1 Overview of CGIAR Long-Term Experiments 10 December 2025 Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. Strategic importance of CGIAR LTEs 3 3. Conceptual framework of CGIAR LTEs 3 4. Geographic Distribution of CGIAR LTEs 4 5. Typology of CGIAR LTEs 4 6. Recommendations for Strengthening CGIAR LTEs 5 Annex 6 Authors: Ali Ibrahim1, Rasche Frank2, Leitner Sonja3, Pulleman Mirjam4, Moussadek Rachid5, Ramirez David6, Bouba Traore7, Kalvaniya Kalash Chandra8, Bastidas Mike4, Thierfelder Christian Lutz8, Whitbread Anthony3, Kihara Job Maguta4, Bolo Peter4, Pauline Chivenge9 1. Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) 2. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) 3. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 4.Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT 5. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) 6. International Potato Center (CIP) 7. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) 8. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 9. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Overview of CGIAR Long-Term Experiments 1. Introduction Long-Term Experiments (LTEs) are among the most valuable scientific assets within the CGIAR system. Conducted over decades, these experiments provide rare, high-quality evidence on the long-term impacts of agricultural technologies, climate variability, soil management strategies, and land-use practices. Unlike short-term trials, LTEs capture cumulative and lagged effects such as soil carbon accrual, nutrient cycling, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, yield stability, and climate resilience, making them indispensable for designing sustainable agrifood systems. CGIAR’s LTEs underpin global public goods, including, but not limited to, soil health frameworks, integrated soil fertility management (ISFM), conservation agriculture (CA) protocols, and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) strategies. Their insights guide national policy, shape investment priorities, and inform global debates on sustainable intensification. As CGIAR moves toward data-driven, climate-resilient research and development (R&D), LTEs are increasingly vital for ensuring methodological robustness, supporting AI-ready datasets, and enabling cross-regional synthesis for transformative agronomic recommendations. This overview not only consolidates CGIAR’s long-standing LTEs but also documents a new generation of emerging LTEs initiated in recent years. Although these newly established LTEs are still accumulating long-term data, their early inclusion strengthens system-wide visibility, fosters methodological harmonization, and secures their integration into future CGIAR-wide synthesis efforts. Together, legacy and emerging LTEs represent a comprehensive continuum of CGIAR’s commitment to building robust evidence for sustainable, climate-resilient agrifood systems. 2. Strategic importance of CGIAR LTEs A. Scientific value ▪ Produce long-term, high-quality data essential for understanding sustainability trajectories. ▪ Enable mechanistic interpretation of soil and system changes under different management practices. ▪ Provide training grounds for NARES, students, and researchers. ▪ Serve as benchmarks for global assessments of climate change mitigation and adaptation. B. Digital and modeling value ▪ Provide calibration and validation datasets for process-based models (e.g. APSIM, DSSAT, ML/AI) ▪ Generate AI-ready, FAIR datasets fundamental for data-driven agricultural transformation. ▪ Support predictive analytics, scenario assessments, and risk modeling. C. Policy and investment relevance ▪ Inform fertilizer recommendations, CA guidelines, and soil health policies. ▪ Provide evidence for investment decisions on irrigation, land restoration, and climate resilience. ▪ Act as long-term public goods for national and global institutions. 3. Conceptual framework of CGIAR LTEs CGIAR LTEs are defined by the following characteristics: ▪ Long duration: typically, ≥10 years, often spanning decades. ▪ Stable and well-documented management, ensuring continuity and comparability across years. ▪ Clear treatment structures, enabling the attribution of observed long-term effects. ▪ Consistent measurement protocols for soil, crop, climate, and environmental variables. ▪ High reproducibility & scientific integrity, allowing global benchmarking and meta-analysis. ▪ Integration with breeding, agronomy, water, climate, and livestock research, enabling cross-disciplinary insights. ▪ Inclusion of newly established LTEs that meet the CGIAR conceptual design and measurement standards, even if they are still in the early years of implementation, ensuring early alignment and future integration into long-term datasets. 