change affects livelihoods and incomes, exacerbating inequalities and leading to the displacement of marginalized communities (stability), thereby escalating food insecurity and malnutrition (utilization). However, few studies cover diverse aspects such as the influence of climate change on traditional crops, nutritional value, agricultural biodiversity, food distribution systems, indigenous food systems, and nutrition outcomes, particularly for vulnerable groups like women and children. Hence, there is a pressing need for a more holistic and integrated approach to tackle the impacts of climate change on food and nutrition security in India. 1. Introduction Climate change(Kingra et al., 2019; United Nations, 2025)) is prob ably the most complex and intractable environmental challenge faced by the world today and is increasingly being recognized as a potent threat to agriculture in general and specific to food security (Pattanayak and Kumar, 2014; Mahapatra et al., 2021). Without a doubt, climate change is occurring and already has significant impacts through increased cli matic variability, global temperatures, and sea level (Masters et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2018). Climate change will continue to significantly impact agriculture, reflecting the close link between climate (tempera ture and precipitation in particular) and agriculture productivity. These effects are likely to have the greatest impact in the low-income countries of the tropical zones where agricultural productivity would decrease. Climate variability and change influence ecosystems, food security, health, and other domains fundamental to human existence and well- being (Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2021). An increased frequency of extreme events, heat stress, droughts, and floods negatively impact crop yields (Masters et al., 2010). These negative impacts of climate change on agricultural and food production have got the attention of the global research community to undertake rigorous research in this area (Joshi et al., 2016). The situation in India is even more challenging as compared to the global scenario with the high vulnerability of agriculture to changing climate and continuously increasing demand for food for a large popu lation of over 1.3 billion which is growing. An increase of 1–2 ◦C in temperature is going to have a significant negative impact on the yield of major food crops in low-altitude countries like India (Bhat and Pandit, 2020), which in turn will impact the nutritional status of the population (Gregory et al., 2005; Mahapatra et al., 2021). In India, ensuring food security and nutrition is one of the highest priorities for policymakers. India’s economy is heavily dependent on * Corresponding author. E-mail address: Shalander.Kumar@icrisat.org (S. Kumar). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Current Research in Environmental Sustainability journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-research-in-environmental-sustainability https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2025.100286 Received 21 June 2024; Received in revised form 4 March 2025; Accepted 4 March 2025 Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 Available online 22 March 2025 2666-0490/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/4.0/ ). mailto:Shalander.Kumar@icrisat.org www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/26660490 https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-research-in-environmental-sustainability https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2025.100286 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2025.100286 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.crsust.2025.100286&domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ agriculture. Climate change significantly threatens the country’s food security and nutrition. In recent years, extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and cyclones have become more frequent and severe, disrupting food production and distribution systems as a result affecting the livelihoods of millions of people (Mahapatra et al., 2021; Gregory et al., 2005; Viswanathan and Kumar, 2015; Priyadarshi et al., 2019). Therefore, understanding the impacts of climate change and variability on various aspects of food security and nutrition is critically important for appropriate policymaking. Although there is a growing body of literature on the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition in India, however, it is not known whether the evidence generated so far is sufficient to understand the effects of climate change on various key dimensions of food security and nutrition, i.e., food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability, especially in Indian context. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a sys tematic review of the available literature to know the effects of climate change on food security and nutrition in India and to identify evidence gaps. This review is unique in its systematic assessment of the impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition, specifically in the Indian context. While several global and regional reviews address food security challenges, our study uniquely focuses on the multidimensional effects of climate change on food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability in India, using a structured methodology based on a compre hensive synthesis of 231 research articles. Probably this systematic re view is the first of its kind in the Indian context. This systematic approach not only identifies existing evidence but also highlights critical knowledge gaps that require further investigation. Additionally, given India’s diverse agro-climatic zones and its significant place in global food systems, the findings from this review offer valuable insights for other developing countries facing similar climate-induced food security challenges. By providing a detailed, evidence-based framework, our review can serve as a reference for policymakers and researchers working on climate adaptation strategies both within India and in broader international contexts. This review enables a better understanding of the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition in India and will inform the development of appropriate policies and programs to address this crit ical challenge. The review also identifies research evidence gaps in the current literature and highlights the need for expanded and future research. Finally, this systematic review will provide evidence support to policymakers and other stakeholders to make informed decisions to improve food security and nutrition for better adaptation to climate change. After this brief introduction, the following section presents the methodology used for conducting this review. Next, we discuss the study characteristics across different aspects. In the next section, we explore the literature on the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition, and in the next section, we further investigate the potential areas for future research. Finally, the last section concludes with the findings from the systematic review and provides the policies to mitigate climate change based on this systematic review. 2. Methods 2.1. Protocol We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines used for conducting this study (Moher et al., 2009). 2.2. Search strategy We systematically and extensively searched published research using the three most useful and popular electronic bibliographic databases: Web of Science, CABI, and PubMed. In the first stage, we identified and pinned down our search to five themes related to food security: Climate change and Food Security, Food Availability, Food Accessibility, Food Utilization, and Food Stability. We further divided these themes into various subthemes. Finally, we used a unique set of keywords in each distinct subtheme. In total, we used 100 unique keywords for this systematic survey. For the intra-sub-theme search, we used, OR between the words, and for the inter-sub-theme search, we used AND for all of the queries. In the second stage, we use two filters: publication time (January 1990–October 2022) and language (English). At the beginning of April 2022, a test run was done for our search method in the CABI database, and then it was replicated in all other databases between 18th October and 21st October 2022. 2.3. Eligibility criteria and study selection After removing duplicates, we found 9271 articles from these three databases. Our main objective was to identify the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition in India. We used five criteria in different screening phases to determine the eligibility for inclusion (exclusion) of the relevant (irrelevant) articles from our search database. All the screening phases and inclusion/ exclusion criteria are presented in Table 1 in the Appendix. 3. Study characteristics From the search of three bibliographic databases and different web searches, we retrieved 9271 articles. After using the search criteria (described in the previous section), finally, we pin down 231 research studies. The detailed PRISMA flow diagram (Fig. 1) shows step-by-step maps of the number of records identified, included, and excluded and the reasons for exclusions for undertaking the present review. 3.1. Dimension-wise distribution The allocation of research studies on India, as illustrated in Fig. 2, demonstrates the multifaceted nature of comprehending and tackling the impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition. This en compasses various dimensions, including food availability (n = 136), food accessibility (n = 31), food utilization (n = 40), and food stability (n = 30). These dimensions collectively contribute to understanding complex relationship between climate change and food security in India. The findings presented in Fig. 2 reveal that the majority of research efforts have been concentrated on the dimension of food availability, particularly concerning the impact of climate change on cereals pro duction (n = 45), legume production (n = 9), and oilseed production (n = 12). This emphasis indicates a significant interest among researchers in understanding crop productivity and enhancing food availability to comprehend climate change’s effects on food security and nutrition. In comparison, research studies within the livestock sub-dimension (n = 31), focusing on big ruminants (n = 17), small ruminants (n = 8), and poultry birds (n = 6), are relatively fewer compared to crop production. The number of research studies dedicated to understanding the impact of climate change on aquaculture production (n = 21) is also relatively low, followed by fruit and vegetable production (n = 18). This detailed comparison demonstrates that crop production, particularly cereals, receives the greatest research attention, reflecting its crucial role in global food security. However, there is also significant recognition of the importance of livestock production, aquaculture, and fruit and vegetable production which are sources of diverse and nutritious food. Although the number of research studies on the dimensions of food accessibility (n = 31), food utilization (n = 40), and food stability (n = 30) is not as extensive as that in food availability, it still reflects a A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 2 significant interest in these aspects of food security and nutrition. Within the sub-dimensions of food accessibility, there is a relatively lower number of studies focusing on the effects of prices and the risk of hunger (n = 16), land use (n = 7), and storage (n = 8). Similarly, in the sub- dimensions of food utilization, research studies on food safety (n = 17) and food quality (n = 17) are comparatively fewer. The sub- dimensions of food stability, such as the effects of extreme events (n = 25) and food aid distribution (n = 5), have received the least amount of research attention, suggesting potential areas for further investigation and intervention to address specific challenges within these aspects of food security. Despite the imbalance in the number of studies, these findings indicate the recognition of the importance of comprehending and addressing all dimensions of food security to ensure overall nutri tion and well-being. 