Chapter 2 Understanding the Roles of Forests and Tree-based Systems in Food Provision Coordinating lead authors: Ramni Jamnadass and Stepha McMullin Lead authors: Miyuki Iiyama and Ian K. Dawson Contributing authors: Bronwen Powell, Celine Termote, Amy Ickowitz, Katja Kehlenbeck, Barbara Vinceti, Nathalie van Vliet, Gudrun Keding, Barbara Stadlmayr, Patrick Van Damme, Sammy Carsan, Terry Sunderland, Mary Njenga, Amos Gyau, Paolo Cerutti, Jolien Schure, Christophe Kouame, Beatrice Darko Obiri, Daniel Ofori, Bina Agarwal, Henry Neufeldt, Ann Degrande and Anca Serban CONTENTS Abstract 26 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Food Security and Nutrition 27 2.3 The Direct Roles of Forests and Tree-based Systems 29 2.3.1 Foods Provided by Forests and Tree-based Systems 29 2.3.2 Dietary Choices, Access to Resources and Behavioural Change 33 2.4 The Indirect Roles of Forests and Tree-based Systems 34 2.4.1 Income and other Livelihood Opportunities 34 2.4.2 Provision of Ecosystem Services 38 2.5 Conclusions 40 References 42 25 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Abstract: Forests and other tree-based systems such as agroforestry contribute to food and nutritional security in myriad ways. Directly, trees provide a variety of healthy foods including fruits, leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds and edible oils that can diversify diets and address seasonal food and nutritional gaps. Forests are also sources of a wider range of edible plants and fungi, as well as bushmeat, fish and insects. Tree- based systems also support the provision of fodder for meat and dairy animals, of “green fertiliser” to support crop production and of woodfuel, crucial in many communities for cooking food. Indirectly, for- ests and tree-based systems are a source of income to support communities to purchase foods and they also provide environmental services that support crop production. There are, however, complexities in quantifying the relative benefits and costs of tree-based systems in food provision. These complexi- ties mean that the roles of tree-based systems are often not well understood. A greater understanding focuses on systematic methods for characterising effects across different landscapes and on key indica- tors, such as dietary diversity measures. This chapter provides a number of case studies to highlight the relevance of forests and tree-based systems for food security and nutrition, and indicates where there is a need to further quantify the roles of these systems, allowing proper integration of their contribution into national and international developmental policies. 2.1 Introduction such direct products, but contribute indirectly to support people’s livelihoods through the provision of The role played by forests1 and trees in the lives of a wide range of ecosystem services (FAO, 2010 and many people appears obvious through the many uses Figure 2.1). made of tree products, including foods, medicines, In this chapter, we are concerned with describing fodder, fibres and fuels, and for construction, fencing the direct and indirect roles of forests and tree-based and furniture (FAO, 2010). Indeed, forests and other production systems (such as those based on commod- tree-based production systems such as agroforests have ity tree crops) in supporting the food and nutritional been estimated to contribute to the livelihoods of more security of human communities. Our emphasis is on than 1.6 billion people worldwide (World Bank, 2008), the tropics, where this role is often the greatest and but just how they contribute – and the varying levels of where development interventions have been widely tar- dependency of different communities on tree products geted in this regard (FAO, 2010). With the world food and services and how these change over time – has of- price “spikes” of the last decade, the political unrest ten not been well defined (Byron and Arnold, 1997). and suffering caused by the lack of an adequate diet Complications arise for reasons that include the vast for many people, and the recognition of the threats of diversity and ubiquity of products and services these anthropogenic climate change and other global chal- systems can supply, complexities of tenure, land-use- lenges to agricultural production, the importance of change dynamics, and the different routes by which both food and nutritional security, and the roles of for- products reach subsistence users and other consum- ests and farms in securing them, have come to the fore- ers (FAO, 2010). At least until recently, this has been front politically (FAO, 2013c; Box 2.1). As a result, compounded by the inadequate attention that has been a greater understanding of how forests and tree-based given to the characterisation of these systems, and the production systems support food security and nutri- benefits and costs that are associated with them among tion, both directly and indirectly is needed (Jamnadass different portions of the community (Dawson et al., et al., 2013; Padoch and Sunderland, 2013; Powell et 2014b; Turner et al., 2012). al., 2013; Vinceti et al., 2013). Complexities in quantification and a general lack In the following sections of this chapter, we first of proper appreciation of relative benefits help explain introduce key concepts related to food security and why the positive roles and limitations of tree-based nutrition. Both the direct and indirect roles of forests production systems in supporting local peoples’ liveli- and tree-based production systems in food provision hoods have frequently been neglected by policymakers, (depicted in Figure 2.1), including threats to these roles, and why rural development interventions concerned and gender aspects that determine value and usage, are with managing forests and tree-based systems have then discussed. Although our emphasis is primarily on sometimes been poorly targeted (Belcher et al., 2005; tree products and services because of their high impor- Belcher and Schreckenberg, 2007; World Bank, 2008). tance and to illustrate the concepts involved, we also The vast diversity of forest products available includes consider other, mostly forest, products. In the conclud- not only those derived from trees, but a wide range of ing section, we provide indications where further work (often) “less visible” products from other plants, fungi, is required to optimise the use of forests and tree-based animals and insects. “Natural” forests, agroforests and production systems to support food and nutritional other tree-based production systems not only provide security. 26 1 All terms that are defined in the glossary (Appendix 1), appear for the first time in italics in a chapter. 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2.2 Food Security and Nutrition On the production side, nutritionists agree on the importance of bio-fortification of staple crops through Food security exists when communities “have physical breeding, as well as on the need for greater use of a and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious more biodiverse range of nutritionally-higher-quality food to meet their dietary needs and food preferenc- plants for more varied diets (i.e., not just enough food, es for a healthy and active life” (Pinstrup-Andersen, but the right food), rather than just relying on a few 2009). Well-nourished individuals are healthier, can “Green Revolution” staples (Keatinge et al., 2010). work harder and have greater physical reserves, with This diversity of plants can include locally-available households that are food- and nutrition-secure being and often little-researched species, including forest or better able to withstand and recover from external once-forest taxa (Burlingame and Dernini, 2012; Fri- shocks. Despite advances in agricultural production son, et al., 2011; Jamnadass et al., 2011; see Box 2.1.). globally, approximately one billion people are still Many nutritionists now accept evidence of changes chronically hungry, two billion people regularly expe- in intake of certain nutritious foods and a more diverse rience periods of food insecurity and just over a third diet (dietary diversity being defined as the number of of humans are affected by micronutrient deficiencies different foods or food groups consumed over a given (FAO et al., 2012; UN-SCN, 2010; Webb Girard et al., reference period (Ruel, 2003)) as enough to determine 2012). Most of the countries with “alarming” Global impacts on nutrition and health, since the links be- Hunger Index scores are in sub-Saharan Africa and this tween dietary diversity and energy and micronutrient region therefore is a particular target for intervention adequacy, and child growth, are now well established (von Grebmer et al., 2014). (Arimond et al., 2010; Johns and Eyzaguirre, 2006; While rates of hunger (insufficient access to energy) Kennedy et al., 2007; Kennedy et al., 2011; Ogle et al., have been falling in many parts of the world, there has 2001). Dietary diversity of individuals or households been little change in the rates of micronutrient defi- is thus recommended as a reliable indicator to assess ciencies (FAO et al., 2013). In particular, deficiencies if nutrition is adequate, and it is a useful measure of of iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc, are associated with impact following project interventions. poor growth and cognitive development in children, and increased mortality and morbidity in both adults and children (Black et al., 2013). Micronutrient defi- ciencies are often referred to as “hidden