4. Geographic distribution of CGIAR LTEs The CGIAR LTE network is geographically broad, spanning five major regions with diverse agricultural systems across the Global South (Figure 1, Annex A1). West and Central Africa (WCA) hosts 15 LTE sites across Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Ghana. East and Southern Africa (ESA) includes 17 LTE sites distributed across Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (Table 1). In the North Africa and MENA region, 2 LTE sites are located in Morocco. Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) contribute 10 LTE sites, primarily in Colombia, Mexico and Peru, Asia, covering both South and Southeast Asia, contains 11 LTE sites in India and the Philippines. Together, this geographic spread provides a strong agroecological representation across tropical, subtropical, dryland, and humid production environments. Table 1. Geographic Distribution of CGIAR LTEs Region Number of LTE Sites Countries Represented Centers Involved West & Central Africa (WCA) 15 Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria AfricaRice, ICRISAT, IITA, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT East & Southern Africa (ESA) 17 Kenya, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Ethiopia Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IITA, CIMMYT Middle East & North Africa (MENA) 2 Morocco ICARDA Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 10 Colombia, Peru, Mexico Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP Asia 11 India, Philippines CIMMYT, ICARDA, IRRI Figure 1. Geo-localization of CGIAR LTEs distribution across the world 5. Typology of CGIAR LTEs Across the CGIAR system, LTEs address a diverse set of research questions (Table 2). The network spans seven major scientific typologies, reflecting the core strengths of participating centers: (1) Soil fertility and nutrient management LTEs which are led by AfricaRice, ICRISAT, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IITA, IRRI and CIMMYT (2) Conservation agriculture LTEs, managed by AfricaRice, CIMMYT, ICARDA, IITA, (3) Crop rotation and diversification LTEs, implemented by CIMMYT, ICRISAT, ICARDA, IITA, and Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, (4) Soil organic matter and organic resource management LTEs principally from IITA, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and CIMMYT (5) Integrated crop-livestock and legume-cereal LTEs from IITA, ICRISAT, ICARDA, and CIMMYT (6), the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT’s unique biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) and forage system LTEs which reveal how Brachiaria forages can modulate soil nitrogen transformations and enhance system efficiency, and (7), ILRI’s Kapiti Research Station and Wildlife Conservancy which acts as a livestock ranch and wildlife conservancy in the semi-arid savanna ecosystems of the Athi-Kapiti Plains, Kenya. Together, this typology underscores a coherent, complementary global LTE portfolio that enables CGIAR to produce high-quality, evidence-based insights on sustainability, soil health, climate resilience, and system innovation across diverse agroecosystems. Across CGIAR, prevalent LTEs now underpin a remarkably rich evidence base, with 275 publications spanning Africa and Asia (Annex A2). These outputs draw on flagship sites such as AfricaRice’s irrigated rice LTEs at Ndiaye and Fanaye, ICRISAT’s Sahelian millet-cowpea and microdosing trials, ILRI’s Kapiti rangeland station, IITA’s and Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT’s integrated soil fertility management LTEs in Western and Central Kenya, ICARDA’s conservation agriculture LTE in Morocco, CIMMYT’s extensive conservation agriculture platforms in Mexico and India, and IRRI’s continuous rice systems at Los Baños (The Philippines). Collectively, this portfolio documents long-term trajectories of yield, soil health, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient use efficiency, and climate resilience, providing a unique empirical foundation for sustainable intensification strategies in smallholder cereal and livestock systems. Table 2. Typology of CGIAR Long-Term Experiments (LTEs) LTE typology category Centers involved Examples of LTE themes Soil fertility & nutrient management AfricaRice, ICRISAT, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IITA, IRRI, CIMMYT Long-term nutrient cycling, fertilizer optimization, organic resource management, micro- and macro- nutrient interactions, integrated soil fertility management, biochar application Conservation agriculture (CA) AfricaRice, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, IITA, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, CIMMYT Reduced/no tillage, residue retention, CA-based cereal systems, CA-based rotations, long-term soil health improvement, global warming potential, energy and water Crop rotation & diversification ICRISAT, IITA, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, CIMMYT Cereal-legume rotations, rotation diversification, long-term effects on yields, soil properties, weeds, and pests Soil organic matter (SOM) & Organic resource management IITA, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, CIMMYT SOM dynamics, organic input quality trials, long-term carbon stabilization, decomposition trajectories Legume-cereal & crop-livestock integration IITA, ICRISAT, ICARDA, CIMMYT Manure recycling, grazing interactions, forage-crop systems, nutrient return pathways, integrated mixed farming systems BNI & forage system Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT Brachiaria forages, BNI effects, forage productivity, residual effects on subsequent crop productivity Dryland grassland management ILRI Rotational grazing, manure recycling via short-rotation bomas, forage plots with drought-tolerant varieties, wildlife-livestock interaction, remote sensing validation, ecosystem GHG emissions monitoring, grazing impacts on vegetation biodiversity and soil degradation 6. Recommendations for strengthening CGIAR LTEs CGIAR’s LTEs represent unparalleled scientific assets essential for understanding sustainability, climate resilience, and agronomic transformation. As global agriculture faces escalating climate pressures, LTEs offer irreplaceable datasets for forecasting, scenario modeling, digital innovation, and evidence-based policy. Investing continuously in the strengthening, harmonization, and digital transformation of LTEs will enable CGIAR to generate the next generation of insights required for climate-resilient, sustainable, and equitable agrifood systems. Annex Annex A1. List of LTEs ID Region Latitude Longitude Center LTE name/site Country Start Crops/System Primary focus 1 West & Central Africa (WCA) 16.182389 -16.247412 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-Term Fertility Senegal 1991 Irrigated lowland rice Long-term soil fertility & sustainability 2 West & Central Africa (WCA) 16.535289 -15.192176 AfricaRice Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Senegal 1991 Irrigated lowland rice Long-term soil fertility & sustainability 3 West & Central Africa (WCA) 7.85 5.11 AfricaRice Upland rice–maize CA systems Côte d’Ivoire 2015 Upland rice, maize Conservation agriculture, soil health 4 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) 33.56131 -6.69188 ICARDA Crop- diversification under conservation agriculture Morocco 2013 cereal (wheat, barley, triticale), legume (lentil, chickpea, Faba bean), forage (vetch+oat) Conservation agriculture, crop rotation, soil health, nutrient management 5 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) 33.56131 -6.69188 ICARDA Long-term conservation agriculture cereal- legume rotation Morocco 2004 Cereals, food legumes and forage crops 6 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT Adansonia digitata provenance Niger 2009 Baobab Genetic resources under semi-arid conditions 7 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT OPSCAR (OPerational SCale Research) Niger 1982 Millet–cowpea Tillage, P, rotation; microdosing sustainability 8 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT Tree–crop systems (Sadoré) Niger 2004 Millet + agroforestry Agroforestry for sustainable systems 9 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT Agroforestry trials (Sclerocarya) Niger 2015 Sclerocarya Provenance/varietal evaluation 10 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT Acacia husbandry × millet/cowpea Niger 2013 Millet, cowpea Organic + mineral inputs in tree plantations 11 West & Central Africa (WCA) 13.2313896 2.274111436 ICRISAT Microdosing–CA cereal–legume rotation Niger 2003 Millet systems Long-term productivity, soil fertility, water use 12 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 3.506604 -76.352353 Alliance CIAT Bioversity Various analyses on field-cultivated Brachiaria grasses with different biological nitrification Colombia 2016 Grass, Maize Residual effect of BNI on maize performance inhibition ability N1N 13 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 3.501626 -76.345887 Alliance CIAT Bioversity Silvopastoral trial P3 Colombia 2013 Forage Animal productivity under different level of pasture intensification 14 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 