3.2. Year-wise distribution Over the past decade, a growing focus has been on studying climate change and its effects on food security and nutrition concerning India. In the period from 1990 to 2010, there was limited literature available (27 publications) that addressed the topic of this review article for India. However, starting in 2010, there has been a significant increase in in terest and importance, with 203 relevant publications by researchers aiming to understand the impact of climate change on food security and nutrition in India. Notably, the year 2021 had the highest number of publications (n = 31), followed by 2019 (n = 29), 2020 (n = 21), and 2022 (n = 20). Please refer to Fig. 3 for a detailed listing of publications by year, considering research studies until October 2022 for the present review. 3.3. State-wise distribution Fig. 4 depicts the intensity of the research conducted and the focus on understanding the relationship between climate change and food secu rity in India’s different states and union territories. The number of studies undertaken varied significantly across re gions. Odisha (n = 32) has the highest number of research studies indicating a strong focus on understanding the effect of climate change on food security in that state. Karnataka(n = 30) and Andhra Pradesh(n = 28) also have number of studies. On the other hand, Union Territories (Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep, and Puducherry) have only 2 studies each, suggesting a comparatively lower research emphasis in those regions. Some highly populated states have a substantial number of studies, such as Uttar Pradesh (n = 25), Maharashtra(n = 25), Bihar (n = 24), West Bengal (n = 25), and Andhra Pradesh (n = 28) which are among the most populous states in India. This suggests that researchers and policymakers recognize the importance of studying the impact of climate change on food security in highly populated regions where the consequences can be significant and widespread. The variation in the number of studies conducted across States and Union Territories reflects different levels of attention and priority given Fig. 1. PRISMA flow diagram of the systematic review on effect of climate change on food security and nutrition in Indian context. A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 3 to the issue of climate change and food security and nutrition. States with higher numbers of studies may be more equipped to develop localized strategies, policies, and interventions to mitigate the impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition. It is important to note that the number of studies alone does not indicate a comprehensive understanding of the effectiveness or depth of research conducted in each region. Individual studies’ quality, scope, and impact should also be considered while evaluating India’s overall research landscape on climate change and food security. 3.4. Climate attributes wise distribution In the review, we have identified (from the literature) four important environmental variables related to climate change and their combina tions including Temperature, Rainfall, Extreme Events, and Others to understand the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition of India. Here we are composed of environmental attributes such as tem perature (n = 140), rainfall (n = 82), extreme events (n = 64), and others (n = 14). We also looked at different combinations, including temper ature and rainfall (n = 69), temperature and extreme events (n = 23), temperature and others (n = 7), rainfall and extreme events (n = 19), rainfall and others (n = 1), and a mix of temperature, rainfall, and extreme events (n = 15). 4. Effect of climate change on food security and nutrition 4.1. Framework The effect of climate change on the four fundamental components (Abisha et al., 2022) of food security1 (Table 1), namely food avail ability, food access, food utilization, and food stability, is important as noted by FAO (FAO, 2002; 2006). To comprehensively understand the effect of the phenomena, we have examined the climate change effects on various subcomponents within each of these fundamental Fig. 2. Distribution of research studies based on food security dimensions. 1 Recent literature added 2 more dimensions of food security along with the availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. These two additional di mensions proposed by the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition namely agency and sustainability. Agency, refers to “the capacity of individuals and groups to exercise a degree of control over their own circum stances and to provide meaningful input into governance processes, is widely seen today as an important aspect of addressing widening inequities within food systems, including imbalances of power among actors within those systems” (Clapp et al., 2022). Sustainability refers to “food system practices that contribute to long-term regeneration of natural, social, and economic systems, ensuring the food needs of the present generations are met without compro mising food needs of future generations” (HLPE, 2020) A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 4 components. In the present systematic review, we have implemented a methodological approach from IPCC (Mbow et al., 2019) to understand the effect of climate change on food security and nutrition in India. A. Climate Change Effects on Food Availability In this section, the effects of climate change on food availability have been analyzed across four components: the effect on crop production, the effect on fruit and vegetable production, the effect on livestock production, and the effect on aquaculture production. A.1 Effect on crop production The effects of climate change and variability on crop production are discussed in three parts: the effect on cereals, legumes, and oilseeds production. A.1.1 Effect on cereals production The effects of climate change and variability on cereals production in India are significant and multifaceted, with rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events leading to significant economic losses for farmers and likely to threaten the country’s food security (Panikkar et al., 2022; Martin et al., 2008; Kumar and Sharma, 2022; Singh et al., 2022; Rao et al., 2022; Paudel et al., 2021). Climate change has led to increase in the frequency of extreme weather events like heat waves, floods, droughts, hail, cy clones, etc., and poses significant threats to cereals production in India, which causes (Malhi et al., 2021; Birthal et al., 2014) huge economic losses to farmers. Temperature change is one of the most important climatic change drivers affecting cereals production in India (Datta and Behera, 2022). Studies have shown that the effects of change in temperature on rice, wheat, and maize yield in India are complex and vary from region to Fig. 3. Year wise distribution of research studies. Fig. 4. Distribution of research studies across India. Table 1 Component of Effects of climate change on food security and nutrition. Effects of climate change on food security and nutrition On Food Availability On Food Accessibility On Food Utilization On Food Stability ● effect on crop production ● effect on livestock production ● effect on aquaculture production ● effects on Prices and Risk of Hunger ● effects on land use ● effects on food safety and human health ● effects on food quality ● effects of extreme events ● Food aid A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 5 region (Jha et al., 2021; Jamil Ahmad et al., 2011; Mandal and Singha, 2020; Singh et al., 2019). Research has shown that rising temperatures reduce yields ranging between 10 and 40 % for rice, 2–10 % for wheat, 2–12 % percent for maize, and 10–12 % for sorghum crop (Niranjana et al., 2020; Nidumolu et al., 2015; Yadav et al., 2015; Praveen and Sharma, 2020; Savary and Willocquet, 2020; Senguttuvel et al., 2022; Kingra et al., 2019; Aryal et al., 2019; Sinha and Swaminathan, 1991; Mukherjee et al., 2019a, 2019b; Madhukar et al., 2021; Sonkar et al., 2019; Kaul and Ram, 2008; Guntukula and Goyari, 2020) delay crop maturity and increase pest and disease, causing economic losses for farmers (Praveen and Sharma, 2019; Chakrabarty, 2016). Moreover, climate change shifts the sowing time and length of growing seasons geographically, altering the planting and harvesting period of crops and varieties currently used in some areas of Arunachal Pradesh (Shukla et al., 2014). Some studies have also suggested that rising temperatures increase water scarcity and may further affect cereals production in India (Sengar & Sengar, 2014; Kaushika et al., 2019; Kashyap and Agarwal, 2021). Changes in precipitation patterns are another significant climate- related variable that affects cereal production in India. Research has shown that rice (10–30 %), wheat, and maize (2–12 %) yields in India are likely to decline due to changes in precipitation patterns (Chand and Dhaliwal, 2020; Panda et al., 2019; Senapati, 2022; Guntukula, 2020; Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2021; Tripathi et al., 2016; Saravanakumar et al., 2022). Sorghum yields in India are expected to decline due to changes in rainfall patterns (Saravanakumar, 2015; Tirlapur and Desai, 2017). However, increased precipitation in West Bengal, Odisha, and Assam in the east, coastal Andhra Pradesh, and coastal Tamil Nadu (located in the southern Peninsula), Madhya Pradesh (in central India), and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab may increase the kharif rice yields in those areas (Chandio et al., 2021; Revadekar and Preethi, 2012). Studies have also shown a significant negative effect of precipitation change on maize yields in Telangana (Guntukula and Goyari, 2020). The research shows that the adverse impact of drought on Indian agriculture much more than that of the flood. Rabi (post-rainy) food grain production depicts better adaptability to drought than Kharif (rainy season) food grain production primarily due to fact that rabi crops are grown under irrigation and the kharif crops mostly as rainfed (Singh et al., 2011; Arora et al., 2019). A negative effect of heat waves has been observed on cereals production in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar (Lobell et al., 2012). A.1.2 Effect on legume production Climate change also adversely affects legume crops’ growth and productivity in India. Temperature, as a critical environmental factor, plays a significant role in the growth and yield of legume crops. Studies show that the rising temperature due to climate change has harmed pulse production in India (Pooja et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c). The yield of chickpeas, lentils, and green gram has been re ported to be reduced due to the increase in temperature in Punjab (Singh et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c). Studies indicate that increased tempera ture during the reproductive phase has significantly reduced chickpea yield in Punjab, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh (Farooq et al., 2017; Kaushal et al., 