hunger”, as they can occur within the context of adequate energy Box Fruit and vegetable consumption 2.1 intake, and can be overlooked using traditional meas- ures of food security (FAO et al., 2012). in sub-Saharan Africa Malnutrition, including under-nutrition, micronutrient deficiency A good example where changes to a healthier and and over-nutrition (obesity and over-weight, with the more diverse diet would be beneficial is illustrated concomitant cardiovascular and chronic respiratory by figures on fruit and vegetable consumption in diseases, and diabetes) are key developmental chal- sub-Saharan Africa, where consumption is on average low with mean daily intake, respectively, of between lenges. Rates of obesity are increasing in virtually all 36 g and 123 g in surveyed East African countries; 70 regions of the world, affecting 1.4 billion adults glob- g and 130 g in Southern Africa; and 90 g and 110 g in ally (FAO et al., 2012) and obesity can no longer be West and Central Africa (Lock et al., 2005; Ruel et viewed only as a disease of affluence. The burden of al., 2005). These figures add up to considerably less double (over- and under-) nutrition on the well-being than the international recommendation of 400 g in of people in low-income nations is immense. As such, total per day to reduce micronutrient deficiencies there have been calls for greater attention to “nutrition- and chronic disease (Boeing et al., 2012; FAO, 2012; sensitive” agriculture and food systems (Herforth and WHO, 2004; see also Siegel et al., 2014). In response, Dufour, 2013). initiatives are underway to bring “wild” foods in Africa into cultivation (e.g., see Jamnadass et al., There has been growing recognition in the nutrition 2011 for the case of fruit trees) and such approaches community that dietary behaviour is shaped by a broad are receiving increased attention globally (CGIAR, range of psychological, cultural, economic and envi- 2014). This is exemplified by a recent State of Food ronmental factors (Fischler, 1988; Khare, 1980; Kuhn- and Agriculture report by the Food and Agriculture lein and Receveur, 1996; Sobal et al., 2014). This com- Organization of the United Nations (FAO), titled Food plexity indicates that to address food and nutritional Systems for Better Nutrition, which states that “greater security a multi-dimensional response is required efforts must be directed towards interventions that (Bryce et al., 2008). Such a response must consider the diversify smallholder production such as integrated production of sufficient food as well as its availability, farming systems, including fisheries and forestry” (FAO, 2013c). Similarly, the World Health Organiza- affordability and utilisation, and the resilience of its tion (WHO) has recently agreed on criteria for a production, among other factors (Ecker et al., 2011; healthy diet that include: balanced energy intake and FAO 2009). Nutrition-sensitive approaches across dis- expenditure; the consumption of fruits, vegetables, ciplines, including health, education, agriculture and legumes, nuts and whole grains; and the low intake of the environment, are needed (Bhutta et al., 2013; Pin- free sugars, fats and salt (WHO, 2014). strup-Andersen, 2013; Ruel and Alderman, 2013). 27 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION A framework depicting the direct and indirect roles of forests and tree-based Figure 2.1 production systems in food provision. Components indicated in this framework are addressed in this chapter FOREST-TREE-LANDSCAPE CONTINUUM Single species tree Managed forests Shifting cultivation Agroforestry crop production DIRECT ROLES INDIRECT ROLES Dietary diversity, Tree products for quality & quantity income generation Food provisioning: Tree crops, wood products, Fruits, vegetables, nuts, mushrooms, other NTFPs and AFTPs fodder and forage, animal source foods (bushmeat, fish, insects) Ecosystem services Livelihood safety nets Provision of genetic resources, pollination, microclimatic regula- Food in times of seasonal and other tion, habitat provisioning, water scarcities, nutritional composition, provisioning (quality and quantity), wood fuel for cooking soil formation, erosion control, nutrient cycling, pest regulation THE FOOD SYSTEM Access Health & Stability & Disease Seasonality Food Security & Nutrition Dietary Availability choice & Use Sustainability 28 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2.3 The Direct Roles of Forests and under five and tree cover in their communities. While the Tree-based Systems communities globally that depend completely on forest foods for their diets are relatively modest in number and size 2.3.1 Foods Provided by Forests and (Colfer, 2008), the above African examples illustrate that Tree-based Systems forest foods often play an important role as nutritious sup- plements in otherwise monotonous diets (Grivetti and Ogle, Access to forests and tree-based systems has been associ- 2000). Since the productivity of trees is often more resil- ated with increased fruit and vegetable consumption and ient to adverse weather conditions than that of annual crops, increased dietary diversity. Powell et al. (2011), for exam- forest foods often provide a “safety net” during periods of ple, found that in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanza- other food shortages caused by crop failure, as well as mak- nia, children and mothers in households who ate more foods ing important contributions during seasonal crop produc- from forests, and who had more tree cover close to their tion gaps (Blackie et al., 2014; Keller et al., 2006; Shack- homes, had more diverse diets. In another African example, leton and Shackleton, 2004). Since different tree foods in Johnson et al. (2013) found that children in Malawi who the landscape have different fruiting phenologies (as well lived in communities that experienced deforestation had as different timings for the production of other edible prod- less diverse diets than children in communities where there ucts), particular nutrients such as vitamins can often be was no deforestation. Using data from 21 countries across made available year-round (Figure 2.2), by switching from Africa, Ickowitz et al. (2014) found a statistically significant harvesting one species (or even variety) to another over the positive association between the dietary diversity of children seasons (the “portfolio” approach; Jamnadass et al., 2011). Fruit tree portfolio for year-round vitamin C and A supply Figure 2.2 100 % HUNGER SEASON 80 % 60 % 40 % 20 % 0 % English name Species name Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dez Vit C Vit A Pawpaw Carica papaya + + + + Mango Mangifera indica + + + + Banana Musa x paradisiaca Loquat Eriobotrya japonica + + + Mulberry Morus alba ● Tamarind Tamarindus indica Waterberry Syzygium spp. + + + Custard apple Annona reticulata ● Guava Psidium guajava + + + + White sapote Casimiroa edulis ● Wild medlar Vangueria madagascariensis Lemon Citrus limon + Orange Citrus sinensis + Chocolate berry Vitex payos + + + Avocado Persea americana Passionfruit Passiflora edulis + Jacket plum Pappea capensis Desert date Balanites aegyptiaca ● Bush plum Carissa edulis Available vitamin C and A-rich fruit species 2 4 6 4 4 5 4 2 3 1 2 2 ■ Harvest time of vitamin C- and provitamin A-rich fruits (species given in red type) Vitamin content levels: ■ Harvest time of vitamin C- and provitamin A-poor fruits (species given in black type) + + + = very high + = intermediate ● = moderate Food security levels of smallholders’ households and the harvest periods for the most important exotic and indig- enous (in italics) fruits, for 300 households in Machakos County, Eastern Kenya. Fruit harvest periods are according to household respondents and the given ratings of vitamin C and provitamin A (a precursor of vitamin A) content are according to chemical analysis (several sources, including Tanzania Food Composition Tables and the USDA National Nutrient Database) Source: Katja Kehlenbeck (personal, previously unpublished observations). 29 % of food-insecure HHs 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Human foods from trees Traditional agroforestry systems often harbour high Globally, it is estimated that 50 percent of all fruit con- biodiversity and can deliver a wide array of tree foods in- sumed by humans originate from trees (Powell et al., cluding fruits and leafy vegetables that are both cultivated 2013), most of which come from cultivated sources. and are remnants of natural forest (Table 2.1). When estab- Many of these planted trees still have “wild” or “semi- lished in agroforestry systems with shade trees, food di- wild” stands in “native” forest that are also harvested and versity and sustainability of tree crop systems increase. In which form important genetic resources for the improve- Ethiopia, for example, the inclusion of fruit-bearing trees ment of planted stock (Dawson et al., 2014b). Although as shade in coffee plantations provides farmers with access apparently wild, some forest fruit tree species have un- to additional foods, such as mangoes, oranges, bananas and dergone a degree of domestication to support more ef- avocados, as well as firewood and timber (Muleta, 2007). ficient production (see for example Box 2.2), by increas- A small number of tropical food trees is widely cul- ing yields and quality, and by “clumping” trees together tivated globally as commodity crops (e.g., cocoa [Theo- in forests to increase their density at particular sites and broma cacao], coffee [Coffea