3.500663 -76.350117 Alliance CIAT Bioversity Biological nitrification inhibition in tropical grasses CIAT-JIRCAS Colombia 2004 Forage Interspecific variation in the ability of biological nitrification inhibition in forage crops for the tropics 15 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 00°08' 38,3" N 34°24'13,7"E Alliance CIAT Bioversity INM3 Trial, Madeya (Integrated Nutrient Management) Kenya 2004 Maize, soybean, tephrosia (sole, intercrop, rotation) Long-term trial focusing on integrated nutrient management through different manure, residue and fertilizer regimes; SOC build-up, rotations and intercrops 16 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) -12.076237 -76.949065 CIP CIP Long Term Trial Peru 2023 Bean - Alfalfa – Potato – Grasses + Legumes Restoring degraded drylands through regenerative practices focused on tillage reduction, residue and organic matter incorporation, rotations, and mulching, to grow potatoes. 17 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -0.5148611 37.4557557 IITA Embu SOM Trial Kenya 2002 Maize organic residue quality (tithonia, calliandra, maize stover, manure, sawdust) → SOM fractions 18 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -0.4574444 37.6603946 IITA Machanga SOM Trial Kenya 2001 Maize organic residue quality (tithonia, calliandra, maize stover, manure, sawdust) → SOM fractions 19 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 0.1427222 34.4190335 IITA Sidada SOM Trial Kenya 2005 Maize organic residue quality (tithonia, calliandra, maize stover, manure, sawdust) → SOM fractions 20 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 0.5746389 34.1887002 IITA Aludeka SOM Trial Kenya 2005 Maize organic residue quality (tithonia, calliandra, maize stover, manure, sawdust) → SOM fractions 21 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 0° 07’ 51’’N 34° 24’ 11’’ E IITA Biochar Trials Siaya Kenya 2006 Maize, Soybean How biochar influences: (i) maize and soybean yields in the presence and absence of inorganic fertilizer, (ii) yield reliability through seasonal variability, and (iii) key soil properties including C and N stocks, extractable P and K, soil acidity, water- holding capacity, and bulk density. 22 East & Southern Africa (ESA) N 03°58.746’ E 009° 46.807’ IITA Kawanda East African Highland Banana response to potassium Uganda 2018 Banana K effects on banana growth 23 East & Southern Africa (ESA) S 01°37.983’ E 37°8.765’ ILRI Kapiti Research Station and Wildlife Conservancy Kenya 1981 Savanna grassland, forages Drought-resilient grazing management, drought-tolerant forage varieties, livestock- wildlife interaction 24 West & Central Africa (WCA) N 03°58.746’ E 009° 46.807’ IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Cameroon; CA-IRAD Cameroon 2020 cocoa 25 West & Central Africa (WCA) N 04°51.265’ E 011° 11.990’ IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Cameroon; CA-IITA Cameroon 2020 cocoa 26 West & Central Africa (WCA) N 05°59.404' W 005°14.317' IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Côte d’Ivoire ; CI-CNRA Côte d'Ivoire 2020 cocoa 27 West & Central Africa (WCA) 6.995735 -2.2358899 IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Ghana; GH-CRIG Ghana 2019 cocoa Inorganic fertilizer (0, 50, 100, 150% of offtake model) + micronutrients (Zn, Mg, B) for developing site- specific ISFM/fertilizer recommendations for cocoa across West Africa 28 West & Central Africa (WCA) N 07.20063° E 005.02767° IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Nigeria; NI- CRIN Nigeria 2020 cocoa Inorganic fertilizer (0, 50, 100, 150% of offtake model) + micronutrients (Zn, Mg, B) for developing site- specific ISFM/fertilizer recommendations for cocoa across West Africa 29 West & Central Africa (WCA) N 7°30’ 29” E 3°53’ 33” IITA CocoaSoils Core Trial in Nigeria; NI- IITA Nigeria 2019 cocoa Inorganic fertilizer (0, 50, 100, 150% of offtake model) + micronutrients (Zn, Mg, B) for developing site- specific ISFM/fertilizer recommendations for cocoa across West Africa 30 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -16.2402 27.44145 CIMMYT Monze FTC CA LT trial Zambia 2005 (20) Cotton, maize, sunnhemp CA-based systems (sole, rotations) → soil quality, productivity, water and nutrient dynamics, pest and disease 31 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -17.572072 30.986926 CIMMYT Henderson Research Station Conservation Agriculture Long- Term trial Zimbabwe 2004 (21) maize, cowpea, sunnhemp CA-based systems (sole, rotation intercropping) → soil quality, productivity, water and nutrient dynamics, soil erosion, pest and disease 32 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -13.9732 