2013). Changes in rainfall patterns also have a detrimental effect on legume productivity in India. Increased frequency of heavy rainfall events negatively affects pulse production in India (Mishra et al., 2017; Mohapatra et al., 2022). However, evidence from Uttar Pradesh shows that yield was reduced for selected legumes like soybean due to decreased annual rainfall (Dubey et al., 2011). Extreme weather events, such as droughts and heat waves, result in reduced productivity of legume crops a 40–45 % decline in chickpea production in certain cases. Studies show that droughts have harmed legume productivity, particularly in rainfed regions (Rani et al., 2020; Kumari et al., 2021). A.1.3 Effects on oilseed production Temperature is a critical factor that affects oilseed production. Increasing temperature due to climate change affects oilseed crops in India and reduces crop yield (Yadav et al., 2016; Pasala et al., 2018). High temperature negatively affects the productivity of rapeseed and mustard crops, as observed in Bihar (Tesfaye et al., 2017). Soybean in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan was found to be more vulnerable to an increase in maximum temperature than the minimum temperature (Narolia et al., 2018; Agrawal et al., 2009). Moreover, extreme weather events like droughts reduce the pro ductivity of oilseed crops based on the evidence from Gujarat on groundnut (Patel et al., 2012) and mustard production in Rajasthan (Chauhan et al., 2007). Changes in precipitation patterns due to climate change significantly affect oilseed production (sunflower production declines by 5 %) in India (Birthal et al., 2014; Sreekanth et al., 2013). It is found that adequate precipitation, but not high intensity is necessary for sesame production (Choudhary et al., 2022), and rainfall pattern change posi tively affects groundnut yield based on studies from Uttar Pradesh (Ahmed et al., 2019) as well as country level study in India (Birthal et al., 2014). However, floods have been reported to significantly reduce ses ame production in the country due to waterlogging and soil erosion (Yadav et al., 2022). A.2 Effect on Fruits and Vegetable Production Fruit and vegetable production is highly vulnerable to climate change at their reproductive stages and also due to increased disease incidence because of climate variability. Rising temperatures and reduced precipitation are bound to affect the horticultural crops of the region (Sarkar et al., 2021a, 2021b; Paudel et al., 2021). The effects can be at any crop growth and development stage, thus influencing the quality and yield (Bhardwaj and Sharma, 2012). Climate change is causing changes in temperature patterns that significantly affect fruit and vegetable production in India. Studies have shown that high temperatures reduce yields and quality, as in Himachal Pradesh (Vaidya et al., 2019). The rising temperatures and decreased snowfall have adversely affected apple cultivation. The unconducive weather during fruit setting and development in apples has reduced the apple productivity of the regions as in Himachal Pradesh (Singh et al., 2016). Notably, the apple orchards below 1500 m elevation have almost been rendered unproductive. Due to erratic temperatures, tomato plants’ flowering and fruiting stages significantly reduce yield (Hazra et al., 2007). Higher temperatures also affect the color, size, and flavor of fruits, such as mangoes and bananas, which are important crops in India (Nath et al., 2019). The aberrations in weather like prolonged cloudy weather and rains during the full bloom hamper normal cross- pollination and fruit set in litchi (Kumar, 2012; Bal and Minhas, 2017). The effect of climate change on vegetable production can be both direct and indirect (Bhardwaj, 2012). The direct effect of climate change on vegetable production in India includes changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, which affect crop growth and yield (Kumar, 2012; Bhardwaj, 2019). Higher temperatures during the growing season led to heat stress, lower photosynthetic rates, and lower yields. In addition, changes in rainfall patterns, such as erratic rains or droughts, result in water stress, affecting crop growth and yield (Naik et al., 2017). The indirect effects of climate change on vegetable production in India are linked to increased pest and disease incidence (Koundinya et al., 2018). Warmer temperatures lead to a higher incidence of pests and diseases, reducing yields and produce quality. Changes in temperature and pre cipitation also alter the timing of pest and disease outbreaks, making it difficult for farmers to predict and manage them effectively. In addition to the direct and indirect effects of climate change, vegetable production in Bihar is also affected by changes in soil fertility and quality (Solankey et al., 2019). Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns lead to A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 6 soil nutrient availability and moisture content changes (Parajuli et al., 2019). Climate change also increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as cyclones, storms, and floods, which devastate fruit and vegetable production in the affected regions. These events damage crops, disrupt supply chains, and cause price fluctuations in the market (Rao et al., 2016). For example, the severe cyclone Amphan that hit the eastern coast of West Bengal in 2020 caused sig nificant damage to fruit and vegetable crops in the region (Mondal et al., 2021). A.3 Effect on Livestock Production The effects of climate change on food production extend beyond food crops. It affects food security in direct or indirect ways, through other subcomponents of the agricultural production systems, such as livestock production, which is closely linked with crop production. The re lationships between livestock populations and the environment are complex. There are many ways in which climate change may affect the livestock production system. Following, we discuss the effects of climate change in three different sections: the effect on large ruminants, the effect on small ruminants, and the effect on poultry. A.3.1 Effect on Large Ruminants Climate change has significant implications for the livestock sector in India, particularly for large ruminants such as cattle and buffalo. The changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, temperature-humidity index, and availability of water and forage significantly affect the productivity and health of these animals, as observed in studies in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Haryana (Kumar et al., 2015; Sheikh et al., 2017). High temperatures lead to heat stress, which causes reduced feed intake, lower productivity, and increased mortality (Sirohi and Michaelowa, 2007; Chauhan and Ghosh, 2014). Moreover, heat stress reduces milk production of cattle and buffalo by up to 50 % (Sheikh et al., 2017; Thorat et al., 2016; Dhaliwal et al., 2021). Similarly, ther mal stress decreases milk yield and quality in buffaloes (Marai and Haeeb, 2010). Additionally, heat stress reduces the fertility of cows and buffaloes, resulting in lower reproductive efficiency and increased calving intervals (Das, 2017). The impact was more significant on hybrid cows than on local breed cows like Deoni and Sahiwal cows in Maha rashtra (Das and Singh, 2016). Fluctuations in rainfall patterns and the availability of water and forage significantly affect large ruminants in India (Saxena et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c). As temperatures rise, the growth and quality of vegetation are adversely affected, leading to a decline in the availability of nutritious feed for animals (Balhara et al., 2017; Malik et al., 2015). This in turn results in lower productivity of feed and increased susceptibility to diseases. Variations in forage availability also affect the nutritional status of animals, making them more susceptible to heat stress and other environmental challenges (Giridhar and Samir eddypalle, 2015). Climate change also contributes to increased incidence of diseases in large ruminants. For example, the prevalence of tick-borne diseases such as babesiosis and anaplasmosis increases as temperature increases, as indicated by a research study in Haryana (Ganguly et al., 2017). Simi larly, fungal infections such as dermatophytosis and ringworm become more widespread with elevated levels of humidity and rainfall (Gupta and Mondal, 2021; Gautam et al., 2021). These diseases lead to decreased productivity and increased occurrence of animal mortality and morbidity. A.3.2 Effect on Small Ruminants Climate change is a growing concern also for small ruminants, such as sheep and goats production in India, as it poses several risks to the health and productivity of these animals; however, they have better adaptability to climate variation compared to large ruminants (Biradar et al., 2012; Gupta and Mondal, 2021). In India, heat stress is a widespread problem for small ruminants, often raised under open grazing systems in common and temporary fallow lands (Younis and Khidr, 2020). Heat stress significantly reduces the reproductive performance of small ruminants, leading to reduced conception rates and increased embryonic mortality (Gupta and Mon dal, 2021; Shinde and Sejian, 2013). High temperatures and humidity levels lead to heat stress in small ruminants, resulting in reduced fertility, increased embryonic mortality, and reduced milk production (Shinde and Sejian, 2013; Sejian et al., 2019). Another major effect of climate change on small ruminant produc tion in India is reduced feed and water availability. Studies have shown that climate change has led to increased drought conditions and irreg ular rainfall patterns, reducing the availability and quality of forage and water resources especially from common pool resources for small ru minants in India. This has decreased the milk productivity and repro ductive efficiency of small ruminants, especially in India’s arid and semi-arid regions, where water sources are often of poor quality, as observed in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal and Telangana (Shinde and Sejian, 2013). Climate change also increases the incidence and severity of infec tious diseases that affect small ruminants in Rajasthan (Sonawane et al., 2012). Changes in temperature and humidity patterns create favorable conditions for the survival and transmission of infectious agents. Tick- borne diseases, such as anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and theileriosis, are becoming more prevalent in India due to climate change. The preva lence of tick-borne diseases in small ruminants in India is increasing, leading to economic losses for farmers (Ghosh et al., 2006). A.3.3 Effect on Poultry Climate change has both direct and indirect effects on poultry birds. The direct effect is the one that affects the poultry, either through an erratic increase or decrease in temperature, humidity, and precipitation. However, heat stress is the most important climatic factor adversely affecting poultry performance (Rao et al., 2016). Different haemato- biochemical parameters for heat stress-related traits were significantly higher during higher stress conditions in Odisha (Sahoo et al., 2022). Higher temperatures during the summer months lead to heat stress in poultry birds, which causes a decrease in feed intake and ultimately reduces egg production (GSLHV Prasada Rao, 2017; Aswathi et al., 2019) and also affect the shape of the eggs based on studies in Odisha and Uttar Pradesh (Nayak et al., 2015; Aswathi et al., 2019). As evident from research in Punjab, heat stress also increases the time from their pre-pubertal stage to puberty, which