IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE IN FOOD, LAND, AND WATER SYSTEMS TO ADVANCE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF ODISHA This work is licensed under Creative Commons License CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/] Cover Image: CIMMYT Authors: CEEW Suparana Katyaini (conceptualisation; methodology; data collection; analysis; original draft report; report review and editing; supervision) Kangkanika Neog (conceptualisation; methodology;data collection; analysis; original draft report; report review and editing) Tejaswi Joshi (analysis; original draft report; report review and editing) Upasana Negi (data collection; analysis) Shashwat Shukla (data collection; analysis) Don Mani Paul (analysis; original draft report) Nitin Bassi (conceptualisation; methodology; review and editing; supervision) IWMI Archisman Mitra (conceptualisation; methodology; analysis; original draft report; report review and editing; supervision) Garima Taneja (methodology; data collection; analysis; original draft report) Suchiradipta Bhattacharjee (methodology; data collection; analysis; original draft report) Alok Sikka (conceptualisation; methodology, review and editing) Juan Carlos Sanchez Ramirez (conceptualisation; methodology, review and editing) Alan Nicol (conceptualisation; methodology, review and editing) Reviewers: Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment, Government of Odisha, Chandan Jha (CEEW) & Marie-Charlotte Buisson (IWMI) Publication Team: Nishtha Paliwal (IWMI), Tanmoy Bhaduri (IWMI) Design & Layout: Caps and Shells Creatives Pvt. Ltd. Acknowledgment: The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all participants who took part in the consultations and contributed to shaping the various aspects of this study over the past year. We are grateful to Dr Arabinda Kumar Padhee, IAS, Principal Secretary, Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment, Government of Odisha, for supporting our work in Odisha and providing critical inputs during the study. We would also like to thank Anu Garg, IAS, Development Commissioner-cum-Additional Chief Secretary, Government of Odisha, for providing us with an overview of Odisha’s water resources, planning, and convergence. We extend our gratitude to Sangram Keshari Pattanaik, Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment, Government of Odisha, for guiding us in state consultations. Acknowledgment and Disclaimer Copyright © 2024 International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Suggested Citation: Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW); International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 2024. Improving policy coherence in food, land, and water systems to advance sustainable development in India: a case study of Odisha. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies. 104p. Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS). Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed, and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. We also thank Dr Chandan Jha (CEEW), Dr Alok Sikka, Alan Nicol, Juan Carlos Sanchez Ramirez, and Marie-Charlotte Buisson (IWMI) for their valuable comments during the internal peer review. Further, we would like to thank Ankita Borah (Consultant, CEEW) and Arpit Srivastava (Intern, CEEW), who assisted in the early and final stages of the project, respectively. We sincerely thank Kushal Pratap Mall, Aditya Jain, and Arpit Srivastava for developing the maps for this study. We also thank Kartikeya Jain and Alina Sen from CEEW for their contribution during the editing, design, and printing phases of the report. Finally, we are grateful to all our colleagues at IWMI and CEEW for guiding and supporting us throughout the study. This work is part of the CGIAR initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS). CGIAR launched NPS in collaboration with national and international partners to build policy coherence, address policy demands and crises, and integrate policy tools at the national and subnational levels in countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The CGIAR centres participating in the NPS initiative are the Alliance of Biodiversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (Alliance Biodiversity-CIAT), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the International Potato Center (CIP), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and WorldFish. We would also like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund (www.cgiar.org/funders). Organisations: The Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) is one of Asia’s leading not-for-profit policy research institutions and among the world’s top climate think tanks. The Council uses data, integrated analysis, and strategic outreach to explain — and change — the use, reuse, and misuse of resources. The Council addresses pressing global challenges through an integrated and internationally focused approach. It prides itself on the independence of its high-quality research, develops partnerships with public and private institutions, and engages with the wider public. CEEW has a footprint in over 20 Indian states and has repeatedly featured among the world’s best managed and independent think tanks. Follow us on X (formerly Twitter) @CEEWIndia for the latest updates. Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) ISID Campus, 4 Vasant Kunj Institutional Area New Delhi – 110 070, India +91 11 4073 3300 info@ceew.in The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, research-for-development organisation, with offices in 15 countries and a global network of scientists operating in more than 55 countries. For over three decades, our research results have led to changes in water management that have contributed to social and economic development. IWMI’s vision is that of a water-secure world. IWMI targets water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in developing countries, and through this, it contributes towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of reducing poverty and hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. Based on evidence and knowledge drawn from science, innovative technologies, and the testing of business models, IWMI works with governments, policymakers, farmers, civil society, water managers, development partners, and businesses to solve water problems and scale up solutions. Through partnerships, IWMI combines research on the sustainable use of water and land resources, knowledge services, and products with capacity strengthening, dialogue, and policy analysis to support the implementation of water management solutions for agriculture, ecosystems, climate change, and inclusive economic growth. International Water Management Institute (IWMI) New Delhi office 2nd floor, CG Block C, NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa, New Delhi 110 012, India +91 11 2584 0811, 2584 0812, and 2584 3536 iwmi-delhi@cgiar.org IMPROVING POLICY COHERENCE IN FOOD, LAND, AND WATER SYSTEMS TO ADVANCE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF ODISHA IWMI Executive summary 12 1. Introduction 22 2. Methodology 27 2.1. Identification of state policies 28 2.2. Revision of the questionnaire 33 2.3. State-level consultations 33 3. Results and findings 34 3.1. Significance of selected policies for advancing 35 sustainable livelihoods and income enhancement 3.2. Policy-wise analysis along the five dimensions 40 of coherence 3.2.1. Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana 41 3.2.2. Watershed Development Component – 46 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana 2.0 3.2.3. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment 50 Guarantee Scheme 3.2.4. Mission on Integrated Development of Horticulture 54 3.2.5. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana – Per Drop More Crop 58 3.2.6. Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income Augmentation 62 3.2.7. Odisha Millets Mission 66 3.2.8. Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project for Climate 71 Resilient Agriculture 3.2.9. Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme 77 4. Conclusion and recommendations 80 4.1. Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence 81 4.2. External consistency 83 4.3. Scope for convergence 84 4.4. Flexibility and adaptability 85 4.5. Social inclusion 87 Acronyms 90 References 92 Figure ES1: Across 9 departments, 149 policies were identified as relevant to food, land, and water systems in Odisha Figure ES2: Nine policies were selected for in-depth policy coherence analysis in Odisha Figure 1: Odisha is a coastal state in the eastern part of India Figure 2: Nine state departments were relevant to FLW systems Figure 3: The Fisheries & Animal Resources Development Department had the most number of policies relevant to FLW systems Figure 4: In two districts (Ganjam and Bargarh), all nine policies are operational Figure 5: PMMSY is perceived to have a high positive linkage with SDG 6.6 on the protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems. Figure 6: WDC-PMKSY 2.0 has high positive linkages with environmental health and biodiversity of SDG 15.3 by combating desertification and restoring degraded land and soil Figure 7: MGNREGS has a high positive linkage with SDG 8.5 on achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all Figure 8: In the context of nutrition, health, and food security, MIDH shows high positive linkages with SDGs 2.1 and 6.3 Figure 9: RKVY has a high positive linkage with SDGs 2.4 and 15. Figure 10: Stakeholder consultations revealed that KALIA has high positive linkages with SDGs 2.1 and 2.2 on nutrition, health, and food security Figure 11: The OMM has high and medium positive linkages with the SDGs on nutrition, health, and food security Figure 12: OIIPCRA reflects a high positive linkage with SDG 6.3 on nutrition, health, and food security Figure 13: The CLSRP has high positive linkage with SDGs on nutrition, health, and food security as the purpose is to enable access of the farmers at the tail end for irrigation Figure 14: Most policies focus on Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, small and marginal farmers/fisher folk, and female farmers List of Figures Table 1: Increase of the net sown area and gross cropped area in Odisha between 2021- 2022 Table 2: Shortlisting state policies using five quantitative criteria Table 3: Policies with the highest budget outlay with information on the nodal1 department, duration, and status of completion Table 4: Policy coherence of PMMSY across the five dimensions of coherence Table 5: Policy coherence of WDC-PMKSY 2.0 across the five dimensions of coherence Table 6: Policy coherence of MGNREGS across the five dimensions of coherence Table 7: Policy coherence of MIDH across the five dimensions of coherence Table 8: Policy coherence of RKVY-PDMC across the five dimensions of coherence Table 9: Policy coherence of KALIA across the five dimensions of coherence Table 10: Policy coherence of OMM across the five dimensions of coherence Table 11: Policy coherence of OIIPCRA across the five dimensions of coherence Table 12: Policy coherence of CLSRP across the five dimensions of coherence Table 13: Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence across the nine selected policies Table 14: Eight of the nine selected policies have provisions for including beneficiaries from Scheduled Tribes List of Tables 1 A nodal department/agency/officer is a designated department/agency/officer who performs administrative functions and coordinates activities within a ministry, department, or organization. Executive Summary IWMI Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 11 Food, land, and water (FLW) systems are closely interlinked; actions in one system often impact the others. Enhancing the sustainability of these interconnected systems is crucial for advancing food security, sustainable livelihoods, rural development, environmental health, and