spp.] and oil palm [Elaeis thus ease their harvesting. The classic case is in the Ama- guineensis]; Dawson et al., 2013; Dawson et al., 2014b) zon, where ancient harvesting, managed regeneration and in a variety of production systems, some of which har- cultivation have led to genetic changes and high density bour high levels of tree diversity, especially smallhold- aggregations, for example close to ancient anthropogenic ings (Table 2.1). Tree foods are often rich sources of vi- “dark earth” soils (Clement and Junqueira, 2010) of sever- tamins, minerals, proteins, fats and other nutrients (FAO, al food tree species such as peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) 1992; Ho et al., 2012; Leakey, 1999), although for many and Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) (Clement, 1989; traditional and wild species such information is lacking Clement, 1999; Shepard and Ramirez, 2011). or not reliable. A recent literature review on selected Af- rican indigenous fruit trees conducted by Stadlmayr et al. (2013), for example, clearly showed their high nutritional value, but also highlighted the huge variability and low Box quality of some of the data reported in the literature. Ed- The case of allanblackia: 2.2 ible leaves of wild African trees such as baobab (Adan- integrating markets and cultiva- sonia digitata) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) are tion to support the sustainable high in calcium and are sources of protein and iron (Ke- development of a new tree com- hlenbeck and Jamnadass, 2014). Fruits from trees such modity crop as mango (Mangifera indica, native to Asia, but widely The seed of allanblackia (Allanblackia spp.), found wild introduced through the tropics) are high in provitamin A, in the humid forests of Central, East and West Africa, but there is a huge variability of almost 12-fold among yields edible oil with a significant potential in the global different cultivars, as indicated by the colour of the fruit food market, especially as a “hardstock” for the pro- pulp (Shaheen et al., 2013). A child’s daily requirement duction of healthy spreads that are low in trans-fats. for vitamin A can thus be met by around 25 g of a deep The tree is being brought into cultivation by improv- orange-fleshed mango variety, while 300 g of a yellow- ing seed handling and developing vegetative propaga- fleshed variety would be required. As another example, tion methods, and through the selection of markedly the iron contents of dried seeds of the African locust bean superior genotypes. Tens of thousands of seedlings and (Parkia biglobosa) and raw cashew nut (Anacardium oc- clones have so far been distributed to smallholders. cidentale) are comparable with, or even higher than, that The development of an allanblackia market has poten- of chicken meat (FAO, 2012), although absorption of tial to improve smallholders’ livelihoods and support non-haem iron from plant sources is lower than from ani- global health. A private–public partnership known as Novella Africa is developing a sustainable allanblackia mal sources. Iron absorption is enhanced by the intake of oil business that could be worth USD hundreds of vitamin C, which is found in high amounts in many tree millions annually for local farmers. The partnership al- fruits (WHO/FAO, 2004). Consumption of only 10 to 20 g lows different stakeholders with different interests and of baobab fruit pulp (or a glass of its juice), for example, organisational capacities to work together. covers a child’s daily vitamin C requirement. Increasing A supply chain for seed has been established based on knowledge on the biochemical components of indigenous harvesting by local communities in natural forests and tree species that are not widely used in agriculture inter- from trees remaining in farmland after forest clearance. nationally remains an important area of research (Slavin The integration of allanblackia into small-scale cocoa and Lloyd, 2012; WHO/FAO, 2004). farms is being promoted in West Africa to support more biodiverse and resilient agricultural landscapes. Human foods from other (forest) sources As allanblackia trees grow, cocoa trees provide the shade they need; when they are grown, they in turn Bushmeat (wild meat), fish and insects can all be impor- will act as shade for cocoa. Cocoa and allanblackia tant food sources. Bushmeat is often the main source of provide harvests at different times of the year and – animal protein available to forest and forest-boundary when the allanblackia trees have matured – will spread communities, serving as an important source of iron and farmers’ incomes. fat, and diversifying diets (Golden et al., 2011; Wilkie Adapted from Jamnadass et al. (2010, 2014). et al., 2005). It plays a particularly important role in 30 diet where livestock husbandry is not a feasible option 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Table Examples of tree-species-rich agroforests in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with information on 2.1 tree uses and with particular reference to possible human food use. These case studies indicate that dozens and sometimes hundreds of tree species can be found in agroforestry landscapes in the tropics, with a wide range of species contributing directly to food production (adapted from Dawson et al., 2014b) Reference Location Tree diversity Tree uses Das and Das Barak Valley, 87 tree species identi- Farmers indicated a mean of 8 species used as edible fruit (2005) Assam, India fied in agroforestry per home garden, many of which were indigenous. Fruit home gardens trees were more dominant in smaller gardens. ~ 5 species per garden used for timber, 2 for woodfuel Garen et al. Los Santos and 99 tree species, 3/4 ~ 1/3 of species valued for human food. 27 mostly exotic (2011) Rio Hato, Panama indigenous, utilised, fruits mentioned as planted. ~ 1/3 of species each valued planted and/or pro- for their wood or as living fences. > 60 % of species were tected on farmers’ land assigned multiple uses Kehlenbeck et al. Surrounding 424 woody plant spe- Farmers indicated many species used for food. 7 of the 10 (2011) Mount Kenya, cies, 306 indigenous, most common exotic species were planted, mainly for ed- Kenya revealed in farm plots ible fruits/nuts. The most common indigenous species were used primarily for timber/firewood Lengkeek et al. East of Mount 297 tree species, ~ 2/3 Farmers indicated that > 20 % of species yield fruits/nuts for (2003) Kenya, Kenya indigenous, revealed in human consumption. The most common exotic was coffee, smallholder farms then timber trees Marjokorpi and Two areas of > 120 tree species Farmers indicated ~ 30 % of species used for edible fruit, Ruokolainen West Kalimantan, identified in forest latex and in other non-destructive ways, ~ 50 % used for (2003) Indonesia gardens, most species timber and in other destructive ways. Seedlings of unused not planted trees removed around naturally-regenerating and intention- ally-planted fruit/other useful trees Philpott et al. Bukit Barisan 92 and 90 trees species > 50 % of farmers grew a total of 17 other products in (2008) Selatan Park, identified in coffee farm addition to coffee, including spices, timber and, most com- Lampung prov- plots outside and inside monly, indigenous and exotic fruits. Farmers planting outside ince, Sumatra, the park, respectively the park grew alternative tree products more often Indonesia Sambuichi Southern Bahia, 293 tree species, 97 % Many indigenous trees used for food. Seedlings favoured for and Haridasan Brazil indigenous, revealed in retention during weeding were those providing edible fruit (2007) cacao plantation plots or good wood. The most abundant exotics were in forest understory fruit species Sonwa et al. Yaoundé, 206 mostly indigenous Farmers indicated 17 % of tree species used primarily for (2007) Mbalmayo tree species revealed food, 2/3 of which were indigenous. 22 % of tree species and Ebolowa in cacao agroforestry primarily for timber, 8 % for medicine. Excluding cacao, the 3 sub-regions, plots most common species (2 indigenous) were used for food. Cameroon Close to urban Yaoundé, the density of food trees was higher. and where wild fish are not available (Brashares et al., studies in Latin America have shown the importance 2011; Elliott et al., 2002). The hunting of animals and of bushmeat (Iwamura et al., 2014; Peres, 2001; 2012; eating of bushmeat also play special roles in the cultural Van Vliet et al., 2014; Zapata-Rios et al., 2009). In the and spiritual identity of indigenous peoples (Nasi et al., Amazon, for example, rural consumption is believed to 2008; Sirén, 2012). For example, more than 580 animal equal ~150,000 tonnes annually, equivalent to ~ 60 kg species, distributed in 13 taxonomic categories, are used per person (Nasi et al., 2011). in traditional medicine in the Amazon region (Alves and In China, increasing affluence in major consumer Alves, 2011). markets has led to spiralling demand for many wild ani- Consumption patterns for bushmeat can vary widely mals, a demand that is supported by improvements in (Chardonnet, 1996; Fargeot and Dieval, 2000; Wilkie et transport infrastructure. Pangolins and turtles used for al., 2005), but hunting has been estimated to provide 30 meat and in traditional Chinese medicine are the most to 80 percent of the overall protein intake of rural house- frequently encountered mammals seized from illegal holds in parts of Central Africa and nearly 100 percent traders (TRAFFIC, 2008), with major markets also in of animal