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Project Report 

Nature Positive Solutions for Shifting Agrifood Systems to 

More Resilient and Sustainable Pathways 

(Work Package 3: Restore) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ICAR-National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management  

Malegaon (kh), Baramati (Maharashtra)-413115 



ii 
 

Project Report 

 

Nature Positive Solutions for Shifting Agrifood Systems to 

More Resilient and Sustainable Pathways 

(Work Package 3: Restore) 

 

Funding agency 

Alliance Bioversity International-CIAT 

International Water Management Institute  

 

Implementing Agency:  

BAIF Development Research Foundation 

 

Project Team: Sangram B Chavan, Rajagopal, V., Halli, HM., Pal, KK., 
Reddy, KS. 

 

Authors: Sangram B Chavan, Rajagopal, V., Halli, HM., Viswadev, VS. and 
Rajashri Joshi  

 

 December 2024 

 

 

 

ICAR-National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management  

Malegaon (kh), Baramati (Maharashtra)-413115 



iii 
 

Contents 
1. Project Background ......................................................................................................................... 1 

2. Study Area Description ................................................................................................................... 3 

3. Activity 1: Development of agroforestry models for livelihood and environmental security ........ 4 

3.1. Constraints ranking in study site ........................................................................................... 5 

3.2. Matrix ranking ....................................................................................................................... 6 

3.3. 2.3 Agroforestry models ........................................................................................................ 7 

4. Activity 2: Assessment of biodiversity .......................................................................................... 10 

4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10 

4.2. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 10 

4.3. Results ................................................................................................................................. 12 

5. Activity 3: Impact of various land-use systems on soil nutrient composition .............................. 18 

5.1. Soil pH and EC ...................................................................................................................... 18 

5.2. Soil Organic carbon (%)........................................................................................................ 19 

5.3. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium ................................................................................. 20 

5.4. Micronutrients ..................................................................................................................... 22 

6. Activity 4: Quantification of carbon sequestration under various land-use systems ................... 24 

6.1. Carbon stock (Tree and soil) ................................................................................................ 25 

7. Activity 5: Case Study - Agri-Horti-Forestry (Wadi) ...................................................................... 26 

7.1. Background .......................................................................................................................... 26 

7.2. Selection of Species for Planting in Wadi ............................................................................ 28 

7.3. Local Need for Wadi ............................................................................................................ 30 

7.3.1. Seasonal analysis ............................................................................................................. 30 

7.4. Economic Returns of Wadi .................................................................................................. 32 

7.5. Carbon Sequestration Potential of Wadi System ................................................................ 33 

7.6. Tree biomass of Wadi model ............................................................................................... 34 

8. Annexure 1 ...................................................................................................................................... a 

 

  

  



iv 
 

Abstract  

The project “Nature Positive Solutions for Shifting Agrifood Systems to More Resilient and 
Sustainable Pathways (Work Package 3: Restore)” focuses on the development of agroforestry 
models designed to restore degraded lands in the Akole cluster of Maharashtra, with an 
emphasis on enhancing both nutritional and environmental security. The project addresses 
several challenges, including soil erosion, fodder scarcity, and reduced tree cover. Agroforestry 
systems such as block plantations, silvipasture, and integrated farming were implemented to 
restore these degraded lands. The collaboration with BAIF, Pune along with CGIAR partners 
The Alliance Bioversity International-CIAT and International Water Management Institute, 
carried out this study with focus on the impact of restoration interventions on biodiversity, soil 
health, and carbon sequestration. 
A micro-watershed of about 63 hectare was identified in Chicondi village to implement 
technological interventions. The activities carried out under this project include the successful 
establishment of three agroforestry models—Fodder, Wadi, and Bamboo—on farmers' fields 
in Chichondi Village. Species like Mango and Bamboo were identified as priority species for 
plantation, with fodder scarcity being the most critical issue, as indicated by the constraints 
ranking. The Wadi system, dominated by Mango and Teak, played a key role in addressing 
both nutritional needs and environmental security. These systems also contributed significantly 
to biomass, carbon sequestration, and oxygen production. 
A comprehensive biodiversity assessment revealed significant variation in species richness and 
diversity across different land-use systems. The Bamboo system (New) exhibited the highest 
biodiversity, with a Shannon-Wiener Index of 3.7225 and species richness of 77, while the 
Agriculture Fallow system had the lowest biodiversity (Shannon-Wiener Index = 2.6469, 
Species Richness = 19). These findings underscore the importance of habitat-specific 
conservation strategies to maintain ecosystem health and support biodiversity. 
Soil properties showed variations in soil parameters, including pH, electrical conductivity, 
organic carbon content, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels across the systems. Soil 
pH ranged from 5.09 in the Wadi Control system to 6.51 in the Forest system, while organic 
carbon content varied from 0.55% in the Wadi Control system to 1.90% in the Forest system. 
These variations highlight the significant role of different agroforestry systems in improving 
soil health. 
Carbon sequestration studies showed that forest systems had the highest carbon stock at 112.9 
Mg/ha, followed by agricultural fallow systems at 94.61 Mg/ha and Wadi systems at 75.34 
Mg/ha. The Wadi control system, lacking tree cover, had the lowest carbon stock at 46.01 
Mg/ha. Wadi agroforestry systems, dominated by Mango and Teak, significantly contributed 
to carbon sequestration, with 16.60 Mg/ha of carbon stock and 4.32 Mg/ha of CO₂ 
sequestration. These systems also produced 20.91 Mg/ha of oxygen, with Mango contributing 
9.01 Mg/ha and Teak 8.06 Mg/ha.  

These findings highlight the key role of Wadi (Old) systems in restoring degraded lands, 
increasing tree cover, and improving carbon sequestration. Therefore, development of 
Agroforestry systems is vital in restoring ecosystems, boosting biodiversity, and mitigating 
climate change, while also providing sustainable income opportunities for local communities, 
ensuring long-term environmental sustainability and resilience. 



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1. Project Background 
Degradation of land is a very vital question to be addressed in present times and needs 

immediate attention for restoration. The degradation is largely caused due to both natural and 

anthropogenic activities making the land to become unproductive, fundamentally affecting 

crop productivity, biological diversity, hydrological cycles, nutrient transformation, 

groundwater quality, and overall socioeconomics of the region concerned. In India, 29.3% of 

the geographical area has undergone land degradation, with maximum contribution from water 

erosion, acidification, wind erosion, desertification, salinization, and mining (ISRO 2018). At 

the landscape scale, land degradation can also lead to a loss of biodiversity and cause negative 

microclimatic changes, thus facilitating desertification. Degradation causes serious 

consequences by exacerbating climate change, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, affecting 

local livelihood by reducing water, food & nutritional security. The proper management of 

natural resources through planting trees helps in maintaining an ecological balance of 

agroecosystems (Bremer and Farley 2010). Degraded lands in India are becoming a part of the 

solution to achieve the targets of the Paris Agreement of 2015, 14th CoP of United Nations 

Conventions to Combat Desertification 2021, and more recently CoP-26 at Glasgow to enhance 

sequestering of carbon of 1 billion to 2.3 billion carbon dioxide equivalents by 2030. As of 

today, 26 million hectares of degraded land can be rehabilitated through vegetation means to 

sequester carbon and enhance ecosystem services. Under such a situation, agroforestry systems 

(AFS) are becoming an established approach to integrated land management, not only for 

renewable resource production but also for climate change mitigation and land reclamation.  

In view of the above mentioned, the following key points have been identified based 

on a field visit and scoping study in the Akole cluster of Maharashtra:  

 Felling of trees from field boundaries, forests and common lands has drastically reduced 

tree cover  leading to landslide, high erosion of agricultural field and field bunds during 

heavy rainfall.  

 Scarcity of green fodder is primely reported by many of the farmers. After December, 

the availability of green fodder as well as dry fodder is a big constraint. Farmers have 

shifted towards, goat farming as income generating enterprise.  

 Wild animals like monkeys, peacocks, and wild pigs cause a huge menace to the 

agricultural field and forced farmers to abandon traditional groundnut and other cash 

crops cultivation. 



2 
 

 For rice cultivation, forest is cleared to create small fields and many trees are lopped 

and brunt to make rice nurseries (rabbing). The reduced tree density increases the 

chances of soil erosion in the fields. 

 Local people depend on forests for energy (fuel wood) and nutrition. Except for summer 

season, fruit availability is poor.  

 

 

Based on these challenges, there was an urgent need to develop a strategy to rehabilitate 

the landscape to reduce soil erosion, enhance tree cover, round the year green fodder 

availability, energy and nutritional security of farmers and sustainable livelihoods. 

Agroforestry models such as block plantations, bund plantations, silvipasture systems, 

homestead gardens, fruit systems and integrated farming systems seem to be a viable solution 

to address sustainable income of local communities while also restoring degraded lands, soil 

and local biodiversity. The research project on “Development of agroforestry models for 

restoration of degraded lands to address nutritional and environmental security” under Work 

package 3: Nature+ explores a cost-efficiency model for community land restoration aiming to 

harnessing the potential of agroforestry to enhance the sustainability and resilience of degraded 

landscapes 

The activities conducted under Nature-Positive Solutions for Shifting Agri-Food 

Systems to More Resilient & Sustainable Pathways in Work Package 3 were carried out with 

the support of the BAIF, Pune team. These activities included farmer selection, field 

biodiversity surveys, Wadi assessments, and soil sampling. Based on the periodical review, 



3 
 

following activities were shortlisted to be carried out during the project period on priority basis. 

Activities included: 

i. Development of agroforestry models for livelihood and environmental security 

ii. Assessment of biodiversity in the study site  

iii. Quantification of impact of various land-use systems on biomass, soil health and carbon 

sequestration 

iv. Carbon sequestration of study pre-established Wadi 

2. Study Area Description 
Chichondi village is located in Akole Tehsil of Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra, at 

coordinates 19°34'52.92"N and 73°45'13.32"E. The village lies in close proximity to Kalsubai 

Peak (1,646 meters), the highest point in Maharashtra, and the Bhandardara region, known for 

its scenic landscapes, waterfalls, and lakes (Fig 1). A total of 63 hectares of micro-watershed 

in Chichondi village were selected for implementing various nature-positive technological 

interventions. This geographical setting, being part of the Western Ghats, significantly 

influences the area's climate, biodiversity, and agricultural practices. The region receives 

moderate to high rainfall, ranging from 1,200 to 2000 mm annually, with temperatures varying 

between 8°C in winter and 38°C in summer. The fertile soils and favorable agro-climatic 

conditions support a mix of agriculture, horticulture, and agroforestry, with Wadi1 systems 

being a prominent feature. The area's topography is characterized by undulating hills, forest 

patches, and riparian zones, offering a rich biodiversity that includes both endemic flora and 

fauna. Water resources are augmented by seasonal streams, natural springs, and reservoirs, 

making it an ideal location for sustainable development initiatives and ecological research. The 

proximity to Kalsubai and Bhandardara also creates opportunities for eco-tourism and 

conservation-focused projects. 