climate resilience. Recognising these interlinkages, India is making significant policy efforts to achieve environmental, economic, and social well-being (PIB 2024a). However, the complexity and evolving nature of these interlinkages necessitate coherent policy efforts (CEEW and IWMI 2023). Policy coherence involves improving institutional coordination, leveraging policy synergies, and addressing trade-offs. It also entails enabling the convergence of resources and ensuring flexibility and adaptability to changes. Policy coherence promotes the inclusion of vulnerable groups, thereby advancing social inclusion and economic empowerment (CEEW and IWMI 2023). Therefore, it is critical for advancing national goals and unlocking opportunities to achieve global sustainable development targets. This report is part of a larger study examining policy coherence with regards to FLW systems in India at both the national and sub-national levels. The national-level study was guided by the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog, the apex public policy think-tank of the Government of India. The study yielded three important findings. First, it identified the most relevant national policies within the FLW policy landscape. Second, it highlighted the best practices and key lessons for achieving policy coherence across these policies. Third, it underscored the importance of implementing policy coherence in FLW systems at the state level, which is an important governance level for policy implementation. To drive meaningful progress at the sub-national level, it is essential to ensure policy coherence that aligns sub-national targets with broader national and global goals, such as the SDGs (UNSSC 2022, OECD n.d.a). Odisha is known for its emphasis on scientific, evidence-based policymaking, sustainable development, and convergent efforts. This study aims to better understand state-specific best practices and key lessons for improving policy coherence among Odisha’s most relevant policies on FLW systems. The study also offers actionable recommendations for enhancing policy coherence. THE NATIONAL-LEVEL STUDY WAS GUIDED BY THE NATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR TRANSFORMING INDIA (NITI) AAYOG, THE APEX PUBLIC POLICY THINK-TANK OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. THE STUDY YIELDED THREE IMPORTANT FINDINGS. FIRST, IT IDENTIFIED THE MOST RELEVANT NATIONAL POLICIES WITHIN THE FLW POLICY LANDSCAPE 12 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Methodology The study’s uniqueness lies in its consultative approach to understanding policy coherence. We began by mapping the policy landscape in Odisha by collecting data on 149 policies relevant to FLW systems across 9 departments (Figure ES1). Using specifically developed qualitative and quantitative criteria and with guidance from the Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment Department and the Department of Water Resources, four state-specific policies were selected for detailed analysis. We also selected from the national-level study on policy coherence five FLW policies being implemented in Odisha (CEEW and IWMI 2023). The selected policies (Figure ES2) were analysed using a literature review, content analysis of policy guidelines, and expert consultations. Considering the complex nature of policy coherence, a multidimensional framework comprising five key dimensions was adopted. These include (1) vertical and horizontal institutional coherence, (2) external consistencies, (3) scope for convergence, (4) flexibility and adaptability, and (5) social inclusion. To gather further insights on the analysis, we organised a state-level multi-stakeholder consultation in Bhubaneswar in December 2023. Figure ES 1: Across 9 departments, 149 policies were identified as relevant to food, land, and water systems in Odisha 9 departments 149 policies Collating information on key indicators Four state policies plus five national policies Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Empowerment; Department of Water Resources Po lic y da ta ba se in FL W s ys te m s Sh or tl is tin g po lic y fo r in -d ep th a na ly si s Selection of state departments Identification of relevant policies Selection of indicators Shortlisting qualitative and quantitative criteria Finalising policies after consultation Source: Authors’ analysis Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 13 Source: Authors’ compilation Figure ES 2: Nine policies were selected for in-depth policy coherence analysis in Odisha Government of India Ministry Department Department Directorate Government of Odisha Selected policies and year Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying Rural Development Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Agriculture & Farmers' Empowerment Agriculture & Farmers' Empowerment Water Resources Agriculture and Food Production Horticulture Rural Development Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), 2020 Water Development Component-Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana 2.0 (WDC-PMKSY 2.0), 2015 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), 2005 Mission for integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), 2014 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana-Per Drop More Crop (RKVY-PDMC), 2015 Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income (KALIA), 2018 Odisha Millet Mission (OMM), 2017 Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project for Climate Resilient Agriculture (OIIPCRA), 2019 Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme (CLSRP), 2013 Fisheries Land Resources Central-level policies State-level policies Agriculture & Farmers' Empowerment Soil Conservation and Watershed Development Panchayati Raj & Drinking Water Fisheries & Animal Resources Development CEEW Key findings on the five key dimensions of policy coherence Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence • For the five national policies that were selected, mechanisms have been established at the state level for inter-departmental and intra-departmental coordination to facilitate policy planning, implementation, progress monitoring and evaluation, and impact evaluation. • In the identified four state policies, interdepartmental coordination is enhanced through the representation of relevant departments in decision-making committees, which strengthens horizontal institutional linkages. For example, state-level policies such as the Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income Augmentation (KALIA), the Odisha Millet Mission (OMM), the Odisha Integrated Irrigation Plan for Climate Resilience Agriculture (OIIPCRA), and Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme(CLSRP) involve key departments in steering committees at the state level. In OMM, 21 departmental secretaries and members of governmental and non-governmental institutions are represented in a high-powered committee. In the case of OIIPCRA, interdepartmental coordination is demonstrated by involving support organisations and consulting with technical institutions and concerned departments to diversify production in response to market demand, particularly during the Rabi2 season. • State policies recognise the instrumental role of local bodies in participatory planning. For instance, pani panchayat members are involved in CLSRP, where they engage in participatory walk-throughs with state- and district-level Water Resources Department officials. This helps in selecting canals for lining and identifying deficiencies in the canal system. • Civil society Organisations (CSOs) in state policies is key to effectively implementing state policies. OMM and OIIPCRA demonstrate this – CSOs anchor the OMM programme secretariat and are invited as members of the OIIPCRA advisory committee. External consistency • The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has emerged as a crucial national policy that synergises with other selected national initiatives, such as the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), which supports the creation of ponds for fisheries; Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana – Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (RKVY-PDMC), focused on water storage infrastructure; Watershed Development Component – Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (WDC-PMKSY 2.0), targeting watershed-related work; and the Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), which involves tasks such as digging and fencing. • The national and state policies identified also share similarities with other policies in the FLW systems landscape – for example, MIDH and the Odisha Tribal Empowerment & Livelihoods Programme both focus on empowering tribal communities by enhancing their food security, increasing their incomes, and improving their overall quality of life. • The selected national and state policies demonstrate significant positive linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs. All these policies are connected to SDG 1.1, which aims to eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere. Among the national policies, the MIDH and MGNREGS exhibit most linkages with the SDGs in this impact area. • Odisha’s Planning and Convergence Department developed the Odisha SDG Indicator Framework, a monitoring system for capturing the impact of governmental policies and tracking budgets and essential initiatives. An SDG core team has been formed within the SDG cell of the Planning and Convergence Department, with the assistance of a UNICEF consultant, to carry out various SDG activities such as planning, strategising, and developing action plans. The team also monitors SDG implementation aligned with the National Indicator Framework. 2 In South Asia, the grain crop sown in September and reaped in spring is referred to as Rabi. 14 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Scope for convergence • PMMSY, WDC-PMKSY 2.0, RKVY-PDMC, KALIA, OMM, and OIIPRA enable convergence in planning through the representation of key departments in high-level steering committees and project management units at the state level. In some instances, mechanisms are also established at the district level. • Convergence between policies occurs by allocating financial resources for common interventions that target the same set of beneficiaries. For instance, Odisha implements the national policy of MIDH through state-level top-up policies, such as Horticulture Mission Plus, Jackfruit Mission, and Mushroom Mission. Tribal communities are a central focus of most policies, particularly PMMSY and OMM. Therefore, aligning these policies with tribal development initiatives is a crucial aspect of their implementation. • A key mechanism for fostering convergent efforts is the use of unified online portals. A single-window portal, Go Sugam, facilitates convergence in agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry by providing information on farmer- and fisher-centric policies and services for farmers and agripreneurs. This portal assists farmers in accessing related services provided by other departments, such as electricity connections and water supply. Additionally, it provides a platform for users to register any grievances related to scheme access, benefit delivery, technical issues, and obtaining essential services like electricity and water connections for their agricultural activities. • There is a need to explore watersheds as a unit for convergence across various policy interventions. This remains a critical challenge in advancing integrated development. • Marketing remains a critical avenue for convergence, which presents a significant challenge in enhancing farmers’ income. While there is immense potential to leverage existing market linkages to add value to agricultural and allied produce, concerned departments must focus on market-oriented skilling and setting up farmer-producer organisations (FPOs). Flexibility and adaptability • Implementing bodies demonstrate flexibility and adaptability by prioritising institutional learning from previous experiences. For instance, CLSRP was developed based on key learnings from the Orissa Integrated Irrigated Agriculture and Water Management Investment Program and the Orissa Water Resources Consolidation Project. • Institutions learn from the local context and incorporate the learnings into specific guidelines, which is a vital sign of adaptability. For instance, the state-specific elements in Odisha’s PMMSY guidelines involve setting local targets, such as establishing 32 new hatcheries in 3 years by the state fisheries directorate, forming a state-level technical committee, and implementing local verification processes (Department of Land Resources n.d.). • Flexibility and adaptability to unexpected disruptions (such as COVID-19) and disasters (such as cyclone Phani) are reflected in the MGNREGS. In these contexts, the Government of Odisha extended the employment guarantee scheme beyond its set duration as a social safety net for the most vulnerable section of population. • A management information system (MIS) for real-time data collection is essential for learning from policy progress and making necessary changes. OMM employs a web-based MIS system, while OIIPCRA uses MIS and information and communication technology for monitoring and evaluation. Further, OIIPCRA envisions a participatory approach to conducting assessments and reviews. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 15 Social inclusion • Our analysis indicates that while the identified nine policies provide subsidies for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), women, and farmers, their inclusion is still needed at the decision-making level. • MGNREGS benefits a broad spectrum of poor and vulnerable populations to address extreme poverty. Most policies focus on ST, SC, small and marginal farmers, fisher folk, and female farmers. In addition to these groups, MGNREGS also includes nomadic and de-notified tribes and households below the poverty line. • CLSRP is designed to support all farmers in the canal command area while benefiting marginalised groups, such as farmers at the tail-end of the canal command area. WDC-PMKSY 2.0 and KALIA target landless, asset less, and poor farmers. • There is an emphasis on including female farmers, female-headed households, and female entrepreneurs in policies such as PMMSY, WDC-PKSY 2.0, MGNREGS, and OMM. In the case of MIDH, there have been instances where transgender individuals have been included. • The mechanisms for inclusion vary, ranging from subsidies to allocating a dedicated percentage of the total funds towards these groups. • One of the key challenges is ensuring participation from the rural youth and underrepresented groups (SC, ST, women, persons with disability) and developing targeted mentorship programmes where experienced farmers are paired with the youth to bridge the knowledge gap. • A lack of awareness of rights and entitlements among the most vulnerable populations is a barrier to accessing the benefits of these policies. Recommendations on the five key dimensions of policy coherence Strengthen institutional linkages at the sub-district level Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence External consistency Scope for convergence Flexibility and adaptability Social inclusion Enhance local body involvement Improve coordination through interaction between implementation levels Establish a dedicated coordination cell Hold periodic training sessions Recognise evaluation of cross-sectoral policy impacts Reinforce existing synergies Acknowledge emerging commonalities in policy objectives Enable cross-learning between states Prioritise policy linkages with SDGs Track the progress periodically Strengthen the existing convergence Expand the scope for integration of policies’ action Acknowledge market linkages as a key avenue Explore watersheds as the focal for integrated development Converge efforts to collect and disseminate information Shift from output-based to outcome-based evaluation Incorporate evolving beneficiary needs Conduct periodic policy review Incorporate third-party evaluations in policy revisions Strategise continual improvement through M&E Priotise equity and inclusion of landless Integrate women’s economic empowerment pathways Consider rural youth as a cross-cutting category Go beyond physical disability for inclusiveness Enhance awareness and capacities for the most vulnerable, and marginalised 16 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence • Strengthen institutional linkages at the sub-district level. In the cases of PMMSY, WDC-PMKSY 2.0, and MGNREGS, this would include allocating funds for dedicated technical expert positions. In cases where funds and outreach are limited, stronger inter-departmental coordination at the sub-district level is crucial. • Enhance local body involvement. The role of local bodies such as gram panchayats and CSOs should extend beyond implementation and impact evaluation. Including them in policy planning (e.g., OMM) can strengthen bottom-up planning and community linkages (e.g., MGNREGS, OIIPCRA), thereby creating a greater impact on the ground. • Improve coordination through greater interaction between implementation levels, especially between state and district levels. For example, in the case of MIDH, there should be the flexibility to hold additional meetings as required. • Establish a dedicated coordination cell. This would streamline policy processes, simplify approval procedures, and enable beneficiaries to avail multiple complementary policies more efficiently (e.g., KALIA and PM-KISAN). • Hold periodic training sessions for staff across various departments to enhance cross-learning and interdepartmental coordination at all levels (e.g., KALIA). • Recognise impact evaluation as a critical stage in the policy cycle. Assessing the cross-sectoral impacts of policies would enable cross-learning, leading to better policy coherence and alignment. External consistency • Reinforce existing synergies between selected policies through specific efforts, such as the periodic verification of beneficiaries (e.g., MGNREGS and KALIA) and by providing integrated agriculture extension training to common beneficiaries of policies (e.g., KALIA and OMM). • Acknowledge emerging commonalities between policies. For instance, micro-irrigation is a common element in RKVY-PDMC and OMM for protecting crops against deficiency in soil moisture. It is also featured in CLSRP for efficient water use in canal command areas. • Enable cross-learning between states on common impact areas. For example, cross-learning between the OMM of Odisha and the millet missions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Rajasthan can enhance programmatic understanding of the typical impact area of millet production and consumption. This will involve sharing insights on policy formulation and revisions (where OMM serves as an innovative model that can be emulated by other states) as well as product innovation for production and consumption, such as the introduction of millet cafes. • Prioritise policy linkages with SDGs on poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods, food, and nutritional security. For instance, by supporting livelihoods through micro-irrigation efforts (RKVY-PDMC) in tribal areas contributes to SDG 1 (no poverty) by increasing incomes and promoting food and nutrition security through PMMSY, supports SDGs 2 and 3 (zero hunger and good health and well-being) by improving access to nutritious food. • Periodically track the progress of national and state policies. Odisha already has an SDG indicator framework, which has been published annually since 2019. It is important to monitor how national and state policies advance SDG goals and targets, particularly those relating to FLW systems. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 17 Scope for convergence • Strengthen the existing convergence of MGNREGS with other policies by streamlining procedures and the involvement of organisations such as krishi vigyan kendras. Their expertise can be leveraged for selecting works, extending technical support, and building capacity on the five key dimensions of policy coherence to improve work quality, sustainability, and livelihood outcomes. • Expand the scope for convergence in national and state policies to achieve water, food, land and energy security in an integrated manner. This requires the integration of sustainable farming practices with renewable energy initiatives, which is emerging as an area for convergence. For instance, WDC-PMKSY 2.0 and RKVY-PDMC, which already highlight potential opportunities for integrated farming systems and solar irrigation, could converge with national and state policies working on the same. • Acknowledge marketing as an avenue of convergence and leverage existing market linkages for value addition to produce and create marketing opportunities for farmers to enhance their income. It is crucial to establish dedicated departments for market-oriented skilling and set up FPOs. The Odisha Rural Development and Marketing Society, dedicated to these activities, can play an instrumental role in supporting the market linkages envisioned under PMMSY and MIDH. • Explore watersheds as the focal for convergence for some of the selected policies. This approach would entail coordinating different policies to advance integrated development within the watershed area (e.g., WDC-PMKSY 2.0, MIDH, MGNREGS, RKVY-PDMC). • Converge efforts to collect data and disseminate information to advance food and livelihood security. To support OMM and OIIPCRA convergent efforts for enhancing food and livelihood security, there is a need to collect granular data on multiple dimensions of poverty, for instance, through door-to-door surveys. Information dissemination should focus on enhancing millet production and consumption in tribal areas. • Shift from output-based to outcome-based evaluation of policies. There is a need for a paradigm shift from output-based to outcome-based evaluation of policies. Priority outcomes should include progress in poverty reduction, livelihood, and job creation, with the flexibility to expand the scope to cover other critical impact areas such as climate change adaptation and resilience. For example, Atal Bhujal Yojana tracks outcome-based indicators such as blocks with arrests in the declining trend of groundwater levels, which could inspire other policies to move towards outcome-based reporting. Flexibility and adaptability • Incorporate flexibility to understand the evolving needs of beneficiaries through regular participatory and data-driven processes (e.g., PMMSY, RKVY-PDMC, OMM). • Conduct periodic reviews of policy guidelines, potentially annually, for timely inclusion of responses to changes in environmental, economic, and social conditions. For instance, it is crucial to be flexible to include further works within MGNREGS, considering the state-level context and the specific needs of disaster-affected areas. Regular revision of the cost norms and provisions is needed under MIDH to respond to inflation and market conditions over time. • Incorporate insights from third-party evaluations and independent experts periodically into policy revisions, highlighting areas for improvement and ensuring that the initiatives not only address immediate needs but also build long-term sustainability and resilience. KALIA serves as an example of best practices that can be followed. • Develop strategies for continuous improvement through performance monitoring and evaluation. This is needed to develop and strengthen MIS for data- and technology-driven adaptability. 