delays egg production (Sharma et al., 2022). Moreover, heat stress causes an increase in the level of liver enzymes in serum which could be correlated with a higher mortality rate, as observed in Odisha (Sahoo et al., 2022). The indirect effects include the lack of enabling environment through the increase of pests/ diseases and reduction in the quality of feed with the change in the climate parameters such as temperature and precipitation that can affect the health of poultry. Warmer temperatures and precipitation patterns lead to changes in the distribution and abundance of pests and diseases, severely affecting the poultry industry. Changes in temperature and precipitation also affect the breeding pat terns of pests and diseases, leading to a higher incidence of outbreaks (GSLHV Prasada Rao, 2017). In addition to the direct and indirect effects, changes in temperature and precipitation patterns lead to changes in the availability of feed ingredients, which affect the quality and nutritional value of the feed. This has implications for the growth and development of poultry birds and ultimately affects their productivity (GoI Report, 2015). A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 7 A.4. Effect on Aquaculture Production Aquaculture is an important economic sector in India, providing a significant source of food, income, and employment. However, the in dustry is vulnerable to climate change’s effects, including temperature changes, precipitation, and extreme weather events (Priyadarshi et al., 2019; Mohanty et al., 2010). Climate change threatens fisheries re sources and fish production, as observed in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Kerala (Sarkar and Borah, 2018). As a result, the diversity of species is decreasing slowly due to sudden changes in the environment. This reduction in the fish population has many effects. As the fish population is decreasing, it directly or indi rectly affects those people who are dependent on the fisheries. Temperature is a key factor in the growth and survival of aquatic species. Studies in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam indicated that rising temperatures due to climate change leads to changes in the dis tribution and abundance of species and their growth rates and repro duction (Vivekanandan, 2013; Vass et al., 2009; Saud et al., 2012). In freshwater systems, warming temperatures increase the incidence of diseases and parasites, particularly in farmed species such as catfish and tilapia (Simard, 2010). Increasing water temperature enhances some fish species’ growth and reproductive activity, such as the common carp and tilapia (Simard, 2010; Sarkar et al., 2020). On the other hand, high temperatures also lead to stress, reduced oxygen levels, and increased susceptibility to disease, negatively affecting fish and shrimp production (Simard, 2010). In coastal systems, warming temperatures change the timing and abundance of phytoplankton blooms, affecting shellfish and finfish species’ food availability and growth rates (Simard, 2010; Punya et al., 2021). Climate change is expected to alter precipitation patterns in India, which could negatively affect aquaculture production. For instance, changes in rainfall patterns alter water availability, affecting the growth and survival of aquatic organisms (Simard, 2010; Sahoo et al., 2021). Heavy rainfall also causes flooding, leading to stock loss and infra structure damage (Simard, 2010). Conversely, in West Bengal, droughts resulting from decreased precipitation led to water scarcity, negatively affecting aquaculture production (Biswas, 2019). Drought conditions reduce water levels and increase salinity, harming many freshwater species in Assam (Bhattacharjya et al., 2021). Conversely, heavy pre cipitation events lead to flooding and the release of pollutants, which also affects the health of aquatic species, as evident from the study in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Chattis garh, and Odisha (Panikkar et al., 2022). In coastal systems, changes in precipitation lead to changes in the amount and timing of freshwater inflows, which affect the salinity and nutrient levels of estuaries and coastal waters, affecting the growth and reproduction of species (Martin et al., 2008). Extreme weather events such as cyclones, storm surges, and floods also negatively affect aquaculture production in India (Makwana and Patnaik, 2021; Bhattacharjya et al., 2021). Such events cause damage to aquaculture infrastructure, loss of stock, and contamination of water bodies (Abisha et al., 2022). Additionally, extreme weather events cause water quality and temperature changes, leading to mortality or reduced growth of aquatic organisms (Ruby and Ahilan, 2018). For example, the 2004 Tsunami in Andaman resulted in the loss of fishery resources on the Andaman coast, indicating that those resources had, in some areas, declined by half after the tsunami, leading to economic losses for farmers (Muralidhar et al., 2012; Morner, 2011). In the coastal systems of West Bengal, cyclones cause significant damage to aquaculture farms and infrastructure, resulting in economic losses and reduced production (Dubey et al., 2017). Inland floods also lead to significant losses, particularly in low-lying areas where fish farms may be inundated with water or damaged by debris (Morner, 2011; Dubey et al., 2017). B. Climate change effects on Access to Food Access to food is usually defined as the ability to obtain food, including purchasing food at affordable prices (Mbow et al., 2019). The effects of climate change on access to food have been discussed with three dimensions: the effect of price and risk of hunger, the effect on land use, and the effect on storage. B.1 Effect on Prices and Risk of Hunger In India, most of the small and marginal farmers rely on rain-fed cropping systems, which provide barely a few months of food security in a normal year (Ramachandran, 2014). The increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, storms, and rising temperatures leads to reduced crop yields, reduced livestock produc tivity, and declining fish stocks (Swaminathan and Kesavan, 2012). This decline in food production has two spillover effects. As seen in Maha rashtra, the first step reduces the farmer’s income (Vedeld et al., 2014). This fall in income is expected to significantly affect households’ con sumption, especially for women and children, as families with low financial resources usually allocate most of their income towards food expenses. Moreover, in the second stage, this decline in food availability increases food costs, affecting consumers through higher prices and reduced purchasing power (Kar and Das, 2015). This reduction in pur chasing power either reduces the energy intake (calories) or shifts to wards less nutritive food which can have serious health consequences, especially for children (Ritchie et al., 2018; Swaminathan et al., 2013; Aleksandrowicz et al., 2019; Noushadali, 2021). The impact of climate change on food accessibility extends beyond rural regions and urban areas. Climate change adversely affects agri culture, exacerbating the vulnerability of marginalized rural pop ulations who rely on farming. For example, in Maharashtra, New Delhi, Bihar, and Jharkhand, climate change acts as a trigger for individuals to migrate in search of better living conditions and alternative sources of income (Hari et al., 2021; Jha et al., 2018; Bhatta and Aggarwal, 2016; Viswanathan and Kumar, 2015; Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2021). Most of these migrants tend to become part of the poorly compensated workforce within the informal sector of urban areas (Ramachandran, 2014). This falls into the further trap of poverty and hunger, leading to poor health and nutritional status, and neglect of their children’s health and edu cation as seen in Karnataka (Bhor and Kumar, 2016). B.2 Effect on Land Use Climate change affects land use in agriculture through various channels. High temperatures lead to reduced crop yields, although the degree of impact varies by crop type. The differences in crop yield response to temperature influence farmers’ choices regarding land allocation (Birthal et al., 2021). There are some pieces of evidence that Indian farmers from Odisha, West Bengal, and Telangana are shifting from major food grain crops to legumes and minor cereal crops or non-food grain crops due to climate change (Sabar and Midya, 2022; Paria et al., 2022; Kondabolu, 2014). It is also found that farmers are shifting from water-intensive crops such as rice to less water-intensive crops such as maize and pulses in response to declining water availability in semi-arid areas of India (Shiferaw et al., 2008; Dhanya and Ramachandran, 2016). Similarly, farmers in Gujarat are shifting from food grain crops to cotton and sugarcane due to water shortages and declining food grain crops (Mathur and Kashyap, 2000). It was also found that in Telangana, the cropping systems in the recent period show considerably reduced cropping diversity compared to the previous period (Kondabolu, 2014). In certain regions of Himachal Pradesh, there has been a shift in the apple-growing belt towards higher altitudes. This has replaced former apple production areas with vege table cultivation (Rana et al., 2013). B.3 Effect on Storage A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 8 Climate change has significantly affected food stocks in India, affecting the quantity and quality of stored grain. Temperature changes, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events are some of the factors that contribute to the effect. The studies from Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and West Bengal found that during storage, insects pose a significant threat to causing post-harvest losses in stored food grains, resulting in both qualitative and quantitative losses in cereals, legumes, and oilseeds (Guru and Mridula, 2021; Banga et al., 2020; Das et al., 2020). Higher temperatures have increased insect infestation in stored grain. Higher temperatures also increase the metabolic rate of pests, resulting in faster reproduction rates and more damage to stored grains (Deka et al., 2009). Changes in precipitation patterns have also affected food storage. Higher moisture levels in the air lead to fungal growth and insect infestation in stored grains (Mohapatra et al., 2017). Increased and unseasonal rainfall also led to flooding, damaging storage facilities and resulting in stored grains loss (Reddy and Reddy, 2015). Climate change has led to higher frequency and severity of extreme weather events such as floods, cyclones, and droughts. These events damage the storage infrastructure, resulting in the loss of stored grain, as seen in Gujarat (Douglas, 2009). Cyclone Fani, which hit India’s east coast in 2019, damaged storage facilities and caused a loss of stored grains in Odisha (Nandi et al., 2020). C. Climate Change Effect on Food Utilization Food utilization comprises the nutrient composition of food, its preparation, and its effect on health (Mbow et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2022). The food utilization is directly affected by food safety and quality (Magan et al., 2011). Therefore, the effect of climate change on food utilization is bifurcated into the following two dimensions: The effect on Food Safety and Human Health, and the Effect on Food Quality. C.1 Effect on Food Safety and Human Health Climate change significantly affects India’s food safety and human health (Lakshminarayanan, 2011; Change, 2020 Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2021). Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns and extreme weather events have been observed to affect the growth and spread of pathogenic microorganisms in food and water, leading to foodborne illnesses in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kashmir (Priyanka et al., 2016; Dhanashree and Mallya, 2008; GOI, 2017; Mertens et al., 2019; Ishtiyak et al., 2016). Moreover, increasing temperatures also affect the behavior of insect pests that damage crops, leading to increased use of pesticides, which leads to the contamination of food products and finally affects human health (Sharma, 2014; Sarkar et al., 2021a, 2021b; Chourasiya et al., 2015; Shetty, 2004). In addition to enteric pathogens, changes in temperature and hu midity due to climate change affect the growth and activity of mycotoxin-producing fungi, which contaminate crops and threaten human health (Chatterjee et al., 2022). Aflatoxins, in particular, are a major concern due to their carcinogenic properties and widespread occurrence in crops such as maize, groundnuts, and spices. Rising tem peratures and changes in rainfall patterns increase the growth of aflatoxin-producing fungi in crops, while changes in storage conditions also lead to increased contamination (Reddy and Raghavender, 2007; Wenndt et al., 2020; Shekhar et al., 2018). C.2 Effect on Food Quality Food quality may get affected through two primary mechanisms in response to climate change (Mbow et al., 2019). The first mechanism directly affects plant and animal biology, such as temperature changes that alter plants’ basic metabolic processes. The second mechanism in volves the effect of increased carbon dioxide levels on biology through CO2 fertilization. C.2.1 Direct Effect on Plant and Animal Biology The effects of climate change on plant and animal biology in India have significant implications for food security, ecosystem services, and human health. Climate has an impact on a variety of biological pro cesses, such as the metabolic rate of plants and animals. These processes play a significant role in determining growth rates and, ultimately, crop yields. Altering these processes changes the growth rates and, therefore, the overall yield. Changes in plant phenology affect crop yields and food security, while changes in animal biology affect ecosystem services such as pollination and pest control, as seen in Uttar Pradesh (Sharma, 2014). Climate change has affected plant biology by altering the timing of phenological events such as flowering and fruiting, which are essential for the growth and reproduction of plants (Ramírez and Kallarackal, 2018). The changes in rainfall and temperature patterns have resulted in the early onset of spring, which disrupts the synchronicity between flowering and pollination, leading to a decline in the population of pollinators such as bees and butterflies based on the studies in Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh (Rupa et al., 2013; Singh, 2013; Abrol, 2012; Vedwan and Rhoades, 2001; Mukherjee et al., 2019a, 2019b). Addi tionally, the increase in temperature in Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh has led to the loss of biodiversity in forests, with many plant species unable to adapt to the changing climate (Kumar and Chopra, 2009; Sharma et al., 2011). Studies based in New Delhi showed that diurnal temperature and radiation change effects negatively on yield quality of aromatic rice cultivars (Johnson et al., 2011; Nagarajan et al., 2010). High tempera tures in New Delhi, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh, explicitly in the reproductive phase, are extremely deleterious, causing flower abortion and abnormal pod filling of legumes (Dutta et al., 2022). The effects of climate change on animal biology have also been sig nificant. In Haryana, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns have altered animal breeding patterns (Singh et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c). The increase in temperature has also led to new animal diseases (Yadav et al., 2020; GoI Annual Report, 2019; 2021; 2022). C.2.2 Effect of Rising CO2 Concentrations Over the past twenty years, the global concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs), including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and tropospheric ozone (referred to as O3), have seen a substantial increase. Of these GHGs, CO2 and O3 strongly correlate with the growth, yield, and quality of grains like wheat, rice, maize, and chickpea, as observed in the states of New Delhi, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh (Dutta et al., 2022; Saha et al., 2015). Increasing CO2 concen tration decreases the protein and micronutrient content of India’s wheat, rice, and legume crops (Myers et al., 2014; Lamichaney et al., 2021; Pal et al., 2008). It was found that the combined effects of elevated CO2 concentrations and heat stress decrease the protein content of rice in New Delhi (Chaturvedi et al., 2017). These nutrients are essential for human health, and the decline in crop availability due to rising CO2 concentrations could significantly affect the health of people who rely on them as a major source of nutrition in India. D. Climate Change effect on Food Stability Food stability means people can access and use food steadily, so there are no intervening periods of hunger (Mbow et al., 2019). Increasing extreme events associated with climate change disrupt food stability. D.1 Effect of Extreme Events Climate change-induced extreme events, such as floods, droughts, and heat waves, significantly affect food security and nutrition in India. A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 9 These events often lead to crop failures, food shortages, and increases in food prices, resulting in reduced access to food for the poor and vulnerable sections of society (Swaminathan and Rengalakshmi, 2016; Ray et al., 2019; Srivastava and Mehta, 2018). Extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, in the states of Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Telan gana, and Karnataka lead to significant crop losses, resulting in decreased food availability and increased prices, disproportionately affecting low-income populations (Vishnu and Sridharan, 2016; Kumar et al., 2016; Samuel et al., 2021; Suresh and Dinesh, 2015). Moreover, these events also lead to supply chain disruptions, affecting food product distribution and food insecurity, as observed in the studies in Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Bihar (Vishnu and Sridharan, 2016; Sam et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2016;). Various studies conducted in India have docu mented the adverse effects of extreme weather events on food security and nutrition (Vishnu and Sridharan, 2016; Nath, 2022). For example, the 2018 floods in Kerala caused widespread damage to crops, livestock, and food storage facilities, leading to food shortages and price hikes leading to an increase in malnutrition and health problems (Veerakumaran and Santhi, 2019; Vani and Joseph, 2020; Dimitrova and Muttarak, 2020). It was also found that vulnerability in agriculture affects child nutrition (Mahapatra et al., 2021). In addition to the effect on food production and distribution, extreme weather events indirectly affect food security and nutrition through ef fects on livelihoods (Rehman et al., 2022) and incomes (Parida, 2017; Udmale et al., 2014). Agricultural workers, who are already vulnerable to food insecurity, may lose their livelihoods as a result of crop losses (Veerakumaran and Santhi, 2019; Chowdhury et al., 2022; Rahman and Barman, 2019; Parida, 2017). Furthermore, climate change may exac erbate existing inequalities and lead to the displacement of marginalized communities, as in Bihar, leading to increased food insecurity and malnutrition (Somanathan and Somanathan, 2009). Extreme events due to climate change in the states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maha rashtra, and Kerala have been damaging the livelihoods of aquaculture producers (Shyam et al., 2014; Salagrama, 2013). In addition to the crop sector, the livestock and other allied sectors are also confronted with several issues, such as poor health, scarcity of feed and fodder, high occurrences of emerging and re-emerging dis eases, and mortality resulting from extreme events like droughts and floods (Rasool et al., 2021; GoI Report, 2015). These issues are contributing to the shortage of food. D.2 Effect on Distribution of Food Aid The efficient distribution of food aid to vulnerable communities re lies on complex logistics, transportation, and storage systems. These systems are sensitive to severe weather events, such as road closures due to flooding or damage to storages due to high winds. These challenges resulted in delays in the timely distribution of food aid and in the loss of perishable food items. The effect of climate change on food aid distribution was studied in different Indian states. The research study from Andhra Pradesh indi cated that extreme weather events, such as cyclones and floods, had disrupted the supply chain and storage facilities, causing significant delays and losses in food aid distribution (Ramakrishna et al., 2014). The effect of climate change on food aid distribution particularly in the context of child nutrition, in the states of Odisha, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh, was also studied (Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2011; Bartlett, 2008). The research study found that extreme weather events have reduced access to nutritious foods, severely affecting chil dren’s nutritional status (Algur et al., 2021; Bartlett, 2008). However, limited number of studies have been conducted on the effect of climate change on food aid distribution in India. 5. Discussion This systematic review examines the multifaceted impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition in India, focusing on four di mensions: food availability, food access, food utilization, and food sta bility. The findings highlight the complexity and interconnectedness of these concepts and the critical importance of appropriately designing and implementing policies to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. Food production and supply of food have been reported to be severely affected by climate change in India. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, have led to significant declines in crop yields, rice by 10–40 %, wheat and maize by 2–12 %, and sorghum by 10–12 %. Extreme weather events, such as droughts and heat waves, have particularly been detrimental, reducing chickpea production by up to 45 % and significantly affecting oilseed crops like sunflower. Climate change not only affects the agricultural sector but also its allied sectors. Heat stress was reported to result in a reduction in milk production from cattle and buffalo by up to 50 % in certain regions. The availability of fish species also changed due to rising temperatures, affecting their growth and reproduction and thereby threatening the availability of protein sources. These disruptions emphasize the urgent need to adopt climate-resilient farming practices and diversify agricultural systems to ensure long-term food availability. Food accessibility has been another critical dimension influenced by climate change. The disruption of food production systems due to extreme weather events drives food price inflation, disproportionately affecting low-income and vulnerable populations. As food becomes more expensive, the purchasing power of marginalized communities’ declines, leading to increased food insecurity. Additionally, the review highlights that climate-induced displacement of rural populations further exacerbates food accessibility issues. Migrants often face chal lenges in securing stable employment and affordable food in urban areas, placing them at heightened risk of hunger and malnutrition. These findings point to the need for inclusive policies that address both rural and urban food accessibility challenges and ensure that vulnerable groups have adequate access to affordable, nutritious food. Food utilization, which refers to the nutritional quality and safety of food, was also reported to be negatively impacted due to climate change and extremes. Higher levels of CO2 in experimental studies have shown to reduce the nutritional content of major crops such as rice, wheat, and legumes, which would lead to lower levels of essential nutrients like protein and micronutrients. This poses significant health risks, particu larly for populations that rely heavily on these crops as their primary food sources. In addition, climate change and variability promoted the proliferation of pests and pathogens, increasing the risk of foodborne illnesses and contaminations that further compromise food safety. These issues highlight the need for strategies to enhance food quality and safety, including efforts to biofortify crops and improve food storage practices to reduce post-harvest losses. Food stability has increasingly been threatened by the unpredictable nature of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and heat waves, which disrupt food supply chains and cause localized food shortages. The instability in food production and distribution creates price volatility, making it difficult for vulnerable communities to maintain consistent access to food. Moreover, we point out that these disruptions are often most severe in regions that are already prone to natural disasters, exacerbating existing inequalities in food security. Strengthening disaster awareness and forewarning, improving food aid distribution based on seasonal climate forecasts, and investing in resil ient infrastructure are important to ensuring food stability in the face of climate change. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the impact of climate change on food security and nutrition in India, how ever, critical evidence gaps remain. Addressing these gaps is essential for developing comprehensive strategies to adapt and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture and food systems, ensuring sustainable food security for the country. A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 10 The impact of climate change on crop productivity has been studied extensively for major staples like rice and wheat, but there is limited research on dryland crops such as millets and sorghum. These crops, which are more resilient to climate stressors like drought and heat, hold potential for strengthening food security in vulnerable regions. How ever, their nutritional value, productivity under changing climate con ditions, and their role in marginal and tribal communities remain underexplored. More research is needed to assess the long-term viability of these crops, particularly for smallholder farmers who rely on them for both food and income. While significant research has been conducted on staple crops, there is a lack of studies on how climate change affects indigenous and traditional food systems, particularly in tribal and remote areas. Un derstanding how these systems adapt to climate variability, and their role in sustaining food security, needs further investigation. There is a growing recognition of the role of urban agriculture and localized food systems in improving food security. However, research on how these systems can be leveraged to mitigate climate-induced food shortages remains inadequate. Research has focused on crop production losses due to climate change, but less attention has been given to post-harvest losses. Extreme weather events such as heatwaves and excessive humidity can accelerate spoilage, increase storage losses, and contribute to food waste. Future studies should evaluate the effectiveness of climate-resilient storage infrastructure and cost-effective waste reduction strategies. There is also a lack of evidence on the long-term effects of climate change on soil health. Climate change is expected to alter soil fertility and nutrient availability, affecting crop productivity. However, studies examining the resilience of agricultural systems and their ability to adapt to changes in soil conditions are limited. Not much evidence is available on the climate change effect on soil microbes and harnessing their role for adaptation. Research focusing on soil health in different agro-climatic zones is necessary to design strategies that improve nutrient management and enhance the resilience of farming systems. While the impact of climate change on water availability for irriga tion has been explored, its cascading effects on food production and nutrition remain under-researched. There is a need for studies linking water scarcity with shifts in dietary patterns, micronutrient deficiencies, and food affordability. Livestock performance under changing climate is another area where evidence is scarce. While the negative impacts of climate change on large ruminants, such as heat stress under high humidity reducing milk production, are well-documented, there is limited research on the im pacts of climate variability across different species and regions. The performance of livestock under varying climatic conditions, particularly in regions that rely heavily on pastoralism and mixed farming systems, needs more attention. This is critical for designing adaptive measures that can safeguard livestock production, a major source of income and nutrition in many parts of India and several other countries in Asia and Africa. The review also highlights the need for research on the effects of climate change on agricultural biodiversity, including the role of polli nators like honeybees. Climate change can disrupt the pollination function essential for many crops, yet little is known about how changing temperatures and weather patterns impact pollinator pop ulations and their interactions with crops. A deeper understanding of these dynamics is critical for maintaining crop productivity and biodi versity in agricultural landscapes. Furthermore, there is insufficient data and understanding of the ef fect of climate change and availability on nutritional content and quality of food products. Rising CO2 levels, temperature, and other climate factors are likely to affect the nutrient composition of food crops, yet this area remains under-researched. Given the importance of micronutrient- rich crops for combating malnutrition, especially among vulnerable populations, more focused research is needed on how climate change influences the nutritional quality of food products. The impact of climate change on food utilization is another dimen sion requiring more research. There is limited understanding of how climate change affects food safety and human health, particularly in relation to foodborne diseases and contamination. Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can increase the prevalence of pathogens, which in turn affects food safety. Additionally, the use of pesticides and fertilizers, exacerbated by changing climate conditions, can lead to contamination that impacts human health. These are areas that need robust, targeted studies to understand the pathways through which climate change impacts food utilization. The effects of climate change on food distribution systems and price volatility are also under-researched. While there is evidence that extreme weather events disrupt food supply chains, further investigation is needed into how these disruptions affect access to food, particularly for low-income populations. More research is needed to explore the potential for urban agriculture and local food systems to strengthen resilience and mitigate food price fluctuations in urban areas. The socio-psychological impact of food insecurity due to climate change remains an underexplored area. Research should investigate the mental health effects on farming communities, urban low-income households, and displaced populations affected by climate-induced food shortages. Increased frequency and intensity of heat waves and cold waves are likely to reduce working days, affect the health of farm workers, and increase the cost of labor. Generating evidence on these aspects will help in better adaptation policies. The impact of climate change on food supply chains has been explored, but there is limited research on how small and medium food enterprises (SMEs) adapt to climate shocks. SMEs play a crucial role in food processing and distribution, and studies should assess their vul nerabilities and resilience strategies. Finally, the socio-economic and political dimensions of climate change and food security require more attention. Climate change is not just an environmental issue; it has far-reaching social, economic, and governance implications. Issues such as gender equity, the role of traditional knowledge, and governance structures in managing food security under climate stress need further exploration to develop in clusive policies and programs that address the needs of marginalized populations. There are several research gaps, as discussed in this section above; however, the following areas require greater scientific attention. Dryland crops, such as millets and sorghum, offer climate resilience but remain under-researched in terms of agronomic performance, nutrition, and market integration. Post-harvest losses and climate-resilient storage systems need further study, as extreme weather accelerates spoilage and disrupts supply chains—cost-effective storage solutions and digital monitoring could help mitigate these losses. Nutritional content and food quality are also at risk, with rising CO₂ levels reducing protein and micronutrient content in staple crops, necessitating research on bio fortification and soil health. Lastly, food distribution systems and price volatility require attention to prevent climate-induced disruptions that threaten accessibility and affordability. Further, most studies have been based on modeling, experimental trials, and secondary data; there is a need to generate more evidence at the household level on the effect of climate shocks on production, livelihoods, consumption, and well-being, as well as their adaptation strategies. Addressing these gaps is crucial for building a climate-resilient food system. While all the research gaps discussed require attention, these specific gaps demand urgent focus and immediate action to strengthen climate resilience in food systems. 