 

 
1 Wadi programme is an integrated farming systems approach which includes horticulture and forestry tree 
species and crop diversification in the farming system implemented by BAIF. See https://baif.org.in/what-we-
do/Agri-horti-forestry/ for additional details 



4 
 

 
Figure 1: Pilot NPS project site covers a 63-hectare micro-watershed in Chichondi Village of Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra 

3. Activity 1: Development of agroforestry models for livelihood and 
environmental security 

In the project, three agroforestry models were selected based on the need and discussion 

with the project partners. The project area is hilly tract of the western ghat having undulating 

land topography, valley area and high rainfall and farmers willingness, following which three 

models were implemented in the project site. A survey was carried out to understand the 

farmers constraint and preference for adoption of various trees (Plate 1). The constraint ranking 

and preferential rankling (Matrix) were considered as base for selection of models and species 

compositions which is explained in detail below.  



5 
 

 

Plate 1: Survey and interaction with the farmers in study area 

3.1. Constraints ranking in study site  
The constraints faced by the system were ranked and analyzed based on their impact 

percentages. The most critical issue was the scarcity of fodder availability, which affected 

26.64% of respondents and significantly impacted livestock health and productivity (Fig. 2). 

The practice of monocropping paddy followed closely, reported by 15.88% of respondents, 

leading to reduced soil fertility and increased pest problems. The extinction of traditional 

knowledge and landraces was another significant concern, noted by 13.25% of respondents, as 

it threatened agricultural diversity. Wildlife conflicts affected 10.6% of respondents, resulting 

in crop damage and economic losses. Illicit tree felling, reported by 4.99% of respondents, 

contributed to deforestation and environmental degradation. Landslides and soil erosion, 

though affecting only 0.21% of respondents, remained important concerns due to their potential 

for long-term soil damage. Finally, the shift in nutrition and dietary patterns was not perceived 

as a major issue, with no respondents identifying it as a concern. This prioritization helped 

focus efforts on addressing the most pressing challenges while monitoring less critical ones. 

 

 

 

 

   

 



6 
 

 

3.2. Matrix ranking 
Matrix ranking was used as a participatory tool to evaluate options based on parameters such 
as market demand, growth rate, maintenance, yield, and resilience. A consistent scoring 
system (e.g., 1 to 10) ensured uniformity, while stakeholder involvement captured diverse 
perspectives. Critical parameters were weighted for relevance, and total scores were 
calculated to compare alternatives and analyze trends effectively. The matrix ranking results 
presented in Table 1. 

Table 1: Ranking of selected tree species for plantation 

Parameter Kesar Mango Jambhul Teak Jackfruit Bamboo Karavand 

Market Demand 97 77 67 56 75 29 

Growth Rate 87 76 47 56 85 35 

Maintenance 87 76 42 57 80 36 

Yield 97 77 58 58 82 31 

Resilience 87 83 57 59 83 35 

Total Score 455 389 271 286 405 166 

 

The preference percentages for the evaluated species indicated that Mango (Mangifera 

indica) had the highest preference at 91%, followed by Bamboo (Dendrocalamus stocksii) at 

81%. Jambhul (Syzygium cumini) received a moderate preference of 77.8%, while Jackfruit 

(Artocarpus heterophyllus) and Teak (Tectona grandis) had lower preferences at 57.2% and 

54.2%, respectively (Fig 3). Karavand (Carissa carandas) was the least preferred species, with 

26.64

15.88

10.6

13.25

4.99

0.21

0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Scarcity of fodder availability

Monocropping of paddy

Menace of wildlife

Extinction of traditional knowledge & landraces

Illicit tree felling

Landslides & soil erosion

Shift in Nutrition & dietary

Figure 2: Constraint ranking of problem faced by the farmers in study area 



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a preference of only 33.2%. Overall, Kesar Mango and Bamboo were identified as priority 

species, while diversification efforts could have included Jambhul and Jackfruit. Teak and 

Karavand appeared to require targeted interventions to enhance their appeal and viability. 

 

 
Figure 3: Preferential ranking of woody species in study site 

3.3. Agroforestry models 
Based on the survey, interactions, scoping study, and expert meetings, three models were 

optimized: 1) Fodder, 2) Wadi, and 3) Bamboo. These models were selected for 

implementation on pilot farmers' fields. The local staff and NIASM team identified suitable 

farmers for the implementation in Chindondi Village. The following sections present the 

selected models and the results of their implementation. 



8 
 

 
Figure 4: Silvipasture model 

 
Figure 5: BAIF Wadi Model 

Wadi  

Figure 6: Bamboo in block plantation 



9 
 

In July 2024, preparatory activities were undertaken on the fields of selected farmers in 

the Chichondi micro-watershed. The site layout was finalized, and pits were carefully dug to 

accommodate the planned interventions. Planting materials, including seeds of grasses, fodder 

tree seeds, bamboo seedlings, and clonal plants of fruit and teak, were sourced from reputable 

suppliers to ensure quality. These materials were then distributed to the farmers for 

implementation. 

Three models were planned for execution: the Wadi Model, the Bamboo Model, and 

the Fodder Model (Plate 2). These models were successfully established on eight, seven, and 

five farmers' fields, respectively. The work was completed in August 2024. However, due to 

heavy and persistent rainfall, the Silvipasture Model could not be implemented as planned. 

Despite this setback, the successful establishment of the other two models marks a significant 

step forward in promoting sustainable agricultural and agroforestry practices in the region. 

 

Plate 2: View of planting of seedlings under NPS Project 

 

  



10 
 

4. Activity 2: Assessment of biodiversity 
4.1. Introduction 
Biodiversity is a key indicator of ecosystem health, supporting pollination, carbon 

sequestration, soil fertility, water regulation, and climate resilience. Flora, including herbs, 

shrubs, and trees, plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance. Understanding floral 

biodiversity across land-use systems is essential for evaluating human impacts on ecosystems 

and species conservation. In India, conserving 70% of genetic diversity in crops and socio-

economically important plants is challenging. Integrating community-conserved biodiversity 

into agricultural landscapes and prioritizing on-farm and in-situ conservation in forests and 

protected areas is critical. The alarming loss of biodiversity, particularly threatened tree 

species, calls for urgent action as climate change could result in the disappearance of 10% of 

India's tree species. The Deccan Plateau, a biodiversity hotspot, faces severe exploitation, 

leading to a loss of genetic resources and ecological balance. 

This study aims to assess floral biodiversity in bamboo planting fields, Wadi fields, 

forests, and fallow lands using quadrat sampling. Biodiversity indices, including the Shannon-

Weiner Index, Simpson’s Index, and Margalef Index, will quantify species richness, evenness, 

and diversity, providing insights into ecosystem health and biodiversity status. 

4.2. Methodology 
Sampling Design: 

The quadrat method was employed to assess species biodiversity across different land-

use types. The study utilized quadrats of specific dimensions to suit varying vegetation 

structures: 

Herbaceous plants- were sampled using 1x1 m quadrats in  newly established field of 

Bamboo and Wadi systems, as due to absence of shrubs and woody trees. Woody shrubs and 

trees in Forest areas, wadi and agricultural fallow lands- were sampled with 10x10 m quadrats 

to account for both herbaceous plants and trees. The details of the total number of quadrats and 

size of quadrats are mentioned below. 

The sampling effort included: 

 Bamboo planting fields: 30 quadrats (1x1m each). 

 Wadi fields (Newly): 30 quadrats (1x1m each). 

 Forest areas: 5 quadrats (10 x10 m each). 

 Agricultural fallow areas: 10 quadrats (10x10 m each). 

 Wadi (Pre-established 10 quadrats (10 x10 m each), 10 for herbs ((1x1m each). 



11 
 

Data Collection 
Within each quadrat, data on herbaceous and tree species were recorded systematically. 

For herbaceous species, identification was conducted using local names provided by a local 

resident, Google Lens, and by sharing photos with an expert for species confirmation.. local 

knowledge, followed by counting the number of individuals per species and recording their 

abundance. For tree species, identification and counts were performed, along with 

measurements of height and diameter at Breast Height (DBH). This detailed data collection 

approach ensured a comprehensive assessment of floral biodiversity within the study area. 

Biodiversity Indices: 
a. Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H') 

The Shannon-Weiner Index measures the diversity of a community, accounting for both 

abundance and evenness of species. 

𝐻′ =  ෍ 𝑃𝑖. ln(𝑝𝑖)ଶ

௦

௜ୀଵ

 

S: Total number of species. 

Pi: Proportion of individuals of one species compared to the total number of individuals. 

b. Simpson's Index of Diversity (1-D) 
The Simpson's Index measures the probability that two individuals randomly selected 

from a sample belong to different species. 

𝐷 =  ෍ 𝑃𝑖ଶ

௦

௜ୀଵ

 

The diversity is expressed as: 

1 − 𝐷 

S: Total number of species. 

Pi: Proportion of individuals of one species compared to the total number of individuals. 

c. Margalef’s Richness Index (Dmg) 
Margalef’s Index assesses species richness relative to the total number of individuals 

in the community. 

𝐷𝑚𝑔 =  
𝑆 − 1

𝐼𝑛(𝑁)
 

S: Total number of species. 

N: Total number of individuals in the sample. 

d. Species Evenness (E) 
Species Evenness indicates how evenly individuals are distributed across the species in 

a community. 



12 
 

𝐸 =
𝐻′

𝐼𝑛(𝑠)
 

H′: Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. 

S: Total number of species. 

e. Species Richness (S) 
Species Richness is simply the count of species in a given area or sample. 