protein (Koppert et al., 1996). Numerous Singapore and Malaysia. Bushmeat sales can constitute 31 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION a significant source of revenue for rural communities, particularly where trade is driven by increased consump- tion in urban areas (Milner-Gulland and Bennett, 2003). Urban consumers may have a choice of several sources of animal protein but opt for bushmeat for reasons of preference or cost relative to alternatives (Wilkie et al., 2005). Surveys of bushmeat markets are a useful way to estimate the state of fauna and to infer the sustainability of hunting activities (Fa et al., 2015). The value of fish as a nutritious food is well estab- lished (Kawarazuka and Béné, 2011). In many tropical forests, wild fish represent the main source of animal protein in the diet, outweighing the importance of bush- meat (cf. daSilva and Begossi, 2009 for the Amazon; Powell et al., 2010 for Laos; Wilkie et al., 2005 for Ga- bon). In the Rio Negro region of the Brazilian Amazon, for example, da Silva and Begossi (2009) found that fish caught in flooded forests and in forest rivers accounted for 70 percent of animal protein in the diet, excluding other aquatic species such as turtles. The importance of insects as a source of food has recently regained atten- tion (FAO, 2013b). Insects are a cheap, available source of protein and fat, and to a lesser degree carbohydrate. Some species are also considered good sources of vita- mins and minerals (Dunkel, 1996; FAO, 2013b; Schabel, Boy spear-fishing in riverine forest outside of Luang Prabang, 2010). Many forests and agroforests are managed by lo- Laos.Photo © Terry Sunderland cal communities to enhance edible insect supply (John- son, 2010). For example, sago palms (Metroxylon spp.) are managed in forest-agriculture landscape mosaics in animal fodder production increase farmers’ resilience to Papua New Guinea and eastern Indonesia to support climate change (Dawson et al., 2014a). Many tree and grub production (Mercer, 1997). The global importance other forest products are also used in ethnoveterinary of insects as a food source is difficult to evaluate, as treatments that support animal health and hence human statistics are mostly restricted to a few specific studies. food production (Dharani et al., 2014). For example, a study of the Centre for Indigenous Peo- In the case of soil fertility replenishment, an analysis ples’ Nutrition and Environment and FAO evaluated the of more than 90 peer-reviewed studies found consistent nutritional and cultural importance of various traditional evidence of higher maize yields in Africa from plant- food items of 12 indigenous communities from different ing nitrogen-fixing green fertilisers, including trees and parts of the world, and found that leaf-eating and litter- shrubs, to substitute for (or enhance) mineral fertiliser feeding invertebrates provide many Amerindian groups application, although the level of response varied by soil with important foods that can be collected year-round type and the particular management applied (Sileshi et (Kuhnlein et al., 2009). al., 2008). A recent project in Malawi, for example, en- couraged more than 180,000 farmers to plant fertiliser Tree products that support human food trees, leading to improvements in maize yields, more food production and consumption secure months per year and greater dietary diversity (CIE, Trees provide animal fodder, enabling communities to 2011). As well as increasing average yields, the planting keep livestock that provide them with nutritionally im- of trees as green fertilisers in Southern Africa stabilised portant milk and meat. They also provide green manure crop production in drought years and during other extreme that replenishes soil fertility and supports annual crop weather events, and improved crop rain use efficiency production, as well as woodfuel that provides energy (Sileshi et al., 2011; Sileshi et al., 2012), contributing to (Jamnadass et al., 2013). In the case of fodder produc- food security in the context of climate change in the re- tion, for example, a recent initiative in East Africa in- gion. Supporting the regeneration of natural vegetation volved more than 200,000 smallholder dairy farmers in agroforestry systems also provides significant benefits growing mostly introduced fodder shrubs (especially for the production of staple crops, with farmer-managed calliandra, Calliandra calothyrsus) as supplementary natural regeneration (FMNR) of faidherbia (Faidherbia feed for their animals (Franzel et al., 2014). The typi- albida) and other leguminous trees in dryland agrofor- cal increase in milk yield achieved enabled smallhold- ests (parklands) in semi-arid and sub-humid Africa being ers to raise extra revenue from milk sales of more than a good example. Supported in Niger by a policy shift that USD 100 per cow per year and allowed them to provide has awarded tree tenure to farmers, as well as by more more milk more efficiently to urban consumers (Place favourable wetter weather, since 1986 FMNR is reputed 32 et al., 2009). Such tree-and shrub-based practices for to have led to the “regreening” of approximately 5 million 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION hectares (Sendzimir et al., 2011). Improvements in sor- a wide variety of wild food plants were found, but few ghum and millet yields, and higher dietary diversity and contributed significantly to human diets, despite signifi- household incomes, have resulted in some Sahelian loca- cant local dietary deficiencies. The real contribution of tions (Place and Binam, 2013). these foods to diets therefore needs to be assessed by Traditional energy sources have received little atten- measurements of intake (as noted in Section 2.2). tion in current energy debates, but firewood and char- When there is availability but relatively low NTFP- coal are crucial for the survival and well-being of as food use in areas of dietary need, reasons can include the many as two billion people, enabling them to cook food high labour costs involved in collection and processing, to make it safe for consumption and palatable, and to low yields, high phenotypic variability (with large propor- release the energy within it (Owen et al., 2013; Wrang- tions of non-preferred produce), and lack of knowledge in ham, 2009). In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, where the community. Regarding the last point, in eastern Niger perhaps 90 percent of the population relies on woodfuels and northern Burkina Faso, for example, women prepare for cooking (GEF 2013; IEA, 2006), the use of char- protein-rich condiments from the seeds of wild prosopis coal as a cooking fuel is still increasing rapidly, with the (Prosopis africana) and zanmné (Acacia macrostachya) value of the charcoal industry there estimated at USD trees, respectively, but women in other parts of the Sahel 8 billion in 2007 (World Bank, 2011). In Asia, even (where the same trees are found) are not aware of these better-off rural households have often been observed to food values and do not harvest or manage woodlands for be highly dependent on woodfuels, as found by Narain them (Faye et al., 2011). Research suggests that knowl- et al. (2005) for India, the Government of Nepal (GN, edge on the use of such products is often higher among 2004) for Nepal, and Chaudhuri and Pfaff (2002) for Pa- indigenous peoples than among immigrant communi- kistan. With the volatile and often high price of “mod- ties, with knowledge being lost due to social change and ern” energy sources, this situation is unlikely to change “modernisation” (Kuhnlein et al., 2009; Moran, 1993). for some time, a fact often neglected in policy discus- Within communities, cultural perceptions on who should sions on “energy futures” in low-income nations, which eat particular foods, and when, are also important (Balée, place unrealistic emphasis on “more modern” energy 2013; Hladik et al., 1993; Keller et al., 2006; Lykke et al., sources, rather than attempting to make woodfuel pro- 2002). Differences arise between genders and age groups duction and use more efficient and sustainable (Iiyama with respect to specialised knowledge and preferences in et al., 2014a; Schure et al., 2013). Access to cooking fuel tree use (Daniggelis, 2003). This is illustrated by the dif- provides people with more flexibility in what they can ferent relative use values assigned to plant products by eat, including foods with better nutritional profiles that different-aged respondents in the Yuracaré and Trinitario require more energy to cook (Njenga et al., 2013). The communities in the Bolivian Amazon, where older people cultivation of woodlots allows the production of wood generally had more recall on uses for particular categories that is less harmful when burnt (Tabuti et al., 2003), of plant, but both young and old people assigned high use has higher energy content and requires less time for values to food products (higher than respondents in their collection (freeing time for other activities; Thorlakson mid-years; Thomas, 2008). and Neufeldt, 2012). This is particularly beneficial for From the above discussion it is evident that the relation- women, who do most of the woodfuel collection and the ship between the availability of food and its consumption cooking, and whose health suffers most from cooking- is often complex, and simple surveys of absence/presence smoke-related diseases (Bailis et al., 2005). Previously are therefore not in themselves adequate for understand- collected