ILRI 1997:
Livestock, people and the environment
International Livestock Research Institute
P O Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
Contents
Foreword
Board of Trustees
ILRI’s investors in 1997
ILRI’s addresses
Livestock and nutrient cycling: maintaining a balance
Making sense—and use—of genetic diversity
Aspects of biotechnology research at ILRI
Smallholder dairying—intimate links between people
and livestock
Diagnostics and the environment
Impact of trypanosomosis control
ILRI in Latin America
Balancing human needs, livestock and the
environment
ILRI programme areas in 1997
ILRI senior staff in 1997
Graduate Fellows at ILRI in 1997
Publications by ILRI staff in 1997
Financial Summary
Foreword
Demand for meat and milk is projected to double by the year 2020.
These increases will primarily be in developing countries.1 Two-thirds
of the world’s livestock are found in developing countries and most
are owned by rural smallholders. Increased demand for livestock
products should enable smallholder livestock producers to increase
their income. And consumers in developing countries, who will be
increasingly urban, will also benefit if increased supplies of livestock
products are available and affordable. Research to improve livestock
productivity will, therefore, benefit both producers and consumers of
livestock products. But increasing productivity is not sufficient. The
challenges to maintaining environmental quality and managing natural
resources must be addressed as well. Again, research can help meet
these environmental challenges.
1. Delgado C., Coubois C. and Rosegrant M. 1998. Global food demand and the
contribution of livestock as we enter the new millennium. In: Gill E.M., Smith
T., Pollot G. and Owen E. (eds), Food, Lands and Livelihoods: Setting Research
Agendas for Animal Science. Proceedings, BSAS/CTA International Conference,
Nairobi, Kenya.
The thread that ties together the articles in this Annual Report is
‘Livestock, people and the environment’. The placing of ‘people’ in
the middle is deliberate. People, their needs, their hopes and their
desires for a better life are central to efforts aimed at protecting or
enhancing the environment. If they are not given this central role, such
efforts are doomed to fail.
The first article (Livestock and nutrient cycling: maintaining a
balance) clearly shows how livestock support intensified agricultural
production systems. Replenishing plant nutrients and organic matter in
the soil is the basis of sustainable agriculture. This is a role for
livestock that smallholder farmers in the developing world readily
recognise and one that was known—but now often forgotten—by
farmers in temperate, developed countries.
Making sense—and use—of genetic diversity highlights the role for
indigenous animal genetic resources in the low-external-input
production systems used by the vast majority of the world’s
smallholder farmers. Indigenous populations have ‘evolved’ in these
low-input systems and carry valuable traits such as resistance to
diseases and the abilities to survive on poor-quality diets and tolerate
harsh climates. Characterising this valuable biodiversity is a crucial
first step towards protecting it for future use by the world’s
smallholder farmers.
ILRI’s biotechnology research accounts for about 25% of the total
annual CGIAR investment in biotechnology. Improving productivity
and reducing wastage from disease and parasites have real
environmental benefits, as the two articles Aspects of biotechnology
research at ILRI and Diagnostics and the environment demonstrate. In
particular, ILRI’s biotechnology research aims for better-targeted,
more environmentally friendly approaches to alleviating the disease
constraints facing smallholder livestock production.
Smallholder dairying—intimate links between people and livestock
again demonstrates the central role livestock can play in improving the
lives of rural people without degrading the environment. This article
stresses the need for a systems approach to development-oriented
research, an approach that takes into account both productivity and
sustainability.
Concerns have been expressed that widespread environmental
degradation would follow the control of the tsetse fly and
trypanosomosis in sub-Saharan Africa. Another view is that
trypanosomosis will gradually be eradicated as agriculture intensifies
and land use changes. The article Impact of trypanosomosis control
presents research-based information on these concerns and issues.
ILRI in Latin America focuses on the globalisation of ILRI’s
programmes and the central theme of ‘Livestock, people and the
environment’ in the institute’s programme. The global electronic
consultation reported on in Balancing human needs, livestock and the
environment was part of the broader multi-donor, multi-partner study
on Livestock and the Environment: Finding a Balance.2 This
conference and the study findings have been an important influence
shaping ILRI’s research activities.
2. de Haan C., Steinfeld H. and Blackburn H. 1997. Livestock and the Environment:
Finding a Balance. European Commission Directorate-General for Development.
WREN Media, Suffolk, England, UK. 115 pp.
The requirements for development-oriented livestock research are
great and resources are limited. Progress will only be realised through
partnerships with others. For ILRI, these partnerships include those
with other CGIAR centres and their national partners in the
ecoregional consortia that are supported by the System-wide
Livestock Programme; with scientists from advanced research
institutes in CGIAR member countries; and, importantly with national
research institutes, universities and NGOs in developing countries.
The values gained from these partnerships were recognised in 1997 by
the CGIAR Chairman’s Award for Outstanding Scientific Partnership
to the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and ILRI—an
appropriate award because of the emphasis of this partnership on
‘Livestock, people and the environment’.
Neville Clarke Hank Fitzhugh
Chairman Director General
ILRI Board of Trustees ILRI
Board of Trustees
Dr Charan Chantalakhana (Vice Chair)
Professor
P.O. Box 1014, Kasetsart P.O.
Kasetsart University
Bangkok 10903, Thailand
Fax: 66–2–579–8555
Fax: 66–2–552–8171
Tel: 66–2–579–4214
Tel: 66–2–521–3518 (Home)
E-mail: swkcrc@ku.ac.th
Dr Neville P. Clarke (Chair)
Centeq Research Plaza, Suite 241
The Texas A&M University System
College Station, TX 77843–2129, USA
Fax: 1–409–845–6574
Fax: 1–409–845–6428 (weekends)
Tel: 1–409–845–2855
E-mail: n_clarke@tamu.edu
Dr Cees de Haan
Livestock Advisor
The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20433, USA
Fax: 1–202–522–3308
Tel: 1–202–473–0347
E-mail: cdeHaan@worldbank.org
Dr H. Jochen de Haas
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche
Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ)
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 40
53113 Bonn, Germany
Fax: 49–228–535–3755 (Div. 414)
Tel: 49–228–535–3740 (Direct)
E-mail: de Haas@BMZ.BMZ.Bund400.DE
Dr John E. Donelson
Howard Hughes Medical Institute Research Labs
Department of Biochemistry
300D Eckstein Medical Research Building
University of Iowa, College of Medicine
Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
Fax: 1–319–335–6764
Tel: 1–319–335–7889
E-mail: jdonelso@blue.weeg.uiowa.edu
Dr Hank Fitzhugh
Director General
ILRI, P.O. Box 30709 or ILRI, P.O. Box 5689
Nairobi, Kenya Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Fax: 254–2–631499 Fax: 251–1–611892
Tel: 254–2–630743 Tel: 251–1–613215
E-mail: ILRI-Kenya@cgnet.com
E-mail: ILRI-Ethiopia@cgnet.com
Dr Margaret Gill
Chief Executive
Natural Resources International
Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime
Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB
United Kingdom
Fax: 44–16–34–883937
Tel: 44–16–34–883939
E-mail: Margaret.Gill@nri.org
Dr Tetsuro Komiyama
Consultant, Nippon Agricultural Research Institute
Inarihara, Takasaki, Kukizaki, Inashiki
Ibaraki, 300–1245, Japan
Fax: 81–298–76–5086 or 76–0945
Tel: 81–298–76–5081 or 76–0111
Tel: 81–298–76–4717 (Home)
Dr N. Ole Nielsen
# 11–51127 Range Road 255
Spruce Grove, Alberta, T7Y 1A8
Canada
Fax: 1–403–470–3140
Tel: 1–403–470–4404
E-mail: olen@telusplanet.net
Dr W.K. Ngulo
Director of Research Development
Ministry of Research, Technical Training and
Technology
P.O. Box 30568, Utalii House
Nairobi, Kenya
Fax: 254–2–223187
Tel: 254–2–219420 (Office)
Tel: 254–2–219023 (Direct)
Tel: 254–2–787245 (Home)
Dr Vagn Østergaard
Director of Research
Department of Research in Agricultural Engineering and Production
Systems
Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Foulum, Box 39, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark
Fax: 45–89–99–1564
Tel: 45–89–99–1201 (Direct)
Tel: 45–86–67–6263 (Home)
E-mail: VO@sh.dk
Dr Amrita Patel
Managing Director
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
Anand – 388 001, India
Fax: 091–269–2–40156 (Office)
Fax: 091–269–2–47102 (Home)
Tel: 091–269–2–40148/40149
Tel: 091–269–2–40146 (Direct)
E-mail: amrita@anand.nddb.ernet.in
Dr Ana Sittenfeld
Director
CIBCM
Universidad de Costa Rica
Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio
San Jose, Costa Rica
Fax: 506–244–2816
Fax: 506–244–0693
Tel: 506–244–0690
Tel: 506–244–0693
E-mail: asitten@maruca.inbio.ac.cr
Dr Georges Tacher
20 rue Chateaubriand
Le Val d’Albian-Saclay
91400 Orsay, France
Fax/Tel: 33–1–6019–1625
E-mail: erta@prisme.fr
Ato Getachew Tekle-Medhin
Vice Minister
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box 62347
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Fax: 251–1–512984
Tel: 251–1–150110
E-mail: MOAVM@telecom.net.et
Officers
Dr Hank Fitzhugh Director General
Mr Hugh Murphy Director of Administration/Secretary to the
Board
ILRI’s investors in 1997
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Denmark
European Development Fund
Finland
France
Germany
India
International Development Research Centre
International Fund for Agricultural Development
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Luxembourg
National Institutes of Health, USA
The Netherlands
Norway
The OPEC Fund for International Development
Rockefeller Foundation
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States of America
World Bank
World Health Organization
ILRI’s addresses
International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI)
ILRI-Kenya
P.O. Box 30709
Nairobi, Kenya
Phone: +254–2 630743
Telex: 22040 ILRI/Nairobi/Kenya
Cable: ILRI/Nairobi/Kenya
Fax: +254–2 631499
E-mail: ILRI-Kenya@cgnet.com
ILRI-Ethiopia
P.O. Box 5689
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: +251–1 613215
Telex: 21207 ILRI ET
Cable: ILRI ADDIS ABABA
Fax: +251–1 611892
E-mail: ILRI-Ethiopia@cgnet.com
Regional offices
ILRI-Ibadan
c/o IITA, PMB 5320
Ibadan, Nigeria
Phone: +234–2 2412626
Telex: 31417/31159 TROPIG NG
Fax: +234–2 2412221/2412974
E-mail: ILRI-Ibadan@cgnet.com
ILRI-Niamey
c/o ICRISAT Sahelian Center
B.P. 12404
Niamey, Niger
Phone: +227 722529/722725
Telex: (ICRISAT) 5406/5560 NI
Fax: +227 752208/734329
E-mail: ILRI-Niamey@cgnet.com
ILRI/CIRDES
01 B.P.
454 Bobo-Dioulasso
01–Burkina Faso
Phone: +226 972787
Fax: +226 981677
E-mail: kamuanga@fasonet.bf
ILRI-Asia Region
c/o ICRISAT Asia Center (IAC)
Patancheru 502 324
Andhra Pradesh, India
Phone: +91–40 596161
Telex: 422203 ICRI IN
Fax: +91–40 241239
E-mail: e.zerbini@cgnet.com
ICRISAT@cgnet.com
ILRI/CIAT
c/o CIAT
Apartado Aereo 6713
Cali, Colombia
Phone: +57–2 4450–000
Fax: +57–2 4450–073
E-mail: ciat@cgnet.com
ILRI/CIP
c/o CIP
Apartado 1558
Lima 100, Peru
Phone: +51–14 366920
Fax: +51–14 351570
E-mail: cip@cgnet.com
cip@cipa.org.pe
Livestock and nutrient cycling:
maintaining a balance
Crop farming takes it out of the soil—nutrients, that is.
Farmers plant their crops, harvest the plants and typically cart them
away to the homestead, where the grain is removed and either eaten
by the family or sold. The remains of the plant may or may not be
returned to the fields.
Obviously, there is a net loss of nutrients from the cropland, a loss that
can be dramatic if crop residues are not returned to the soil. Inevitably,
land that is cropped year in, year out without any nutrients being
added will not continue to support the same yields—crop yields fall.
The role of livestock in helping put nutrients back into soil is well
known by the world’s small-scale farmers and by soil and livestock
experts. But in developed countries, where artificial fertilisers are
abundant and affordable, this role of livestock is in danger of being
forgotten. In the developed world, livestock are now seen as
consuming resources and producing pollutants. But that was not
always the case. Before modern, intensive production systems,
farmers kept livestock as much for their ability to provide fertiliser as
for their products—milk, meat, tractive power. In the 1840s, Philip
Pusey stated that the practice of fattening cattle on arable farms in
England was ‘not from a view to profit in the sale of meat, but for the
production of dung, and the consequent increase of the corn crop’
(Pusey P. 1842. On the progress of agricultural knowledge during the
last four years. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
III:205).
Grazing cattle on crop
residues in semi-arid
West Africa. Livestock
manure and urine are
vital sources of
nutrients for crop
production in many
parts of the developing
world.
The contribution that livestock make to crop production is strongly
influenced by human population density, cropping intensity and
climate. At one extreme, in arid lands unsuitable for cropping,
pastoralism is the only option for sustaining livelihoods. With rising
population density and higher rainfall, there is increasing interaction
between livestock and crops—livestock come to rely on crops for part
of their feed, while crops benefit from nutrients delivered as faeces
and urine from the livestock. At the other extreme, in densely
populated, intensively cropped regions, such as South-East Asia,
livestock are highly valued by farmers as a means of producing
fertiliser, converting plant material quickly and efficiently into a form
that can be applied to the soil to maintain crop yields.
Two routes from soil to soil
Why involve livestock in cycling nutrients in crops back to soil? Why
not just put the crop residues back on the land and let them
decompose?
There are several reasons why livestock are important to this process
on smallholder farms. Firstly, cereal crop residues are often relatively
slow to decompose in soil, so it can be a long time before the nutrients
in the crop residues become available to the subsequent crop. Also,
while the soil microbes are breaking down the crop residues, they can
actually tie up soil nitrogen for their own use, reducing the amount of
nitrogen available to plants. Thus, it may be months before the
nutrients are available to plants.
However, if one feeds crop residues to ruminant livestock, microbes in
the animal’s stomach break down the plant materials rapidly. The
excreta—faeces and urine—produced contain nutrients in forms that
are more readily available to plants. The nutrients not excreted are
converted to valuable animal products—milk, meat, fibre, tractive
power etc.
Livestock do more than speed up nutrient turnover through the process
of digestion. As animals eat the palatable parts of the crop residues—
the leaves for example— inedible fractions such as the stems are
trampled underfoot (particularly if animals are stall-fed), where they
mix with the faeces and soak up urine. Trampling by the animal
breaks up the stover, speeding the decomposition process and
increasing the capacity of the stover to absorb urine. Nitrogen in
animal urine is commonly ‘lost’ through volatilisation, but using crop
residues to soak up the urine improves nutrient ‘capture’. ‘Animal-
processed’ inedible fractions of crop residues compost faster, making
the nutrients in them available sooner.
Livestock in zero-
grazing units, like
these, commonly
trample the
unpalatable portion of
their feed underfoot,
where it mixes with
faeces and urine. The
resultant ‘compost’ is
excellent fertiliser for
crops.
ILRI currently has two programmes that focus on livestock and
nutrient cycling, one in Niger, in the semi-arid tropics, and one in the
East African highlands. Circumstances are radically different between
these two regions, but the key role of livestock in promoting
sustainable production systems links them.
Livestock protect fragile lands
The semi-arid zone includes parts of 48 developing countries in
Africa, Asia and Latin America, home to roughly one-sixth of the
world’s population.
This is one of the most fragile, vulnerable agro-ecological zones. Its
soils are sandy, contain little organic matter, are poorly structured and
hold little water. Many of them crust over easily when they dry,
making it difficult for seeds to germinate, and they are all easily
eroded by water and by wind.
Large parts of the world’s semi-arid lands can only be used
sustainably by ruminant livestock, and then only if their numbers are
controlled and they are free to move over long distances, following the
region’s sparse and erratic rain. But increasing human population is
reducing the freedom of livestock herders to roam and driving farmers
to crop land that once was under permanent grassland, exposing the
soil to erosion and depriving livestock of grazing. Even where
cropping is feasible, the traditional fallowing system has broken down
under the pressure to produce more food, hastening the decline in the
already low soil fertility. The high price of inorganic fertilisers,
inappropriate policies and difficulties in getting agricultural inputs to
rural areas mean that few farmers use improved crop varieties or
fertilisers. Manure is often the only fertiliser used by smallholder
farmers in this zone.
The easy answers are not to cultivate fragile land and to limit the
number of livestock kept on the land. But such easy remedies don’t
work in the real world. What farmers and livestock owners need are
options that help them produce the food and income they need to
provide for their families and to contribute to the development of their
societies. One such option—indeed one of very few workable
options—is to integrate cropping and livestock rearing in ways that
allow each activity to support the other, minimising competition for
resources. This is the approach that ILRI is adopting with its partners
and colleagues in these fragile areas.
ILRI has a research team based in Niger at the Sahelian Center of the
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) and another based at ICRISAT’s Asia Center in India,
addressing ways to improve crop–livestock integration and its
contribution to food security in the semi-arid tropics.