 

𝑆 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠  

 

4.3. Results  
The biodiversity assessment across five land-use systems, including Wadi (Pre-

established), Wadi (Newly established), Bamboo (Herb), Agriculture Fallow (Tree, Shrub), and 

Forest (Tree, Shrub), reveals substantial variations in species diversity, richness, and 

distribution, reflecting the ecological uniqueness of each system (Table 2). The major herbs, 

shrub and tree has been documented and presented (Plate 3, 4, 5). 

 

Table 2: Species distribution in different land use systems 

Land-uses  Species 
Wadi 
Systems 
(newly 
established)  

Cynodon dactylon, Aemella radicans, Ageratum conyzoides, Alternanthera 
sessilis, Alternanthera ficoidea, Alysicarpus monilifer, Ammannia coccinea, 
Asystasia gangetica, Axonopus compressus, Basella alba, Bidens tenuisecta, 
Blumea lacera, Brachiaria umbellata, Brachiaria nana, Brachiaria reptens, 
Celosia argentea, Cenchrus ciliaris, Commelina diffusa, Cyathula sp., 
Cynodon dactylon, Desmodium canescens, Desmodium triflorum, 
Dichanthelium malawan, Digera muricata, Digitaria sanguinalis, 
Echinochloa colona, Eclipta prostrata, Eleusine indica, Glycine max, 
Helianthus annuus, Heliotropium indicum, Herbaria logfia, Leersia 
virginica, Lippia dulcis, Macroptilium lathyroides, Murdannia nudiflora, 
Murdannia spirata, Panicum brevifolium, Phanthera mollis, Portulaca 
oleracea, Rhynchosia minima, Rorippa dubia, Saccharum spontaneum, 
Scopolia japonica, Alternanthera sessilis, Setaria barbata, Solanum 
stipuloideum, Sphenoclea zeylanica, Synedrella nodiflora, Taraxacum 
officinale, Thymelaea passerina, Urena lobata, Veronica opaca, and 
Chenopodium album 

Bamboo 
System 

Achyranthes japonica, Aerva lanata, Ageratum coayzoides, Alternanthera 
sessilis, Axonopus compressus, Baccharis anomala, Bidens bipinnata, 
Boehmeria nivea, Brachiaria reptans, Brillantaisia owariensis, 
Calopogonium mucunoides, Chromolaena odorata, Commelina africana, 
Commelina benghalensis, Commelina communis, Commelina diffusa, 
Commelina ensifolia, Common teasel, Crotalaria trichotoma, Crotalaria 
triquetra, Cyngoglossum zeylanicum, Desmodium triflorum, Dichanthelium 
clandentium, Digitalis purpurea, Digitaria ciliaris, Drymaria cordata, 



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Echinochloa colonum, Ehrharta erecta, Eleusine indica, Emilia sonchifolia, 
Epipactis myelleri, Eragrostis cillanensis, Eragrostis superba, Eragrostis 
cilianensis, Fuirena umbellata, Hemidesmus indicus, Hippocrepis comosa, 
Hyssopus officinalis, Imperata cylindrica. Indigofera prostrata, Indigofera 
trifoliata, Justicia procumbens, Lamarckia aurea, Leersia oryzoides, 
Leonotis nepetifolia, Leucas aspera, Liatris compacta, Linum hirsutum, 
Mentha canadensis, Mucuna pruriens, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Panicum 
capillare, Panicum virgatum, Paspalum conjugatum, Pentanema 
germanicum, Pentanema germaniam, Phalaris minor, Phaseolus vulgaris, 
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis.Phyllanthus narayanswamii, Pimpinella 
saxifraga, Plectranthus amboiniens, Poa annua, Rhynchosia malacophylla, 
Rhynchosia viscoba, Rotheca myricoides, Rottboellia cochinchinensis, Salvia 
nemorosa, Salvia uliginosa, Senecio glaucus, Setaria faberi, Setaria italica, 
Sgeratum conyzoides, Sonchus oleraceus, Stachytarpheta mutabilis, Tragoa 
involucrata, Triumfetta rhomboidea. 

Forest-
system 

Herb: Agave americana, Justica adhatoda, Thespesia lampas, and Tragia 
benthamii 
Shrub: Woodfordia fruticosa, Carissa carandas, Lantana camara, and Leea 
indica 
Trees: Syzygium aqueum, Acacia auriculiformis, Terminalia elliptica, 
Pterocarpus marsupium, Bamboo, Banisteriopsis muricata, Cassia fistula, 
Terminalia chebula, Syzygium cumini, Bauhinia variegata, Bombax ceiba, 
Eucalyptus globulus, Vitex negundo, Butea monosperma, Maranthes 
corymbosa, and Terminalia paniculata  

Ag-fallow 
systems  

Herbs: Agave americana, Musa spp., Persicaria glabra, Melanthera biflora, 
Calotropis gigantea. 
Shrubs: Leea macrophylla, Carissa carandas, Lantana camara, Sambucus 
nigra L., Xylosma hawaiensis. 
Trees: Terminalia elliptica, Syzygium cumini, Meyna laxiflora, Acacia 
auriculiformis, Terminalia chebula, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Mangifera 
indica, Eucalyptus globulus, Moringa oleifera 

Wadi (Pre-
establsihed) 

Herbs: Agave americana (Sisal fibre), Piper nigrum (Black Pepper), 
Hylocereus undatus (Dragon Fruit Cactus), Musa spp. (Banana), 
Cinnamomum verum (Cinnamon), Curcuma longa (Turmeric), Trigonella 
foenum-graecum (Fenugreek), Spinacia oleracea (Spinach), Colocasia 
esculenta (Taro/Colocasia), Solanum melongena (Eggplant/Brinjal), Cucumis 
sativus (Cucumber), Oryza sativa (Rice), Eleusine coracana (Finger 
Millet/Ragi), Triticum aestivum (Wheat), and Zea mays (Maize/Corn). 
Shrubs Psidium guajava (Guava), Carica papaya (Papaya), Punica 
granatum (Pomegranate), Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian Jujube), Eugenia 
uniflora (Surinam Cherry), Citrus spp. (Lemons, Oranges, etc.), and Murraya 
koenigii (Curry Leaf), Dendrocalamus strictus (Male Bamboo) 
Trees: Tectona grandis (Teak), Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus), Bombax 
ceiba (Silk Cotton Tree), Madhuca indica (Mahua), Embelia ribes (False 
Black Pepper), Aegle marmelos (Bael), Syzygium cumini (Jamun), 
Tamarindus indica (Tamarind), Emblica officinalis (Indian 
Gooseberry/Amla), , Mangifera indica (Mango), Manilkara zapota 
(Sapota/Chikoo), Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm), Cocos nucifera 
(Coconut), Artocarpus heterophyllus (Jackfruit), and Moringa oleifera 
(Drumstick Tree). 



14 
 

 

Biodiversity indices were calculated by deploying standard methodology, as described 

in the above sections. Based on the presence of the species, herb diversity was calculated in 

Wadi (new) and bamboo, tree diversity alone was calculated in Ag-fallow and forest, however 

herbs, and tree diversity was calculated in Wadi (established systems).  The biodiversity indices 

reveal significant variations across different systems. The Shannon-Wiener Index (H') shows 

the highest diversity in the Bamboo (Herb) system (3.7225), indicating a rich variety of 

herbaceous species. In comparison, Agriculture Fallow has the lowest diversity (2.6469), 

suggesting a less diverse plant community. Species Richness (S) is highest in the Bamboo 

(Herb) system with 77 species, and lowest in Agriculture Fallow (19 species), reflecting the 

number of different species present. The Species Evenness (E) values indicate a relatively even 

distribution of species in all systems, with Wadi (Tree, Shrub) showing the highest evenness 

(0.8838). The Simpson’s Index (1-D) suggests that the Bamboo (Herb) system has the highest 

dominance (0.9936), implying fewer dominant species, while Agriculture Fallow exhibits a 

relatively lower dominance (0.9081), suggesting more even species distribution. The Margalef 

Index reveals the highest richness in the Bamboo (Herb) system (10.3659) and the lowest in 

the Agriculture Fallow (4.51243), which aligns with the findings of lower species richness in 

agricultural fallow areas. Overall, the Bamboo (Herb) system stands out for its high species 

diversity and richness, while Agriculture Fallow has the lowest biodiversity across most 

indices. 

a) Bamboo System 

The Bamboo system exhibited the highest herb biodiversity among all the systems analyzed, 

with a Shannon-Wiener Index (H') of 3.7225 and the greatest species richness (S = 77). These 

values indicate a highly diverse herbaceous community. Dominant species identified in this 

system included Dichanthelium clandestinum, Brachiaria reptans, and Justicia procumbens. 

The high Simpson’s Index (1-D = 0.9936) demonstrates that no single species dominates, 

resulting in a balanced ecosystem where species coexist equitably. The species evenness (E = 

0.8570) further supports this observation, suggesting a well-distributed plant community with 

minimal ecological competition. This maximum diversity can be attributed to the favourable 

microclimatic conditions provided by the dense bamboo canopy, which regulates soil 

temperature, retains moisture, and reduces competition from invasive species. Bamboo systems 

often serve as refuges for various herbaceous plants, fostering a robust and resilient ecosystem. 

b) Wadi System (Pre-established) 



15 
 

The Wadi system was assessed separately for its tree and shrub layer and herbaceous layer, 

showcasing a clear stratification in biodiversity. The tree and shrub layer recorded a Shannon-

Wiener Index (H') of 2.8448 and a species richness (S = 25). Prominent species included 

Tectona grandis (Teak) and Mangifera indica (Mango). The high species evenness (E = 

0.8838) indicates a uniform distribution of these species, highlighting the managed nature of 

the Wadi agroforestry system. The presence of economically and ecologically important 

species like teak and mango demonstrates the dual purpose of Wadi systems in providing both 

ecological and economic benefits. The herbaceous layer within the Wadi system demonstrated 

a slightly lower diversity, with a Shannon-Wiener Index (H') of 2.7169 and a species richness 

(S = 55). Dominant species included Panicum brevifolium, Saccharum spontaneum, Portulaca 

oleracea, and Cynodon dactylon. The species evenness (E = 0.6780) was comparatively lower, 

suggesting that a few dominant herbaceous species thrive under the conditions typical of 

agroforestry systems, such as regular irrigation and fertilization. The stratified biodiversity in 

the Wadi system reflects the deliberate planting strategies employed to maximize ecological 

services and economic returns. 

c) Forest System 

The Forest system, characterized by natural and relatively undisturbed vegetation, recorded a 

Shannon-Wiener Index (H') of 2.9500 and a species richness (S = 27). Dominant tree species 

included Terminalia elliptica, Syzygium cumini, and Bambusa spp. (Bamboo), while the Shrub 

layer was often dominated by Lantana camara. The Simpson’s Index (1-D = 0.9248) reflects 

a well-balanced species composition, and the high species evenness (E = 0.8951) indicates 

minimal dominance by any single species. The forest system’s diversity highlights the 

ecological significance of preserving natural vegetation, which supports a variety of plant 

species while maintaining ecosystem functions such as soil stabilization, nutrient cycling, and 

habitat provision. The dominance of species like Lantana camara may, however, point to the 

encroachment of invasive plants, which could alternative biodiversity in the long term. 

d) Agriculture Fallow System 

The Agriculture Fallow system recorded the lowest biodiversity among all the systems 

analyzed, with a Shannon-Wiener Index (H') of 2.6469 and a species richness (S = 19). 