18 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Social inclusion • Adopt targeted mechanisms to include landless farmers and labourers to promote equity (KALIA and WDC-PMKSY 2.0), as land ownership criteria is a key constraint in receiving policy benefits. Under KALIA, livelihood support is provided to landless agricultural households, and life insurance is provided to cultivators and landless agricultural labourers. Similarly, WDC-PMKSY 2.0 includes landless individuals by providing for their participation in watershed committees and involvement in project management activities. • Develop a better understanding of the pathways to women’s economic empowerment. This can be enabled through collecting and analysing gender-disaggregated data, as planned in OIIPCRA. Regular reviews of the progress towards women’s economic empowerment should follow. Further, when including women in the workforce, it is essential to consider socio-cultural and gender-sensitive aspects, such as the design of dressing kits and protective gear in the millet value chain under OMM. • Enhance awareness of entitlements and provisions for the most vulnerable through campaigns and targeted outreach programmes. Design capacity-building programmes, specifically for upskilling socially disadvantaged groups on technology and entrepreneurship, as seen in initiatives such as integrated horticulture development. • Consider rural youth as a cross-cutting category. There is a need to develop a mentorship programme for the participation of underrepresented groups (SC, ST, women, persons with disability). For instance, under MIDH, rural youth are prioritised for skill development and employment generation opportunities in horticulture and post-harvest management, specifically focusing on the cold-chain sector. Mentoring these rural youths by pairing them with experienced farmers would further enhance their skills. • Go beyond physical disability to achieve the goal of leaving no one behind. This can be achieved through the allocation of provisions for persons with disabilities to enable their access to useful technologies such as micro-irrigation systems. Enable the inclusion of marginalised groups such as SC, ST, and transgender communities in pani panchayats3 for inclusive planning of repairs and maintenance, for instance, in CLSRP. 3 Pani panchayats are farmer-led bodies engaged in water management and its equitable distribution at the local level. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 19 Introduction 1. IFPRI National Policies and Strategies (NPS) for Food, Land, and Water Systems Transformation is a CGIAR initiative co-created with national and international partners. Its main objectives are to foster policy coherence and integrate policy tools at the national and subnational levels in select countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Taneja et al. 2023). Policy coherence and integrated solutions have gained significant momentum in policy making and implementation, as there is now a growing recognition that aligning various policies is crucial for achieving sustainable and inclusive development (Pickering 2023; Scotland International Development Alliance 2020). SDG 17, which focuses on strengthening the means of implementation and revitalising the global partnership, emphasises the importance of policy coherence for sustainable development through SDG 17.14 (Department of Economic and Social Affairs n.d.). Improving policy coherence within the interlinked food, land, and water systems is crucial for achieving more sustainable and equitable outcomes (Taneja et al. 2023; OECD 2019; Timko et al. 2018). In Asia, India presents a significant case for exploring policy coherence among the FLW systems. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) partnered with the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) to conduct a comprehensive study in India focusing on the national and sub-national levels. At the national level, the study was undertaken with guidance from NITI Aayog, the apex public policy think-tank of the Government of India. The consultations involved systematically identifying and prioritising the key policies crucial for enhancing interconnections within FLW systems. The national-level study revealed a crucial insight: sustainable livelihoods and income enhancement is a national priority, essential for understanding the nexus between FLW systems and policy coherence. The nexus refers to the intricate linkages between the existence, use, management, and governance of resources. These interlinkages and the cross-sectoral impact of policies have significant implications for ecosystems, natural resources, and human lives and livelihoods (UNECE 2022; Dhingra and Batra 2023; Katyaini, Mukherjee, and Barua 2021). The concept of a nexus is crucial for understanding how actions in one policy area can affect others, providing an essential perspective for comprehending policy coherence. Additionally, policy coherence involves aligning policy actions across government departments and agencies to create synergies and achieve mutually agreed objectives (OECD n.d.b). This process requires systematic coordination between various governmental segments and the integration of the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development at all stages of domestic and international policymaking to achieve a common goal (Scotland International Development Alliance 2020; OECD 2018). Acknowledging that different institutional structures, stakeholder interests, and policy-making processes can create barriers to achieving policy coherence, Tosun and Leininger (2017) and Taneja et al. (2023) emphasise the need to shift away from a siloed approach towards a more holistic perspective in guiding policy decisions. Thus, coherence serves as an approach to address the policy overlaps caused by the nexus and helps maximise the potential of the underlying linkages. THE INTERNATIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE (IWMI) PARTNERED WITH THE COUNCIL ON ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (CEEW) TO CONDUCT A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY IN INDIA FOCUSING ON THE NATIONAL AND SUB-NATIONAL LEVELS. AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL, THE STUDY WAS UNDERTAKEN WITH GUIDANCE FROM NITI AAYOG, THE APEX PUBLIC POLICY THINK-TANK OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 21 The analysis at the national level drew on state-specific examples for the selected policies to gain insight into the interconnectedness among FLW policies. In this study, we identified Odisha as an important case study to explore the coherence between policies related to FLW systems. We considered the following key aspects when selecting Odisha: • The integrated efforts in Odisha to advance sustainable development, with a focus on farmers4’ empowerment, are led by the respective state departments of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment and Planning and Convergence (Planning and Convergence Department 2019). • Two or more departments undertake joint efforts to achieve complementary objectives. An example of this is the Millet Shakti initiative, a collaboration between the Department of Mission Shakti, which is dedicated to empowering women, and the Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment, which aims to strengthen millet production and consumption through OMM by engaging women. This demonstrates how Odisha is internalising science and evidence-based policy-making. Further, collaboration with research institutions, think tanks, private organisations, CSOs, and other entities is encouraged and recognised as necessary to support policymaking and transformative change (Taneja et al. 2023). • Odisha provides opportunities to learn through policy research, supported by ongoing efforts from two prominent research centres: CGIAR – International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and WorldFish. Additionally, CEEW actively engages with the Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment and the Planning and Convergence Department to explore avenues for building the state’s capacity for climate action and furthering the opportunities for green jobs to support the state’s economy. 4 Farmer categories are based on operational land holding size: marginal, small, semi-medium, medium, and large land holdings. 22 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha ICRISAT The unique context of Odisha’s food, land, and water systems Odisha5 is an agrarian state comprising 10 agro-climatic zones, with approximately 55 per cent of its workforce engaged in agricultural activities. Figure 1 illustrates its location within Source: The maps provided are an adaptation by the authors from Bhuvan's dataset on Land Use Land Cover (10K), specifically from the SIS-DP Phase 2 spanning the years 2018–2023. 5 Odisha is divided into four geographical regions – coastal lowlands, central tableland, northern plateau, and Eastern Ghats, and is classified into ten agro-climatic zones. 6 Cropping intensity refers to the number of times an area of land is cultivated yearly. It is the ratio of gross cropped area to net sown area. 7 Improvements in the irrigation systems include the development of farm ponds to provide irrigation throughout the Kharif season. 8 Ragi (finger millet) is a prominent millet, and the Tribal Development Cooperative Corporation of Odisha Limited procured it from the following 15 major districts in the Kharif season during 2021–22 – Angul, Bargarh, Bolangir, Ganjam, Keonjhar, Sundergarh, Nabarangpur, Mayurbhanj, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Gajapati, Nuapada, Kalahandi, Kandhamal, and Koraput. Figure 1: Odisha is a coastal state in the eastern part of India India. In the fiscal year 2022–23, the agricultural and allied sectors contributed 22.5 per cent to the state’s gross state value added – a slight decrease from 22.9 per cent in 2021–22 (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). The expansion of the agriculture and allied sectors is considered crucial for the balanced growth of the state’s economy and the transfer of the benefits of growth to all sections of the population (Table 1) (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). The cropping intensity6 in Odisha increased from 150 per cent in 2015–16 to 158 per cent in 2021–22. This rise in cropping intensity is attributed to improved land management, advancements in irrigation systems,7 multiple cropping cycles, and efforts towards crop diversification (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). Cereals are the primary produce in Odisha, accounting for approximately 52 per cent of the total cropped area in 2021–22. As the state produces excess paddy, the government is encouraging initiatives for crop diversification, such as in OMM, to promote the production and consumption of non-paddy grains such as millet.8 As a result, the area under cultivation of non-paddy cereals increased by 7.56 per cent, and the area under paddy decreased by 1.5 per cent in 2021–22 compared to the previous year (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 23 The number of operational land holdings by farmers increased from 43.56 lakh in 2005–06 to 48.66 lakh in 2015–16. However, the area under these holdings decreased from 50.19 lakh hectares (ha) to 46.19 lakh ha during the same period, indicating a trend of land fragmentation. Land fragmentation in Odisha between 2005–06 and 2015–16 is primarily attributed to urbanisation, rural–urban migration, and the conversion of agricultural land for non-agricultural purposes driven by the growing demand for land in urban and industrial sectors (Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment 2016). Among the various categories of farmers, marginal and small farmers account for about 93 per cent of total holdings and 75 per cent of the total operational area.11 The government has undertaken various initiatives to support these small and marginal farmers in enhancing the productivity of their land and improving household income. One such initiative is to encourage collective farming through FPOs (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). Approximately 74 per cent of Odisha’s cropped area is rainfed, making it one of the most rainfed-dependent states in India (Odisha Vikash Conclave 2023). Water-use efficiency is crucial for irrigated agriculture, as it enhances agriculture productivity and overcomes the state’s economic water scarcity. The total irrigation potential created (IPC) in 2021–22 was 46.3 lakh hectares for Kharif12 crops and 20.6 lakh ha for Rabi crops. Large-scale lining of the canals and system rehabilitation efforts are underway to make canal irrigation more efficient and reduce water losses. About 35 per cent of canals have been lined through different policy provisions. Approximately 95,475 ha, equivalent to 1.14 per cent of the total irrigated area in Odisha, is covered under micro-irrigation through various policy interventions from 2015–16 to 2023–24 (PIB 2024b). Extensive training and capacity-building initiatives for farmers and pani panchayat members are being implemented to promote micro-irrigation across all mega lift projects and bore wells installed by the department of Water Resources. The goal is to maximise crop yield per unit of water (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). Given the context of farming system transformation and the growing pressures on resources, the report is structured in four sections. Section 2 outlines the methodology adopted to select national and state-specific policies relevant to FLW systems in Odisha. Section 3 presents the analysis of the national- and state-level policy landscape using the five key dimensions of policy coherence developed for the Indian context. Section 4 presents the conclusions and recommendations for enhancing policy coherence, strengthening sustainable livelihoods, and increasing farmer income. Table 1: Increase of the net sown area and gross cropped area in Odisha between 2021- 2022 Figure ES 2021–22 (lakh hectares9) Increase from 2021–22 to 2022–23 (%) Net sown area10 Gross cropped area 54.1 85.6 1.5 0.3 Source: Planning and Convergence Department. 2023a. Odisha Economic Survey 2022–23. Planning and Convergence Department, Government of Odisha. https://pc.odisha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-04/Odisha_Economic_Survey_2022-23%2C%2014-03-23_ %28Final%29_Digital_Version-Web%20site%20upload_0.pdf. 24 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 9 One lakh is equal to 0.1 million and hectare is a unit of area in the metric system equal 10,000 square metres. 10 Covers 35 per cent of the total geographical area of the state. 11 According to the Indian agriculture census, the categories of farmers based on their operational land holding are marginal (below 1 ha), small (1–2 ha), semi-medium (2–4 ha), medium (4–10 ha), and large (10 ha and above) (PIB 2019). 12 In South Asia, the crops sown in monsoon are referred to as Kharif crops. Methodology 2. IWMI This section discusses the methodological steps taken to identify national- and state-level FLW policies implemented in Odisha and revise the questionnaire developed to assess national-level policies. We used the revised questionnaire for policy consultations with experts, primarily from key government departments and non-governmental organisations. The framework for the national report on policy coherence in FLW systems and the current state-level report was adapted from the political and institutional landscape analysis (PILA) framework (Nicol and Schutter, forthcoming) developed under the CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies. The PILA framework assesses the wider environments in which policy formulation and implementation takes place. It comprises four major components – contextual factors (political system, policy histories, and processes), action areas (FLW systems), patterns of interaction (formal and informal interactions and the policy spaces where the interactions occur), and flux in policy landscapes (implications of policy coherence and implementation, including why and where change happens). The first step was to identify all the state departments relevant to FLW systems in Odisha. Based on the institutional structure in the state, we identified nine key state departments involved in food, land, and water security, with a shared goal of achieving sustainable livelihoods We also used the PILA framework to identify criteria for analysing policy coherence in the current report, focusing on horizontal and vertical coherence; external consistency across policies and stakeholders with SDGs and CGIAR impact areas; existing convergence and future scope, adaptability to changing socioeconomic and environmental factors; and the prospect of social inclusion in the policy space. Overall, the PILA framework aided in unpacking the development outcomes within the identified policy action arenas. THE FRAMEWORK FOR THE NATIONAL REPORT ON POLICY COHERENCE IN FLW SYSTEMS AND THE CURRENT STATE-LEVEL REPORT WAS ADAPTED FROM THE POLITICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS (PILA) FRAMEWORK (NICOL AND SCHUTTER, FORTHCOMING) DEVELOPED UNDER THE CGIAR INITIATIVE ON NATIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES. 2.1 Identification of state policies and income enhancement (Figure 2). These departments included water resources, agriculture, fisheries, forest, climate change, rural development, local governance through Panchayati Raj, and women empowerment through Mission Shakti. Figure 2: Nine state departments were relevant to FLW systems Source: Authors’ analysis Key departments related to food, land, and water systems Water Resources Panchayati Raj & Drinking Water Planning & Convergence Agriculture & Farmers' Empowerment Forest, Environment and Climate Change Rural Development Revenue & Disaster Management Fisheries & Animal Resources Development Mission Shakti 26 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha We developed a detailed database of policies in Odisha based on the information sourced from the identified department’s official websites. This database included the following information about the selected policies: • Systems the policy covers • Relevance to the FLW systems • Forms of the policy (in line with the international policy sphere, we considered schemes (yojana), missions, and programmes as different forms of policy) • Core objectives • Budget allocations • Duration of the policy • Intended impact areas • Recognition of gender and social inequality • Convergence with other policies From the 9 departments significant to FLW systems, we identified 149 policies that were being implemented in Odisha (Figure 3). This list included five of the seven national policies considered in the national-level analysis of policy coherence (CEEW and IWMI 2023). These five policies are: 1. Watershed Development Component-PMKSY 2.0 (WDC-PMKSY 2.0) 2. RKVY-Per Drop More Crop (RKVY-PDMC) 3. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) 4. Mission on Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) 5. Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) For continuity in understanding policy coherence on these five national policies at the subnational level, they were considered as a part of the selected policies. Figure 3: The Fisheries & Animal Resources Development Department had the most number of policies relevant to FLW systems Source: Authors’ analysis Note: 0 does not mean that there are no policies; it indicates that no policy was found uploaded on the department’s website. Agriculture & Farmers' Empowerment 28 13 0 0 2 2 101 Water Resources Fisheries & Animal Resources Development Planning & Convergence Rural Development Forest, Environment and Climate Change Panchayati Raj & Drinking Water Mission Shakti Departments 3 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 27 The next step was to shortlist state-specific policies for analysis. We screened 149 policies, and barring the five national ones that had already been shortlisted, we removed other national policies, thus resulting in a list of 106 policies. We used the same quantitative criteria that were followed for selecting policies for the national-level study (CEEW and IWMI 2023). These covered five key aspects: implementation, coherence across impact areas and cross-sectoral coverage; reference to environmental sustainability; operational period over the last three years; and impact, scope, and level of ambition (Table 2). Table 2: Shortlisting state policies using five quantitative criteria Quantitative criteria 1. Implementation Short explanation Selected policies create a mechanism for implementation with spaces for national and subnational (state) stakeholders to meaningfully participate in the decision-making and implementation Is there an institution, implementation platform, or mechanism created by the policy for its implementation? Question/practical implications Application If yes, include If no, exclude 3. Environmental sustainability Selected policies consider side impacts on the environment and assess whether they compromise the ability of future generations to meet their basic needs Are environmental health and biodiversity among the areas impacted by the policy? If yes, include If no, exclude Source: CEEW and IWMI.2023 (https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/d1e630a7-56a3-4d1e-8ae2-c944a9b5210b) 4. Time span Selected policies have some level of maturity so that their modes of implementation can be analysed Was the policy enacted on or before 2020? If yes, include If no, exclude 3. Environmental sustainability Selected policies consider side impacts on the environment and assess whether they compromise the ability of future generations to meet their basic needs Are environmental health and biodiversity among the areas impacted by the policy? If yes, include If no, exclude 5. Impact, scope, and level of ambition Selected policies have a high level of ambition, are expected to be highly impactful (breadth, depth), and contribute to the implementation of broader national development goals and strategies The level of ambition and expected impacts are approximated by financial commitments What is the average actual expenditure over the last three years? Ranking and selection of top 10 Selected policies are cross-sectoral and demonstrate normative coherence with potential impacts across several impact areas Does the policy include three or more CGIAR impact areas? If yes, include If no, exclude 2. Coherence across impact areas/ cross-sectoral 28 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha During the policy screening process, following the first criterion, policies enacted on or before 2020 were shortlisted. Three policies announced post-2020 were also shortlisted as they were significant to the interlinkages between food, land, and water systems. These were the Special Programme for Promotion of Integrated Farming in Tribal Areas (2021), Odisha Millet Mission (OMM) (2022), and Community Harnessing and Harvesting Rainwater Artificially from Terrace to Aquifer (2022). This led to a list of 38 policies that went through further rounds of screening based on the following: • General information. It includes information on the form of policy (policy/scheme/mission/programme), the anchoring department, the commencement date, and the date it was accessed on the department’s website; • Financial resources allocated. It consists of the total budget allocation and fund-sharing arrangements as stated in the policy guidelines, press notes, and actual budget for the financial years 2018–19, 2019–20, and 2020–21. Additional financial information was sourced from the Ministry of Finance’s website through the ‘Notes on Demand for Grants’ from different ministries; • Policy objectives and key activities. These are listed in the policy guidelines indicating synergies and trade-offs between FLW systems; • Indications of convergence and partnerships. These include elements that explicitly recognise convergence and partnerships between policies and the nodal departments in their policy guidelines, press notes, and annual reports; • Impact on areas linked to sustainable livelihoods and enhancement of incomes covered. It includes the five impact areas recognised by CGIAR. These are climate change and adaptation; gender equality, inclusion, and diversity; environment health and biodiversity; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; and nutrition, food security, and health. Of the 38 policies, 7 were sub-components or activities of larger policies that were already shortlisted or focused on services such as insurance for livestock loss, placing them outside the scope of the study. We then screened the remaining 31 policies for three or more impact areas corresponding to Criterion 2. We looked for information on institutions, platforms, or mechanisms that were established for implementing the policies in alignment with Criterion 1 and found that four water resource policies lacked this information. These were: (1) Nabakrushna Choudhury Secha Unnayan Yojana, (2) Water Sector Infrastructure Development Programme, (3) Mukshyamantri Adibandha Tiari Yojana, and (4) In-stream Storage Structure. Regardless, we retained these policies in the selected list due to their prominence in supporting sustainable livelihoods and enhancing incomes. The information gap in accessing policy details was addressed through requests to the concerned departments during consultations. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 29 CEEW coherence. These were the Odisha Millet Mission, Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income, Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme, and Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project for Climate Resilient Agriculture. The details of these state-specific policies are presented in Section 3.1, which contains key findings from the policy landscaping. Overall, five national and four state-level policies were selected for this study. The next step involved further narrowing down the list of policies by applying Criterion 3 on environmental sustainability. This reduced the list to 19 policies. Subsequently, each policy’s maximum annual budget outlay was used to identify ten policies with the highest annual budget (Table 3). Of these, four state-level policies were selected in consultation with the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment and the Planning & Convergence Department for an in-depth analysis of policy Table 3: Policies with the highest budget outlay with information on the nodal department, duration, and status of completion S.No. Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income (KALIA) Department Policy* 2018–24 Duration Application Ongoing1. Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment Odisha Millet Mission (OMM) 2017–22 (phase I)/ 2023–27 (phase II) Ongoing3. Department of Water Resources Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme (CLSRP) 2013–23/ 2023–28 Ongoing5. Department of Water Resources In-stream Storage Structure (ISS) 2019–25 Ongoing2. Department of Water Resources Water Sector Infrastructure Development Programme (WSIDP) 2014–19/ 2019–23 Completed4. Department of Water Resources Mukshyamantri Adibandha Tiari Yojana (MATY) 2010–22 / 2022–25 Ongoing as version 2.0 6. Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment Saura Jalanidhi Yojana 2017–24 Ongoing8. Department of Water Resources Community-based Harnessing and Harvesting Rooftop Rainwater for Augmenting Groundwater (CHHATA) 2022–27 Ongoing10. Department of Water Resources (World Bank Assisted Project) Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project for Climate Resilient Agriculture (OIIPCRA) 2019–25 Ongoing7. Department of Water Resources Nabakrushna Choudhury Secha Unnayan Yojana (NCSUY) 2017–22 Completed9. *Descending order of financial budget outlay Source: Authors’ compilation 30 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha The questionnaire used for the national-level study was revised based on the learnings from the consultations during the national-level assessment. Consequently, the updated questionnaire included a few important elements, such as: • Adapting it to the state-specific context; • Including a subsection on convergence in alignment with the UNEP’s framework14 on policy coherence; • Revising the section on external consistencies for better communication during consultations with the experts; • Expanding the categories of social inclusion to include youth groups, older adults, children, differently abled (physical health, mental health, and others), and migrants, incorporating the suggestion by NITI Aayog during the national-level study. The questionnaire focused on five key dimensions of policy coherence. These dimensions were identified following the literature review on policy coherence and deliberations within the research team, which considered the national context in India and international discourse on policy coherence for development. The five dimensions are: • Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence aimed at understanding the nature and extent of vertical and horizontal coordination mechanisms at inter-departmental and intra-departmental levels at state, district, block, and village governance levels, including CSOs and communities. • External consistency to assess whether the policy complements or conflicts with other selected policies and the broader set of policies in the FLW sectors in India. The assessment also explores alignment with global goals on sustainable development through the five CGIAR impact areas: nutrition, health and food security; poverty 2.2 Revision of the questionnaire reduction, livelihoods and jobs; climate change adaptation and mitigation; environmental health and biodiversity; and gender equality, youth and social inclusion. • Scope of convergence to understand the existing and potential convergence efforts between the policy under consideration and others, based on the synergies between their objectives and intended impacts. • Flexibility and adaptability aimed at gaining insight into the policy’s nature and extent of adaptability to unexpected environmental, social, economic, and budgetary allocation changes in the landscape through mechanisms such as review meetings and grievance redressal. • Social inclusion to explore the nature and extent of inclusion of vulnerable groups and those groups most impacted by the policy under consideration at various stages of the policy cycle. The revised questionnaire used for the consultation is included in the annexe as Table A1. 14 This framework was chosen as it has a broad coverage of the key dimensions of policy coherence for sustainable development. Some of these dimensions are institutionalisation of commitment, long-term priorities in decision-making, inter-ministerial and cross-sectoral coordination, participatory processes, linkages between policies, alignment across levels of governance, and monitoring and reporting. 15 Practitioners refer to the civil society organisations engaging in the state. We consulted with 31 nodal officers from relevant governmental departments, academics, and representatives from CSOs regarding the nine selected national and state policies. We first established links with a nodal department and subsequently contacted the relevant officials for specific policies. The revised questionnaire guided the content of the consultations. We adhered to research ethics, as outlined in Bos (2020), including obtaining informed consent and anonymising the respondents. These consultations with key personnel from the state departments and experts from academic and practitioners15 spheres provided vital insight into the interlinkages among the policies related to the FLW systems. 2.3 State-level consultations Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 31 Results and Findings 3. IWMI PMMSY is being implemented across 34 states and union territories, benefiting approximately 1.6 million direct and indirect beneficiaries. In the financial years 2020–21 and 2021–22, Odisha emerged as a significant state, securing the third and fourth highest investments by the national Department of Fisheries under the PMMSY, with approximately USD 25.9 million and USD 26.9 million respectively (DLR n.d.). Odisha also has the third-highest number of fish FPOs in India, with a total of 35. These FPOs play a crucial role in economically empowering fishers and fish farmers by enhancing their negotiation skills and providing training on cost-effective resource use for higher returns. In 2020, Odisha won the ‘Best Marine State’17 award on World Fisheries Day from the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying (National Fisheries Development Board 2021a). Furthermore, Odisha is among the 11 states and union territories in India with the potential for seaweed production. According to the latest updates, there is a targeted increase in seaweed production of approximately 100,000 tonnes (NITI Aayog, 2024). This highlights the significance of PMMSY in strengthening the fisheries sector in Odisha and, in particular, advancing sustainable growth, improving livelihoods, and promoting economic empowerment within the fisheries sector. This section outlines the importance of the selected policies from the policy landscaping exercise in advancing sustainable livelihoods and enhancing income. It is crucial to enhance economic growth through ecological restoration and sustainable management of natural resources. The identified policies prioritise the sustainability of agriculture, horticulture, animal resources, and fisheries by focusing on increased production and productivity, conservation of indigenous varieties, promotion of water-saving and climate-smart technologies and practices, post-harvest risks and losses management, and strengthening value chains. These initiatives aim to increase incomes for farmers and fishers while generating direct and indirect employment opportunities. They aim to achieve economies of scale by aggregating farmers into farmer groups, transferring the responsibility of operation and management to local governance institutions, and building capacity for monitoring and strategic leadership. The specific role of the identified policies in furthering these objectives is further discussed below. Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana The Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana aims to develop fisheries in a sustainable and responsible manner to support India’s ‘Blue Revolution’ (Neel Kranti Mission) (NCDC n.d.). It seeks to enhance fisheries production and productivity from both inland and marine resources, providing livelihood and nutritional support. Focusing on ecological health, economic viability, and social inclusivity, the scheme ensures the productive use of land and water resources while strengthening the value chain to double fishers’ and fish farmers’ incomes and employment opportunities16 (Department of Fisheries 2020). 3.1 Significance of selected policies for advancing sustainable livelihoods and income enhancement ODISHA ALSO HAS THE THIRD-HIGHEST NUMBER OF FISH FPOS IN INDIA, WITH A TOTAL OF 35. THESE FPOS PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE IN ECONOMICALLY EMPOWERING FISHERS AND FISH FARMERS BY ENHANCING THEIR NEGOTIATION SKILLS AND PROVIDING TRAINING ON COST-EFFECTIVE RESOURCE USE FOR HIGHER RETURNS. 16 Fishers catch fish from the wild, while fish farmers raise fish in captivity. 17 Odisha registered a steep increase in fish production, achieving 11.87 per cent of the compound annual growth rate. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 33 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme The MGNREGS is an important scheme ensuring the livelihood security of the marginalised populations in rural India (Government of Sikkim 2022). It provides a legal guarantee of employment for up to 100 days per financial year in rural areas. The scheme targets the drivers of chronic poverty, such as drought, deforestation, and soil erosion, by promoting sustainable employment generation (UNDP 2013). Within the overarching aim of poverty alleviation and addressing rural development challenges, MGNREGS has four key objectives. These include strengthening the livelihood resource base of the poor, supporting demand-driven productive asset creation, proactively ensuring social inclusion, and strengthening PRIs (PIB 2022a). In the 2023–24 budget estimate, the Government of India has allocated INR 60,000 crore (USD 7,136.77 million) to MGNREGS (Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare and PIB 2024). In Odisha, funding for MGNREGS has increased significantly from INR 2163.28 lakh(USD 2.5 million) in 2018–19 to INR 4638.36lakh (USD 5.51 million) in 2022–23 (Planning and Convergence Department 2023a). Additionally, provisions have been made for an additional 200 days of work in blocks where migration is high and frequent, covering 30 such blocks across nine districts. Approximately 2.26 lakh (0.22 million) households received 100 days of work, leading to the creation of 15.13 crore (151.3 million) days of employment in Odisha. The employment potential has facilitated the construction of 2,436 model tanks, 1,390 rural parks, and 7,568 playfields (DLR n.d.). Watershed Development Component – Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana 2.0 The WDC-PMKSY 2.0 is a flagship programme of the union government aimed at promoting sustainable watershed development and management. It specifically targets rainfed areas and the issues of water scarcity and soil erosion through watershed development. It focuses on conserving rainwater, improving soil moisture, and enhancing the overall productivity of agricultural land. It is part of the larger PMKSY programme, which aims to (1) converge irrigation investments, (2) expand the cultivable area with assured irrigation, (3) improve water use efficiency18 , (4) promote precision irrigation, (5) recharge aquifers, and (6) explore the reuse of treated wastewater for peri-urban agriculture (CEEW and IWMI 2023). Therefore, it exemplifies the FLW nexus. WDC-PMKSY 2.0 is an outcome of long-term integrated experiences on watersheds in India. In 2003, the government further adopted the Hariyali Guidelines to involve village communities through the Panchayat Raj institutions (PRIs) in implementation of watershed development projects (DLR 2021). The indicative central financial outlay for the scheme for 2021–26 is INR19 8,134 crore (USD 967.41 million) (DLR n.d.). The funds released to Odisha as central assistance under the WDC-PMKSY 2.0 scheme for the financial year 2021–22 was INR 13.46 crore (USD 1.60 million) and was increased to INR 155.17 crore (USD 18.45 million) in 2022–23 (DRD 2023a). The policy has made significant progress over the years, covering about 29,418 ha of degraded land and implementing various conservation activities. The scheme has created or renovated 4,662 water harvesting structures, benefitting 99,036 farmers and generating over 2 million person-days of employment. Additionally, it has increased the cropped area by 7,656 ha and diversified crops across 3,640 ha, resulting in a 22 per cent average increase in farmers’ income (DLR n.d.). These efforts aim to improve agricultural productivity and water management in the state. 18 Water use efficiency is the ratio of the total biomass produced to the amount of water used. 19 Conversion rate based on 29 October, 2024 (1 USD= INR 84.08) 2023–24 BUDGET ESTIMATE, THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA HAS ALLOCATED INR 60,000 CRORE (USD 7,136.77 MILLION) TO MGNREGS (MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & FARMERS WELFARE AND PIB 2024). 34 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Committee on Economic Affairs chaired by the prime minister in 2015. It has been implemented as RKVY since 2022–23 (Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2024). The national Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare coordinates with Odisha’s Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment for the policy’s implementation. The Directorate of Horticulture, located within the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Empowerment, serves as the nodal department. The primary objective of RKVY–PDMC is to enhance water use efficiency at the farm level through micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler irrigation system). The policy aims to provide end-to-end solutions for source creation, distribution, management, field application, and extension activities to improve irrigation water efficiency and water productivity. The ultimate objective is to promote sustainable agriculture and increase farmers’ income. Micro-irrigation can play a pivotal role in boosting green growth in India. According to an impact evaluation study conducted in several Indian states, micro-irrigation has the potential to enhance farmers’ income by 48.5 per cent by increasing productivity and reducing input costs such as irrigation and electricity (Global AgriSystem 2014). India has significantly expanded its micro-irrigation coverage, covering 83,46,000 ha between 2015–16 and 2023–24. This expansion is supported by the creation of the Micro Irrigation Fund with an initial corpus of INR 5,000 crore (USD 594.73 million) with the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) (Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2024). At the farm level, financial assistance for farmers is provided through subsidies, covering approximately 55 per cent of the costs for small and marginal farmers and 45 per cent of the costs for other farmers (PIB 2022b). Within the national coverage of micro-irrigation, only about 1 per cent is in Odisha (equal to 95,475 ha), making up approximately 5 per cent of the total area under irrigation in the state (PIB 2024b) . Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture The MIDH aims to promote the holistic development of horticulture, enhancing farmers’ income and strengthening nutritional security. This integrated development approach involves developing localised strategies, promoting research and technology, providing timely extension services to farmers’ decision-making, and forming farmer groups to achieve economies of scale. The mission also targets the value chain to enhance horticulture production and post-harvest management, particularly in cold storage. Furthermore, MIDH effectively addresses resource security by improving water use efficiency through the widespread adoption of micro-irrigation techniques and preservation of germplasm. Skill development is a key area for employment generation for rural youth to support overall development. MIDH integrates several components, such as the National Horticulture Mission, the Horticulture Mission for Northeast & Himalayan States, and the National Bamboo Mission. It brings together institutions such as the Coconut Development Board and the Central Institute for Horticulture under one cluster to synergise their operations (Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare 2023). In Odisha, approximately INR 68 crore (USD 8.08 million) was allocated to MIDH for the financial year 2022–23 (Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2022); it was increased to INR 75 crore (USD 8.92 million) for 2024–25 (Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare 2024). Odisha exceeded the target set for the protected cultivation under MIDH by 133 per cent between 2014–15 and 2018–19. It was recognised as the best-performing state in terms of financial performance, particularly regarding the percentage utilisation of allocated funds (Global AgriSystem 2020). Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana – Per Drop More Crop The RKVY–PDMC was established as part of the PMKSY, receiving approval from the Cabinet Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 35 For this purpose, the mission converges with other policies, particularly at the local level, involving micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) and entrepreneurial ventures. The establishment of Millet Shakti cafés has a collaborative goal of promoting millet consumption while empowering women economically (Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment 2022). The state budget, District Mineral Foundation, and Odisha Mineral Bearing Area Development Corporation provide financial support for OMM. The approved budget for 2021–22 to 2026–27 is INR 2,808 crore (USD 333.97 million) (Shree Anna Abhiyan n.d.). According to the annual report on OMM for 2021–22, the programme improved agronomic practices and the area under millet through policy support. It enabled the economic empowerment of women’s self-help groups (WSHGs) by promoting bio-input centres. By including ragi in supplementary nutrition programmes, OMM benefitted 63,000 children across 3,809 Anganwadi centres (AWCs). The programme works with 38 ‘take home ration’ units led by WSHGs through the Integrated Child Development Services Ladoo Programme in the Sundargarh district – 19 ‘take home ration’ units cover21 3,257 AWCs and 88,000 preschool children (Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment 2022). Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income The KALIA scheme reflects a unique approach to enhancing sustainable livelihoods and income for small and marginal farmers and landless individuals and their children. It directly assists more than 56 lakh small and marginal farmers, effectively providing financial aid to 92 per cent of cultivators and landless cultivators, interest-free crop loans, and scholarships for children of KALIA20 beneficiaries. It empowers farmers by allowing them to prioritise agricultural activities requiring financial support. For example, purchasing quality farm inputs such as seeds, fertilisers, and pesticides. It supports landless cultivators in diversifying income sources by encouraging goat rearing, bird farming, fishery, and mushroom cultivation. KALIA serves as an example of integrated rural development policy in practice (Nemes 2005). It has supported 51,05,290 farm families in the first instalment and 48,65,053 beneficiaries through the second instalment (Government of Odisha n.d.b.). Considering its utility, KALIA has been extended beyond 2024–25 to 2026–27 with a budget allocation of INR 6,030 (Rout 2024). Odisha Millet Mission The OMM, or the Special Programme for the Promotion of Millets in Tribal Areas of Odisha, is a flagship initiative of the Government of Odisha. Its primary objectives include conserving and promoting indigenous millet varieties through a robust seed system and improved agronomic practices. It also aims to promote FPOs and increase household millet consumption by 25 per cent. The mission focuses on the entire value chain by promoting post-harvest and primary processing enterprises, improving productivity in millet-based crop systems, and facilitating millet markets and exports. OMM aims to include millets in the public distribution system to ensure better accessibility and food and nutrition security. Further, it promotes gender equity and climate resilience, boosts livelihood generation, and combats micronutrient deficiency. 20 The cultivators are provided INR 5,000/household, landless agricultural labourers INR 12,500/household over 3 years, and vulnerable agricultural households INR 10,000 (Government of Odisha n.d.a). A life insurance premium of INR 171/beneficiary for those aged 18–50 years and an additional premium of INR 12/beneficiary for those aged 50–70 years is covered under KALIA. Furthermore, the scheme also provides interest-free crop loans of INR 110 crore/year (USD 13.08 million) to 20 lakh (2 million) farmers. 21 In Sundargarh, the millets are provided as two ladoos each week; Keonjhar provides them as a ladoo mix. IT HAS SUPPORTED 51,05,290 FARM FAMILIES IN THE FIRST INSTALMENT AND 48,65,053 BENEFICIARIES THROUGH THE SECOND INSTALMENT (GOVERNMENT OF ODISHA N.D.B.). CONSIDERING ITS UTILITY, KALIA HAS BEEN EXTENDED BEYOND 2024–25 TO 2026–27 WITH A BUDGET ALLOCATION OF INR 6,030 (ROUT 2024). 36 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha Finally, it strengthened the institutional capacity for quality control while executing civil works in tanks (DoWR 2021). Canal Lining and System Rehabilitation Programme The CLSRP is a state-funded programme launched in 2013 to improve water infrastructure through improved irrigation systems, reduced seepage losses, and enhanced water availability at the farm level. It addresses the critical challenge of reclaiming agriculturally valuable land impacted by waterlogging and salinity due to canal seepage. CLSRP provides additional coverage of irrigated areas, specifically during the Rabi season.Direct access to irrigation significantly benefits farmers by generating additional income and ensuring water availability for cultivating a second crop. This programme is crucial from the perspective of water and food security (DoWR 2013). CLSRP received an initial outlay of INR 1,000 crore (USD 118.94 million) from 2013–14 to 2017–18 (DoWR 2013). By January 2022, 35.6 km of canals were lined, and the canal lining (Taladanda Main) renovation was completed for the major and medium irrigation projects, along with 10 of 12 minor irrigation projects (DoWR 2022). CLSRP has been extended till 2027–28 with a total outlay of about INR 2,033 crore (USD 241.81 million) (Parliamentary Affairs Department 2018). Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project for Climate Resilient Agriculture The OIIPCRA is a World Bank–assisted project that is being implemented by the Department of Water Resources (DoWR 2019) in Odisha. Its core objective is to create minor and medium irrigation projects to support climate-resilient agriculture. This project aims to enhance the resilience of farm systems by adopting advanced integrated water resource management technology. The intended beneficiaries are approximately 2 lakh households and 10 lakh rural inhabitants, comprising farmers, fisher folk, and landless individuals. Further, strengthening farm institutions and the agricultural value chain is an important component of crop productivity for food security, employment generation, and income growth. OIIPCRA consists of four key components: (1) climate-smart intensification and diversification of production, (2) improved access to irrigation and water productivity, (3) institutional capacity strengthening, and (4) project management. The total budget allocation for 2019–25 is INR 1,683 crore (USD 194.81 million), with 30:70 contributions from the state and World Bank, respectively (DoWR 2021). Additionally, there is a contingent emergency response component for responding to any natural or man-made crises, disasters, severe economic shocks, or other crises and emergencies in Odisha during the lifespan of the project (Water Resource Department n.d.). In 2020–21, OIIPCRA facilitated the adoption of crop diversification strategies by farmers. This was achieved through demonstration by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics on hybrid vegetable cultivation in all 15 project districts, integrated nutrient management in 7 districts, and climate-resilient crops in 3 districts. Second, it improved irrigation and drainage services on 2,250 ha of land. Third, it ensured periodic dam safety advisory services by facilitating a memorandum of understanding between the OIIPCRA project unit and the State Dam Safety Organisation. THE CLSRP IS A STATE-FUNDED PROGRAMME LAUNCHED IN 2013 TO IMPROVE WATER INFRASTRUCTURE THROUGH IMPROVED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, REDUCED SEEPAGE LOSSES, AND ENHANCED WATER AVAILABILITY AT THE FARM LEVEL. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 37 Source: Authors’ analysis Figure 4: In two districts (Ganjam and Bargarh), all nine policies are operational The district map of Odisha in Figure 4 highlights the spatial coverage of the nine selected policies. We note that at least five policies are operational in each district – policies such as MIDH, PMMSY, RKVY-PDMC, MGNREGS, and KALIA are operational across all districts. In the Ganjam and Bargarh districts, all nine policies are operational. In this section, we delve into an in-depth policy-wise analysis through the prism of five dimensions of coherence. These dimensions serve as critical lenses through which we can examine the intricate layers of policies, assessing their alignment, synergies, trade-offs. This analysis is not only pivotal for understanding the current policy landscape but also for identifying pathways for future developments that are coherent, well-integrated, and aligned with overarching goals. 3.2 Policy-wise analysis along the five dimensions of coherence 38 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha CEEW 3.2.1 Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana The subsection provides a detailed analysis of policy coherence in relation to PMMSY across five key dimensions.The in-depth analysis encompasses the processes through which other policies can mutually support PMMSY objectives and have the potential to contribute to its impacts on advancing sustainable development. Vertical and horizontal institutional coherence The PMMSY guidelines underscore the importance of coordination among various line departments at key governance levels for its effective implementation. The CEEW and IWMI (2023) study provides comprehensive insights into the coordination mechanisms at the national level. In Odisha, the Fisheries and Animal Resources Development Department is the nodal agency for PMMSY (DFARD 2021 ). It coordinates with other key departments on specific matters to enhance vertical and horizontal institutional coherence. For example, the department engages with the Department of Panchayati Raj and Drinking Water (DoPR&DW) at the district level to utilise water tanks owned by the gram panchayat22 and the community for fish production. Further, the Fisheries and Animal Resources Development Department coordinates with the national Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change to seek clearance for fishing in coastal and brackish waters according to the environmental and coastal zone regulations (Department of Fisheries 2020). Clearances are also needed from the national Department of Forest, Agriculture, and Revenue. Consequently, these departments jointly visit the area to assess the conditions, and meetings are held at the district and state levels for approval from the national Coastal Aquaculture Authority for activities related to coastal aquaculture. The Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA) regulates and oversees coastal aquaculture activities in India, ensuring environmental protection and sustainable practices through registration, permissions, and compliance enforcement. Therefore, inter-departmental coordination plays a crucial role in the process and is facilitated through a dedicated digital portal for green clearances known as Parivesh.23 Green clearances include clearance in the matters of environment, forest, wildlife, and coastal regulation. The coordination involves collaboration with the Ministry of Earth Sciences and the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services to identify appropriate devices and potential fishing zones24 (Government of India 2020a). The Fisheries and Animal Resources Development Department also coordinates with the Ministry of Food Processing Industries for sales-related activities, as the Ministry is crucial for maintaining post-harvest produce. Coordination with research institutes is another crucial aspect of institutional coherence (Hooghe and Marks 2001). For instance, collaboration occurs with the Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for Fishery (CICEF) for infrastructure-related projects in marine areas. CICEF prepares the designs, and validation is sought from the Department of Ocean Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT Madras) based in Chennai. Collaborations exist with the Department of Agricultural Research and Education and the Department of Commerce for research and development activities, such as technology demonstrations, genetic improvement, and establishing nucleus breeding centres. 22 Gram panchayats are institutions of self-government constituted, at the village level, under Article 243B of the Constitution, for the rural areas 23 Parivesh stands for pro-active and responsive facilitation by interactive, virtuous, and environmental single window hub. 24 Coastal security, monitoring, control, and surveillance activities are managed by the Ministry of Home Affairs under border management. The Department of Space, through the Indian Space Research Organisation, supports these activities using satellite-based communication and tracking devices. Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha 39 (Department of Fisheries 2020). It is also consistent with other policies on the fisheries value chain. The Department of Commerce’s policies are crucial for modernising and constructing fishing harbours and promoting fisheries exports, certification, traceability, and branding, jointly with the Marine Products Export Development Authority (Department of Fisheries 2020). External consistency PMMSY has synergies with rural development programs such as the MGNREGS, the Sagarmala project, PMKSY, RKVY, and the Kisan Credit Card scheme. It aligns with the NRLM to create the necessary infrastructure for the value chain and to economically empower fishers and fish farmers through fish farmer producers organisations (FFPOs) and companies On poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs, policy experts perceive PMMSY to have high positive linkages with SDG 5a on undertaking reforms to empower women through access to economic resources and medium positive linkages with SDG 8.5 on equal treatment in employment, including fair and equitable earnings for achieving decent work for all. Based on the consultations with experts regarding linkages25 with SDGs, we found that PMMSY has medium positive linkages (Figure 5) with SDGs 2.1 and 2.2 on nutrition, health, and food security. While SDG 2.1 aims to end hunger and ensure access by all people, particularly the poor and people in vulnerable situations, to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food all year around, SDG 2.2 addresses all forms of malnutrition and the nutritional needs of girls, women, and older people. Source: Authors’ analysis Figure 5: PMMSY has a high positive linkage with SDG 6.6 on the protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems 25 Linkages are based on ratings scored by experts during stakeholder consultations. A high positive linkage = +2, medium to high positive linkage = +1.5, medium positive linkage = +1, low positive linkage = +0.5, neutral linkage = 0, low negative linkage = -0.5, medium negative linkage = -1, medium to high negative linkage = -1.5, and high negative linkage = -2. 40 Improving Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems to Advance Sustainable Development in India: A Case Study of Odisha On climate change adaptation and mitigation, PMMSY has a medium to high positive linkage with SDG 2.4, which emphasises sustainable food production systems and resilient practices that strengthen the capacity for adaptation to climate change. In the context of environmental health and biodiversity, PMMSY demonstrates a strong positive connection with SDG 6.6, which focuses on the protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems. It also shows a moderate positive connection with SDG 14.1, aimed at preventing and significantly reducing marine pollution. PMMSY has a medium to high positive linkage with SDG 2.3 and a medium positive linkage with SDGs 5a, 5b, 10.2, and 10.3 – SDG targets relating to gender equality and youth and social inclusion. SDG 5a emphasises reforms to empower women, and SDG 10.2 promotes the social and economic incl