Livestock and nutrient cycling transfers in the
semi-arid zone
In the past, and to some extent still, pastoralists bartered with farmers,
exchanging their livestock’s manure for crop residues and water
owned by the farmers. But pastoralism is declining in the face of
drought and population pressure. Slowly but surely, integrated crop–
livestock systems are replacing this interplay of separate livestock and
cropping systems.
There are many competing demands placed on cropping systems in
the semi-arid zone. Crop residues are a vital source of livestock feed:
in parts of semi-arid Africa, crop residues provide nearly half the
livestock’s feed intake throughout the year and up to four-fifths of
feed during critical periods. Yet many farmers use the long, strong
stems of crops such as sorghum and millet as building material or as
fuel. Alternatively, residues could be incorporated into the sandy soil
to raise its organic matter content and its ability to retain water.
Surprisingly, studies by ILRI and its partners in villages in Niger show
that, despite the small amount of vegetation left on rangelands and
crop fields by the end of the dry season, livestock eat less than a fifth
of the vegetation from rangelands and only a tenth of the crop residues
and weeds left on fields after harvest.
There are too few livestock, and too little grazing land, for farmers to
effectively manure all their fields every year. As a result, farmers in
semi-arid regions have developed systems for concentrating nutrients
from the grazing land to selected fields, or even parts of fields that
they feel are particularly short of nutrients.
ILRI research has
shown that corralling
cattle and sheep
overnight on croplands
results in much higher
yields from subsequent
crops than collecting
manure and spreading
it over a similar area.
Studies suggest that, in semi-arid West Africa, 10 to 30 hectares of
grazing land are needed to provide enough manure to support
continuous cropping of millet on one hectare of cropland if there are
no ‘external’ inputs such as fertiliser or supplementary feed for the
livestock. Thus, the maximum proportion of the land that can be
cropped sustainably based only on nutrient transfers from rangeland is
between 4 and 9%.
But the vast majority of these studies use data on livestock
populations and land-use types aggregated over vast areas. The ILRI-
led research shows that local—village or even household-level—
differences in management practices can have dramatic effects on the
sustainability of integrated crop–livestock systems. Differences in
farmers’ production goals, resource endowments and socio-economic
conditions create different opportunities for farmers to exploit crop
residues, rangeland and other potential feed resources and for them to
practise nutrient cycling.
The research in Niger has been studying nutrient management in
several villages covering a range of climatic conditions, cropping
intensities and livestock populations. The proportion of land that was
manured in these villages ranged from only 3% in the village with the
largest cropped area and the fewest livestock to 22% in the village
with the smallest cropped area but an intermediate number of
livestock. As might be expected, farmers who applied manure had
more livestock and fallowed less land than did farmers who did not
apply manure.
These studies have also shown marked changes in labour requirements
and livestock management as the proportion of cropped land
increases. The decline in grazing land associated with increased
cropping forces farmers to move their livestock out of the village area
during the cropping season, or to rely increasingly on stall-feeding
their animals. Either option increases the need for labour during the
wet season.
Increasing grazing pressure on the rangelands near some of the
villages is leading to changes in the composition of the rangelands.
Near the village of Kodey, where 62% of the land is cultivated, the
grazing pressure on the remaining rangeland is so high during the wet
season that the animals are eating over three-quarters of all the plant
material that grows. Inevitably, palatable, nutritious plants are being
replaced by plants that the livestock prefer not to eat.
Over a year, the amount of nutrients harvested from rangelands by
grazing livestock and excreted in manure could compensate for
between a fifth and a quarter of the nutrients harvested in crops from
croplands. However, other ILRI studies have shown that applying
both manure and urine dramatically increases the amount of both
nitrogen and phosphorus made available to plants. Thus, changes in
animal management, particularly to increase corralling on croplands
rather than hand-spreading manure, would improve the nutrient
transfer process.
Obviously, cropping in this region cannot be sustained by livestock-
mediated nutrient transfers alone—nutrients will have to be brought
into the system from outside, either as supplementary feed for the
livestock or as inorganic fertiliser or both. ILRI and its partners are
continuing to study the social, economic and environmental impact of
this and to identify options such as economic incentives, policies and
institutional changes that can facilitate the adoption of technical
interventions in the semi-arid zone.
Croplands in semi-arid
West Africa. Without
livestock-mediated
nutrient cycling, cropping
would be untenable in
this zone without greater
inputs of chemical
fertilisers.
The research in Niger is currently funded by the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC), Canada. Previous funding  came from the
Rockefeller Foundation and BASF, Germany.
Livestock and nutrient cycling in intensive
smallholder dairy systems
The farming systems in the East African highlands are radically
different from those in the semi-arid tropics, except in their reliance
on livestock for cycling nutrients and the contribution that animals
make to maintaining agricultural sustainability.
The East African highlands are densely populated and intensively
farmed—farm sizes are now down to less than one hectare per family.
The time between harvest of the first maize crop and  planting of the
second is now only two weeks in the central Kenya highlands as
demand for staple food soars. Such cropping practices on small land
areas can only be sustained if farmers put a lot of effort into
maintaining and improving soil fertility.
In this zone, research by ILRI and a consortium of national and
international partners, funded by the Department for International
Development (DFID), UK, the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA) and the Rockefeller Foundation, focuses on
smallholder crop–dairy farms. With such a high population density,
there is a ready market for milk and dairy products and smallholder
farmers are rallying to meet the demand. However, ask any farmer
why she or he keeps a dairy cow and manure will be ranked alongside
milk production.
Smallholders value animal excreta highly not only because of the
nutrients they contain but also because of the way they improve the
soil, adding organic matter, imparting structure and boosting water-
holding capacity. Farmers currently pay US$ 80 for a tonne of manure
containing 10 kg of nitrogen but only US$ 5 for the equivalent weight
of nitrogen in the form of urea. The price differential represents the
value farmers put on the physical benefits they get from using manure.
Intensive smallholder
agriculture in the East
African highlands (above)
and in Asia (below).
Livestock play vital roles in
supporting such intensive
cropping systems.
With land at such a premium for food and cash-crop production,
grazing land is no longer available. To the casual observer of such
intensive cropping systems, livestock are not present. However, in one
of the most densely populated areas of Kenya, Kiambu District, 77%
of households actually keep cattle, unseen, in their backyards. ILRI, in
collaboration with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI),
the Ministry of Agriculture, NGOs and the private sector, recognises
the need to support farmers’ efforts to maintain livestock on farms and
is conducting research into how livestock can more efficiently
contribute to whole-farm productivity.
Highland farmers grow Napier grass on small plots to feed their cattle.
Research has demonstrated that the contribution these plots make to
cattle diets can be increased by 20% by interplanting Napier with
leguminous forages such as Desmodium and Macrotyloma. The
legumes not only enhance the amount of protein in the diet but also
improve soil fertility by ‘fixing’ nitrogen from the air. Crops grown
following the legumes benefit from this extra soil nitrogen, yielding
more than if they follow just Napier or another food crop.
Links with Asian agriculture
Can agricultural systems in the East African highlands maintain
population densities rising now to over 500 people per square
kilometre? Evidence from subhumid South-East Asia suggests that
agriculture can support even higher populations. In the late 19th
century, a rapidly growing human population appeared to be driving
the Indonesian island of Java towards ecological disaster. One
hundred years later, Javanese agriculture is supporting over 600
people per square kilometre through farming systems in which
livestock are intimately linked with cropping through highly efficient
nutrient cycling systems.
Harvesting feed for
livestock from irrigation
channels in rice fields.
Many farmers in South-
East Asia keep livestock
primarily for their
manure.
Nutrient cycling research in Niger and the East African highlands,
together with ILRI’s planned collaboration with partners in South-East
Asia, provides sites representing the evolution of farming systems
over a continuum of intensification. ILRI and its partners are
elucidating the scientific basis for the contribution that livestock make
to the sustainability of smallholder farming across this continuum. In
this way, ILRI and its partners are well placed to transfer livestock-
based strategies for more intensive production of food to areas where
population pressure is placing increasing strain upon agriculture.
Making sense—and use—of genetic
diversity
People began domesticating livestock about 12,000 years ago,
selecting animals for their ability to provide food, fibre and traction
and to meet other needs. Over the millennia, this selection resulted in
thousands of different breeds and strains of animals adapted to a wide
range of environmental conditions and meeting diverse human needs.
Some are resistant to pests or diseases, others are able to flourish in
harsh climates.
But today, many of these diverse breeds are being lost, and at an
alarming rate. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) estimates that 30% of livestock breeds are at risk of
extinction and that about six breeds are lost every month, most of
them in developing countries. Half of the breeds that existed in Europe
at the turn of the century have disappeared.
The Kuri, one of many
weird and wonderful—
and potentially
valuable—livestock
breeds facing
extinction.
Yet these breeds may have carried genes that would have been of
benefit to today’s farmers, genes that have been lost forever. We know
so little of the breeds that still exist, the genes they carry, the
production systems they could fit into, the benefits they could bring to
farming communities in another place, another time. Urgent efforts
are needed to characterise breeds and to preserve this valuable
resource for future generations.
What is the greatest threat to many of the world’s lesser-known
livestock breeds and types? Habitat loss? Environmental change?
Disease?
None of the above. It is loss of interest in them by farmers, coupled
with ‘imports’ of exotic breeds to increase productivity. Many people,
scientists and farmers alike, believe that indigenous breeds are not
productive, that they are incapable of contributing to increased
agricultural production; they are, in a word, redundant. Yet ILRI’s
studies have shown that this is not true; indigenous breeds can be as
productive as ‘exotic’ breeds under improved smallholder
management where their adaptation to the environment gives them an
advantage over the ‘exotic’ animals. Most ‘exotics’ have been
developed for use in intensive production systems, mostly in
temperate climes, and need very high levels of inputs—particularly
feed and veterinary care—to produce at anywhere near their best.
What is the most effective way of preserving endangered breeds?
Gene banks holding eggs and sperm in deep freezes? Herds and flocks
kept in living ‘gene banks’?
Again, neither. These are partial answers, but they lead to
‘fossilisation’ of the breed—they preserve the breed as it is, but
remove the opportunity for the breed to continue to respond to the
ever-changing farm environment. Again, the answer lies with
farmers—as long as farmers keep these breeds on their farms and keep
selecting them to meet their evolving needs, these breeds will remain
‘current’, they will continue to meet farmers’ demands in an ever-
changing world.
Characterising livestock breeds in the
developing world—ILRI’s role
A key issue in working with any genetic resource is the need to know
what one is dealing with.  Are all the breeds actually different from
one another? How much genetic difference is there between
populations? Does one need to conserve all the breeds to capture all
the genetic variation or can one aim to protect just a few
representative populations?
In a project started in 1995, ILRI scientists set out to answer some of
these questions for cattle types found extensively throughout eastern
and southern Africa. Using a set of 20 genetic markers, they
characterised 15 East African zebu breeds or types and 15 breeds that
have traditionally been classified as sanga or sanga × zebu
intermediates. Sanga breeds are thought to have originated from
crosses between zebu-type cattle (humped breeds) and taurine-type
cattle (humpless breeds similar to those found in Europe and
elsewhere), with a common origin, possibly in the Horn of Africa.
The results clearly show that all 15 East African zebu breeds are
closely related, with surprisingly little genetic difference between
them. They are, however, clearly distinct from African and European
taurine breeds and from Asian zebus. These are preliminary results,
based on a limited number of breeds and only a few markers.
However, they indicate the potential value of such studies in
developing conservation strategies. If the differences between breeds
turn out to be negligible, as determined using a larger number of loci
spread throughout the genome, this might suggest that the ‘breeds’
could be pooled in any use and conservation strategy. This would
reduce the complexity and cost of the conservation effort.
The sanga and sanga × zebu group turned out to be much less
homogenous, with two clearly distinct groups emerging. The breeds
from the Horn of Africa are mainly of zebu origin and genetically are
very similar to the East African zebu breeds, while the southern
African sangas are predominantly taurine and hence markedly
different genetically both from the northern sangas and from the East
African zebus. These results challenge the notion of a common and
crossbred origin of all the breeds today classified as sanga. They also
suggest that the original sangas were of taurine origin, with the zebu
blood being introduced after the sangas had spread out across Africa.
Most authorities
believe that Africa’s
earliest cattle were
taurine (i.e. humpless)
and that they came to
Africa from the Near
East about 7000 years
ago. Zebu cattle came
to the continent much
later; a few zebus
arrived in about 1500
BC, while a major
wave of introductions
occurred in about 670
AD at the time of the
Arab invasion of
Africa. Many of the
original taurine
‘African’ breeds have
been crossed with
zebus over the
centuries. This process
has usually employed
mating zebu bulls with taurine cows, ensuring a rapid spread of the
‘intruder’s’ genes.
A study by ILRI in 1997 aimed at determining the proportion of zebu
blood in apparently taurine breeds still found in West and southern
Africa. ILRI scientists used a genetic marker found on the Y
chromosome (the male sex chromosome) that can be used to
distinguish between Y chromosomes from taurine and zebu breeds.
The results showed that in West Africa the proportion of zebu blood
decreased from north to south. This finding is much what might have
been expected from the current distribution of zebu and taurine
populations in the region. Taurine breeds in West Africa include the
N’Dama, well known for trypanotolerance or tolerance of the disease
trypanosomosis. Zebu cattle generally show little sign of
trypanotolerance. Hence, zebu cattle are more commonly found in the
more arid northern parts of this region and tend to be excluded from
the humid, more forested southern parts where trypanosomosis risk is
higher.
This finding has a clear
implication for scientists
working with
trypanotolerant taurine
breeds in West Africa: if
they want ‘purity’ in their
potential subjects, they
should look towards the
southern populations.
Among the southern
African sanga populations
the proportion of zebu blood declines from east to west, as might have
been expected given the introduction of zebus from Asia. This finding
suggests that sanga breeds in western parts of southern Africa may
have more in common with taurine breeds found in West Africa than
those found on the east coast.
Disease resistance and protecting the
environment
One of the key features of indigenous tropical livestock breeds that
ILRI is focusing on is disease and parasite resistance or tolerance.
Controlling diseases and parasites is a major problem for smallholder
farmers in the developing world. Losing an animal can be a
catastrophe for them, but they often do not have access to the vets or
the drugs they need to help them protect their animals. And even if
drugs are available, they may not work; drug resistance is increasingly
common in trypanosomes, gastro-intestinal worms and many other
disease-causing organisms.
A better route, both for farmers and for the environment, is to identify
and use animals that are naturally resistant to pests and diseases. This
reduces the farmers’ costs—fewer drugs and less lost productivity—
and protects the environment by reducing the need for harmful
chemicals and drugs.
The N’Dama, a humpless cattle breed from West Africa, is well
known for its trypanotolerance. ILRI’s studies over the years have
demonstrated that this is an inherited trait, one that can be selected for
within N’Dama populations in the search for more productive, more
trypanotolerant animals.
But traditional selection programmes require huge numbers of animals
and intensive selection if they are to make progress. Moreover, with a
trait such as trypanotolerance, selection is fraught with difficulties.
The scientist or breeder may have to wait until an animal is several
months old before exposing it to the disease in an effort to determine
its tolerance. The environment—climate, feed availability, many other
factors—also affect an animal’s ability to respond to disease, hence
the results of such programmes may be difficult to interpret; how
much of the tolerance is innate in the animal and how much is related
to its environment?
But now, as reported in
ILRI 1996: Out of
Africa, into a global
mandate, ILRI is using
the latest molecular
genetic techniques to
refine and speed the
process of identifying
disease-resistant
animals and developing
animals that combine
disease resistance and
greater productivity.
Working with
laboratory mice, ILRI’s
scientists have
identified three regions
of the genome—the
animal’s complement of
chromosomes—that
carry genes for
trypanotolerance. And
as an eight-year
experiment comes to
fruition, apparently
similar regions have been identified in N’Dama cattle and ILRI’s
scientists have identified molecular markers associated with these
regions that can be used to facilitate trypanotolerance breeding
programmes.
By working with mice, ILRI’s scientists have been able to progress
rapidly to advanced intercross lines. This has allowed them to achieve
an unprecendentedly high degree of definition in the genetic ‘map’
showing the location of the trypanotolerance genes. ‘The definition is
so good that we are now starting to analyse the specific stretches of
DNA these genes are on, in our search for  the genes themselves,’
noted Dr Alan Teale, leader of this research area at ILRI.
Recent developments in related research are highlighting the role in
trypanotolerance of TNFα, tumour necrosis factor alpha, a biological
messenger molecule with diverse effects on immune responses. This
molecule was identified as possibly having a role in trypanotolerance
during earlier mapping in mouse populations. Scientists at the
National Institute for Animal Health (NIAH) in Tsukuba, Japan, bred
a strain of mice that does not have the gene for TNFα, and in trials
these mice have proved to be hyper-susceptible to trypanosomosis.
ILRI and NIAH are now trying to determine the precise role of
TNFα in trypanosomosis, with a scientist from NIAH working at
ILRI.
In a new development, ILRI is now starting a project to map genes for
resistance to gut worms in sheep. The institute has established a
breeding flock of crosses between the Red Maasai sheep breed—
which earlier ILRI studies showed to be resistant to worms—and
susceptible Dorper sheep. This breeding programme started in 1997,
so it will be several years before resistance genes are mapped to any
degree of accuracy.