Dominant species included trees and shrubs like Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia chebula, 

and Ziziphus mauritiana. Despite the lower species richness, the species evenness (E = 0.8989) 

was relatively high, indicating a uniform distribution of the few species present. The limited 

biodiversity in fallow lands can be attributed to the degraded soil conditions and reduced 



16 
 

vegetative cover typical of abandoned agricultural fields. These areas often require significant 

ecological restoration efforts to recover their biodiversity and productivity. 

 

Table 3: Biodiversity Indices of difference systems 

 

Name of 

System  

Shannon-

Wiener  

Index (H') 

Species 

Richness (S) 

Species 

Evenness (E) 

Simposons 

index(1-D) 

Margalef 

Index 

((Dmg) 

Bamboo 

(Herb) 

3.7225 77 0.8570 0.9936 10.3659 

Wadi 

(Herbs) 

2.7169 55 0.6780 0.8589 7.2919 

Wadi (Tree, 

Shrub) 

2.8448 25 0.8838 0.9191 5.6879 

Forest (Tree) 2.9500 27 0.8951 0.9248 6.0220 

Agriculture 

Fallow    

2.6469 19 0.8989 0.9081 4.51243 

 

 

Plate 3: Documented herb under various land-uses systems 



17 
 

 

Plate 4: Documented herb under various land-uses systems 

 

 

Plate 5 Diversity of plant species in homestead garden in study site  



18 
 

5. Activity 3: Impact of various land-use systems on soil nutrient 
composition   

Preliminary study on soil health was carried out in seven land-use systems for the study: 

1) Forest, 2) Agricultural Fallow (Ag-Fallow) systems, 3) Pre-established Wadi2, 4) Newly 

established Bamboo plantations3, 5) Wadi (New)4, 6) Wadi Control5, and 7) Multitier systems6. 

Among these, the Wadi (New) and Bamboo models were newly established as project 

interventions (June, 2024), while the remaining systems were selected from the study area to 

assess their impact on soil nutrients. Other systems such as Wadi (pre-established) was 

established in 1989-90 with support of BAIF, Forest systems was at mature stage where as 

Agricultural fallow consists of trees on boundary of fields and fallow lands. Farmer with 

support of BAIF established multi-tier systems in 2020-21 on degraded lands, which was also 

considered for this study. The aim of the study was to understand the available nutrient in the 

soil and impact of different land uses on soil nutrient status.  

Soil sampling was conducted in July 2024 from two soil depths (0–15 cm and 15–30 

cm) across these land-use systems, following standard protocols. The collected samples were 

transported from the project site to the Soil Laboratory of ICAR-NIASM, Baramati (Pune). 

The samples were then processed and prepared for analyzing various soil properties, including 

pH, EC, OC, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Zinc, Calcium, and Magnesium, using standard 

analytical methods. The results are presented below. 

5.1. Soil pH and EC  
The analysis of soil properties across the seven land-use systems revealed variations in 

pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) between depths and systems. The soil pH ranged from 

5.09 to 6.51, indicating slightly acidic to moderately acidic conditions across all systems. Forest 

and Wadi (Old) systems exhibited higher pH values (6.51; 6.43), particularly at the 15–30 cm 

depth, with the Forest system recording the highest pH (6.51). In contrast, the Wadi Control 

system showed the lowest pH (5.09) at the 15–30 cm depth, and similar acidic conditions were 

observed in the Multi-tier, Bamboo, and Ag-Fallow systems, which showed minimal variation 

between depths (Fig 7). 

The EC values ranged from 30.06 to 45.05 µS/cm, with notable differences among the 

systems. The Wadi (Old) and Forest systems recorded the highest EC values, indicating 

 
2 Pre-established Wadi is 34 years old 
3 Newly established Bamboo plantations are 6-month-old 
4 Wadi (New) are 6-month-old 
5 Wadi control is open area where agricultural activities are absent  
6 Multitier systems are 2 years old 



19 
 

relatively higher salinity levels, especially in the deeper soil layers. In contrast, Bamboo and 

Ag-Fallow systems exhibited the lowest EC values, reflecting less saline soil conditions. The 

newly established Wadi system had moderate EC values, similar to those observed in the Multi-

tier system. 

Overall, the results highlight significant variations in soil chemical properties across 

the land-use systems, influenced by vegetation type, land-use practices, and soil management. 

The comparatively higher pH and EC in forest land use is due to high vegetation in hilly areas 

which generally promotes nutrient accumulation, organic matter decomposition, and reduced 

erosion, leading to comparatively higher pH and EC values than open areas. 

 

 

5.2. Soil Organic carbon (%) 
The analysis of organic carbon (OC) content across the different land-use systems 

revealed noticeable variations between depths and systems (Fig. 8). The OC content at 0–15 

cm depth ranged from 0.55% in the Wadi Control system to 1.9% in the Forest system, with 

the Forest system having the highest OC content. Other land-use systems such as Wadi (New) 

and Wadi (Old) also showed relatively higher OC percentages, with values of 1.42% and 

1.57%, respectively. The Multi-tier system recorded the lowest OC content at 0.83%. 

According to the Wadi Control, the OC content measured 1.06%, whereas the Multi-tier system 

recorded the lowest OC at 0.64%. These findings highlight significant variation in organic 

carbon levels across land-use systems, which could be influenced by vegetation types, land 

management practices, and soil depth.  

Figure 7: Impact of various land uses systems on soil pH and EC in study site 



20 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.3. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium  
The soil nutrient content (mainly N, P and K) from studied land-use systems 

significantly varied at both 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm soil depths. For nitrogen, the values ranged 

from 79.45 kg/ha in the Multi-tier system to 233.32 kg/ha in the Wadi (Old) system at the 0–

15 cm depth. At 15–30 cm, nitrogen content ranged from 91.99 kg/ha in the Multi-tier and 

Wadi Control systems to 223.28 kg/ha in the Wadi (Old) system (Fig 9). The elevated nitrogen 

levels in Wadi (old) can be attributed to the greater density of trees, particularly deciduous 

species, which enhance nutrient cycling and contribute more nitrogen to the soil. Additionally, 

the presence of certain leguminous tree species, combined with reduced disturbance, has helped 

increase the soil's nitrogen content. Phosphorus levels were highest in the Forest system at both 

depths, with 7.4 kg/ha at 0–15 cm and 8.42 kg/ha at 15–30 cm. The lowest phosphorus values 

were observed in the Bamboo system, with 2.57 kg/ha at 0–15 cm and 2.18 kg/ha at 15–30 cm 

(Fig 10). For potassium, the highest levels were found in the Forest system, with 255.14 kg/ha 

at 0–15 cm and 276.64 kg/ha at 15–30 cm. The lowest potassium values were observed in the 

Wadi Control system, with 91.84 kg/ha at 0–15 cm and 94.45 kg/ha at 15–30 cm (Fig 11).  

These findings demonstrate the variation in nutrient content across different land-use 

systems, with certain systems like Wadi (Old) and Forest showing higher nutrient levels, 

particularly nitrogen and potassium, compared to others. This variation is influenced by factors 

such as species composition, tree density, plantation age, and management practices, which 

significantly impact soil properties. Additionally, processes like nutrient leaching, nutrient 

pumping from deeper soil layers, and leaf litter decomposition contribute to the higher nutrient 

availability in these systems compared to others. 

 

Figure 8: Impact of various land uses systems on soil organic carbon (%) in study site 



21 
 

 
Figure 9: Impact of various land uses systems on Nitrogen (kg/ha) in study site 

 

 

 
Figure 10: Impact of various land uses systems on Phosphorus (kg/ha) in study site 

 



22 
 

 
Figure 11: Impact of various land uses systems on Potassium (kg/ha) in study site 

 

5.4. Micronutrients  
The levels of Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), and Boron (Bo) 

varied significantly across the different land-use systems, with distinct differences observed at 

the 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm soil depths. Copper content ranged from 0.4 mg/kg in the Wadi 

(Old) system to 0.95 mg/kg in the Bamboo system at 0–15 cm, with slightly higher values in 

the 15–30 cm depth for most systems (Fig 12). Zinc levels were highest in the Bamboo system, 

with 0.33 mg/kg at 0–15 cm and 0.37 mg/kg at 15–30 cm, while the lowest values were 

recorded in the Wadi (Old) system at 0.09 mg/kg in both depths (Fig 12).  

 

Figure 12: Impact of various land uses systems on copper (left) and zinc (right) in study site 



23 
 

Manganese was most abundant in the Wadi (New) and Bamboo systems, with values 

of 10.14 mg/kg and 9.86 mg/kg, respectively, at 0–15 cm, while the lowest was in the Wadi 

Control system at 2.02 mg/kg. Iron content was highest in the Forest system, with 1.604 mg/kg 

at 0–15 cm, and lowest in the Multi-tier system, with 0.664 mg/kg at the same depth (Fig 10). 

Boron levels were most elevated in the Forest system, reaching 1.864 mg/kg at 0–15 cm, while 

the Multi-tier system recorded the lowest value of 0.924 mg/kg at the same depth (Fig 11). 