sources of fuel can then be used for other more ing diets (Webb and Kennedy, 2012). When collection beneficial purposes that support food production (e.g., costs, low yields and high proportions of non-preferred not cutting fruit trees for fuel; Brouwer et al., 1997; produce are factors inhibiting the use of wild sources, do- Köhlin et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2011). mestication to increase productivity, quality and access can play an important role (Dawson et al., 2014b). This is exemplified by improvements in the performance of wild 2.3.2 Dietary Choices, Access to Resources African fruit trees being brought into cultivation in partic- and Behavioural Change ipatory domestication programmes in the Central African region (Jamnadass et al., 2011; Tchoundjeu et al., 2010). Although trees and other forest plants can provide edible The option of cultivation also helps address the complex fruit, nuts and leaves, etc. that are often good potential threats to the use of wild stands through a combination of sources of nutrients and are sometimes used in this re- over-harvesting, deforestation, the conflicting use of re- gard (see examples earlier in this chapter), it does not sources and restricted (or uncontrolled) access to forests follow that they are used by humans for food. In this (Dawson et al., 2013; FAO, 2010; Vinceti et al., 2013). sense, long lists of edible non-timber forest products The conventional wisdom that cultivation will support (NTFPs) (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010) can sometimes be the maintenance of wild stands for conservation purposes misleading, as the presence of wild food species in lo- and provide sustainable access for wild harvesters (rather cal forest and woodland landscapes does not necessarily than cultivators) is, however, not widely supported (Daw- mean that these are consumed. Termote et al. (2012) il- son et al., 2013). lustrated this point with a survey around the city of Ki- When bringing trees from the wild into cultivation, sangani in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where an important aspect is to increase yields: if indigenous 33 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION trees are perceived as relatively unproductive and can and largely informal – domestic timber sector that sup- only be produced inefficiently, agricultural landscapes ports the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of local are likely to be dominated by staple crops, with agro- forest users (Cerutti and Lescuyer, 2011; Lescuyer et al., biodiversity (and hence, likely, dietary diversity) re- 2011). In many countries, however, laws for timber ex- duced (Sunderland, 2011). Since many tree species are traction were designed largely around large-scale export- essentially undomesticated, large increases in yield and oriented forestry operations rather than to sustain healthy quality are often available through selection, supporting small-scale domestic markets, which can be criminalised, cultivation; for example, this is the case for allanblackia generating large revenues in bribes for unscrupulous state (Allanblackia spp.), described further in Box 2.2 (Jamna- officials (Cerutti et al., 2013). There are in turn, some en- dass et al., 2010). Lack of knowledge on appropriate tree couraging efforts to change forest and resource govern- management, however, can be a major limitation (Jamna- ance rules to favour strengthened local rights (Campese dass et al., 2011). Increases in efficiency are important et al., 2009). for markets, since price to the consumer is a significant In addition to providing food directly, a multitude of factor influencing diet (Glanz et al., 2005; Ruel et al., NTFPs harvested from natural, incipiently- and/or semi- 2005; Story et al., 2008). Where limited access to extant domesticated forests and woodlands provide a range of forest foods is a major issue, approaches that support ac- resources that are used by harvesters directly for other cess such as the development of community-based forest purposes, or are sold for income that can be used to management plans can be beneficial (Schreckenberg and purchase a variety of products, including food. The in- Luttrell, 2009), but wider efforts are required to include creased demand for forest products in low-income na- all significant stakeholders, and in particular women tions, prompted by population growth and urbanisation, (Agarwal, 2001; Mitra and Mishra, 2011). provides particular opportunities to enhance rural live- Household decision-making regarding food use and lihoods (Arnold et al., 2006). Difficulties in adequately practice, mostly made by women, is influenced by levels quantifying NTFP value, however, include the multiplic- of knowledge on nutrition (FAO, 1997; Jamnadass et al., ity of products, informal trade and bartering that occur in 2011). Translating the harvest and cultivation of tree and unmonitored local markets, direct household provisioning other forest foods into improved dietary intakes therefore without products entering markets at all, and the fact that involves making nutrition education and behavioural- wild-harvested resources have been excluded from many change communication to women a high priority (Mc- large-scale rural household surveys (Angelsen et al., Cullough et al., 2004). There is, for example, a need to un- 2011; Shackleton et al., 2007; Shackleton et al., 2011). derstand how best to educate on the benefits of eating fruit, The heterogeneity of challenges to harness the income- how to prepare nutritious foods, and how to access them and livelihood-generating opportunities from these tree (Hawkes, 2013; Jamnadass et al., 2011). Children can also products include the diversity of markets and of market be effective agents of change in societies, so teaching them structures of which they are part (Jamnadass et al., 2014). about agriculture and nutrition is a wise investment (Sher- Despite difficulties in quantification, some overall man, 2003). In Kenya, for example, the “Education for estimates of value have been attempted. Pimentel et al. Sustainable Development” initiative included a “Healthy (1997), for example, estimated very approximately that Learning” programme targeted at school children that re- USD 90 billion worth of food and other NTFPs were sulted in attitudinal and behavioural changes in commu- harvested annually from forests and trees in developing nities (Vandenbosch et al., 2009). Counselling to change countries. FAO’s latest (2010) Global Forest Resourc- feeding behaviours is important (Waswa et al., 2014), with- es Assessment (FRA) provided more recent estimates in the appropriate context of culture and knowledge (Bisse- (based on 2005 figures), with worldwide values given leua and Niang, 2013; Smith, 2013). The education of men of USD 19 billion and 17 billion annually for non-wood should also not be neglected, since they often have most forest product- and woodfuel-removals, respectively. The control over household incomes, and need to be aware of data compiled for the FRA were, however, acknowledged the importance of diverse cropping systems and the spend- to be far from complete (one problem is that, when they ing of income on healthy foods (Fon and Edokat, 2012). do report value for NTFPs, many countries only do so for the “top” few species of commercial importance; FAO, 2010). A good illustration of the discrepancy between 2.4 The Indirect Roles of Forests and current estimates of importance comes from comparing Tree-based Systems the value of woodfuel reported for Africa (most wood- fuel is harvested from naturally-regenerating rather than 2.4.1 Income and other Livelihood planted sources in the continent) in the 2010 FRA (USD Opportunities 1.4 billion annually) with the World Bank’s (2011) much higher estimate of the value of the charcoal industry in Income from non-timber forest products the sub-Saharan region (USD 8 billion annually; quoted Local communities derive income from timber and in Section 2.3; see also FAO, 2014). There is also some non-timber products in forests. In this subsection, the confusion regarding the meaning of the term “income” focus is on the latter, although research in the countries in estimates: some studies use it to mean the cash made of the Congo Basin, as well as in Indonesia, Ecuador from selling products; perhaps more commonly, howev- 34 and elsewhere, shows that there is a large and vibrant – er, the term is used in the sense of the “environmental 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION women, who have limited access to land and capital re- sources, in NTFP trade can have positive effects on intra- household equity (e.g., Kusters et al., 2006; Marshall et al., 2006). However, connecting such data with food con- sumption – through direct provisioning or through sales that are used to support food purchase and dietary diver- sity – is a different matter, and much less information is available (Ahmed, 2013). Given that much of the collec- tion of NTFPs is done by women and children, they suffer more when access to resources is restricted or if resources are depleted (Agarwal, 2013). As noted above and as is evident from Table 2.2, wood- fuel is an important NTFP in many locations, which al- lows the preparation of food (Section 2.3). In contrast to subsistence firewood collection, traditionally handled by women and children, charcoal production is mainly an ac- tivity undertaken by men (Ingram et al., 2014), although the growing participation of women has been reported