Building for the future on the foundations of
the past
The world’s diverse animal genetic resources have taken millennia to
evolve into their current complex diversity. Only by making sense of
that diversity will we be able to preserve valuable genes for future
generations to use. The modern tools of biotechnology provide us with
the weapons we need to win this battle. They also provide us with the
means to make fuller use of what nature, with human intervention, has
provided—the myriad combinations of genes that are represented by
today’s livestock breeds and types.
Aspects of biotechnology research at
ILRI
By the year 2025, the world’s population will have increased by
around 60% to some 8.5 billion. About 90% of this increase will be in
developing countries. Unless the efficiency of food production can be
increased through sustainable agricultural intensification, poverty,
starvation and environmental degradation will increase. The most
promising way to achieve sustainable increases in food production is
through the wider application of modern technologies, such as
biotechnology, that offer the prospect of major increases in both plant
and animal productivity.
Biotechnology began when man started artificially selecting and
breeding plants and animals to enhance their desirable characteristics,
particularly to improve food production. Subsequently,
biotechnological exploitation of micro-organisms resulted in processes
to produce bread, beer, antibiotics and many other fermentation
products that are used by people around the world.
Biotechnology harnesses the tools of nature in controlled and novel
ways to identify and change the genetic make-up of plants, animals
and micro-organisms. Modern biotechnology has been built on the
understanding of the molecular basis of genetic variation. This
knowledge can be applied in ways that greatly speed up the natural
processes of genetic selection and mutation. Biotechnology now offers
unprecedented opportunities for harnessing the genetic potential of
plants and animals in unique ways that enhance agricultural
productivity and hence increase food security for people.
At ILRI, biotechnology is primarily being used in the development of
new improved vaccines and diagnostics for tropical diseases of
livestock and in the characterisation, utilisation and improvement of
animal and plant genetic resources.
Taking blood from a
cow to identify a
parasite infection. New
diagnostic tests being
developed at ILRI are
quicker, more accurate
and easier to use than
traditional diagnostic
tools.
The success of this work will contribute to the achievements of ILRI’s
wider goals, which are:
• more efficient and sustainable food production
• plants and animals adapted to local conditions and resistant to
local diseases
• fewer but more productive livestock
• less pressure on fragile lands
• reduced chemical control of pests and diseases
• improved ecosystem health.
Biotechnology and disease diagnosis
Diagnosing parasitic diseases can be difficult, especially if one wants
to know precisely which parasite species is responsible. Most current
methods of diagnosing livestock diseases are labour intensive and
require good equipment and facilities and well-trained, experienced
people to identify the pathogenic organisms concerned. Biotechnology
offers prospects of better, more accurate diagnostic tests that are cheap
and simple to use. The simple home pregnancy test kits used world-
wide are a good example.
ILRI has applied biotechnological methods to obtain antigens that can
be used in specific and sensitive diagnostic tests for tick-borne
diseases of livestock (see ‘Diagnostics and epidemiology’, this report).
Faster, more accurate and more sensitive than traditional tests, these
new-generation tests are also cheaper, easier to use and better suited to
the situation of national programmes than older testing systems.
Biotechnology and vaccines
The goal of scientists working to overcome disease problems is a
vaccine that is cheap to generate, easy to deliver and gives widespread
protection against disease. Current vaccines against vector-borne
diseases rely on infection of animals with live organisms, often in
combination with drugs to protect the animal from the disease while
its immune system deals with the infection. Such vaccines are
expensive and require a lot of high-technology resources often
unavailable in developing countries. Laboratories have to maintain,
propagate and control the quality of vaccine cell lines. Delivering the
vaccine to the end user requires a cold chain to preserve the vaccine
and supplies of often highly expensive drugs. The products of
biotechnology, in contrast, should simplify matters. The goal is
products that are cheap to produce and maintain and simple to store,
transport and administer. For example, new-generation vaccines are
commonly lyophilised—freeze-dried—to form a powder that can be
stored at room temperature: no more cold chains. The vaccine is
reconstituted by adding water to the powder as the vaccine is needed.
Simple, cheap, safe to use and highly effective.
ILRI has an extensive programme of research into the development of
subunit vaccines against East Coast fever and trypanosomosis.
Already it has a first-generation vaccine against ECF in field trials
(see ‘Potential vaccine enters field testing’ in ILRI 1996: Out of
Africa, into a global mandate) and is developing second-generation
vaccines using live delivery systems (see ‘Live vaccine delivery
systems for East Coast fever’ in ILRI 1995: Building a global
research institute). The first-generation vaccine is based on a protein
found on the surface of the organism that causes ECF and stimulates
an antibody-based immune response to the parasite as it invades the
host. The second-generation vaccines are targeted at a later stage of
the parasite, once it has invaded the host’s white blood cells, and
stimulates a response from cytotoxic T cells. Developing these
vaccines relies heavily on the tools of biotechnology.
The key to the development of such a vaccine is the identification and
isolation of specific components (antigens) of the causative organism
that induce immunity without inducing pathogenic effects and causing
disease. ILRI is using biotechnology to identify, characterise and
isolate target antigens that can be tested as candidate vaccines. Once a
potential target antigen is identified within a disease organism, the
gene responsible for its expression is isolated from the organism and
inserted into a vector system such as a bacterium (Escherichia coli is
commonly used). The vector or carrier of the antigen gene can be
grown in laboratory culture, producing large amounts of the antigen,
which can be isolated and tested as a candidate vaccine. ILRI has
isolated such antigens from the organisms that cause several major
diseases of livestock in Africa and the developing world. These
antigens are now being tested at ILRI for their efficacy as vaccines.
Tsetse-transmitted trypanosomosis is one disease where the
biotechnological approach may bring a solution. This disease has
steadfastly resisted scientists’ efforts to develop a vaccine against it—
but recent results from research by ILRI and its partners offer real
prospects for progress towards an effective vaccine against
trypanosomes. The stumbling block for past efforts to develop a
vaccine against trypanosomes was the parasite’s ability to ‘clothe’
itself in different surface coats. As the host’s immune system produces
antibodies against proteins on the parasite’s surface coat,
trypanosomes with a different surface protein appear. As the host
develops an immune response to the new protein, a new variant
appears, and so on almost ad infinitum, with the parasite always one
step ahead of the host’s immune system. Eventually, the animal,
weakened by the continuing infection, succumbs to the disease.
But some proteins on the parasite’s surface have to remain the same—
receptor molecules that allow the parasite to capture and take in
nutrients from the host’s blood. Most of these receptors are
concentrated in a structure called the flagellar pocket.
An electron
micrograph showing
the flagellar pocket of
a trypanosome. Recent
research by ILRI and
its partners suggests
that antigens in the
flagellar pocket may
provide the basis of a
vaccine against
trypanosomosis.
New procedures for purifying these receptors have recently been
developed and in initial trials with the purified antigens over 80% of
immunised animals were consistently protected against a lethal
trypanosome challenge, while all of those that were not immunised
succumbed to the disease. Work is now underway to identify and
characterise these receptors. The next step will be to isolate the genes
for these protective antigens and use them to develop what will, ILRI
hopes, be an effective antitrypanosomosis vaccine.
In the doldrums only a year or two ago, scientists working to develop
a vaccine against trypanosomes are now confident that a vaccine is,
indeed, a possibility.
There are also similar expectations at ILRI that a recombinant vaccine
can be developed to control another major disease of cattle in Africa,
the tick-borne disease East Coast fever. A first generation vaccine for
this disease is already under field test (See ‘Potential vaccine enters
field testing’, in ILRI 1996: Out of Africa, into a global mandate).
An N’Dama cow, one of
many breeds that ILRI
is studying using tools
provided by
biotechnology.
Biotechnology and animal breeding
Farmers and stockbreeders have been altering plants and animals for
millennia, ever since hunter-gatherers first settled and domesticated
crops and livestock. They developed new livestock breeds by selecting
and crossing those animals that best suited their needs, those with
higher milk yields or larger size. This was, in essence, the beginning
of biotechnology.
Over the years, plant and animal breeding became more scientific as
our knowledge of genetics developed from its beginning with Gregor
Mendel in the late 19th century. Yet the end result remained the
same—plants and animals that better suit our needs.
But traditional selection methods improve productivity only very
slowly. In the past, the approach was able to keep pace with increasing
food demands. In the future this will not be the case. Unprecedented
human population growth demands a much faster increase in livestock
productivity than has been achieved before, especially in the case of
ruminants. These animals are particularly valuable in large areas of the
world, where they are the only species able to convert the cellulose-
rich feeds that are available into meat, milk, hides, wool, manure and
tractive power.
Biotechnology offers tools that allow us to achieve rapid increases in
productivity. Genetic markers (see ‘Marker-assisted breeding
programmes’ in ILRI 1996: Out of Africa, into a global mandate, and
‘Making sense—and use—of genetic diversity’ in this report) help
breeders identify those animals that carry desirable genes without
having to wait and test them— often a long and painstaking process.
Earlier identification of the animals that have the desired
characteristics means that breeders can keep fewer animals and apply
a much greater ‘selection pressure’, weeding out less promising
animals. The end result is smaller, cheaper breeding programmes and
faster progress. The process is the same as that used since animals
were first domesticated; it is only the tools that differ.
In a similar vein, the same types of tools that help scientists develop
more efficient breeding schemes are used by those interested in
identifying and conserving the world’s genetic resources. ILRI has
used molecular genetic tools to study the range of genetic variation
represented by the Napier grass collection in its forage gene bank (see
‘The grass is always greener…’, in ILRI 1996: Out of Africa, into a
global mandate) and is using them to do the same for African
livestock breeds (see ‘Making sense—and use—of genetic diversity’ in
this report).
Biotechnology and tapping wildlife resources
Cattle are relative newcomers to Africa—they arrived on the continent
only about 7000 years ago—so they still have not adapted to many of
the parasites and diseases found in Africa. But many of the continent’s
large mammals evolved with those same diseases and have long
learned to live with them. If we can find out how these other species
deal with the diseases, we may find ways to use this information to
protect cattle against these diseases.
One area that is showing great promise is studies on the ability of
African buffalo to eliminate trypanosomes from their blood. This
ability lies in the interplay between two blood enzymes, xanthine
oxidase, which produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product of its
action, and catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide to water.
Hydrogen peroxide effectively poisons trypanosomes at very low
concentrations. African buffalo have higher levels of xanthine oxidase
in their blood than most cattle, and lower levels of catalase. Recent
experiments have shown that, during the control of a trypanosome
infection in African buffalo, xanthine oxidase activity remains at a
high level but catalase
activity decreases,
returning to normal
after the parasites are
eliminated. Parallel
experiments in cattle
showed no change in
the activities of these
enzymes during
infection of both
trypanotolerant and
susceptible breeds.
Scientists are now looking for the mechanisms that control these
changes in enzyme activity in the buffalo, in the hope that the
knowledge can be applied to developing cattle that are able to
withstand the disease. This work is part of a collaborative project
between the University of Massachusetts, ILRI and the Kenya
Agricultural Research Institute.
Potential for impact
The technologies and products that ILRI is developing will be
delivered through national programmes and, where appropriate, in
association with commercial partners. The research capacity and
technologies developed can also be applied in a wide range of other
diseases of both animals and man. For example some of the
techniques and products may have diagnostic or therapeutic values
that can be utilised in human medicine.
Improved vaccines will reduce farmers’ reliance on chemical control,
reducing harm to the environment. The application of biotechnology
in animal breeding and health will allow intensification of livestock
production and, in the longer term, enhance productivity in ways that
cannot be achieved through conventional approaches. The new
technologies offer the possibility of providing enough food to meet the
demands of the world’s growing population and of alleviating the
poverty that population increases bring.
Biotechnology and smallholder farmers
These are just some of the ways in which ILRI is using the tools of
biotechnology to address problems faced by smallholder farmers in
the developing world. The tools may be high-tech, but the goal is
simple, appropriate products that will help put more food on the plates
of poor people. The food crisis facing the developing world needs
solutions today and ILRI is using all the tools at its disposal in its
efforts to develop such solutions.
Smallholder dairying—intimate links
between people and livestock
The statistics in support of livestock are impressive. Nearly 2 billion
people—a third of the world’s population—derive at least some of
their livelihood from farm animals; nearly one person in every eight
depends almost entirely on livestock. Domestic animals meet more
than 30% of people’s food and agricultural needs. But livestock are
more than just food. They also provide:
• manure for fertiliser and fuel
• draft power that helps boost crop production and transport the
products to market
• hides and fibre for clothes
Smallholder dairying demonstrates all these functions and more in the
enduring relationship between livestock and people.
In Africa as a whole, smallholder dairying generates more regular
income than any other rural enterprise. Globally, the market value of
milk production is second only to rice in the arid and semi-arid tropics
of South and South-East Asia, second to beef in the subhumid tropics
and subtropics of South and Central America and exceeds all other
food commodities, including coffee, in the warm humid tropics of
South and Central America. With such numbers behind it, dairying
obviously contributes enormously towards alleviating poverty and
improving food security in the tropics; and yet there is much potential
for increasing that contribution, as has been demonstrated by
‘Operation Flood’, the smallholder dairy development scheme in
India.
In Africa as a whole,
smallholder dairying
generates more regular
income than any other
rural enterprise.
Dairying improves human nutrition and health
But dairying can do more than just increase farmers’ incomes—it can
improve the nutrition and health of all members of the household, as
recent studies in the African highlands illustrate.
Previous farm-level studies have shown that adopting crossbred cows
and the associated package of improved feeding and management
strategies increases milk production and household income. What they
did not show, however, is how the changes affect the nutrition and
health of individuals within the households. This gap in our
knowledge is being addressed in a collaborative project involving the
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, the Ethiopian Health and
Nutrition Research Institute (EHNRI) and ILRI, funded by USAID.
‘One of our key concerns is that milk may be seen as a “cash crop” as
yields increase’, said Mirjam Steglich, an ILRI graduate student
registered at Humboldt University in Germany who was involved in
the study under the supervision of Barry Shapiro, an ILRI agricultural
economist. ‘When this happens, men tend to take over marketing the
“crop” and women may lose control of the income. And women tend
to spend their income on food and the household, whereas men may
have other priorities. This study will tell us more about what is
happening in these households as they adopt dairying.’ Early results
show that cash income from dairying increases dramatically in
households with crossbred cows (71 birr per month, compared with
only 11 birr per month in households with only local cows) and that
both men and women benefit almost equally—men’s income from
dairying was 39 birr per month, compared with 32 birr per month for
women.
Birr/month
40
Husband
Wife
30
20
10
0
CBC LBC
Keeping crossbred dairy cows dramatically
increases cash income from dairying, with
women benefiting as much as men
(CBC=households with crossbred cows;
LBC=households with only local cows).
Data collected by the EHNRI show that introducing crossbred cows
can markedly improve human nutrition and health. Two years after the
introduction of crossbred cows, stunting of children (height for age) is
only about half as prevalent in households with the crossbred cows
(26%) as in those with only local cows (47%). Stunting is a measure
of chronic malnutrition and is generally related to poverty, chronic
illness and inadequacy of food. There was little evidence of infectious
diseases among the sample households but there was a large
difference in dairy income between those that kept crossbred cows and
those that did not. This suggests that the reduction in stunting is
related to increased income from dairying rather than reduction in
disease.
Even immediately after crop harvest, when food availability is
greatest, milk consumption in households with crossbred cows was
more than double that in households with only local cows. Children
consumed most milk, followed by men, then women.
Litres
0.7
CBC
LBC
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Children Women Men
Households with crossbred cows (CBC)
consume much more milk than those that
keep only local cows (LBC).
Another study started recently in East Africa, carried out by ILRI in
close collaboration with the Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and the
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), has also shown
dramatic effects of dairying on household income. Households at the
Kenya coast with crossbred cows earned more than one-third of their
cash income from dairying, compared with only 6% for households
with local cows. Even more dramatic was the difference in actual
household income—households with crossbred cows had monthly
incomes nearly 21 times those of households with local cows (7318 vs
347 Kenya shillings)! This work is funded by the Impact Assessment
Evaluation Group of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
Spreading the benefits
Some people have criticised development efforts directed at dairying,
on the basis that dairying needs a large investment to get started and
hence benefits only ‘richer’ farmers. Yet research by ILRI and its
partners clearly demonstrates that dairying is far from being the
preserve of the ‘rich’ but rather is attractive to smallholders and
moreover gives a wide range of spin-off benefits that permeate the
whole community. For example, a survey of farming households at the
East African coast showed that ownership of crossbred cows was quite
evenly distributed across income categories and size of land holdings.
This same research also showed that farmers with dairy cattle employ
more people than those who do not keep dairy cattle. At the Kenya
coast, for example, households with crossbred cows employ more full-
time labour than households without crossbred cows (1.5 labourers
compared with 0.2). They also employ more part-time labour (1.9 vs
1.3). And not only do owners of crossbred cows employ more people,
they also pay them more (1335 Kenya shillings a month compared
with 856 shillings a month for those employed on farms without
crossbreds).
A smallholder dairy
farm at the Kenya
coast. Recent results
indicate that
households with
crossbred dairy cows
have monthly incomes
nearly 21 times those
of households with
local cows.
The extra labour is needed to help care for the cows and to maintain
the Napier grass grown to feed them. Many of the people hired to
work on the dairy farms come from the poorest sector of the
community; dairying offers one of the few employment opportunities
in many of these rural areas.