These results highlight the variability in micronutrient availability, influenced by vegetation 

type, soil management, and depth. 

 

The CaCO₃ content showed notable variations across land-use systems. The highest 

levels were recorded in the Ag-Fallow system, with 2.488% at 0–15 cm and 2.602% at 15–30 

cm, followed closely by the Wadi (Old) system and Bamboo system, which also exhibited 

elevated CaCO₃ levels (Fig 11). Moderate levels were observed in the Forest system, with 

2.174% at 0–15 cm and 2.008% at 15–30 cm. The Wadi (New) and Multi-tier systems had 

slightly lower values, ranging from 1.876% to 2.05% across both depths. The lowest CaCO₃ 

content was found in the Wadi (Control) system, with 1.836% at 0–15 cm and 1.966% at 15–

30 cm. These variations reflect differences in vegetation types, soil management, and 

environmental conditions across the land-use systems. Understanding CaCO₃ levels helps 

farmers optimize soil amendments and choose crops suited to specific conditions. High CaCO₃ 

influences soil pH, nutrient availability, and water retention, impacting irrigation and 

productivity. Adopting moisture conservation techniques can mitigate these effects and 

improve soil health. 

Figure 13: Impact of various land uses systems on Manganese  (left) and iron (right) in study site 



24 
 

   

6. Activity 4: Quantification of carbon sequestration under various 
land-use systems 

Under the current climate change scenarios, carbon sequestration has become a vital 

strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. One effective approach to achieve this is the 

rehabilitation of degraded lands by introducing perennial tree-based systems such as 

agroforestry, silvipasture, or fruit plantations. These systems not only enhance carbon storage 

but also provide ecological and economic benefits. As part of the Nature Positive Solutions 

(NPS) Project, Work Package 3, efforts have been focused on rehabilitating degraded 

landscapes to improve carbon stocks. To achieve this, a study was conducted to quantify carbon 

stocks across five different land-use systems, employing two types of sampling: tree-based 

carbon assessment and soil carbon estimation. 

 

For estimating tree carbon stocks, representative quadrats were laid across the study 

area, and tree enumeration was carried out. Within each quadrat, trees were identified to the 

species level, and their height (m) and girth at breast height (cm) were measured. Tree density 

was then calculated and extrapolated on a per-hectare basis. Using the traditional volume-mass 

approach, tree volume was estimated. To ensure precision, species-specific form factors, 

obtained from literature, were applied to account for tapering in tree shape. The calculated tree 

volumes were then multiplied by species-specific wood densities to estimate the aboveground 

biomass (kg/tree). 

 

Belowground biomass was estimated by applying a root-to-shoot ratio of 0.26 to the 

aboveground biomass. The total tree biomass (aboveground and belowground) was then used 

to estimate carbon stocks. The IPCC default carbon fraction (0.50) was applied to calculate the 

Figure 14: Impact of various land-use systems on boron (left) and calcium carbonate (right) in study site 



25 
 

carbon stock (kg/tree), which was further extrapolated to a per-hectare basis using tree density 

estimates. In addition to tree-based carbon, soil carbon stocks were also assessed. Soil samples 

were collected from the five land-use systems up to a depth of 30 cm, with separate analyses 

conducted for 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm layers. These samples were processed and analyzed for 

organic carbon content following standard protocols. Soil organic carbon content was then 

converted into soil organic carbon stock (kg/m²) using bulk density and sampling depth. 

Finally, the total carbon stock for each land-use system was calculated by combining the tree 

carbon stock with the soil organic carbon stock. 

 

6.1. Carbon stock (Tree and soil)  
The results of carbon stock estimation across different land-use systems revealed 

significant variations in tree carbon, soil carbon, and total carbon stocks. The forest land-use 

system, with a tree density of 680 trees per hectare, recorded the highest total carbon stock of 

112.9 Mg/ha, comprising 40.82 Mg/ha of tree carbon and 72.08 Mg/ha of soil carbon. 

Similarly, the agricultural fallow system, with a tree density of 270 trees per hectare, exhibited 

a substantial total carbon stock of 94.61 Mg/ha, with 38.68 Mg/ha of tree carbon and 55.93 

Mg/ha of soil carbon (Fig 15). The Wadi system, having 237 trees per hectare, showed a 

moderate total carbon stock of 75.34 Mg/ha, with 16.6 Mg/ha of tree carbon and 58.74 Mg/ha 

of soil carbon. In contrast, the Wadi control system, which lacks tree cover, had no tree carbon 

and relied solely on soil carbon, resulting in a total carbon stock of 46.01 Mg/ha. Lastly, the 

multi-tier system, with 495 trees per hectare, exhibited a relatively lower total carbon stock of 

37.46 Mg/ha, comprising only 1.94 Mg/ha of tree carbon and 35.52 Mg/ha of soil carbon.  

Forest systems have the highest carbon stock, followed by Fallow-Agriculture and 

Wadi, with Multitier and Control-Wadi showing the lowest carbon storage due to reduced tree 

density. These results underscore the importance of integrating tree-based systems in land 

management to enhance carbon sequestration. Forest and agricultural fallow systems 

demonstrated the highest carbon stocks, highlighting their potential for climate change 

mitigation and sustainable land-use practices. 



26 
 

 
Figure 15: Carbon Stocks in Different Land-Use Systems of study site (Number of trees are in parenthesis)  

7. Activity 5: Case Study - Agri-Horti-Forestry (Wadi) 
7.1. Background  

In India, out of the 104 million population of the Scheduled Tribes, nearly 90 percent live in 

rural areas (Census of India, 2011). Traditionally, tribal people lived in and around the forest, 

and their lives and livelihoods were based on natural resources. A majority of tribal groups 

work in the primary sector and are heavily dependent on agriculture, either as cultivators or as 

agricultural labourers (Government of India, 2014). Tribal households traditionally had a 

backyard garden that had multipurpose indigenous trees, plants, herbs, and shrubs. The produce 

from this small garden was sufficient to meet the food and nutritional needs of a family for an 

entire year. 

BAIF's innovative model of "Agri-horti-forestry (Wadi)" which integrates horticulture 

into the farming system for sustainable livelihoods through climate smart practices, productive 

engagement with under-utilized land and optimal use of local resources. The model with 

horticulture as the core component ensures multiple income streams round the year especially 

during lean periods from a combination of medium gestation-high resilience and short 

gestation-high returns cropping patterns. This has been depicted through a case study of Shri. 

Tukaram Gabhale guruji, a retired teacher, who hails from Manhere, Tehsil Akole, District 

Ahmednagar. He is highly passionate and knowledgeable about agrobiodiversity and 



27 
 

sustainable living. He is one of the pioneer farmers to implement Wadi system in 1989. Manere 

village situated beautifully amidst the Sahyadri ranges in Bhandardara, Maharashtra.  

According to 2011 census, about 47% of Akole tehsil comprises of tribals among which 

Mahadev koli tribes are the most prominent. Majority of the tribals are small and marginal 

landholders and practice rain-fed subsistence agriculture. Low returns from agriculture leads 

to challenges such as fast depleting traditional resources (Forest degradation, loss of land races 

and traditional knowledge), poor health and lack of access to services resulting in distress 

migration for survival. There is an urgent need to create alternative cropping systems that can 

ensure sustainable livelihoods resources.  

The Wadi program, initiated by BAIF and successfully implemented in South Gujarat, 

has become a transformative model for rural and tribal livelihoods. By integrating horticulture, 

forestry, and diversified farming systems, it addresses critical issues like poverty, reliance on 

rainfed agriculture, natural resource depletion, and seasonal distress migration. This report 

evaluates the sustainability of the Wadi model, its relevance to local needs, and the process for 

selecting species for its implementation. The Wadi program is a sustainable approach to rural 

development, emphasizing environmental, economic, and social benefits. Environmentally, 

Wadi promotes biodiversity through the inclusion of horticulture and forestry tree species while 

enhancing soil health and conserving water. These measures not only combat land degradation 

but also contribute to carbon sequestration, aligning with global goals of carbon neutrality. 

Economically, Wadi provides a steady income for rural families by integrating fruit trees and 

multipurpose forestry species. This diversified approach reduces the risk of crop failure and 

ensures a year-round income. Additionally, value-chain development through Farmer Producer 

Organizations (FPOs) facilitates aggregation, processing, and marketing of farm produce, 

enabling better returns and long-term financial security. Socially, Wadi reduces distress 

migration by creating local employment opportunities. Improved income and access to 

nutrition from fruit crops directly enhance the health and education outcomes of rural families, 

especially children. These holistic benefits make Wadi a sustainable intervention for rural 

development. 

 

 

 



28 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.2. Selection of Species for Planting in Wadi 
 

The selection of species in the Wadi program is guided by the local ecological and 

socio-economic conditions. Emphasis is placed on indigenous and multipurpose species that 

address the diverse needs of the community. Fruit trees such as mango, guava, and cashew are 

commonly planted for their high market value and nutritional benefits. Forestry species are 

chosen for their ability to provide fuelwood, timber, and fodder, with a focus on varieties that 

regenerate quickly and improve soil health. Consideration is also given to the compatibility of 

species with the existing agroclimatic conditions, ensuring long-term sustainability.  

The below table highlights the diverse plant species chosen for Ghabhale Guruji's Wadi, 

showcasing a thoughtful approach to meeting both ecological and community needs. Forest 

trees like Teak and Eucalyptus are included for their timber value and ability to protect the soil. 

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) such as Amla, Tamarind, and Bamboo offer additional 

income while supporting nutrition and sustainable resource use. Horticultural crops, including 

Mango, Guava, and Dragon Fruit, provide a steady income from fruits while improving 

nutrition. Spices like Black Pepper and Turmeric add variety and market value. Fodder crops 

like Napier grass and Subabhul ensure there is enough feed for livestock. Vegetables like 

Figure 16: Layout of Tukaram Gabhale Wadi 



29 
 

Methi, Spinach, and Moringa, along with intercrops like Rice, Wheat, and Finger Millets, 

improve food security and efficient use of farmland. 

This careful selection of species in Ghabhale Guruji’s Wadi reflects a practical, 

sustainable, and community-oriented farming model that can be adapted to different regions 

for better livelihoods and environmental health. 