in some locations, such as in Zambia and northern Tanza- Carrying bushmeat in Vietnam. nia (Butz, 2013; Gumbo et al., 2013). Who benefits most Photo © Terry Sunderland from production depends on the specific context (Butz, 2013; Khundi et al., 2011; Schure et al., 2014; Zulu and Richardson, 2013). Charcoal production provides a good income” from the diversity of goods provided “freely” by illustration of some of the dilemmas for intervention in the environment, which includes the often higher value of NTFP harvest and trade since it is often based on unsus- subsistence extraction (Angelsen et al., 2014). tainable practices that are sometimes illegal (Mwampam- In recent years, more appropriate and systematic meth- ba et al., 2013). Its value chain is generally affected by a ods have been used to quantify the value of such prod- complex and multi-layered regulatory context that is un- ucts, including by the Poverty Environment Network clear for stakeholders (Iiyama et al., 2014b; Sepp, 2008). (PEN), which compiled a comparative socio-economic Interventions have rarely been effective, with economic data set from 8,000 households in 24 low-income tropi- rents accruing to the transport/wholesale stages of the cal nations, focusing on tropical forest use and poverty value chain, as well as in bribes to those engaged in the alleviation (PEN, 2015; Wunder et al., 2014). The results illicit licence trade (Naughton-Treves et al., 2007). Partly of PEN revealed that, for the surveyed communities, en- as a result, producer margins are often low (Mwampamba vironmental income constituted 28 percent of total house- et al., 2013). hold income, around three-quarters of which came from Commercialising the wild harvest of NTFPs has been forests (with the highest proportion coming from forests widely promoted as a conservation measure, based on the in Latin America; Angelsen et al., 2014). According to assumption that an increase in resource value is an in- the PEN analysis, across all sampled communities the centive for collectors to manage forests and woodlands major products and their contributions to forest income more sustainably (FAO, 2010). Experience shows, how- were woodfuel (firewood and charcoal, 35 percent), food ever, that the concept of commercialisation and conserva- (30 percent) and structure/fibre products (25 percent). tion proceeding in tandem is often illusory (Belcher and There is variation between geographic regions in the im- Schreckenberg, 2007), as more beneficial livelihood out- portance of particular products to surveyed communities, comes are generally associated with more detrimental en- with foods for example, being more important from forest vironmental outcomes (Kusters et al., 2006). The harvest sources in Latin America than in Africa, and the reverse of fruit from the argan tree (Argania spinosa), endemic to being true for woodfuel. The PEN data also indicated that Morocco, is a good illustration of the dilemmas involved. lower income classes were proportionally more depend- The oil extracted from the kernels of argan fruit is one of ent on NTFPs, partly because they have less access to the most expensive edible oils (as well as being used for private resources, although better-off households earned cosmetic purposes) in the world and development agen- more in absolute terms (Angelsen et al., 2014; Wunder et cies have widely promoted a “win-win” scenario for rural al., 2014). livelihoods and argan forest health based on further com- A wide range of other studies have also indicated an mercialisation (Lybbert et al., 2011). As Lybbert et al., important role for NTFPs in supporting rural peoples’ showed, however, while the booming oil export market livelihoods (Table 2.2). NTFPs are a common “safety net” has benefited the local economy, it has also contributed to for rural households in response to shocks and as gap- forest degradation. Thus, although the commercialisation filling to seasonal shortfalls, and in some instances allow of NTFP harvesting can contribute to livelihoods, not too asset accumulation and provide a pathway out of pover- much should be expected from it in terms of supporting ty (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003; Mulenga et al., 2012; sustainability, even if measures to engage in cultivation Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004). The involvement of are taken (see Section 2.3; Dawson et al., 2013). 35 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Table Case studies indicating the proportional contribution of non-timber forest products to house- 2.2 hold budgets. The examples given show that the scale of the contribution varies widely, depending on context and wealth group, with often higher proportional contributions to poorer households % household Reference Location Land use type income ** Further information Shackleton et South Africa Natural forest 20 al. (2007) Appiah et al. Ghana Natural forest 38 (2007) Kamanga et al. Malawi Forest, farmland 15 (17 P, 7 W) Woodfuel, fodder, etc. (2009) Babulo et al. Northern Ethiopia Natural forest 27 Woodfuel, farm implements, construction (2009) materials, wild foods, medicines Yemiru et al. Southern Ethiopia Forests (participatory (53 P, 23 W) (2010)* management) FAO (2011) Mozambique Natural forest 30 Woodfuel, fruit, mushrooms, insects, honey, medicines FAO (2011) Sahel Parkland, savannah 80 Shea nut woodland Mulenga et al. Zambia Natural forest 32 Woodfuel, wild honey, mushrooms, 2011 ants, caterpillars Heubach et al. Northern Benin Natural forest 39 (2011) Adam and Sudan Savannah woodland 54 Ziziphus fruits Pretzsch (2010) Ingram et al. Congo Basin Natural forest 47 (2012) Pouliot (2012) Burkina Faso Parkland, forest 28 Shea nut, woodfuel, locust bean pod, (43 P, 18 W) baobab fruit and leaves, fodder, thatching grass Pouliot and Ghana, Burkina Faso Grassland, bushland, Ghana Woodfuel, wild foods, fodder, Treue (2013)* farmland, forest (45 P, 20 W); construction materials, medicines Burkina Faso (42 P, 17 W) Bwalya (2013) Zambia Natural forest, 30 Honey, mushrooms, tubers, berries, woodland woodfuel, construction poles Kar and Bangladesh Forest-adjacent hilly (16 P, 9 W) Bamboo, wild vegetables, broom grass Jacobson areas (2012) Vedeld et al. Review of 54 studies 20, ~ half as Woodfuel, wild foods, animal fodder, etc. (2004) in 17 countries cash income * Studies conducted under the Poverty Environment Network (PEN). 36 * * Average for the sample, and/or (in parentheses) the range of contribution between poorer (P) and wealthier (W) groups. Values normally expressed in terms of environmental income. 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Income from cultivated tree crops Examples from Africa of widely-traded agroforestry tree foods that support farmers’ incomes and consumers’ choices include the indigenous semi-domesticated and widely cultivated fruit safou (Dacryodes edulis, Schreck- enberg et al., 2006), the indigenous incipient domesti- cated njansang (Ricinodendron heudelotii, Ndoye et al., 1998) and exotic mango. New domestic markets for fruit are developing in Africa as a result of recent investments by Coca Cola, Del Monte and others to source produce locally for juice manufacture, and also to meet growing demand from population growth and increased urbanisa- Moabi seeds contain highly valuable oil which is used for tion (Ferris et al., 2014). Worldwide, products supplied cooking, traditional healing and cosmetics. from tree-crop systems are fundamental raw materials un- Photo © Terry Sunderland derpinning the development of small scale to multibillion dollar industries. Coffee and cocoa are the most demand- ed tree crop commodities, particularly in the developed 94 percent and 46 percent of the country’s total production world, by beverage- and confectionery-producing giants area for palm oil, coffee, rubber, cocoa and tea, respec- such as Mars Inc., Nestlé and Cadbury, among others. tively (GI, 2015). Unlike Indonesia, many countries do not Women have particular opportunities to earn income formally differentiate between smallholder and larger-scale from fruit and vegetable production because of their tra- plantation production, but more than 67 percent of coffee ditional involvement in harvesting and processing (Kiptot produced worldwide is estimated to be from smallhold- and Franzel, 2011), thereby supporting the expenditure of a ings (ICO, 2015), while the figure is 90 percent for cocoa greater proportion of the family income on food, although (ICCO, 2015). Although in the 20th century there was a men may “co-opt” tree-based enterprises when they be- general transition from plantations to smallholder produc- come more profitable (Jamnadass et al., 2011). Women are tion for a number of tree crops, in some regions this may also more likely to grow a wider range of trees in the farm now be being reversed (Byerlee, 2014). plots they control, including food trees (FAO, 1999). Taken together, the current annual export value of There are still glaring gaps in the knowledge and ef- the above five tree commodity crops is tens of billions forts to realise the full potential of indigenous food trees, of USD, while other cultivated tree crops (such as avoca- specifically in terms of production and trade status, and dos, cashews, coconuts, mangoes and papayas) also pro- in the operation of value chains (Jamnadass et al., 2011). vide additional valuable contributions (Figure 2.3; FAO, Big challenges to market engagement are the perishabili- 2015). Total production of these crops and their export ty