The dairy subsector is also creating new market opportunities and jobs
in service industries. Since the advent of smallholder dairying in
Kiambu District, in central Kenya, a market has developed for Napier
grass. ‘Several million dollars worth of Napier are traded annually
between highland farms these days,’ notes Steve Staal, the ILRI
economist in the smallholder dairy research team working closely
with KARI and Kenya’s Ministry of Agriculture in a project largely
funded by the Department for International Development (DFID), UK.
Some farmers in the region now specialise in producing feed for dairy
cattle.
While not everyone can get into dairying, many people nonetheless
can benefit from the opportunities it provides. Milk processing, for
example, is a growth ‘industry’ in many parts of the developing world.
‘In The Gambia there are women who buy a few litres of milk each
day from Fula cattle herds, ferment it and then take it to Dakar [in
neighbouring Senegal] twice a week on the bus to sell it,’ points out
Jon Tanner, an ILRI animal nutritionist. Poor, landless people also get
involved in the manure marketing chain in semi-arid East India,
collecting manure from grazing areas or farms with a surplus and
selling to farms that need it as fertiliser.
In much of the developed world, manure is seen as a problem, a
‘waste’ that has to be disposed of. By contrast, in much of the
developing world manure has high value as a marketable
commodity—as is the case in the East African highlands—and may
well be the primary reason for farmers to keep livestock. ‘In some
cases the manure produced by these smallholder dairy units may be
worth twice as much as the amount the farmer makes from selling
milk,’ states Tanner, who leads the nutrient management research
funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA),
DFID and the Rockefeller Foundation.
With manure being such an important ‘product’, nutrient cycling is a
key element of the research carried out by the smallholder dairy team
(see ‘Livestock and nutrient cycling: maintaining a balance’ in this
report). Recent studies in the East African highlands show that
farmers now rank soil fertility decline as the second most serious
problem they face (after the supply of water). The role of livestock
and their manure in combating this problem is important and growing
in the developing world, especially where governments are being
forced to reduce or eliminate subsidies on inorganic fertiliser.
Borana women taking
milk to market. Selling
dairy products is a
major source of
income for many
pastoral people like
the Borana.
ILRI’s ecoregional teams, working closely with their national and
regional partners, are looking at ways to improve nutrient cycling and
one obvious way lies in manure management. ‘Harvesting’ urine and
putting it on cropland assumes increasing importance where livestock
are stall-fed and never graze the fields. ‘Half the nitrogen excreted by
livestock is in their urine, so we have to get it back to the field
somehow,’ says Tanner. Some of the approaches being tried are not
particularly radical or dramatic—covering manure pits to prevent loss
of nitrogen to the air, better urine collection systems, using bedding
and refused feed to absorb and trap the urine—but they may make a
crucial difference in the fight to restore soil fertility and ensure the
good crop yields that are the foundation of food security of some of
the tropics’ poorest people.
Complex systems, complex answers
Describing the approach to dairy research taken by ILRI and its
partners is difficult, as the projects have to look at the web of
interactions between livestock, the farming systems they are part of
and the physical, social and economic environments they operate in.
Efforts focus on improving the performance of the overall system,
rather than on improving livestock production per se. ‘The dairy
element is the entry point,’ notes Tanner, ‘but it is not the end of the
story.’
One of the crucial lessons that this approach is teaching ILRI and its
partners is the need to keep an open mind and not blindly ‘import’
concepts and ideas from the developed world.
‘This was emphasised by a recent survey by a graduate student, a
Ministry extension officer working with the Ministry/KARI/ILRI
team,’ says Tanner. The survey is designed to determine what
technologies farmers have adopted, to what extent they have adopted
them and why they adopted the ones they have. Western dairy
economics dictates that farmers should aim for yearly calving, a
calving interval of 365 days, in order to maximise income. But is that
what these farmers want or do they have different production
objectives?
The initial study found that, while the farmers are looking for high
daily milk yields just like any dairy farmer anywhere in the world,
they are not motivated to shorten calving intervals. ‘They would rather
have low levels of milk every day than go through the process of
drying off and having a calf regularly,’ notes Tanner. Even one or two
litres a day is better than nothing—if the farmer dries off the cow for
six weeks there is no milk coming in, no income. And there is a 50:50
chance that any calf that is born is going to be male, and there is a
poor market for bull calves in the smallholder dairy areas. What
appears at first sight to be poor management is, in fact, a rational and
deliberate response by the farmers to their circumstances.
A web of interactions, a network of partners
This complex, systems-oriented approach to research is demanding for
the research institutes involved, looking as it does at a web of
interactions rather than focusing on any one aspect of the dairy
system. ILRI and its partners therefore have a big challenge,
understanding the relationships linking each component of these
smallholder dairy systems, from animal feeding and management
through to milk processing and consumption studies. And they must
consider the influences of international dairy trade policies, aspects
which are being looked at, to understand the competitiveness of the
dairy sector at international, national and local levels. And not only in
one location—the programme operates in several sites in East and
West Africa, and is strengthening its links into Asia and has activities
in Latin America.
Why go to all this trouble? Because the demand for milk and dairy
products from rapidly urbanising populations in the tropics and
changing balances in world trade have created great opportunities for
smallholders to produce more milk more profitably, if they are given
the right technical, policy and institutional support. These
opportunities are challenges for the people in the research and
development community, challenges that are closely tied to the needs
of the smallholder farmers they are dedicated to helping.
Diagnostics and the environment
Diagnostic tests are essential tools for those studying or trying to
control diseases. ILRI is now able to provide a range of reagents that
give improved diagnosis of blood-borne parasitic diseases of
livestock.
Defining the problem
If you want to define accurately a disease problem, you need good
diagnostic tests. If you then develop a strategy for controlling the
disease—vaccines or maybe a combination of vaccine and
management practices—you still need diagnostics to monitor the
effect of the control programmes. Ultimately, veterinarians and
farmers need cheap, simple diagnostic tests that they can use on farms
to help them protect and treat animals.
At the research level, ILRI scientists need to have accurate tests for
identifying, characterising and monitoring infections in animals.
These tests need to be both sensitive and specific; sensitive enough to
give a reliable indication of the presence or absence of infection and
specific enough to be able to identify the particular parasite involved.
Specificity is important: among the tick-borne diseases affecting
livestock in the tropics, for example, there are six different Theileria
species, two different Babesia species, two different Anaplasma
species and one species of Cowdria. And in most cases, animals in the
field will be infected with several of these.
Commonly-applied diagnostic tests are based on the use of fluorescent
microscopy. Slides are coated with parasite antigen preparations. Sera
from animals to be tested are placed on these coated slides. If the
animal is infected it will have antibodies against the parasite and these
bind to the parasites on the slide. The antigen–antibody complex can
be detected under a fluorescent microscope.
Using fluorescent
microscopy for
diagnosis.
Biotechnology is
providing better, faster
diagnostic tools for
scientists studying
livestock diseases.
Therein lies a problem: many of the parasites are biologically very
similar and share common proteins, or antigens. No matter which
parasite is on the slide, it is possible that antibodies against another
parasite species will bind to it—so-called cross-reaction. So the test
shows that the animal is infected, but not with what. Specificity is
very low. The problem mainly lies with the antigen preparation, which
is crude and contains many cross-reacting elements. Although
sensitivity may be high, there are problems with specificity and
standardisation in diagnostic tests that rely on crude antigens.
A biotechnology approach
Scientists have now moved away from the crude antigen approach and
are focusing on dissecting each parasite using modern molecular
biology technology. ILRI is adopting this approach with the tick-
transmitted diseases of livestock. The aim is to identify proteins
unique to each particular parasite that are also immunogenic—i.e.
animals that are infected ‘see’ that particular protein and produce
antibodies to it.
Scientists went out in the field in areas where particular diseases were
known to be present and took blood samples from animals that had
survived in that environment. The assumption was that those animals
would have been repeatedly infected and hence would have high
levels of antibodies to the particular organism. They then tested the
sera in a biochemical assay to identify proteins seen by these sera. By
doing so, the scientists identified unique, parasite-specific antigens
that are recognised by naturally infected animals.
That provided the antigen. The next step was to identify the parasite
gene that encodes for the antigen and insert it into a bacterium
(Escherichia coli). The bacterium is then able to produce the antigen
in culture vessels in the laboratory. The result: the ability to produce
large quantities of standard and pure antigen cheaply, efficiently and
without the use of live animals.
Products available
Since this project started four years ago, ILRI scientists have
identified unique proteins for four key parasites: Theileria parva,
Theileria mutans, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale. These
have been used to develop improved ELISA (enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay) tests specific to each parasite and thus improve
the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosis of diseases caused by these
parasites.
Identifying which parasite an animal is infected with is as simple as
placing serum in wells of an ELISA plate coated with a parasite
antigen. If the animal has antibodies for, say, Theileria parva, the
antibodies will bind to the antigen in the well of the T. parva ELISA
plate. The presence of the antibody/antigen complex is displayed by
the use of a chromogen (colour dye), and the plate can be read under a
spectrophotometer (an ELISA reader). The whole process can be
automated so that the results can be read and analysed by a computer.
Requests for tests
Many diagnostic laboratories in Africa now have ELISA readers and
the tests are now widely used. For example, in the past year, ILRI has
provided ‘kits’ that have been used in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania,
Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Swaziland and several countries in West
Africa. The kits are modular, so that if a requesting laboratory is well
established and has the standard laboratory equipment and reagents
needed to carry out the test, ILRI need send them only the antigen
plates and control sera needed to validate the tests.
ILRI’s diagnostic kit for
East Coast fever
includes all materials
needed, together with
detailed instructions on
their use.
Building on a resource
Anyone wanting to develop antibody-detection ELISA tests like those
ILRI has been working on first needs a set of defined reference sera or
‘standards’ to evaluate their test against. Building this reference set
involves infecting large numbers of animals with each parasite species
alone and in combination. Sera from these animals are thus known to
contain antibodies against a known infection, be it single or multiple.
Scientists test candidate antigens against the reference sera to
determine whether they are ‘recognised’ by antibodies in infected
animals and if so whether such recognition is specific to the parasite in
question. Only after such tests have shown the antigen to be promising
will it be tested under field conditions, where the scientist does not
know what infections are present.
Building up a bank of such reference sera is expensive and time
consuming, but is necessary. Once done, however, it is a resource that
can be extensively used, one that makes developing further tests much
quicker and easier.
For example, during 1997 a scientist from the University of York, UK,
used ILRI’s reference sera to test a candidate antigen for a diagnostic
test for Theileria annulata. This parasite, related to the one that causes
East Coast fever (Theileria parva), occurs in a broad swathe from
southern Spain to China and has a major economic impact on
livestock production. By testing the candidate antigen against ILRI’s
reference sera, she was able to determine, in only one month, that the
antigen does not cross-react with antibodies for any other parasites
and hence that the antigen would potentially make a good diagnostic
test for Theileria annulata.
Building the reference set of sera took ILRI several years, but it is
now saving the institute and its partners time and money. ILRI has
also developed links with a European group, the Integrated Control of
Tick and Tick-borne Diseases Action Group, to continue building the
reference set of sera, making it even more useful.
The next phase
The next phase of this work is to develop rapid ‘pen-side tests’, tests
that can be used simply and easily to detect infection on farms. The
aim is to develop a test similar to that used by millions of diabetics
around the world—take a drop of blood, put it on a slide and read off
the result seconds later.
ILRI is in the process of developing links with a number of groups in
Europe and the USA to move this work forwards. ‘The hard work is
done,’ says Subhash Morzaria, a molecular parasitologist at ILRI. ‘We
have the defined antigens. The next step is to adapt them to rapid
detection formats so that they can be used at farm level by field
workers.’ This needs technology that ILRI does not have, hence the
links with other advanced research institutes. ILRI hopes to have
sensitive, specific pen-side tests within three years.
Tests in the field
Several projects in Africa have been using ILRI diagnostic tests in
recent years. For example, in a field trial of East Coast fever
immunisation in Kenya, national programme scientists are using the
ILRI ELISAs to help them decide where animals need to be
vaccinated and to monitor the efficacy of the vaccine applied. So, for
example, if they find that most of the animals they test in a particular
region already have high levels of antibodies against Theileria parva,
there is no need to vaccinate the animals—they have already been
exposed to the parasite and should be immune. The test thus helps
them apply the vaccine selectively.
And once the animals have been vaccinated, the trial is using the
ELISA test to determine whether the vaccination was successful, if it
provoked an immune response. So the test can be used to evaluate the
success of the delivery of the vaccine as well.
ILRI’s diagnostic test
for East Coast fever is
in use in several
countries in Africa,
including Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda and
Zimbabwe.
Similar immunisation trials are underway in Tanzania, Uganda and
Zimbabwe.
The scientists running the trial in Uganda are using the ELISA tests to
study the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and the dynamics of
these diseases in different farming systems. Two surveys have been
carried out, one cross-sectional, the other longitudinal, in three key
farming systems. By monitoring cattle over a long period, the
scientists are finding out how soon after birth calves get infected with
economically important tick-borne parasites, how often the animals
get infected and what effects this has on productivity. Their results
have already shown marked differences between systems; in one of
the systems the calves get infected within a month of being born, in
another they stay clear of infection for three to four months.
Obviously this has radical implications for any proposed vaccination
and control programmes: in one system one has to vaccinate calves
very soon after they are born if the vaccine is to be of any use, while
in the other there is a four-month window in which to vaccinate
calves.
Characterisation tools
The other component of ILRI’s diagnostics research programme is the
development of characterisation tools, tools that allow scientists to
identify precisely which strain of parasite they are dealing with.
All tick borne disease vaccines currently being used in the field are
live vaccines—one infects animals with attenuated or modified
parasites that do not cause clinical disease yet induce immunity. All
well and good, but parasites may undergo antigenic change or sexual
recombination, so the parasite is constantly changing and evolving.
What happens if one introduces a ‘foreign’ strain of, for example,
Theileria parva as a vaccine? Does the introduced strain replace the
local strain? Does it mingle with the local strain? No one really
knows—but ILRI’s characterisation tools are helping us to find out.
The tools used are genetic markers which identify specific strains and
trace changes in the parasite’s genetic make up. Already ILRI has
developed markers for the specific Theileria parva parasites used in
the East Coast fever vaccine in Kenya and for several other T. parva
strains that may be used in eastern, central and southern Africa. ILRI
is also developing markers for other species and strains of parasites.
An interesting finding that has come out of this work is that the
genetic variation in the local Theileria parva population is very slight
in Zimbabwe, whereas in eastern African countries there is enormous
variation in the Theileria parva population. One implication of this is
that vaccination against theileriosis in Zimbabwe may require the use
of only one strain of the parasite, whereas in eastern African countries
a mixture of strains would be required in the vaccine to provide
protection against a number of genetically different parasites.
These studies provide scientific rationale for making decisions on the
types of live vaccines to be used in different countries.
Not a panacea, but useful tools
Diagnostic tests are not a panacea for determining the methods needed
to control tick-borne diseases. The information they provide still needs
to be integrated with other information about a production system and
with knowledge of farmers’ circumstances and intentions. Take, for
example, the case of cattle at the Kenya coast. As these diagnostic
tests will show, most of the cattle have high levels of antibodies
against Theileria parva. They have all been exposed to the disease and
survived it. They have achieved ‘endemic stability’—a balance
between the parasite and the animals’ ability to resist its effects. So
there is no real disease problem in the area, as long as the situation
remains as it is. But if farmers start bringing in exotic animals to boost
their milk production, they could face serious disease problems—
these newly-introduced animals may not have immunity to the disease
and could rapidly succumb to it.
Indigenous breeds of
cattle in traditional
production systems
may have developed
immunity to East Coast
fever, but more
productive exotic
animals may succumb
rapidly to the disease.
Diagnostic tests provide useful information about the disease status of
animals but the information needs to be used in conjunction with
clinical, epidemiological and systems information if it is to be truly
useful.
Impact of trypanosomosis control
Trypanosomosis has helped shape land use in many parts of Africa
over the centuries. The disease makes it difficult for farmers to keep
livestock in large parts of the continent and, while not precluding
human use of the land, reduces agricultural productivity. By excluding
livestock or limiting their numbers, trypanosomosis and its vector, the
tsetse fly, have come to be seen by some as the guardians of Africa’s
unspoilt environments. Some people have expressed fears as to what
might happen to the environment if trypanosomosis were to be
controlled, for example, through application of a vaccine, or if tsetse
fly populations were to be dramatically reduced.
Yet people too must come into the picture. Africa’s human population
is growing rapidly, as are its demands for food. Trypanosomosis is an
obstacle to meeting those demands even from land that is already
settled and being farmed. A recent review of previous studies, most of
which were conducted by ILRI and its partners, indicates that
trypanosomosis:
• reduces cattle offtake by up to 30%
• reduces milk offtake by up to 40% and
• reduces the work performance of oxen by up to 33%.
Even so-called trypanotolerant animals are not immune to the effects
of the disease. For example, while trypanosomosis reduces calving
rates by up to 20% in susceptible breeds it still reduces calving rate by
up to 12% in trypanotolerant breeds.
Effects of controlling the disease on land use
and farming
ILRI has been studying the effects of tsetse control on land use and
human welfare in the Ghibe valley in south-western Ethiopia since the
early 1990s. The Ghibe valley has been settled for a long time and
hence the environment has already been modified considerably by
human activities. ILRI’s ecologists have used aerial photographs and
satellite images of the valley to map changes in land use between 1957
and 1993, and have related these changes to what farmers in the area
know about changes in their environment.