Table 4: Species distribution of Wadi at study site 

Types Species 

Forest Trees Tectona grandis (Teak), Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus), Bombax ceiba 

(kapok tree) 

NTFP Zyziphus regusa (Indian Jujube), Madhuca indica (Mahua), Embeleia ribes 

(Vavding), Agel marmelos (Bael), Sysigium cumini (Jamun), Tamarindus 

indica (Tamarind), Emplica officinalis (Indian Gooseberry/Amla), 

Dendrocalamus strictus (Solid Bamboo), Agave americana (Century Plant). 

Horticulture Mangifera indica (Mango), Manilkara zapota (Sapota), Psidium guajava 

(Guava), Carica papaya (Papaya), Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm), Cocos 

nucifera (Coconut), Punica granatum (Pomegranate), Ziziphus mauritiana 

(Ber), Eugenia uniflora (Brazilian cherry), Artocarpus heterophyllus 

(Jackfruit), Hylocereus undatus (Dragon ruit), Citrus spp (limbu)., Musa spp 

(banana). 

Spices Cinnamomum verum  (Cinnamon), Murraya koenigii (curry leaves ), Piper 

nigrum (black pepper)  and Curcuma longa (turmeric) () 

Fodder 

Crops 

Leucaena leucocpehala (Subabhul), Pennisetum glaucum × Pennisetum 

purpureum (Bajara Napier), , Zea mays (Maize), Local Grasses 

Vegetables Trigonella foenum-graecum (Methi), Spinacia oleracea (Spinach), Colocasia 

esculenta (Colocasia Leaves), Solanum melongena (Eggplant), Moringa 

oleifera (Moringa), Coriandrum sativum (Coriander), and Cucumis sativus 

(Cucumber). 

Intercrops Oryza sativa  (Rice ), Eleusine coracana  (Finger millet), Triticum 

aestivum(Wheat  ), and Zea mays (Maize) 

 



30 
 

7.3. Local Need for Wadi 
Rural and tribal communities face acute challenges such as marginal landholdings, 

dependence on rainfed agriculture, and depleting natural resources. These conditions often 

force families into seasonal migration, disrupting their social and economic stability. Wadi 

addresses these needs by transforming unproductive and degraded lands into thriving assets. 

By promoting fruit and forestry trees, Wadi meets the local demand for food, fodder, 

timber, and fuelwood. This not only improves self-sufficiency but also enhances the nutritional 

status of families. Additionally, supplementary activities like vegetable cultivation, 

floriculture, and inland fisheries provide short-term income and diversify livelihoods, aligning 

closely with the local requirements of rural households. 

7.3.1. Seasonal analysis   
This seasonal calendar highlights the strategic planning behind the diversified Wadi 

model, ensuring a balanced availability of products throughout the year. The integration of 

annual and perennial crops allows farmers to sustain income, meet household nutritional 

requirements, and optimize land productivity. The provided cropping calendar illustrates a 

highly diversified and sustainable farming system that enables year-round harvesting of various 

crops, including fruits, vegetables, spices, grains, fodder, and medicinal plants. This integrated 

system ensures economic viability, food security, and ecological balance. The temporal 

distribution of harvests reflects a well-planned approach to optimize resource use and minimize 

income variability, with multiple crops maturing at different times of the year. 

Perennial crops like coconut (Cocos nucifera), moringa (Moringa oleifera), and curry 

leaves (Murraya koenigii) provide continuous harvest opportunities, ensuring consistent 

income and market engagement. Seasonal fruits such as mango (Mangifera indica), jamun 

(Syzygium cumini), and guava (Psidium guajava) dominate the summer months, while staple 

grains like rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) align with the kharif and rabi 

cropping cycles, contributing to dietary sustenance. High-value crops like turmeric (Curcuma 

longa), black pepper (Piper nigrum), and cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) are cultivated 

during specific months, boosting farm profitability through market-driven opportunities. 

Fodder crops, including Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and subabul (Leucaena 

leucocephala), integrate seamlessly into this system, supporting livestock productivity and 

reducing dependency on external feed inputs. Vegetables such as eggplant (Solanum 

melongena), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), and leafy greens like spinach (Spinacia oleracea) 



31 
 

are cultivated in shorter cycles, ensuring a steady supply of fresh produce for both home 

consumption and market sales. Additionally, the inclusion of diverse fruits like pomegranate 

(Punica granatum), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) 

contributes to nutritional security and market diversity. 

This diversified cropping system exemplifies ecological resilience by mitigating the 

risks associated with monoculture, such as pest outbreaks and climate variability. Furthermore, 

it enhances soil health through varied nutrient demands and contributes to biodiversity 

conservation. The system also ensures consistent cash flow by balancing long-term 

investments, such as perennial and timber crops, with short-term returns from vegetables and 

staples. The integration of food, fodder, and high-value crops creates a robust and adaptable 

farming model that promotes sustainability, economic stability, and resilience against 

environmental challenges. 

 

          

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 17: Seasonal analysis (Month-Wise Harvesting Schedule) for Diverse Cropping in Wadi model 



32 
 

 

Plate 6: Components of Wadi system in Study Site 

7.4.        Economic Returns of Wadi 
The Wadi-based farming system, established in 1989, showcases a sustainable and 

diversified approach to agriculture, integrating multiple components that provided both 

economic and practical benefits over the years. Spread across 1.8 acres, the system included 

intercrops (rice and wheat), mango orchards, vegetable cultivation, livestock, and timber trees 

(eucalyptus and teak). Initially, intercrops and livestock were the primary sources of income, 

with intercrop earnings starting at Rs. 10,000 in 1989 and growing to Rs. 30,600 by 2009, 

adjusted for inflation. Livestock, consisting of two cows and two goats, consistently 

contributed an annual income of Rs. 20,000–30,000 throughout the period. Vegetables, 

cultivated for both home consumption and market sales, added Rs. 5,000–15,000 annually to 

the household income (Fig 18). 

The mango trees began fruiting in 1994, yielding 50 kg and earning Rs. 500. By 2009, 

mango yields peaked at 500 kg, generating Rs. 5,000 annually. In 2023, market price 

adjustments increased mango income to Rs. 50,000. Timber provided substantial periodic 

income, with eucalyptus harvested in 2002 and used for building the family home, saving an 

estimated Rs. 1,00,000 in construction costs. Teak harvested in 2023 brought in Rs. 3,00,000, 

demonstrating the high returns of long-term agroforestry investments. Total annual income 

increased from Rs. 30,000 in 1989 to Rs. 1,68,800 in 2024, with a significant peak of Rs. 

4,64,500 in 2023 due to timber sales. 



33 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This Wadi system highlights the importance of diversification in agriculture. It ensured 

consistent annual cash flow through intercrops, livestock, and vegetables while providing 

substantial periodic income from mangoes and timber. The use of timber for home construction 

exemplifies the self-sufficiency achieved through this model, reducing reliance on external 

resources. By integrating diverse components, the system balanced short-term income needs 

with long-term financial security. This approach serves as a sustainable model for small and 

marginal farmers, combining economic stability, resource efficiency, and ecological balance. 

7.5.        Carbon Sequestration Potential of Wadi System 
Wadi system, play a significant role in carbon sequestration by integrating perennial trees 

with agricultural crops. This study evaluates the carbon sequestration potential of a Wadi 

system by measuring the biomass and carbon stock of selected tree species within the system. 

By capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and storing it in biomass, the Wadi system 

contributes to mitigating climate change while providing ecological and economic benefits. 

The carbon sequestration analysis was based on field measurements of tree girth and height, 

following a systematic methodology: 

The volume of a standing tree was calculated as 

Volume of tree (m3) = πr2h 

Where r is the radius and h is the height of the tree. 

Figure 18: Economics of Wadi system (1989 to 2024) 



34 
 

Calculation of biomass weight: Aboveground biomass (AGB) of each tree was 

estimated using the following formula 

AGB (kg tree–1) = Volume (m3) × wood specific gravity (WSG) 

Wood specific gravity (WSG) was estimated by water displacement method. 

Belowground biomass (BGB) includes live root biomass, excluding fine roots 

and is calculated using a root: shoot ratio of 0.26 

BGB (kg tree–1) = AGB × 0.26. 

Determination of biomass carbon stock: Total biomass (TB) is the sum of AGB and 

BGB of trees 

∑TB (Kg tree-1) = ∑AGB (kg tree-1) + ∑BGB (kg tree-1) 

Carbon in Tree 

Carbon fraction (0.5) × TGB 

Co2 sequestration by tree  

3.67 × carbon in tree 

7.6. Tree biomass of Wadi model 
In the Wadi system, the total biomass per tree varied among species. Teak (Tectona 

grandis) exhibited a total biomass of 123.53 kg per tree, with 98.04 kg attributed to 

aboveground biomass and 25.49 kg to belowground biomass. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus 

globulus) had a total biomass of 93.90 kg per tree, comprising 74.53 kg aboveground and 19.38 

kg belowground. Mango (Mangifera indica) demonstrated a total biomass of 341.62 kg per 

tree, with 271.13 kg aboveground and 70.49 kg belowground. Other species such as Syzygium 

cumini, Ziziphus rugosa, and Bombax ceiba also contributed notable biomass, with Syzygium 

cumini reaching 347.67 kg per tree. Species like Aegle marmelos and Artocarpus heterophyllus 

had relatively lower values, contributing 146.36 kg and 95.41 kg per tree, respectively. Citrus 

limon and Psidium guajava showed the least biomass at 20.11 kg and 34.20 kg per tree. 