6. Conclusions and policy implications This review highlights substantial and multidimensional impacts of climate change on food security and nutrition in India. The findings emphasize how rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased extreme weather events are driving reductions in crop productivity, livestock performance, aquaculture, and food safety. A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 11 However, the overall food production in the country remains largely stable due to the steady bridging of the existing yield gaps and adapta tion measures with increased transaction costs. These impacts are felt disproportionately in different regions, with state-specific challenges emerging as key factors in food system vulnerabilities. Based on the evidence included in this paper, we propose the following policy rec ommendations—both national and state-specific—to holistically adapt to climate change impacts on food security. These policies must priori tize the most vulnerable agro-ecologies and populations, including smallholder farmers, women, and marginalized groups, ensuring just transitions. • Promoting Climate-Resilient Farming and Crop Diversification: As climate change reduces crop productivity, particularly in rice- wheat systems in states like Punjab and Haryana, crop diversifica tion is essential. The vulnerability of rainfed crops in states such as Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are also critical (Section 4, Subsection A1.1). Promote climate-resilient farming practices such as crop diversification, conservation agriculture, and agroforestry in vulnerable states. Support and mainstream production and con sumption of resilient crops like millets and sorghum, etc. which are more drought tolerant and nutrition dense. Identifying suitable ag roecology where these resilient crops may have a comparative advantage and policy support to address both supply and demand side challenges would be critical to promote diversification through these resilient crops. Lessons from India’s crop diversification efforts can also be applied to other climate-vulnerable regions globally, particularly in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where rainfed agriculture dominates. Sharing successful models of climate-resilient farming, such as India’s National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), can be helpful to other nations to develop localized stra tegies. Region-specific adaptation frameworks, capacity develop ment, and sustainable business models for improving access to climate-resilient technologies will be key for their scaling. Addi tionally, policies must encourage and incentivize adaptive manage ment of water resources to reduce over-reliance on irrigation for water-intensive crops such as rice, particularly in Punjab and Haryana. • Adapted Livestock Breeds and Strengthening Feed Systems: Livestock in states such as Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan are severely affected by heat stress, leading to reductions in milk production. Drought-induced feed shortages exacerbate the problem, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat (Section 4, Subsection A3.1). Policies should prioritize investment in promoting high- yielding, climate adapted indigenous livestock breeds and improve ment of feed and forage systems in drought-prone areas. Addition ally, integrated crop-livestock systems should be promoted to ensure the availability of high-quality feed and enhance farm resilience, particularly in regions experiencing severe climatic stress. Strengthening research and extension programs for climate-resilient livestock management and ensuring access to affordable, nutrient- rich feed alternatives will be critical for sustaining livestock pro ductivity under changing climatic conditions. • Strengthening Climate-Resilient Aquaculture Practices: Aquaculture-dependent coastal regions, such as Kerala and West Bengal, face increasing risks due to rising water temperatures and extreme weather events (Section 4, Subsection A4). Policies should focus on developing adaptive aquaculture practices by promoting temperature-tolerant fish species, improving hatchery technologies, and enhancing water management infrastructure to sustain produc tion under changing climatic conditions. Additionally, strengthen disaster preparedness and forewarning systems in coastal regions to protect aquaculture infrastructure from cyclones and floods. Special attention may be given to sustainable practices for small-scale fish eries, including climate-smart aquaculture techniques, diversification of income sources, and access to financial support for affected fishers. Expanding research on the impacts of climate change on marine and freshwater ecosystems and integrating aqua culture with coastal ecosystem restoration efforts can further enhance long-term sustainability and resilience. • Improving sustainable moisture availability for crops: In many regions in India, farmers rely heavily on rainfall, making them vulnerable to variability in precipitation. States such as Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and other semiarid and arid regions are particularly impacted due to poor access to irrigation (Section 4, Subsection A1.3). Additionally, unsustainable use of available water for irrigation further exacerbates vulnerability to climate change by overexploiting the groundwater reserves. Policies should prioritize investment in rainwater harvesting systems, micro-irrigation tech nologies, and in-situ soil moisture conservation techniques to enhance water availability. These strategies should not only focus on arid and semi-arid rainfed regions but also on groundwater- dependent irrigated farming systems, where excessive water with drawal threatens long-term sustainability. Strengthening climate- resilient water governance, expanding farmers’ access to water- efficient technologies, and promoting integrated landscape man agement will be essential to mitigate the risk of crop failure due to irregular rainfall and ensure long-term agricultural resilience. • Ensuring Food Accessibility for Vulnerable Populations: The increase in food prices due to climate-induced disruptions dispro portionately affects low-income households, especially in states such as Bihar and Jharkhand, where food security remains precarious (Section 4, Subsection B1). Policies should expand targeted food subsidy programs by including nutrient-dense grains such as millets and pulses in the strengthened public distribution systems to improve dietary diversity and affordability to vulnerable pop ulations, especially those in rural and low-income urban areas Additionally, implement price stabilization mechanisms, such as buffer stock management, market interventions, and localized pro curement strategies, can help mitigate to prevent food price volatility during extreme weather events. Strengthening climate-resilient supply chains, improving storage and distribution infrastructure, and enhancing social safety nets will be critical to ensuring sustained food accessibility in the face of climate shocks. • Improving Nutritional Quality and Biofortification: Climate change-induced reductions in the nutritional content of key crops, such as rice and wheat, threaten public health in multiple states, including Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh (Section 4, Subsection C2.2). Policies should promote biofortification of staple crops to enhance their nutritional content, with a particular focus on addressing micronutrient deficiencies such as iron, zinc, and vitamin A. Promoting integrated soil health management practices, including organic amendments, balanced fertilization, and crop rotation, is essential to maintain crop productivity, quality and food safety under changing climatic conditions. Additionally, biofortified crops should also be incorporated in public food programs such as mid-day meal schemes and public distribution systems to ensure broader access among nutritionally vulnerable populations. Expanding consumer awareness campaigns, incentivizing farmer adoption of biofortified varieties, and enhancing market linkages will further support the successful integration of biofortification into national food security strategies. • Strengthening Food Safety and Reducing Contamination Risks: Climate change increases the risk of pest infestations and foodborne diseases, particularly reported in states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kashmir, affecting food safety and security (Section 4, Subsec tion C1). Policies should strengthen food safety regulations, enhance monitoring systems for pesticide residues and contamination, and implement stricter enforcement mechanisms to protect public health. Expanding awareness programs for farmers and consumers on safe pesticide use, mycotoxin risks, and proper food handling is A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 12 essential. Leveraging digital technologies such as real-time contam ination detection, blockchain-based traceability, and AI-driven monitoring systems can further enhance food quality surveillance. Additionally, developing pest-resistant crop varieties and investing in improved storage infrastructure at various scales, from household to commercial facilities, is crucial to minimize post-harvest losses and ensure that food remains safe for consumption. • Building Resilient Food Supply Chains and Disaster Prepared ness: Frequent disruptions to food supply chains due to extreme weather events such as floods and cyclones, especially in states like Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal, among others resulting in localized food shortages and price volatility (Section 4, Subsection D1). Pol icies should strengthen disaster preparedness and forewarning early warning systems by improving weather forecasting, real-time monitoring, and rapid response mechanisms to minimize disrup tions targeting all the stakeholders in the food value chains. Investing in climate-resilient infrastructure, including modern storage facil ities, all weather transportation networks, and decentralized food distribution systems, is critical to maintaining supply chain stability. Additionally, developing district-level and sub-district-level agri cultural contingency plans, especially in the climate hotspot regions, will help ensure immediate support for farmers and ensure food supply chain stability during crises. Enhancing public-private part nerships to improve logistics, supply chain efficiency, and food stock management will further contribute to long-term resilience against climate-induced disruptions. • Supporting Indigenous Food Systems and Urban Agriculture: Indigenous food systems, which have historically adapted to envi ronmental changes, are underutilized despite their potential to enhance food security and resilience. Similarly, urban agriculture in cities, especially metros, lacks appropriate policy support. Policies should promote the preservation, documentation, and integration of Indigenous food systems into broader agricultural policies, particu larly in tribal regions like Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and northeast states, among others. Strengthening value chains, market access, and knowledge-sharing platforms for Indigenous crops will encourage wider adoption and sustainability. Additionally, sup porting research-backed urban agriculture initiatives in major cities can help to diversify food sources, lower transportation costs, and enhance access to fresh, nutrient-rich produce for urban populations. • Enhancing and Reorienting Agricultural Extension Services: Farmers, especially smallholders in most of the states, often lack access to timely information and technical support on climate- resilient agricultural practices. Policies should strengthen and reor ient agricultural extension services to provide localized, need-based guidance on climate-adaptive crop-livestock practices. Expanding the use of digital platforms, mobile advisory services, and AI-driven decision-support tools can enable near real-time dissemination of climate information, early warnings, and best practices to context- specific guidance to farmers and other stakeholders in the agricul tural value chains. Additionally, fostering stronger collaboration between research institutions, extension agencies, and farmer orga nizations can enhance knowledge transfer, ensuring that smallholder farmers are well-equipped to adapt to climate challenges. • Addressing Gaps in Micro-Level Data and Localized Adaptation Strategies: Most of the studies on the impact of climate change are based on modeling or macro-level secondary data, which limits the understanding of region-specific vulnerabilities. The lack of micro- level climate change impact assessments on smallholder farming systems, men and women, and the challenges faced by marginalized communities limits the effectiveness of policy responses. Policies should prioritize investments in micro-level research studies, and localized data collection to develop context-specific adaptation strategies. High-resolution, regionally disaggregated data is essential for designing targeted interventions that address the unique chal lenges of different regions, such as smallholder farmers in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Strengthening community-driven data collection mechanisms, integrating participatory research approaches, and leveraging digital technologies for near real-time situation assess ment climate will be key to bridging existing knowledge gaps and enhancing climate resilience at the local level. • Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities in Climate Adaptation: Climate change exacerbates social and economic inequalities, particularly for women, children, and marginalized groups in several states, for example, as reported for Karnataka, Bihar, and Odisha (Section 4, Subsection D2). Policies should ensure that climate adaptation strategies are inclusive and equitable, prioritizing the needs and building capacities of marginalized communities. Imple menting gender-sensitive programs that empower women through education, capacity building, access to climate-resilient resources, and financial support will enable them to play a central role in climate resilience efforts. • Promoting Research on Indigenous Knowledge and Traditional Crops: The resilience of Indigenous crops and traditional agricul tural knowledge in the face of climate change remains under- researched. Policies should prioritize research into high-potential indigenous crops and landraces and traditional farming knowledge to identify sustainable, climate-resilient practices that can be applied in regions facing severe climate impacts. This includes documenting and analyzing traditional cropping systems in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat, where such practices have historically mitigated the effects of drought and water scarcity. Strengthening collaborations between research institutions, Indigenous communities, and policy makers will be crucial to integrating traditional agricultural wisdom into modern climate adaptation strategies and scaling up climate- resilient farming models. • Expanding Renewable Energy Use in Agriculture: The over- reliance on fossil fuels for irrigation and farming operations in creases vulnerability to energy price fluctuations and climate im pacts, particularly in rural agricultural areas. Policies should promote the adoption of renewable energy sources by implementing context-specific business models, such as solar-powered irrigation systems, biogas units, energy-efficient farming and post-harvest machinery. These technologies can reduce dependence on fossil fuels, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and increase energy security and resilience in rural agricultural areas. Strengthening financial incentives, technology access, and capacity-building programs will be crucial to accelerating the widespread adoption of renewable energy solutions in agriculture. Looking ahead, the future of climate change and food security research should prioritize a more integrative and interdisciplinary approach that bridges environmental science, agriculture, nutrition, and socio-economic policy. Future studies should focus on strengthening climate-resilient food systems by promoting sustainable agricultural practices, including agroecology, regenerative farming, and climate- smart farming system diversification. The application of advanced technologies such as high resolution climate forecasting, precision agriculture, AI and remote sensing applications can enhance early warning systems and agro-advisories on adaptive strategies for small holder farmers. Additionally, expanding research on alternative protein sources and biofortified crops can help address nutritional deficiencies in climate-stressed regions. Policymakers should also emphasize community-driven adaptation measures, strengthening local food sys tems, and ensuring equitable access to climate adaptation resources. In the near future, we expect to see stronger collaborations between gov ernments, research institutions, and the private sector to develop inno vative solutions that enhance food security while mitigating climate impacts. These efforts will be crucial in building resilient food systems that can withstand future climate uncertainties and ensure sustainable nutrition for vulnerable populations. A. Das et al. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 9 (2025) 100286 13 Funding This research was supported by the World Food Programme (WFP) India Country Office and the CGIAR Science Program on Climate Action for Food, Land, and Water system transformation through CGIAR Fund Donors and bilateral funding agreements. The contents of this publica tion are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funders. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Appendix A. Appendix Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria. Screening Phase Criteria Included Excluded Rationale Title Screening Topic relevance Studies focused on climate change effects on food security, including availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability Studies unrelated to food security and nutrition or not focused on climate change Ensuring studies are directly relevant to the research question Title & Abstract Publication Type Peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, significant grey literature from reputed bodies (e.g., FAO, UN, IPCC) Conference abstracts, opinion pieces, editorials, meta-analyses without new empirical data Ensuring inclusion of high-quality, data-driven studies Abstract & Full Text Study Scope Studies assessing climate change’s impact on food security (crop production, livestock, fisheries, food prices, nutritional quality, food stability) in India Studies that do not focus on India or lack detailed analysis of food security dimensions The focus is on India-specific evidence and key dimensions of food security Full Text Methodology & Data Studies using quantitative or qualitative analysis, empirical studies, systematic reviews, and modeling approaches with robust actual data/ information. Studies lacking methodological rigor, insufficient data for extraction, or speculative discussions Ensuring reliability and reproducibility of findings Inclusion Analysis Outcomes Measured Studies reporting impacts of climate change on food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability, as well as adaptation strategies Studies that do not provide clear evidence on how climate change affects food security and nutrition Ensuring included studies contribute meaningfully to understanding the issue Data availability No data was used for the research described in the article. References Abisha, R., Krishnani, K.K., Sukhdhane, K., Verma, A.K., Brahmane, M., Chadha, N.K., 2022. Sustainable development of climate-resilient aquaculture and culture-based fisheries through adaptation of abiotic stresses: a review. J. Water Clim. Change 13 (7), 2671–2689. Abrol, D.P., 2012. Pollination Biology: Biodiversity Conservation and Agricultural Production. Springer, New York. Agrawal, K.K., Upadhyay, A.P., Jain, S., Bhadauria, U.P.S., 2009. Assessing the climate based productivity potential of soybean in Madhya Pradesh. J. Agrometeorol. 11 (2), 132–134. Ahmad, J., Alam, D., Haseen, M.S., 2011. Impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in India. Int. J. Agric., Environ. Biotechnol. 4 (2), 129–137. Ahmed, A., Deb, D., Mondal, S., 2019. Assessment of rainfall variability and its impact on groundnut yield in Bundelkhand region of India. Curr. Sci. 117 (5), 794–803. Aleksandrowicz, L., Green, R., Joy, E.J., Harris, F., Hillier, J., Vetter, S.H., Haines, A., 2019. Environmental impacts of dietary shifts in India: a modelling study using nationally-representative data. Environ. Int. 126, 207–215. Algur, K.D., Patel, S.K., Chauhan, S., 2021. The impact of drought on the health and livelihoods of women and children in India: a systematic review. Child Youth Serv. Rev. 122, 105909. Arora, A., Bansal, S., Ward, P.S., 2019. Do farmers value rice varieties tolerant to droughts and floods? Evidence from a discrete choice experiment in Odisha, India. Water Resour. Econ. 25, 27–41. Aryal, J.P., Jat, M.L., Sapkota, T.B., Rai, M., Jat, H.S., Sharma, P.C., Stirling, C., 2019. Learning adaptation to climate change from past climate extremes: Evidence from recent climate extremes in Haryana, India. Int. J. Climate Change Strategies Manage. 12 (1), 128–146. Aswathi, P.B., Bhanja, S.K., Kumar, P., Shyamkumar, T.S., Mehra, M., Bhaisare, D.B., Rath, P.K., 2019. Effect of acute heat stress on the physiological and reproductive parameters of broiler breeder hens-a study under controlled thermal stress. Indian J. Animal Res. 53 (9), 1150–1155. Bal, S.K., Minhas, P.S., 2017. Atmospheric stressors: challenges and coping strategies. In: Abiotic stress management for resilient agriculture, pp. 9–50. Balhara, A., Nayan, V., Dey, A., Singh, K.P., Dahiya, S.S., Singh, I., 2017. Climate change and buffalo farming in major milk producing states of India-present status and need for addressing concerns. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 87 (4), 403–411. Banga, K.S., Kumar, S., Kotwaliwale, N., Mohapatra, D., 2020. Major insects of stored food grains. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 8 (1), 2380–2384. Bartlett, S., 2008. The implications of climate change for children in lower-income countries. Child. Youth Environ. 18 (1), 71–98. Bhardwaj, M.L., 2012. Challenges and opportunities of vegetable cultivation under changing climate scenario. In: A training manual on vegetable production under changing climate scenario, pp. 13–18. Bhardwaj, S.K., 2019. Impacts of climate Change/variability on phenology of vegetable crops: adaptation and mitigation strategy. In: Innovative Interventions for Sustainable Vegetable Production Under Changing Climate Scenario (3rd September to 23rd September 2019), 3, p. 125. Bhardwaj, S.K., Sharma, S.D., 2012. Horticulture crop production in North-Western Himalayas under changing climate scenario. In: International Symposium for Agriculture and Food, XXXVII Faculty-Economy Meeting, IV Macedonian Symposium for Viticulture and Wine Production, VII Symposium for Vegetables and Flower Production, Skopje, Macedonia, 12-14 December 2012. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food, University“ Ss Cyril and Methodius”, pp. 503–511. Bhat, S.U., Pandit, A.K., 2020. Water quality assessment and monitoring of Kashmir Himalayan freshwater springs-a case study. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 23 (3), 274–287. Bhatta, G.D., Aggarwal, P.K., 2016. Coping with weather adversity and adaptation to climatic variability: a cross-country study of smallholder farmers in South Asia. Clim. Dev. 8 (2), 145–157. Bhattacharjya, B.K., Yadav, A.K., Debnath, D., Saud, B.J., Verma, V.K., Yengkokpam, S., Das, B.K., 2021. Effect of extreme climatic events on fish seed production in lower Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, India: constraint analysis and adaptive strategies. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag. 24 (3), 39–46. Bhor, N., Kumar, P., 2016. Climate Change and Health: A Social Determinants Approach to Malnutrition among Migrant Children. Biradar, N., Patil, S.L., Gajendra, T.H., Manjunath, L., 2012. Effect of climate of change on agriculture and livestock as perceived by the farmers of Karnataka. Int. J. Agric. Statist. S