The Ghibe valley,
south-western
Ethiopia.
Farmers told ILRI’s researchers that trypanosomosis first came to the
Ghibe valley in the early to mid-1980s. Comparing the aerial
photographs from 1971–73 with satellite images from 1987 shows a
massive change in land use—a drop of 50–70% in the amount of land
that was cultivated in the valley. ‘Today, you can stand on a ridge and
look down into the valley and you see no cultivated fields in the
valley, not one,’ says Robin Reid, an ecologist working with ILRI.
‘Look at the aerial photos taken 25 years ago and it is just chock-a-
block with cultivated fields, right up to the river. The change is very
clear.’
Another feature of the environment in the Ghibe valley is that the
predominant vegetation type is not what would be expected from
environmental parameters such as rainfall. While the area is suited to
forest or bush savannah, the land is primarily under grass, with the
occasional acacia tree; tree canopy cover is only 6%, compared with
90–100% in a forest. It seems likely that the environment has already
been substantially altered by human intervention, probably through
frequent burning.
ILRI’s initial research in the Ghibe valley showed a high prevalence
of trypanosomosis infections in cattle and a high degree of parasite
resistance to all available trypanocidal drugs. An alternative to drug
treatment was thus needed and ILRI researchers and their
collaborators started a programme to control the tsetse flies that
transmit the trypanosome parasites.
Tsetse control trials were started in parts of the Ghibe valley in 1991.
Control methods focused on using insecticide-impregnated screens
and insecticides applied to animals—pour-ons—to reduce the tsetse
populations and keep them at low levels. The pour-on trial was
particularly successful and popular with farmers. The tsetse
population is now at only 10% of its pre-control level and the
incidence of trypanosomosis has fallen by a similar amount in the
control area. Farmers perceive that the sustained use of the pour-on
reduces trypanosomosis incidence and the problems associated with
tsetse flies, other biting flies and ticks. Individual farmers have been
paying for the treatments, on a cost-recovery basis, since December
1992. Each month between 1000 and 6000 cattle are treated at a cost
to the farmers of between US$ 500 and US$ 3000.
This sustained control of trypanosomosis has had marked effects on
agricultural production and human welfare in the area. ILRI’s
economists have quantified the value of the increased herd growth,
increased offtake of live cattle, increased offtake of milk and reduced
use of trypanocidal drugs. They have estimated that benefits have
exceeded the costs borne by farmers by about 800% and have
exceeded the total costs to farmers and the project by about 425%.
In addition, farmers in the area where the tsetse population has been
controlled keep more oxen than those in an adjacent area where the
tsetse population has not been controlled. Moreover, the oxen in the
tsetse-control area are more productive—each additional ox kept adds
nearly a hectare to the amount of land the farmer cultivates in the
tsetse-control area, compared with just over half a hectare where tsetse
population has not been controlled. And because farmers tend to keep
more animals where tsetse have been controlled, those without any
oxen of their own are able to borrow oxen from their neighbours and
cultivate some land with oxen power. In the nearby tsetse-infested
area, farmers with no oxen of their own cultivate only by hand—a
laborious, back-breaking exercise. Numerous farmers in group
interviews noted that farmers who cultivate by hand tend to cultivate
land that has lighter soils, often on slopes, because it is easier to work
by hand—but this land is more vulnerable to degradation and erosion
than the heavier clayey soils of the valley bottoms. Thus, ox-powered
cultivation may be helping prevent soil erosion.
US$ '000
500
Increased herd
Benefit–cost ratio for farmers = 8
value
450
Benefit–cost ratio for project = 4 Increased
liveweight
400 Increase in farm income = 30%
offtake
Increased milk
350
offtake
300 Reduced
Pour-on was cheaper than other 
approaches to tsetse control berenil use
250 Costs of pour-
on treatments
200 Transaction
costs
150 Delivery and
monitoring
100 costs
50
0
Benefits Costs to farmers Total costs to 
farmers and project 
The benefits of tsetse control far outweighed the costs over the first
five years of a project in the Ghibe valley, south-western Ethiopia.
The overall effect of this on crop production is marked. Farmers in the
tsetse-control area crop more than two and a half times as much land
as those in the neighbouring tsetse-infested area. Significantly, they
also indicate that they have increased the amount of land they cropped
from the previous season and intend to increase more in the future.
The effects of increasing the productivity of work oxen will not
always be the same as this. If, for example, the amount of cultivable
land were limited for all households, the average household in the
tsetse-control area would need one less ox to cultivate the same
amount of land as a household in the tsetse-infested area. If, on the
other hand, there were no other constraint on the amount of land a
household could cultivate, a household with a given number of oxen
in the tsetse-control area could cultivate about twice as much land as a
household with the same number of oxen in the tsetse-infested area.
Apart from the direct effects of trypanosomosis, the risk of
trypanosomosis also influences farmers’ behaviour. For example, in
Ghibe, farmers in the tsetse-control area bought three and a half times
as many cattle in a year and had sale and slaughter rates four times as
high as farmers in the tsetse-infested area.
Cultivated area (ha)
6
Non-users
Users
5 No control area
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of oxen
Farmers in an area where the tsetse
population has been reduced keep more
oxen than farmers in an adjacent area where
the fly has not been controlled. Moreover,
oxen in the tsetse-control area are more
productive than those where the fly has not
been controlled.
Area cultivated (ha)
6
Testse control
No testse control
4
2
0
Previous Most recent Next season
season season (planned)
Farmers in the tsetse-control area crop
more land than those in areas where the fly
has not been controlled.
In a second area, where tsetse control efforts started in 1994, farmers
are already reporting subjective benefits such as their animals looking
healthier and being easier to manage although no measurable increases
in productivity have yet been found. Interestingly, however, there has
been no measurable change in tsetse population so far.
Projecting future changes
Direct control methods such as insecticide use are not the only
mechanisms that affect tsetse populations and hence trypanosomosis
incidence. Changes in land use, particularly increasing cultivation, and
reductions in wild animal populations—food sources for the tsetse
flies and reservoirs of trypanosome infection—combine to reduce fly
numbers and disease incidence. Indeed, clearing bush and reducing
wild life populations have both been used extensively in Africa to
reduce tsetse infestation. Some people have argued that human
population growth will eventually control the tsetse fly without
additional intervention from control programmes.
During 1997, ILRI scientists examined this hypothesis using a
geographic information system-based approach. The first step was to
survey the literature and determine the levels of land-use intensity and
human population density at which tsetse populations begin to decline
and then disappear. They then developed several human population
scenarios showing likely levels of human population in 2020 and
2040. These data layers were then overlaid with the distribution of
each group of tsetse flies (morsitans, fusca and palpalis) and areas
where tsetse populations may decline were identified.
Rawlings Scenario, 
Fusca Group
1960 1990
93% 83%
0 - 30 people / km2 Tsetse high
31 - 78 people / km2 Tsetse declining
> 78 people / km2 Tsetse very low
2020 2040
70% 63%
Areas infested by the tsetse fly are shrinking but the fly will be with us
for many years to come.
In 1960, 85–95% of the land area in Africa suited to tsetse flies of the
morsitans group supported healthy fly populations. The ILRI study
suggests that this will decrease to 50–60% of the originally infested
area by 2040—a significant drop but far from the hypothesised total
disappearance of the fly. The study indicates similar falls in fusca-
group tsetse flies. However, the literature indicates that the population
of palpalis-group tsetse flies is essentially unaffected by changes in
human population and hence will change little, if at all.
The biggest change indicated by the study is in the proportion of
people living in areas with high tsetse populations. In 1960 about 25–
40% of people in ‘fly zones’ lived in scattered settlements where
tsetse populations were likely to be high. By 2040 less than 6% of
people are likely to live where fly populations are high.
Overall, the study suggests that human population growth will control
all species of tsetse fly over about 7% of their current distribution by
2040. Thus, barring the development of a strategic solution, such as a
vaccine, trypanosomosis will be widespread in Africa for some time to
come. However, trypanosomosis risk may fall considerably across a
larger area, because the tsetse group that is most susceptible to the
effects of human population (the morsitans group) is the most efficient
of the groups at transmitting trypanosomosis to people and livestock.
Thus, most of the people and livestock in contact with the fly will be
under low to moderate challenge, rather than high challenge. ‘Partial’
disease control measures such as drugs and keeping trypanotolerant
livestock are more effective under low to moderate challenge than
under high challenge.
This latest use of geographic information systems technology
complements knowledge derived from a study of where tsetse control
would have the greatest benefits to agricultural production and human
populations while having least impact on unspoilt environments (see
ILRI 1996: Out of Africa, into a global mandate).
Building on knowledge
ILRI’s research in trypanosomosis addresses all aspects of the disease
and its effects, from the environment through to people’s lives. These
studies build on years of knowledge and data gained by ILRI in all
aspects of trypanosomosis. Bringing together research from across
Africa and building on data gathered from a variety of sources, ILRI’s
research in the field of trypanosomosis is unique and invaluable.
ILRI in Latin America
The Latin America and Caribbean region (LAC) is vast, complex and
well endowed with natural resources. However, it is also a region
characterised by high population growth rate, poverty, income
disparity and increasing natural resource degradation. LAC is home to
more than a third of the developing world’s cattle and one-seventh of
its sheep but only about one-twentieth of its goats. This is a new
region for ILRI, as the institute moves to fulfil its global mandate, one
in which ILRI has as much to learn as to contribute.
The first step in planning ILRI’s activities in LAC was a regional
consultation organised by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation
in Agriculture (IICA), Costa Rica, the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, and ILRI. The meeting was held in
San José, Costa Rica, in 1995. Participants identified two high-priority
ecoregions: the high Andes and the tropical hillsides and lowlands.
In its initial steps into this new region, ILRI has chosen to associate
itself with two successful research and development consortia that
have been running in the region for several years. These are
Tropileche, a consortium of national programmes and advanced
research institutes led by the International Center for Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia, and CONDESAN, a broader
consortium led by the International Potato Center, CIP, in Peru.
Tropileche focuses on improving smallholder dairy systems in the
hillsides of Central America and the forest margins of the Amazon
basin, while CONDESAN focuses on mixed crop–livestock farming
systems and dairy systems in the high Andes.
This article focuses on ILRI’s involvement in the Andean ecoregion.
From sustainable agriculture to degradation
and emigration
The Andean ecoregion covers about two million square kilometres in
South America, including large parts of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru and Venezuela, and parts of Argentina and Chile. It is home to
more than 135 million people, most of whom depend on agriculture
for their livelihood. It is a harsh region, characterised by high altitude
and generally low temperatures.
This region was home to
a flourishing and
sophisticated
civilisation that lasted
until after the Spanish
colonisation in the
sixteenth century. The
indigenous culture had
developed highly
productive and
sustainable agricultural
systems, based on
efficient soil and water management and integration of crops and
livestock. However, increasing human population has increased the
demand for land and food. The traditional production systems have
broken down or been forgotten and the region’s natural resources are
degrading. Soil erosion is severe throughout much of the region.
Faced with increasing population pressure, the harsh environment and
the low productivity of the region’s agriculture, many people have
migrated from the Andes to neighbouring regions, particularly major
urban centres and the humid and subhumid tropical lowlands. There,
they contribute to the destruction of the Amazon rain forest in their
search for land to crop.
Thus, the problems of
the Andean region are
intimately linked with
the problems facing
much of South
America. Boosting the
productivity of the
highland farming
systems will have far-
reaching economic,
social and
environmental effects
throughout the region.
Consortium for the Sustainable Development
of the Andean Ecoregion
CONDESAN, the Consortium for the Sustainable Development of the
Andean Ecoregion, was set up in March 1992 following a meeting of
agriculturalists, social scientists and natural resource management
specialists at CIP. It currently has more than 60 member organisations,
including research and development institutes from Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela, the Inter-
American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) in Costa
Rica and Cornell University in the USA. It is funded by several
donors including the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC), IDRC,
the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the Directorate General
for International Cooperation (DGIS), The Netherlands, Spain, the
United States Agency for International Development-Collaborative
Research Support Program (USAID-CRSP), the European
Development Fund (EDF) and several national partners. ILRI joined
CONDESAN in 1997 and now has a staff member based at CIP.
The consortium’s research is focused in four main areas: biodiversity,
water and land use, production systems and analysis of development
policies. ILRI brings to CONDESAN its experience in integrated
crop–livestock systems and in livestock policy analysis. On the other
hand, CONDESAN offers ILRI the opportunity to build on substantial
experience in systems research, including the use of computer
simulation models to integrate information on livestock and mixed
systems, and watersheds. Possibilities for transregional analysis and
collaboration among different highland ecoregions in the Andes,
Himalayas and the African highlands are also being explored.
CONDESAN is currently carrying out field research at five
benchmark sites, one each in Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador and two
in Peru. The sites represent a range of agro-ecological zones and
agricultural systems found extensively throughout the Andean region.
Puno (Peru) and Patacamaya (Bolivia) are on the Andean plateau at
nearly 4000 metres above sea level, a zone known as the Altiplano.
The common farming systems at these sites are: Alpacas grazed on
natural pasture together with bitter potatoes; dairy cattle fed on
cultivated and natural pastures with potatoes–barley–oats and quinoa;
beef cattle and sheep on natural pastures; and potatoes–barley–pulses
together with dairying. Carchi (Ecuador), Cajamarca (Peru) and La
Miel (Colombia) are in humid and subhumid valleys between the
Andean ranges at about 2700 metres above sea level. The main
livestock system is dairying on cultivated grasses and legumes, while
the main crops are potatoes, barley and legumes.
Livestock feature in
some 70% of Andean
smallholder farming
systems, and 80% of
livestock products are
sold. In contrast, crops
are almost entirely
consumed within the
households. Livestock
thus provide the main
source of income in
most of these
subsistence-oriented farming systems, and hence have a strong
influence on income and capitalisation as well as traction and nutrient
cycling.
Key issues constraining intensification of livestock production in
some systems include poor access to markets, lack of access to credit
and small herd and flock sizes. ILRI research is now addressing these
at the five CONDESAN sites and Chimborazo (Ecuador).
Complementary activities are being carried out in the tropical hillsides
and central highlands. This work involves partners in national
agricultural research institutes, non-governmental organisations, the
private sector and universities.
ILRI’s partners in livestock-related research include the Instituto
Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) and Fundacion
para el Desarrollo Agropecuario (FUNDAGRO) in Ecuador; Centro
de Investigacion de Recuros Naturales y Medio Ambiente
(CIRNMA), Universidad Tecnica de Cajamarca, Universidad
Nacional Agraria de La Molina, INCALAC (Nestlé) and Universidad
Alcides Carrion in Peru; Universidad de Caldas in Colombia; and
Instituto Boliviano de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (IBTA) in Bolivia.
Ex ante assessments indicate that farmers need at least five or six
appropriately fed milking cows if dairying is to be biologically and
economically sustainable. A project aimed at promoting market-
oriented smallholder dairying is now providing credit to selected
farmers to establish or expand perennial and annual forage crops to
provide supplementary feeding during the dry season and hence boost
milk offtake. The credit is operated as a revolving fund—as farmers
reimburse the project other farmers are given access to credit.
These studies will provide bases for policy recommendations, leading
to credit and extension policies that will help promote sustainable
animal production in the Andean region.
ILRI/CONDESAN is planning to co-ordinate its activities with those
of two consortia operating in adjacent ecosystems, Tropileche and
CODESU (Consortium for Sustainable Development of Ucayali,
Peru). This will provide a more holistic understanding of socio-
economic alternatives for farmers who migrate from one region to
another, and will help determine comparative advantages for milk
production in the highlands and lowland humid tropics. It will also
promote exchange of research methods with other ILRI projects,
including the use of computer simulation models for ex ante
assessments of the likely impact of interventions.
Great oaks from little acorns grow
These are just the beginnings for ILRI’s involvement in the Latin
America and Caribbean region, but should provide a strong foundation
on which to build. ILRI’s strengths in livestock policy analysis,
animal health, genetics and feed resources offer wide scope for the
institute to contribute to developing more productive, sustainable
crop–livestock systems in this region.
Balancing human needs, livestock and
the environment
The way some people talk about the effects of livestock on the
environment, it sounds as if livestock themselves decide whether or
not to destroy our environment. But the fact is, livestock do not
degrade the environment—people do.
The misperception of livestock as degraders of the environment
originates largely in the developed world, where intensive specialised
livestock production is the norm. Livestock are blamed for a wide
range of human ills, from heart disease through to global warming.
Studies in developing countries have shown that children who do not
get enough meat and milk in their diets may end up physically and
mentally compromised. Animal manure and urine that people in the
developed world see as pollutants are vital fertilisers to smallholder
farmers in the developing world.
In some cases, the
misperceptions have led
to policies that have
exacerbated the
negative effects of
livestock rather than
alleviating them. For
example, the
misperceptions
regarding overgrazing
in the arid areas have
led to measures to control livestock movement and stocking rates,
thereby causing more, rather than less, land degradation. A better
understanding of the complementarity of domesticated and wild
animals would have led to greater species wealth and improved well-
being of local human populations.
But finding out what is really known about livestock and their effects
on the environment in the developing world and canvassing the
opinions, on this topic, of people in the developing world is difficult,
time-consuming and expensive.