33.65403 CIMMYT Chitedze Research Station Conservation Malawi 2007 (18) Cowpeas, maize, groundnuts, cowpea pigeonpea, velvet beans CA-based systems (sole, rotation intercropping) → soil quality, productivity, Agriculture Long- Term trial water and nutrient dynamics, pest and disease 33 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -17.6079 31.14029 CIMMYT Domboshawa Training Center Conservation Agriculture Long- Term trial Zimbabwe 2009 (16) Cowpea, maize, groundnut, cowpea CA-based systems (sole, rotation intercropping) → soil quality, productivity, water and nutrient dynamics, biochar pest and disease 34 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -13.6451 32.55862 CIMMYT Msekera Research Station Conservation Agriculture Long- Term trial Zambia 2011 (14) Cowpea, maize, cowpea, soybean CA-based systems (sole, rotation intercropping) → soil quality, productivity, water and nutrient dynamics, pest and disease 35 East & Southern Africa (ESA) -10.1726 31.22358 CIMMYT Misamfu Research Station Conservation Agriculture Long- Term trial Zambia 2016 cowpea, maize CA-based systems (intercropping) → soil quality, productivity 36 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 8.915659893 37.75074461 CIMMYT Ambo on-farm LTE cropping systems and soil nutrient management trial Ethiopia 2018 Tef, Maize, Wheat, Common beans, Fababeans, Soybean, Pigeonpea Rotation, intercropping, ISFM → System resilience and productivity (SOM, SW, yield ...) 37 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 19.529142 -98.846754 CIMMYT D5 (El Batán) Mexico 1991 Wheat–maize, beans Rotations, tillage, residue 38 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 27.39618 -109.9230888 CIMMYT 209 (CENEB) Mexico 1992 Wheat tillage x residue 39 South Asia (SA) 25.980617 85.675197 CIMMYT CA in rice–wheat systems India 2006 Rice–wheat Resource-use efficiency, soil health, GHG 40 South Asia 23.10947 76.88049 ICARDA CA in soybean- based systems crop diversification India, MP 2018 Soybean- wheat/oilseed crop/-spring crop Rotation, resource use efficiency 41 Southeast Asia (SEA) 14.1690361 121.2559055 IRRI Long-term Continuous Cropping Philippines 1962 Triple-crop rice Nitrogen × variety; extreme long-term sustainability 42 Southeast Asia (SEA) 15.66901 120.88977 IRRI Rice–Upland Crop Rotation Philippines 1993 Rice–maize rotation Long-term sustainability of rotations 43 South Asia (SA) 25.9807 85.67646 CIMMYT Rice-Wheat System, Eastern Gangetic Plains, Bihar India Pusa, Bihar, India 2006 Rice-wheat rotation CA based management practices, crop residue and longer-term sustainability, soil health, carbon and profitability 44 South Asia (SA) 25.98216 85.67671 CIMMYT Rice-Maize System, Eastern Gangetic Plains, Bihar India Pusa, Bihar, India 2007 Rice-maize system CA based permanent raised bed systems, crop residue, sustainability, GWP, yield potential and profitability 45 South Asia (SA) 29.70684 76.9557 CIMMYT CA/RA Strategic Innovation Research Platform Karnal, Haryana, India 2009 Rice-wheat, rice- wheat-mung bean, maize-wheat-mung bean Developing the futuristic scenarios to address natural resource management issues (climate, water, soil health, environmental and air pollution) 46 South Asia (SA) 25.5941 85.1376 CIMMYT Strategic Research Platform for Eastern India Patna, Bihar, India 2010 Rice-wheat, rice- wheat-mungbean, rice-mustard-maize Cropping system optimization, input use efficiency, soil carbon, soil health, GWP and crop residue management 47 South Asia (SA) 30.98833 75.74171 CIMMYT CA and precision nutrient and water management BISA Ludhiana, Punjab, India 1014 Rice-wheat- mungbean CA, crop residue management and sub- surface drip irrigation layered with fertigation and precision irrigation, input use efficiency and GWP and soil health 48 South Asia (SA) 30.98833 75.74171 CIMMYT CA and precision nutrient and water management on permanent raised beds BISA Ludhiana, Punjab, India 2014 Maize-wheat- mungbean CA under permanent beds, crop residue management and sub- surface drip irrigation layered with fertigation and precision irrigation, input use efficiency and GWP and soil health 49 South Asia (SA) 30.9734277 75.7425195 CIMMYT CA/RA Strategic Research Platform under Maize- based systems Ludhiana, Punjab, India 2023 Rice-wheat, rice- potato-groundnut, rice-potato-maize, maize-wheat- mungbean, maize- mustard- mungbean, cotton- wheat, soybean- green pea-maize Designing sustainable, productive and profitable maize based cropping systems in Western IGP to tacle the NRM issues of groundwater, soil health and environment 50 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 19.529142 -98.846754 CIMMYT H9 (El Batán) Mexico 1999 Barley–maize, Rotations, tillage, residue, cover crops, grazing 51 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 27.39618 -109.9230888 CIMMYT 217 (CENEB) Mexico 2005 Wheat, maize, safflower, chick pea, sesame, canavalia Rotations, tillage, residue management 52 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 27.39618 -109.9230888 CIMMYT 227 (CENEB) Mexico 2013 Wheat-sunflower Rotations, tillage, irrigation management 53 Latin America & Caribbean (LAC) 18.68029 -99.12996 CIMMYT Tlaltizapan Mexico 2011 Rainfed maize Tillage, residue management, cover crops 54 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 0°7' 46.57" N 34°24'19.07"E Alliance CIAT Bioversity CT1 Kenya 2003 Maize and soybean; (under sole M-M, rotation M-S, intercrop M/S) Conservation Agriculture, Tillage, Rotations (all under different regimes of Residue and Fertilizer management) 55 East & Southern Africa (ESA) 0°59'35"S 37°04'50"E Alliance CIAT Bioversity KALRO Kandara Kenya 2025 Maize, Soybean, Cowpea, Blacknight shade, forages, beans, greengrams, crotolaria Conservation agriculture, tillage, Rotation and intercrops, Cover crop, relay crop, residue management, Annex A2. List of publications from LTEs # Center LTE Year title of publication Journal DOI 1 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-term Fertility Experiment; Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Experiment 2004 Long-term fertility experiments for irrigated rice in the West African Sahel: effect on soil characteristics Field Crops Research https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378- 4290(03)00153-9 2 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-term Fertility Experiment; Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Experiment 2002 Long-term fertility experiments for irrigated rice in the West African Sahel: agronomic results Field Crops Research https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378- 4290(02)00117-X 3 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-term Fertility Experiment; Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Experiment 2011 Long-Term Effect of Continuous Cropping of Irrigated Rice on Soil and Yield Trends in the Sahel of West Africa Innovations as Key to the Green Revolution in Africa https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90- 481-2543-2_13 4 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-term Fertility Experiment; Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Experiment 2022 Long-term fertility experiments for irrigated rice in the West African Sahel: Effect on macro- and micronutrient concentrations in plant and soil Field Crops Research https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.202 1.108357 5 AfricaRice Ndiaye Long-term Fertility Experiment; Fanaye Long-Term Fertility Experiment 2025 Assessing yield stability of pearl millet and rice cropping systems across West Africa using long-term experiments and a modeling approach PLosOne https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0317170 6 AfricaRice Upland rice–maize CA systems 2022 Designing low-input upland rice- based cropping systems with conservation agriculture for climate change adaptation: A six-year experiment in M’bé, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire Field Crops Research https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.202 1.108418 7 ICRISAT Long-term trial for the sustainabiltity of mineral fertilizer microdosing Pearl millet yields and yield stability under long-term soil fertility management in the Sahel Agronomy Journal https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21 129 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(03)00153-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(03)00153-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(02)00117-X https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(02)00117-X https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2_13 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2543-2_13 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108357 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108357 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317170 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317170 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108418 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108418 https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21129 https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21129 8 ICRISAT Long-term effects of tillage, phosphorus fertilization and rotation on pearl millet-cowpea production in the west African Sahel 2022 