 



35 
 

Table 5: Growth parameter and biomass of various tree species of Wadi model 

Tree species  
Number of 
trees in 
Wadi  

Tree 
height 
(m) 

DBH 
(cm) 

Aboveground 
Biomass 
(kg/tree)  

Belowground 
Biomass 
(kg/tree) 

Total 
biomass 
(kg/tree)  

Terminalia tomentosa 1 10 20 145.22 37.76 182.98 

Aegle marmelos 1 6.67 21 116.16 30.20 146.36 

Ziziphus rugosa 5 10.24 20 180.30 46.88 227.18 

Bombax ceiba 2 10.33 27 185.19 48.15 233.34 

Phoenix sylvestris 4 11.08 20 128.68 33.46 162.14 

Terminalia chebula 3 9.78 16 88.95 23.13 112.08 

Artocarpus heterophyllus 3 7.44 17 75.72 19.69 95.41 

Syzygium cumini 3 11.11 25 275.93 71.74 347.67 

Citrus limon 1 6.67 9 15.96 4.15 20.11 

Mangifera indica 38 9.83 28 271.13 70.49 341.62 

Eucalyptus globulus 10 14.3 14 74.53 19.38 93.90 

Psidium guajava 4 5.25 14 27.14 7.06 34.20 

Gmelina arborea 1 10 16 58.22 15.14 73.36 

Ficus racemosa 1 8.33 25 83.96 21.83 105.79 

Tectona grandis 94 9.05 17 98.04 25.49 123.53 

 

Carbon sequestration of Wadi The study on the total biomass, carbon stock, CO2 

sequestration, and oxygen production in the Wadi system revealed important insights. The total 

biomass per hectare across all tree species amounted to 41.83 Mg/ha, with Mangifera indica 

(mango) contributing the highest biomass at 18.03 Mg/ha, followed by Tectona grandis (teak) 

at 16.13 Mg/ha (Table 6). These two species alone accounted for the majority of the total 

biomass in the Wadi system. In terms of total carbon stock, the Wadi system had an estimated 

carbon stock of 16.60 Mg/ha. Mangifera indica contributed significantly to this, with 7.15 

Mg/ha of carbon stock, while Tectona grandis contributed 6.40 Mg/ha.  

In the Wadi system, Mangifera indica (mango) and Tectona grandis (teak) dominate 

the carbon stock, contributing 43.1% and 38.6%, respectively, accounting for over 80% of the 



36 
 

total carbon. Medium contributors like Syzygium cumini (3.5%), Eucalyptus globulus (3.1%), 

and Ziziphus rugosa (3.8%) play a lesser role. Species such as Bombax ceiba and Phoenix 

sylvestris contribute 1-2%, while others like Terminalia tomentosa and Aegle marmelos have 

minimal contributions, under 1% (Fig 19). 

 

Table 6: Biomass, carbon and oxygene potential of Wadi systems 

Tree species  
Tree per 
ha  

Total 
Biomass 
(Mg/ha) 

Total 
Carbon 
(Mg/ha) 

Total 
CO2 

(Mg/ha) 

Total 
Oxygen 
(Mg/ha) 

Terminalia tomentosa 1 0.25 0.10 0.03 0.13 

Aegle marmelos 1 0.20 0.08 0.02 0.10 

Ziziphus rugosa 7 1.58 0.63 0.16 0.79 

Bombax ceiba 3 0.65 0.26 0.07 0.32 

Phoenix sylvestris 6 0.90 0.36 0.09 0.45 

Terminalia chebula 4 0.47 0.19 0.05 0.23 

Artocarpus heterophyllus 4 0.40 0.16 0.04 0.20 

Syzygium cumini 4 1.45 0.57 0.15 0.72 

Citrus limon 1 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.01 

Mangifera indica 53 18.03 7.15 1.86 9.01 

Eucalyptus globulus 14 1.30 0.52 0.13 0.65 

Psidium guajava 6 0.19 0.08 0.02 0.09 

Gmelina arborea 1 0.10 0.04 0.01 0.05 

Ficus racemosa 1 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.07 

Tectona grandis 131 16.13 6.40 1.66 8.06 

Total  238 41.83 16.60 4.32 20.91 

 



37 
 

 
Figure 19:  Percent contribution of tree in total carbon sequestration of Wadi model 

For CO2 sequestration, the system captured 4.32 Mg/ha of CO2, with mango and teak 

again being the dominant contributors, sequestering 1.86 Mg/ha and 1.66 Mg/ha of CO2, 

respectively. Regarding oxygen production, the total oxygen produced per hectare in the Wadi 

system was 20.91 Mg/ha. The key contributors to oxygen production were Mangifera indica 

and Tectona grandis, producing 9.01 Mg/ha and 8.06 Mg/ha of oxygen, respectively. Other 

species, including Syzygium cumini and Ziziphus rugosa, also played a significant role in 

oxygen production, contributing 0.72 Mg/ha and 0.79 Mg/ha, respectively. 

The Wadi system, particularly with species such as Mangifera indica and Tectona 

grandis, plays a crucial role in biomass accumulation, carbon sequestration, CO2 reduction, 

and oxygen production, thereby contributing positively to environmental sustainability.  

The results highlight the significant role of the Wadi agroforestry system in carbon 

sequestration, with Mangifera indica (mango) contributing the highest share of sequestered 

CO₂, at 77.78 tons. Timber species such as Tectona grandis (teak) and Eucalyptus globulus 

(eucalyptus) also contributed notably to carbon storage due to their high biomass production. 

The inclusion of smaller species like Syzygium cumini (jamun), Ficus racemosa (fig), and Aegle 

marmelos (bael) demonstrates the ecological diversity of the Wadi system, which not only 

supports carbon storage but also provides multiple ecosystem services, including fruit 

production, soil health improvement, and habitat conservation. Additionally, species such as 



38 
 

Cocos nucifera (coconut) and Bamboo contribute to consistent carbon storage while offering 

economic returns. 

After 25 years of planting, the farmer harvested 45 teak trees, which were used for 

constructing his house. Teak, is a highly valued timber species. The inclusion of perennial 

components along the boundaries of Wadi systems offers long-term financial benefits for 

families, as it serves as a savings source for essential expenses like house construction, 

marriages, medical emergencies, and education. In the case of Guruji's Wadi, teak played a 

vital role in supporting house construction, as depicted in the figure. 

Plate 7: View of teak plantation used for house construction and furniture 

 

8. Acknowledgements 
The authors would like to thank Dr Smitha Krishnan from The Alliance of Bioversity International- 
CIAT for reviewing and editing the report. 

 

 



a 
 

9. Annexure 1 
Reported tree, shrubs and herbs species in study site   

TREE 
Sr. 
No 

Scientific Name Common Name Parts Used Medicinal & Other Uses 

1 Terminalia chebula Hirda / Chebulic 
Myrobalan 

Fruits, Bark Digestive aid, antioxidant, treats constipation, respiratory health, 
tannin, dye extraction 

2 Acacia auriculiformis Australian Acacia Bark, Leaves, Pods Used for skin diseases, gum infections, wounds, infections, 
fever; timber, fuelwood, erosion control 

3 Terminalia tomentosa Asan Tree Bark, Wood Treats diarrhea, diabetes, urinary problems 
4 Phyllanthus emblica Indian Gooseberry Fruits Boosts immunity, improves digestion, antioxidant 
5 Bambusa spp. Bamboo Leaves, Shoots Used for bone health, urinary infections; construction, 

handicrafts, paper production 
6 Aegle marmelos Bael Fruits, Leaves Treats diarrhea, digestive health, diabetes 
7 Ziziphus mauritiana Indian Jujube Fruits, Leaves Used for skin care, digestive aid, insomnia 
8 Bombax ceiba Silk Cotton Tree Bark, Flowers, 

Roots 
Used for wounds, inflammation, diarrhea, fiber, timber, 
ornamental use 

9 Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm Fruits Energy booster, treats anemia, respiratory issues 
10 Artocarpus heterophyllus Jackfruit Fruits, Seeds Used for digestive health, skin issues, and ulcers 
11 Syzygium cumini Indian Blackberry Fruits, Seeds Treats diabetes, boosts immunity, antioxidant 
12 Mangifera indica Mango Fruits, Leaves Treats diarrhea, promotes digestion, skin health 
13 Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree Leaves, Bark Used for skin diseases, deworming, wounds 
14 Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus Leaves, Oil Treats respiratory issues, antibacterial, antifungal 
15 Psidium guajava Guava Fruits, Leaves Treats diarrhea, improves digestion, antioxidant 
16 Gmelina arborea Beechwood Leaves, Bark Used for fever, wounds, inflammation 
17 Tamarindus indica Tamarind Fruits, Seeds, 

Leaves 
Used for digestive issues, fever, wound healing 

18 Tectona grandis Teak Wood, Bark Used for headaches, wounds, bronchitis  



b 
 

19 Ziziphus rugosa Rugose Jujube Leaves, Fruits Used for skin care, digestive issues 
20 Ficus glomerata Cluster Fig Fruits, Leaves, 

Bark 
Treats diabetes, diarrhea, respiratory issues 

21 Terminalia catappa Indian Almond Leaves, Seeds Antimicrobial, treats diarrhea, improves immunity 
22 Terminalia elliptica Indian Laurel Bark, Wood Treats diarrhea, urinary issues, diabetes 
23 Pterocarpus marsupium Indian Kino Bark, Wood Treats diabetes, wounds, inflammation 
24 Cassia fistula Golden Shower Tree Pods, Bark, Leaves Used as a laxative, treats skin infections, ornamental, timber, 

dye extraction 
25 Terminalia paniculata Kindal Tree Bark, Wood Treats diarrhea, wounds, fever 
26 Tragia benthamii Stinging Nettle Vine Leaves, Root Used for rheumatism and skin disorders 
27 Syzygium aqueum Water Apple Fruits, Bark Used for diabetes, digestion, and fever; edible fruit, ornamental 

plant 
28 Musa spp. Banana Tree Fruit, Leaves, 

Pseudostem 
Fruits for energy, leaves for wound healing 

29 Moringa oleifera Drumstick / Moringa Leaves, Pods, 
Seeds 

Known for its nutritional and medicinal benefits 

30 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus Flowers, Leaves Used for skin care, hair health, and reducing fever 
31 Sambucus nigra L. Elderberry Berries, Flowers, 

Leaves 
Known for treating colds, flu, and as an anti-inflammatory 

32 Xylosma hawaiensis Xylosma Leaves, Twigs Used in some cultures for skin treatment and as a mild laxative 
33 Lagerstroemia lanceolata Crape Myrtle Leaves, Bark, 

Flowers 
Used for treating skin diseases, diarrhea, and as a diuretic 

34 Butea monosperma Flame of the Forest Flowers, Bark, 
Gum 

Used for ulcers, eye diseases, wound healing, dye extraction, 
fodder, religious use 

35 Maranthes corymbosa Merbatu, Sea Beam Bark, Leaves Used for skin infections, anti-inflammatory, timber, traditional 
medicine 

Shrubs 
1 Justicia adhatoda Malabar Nut, 

Adhatoda 
Leaves, Roots Used for respiratory issues, cough, asthma, and as an anti-

inflammatory. 



c 
 

2 Agave americana Century Plant, 
American Aloe 

Leaves, Stem, Root Used in traditional medicine for wounds, digestive problems, 
and as a laxative. 