In an effort to address these issues, ILRI, the International
Development Research Centre (IDRC), the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), INFORUM (The Center
for Sustainable Agriculture) and the World Bank organised a global
consultation on interactions between livestock and the environment.
This built on an earlier study, entitled ‘Balancing Livestock,
Environment and Human Needs’, carried out by FAO, the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the World
Bank. A key objective was to present the conclusions of the earlier
study to a wide range of stakeholders, particularly from developing
countries, giving them the opportunity to have their views presented in
a global forum.
A global electronic conference and more
The consultation comprised an electronic conference involving more
than 1000 people from 86 countries around the world, together with
local round-table meetings in 27 developing countries. The local
consultations involved a wide range of stakeholders, including
livestock farmers, farmers’ groups, government officials and policy
makers, teachers, NGO representatives, agricultural and social
scientists, environmentalists, extension agents and industrialists.
Reports from some of the local consultations were shared with
participants in the electronic conference. The combined consultation
provided information on the state of the environment in different parts
of the world, some of the forces that lead to pressure on natural
resources and the response of society to environmental degradation.
An important outcome was the development of specific
recommendations for future research and development activities.
Needs identified by the consultation included development of
sustainable agricultural systems for different ecoregions of the world,
more holistic approaches toward research and development, and
policy recommendations based on broad stakeholder participation.
Reports presented to
the consultation
showed that
deforestation, soil
erosion, reduced soil
fertility, loss of
biodiversity, water
contamination, waste
disposal and
greenhouse gas
emissions are
recognised
environmental problems in many regions. They also showed broad
agreement as to the forces driving environmental degradation:
increasing human population pressure; micro- and macro-economic
policies; cultural values; poverty; communal land tenure; lack of
appropriate technology to harmonise production with resource
conservation; lack of awareness of the interactions among livestock,
the environment and human needs; lack of infrastructure to facilitate
marketing; and lack of involvement of local communities in their own
development.
None of the participants in the local consultations explicitly described
direct negative impacts of livestock on natural resources. However,
they did cite overgrazing, overstocking and feeding of crop residues to
livestock without returning manure to the land as causes of
environmental degradation, but without indicating how much of the
observed environmental degradation can be attributed directly to
livestock production.
Again, while some participants stated that livestock have positive
effects on the environment, such as the utilisation of grasslands and
crop residues—giving value to resources that would otherwise be
wasted—and the beneficial effects that grasslands have on the
environment, including carbon sequestration—trapping carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, thus reducing levels of this ‘greenhouse
gas’—nutrient cycling and arresting soil erosion, they did not quantify
them.
Most reports indicated a lack of awareness among governments of
livestock-related environmental issues. Some trends are emerging,
such as the creation of government environmental bodies,
environmental NGOs and the inclusion of environmental concerns in
policy formulation. However, there is still too little scientific data to
inform policy makers, compounded by the lack of effective interaction
between scientists and policy makers.
Poor management, not livestock, degrades the
environment
The consultations clearly demonstrated that much land degradation
and environmental damage that is associated with livestock production
is mainly due to population pressure coupled with inappropriate
livestock management practices and policies.
Key issues raised
Livestock-related environmental problems differ markedly between
the developed and the developing worlds, a point stressed by the
contributions to the consultation.
In developing
countries, most
environmental
problems are related to
poverty and policies.
Any attempt to
minimise the impact
of livestock on the
environment is bound
to fail if farmers do
not have better
economic alternatives.
Solutions need to try not only to protect the environment but also to
encourage more lucrative ways of managing livestock.
In contrast, livestock-related environmental problems in developed
countries can be solved by tougher enforceable legislation that makes
livestock producers pay for any harm their activities do to the
environment.
The discussion brought out the need for holistic research to better
quantify the biophysical and socio-economic interactions of livestock,
the environment and human needs. As demand for livestock products
continues to increase in developing countries, finding the appropriate
balance is still an issue. In particular, research is needed to quantify
the effects of system intensification in developing countries and
system extensification or area-wide integration of crop–livestock
systems in developed countries.
The consultations highlighted several constraints to addressing issues
of livestock, the environment and human needs, including:
• paucity of information on livestock, agriculture and the
environment
• lack of a holistic approach in most of the research dealing with
livestock–environment interactions and lack of appropriate
indicators of these interactions
• lack of involvement of scientists in the development of policies
relating to livestock and the environment
• inconsistent goals of farmers, scientists and policy makers
• lack of use of quantitative data for policy formulation.
Lessons
learned
The dual nature of the
global consultation—
electronic and local
round-table
discussions—proved
invaluable in
broadening the
participation of
stakeholder groups. Participation in the electronic conference was
heavily biased towards people based in the developed world, with
two-thirds of participants being based in North America and Europe,
albeit with a strong interest in the developing world. Only 11% of
participants were from Africa, the Near East and Asia. There was also
a strong bias towards scientists (94% of participants), particularly
livestock scientists (45%). This tended to ‘skew’ the discussions. In
contrast, participation on the round-table discussions was much
broader, with much greater participation by people at the
development, extension or producer levels. These face-to-face
consultations also, inevitably, drew their participation from those
active in the countries where they were held, increasing involvement
of those from the developing world.
However, integrating the two ‘streams’ proved difficult given the
timing of the consultation and the object of preparing a position paper
for a conference held in The Netherlands in July 1997. The original
intention was to have a two-way flow of information between the
electronic and round-table components and to have a unified debate of
both global and local issues. While this proved unworkable, the two
components of the consultation provided useful sets of conclusions
and recommendations with which to work.
Another key lesson learned was that of the need for a well-defined set
of issues to be discussed and more active involvement of a moderator
to promote full discussion of relevant issues. ‘We found that once an
issue was raised, several people would acknowledge its importance
but attention soon moved onto another issue,’ said Dr Victor Mares,
one of the organisers of the consultation. ‘This resulted in only
superficial treatment of some issues.’ Similarly, several key issues
were not raised by participants and hence did not get discussed. Such
issues included the importance of women in livestock systems; the
role of pastures and grasslands in carbon sequestration, soil protection,
water cycling and maintaining soil microfauna populations; the
interaction between ecoregions (e.g. effects on the Amazon region of
economic, political and natural resource management in the Andean
region); and the consequences of land clearing methods on soil
degradation in ranching systems. Operating the global consultation
more as a moderated discussion forum might have ensured that the
most important topics received the attention needed and that a broader
range of issues was raised.
The next steps
People around the world recognise the need to balance human needs
with protecting the environment. Unfortunately, the role, and potential
role, of livestock in achieving this balance is poorly understood. ILRI
needs to play a leading role not only in promoting research into the
role of livestock in balancing human and environmental needs but also
in informing stakeholders of its findings. Policy makers around the
world need research-based information on which to build policies that
will promote human welfare while protecting the environment for
future generations. Building on a wealth of experience in
environmental and policy research, ILRI and its partners are focusing
their efforts on providing such information.
ILRI programme areas in 1997
Biosciences Programme
Ruminant genetics
Characterisation, conservation and use of animal genetic resources
Development of disease-resistant livestock
Ruminant health
Molecular basis of pathogenesis and disease resistance
Immunology and vaccine development
Improving livestock productivity through development of subunit
vaccines
Development and application of diagnostic tools in disease control
and surveillance
Epidemiology and disease control
Ruminant feed resources
Feed improvement for improving livestock productivity
Rumen microbiology for feed utilisation enhancement
Characterisation and conservation of forage genetic resources
Sustainable Production Systems Programme
Systems analysis and impact assessment
Increasing returns to livestock research through systems analysis and
impact assessment
Livestock policy analysis
Policy analysis for improving productivity and sustainability of crop–
livestock systems
Crop–livestock systems research
Improving productivity and sustainability of crop–livestock systems in
the highlands of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
Improving productivity and sustainability of crop–livestock systems in
subhumid sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
Improving productivity and sustainability of crop–livestock systems in
semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
Improving productivity and sustainability of crop–livestock systems in
fragile environments in the Latin America and Caribbean region
Improving productivity and sustainability of crop–livestock systems in
West Asia and North Africa
Improving livestock productivity under disease risk
Improving productivity and sustainability of market-oriented
smallholder dairy systems
System-wide livestock programme
Strengthening Partnerships with National
Agricultural Research Systems Programme
Training and information services
Collaborative research networks
ILRI senior staff in 1997
Directorate General
Hank Fitzhugh, Director General
Hugh Murphy, Director of Administration
Ralph von Kaufmann, Director for External Relations
Margaret Morehouse,† Human Resources Manager
Gerard O’Donoghue, Chief Financial Officer
Helen Leitch,† Proposal Development Specialist
Susan MacMillan, Public Awareness Specialist
Biosciences Programme
Programme Director: Anthony Irvin
Improvement and Application of Existing Disease Control Technologies
Kenya
Alfred Adema,* research technologist
Carol Agufa,* research technologist
Sonal Barot,† research technologist
Richard Bishop, molecular parasitologist
Mark Eisler,1 epidemiologist
Newton Gitire, research technologist
Joel Imanye, technical assistant
John Kabata, research technologist
Alfred Kafwa, technical assistant
Noah Karanja, technical assistant
Fredrick Karia, research technologist
Joseph Katende, microbiologist
Sammy Kemei, research technologist
Juma Kiundi, research technologist
Nelson Kuria, research technologist
Stephen Leak, epidemiologist
Clement Lugonzo, research technologist
Humphrey Lwamba, research technologist
Mary Maina, research technologist
Phelix Majiwa, molecular parasitologist
Jackson Makau, research technologist
Rachael Masake, immunologist
Peter Mburu, technical assistant
Stephen Minja,* diagnostician
Deen Moloo, entomologist
Subhash Morzaria, molecular parasitologist
Joseph Muia, technical assistant
Stephen Mwaura, research technologist
Reeves Njamunggeh, research technologist
George Njihia, research technologist
1 Salary provided by the UK, Department for International Development (DFID) and the University of Glasgow,
and the European Community
* Left in 1997
† Joined in 1997
41
Thomas Njoroge, research technologist Francis McOdimba, research technologist
Stephen Njuguna, research technologist Bea Mertens,6 immunologist
Joseph Odhiambo, research technologist Paul Muiya, research technologist
David Odongo,† research technologist Cecilia Muruiki, research technologist
George Oduol, research technologist Noel Murphy, molecular geneticist
Ignatius Okumu, research technologist Tony Musoke, immunologist
Maurice Owino, technical assistant David Muteti, research technologist
David Parkin,2* biochemist Anthony Muthiani, research technologist
Andrew Peregrine,* parasitologist Duncan Mwangi,7 cellular immunologist
Rob Skilton, biologist Waithaka Mwangi,* research technologist
John Tangus, technical assistant Jan Naessens,8 immunologist
Parineete Thathy,* research technologist David Ndegwa, research technologist
James Thuo, research technologist Vish Nene, molecular biologist
Alfred Tonui, research technologist Daniel Ngugi, research technologist
Mary Waithaka, research technologist James Ngugi, research technologist
Delia Wasawo, research technologist Catherine Nkonge, immunologist
Stephen Wasike,* research technologist Joseph Nthale, research technologist
Jon Wilkes, cell membrane physiologist John Nyanjui, research technologist
Tom Olyhoek, biologist
Development of New Disease Control Elias Owino, research technologist
Technologies Pratibala Pandit, research technologist
Roger Pelle, geneticist
Kenya Mara Rocchi, biotechnologist
Edith AuthiØ,3 immunologist Rosemary Saya, research technologist
Keith Ballingall, molecular immunologist Baljinder Sohanpal, research technologist
Alain Boulange, visiting immunologist Paul Spooner, microbiologist
Elizabeth Carpenter, cellular immunologist Evans Taracha, immunologist
Francis Chuma, research technologist Kathy Taylor, cellular immunologist
Lynne Elson,† parasitologist John Wando, research technologist
Joseph Gesharisha, technical assistant Stephen Wanyonyi, research technologist
Benson Gichuki, research technologist Genetics of Disease Resistance
Lucy Gichuru, research technologist
Elke Gobright,* research associate Kenya
Yoshikazu Honda, virologist Eric Aduda, research assistant
Dismus Lugo, research technologist James Audho, technical assistant
Vittoria Lutje,* post-doctoral scientist, cellular Leyden Baker, quantitative geneticist
immunologist Henry Gathuo, research technologist
Anthony Luyai, research technologist Olivier Hanotte, animal geneticist
Niall MacHugh, cellular immunologist Fuadi Iraqi, molecular geneticist
John Maloba, technical assistant Alice Njeri Maina, research technologist
Guy Mareels,4* peptide biologist Joel Mwakaya, research technologist
Yutaka Matsubara,5* pathologist Moses Ogugo, research technologist
John Mburu, research technologist Manassey Omenya, research technologist
Ferdinand Mbwika, research technologist
Declan McKeever, immunologist
2 Salary provided by the USA, National Institutes of Health
3 Salary provided by France, CIRAD-EMVT: Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le
développement–Elevage at medicine vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux (Centre for International Cooperation in Agronomic Research
and Development–Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine in Tropical Countries)
4 Salary provided by Belgium, VVOB: Vlaamse Veringung Voor Ontwikkelingssamenwerking en Technische Bijstand
5 Salary provided by JIRCAS: Japan International Research for Agricultural Sciences
6 Salary provided by Belgium
7 Salary provided by the USA, USAID (United States Agency for International Development) and the University of Florida
8 Salary provided by Belgium
* Left in 1997
† Joined in 1997
42
Japeth Sore, research technologist John McDermott, epidemiologist
Alan Teale, molecular geneticist Bruno Minjauw,† epidemiologist
Yasmin Verjee,* research technologist Brian Perry, epidemiologist
John Wambugu, research technologist
Systems Analysis and Impact
Ethiopia Assessment
Saidou Tembely,* associate scientist, veterinary
parasitologist Kenya
Mohamed Baya, research technologist
Programme Support Elamin Elbasha,* agricultural economist
Russ Kruska, geographic information systems specialist
Kenya
Onesmus Maina, research technologist
Chris Hinson, laboratory manager Andrian Mukhebi,* agricultural economist
David Kennedy, veterinarian Andrew Odero, research technologist
Bob King, head of experimental animal units Onyango Okello, research technologist
James Magondu, head of fluorescence-activated cell sorter services Robin Reid, ecologist
Francis Mucheru, research technologist, flourescence- Emmanuel Tambi,10 agricultural economist
activated cell sorter services Philip Thornton, systems analysist
Sonal Nagda, data analyst Elizabeth Wangui, research technologist
Christopher Ogomo, research technologist, electron
microscopy services Ethiopia
John Rowlands, biometrician Negussie T/Michael,* senior research technologist
Clive Wells, head of electron microscopy services Tesfaye Legesse, research technologist
Woudyalew Mulatu, project supervisor
Production Systems Programme Improving Livestock Productivity Under
Programme Director: Hugo Li Pun Disease Risk
Animal/Forage Genetic Resources Kenya
Ethiopia Guy d’Ieteren, animal scientist
Brent Swallow, agricultural economist
Asebe Abdena, research technologist
Winnie Luseno, research technologist
Dawit Gezahegn,* research technologist
Nancy McCarthy, agricultural economist
Girma Abebe, research technologist
Girma Gebre Mariam, research technologist Improving Productivity and
Jean Hanson, genetic resources specialist Sustainability for Smallholder Dairy
Jemal Mohammed, research technologist
Kahsay Berhe, research technologist Systems: Smallholder Dairying
Lemma Mekonnen, technical assistant Kenya
Brigitte Mass,† geneticist
Matthew Kenyanjui, research technologist
Mesfin Shibre,* research technologist
Liston Njoroge,† research technologist
Eddie Mukasa-Mugerwa, veterinarian
David Njubi, senior computer programmer
Edward Rege, animal breeder
Amos Omore, research officer
Temeselew Mamo, laboratory technician