of many fruits, combined with the geographic distance value have grown in recent decades, with FAOSTAT data to larger market centres and the lack of suitable infra- showing that export values have increased at a rate rough- structure, lack of market information, and value chains ly four times faster than that of production. Less clear is biased against small producers (Gyau et al., 2012). In the proportion of the export value that accrues to small- addition to foods, the production of timber and other holder producers, but often production constitutes a con- agroforestry tree products (AFTPs) for markets also pro- siderable proportion of farm takings. It is estimated that vide incomes for food purchase. The high commercial cocoa accounts for 80 percent of smallholders’ incomes value of timber planting in smallholdings pan-tropically in Bolivia, while in Ghana it provides livelihoods for over is confirmed by the partial economic data available for 700,000 farmers (Kolavalli and Vigneri, 2011). the sector (e.g., for teak [Tectona grandis] in Indonesia There is a danger that the planting of some tree com- see Roshetko et al., 2013; for acacia in Vietnam [Acacia modities will result in the conversion of natural forest mangium and A. auriculiformis] see Fisher and Gordon, – which contains important local foods – to agricultural 2007; Harwood and Nambiar, 2014). Many trees are also land, and a risk that food crops will be displaced from cultivated to provide medicines from bark, leaves, roots, farmland in a trend towards the growing of monocultures etc., which are sold to support incomes and are used for (e.g., oil palm, the cultivation of which has led to the self-treatment, supporting the health of communities wide-scale loss of forest and agrobiodiversity; Danielsen along with the provision of healthy foods (Muriuki et al., et al., 2009). Although it has often been suggested that 2012); however markets remain largely informal (Mc- intensive monocultures raise productivity and therefore Mullin et al., 2012; McMullin et al., 2014). reduce the amount of forested land that needs to be cut Market data recorded for agroforestry tree products are for crop cultivation (leaving forest food sources intact), relatively sparse, but information on export value glob- there are few quantitative data to support the notion that ally is quantified for major tree commodity crops such as “land sparing” is more effective than “land sharing” as a palm oil, coffee, rubber (from Hevea brasiliensis), cocoa conservation strategy (Balmford et al., 2012; Tscharntke and tea (primarily from Camellia sinensis). Each of these et al., 2012; see discussion in Chapter 5). crops is grown to a significant extent by smallholders, as There is an important opportunity to diversify risks illustrated in Indonesia where, in 2011, small farms were associated with the reliance on a few cash tree crops into estimated to contribute 42 percent, 96 percent, 85 percent, other tree crops whose domestic production and export 37 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION Global export values of a range of tree commodity crops over Figure 2.3 a twenty year period, 1991 to 2010 Data were extracted from FAO (2015) and are combined figures for all nations providing information. Data for mangoes, mangosteens and guava are reported together. Given values include re-exports (i.e., import into one nation followed by export to another). Some commodities, such as coffee, cocoa and coconut, are exported in more than one form and total export values are therefore higher than those shown here (for each of these crops only the most important form by export value is given). The graph shows that there was a significant increase in export value for crops during the dec- ade leading up to 2010, but that value was volatile. The most notable feature over the period was a sharp rise in palm oil export value. Note that local trade can also be significant for many of these products markets are growing steadily and rapidly, while also 2013a). For farmers who have too little land to cultivate meeting food security and nutritional needs of the grow- enough food to directly meet their needs, however, in- ing population. For example, currently, the global sup- come from tree commodity crops may be the only way ply of fruits and vegetables falls, on average, 22 percent to obtain sufficient food (Arnold, 1990). short of population need according to nutrition recom- mendations, while low income countries fall on average 58 percent short of need (Siegel et al., 2014). Although 2.4.2 Provision of Ecosystem Services tree crop cultivation provides opportunities for farm- ers to diversify and minimise risk, especially for prod- The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) pro- ucts that can be consumed by the family as well as sold vided a comprehensive overview of ecosystem services (Jamnadass et al., 2011), buying food using the income and much literature has been written on the subject. Here received from a single commodity cash crop can lead we provide a brief overview of key ecosystem services to food insecurity for individual farm households when from forests and tree-based systems, and their roles in payments are one-off, delayed or volatile in value. Simi- food security and nutrition. larly, individual countries can become too dependent on Forests, agroforests and – to a certain extent – planta- one or a few commodities, with significant fluctuations tions, provide important ecosystem services including: in GDP, dependent on unpredictable world prices (Jam- soil, spring, stream and watershed protection; microclimate nadass et al., 2014). Monocultures of tree commodi- regulation; biodiversity conservation; and pollination, all ties also reduce resilience to shocks such as drought, of which ultimately affect food and nutritional security flood and, often (although not always), the outbreak of (Garrity, 2004; Zhang et al., 2007). Multiple ecosystem pests and diseases. As a result, tree commodity crops service scan generally be fund in any single forest fragment are sometimes viewed sceptically within agricultural (see Box 2.3). Forest users and farmers can be encouraged 38 production-based strategies to improve nutrition (FAO, to preserve and reinforce these functions by payments for 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION ecosystem services (PES), but more important in deter- Forests, and frequently agroforests, are centres of plant mining their behaviour is the direct products and services and animal biodiversity, protecting species and the genetic they receive from trees (Roshetko et al., 2007). Neglect of variation that is found with them, which may be essential for this fact by PES schemes has led to sub-optimal results future human food security (Dawson et al., 2013). As already (Roshetko et al., 2015). Opportunities for ecological inten- noted in Section 2.3, as well as being sources of existing sification (see Chapter 5) and for the better provision of en- and “new” foods, many already cultivated tree species have vironmental services to support food security vary by stage their centres of genetic diversity within forests, and these re- of the forest-tree landscape continuum (van Noordwijk et sources may be crucial for future crop improvement. A good al., 2014 and see Chapter 3). example is coffee, an important beverage globally, which is Forests, woodlands and trees elsewhere in landscapes found wild in Ethiopian montane forests. These forests are play a vital role in controlling water flows, and prevent- under significant threat from agricultural expansion (La- ing soil erosion and nutrient leaching, all of which are bouisse et al., 2008) and climate change (Davis et al., 2012). critical functions for food production systems (Bruinsma, Economic “option value” analysis of wild coffee stands for 2003). At the same time, green manures in agroforestry breeding purposes – to increase yields, improve disease re- systems maintain and enhance soil fertility, supporting sistances and for a lower caffeine content in the cultivated crop yields when external fertiliser inputs are not avail- crop – shows just how important it is to implement more able or are unaffordable (see Section 2.3; Garrity et al., effective conservation strategies for Ethiopian forests (Hein 2010; Sanchez, 2002). Nitrogen-fixing trees have in par- and Gatzweiler, 2006; Reichhuber and Requate, 2007). ticular received considerable attention for their ability to Pollination is one of the most studied ecosystem services, cycle atmospheric nitrogen in cropping systems (Sileshi with perhaps the most comprehensive reviews of animal pol- et al., 2008; Sileshi et al., 2011; Sileshi et al., 2012). Mi- lination and how it underpins global food production being croclimate regulation by trees in agroforestry systems, that of Klein et al. (2007). A diversity of trees in forests and such as through the provision of a canopy that protects in farmland can support populations of pollinator species crops from direct exposure to the sun (reducing evapo- such as insects and birds that are essential for the production transpiration), from extreme rainfall events and from high of important human foods, including fruits in both forest and temperatures, can also promote more resilient and pro- farmland, and a range of other important crops in farmland ductive food-cropping systems (Pramova et al., 2012). In (Garibaldi et al., 2013; Hagen and Kraemer, 2010; for the Sahelian zones with long dry seasons, for example, trees specific case