Improving the productivity of millet based cropping systems in the West African Sahel: Experiences from a long-term experiment in Niger Agriculture, Ecosystems, Environnment https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2 022.107992 9 ICRISAT Long-term trial for the sustainabiltity of mineral fertilizer microdosing 2020 Assessing soil nutrient change under long-term application of mineral fertilizer micro-dosing to pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] on a sahelian sandy soil Eurasian Journal of Soil Science https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.6 42212 10 Long-term trial for the sustainabiltity of mineral fertilizer microdosing 2016 Long term effects of reduced fertilizer rates on millet yields and soil properties in the West-African Sahel Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705 -016-9786-x 11 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2025 Contrasting Carbon and Water Flux Dynamics in an East African Rangeland and Cropland Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG 008623 12 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2025 Detection of fast-changing intra- seasonal vegetation dynamics of drylands using solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) Biogeosciences https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22- 2049-2025 13 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2025 Beyond default estimates: developing system-specific Tier 2 enteric methane emission factors for rangeland cattle in Kenya Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice https://doi.org/10.3389/past.20 25.14566 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2022.107992 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2022.107992 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ejss https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ejss https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.642212 https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.642212 https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008623 https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008623 https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008623 https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008623 https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008623 https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2049-2025 https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-2049-2025 https://doi.org/10.3389/past.2025.14566 https://doi.org/10.3389/past.2025.14566 14 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2024 Greenhouse gas emissions from cattle enclosures in semi-arid sub- Saharan Africa: The case of a rangeland in South-Central Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGEE .2024.108980 15 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2024 Greenhouse gas emissions from sheep excreta deposited onto tropical pastures in Kenya Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGEE .2023.108724 16 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2024 Mechanisms behind high N2O emissions from livestock enclosures in Kenya revealed by dual-isotope and functional gene analyses. Soil Biology and Biochemistry https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio .2024.109505 17 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2022 Enteric methane emission estimates for Kenyan cattle in a nighttime enclosure using a backward Lagrangian Stochastic dispersion technique. Theoretical and Applied Climatology https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704 -021-03868-7 18 ILRI Kapiti Research Station 2022 Identification of temporary livestock enclosures in Kenya from multi- temporal PlanetScope imagery. 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CGIAR Sustainable Farming Science Program, 61 pages. Acknowledgements The CGIAR Sustainable Science Program forms a part of CGIAR’s new Research Portfolio, addressing key challenges in agri-food systems by fostering efficient production of nutritious foods and safeguarding the environment to create fair employment opportunities, as we simultaneously tackle climate change, soil degradation, pests, diseases, and desertification. Its research is being implemented by CGIAR researchers from 13 CGIAR Research Centers (AfricaRice, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, IFPRI, IITA, ILRI, IRRI, IWMI and WorldFish). We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ About CGIAR Sustainable Farming Science Program This research was conducted as part of the CGIAR Sustainable Farming Science Program. 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