Steve Staal, agricultural economist
Mark van de Wouw,* associate scientist
Jon Tanner, animal nutritionist
Epidemiology and Disease Control William Thorpe, animal scientist
Kenya
Luc Duchateu,9* statistician and modeller
Onesmus Maina, research technologist
9 Salary provided by Belgium, VVOB
10 Salary provided by the European Union and facilitated by the Organization of African Unity
* Left in 1997
† Joined in 1997
43
Ethiopia Improving Productivity and
Abebe Tessema, research technologist Sustainability of Crop–Livestock
Aberra Adie, technical assistant Systems in Semi-arid Zones of Sub-
Azage Tegegne, research officer Saharan Africa and Asia
Victor Umunna, animal scientist/station manager Niger (ICRISAT Sahelian Center)
Improving Productivity and Sustainability of Salvador Fernandez-Rivera, animal scientist
Crop–Livestock Systems in the Highlands of Pierre Hiernaux, range ecologist
Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia Improving Productivity and
Ethiopia Sustainability of Crop–Livestock
Abiye Astatke, research officer Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Kahsai Berhane, research technologist Livestock Productivity under Disease
Mohamed Mohamed-Saleem, agronomist Risk
Mulugeta Mamo, technical assistant Burkina Faso
Emmanuel Mwendera,* post-doctoral associate
J.B. Mulumba Kamuanga, agricultural economist
Nigist Wagaye, research technologist
Wagnew Ayalneh, senior research technologist Feed Improvement for Improving
India Livestock Productivity
Ercole Zerbini, animal scientist Rumen Ecology
Improving Productivity and Sustainability Ethiopia
of Crop–Livestock Systems in Subhumid
Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia David Anindo,* animal scientist/station manager
(Debre Berhan)
Nigeria Asfaw Yemegnuhal, senior research technologist
Kwaku Agyemang, animal production scientist Dawit Negassa, research technologist
Asmoah Larbi, forage agronomist Genet Assefa, research assistant
Ibrahim Magagi, animal scientist/research fellow Agnes Odenyo, nutritionist
Augustine Naazie,* post-doctoral scientist, animal breeding/genetics Karanfil Olga, research technologist
Jimmy Smith, animal scientist Paschal Osuji, nutritionist
Shirley Tarawali,11 agronomist Eeva Saarisalo,14† visiting associate scientist, animal
scientist/nutritionist
Improving Productivity and Sustainability
of Crop–Livestock Systems in LAC/WANA Policy Analysis for Improving
Productivity and Sustainability of
Malaysia Crop–livestock Systems
Canagasaby Devendra,† senior associate
Ethiopia
Peru Abebe Misgina, senior research technologist
Carlos Leon-Velarde,12† animal production scientist Guillaume Duteurtre,15* research associate
Simeon Ehui, agricultural economist
Colombia Gemechu Degefa, research technologist
Federico Holmann,13† livestock scientist Mohammed Jabbar, agricultural economist
Joan Kagwanja, post-doctoral scientist
Eva Schlecht, post-doctoral associate Nega Gebreselassie, research technologist
Timothy Williams, agricultural economist Charles F. Nicholson,* social scientist (Rockefeller
Foundation Social Sciences Fellow)
11 50% salary provided by IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)
12 50% salary provided by CIP (Centro Internacional de la Papa)
13 50% salary provided by CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical)
14 Funds provided by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland
15 Salary provided by France CIRAD-EMVT
* Left in 1997
† Joined in 1997
44
Barry Shapiro, agricultural economist David Kinyanjui, chief security officer
Solomon G/Selassie, research technologist Faith Matee , purchasing officer
Yishak Mengesha,* senior research technologist Gacheru Migwi, chief personnel officer
Charles Ndungi, transport manager
Ethiopia John Ngatti, Stores Superintendent
Elizabeth Getachew, assistant to the programme director Onesmus Nthiwa, chief accountant
Janephar Owino, housing officer
Training Materials and Methods
Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ahmed Osman,* assistant personnel officer
Mohammed El-Habib Ibrahim, training materials specialist Antonio Silla, internal auditor
Information Asmaru Ayele, purchasing supervisor
Asmelash Worede, catering officer
Kenya Assegid Alemu, stores supervisor
Damaris Ng’anga, librarian Belayhun Wondimu, chief accountant
Biscut Tessema, disbursement and collection supervisor
Ethiopia Dessalegn Mammo, chief personnel officer
Azeb Abraham, librarian Emmanuel Tesfamariam, budget and procurement officer
Carl Erik Schou Larsen,* research associate Michael Abebe, medical officer
Marcos Sahlu,* documentation supervisor Million Gebreab, housing officer
Pramod Sinha,* head of information services Negussie Abraham, general accounts supervisor
Revathi Rao, manager, housing and catering services
Publications Chris Robinson, laboratory manager
Tadesse Minas,* assistant personnel officer
Kenya Aguibou Tall, head of administration
Dave Elsworth, head of graphics unit Tibebe G/Amlak, national liaison officer
Peter Werehire, publications assistant Wubshet Dessie,† senior liaison assistant
Ethiopia Technical
Sourou Adoutan, French translator/editor Kenya
Paul Neate, head of publications
Anne Nyamu, science writer/editor Sylvester Kisonzo, computer software officer
Tekleab H/Michael, head of pre-print operations Jim Scott, computing manager
Wondwossen Girma, head of printshop David Wanzala, building and maintenance supervisor
Networks Ethiopia
Abeba Goitom, research technologist
Kenya Abraham Bekele,† head of computer services
Sahr Lebbie, co-ordinator, Small Ruminant Research Ali Mohammed, research technologist
Network (SRNET) Aynalem Tesfahun, computer programmer
Jean Ndikumana, co-ordinator, African Feed Resources Beyene Ambaye, research technologist
Research Network (AFRNET) Mamadou Diedhiou, biometrician
Hambissa Belina, computer programmer
Ethiopia Girmaye Tamiru, research technologist
Ebenezer Olaloku,* co-ordinator, Cattle Research Network (CARNET) Franco Leone, physical plant manager
Mebrahtu Ogbai, research technologist
Institutional Support James Ochang,* senior research technologist
Solomon Tessema, computer engineer
Administrative Tekeste Gebre Wold, laboratory technician
Tenaye Serekeberhan,* laboratory technician
Kenya Yimer Ahmed, laboratory technician
William Anyika,† head of engineering Yohannes Yehualashet,* project supervisor
Mike Craig,* business manager Zerihun Tadesse, applied biometrician
George Kanza, chief accountant – Nairobi/Addis
* Left in 1997
† Joined in 1997
45
Graduate Fellows at ILRI in
1997
Name/ University/ End
Nationality Institute Degree Project Title Location Date
ANIMAL HEALTH IMPROVEMENT
Sam Alsford, Manchester PhD Mechanisms of chromosomal segregation in Kenya 1997
British trypanosomes undergoing cell division
Aynalem Haile, Alemaya MSc Breed and nutrition effect on the development of Ethiopia 1998
Ethiopian resistance to endoparasites in sheep
Isabelle Baltenweck, Auvergne PhD Patterns of intensification in smallholder dairying: Kenya 1998
French Spatial analysis of determinants of change
Belete Teferedegne, Aberdeen PhD Influence of the foliage of multipurpose trees on Ethiopia 1999
Ethiopian rumen micro-organisms and rumen fermentation
Maira Bholla, Brunel MPhil Studies on the mating incompatibilities in populations Kenya 1998
Kenyan of tsetse flies (Glossina spp)
Joram Buza, Sokoine PhD B-lymphocyte responses in trypanosome-infected Kenya 1997
Tanzanian cattle
Robert Delve, Wye PhD Implications of livestock feeding management for Kenya 1998
British long-term soil fertility in smallholder mixed farming
systems
Aladji Diack, Brunel MPhil The effect of multiple treatment of cattle that harbour Kenya 1997
Senegalese drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense on the
infectivity of the parasites for Glossina mortisans
centralis
Appolinaire Djikeng, Brunel PhD Expressed sequence tags of Trypanosoma brucei Kenya 1998
Cameroonian rhodesiense: reagents for the derivation of a
transcriptional map of the causative agent of human
sleeping sickness
Ewnetu Ermias, Alemaya MSc Prediction of body fat in fat-tailed sheep using Ethiopia 1998
Ethiopian tritiated water, body and tail measurements and feed
conversion efficiency
Dirk Geysen, Brunel PhD Theileria parva diversity in eastern and southern Kenya 1998
Belgian provinces of Zambia based on molecular biology
techniques
George Gitau, Nairobi PhD Quantitative assessment of the impacts of endemic Kenya 1997
Kenyan stability and instability to tickborne diseases on dairy
production in Murang’a District, Kenya
Jones Govereh, Michigan PhD The effects of tsetse control on resource management Zimbabwe 1998
Zimbabwean institutions in the mid-Zambesi valley of Zimbabwe
Erika Hamilton, Massachusetts PhD Analysis of factors controlling the trypanocidal Kenya 1997
American activity of Cape Buffalo serum
46
Graduate Fellows (cont’d)
Name/ University/ End
Nationality Institute Degree Project Title Location Date
Rozmin Janoo, Brunel PhD Characterisation of GTPases regulating protein Kenya 1998
Kenyan trafficking in Theileria parva
Victor Konde, Brunel PhD Molecular genetic aspects of isometamedium Kenya 1998
Zambian resistance in Trypanosoma (Nannomonas) congolense
Delphin Koudande, Wageningen PhD Opportunities for marker-assisted introgression Kenya 1998
Beninese of trypanotolerance in mice and cattle
Chris Laker, Makerere PhD Assessment of the economic impact of the bovine Kenya 1998
Ugandan trypanosomiasis and its control in Mukono County,
Uganda
Simon Lillico, Glasgow PhD Identification and characterisation of procyclic Kenya 1998
British trypanosome genes displaying altered regulation
during lectin-induced programmed cell death
Leah Ndungu, Pretoria PhD The socio-economic, infrastructural and policy effects Kenya 1999
Kenyan on the demand for, and delivery of, the
p67 T. parva vaccine in small scale, large scale and
pastoralist zones of Kenya
Margaret Okomo, Nairobi MSc Characterisation of genetic diversity of East African Kenya 1997
Kenyan cattle breeds using microsatellite markers
Deo Olila, Nairobi PhD Molecular epidemiology of trypanosomiasis with Kenya 1998
Ugandan particular emphasis on drug-resistant phenotypes in
Mukono District, Uganda
Kevin Oluoch, Nairobi MSc Identification of schizont genes located on sub- Kenya 1997
Kenyan telemeric fragments of the Theileria parva genome
Beatrice Ondondo, Nairobi MSc Interaction of trypanosome cyclophilin with parasite Kenya 1997
Kenyan and host molecules
Alex Osanya, Brunel PhD Contribution to the characterisation of the Kenya 1998
Kenyan Trypanosoma brucei genome: Identification and
characterisation of differentially expressed sequence
tags
Deckster Savadye, Zimbabwe PhD Sequencing and mapping of Theileria parva schizont Kenya 1999
Zimbabwean DNAs and the establishment of a sequence data base
Angela Scheer, Free U Berlin PhD Analysis of the drug sensitivity phenotypes of animal Kenya 1997
German trypanosomes in vitro and in vivo to isometamidium
chloride
Malenie deSouza, Nairobi MSc Analysis of two putative candidate genes for Kenya 1998
Kenyan isometamidium resistance in Trypanosoma congolense
Pim van Hooft, Wageningen PhD Development and variation of microsatellite markers Kenya 1997
Dutch in buffalo
Lilian Waibochi, Nairobi MSc Analysis of polymorphism in the gene encoding the Kenya 1998
Kenyan bovine cd45 molecule
Jun Wang, Massachusetts PhD Characterisation of a gene from African buffalo Kenya 1997
Chinese encoding a trypanocidal serum protein
Qin Wang, Massachusetts PhD Analysis of factors controlling the trypanocidal Kenya 1997
Chinese activity of Cape Buffalo serum
47
Graduate Fellows (cont’d)
Name/ University/ End
Nationality Institute Degree Project Title Location Date
Tennyson Williams, Sierra Leone MSc Estimating the potential market for new vaccines Kenya 1997
Sierra Leonean against theileriosis in eastern and southern Africa
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Augustine Ayatunde, Wageningen PhD Livestock-mediated nutrient transfers in the semi-arid Niger 1997
Nigerian West African landscape
Alec Bishi, Berlin MSc Cross-sectional and longitudinal prospective study of Ethiopia 1997
Zimbabwean clinical and subclinical bovine mastitis in peri-urban
and urban production systems in Addis Ababa and
Debre Zeit
Wame Boitumelo, Guelph PhD Nutritive evaluation of forage legumes Ethiopia 1999
Botswanan
Carol Cabal, Filipina Hawaii PhD Integrated crop–livestock agricultural systems: Ethiopia 1998
Impacts on household food security in the central
Ethiopian highlands
Eneyew Negussie, Technische München PhD Characterisation of the indigenous Ethiopian sheep Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian breed for feed intake and fat deposition as adaptive
characteristics
Getachew Gebru, Wisconsin PhD Assessment of feed resource base and the factors that Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian affect access to feed resources in crop–livestock
systems in the Ethiopian highlands
Sandrine Gravier, CIRAD/EMVT MSc The role of urban small scale dairy processors in the Ethiopia 1997
French intensification process of peri-urban dairy production
in Addis Ababa
Patrick Irungu, Nairobi MSc Economic analysis of factors affecting adoption of Kenya 1997
Kenyan Napier in high potential Kenyan dairying
Alexander Kahi, Hohenheim PhD Evaluation of alternative dairy cattle crossbreeding Kenya 1999
Kenyan strategies
Robert Kaitho, Wageningen PhD Nutritive value of multipurpose trees and shrubs as Ethiopia 1997
Kenyan protein supplements to poor quality roughages
Abdul Kamara, Georg-August PhD Property rights, risk and sustainable livestock Ethiopia 1999
Sierra Leonean development
Pokou Koffi, CIRES PhD Economic analysis of livestock production with tsetse Côte d’Ivoire 1997
Ivorien control, multiple species and multiple breeds
Carl Larsen, DANIDA PhD Adoption of dairy–draught technology in a Ethiopia 1998
Danish smallholder mixed crop–livestock farming system: A
case study from Ethiopia
John Lekasi, Coventry PhD Management of livestock excreta for enhanced Kenya 1999
Kenyan nutrient cycling efficiency on intensive smallholder
farms in the East and central African highlands
Mengistu Buta, Alemaya MSc Crossbred cows for milk and traction in the Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian Ethiopian highlands: A whole-farm evaluation
Minale Kassie, Alemaya MSc Economics of crop–forage integration and nutrient Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian management intervention in mixed farms in highland
Ethiopia
48
Graduate Fellows (cont’d)
Name/ University/ End
Nationality Institute Degree Project Title Location Date
Denis Mpairwe, Makerere PhD Development of food/feed production and Ethiopia 1998
Ugandan management options for smallholder dairy production
systems
Constance Mugalla, Penn State PhD Livestock production in The Gambia and implications The Gambia 1998
Kenyan of trypanosomiasis control on the Gambian household
David Mwangi, Wye PhD Factors affecting the growth and persistency of Kenya 1999
Kenyan companion legumes for cut-and-carry Napier grass
Gabriel Nakokonya, Bangor PhD Herd dynamics of smallholder dairy: Assessment of Kenya 1999
Kenyan breeding strategies and their implications for herd
sustainability and breeding policy in the Kenyan
highlands
Niftalem Dibessa, Humboldt PhD Sheep production on smallholder farms in the Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian Ethiopian highlands
Ben Okumu, Kenyan Manchester MSc Ecological and socio-economic impact of using Ethiopia 1998
animal-drawn technology for vertisol management in
the Ethiopian highlands
Sarah Ossiya, Texas A&M PhD Development of a nutritional profiling system for Niger/ 1998
Ugandan free-ranging livestock in major agro-ecological zones Ethiopia
of sub-Saharan Africa
Iscah Sanda, Wye PhD Evaluation and improvement of feeding strategies for Kenya 1999
Kenyan feed intake in crop/livestock systems
Mamadou Sangare, Prince Leopold PhD Optimising the use of feed sources for feeding Niger 1999
Nigerian Institute livestock and recycling nutrients
Solomon Desta, Utah State PhD Banking livestock capital for pastoral risk Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian management and urban development in Ethiopia
Mirjam Steglich, Humboldt MSc Intra-household effects of peri-urban dairying Ethiopia 1997
German
Kouadio Tano, Manitoba PhD Trypanosomiasis and trypanotolerant livestock in Burkina Faso 1998
Ivoirien West Africa
Jean-Paul York PhD Property rights, risk and livestock development in Niger 1998
Vanderlinden, Niger
Canadian
Workneh Abebe, Alemaya MSc Assessment of nutritive value and consumer Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian preference of goat milk and milk products
Yilikal Asfaw, Berlin MSc Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in peri-urban Ethiopia 1997
Ethiopian dairy production systems in and around Addis Ababa
Yoseph Mekasha, Alemaya MSc Impact of feed resources on reproduction Ethiopia 1998
Ethiopian performance of dairy cows in peri-urban dairy
production systems in the Addis Ababa dairy shed
and evaluation of non-conventional feed resources
using sheep
49
Publications by ILRI staff in 1997
Annual reports
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI 1996: Out of Africa, into a global
mandate. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. 54 pp.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI 1996: De l’Afrique vers un mandat
mondial. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. 54 pp.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI 1996: De África a un mandato
mundial. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. 54 pp.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI annual project reports 1996. ILRI,
Nairobi, Kenya. 243 pp.
Medium-term plan and workplans
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI medium-term plan 1998–2000. ILRI,
Nairobi, Kenya. 75 pp.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. ILRI Programme Plan and Funding
Request for 1998
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1997. 1997 ILRI project work plans. ILRI,
Nairobi, Kenya. 174 pp.
Newsletters
Livestock Research for Development vol. 3
Recherche sur l’élevage pour le développement vol. 3
Investigacion pecuaria para el desarrollo vol. 3
Reports
Agyemang K., Dwinger R.H., Little D.A. and Rowlands G.J. 1997. Village N’Dama cattle
production in West Africa. Six years of research in The Gambia. International Livestock
Research Institute, Nairobi, and the International Trypanotolerance Centre, Banjul, The
Gambia. 131 pp.
Fall A., Pearson R.A., Laurence P.R. and Fernandez-Rivera S. 1997. Feeding and working
strategies for oxen used for draft purposes in semi-arid West Africa. International Livestock
Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, and Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Roslin,
Midlothian, UK. 76 pp.
Devendra C., Thomas D., Jabbar M.A. and Kudo H. 1997. Improvement of Livestock Production
in Crop–Animal Systems in Rainfed Agro-ecological Zones of South-East Asia. ILRI, Nairobi,
Kenya. 107 pp.
Vercoe J., Coffey S., Farrell D.G., Rutherford A. and Winter W.H. 1997. ILRI in Asia: An
Assessment of Priorities for Asian Livestock Research and Development. ILRI, Nairobi,
Kenya. 54 pp.