3 Banisteriopsis muricata None (Banisteriopsis 
species) 

Leaves, Bark Known for its use in folk medicine for fever and inflammation. 

4 Woodfordia fruticosa Fire Flame Bush Flowers, Bark Used to treat skin disorders, dysentery, and as an anti-
inflammatory. 

5 Leea indica Indian Leea Leaves, Roots Used for treating fever, inflammation, and as an antimicrobial 
agent. 

6 Bauhinia variegata Orchid Tree Leaves, Flowers Used for treating wounds, fever, and as an anti-inflammatory. 
7 Thespesia lampas Pacific Rosewood Bark, Flowers, 

Leaves 
Used in traditional medicine for treating coughs, chest pain, and 
as an antiseptic. 

8 Carissa carandas Karanda, Bengal 
Currant 

Fruit, Leaves, Root Fruits are used in treating fever, constipation, and as an 
antimicrobial. 

9 Lantana camara Lantana, Red Sage Leaves, Flowers Used for treating skin diseases, fevers, and as an anti-
inflammatory. 

10 Vitex negundo Five-leaved chaste 
tree 

Leaves, Seeds, 
Flowers 

Used for treating arthritis, fever, skin conditions, and menstrual 
disorders. 

11 Tragia benthamii Benthamii Leaves, Roots Used in some cultures to treat wounds, fever, and infections. 
12 Citrus limon Lemon Fruits, Leaves Treats sore throat, improves digestion, immunity booster. 
13 Carica papaya Papaya Fruits, Leaves, 

Seeds 
Digestive health, anti-inflammatory, skin health. 

14 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Night-flowering 
Jasmine 

Leaves, Flowers Treats fever, arthritis, and skin problems. 

15 Melanthera biflora None Leaves Used in some folk medicine for treating cuts, wounds, and 
fevers. 

Herbs 
1 Achyranthes japonica Japanese Chaff 

Flower 
Whole plant Treats inflammation, pain, and acts as a diuretic. 

2 Aerva lanata Mountain Knotgrass Whole plant, roots Used for kidney stones, urinary disorders, and respiratory issues. 
3 Ageratum conyzoides Goatweed Leaves, flowers Antibacterial, wound healing, and used for fever in traditional 

medicine. 



d 
 

4 Alternanthera sessilis Sessile Joyweed Leaves Used as a leafy vegetable; treats digestive disorders and wounds. 
5 Axonopus compressus Carpet Grass Leaves Ground cover and soil erosion prevention. 
6 Baccharis anomala - Leaves, stems Limited information available. 
7 Bidens bipinnata Spanish Needles Leaves, flowers Used for wounds, cuts, and as an anti-inflammatory agent. 
8 Boehmeria nivea Ramie/China grass Fibers Fibers used in textiles; roots used for detoxification in traditional 

medicine. 
9 Brachiaria reptans Creeping Signal 

Grass 
Leaves, stems Used as fodder and ground cover for erosion prevention. 

10 Brillantaisia owariensis Tropical Brillantaisia Leaves, stems Treats fever and respiratory problems in traditional medicine. 
11 Calopogonium mucunoides Tropical Kudzu Leaves, stems Used as forage and to improve soil fertility. 
12 Chromolaena odorata Siam Weed Leaves, stems Wound healing, antiseptic, and used for erosion control. 
13 Commelina africana African Dayflower Leaves, stems Used for wound healing and as fodder. 
14 Commelina benghalensis Bengal Dayflower Leaves, stems Treats wounds, burns, and is used as fodder. 
15 Commelina communis Asiatic Dayflower Leaves, stems Used in traditional medicine for skin diseases. 
16 Commelina diffusa Spreading 

Dayflower 
Whole plant Treats wounds, fever, and diarrhea. 

17 Commelina ensifolia Swordleaf 
Dayflower 

Leaves, stems Limited information available. 

18 Common teasel Teasel Roots Used for joint pain, inflammation, and Lyme disease. 
19 Crotalaria trichotoma Hairy Crotalaria Whole plant Used as green manure and fodder; some species are toxic. 
20 Crotalaria triquetra Three-angled 

Rattlebox 
Whole plant Used for soil improvement and green manure. 

21 Cynoglossum zeylanicum Indian Hound’s 
Tongue 

Leaves, roots Treats skin diseases, fever, and wounds. 

22 Desmodium triflorum Tick Clover Whole plant Used for respiratory issues, wounds, and digestive disorders. 
23 Dichanthelium clandentium Panicgrass Leaves, stems Used as fodder. 
24 Digitalis purpurea Foxglove Leaves Used for heart-related ailments (contains cardiac glycosides). 
25 Digitaria ciliaris Southern Crabgrass Leaves, stems Fodder and erosion control. 
26 Drymaria cordata Tropical Chickweed Leaves, stems Treats colds, wounds, and eye infections. 



e 
 

27 Echinochloa colonum Jungle Rice Seeds, leaves Used as fodder; seeds are consumed in times of famine. 
28 Ehrharta erecta Veldt Grass Leaves, stems Used as ornamental grass and for erosion control. 
29 Eleusine indica Indian Goosegrass Seeds, leaves Used as fodder; seeds used in porridge in some cultures. 
30 Emilia sonchifolia Lilac Tasselflower Leaves, flowers Treats wounds, fever, and digestive issues. 
31 Epipactis myelleri Myeller’s 

Helleborine 
Whole plant Limited medicinal uses recorded. 

32 Eragrostis cillanensis Lovegrass Leaves, stems Used as fodder and for soil conservation. 
33 Eragrostis superba Weeping Lovegrass Leaves, stems Used as fodder and for soil stabilization. 
34 Fuirena umbellata Umbrella Fuirena Roots, leaves Treats skin infections and inflammation. 
35 Hemidesmus indicus Indian Sarsaparilla Roots Blood purifier, treats skin diseases, and digestive issues. 
36 Hippocrepis comosa Horseshoe Vetch Leaves, flowers Forage for livestock and used in traditional remedies for 

respiratory issues. 
37 Hyssopus officinalis Hyssop Leaves, flowers Used for coughs, digestive problems, and antiseptic purposes. 
38 Imperata cylindrica Cogon Grass Rhizomes, leaves Soil stabilization, fodder, and treating urinary infections. 
39 Indigofera prostrata Trailing Indigo Leaves, stems Limited use in traditional medicine for wounds. 
40 Indigofera trifoliata Three-Leaf Indigo Leaves, stems Used for treating ulcers and skin conditions. 
41 Justicia procumbens Water Willow Leaves, roots Antipyretic and used for treating fever and snake bites. 
42 Lamarckia aurea Golden Top Grass Leaves, stems Used as ornamental grass and for erosion prevention. 
43 Leersia oryzoides Rice Cutgrass Leaves, stems Fodder and soil erosion control. 
44 Leonotis nepetifolia Lion's Ear Leaves, flowers Antibacterial, wound healing, and used in ornamental gardening. 
45 Leucas aspera Thumbai Leaves, flowers Treats cough, cold, and snake bites; insect repellent. 
46 Liatris compacta Blazing Star Leaves, flowers Used in ornamental gardening and as a pollinator attractant. 
47 Linum hirsutum Hairy Flax Seeds Used for linen fiber; oil extracted for skin care and medicinal 

purposes. 
48 Mentha canadensis Japanese Mint Leaves Treats digestive issues, cough, and headaches. 
49 Mucuna pruriens Velvet Bean Seeds, roots Treats Parkinson’s disease, nerve issues, and acts as an 

aphrodisiac. 
50 Oplismenus undulatifolius Basketgrass Leaves, stems Ground cover and forage for animals. 
51 Panicum capillare Witch Grass Leaves, stems Forage and used for erosion control. 



f 
 

52 Panicum virgatum Switchgrass Leaves, stems Bioenergy crop and forage. 
53 Paspalum conjugatum Sour Paspalum Leaves, stems Used as ground cover and fodder. 
54 Pentanema germanicum German Elecampane Leaves, roots Limited medicinal use; ornamental plant. 
55 Phalaris minor Little Canary Grass Leaves, seeds Fodder; seeds used in poultry feed. 
56 Phaseolus vulgaris Common Bean Seeds, pods Edible; rich in protein; used in various cuisines. 
57 Phyllanthus 

maderaspatensis 
Madras Leaf Flower Whole plant Treats liver disorders and urinary infections. 

58 Phyllanthus narayanswamii - Whole plant Limited information available. 
59 Pimpinella saxifraga Burnet Saxifrage Roots, leaves Used in treating colic, digestive disorders, and to reduce fever. 
60 Poa annua Annual Bluegrass Whole plant Commonly considered a weed, but used in some traditional 

remedies. 
61 Portulaca oleracea Purslane Leaves, stems Rich in omega-3 fatty acids, used for inflammation and skin 

issues. 
62 Setaria verticillata Prostrate Bristlegrass Leaves, stems Fodder and ground cover. 
63 Sida acuta Wireweed Whole plant Treats wounds, ulcers, and fever. 
64 Sida rhombifolia Arrowleaf Sida Leaves, roots Used for fever and digestive issues. 
65 Solanum nigrum Black Nightshade Leaves, berries Treats fever, inflammation, and acts as an anti-inflammatory. 
66 Spilanthes acmella Toothache Plant Leaves, flowers Used for toothaches, mouth infections, and as a mild anesthetic. 
67 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Blue Porterweed Leaves, flowers Treats fever and malaria. 
68 Synedrella nodiflora Guinea Grass Whole plant Fodder, used for erosion control. 
69 Tridax procumbens Coat Buttons Whole plant Wound healing, reduces bleeding, and treats fever. 
70 Urochloa mutica Para Grass Leaves, stems Used for forage and erosion control. 
71 Vetiveria zizanoides Vetiver Roots Used for soil erosion control, fragrance, and medicinal uses. 
72 Vigna radiata Mung Bean Seeds Edible; used for detoxification and digestive issues. 
73 Zornia diphylla Two-leaved Zornia Whole plant Limited medicinal uses.