of coffee, see Ricketts et al., 2004; Priess et al., provide an environment for the cultivation of nutritious 2007). For communities living in or around forests, pollina- leafy vegetables and pulses (Sendzimir et al., 2011). tion is therefore a crucial ecosystem service (Adams, 2012). Of course, forests and trees in agroforests provide important habitat for a range of other fauna that include the natural predators of crop pests (as well as sometimes being hosts for Box the crop pests themselves; Tscharntke et al., 2005). Forest fragments modulate 2.3 ecosystem services Mitchell et al. (2014) provide empirical evidence that Effects of distance-from-forest Figure forest fragments influence the provision of multiple 2.4 ecosystem service indicators in adjacent agricul- on pair-wise Spearman rank tural fields. Their study looked simultaneously at six relationships between ecosystem ecosystem services (crop production, pest regulation, service indicators decomposition, carbon storage, soil fertility and wa- ter quality regulation) in soya bean fields at different P distances from adjacent forest fragments that differed C N in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape Near Far Near Far Near Far Near Far Near Far Near Far Near Far in Quebec, Canada. The study showed significant ef- fects of distance-from-forest, fragment isolation and fragment size on crop production, insect pest regula- tion, and decomposition. Distance-from-forest and fragment isolation had unique influences on service Soybean yield provision for each of the ecosystem services meas- Aphid regulation ured. For example, pest regulation was maximised ad- P jacent to forest fragments (within 100 m), while crop Insect herbivory re gulation C production was maximised at intermediate distances Cotton fabric decomposition from forest (150 m to 300 m). As a consequence, Leaf litter decomposition landscape multifunctionality depended on landscape heterogeneity: the range of field and forest frag- P Soil phosphorus saturation ment types present. The study also observed strong C Soil carbon Negative rela tionship negative and positive relationships between ecosys- N Soil nitrogen Positive relatio nship tem services that were more prevalent at greater distances from forest. Source: Mitchell et al., 2014. 39 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2.5 Conclusions Foods provided by forests and tree-based systems There is increasing evidence of the importance of for- ests and tree-based systems for supporting food produc- tion and contributing to dietary diversity and quality, addressing nutritional shortfalls. By targeting particu- lar species for improved harvest and/or cultivation, more optimal “portfolios” of species could be devised that best support communities’ nutrition year-round. An overall increase in the production through cultiva- tion of a wide range of foods, including tree fruits and vegetables, is required to bridge consumption shortfalls. There is much further potential for the domestication of currently little-researched indigenous fruit trees to bring about large production gains, although more in- formation is needed on the nutritional value of many of these species. Trees also provide other important prod- ucts (e.g., fodder, green fertiliser, fuel) that support food Pineapple – here in a homegarden in Cuba – is rich in production and use. manganese and vitamin C. Photo © Stephanie Mansourian Dietary choices, access to resources and behavioural change Dietary choices are complex and depend on more than Outstanding gaps just what potential foods are available to communities in The value of the “hidden harvest” of edible forest foods, their environments. Rather than assumptions based on and the cultivation of trees by smallholders, is evident availability, assessments of actual diet through dietary from this chapter. To maximise future potential, greater diversity studies and other related estimators are there- attention from both the scientific and the development fore crucial. Then, the reasons behind current limita- communities is required. In particular, the develop- tions in usage can be explored and possibly addressed. ment of a supportive policy framework requires proper There are multiple targets to improve food choices, with attention to both the forestry and agriculture sectors in women and children being key targets for education. tandem. For this to take place, a better quantification of the relative benefits received by rural communities Income and other livelihood opportunities from different tree production categories is required, NTFPs and AFTPs, including tree commodity crops supported by an appropriate typology for characterisa- within agroforestry systems, are important sources of tion (de Foresta et al., 2013). Despite recent advances revenue to local people and governments, which can such as PEN (2015), data are still required to quantify support food supply. More is known about the eco- roles in supporting food and nutritional security that nomic value of tree commodity crops than of other include dietary diversity measurements. products, but recent initiatives have provided a clearer Policies that support communities’ access to forest picture of the “environmental income” from NTFPs and that encourage the cultivation of tree products are (though not necessarily for AFTPs). Only limited in- required. Required reforms include more favourable formation is available on how cash incomes from these land tenure arrangements for smallholders, in how farm- resources are spent with regard to promoting food and ers obtain tree planting material, and in the recognition nutritional security, and there are clear dangers in rely- of agroforestry as a viable investment option for food ing on cash incomes from single commodity crops. production (Jamnadass et al., 2013). Research should support food tree domestication options appropriate Provision of ecosystem services for meeting smallholders’ needs. Emphasis should be Forests and tree-based production systems provide placed on mixed agroforestry production regimes that valuable ecosystem services that support staple crop can help to avoid many of the negative effects described production and that of a wider range of edible plants. in Section 2.4, by combining tree commodities in di- Many tree species that are important crops globally verse production systems with locally-important food require pollinators to produce fruit. The presence of trees, staple crops, vegetables and edible fungi. Such these pollinators is supported by forests and diverse regimes include shade coffee and shade cocoa systems cropping systems. More is known about the environ- (Jagoret et al., 2011; Jagoret et al., 2012; SCI, 2015), mental service provisioning of tropical humid forests which increase or at least do not decrease commod- than of dry forests (Blackie et al., 2014). ity yields and profitability (Clough et al., 2011). Such 40 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION systems have often been practised traditionally, but are now being actively encouraged through schemes such as certification by some international purchasers of tree commodity crops (Millard, 2011). To support diverse production systems, genetic se- lection for commodity crop cultivars that do well un- der shade may be of particular importance (Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009). This may require returning to wild genetic resources still found in shaded, mixed- species forest habitats, reinforcing the value of their conservation. Not all tree commodities are, however, amenable to production in diversified systems; for example, oil palm is not well suited (Donald, 2004). There are also opportunities to develop valuable new tree commodities that are compatible with other crops and that therefore support more agro-biodiversity. Fur- ther research is also required to assess the complemen- tarity and resilience of different crops in agroforestry systems under climate change, in the context also of other global challenges to food and nutritional security. The development of “nutrient-sensitive” value chains is also needed, which means improving nutritional knowledge and awareness among value-chain actors and consumers, focusing on promoting the involvement of women, and considering markets for a wider range of tree foods. By promoting tree food processing and other value additions, the non-farm rural economy can also be stimulated. As highlighted elsewhere in this publica- tion, however, more research is required to understand the economic, environmental and other trade-offs for the different sectors of rural societies when the harvest- ing of NTFPs is commercialised or they are planted (and perhaps are converted to new commodity crops; Daw- son et al., 2014b), as the benefits and costs for different members of society vary. For example, wild harvesters without access to farmland can be disadvantaged when NTFPs become cultivated as AFTPs (Page, 2003). More work is therefore needed to ensure equitable relationships between the different participants in market supply chains (Marshall et al., 2006). 41 2 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES OF FORESTS AND TREE-BASED SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROVISION References Belcher, B. and Schreckenberg, K., 2007. Commercialisation of non-timber forest products: a reality check. Development Policy Adam, Y.O. and Pretzsch, J., 2010. Contribution of local trade in Review 25: 355-377. 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