Manuals
Bruns E., Hiwot B. and Solomon Z. 1997. LIMS—Guide de l’utilisateur du Système de gestion
de l’information sur l’élevage. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
Proceedings
Anon. 1997. Sustainable Development in Mountain Ecosystems of Africa. Proceedings of the
African Intergovernmental Consultation on Sustainable Mountain Development, 3–7 June,
1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 43 pp.
50
Anon. 1997. Développement durable des écosystèmes de montagne Barendse W., Vaiman D., Kemp S.J., Sugimoto Y., Armitage
en Afrique. Actes de la Consultation intergouvernementale S.M., Williams J.L., Sun H.S., Eggen A., Agaba M.K.,
africaine sur la mise en valeur durable des zones de montagne, Aleyasin S.A., Band M., Bishop M.D.., Buitkamp J., Byrne
3–7 juin 1996, Addis-Abeba (Ethiopie). 45 pp. K., Collins F., Cooper L., Coppettiers W., Denys B.,
Omore A.O., McDermott J.J., Kilungo J., Gitau T. and Staal S. Drinkwater R.D., Easterday K., Elduque C., Ennis S.,
1997. A comparison of the relative returns to different Erhardt G., Ferretti L. and Flavin N. 1997. A medium-
enterprises on mixed smallholder crop–dairy systems in central density genetic linkage map of the bovine genome.
Kenya. In: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium Mammalian Genome 8(1):21–28.
on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics Conference Bishop R., Musoke A., Morzaria S., Sohanpel B. and Gobright
(ISVEE), 8–11 July 1997, Paris, France. Epidemiologie et E. 1997. Concerted evolution at a multicopy locus in the
Santé Animale 2(31–32):2.09. protozoan parasite Theileria parva: Extreme divergence of
Renard C. (ed). 1997. Crop Residues in Sustainable Mixed potential protein-coding sequences. Molecular and Cellular
Crop/Livestock Farming Systems. CAB International, Biology 17(3):1666–1673.
Wallingford, UK, in association with the International Crops Bonsi M.L.K. and Osuji P.O. 1997. The effect of feeding
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Pantancheru, cottonseed cake, sesbania or leucaena with crushed maize
India, and the International Livestock Research Institute, as supplement to teff straw. Livestock Production Science
Nairobi, Kenya. 322 pp. 51(1–3):173–181.
Ndikumana J. and de Leeuw P (eds). 1997. Sustainable Feed Buza J.J., Sileghem M., Gwakisa P. and Naessens J. 1997.
Production and Utilisation for Smallholder Livestock CD5+ B lymphocytes are the main source of antibodies
Enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the Second reactive with non-parasite antigens in Trypanosoma
African Feed Resources Network (AFRNET) Workshop, 6–10 congolense-infected cattle. Immunology 92(2):226–233.
December 1993, Harare, Zimbabwe. African Feed Resources Chagas J.R., Authie E., Serveau C., Lalmanach G., Juilano L.
Network, Nairobi, Kenya. 201 pp. and Gauthier F. 1997. A comparison of the enzymatic
properties of the major cysteine proteinases from
Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma cruzi.
Papers in peer-reviewed journals Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 88:85–94.
Cox E., Mast J., MacHugh N., Schwenger B. and Goddeeris
Abdulrazak S.A., Muinga R.W., Thorpe W. and Ørskov E.R. 1997. B.M. 1997. Expression of beta 2 integrins on blood
Supplementation with Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leukocytes of cows with or without bovine leukocyte
leucocephala on voluntary food intake digestibility, rumen adhesion deficiency. Veterinary Immunology and
fermentation and live weight of crossbred steers offered Zea Immunopathology 58:249–263.
mays stover. Livestock Production Science 49(1):53–62. Daubenberger C., Heussler V., Gobright E., Wijngaard P.,
Agaba M.K., Kemp S.J., Barendse W. and Teale A. 1997. Clevers H., Wells C., Tsuji N., Musoke A. and McKeever D.
Comparative mapping in cattle of genes located on human 1997. Molecular characterisation of a cognate 70 kDa heat
chromosome 18. Mammalian Genome 8:530–532. shock protein of the protozoan parasite Theileria parva.
Agaba M., Kemp S.J., Barendse W. and Teale A. 1997. Genetic Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 85:265–269.
mapping of bovine T-cell receptor complex loci. Animal Dauro D., Mohamed-Saleem M.A. and Gintzburger G. 1997.
Genetics 28:235–237. Recruitment and survival of native annual Trifolium species
Anosa V.O., Logan-Henfrey L.L. and Wells C.W. 1997. The in the highlands of Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology
haematology of Trypanosoma congolense infection in cattle. I. 35(1):1–9.
Sequential cytomorphological changes in the blood and bone Devendra C. 1997. Mixed farming and intensification of animal
marrow of Boran cattle. Comparative Haematology production systems in Asia. Outlook on Agriculture
International 7:14–22. 26(4):255–265.
Anosa V.O., Logan-Henfrey L. and Wells C.W. 1997. The Diack A., Moloo S.K. and Peregrine A.S. 1997. Effect of
haematology of Trypanosoma congolense infection in cattle. II. diminazene aceturate on the infectivity and transmissibility
Macrophage structure and function in the bone marrow of of drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense in Glossina
Boran cattle. Comparative Haematology International 7:23–29. morsitans centralis. Veterinary Parasitology 70:13–23.
Anthofer J., Hanson J. and Jutzi S.C. 1997. Plant nutrient supply Dijkman J.T. and Lawrence P.R. 1997. The introduction of
from nine agroforestry tree species to wheat (Triticum animal traction into inland valley regions. 3. Different
aestivum) analysed by vector diagnosis. Journal of Agronomy cultivation techniques for maize. Journal of Agricultural
and Crop Science 179:75–82. Science 129(pt.1):77–82.
Anthofer J., Hanson J. and Jutzi S.C. 1997. Nitrogen Djiteye A., Moloo S.K., Foua Bi K., Coulibaly E., Diarra M.,
mineralization pattern of agroforestry tree leaves under tropical Ouattara I., Traoré D., Coulibaly Z. and Diarra A. 1997.
highland conditions. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science Variations saisonnières de la densité apparente et du taux
179:139–147. d’infection par Trypanosoma spp. de Glossina palpalis
Baker R.L. 1997. Résistance génétique des petits ruminants aux gambiensis (Vanderplank, 1949) en zone soudanienne au
helminthes en Afrique. INRA Production Animale Mali. Revue d’Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays
10(1):99–110. Tropicaux 50(2):133–140.
Ballingall K.T., Luyai A. and McKeever D.J. 1997. Analysis of Djiteye A., Moloo S.K., Foua Bi K., Touré M., Boiré S.,
genetic diversity at the DQA loci in African cattle: Evidence Bengaly S., Coulibaly E., Diarra M., Traoré D., Ouattara I.
for a BOLA-DQA3 locus. Immunogenetics 46:237–244. and Coulibaly Z. 1997. Réactualisation des données sur la
51
répartition des glossines au Mali. Revue d’Elevage et de Irvin A.D. 1997. A holistic approach to animal health research:
Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 50(2):126–132. Increasing livestock production under disease challenge.
Duchateau L., Kruska R.L. and Perry B.D. 1997. Reducing a Outlook on Agriculture 26(4):267–272.
spatial database to its effective dimensionality for logistic Jabbar M.A., Reynolds L., Larbi A. and Smith J. 1997.
regression analysis of livestock disease distribution data. Nutritional and economic benefits of Leucaena and
Preventive Veterinary Medicine 32:207–218. Gliricidia as feed supplements for small ruminants in
Echessah P.N., Swallow B.M., Kamara D.W. and Curry J.J. 1997. humid West Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production
Willingness to contribute labor and money to tsetse control: 29(1):35–47.
Application of contingent valuation in Busia District, Kenya. Jones P.G. and Thornton P.K. 1997. Spatial and temporal
World Development 25(2):239–253. variability of rainfall related to a third-order Markov model.
Eisler M.C., Gault E.A., Moloo S.K., Holmes P.H. and Peregrine Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 86:127–138.
A.S. 1997. Concentrations of isometamidium in the sera of Kahsay Berhe and Tothill J.C. 1997. Dry matter yield, P
cattle challenged with drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense. response and nutritive value of selected accessions of
Acta Tropica 63(2,3):89–100. Chamaecytisus palmensis (tagasaste) and Teline
Eisler M.C., Stevenson P., Munga L. and Smyth J.B.A. 1997. monspssulana (Montpellier broom) in the Ethiopian
Concentrations of isometamidium chloride (Samorin) in sera in highlands. Tropical Grasslands 31(1):49–57.
zebu cattle which showed evidence of hepatotoxicity following Kaitho R.J., Umunna N.N., Nsahlai I.V., Tamminga S., van
frequent trypanocidal treatments. Journal of Veterninary Brucheno J. and Hanson J. 1997. Palatability of wilted and
Pharmacology 20:173–180. dried multipurpose tree species fed to sheep and goats.
Fafchamps M. and Gavian S. 1997. The determinants of livestock Animal Feed Science and Technology 65(1–4):151–163.
prices in Niger. Journal of African Economies 6(2):255–295. Kemp S.J., Iraqi F., Darvasi A., Soller M. and Teale A.J. 1997.
Fall A., Pearson R.A. and Lawrence P.R. 1997. Nutrition of Localization of genes controlling resistance to
draught oxen in semi-arid West Africa. 1. Energy expenditure trypanosomiasis in mice. Nature Genetics 16(2):194–196.
by oxen working on soils of different consistencies. Animal Larbi A., Ladipo D.O., Adekunle I.O., Smith J.W. and Jabbar
Science 64(pt.2):209–215. M.A. 1997. Multipurpose tree selection for silvopastoral
Fall A., Pearson R.A., Lawrence P.R. and Fernandez-Rivera S. systems on acid Ultisols: The effect of grass competition on
1997. Nutrition of draught oxen in semi-arid West Africa. 2. early growth of tree and shrub species. International Tree
Effect of work on intake, apparent digestibility and rate of Crop Research 9:213–225.
passage of food through the gastro-intestinal tract in draught Larbi A., Smith J.W., Raji A.M., Kurdi I.O., Adekunle I.O. and
oxen given crop residues. Animal Science 64(pt.2):217–225. Ladipo D.O. 1997. Seasonal dynamics in dry matter
Fall A., Pearson R.A. and Fernandez-Rivera S. 1997. Nutrition of degradation of browse in cattle, sheep and goats. Small
draught oxen in semi-arid West Africa. 3. Effect of body Ruminant Research 25(2):129–140.
condition prior to work and weight losses during work on food Lawrence P.R. and Dijkman J.T. 1997. The introduction of
intake and work output. Animal Science 64(pt.2):227–232. animal traction into inland valley regions. 2. Dry season
Fitzhugh H. 1997. Look at it this way. Outlook on Agriculture cultivation and the use of herbicides in rice. Journal of
26(4):215–216. Agricultural Science 129(pt.1):71–75.
Gérard B., Buerkert A., Hiernaux P. and Marschner H. 1997. Non- Lawrence P.R., Dijkman J.T. and Jansen H.G.P. 1997. The
destructive measurement of plant growth and nitrogen status of introduction of animal traction into inland valley regions. 1.
pearl millet with low-altitude aerial photography. Soil Science Manual labour and animal traction in the cultivation of rice
and Plant Nutrition 43:993–998. and maize: A comparison. Journal of Agricultural Science
Girma Gebresenbet, Gibon D. and Abiye Astatke 1997. Draught 129(pt.1):65–70.
animal power. Lessons from past research and development Leak S.G.A. and Rowlands G.J. 1997. The dynamics of
activities in Ethiopia and indicators for future needs. IRD trypanosome infections in natural populations of tsetse
Currents (Sweden) 13/14:28–34. (Diptera: Glossinidae) studied using wing-fray and ovarian
Girma Gebresenbet, Zerbini E., Abiye Astatke and Kaumbutho P. ageing techniques. Bulletin of Entomological Research
1997. Optimization of animal drawn tillage implement systems: 87(3):273–282.
Part 2. Development of a reversible plough and a ridger. Lupwayi N.Z., Haque I. and Holl F.B. 1997. Effectiveness,
Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 67(4):299–310. competitiveness and persistence of inoculant Rhizobium for
Gitau G.K., Perry B.D., Katende J.M., McDermott J.J., Morzaria perennial African clovers in a highland Vertisols. Journal of
S.P. and Young A.S. 1997. The prevalence of serum antibodies Agricultural Science 129(pt. 4):429–437.
to tick-borne infections in cattle in smallholder dairy farms in Lupwayi N.Z., Haque I. and Holl F.B. 1997. Strain-specific
Murang’a District, Kenya: a cross-sectional study. Preventive response of Trifolium semipilosum to inoculation with
Veterinary Medicine 30:95–107. Rhizobium and the significance of waterlogging in
Grab D.J., Webster P., Verjee Y. and Lonsdale-Eccles J. 1997. Vertisols. Journal of Agricultural Science 129(pt.
Golgi-associated phosphohydrolases in Trypanosoma brucei 4):439–446.
brucei. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 86:127–132. Lusembo P., Ebong C., Sabiiti E.N., Mohamed-Saleem M.A.,
Hanotte O., Okomo M., Verjee Y., Rege J.E.O. and Teale A. 1997. Abate Tedla and Ndikumana J. 1997. Dry and wet season
A polymorphic Y chromosome microsatellite locus in cattle. performance of selected herbaceous legumes in Uganda.
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58
Financial Summary
INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK RESEARCH INSTITUTE
STATEMENT OF ACTIVITY
for the year ended 31 December 1997
(US$ ’000)
Revenue 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 6
Grant 24,947 24,775
Other income 976 1,195
Total revenue 25,923 25,970
Expenses
Research 18,038 16,495
Information services 1,230 1,486
Training and conferences 787 897
General administration and operations 3,654 3,967
Board and management 856 787
Depreciation 2,155 2,335
Total expenses 26,720 25,967
Surplus (deficit) for the year (797) 3
59
INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK RESEARCH INSTITUTE
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION
at 31 December 1997
(US$ ’000)
Current assets 1997 1996
Bank and cash balances 11,507 14,665
Accounts receivable 986 847
Receivable from donors 5,475 1,999
Inventories 1,205 1,215
Deposits and prepayments 426 338
Total current assets    19,599 19,064
Fixed assets and investment in subsidiary
Property, plant and equipment 19,250 19,862
Construction work-in-progress 209 90
Investment in subsidiary 1,816 1,816
Total fixed assets and investment in subsidiary      21,275 21,768
Total assets 40,874 40,832
Liabilities
Accounts payable and accruals 4,207 3,765
Payable to donors 2,191 2,237
Funds in-trust 306 195
Staff provisions 1,838 1,628
Total liabilities   8,542 7,825
Fund balances
Capital invested in fixed assets and in subsidiary 21,275 21,768
Operating funds 6,245 7,042
Capital fund 4,812 4,197
Total fund balances   32,332 33,007
Total liabilities and fund balances 40,874 40,832
60
INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK RESEARCH INSTITUTE
1997 DONOR FUNDING
(US$ ’000)
Total 1997
Donor Unrestricted Restricted income
Australia 232 321 553
Austria 175 0 175
Belgium 272 992 1,264
BMZ/Germany                           867 661 1,528
Canada 849 33 882
Denmark 863 640 1,503
EU 0 1,440                                  1,440
France 176 0 176
Finland 461 17 478
IDRC 0 217 217
IFAD 0 235 235
India 37 0                                     37
Ireland 0 468 468
Italy 0 550 550
Japan 529 939 1,468
Korea 50 0 50
Luxembourg 0 31 31
The Netherlands  261 163 424
NIH                                                 0                                       14                                       14
Norway  877 0 877
OPEC  0 35 35
Rockefeller Foundation 0 18 18
South Africa 0 100 100
Spain 10 40 50
Sweden 573 0 573
Switzerland 1,468 409 1,877
UK 0 1,319 1,319
USA 3,000 353 3,353
WHO  0 52 52
World Bank 5,200 0 5,200
Total 15,900 9,047 24,947
61
Credits
Text: Paul Neate
Principal scientific sources: J. Tanner and ILRI-Niamey research team (Livestock and nutrient cycling:
maintaining a balance); A. Teale and J.E.O. Rege  (Making sense—and use—of genetic diversity);
N. Murphy and A. Irvin (Aspects of biotechnology research at ILRI); J. Tanner, B.Shapiro, C.
Nicholson and S. Staal (Smallholder dairying—intimate links between people and livestock); S.
Morzaria and A. Irvin (Diagnostics and the environment); R. Reid and B. Swallow (Impact of
trypanosomosis control); H. Li Pun, C. Leon-Velarde and Victor Mares (ILRI in Latin America); H.
Li Pun and Victor Mares (Balancing human needs, livestock and the environment)
Photographs: C. Devendra (pp. 5 (bottom) and 6); D. Elsworth (cover, pp. 9 (bottom), 15, 22 and 23); C.
Leon-Velarde (pp. 31, 32 and 33); Menbere W/Giorgis (pp. 2 and 17); R. Skilton (p. 12); B.
Swallow (p. 28); C. Wells (p. 13); all other photographs, photographer not known
Design and typesetting: Paul Neate and Tekleab H/Michael
Printed at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia