Series: Agriculture and nutrition CTA Working Paper 16/13 Improving the Evidence Base on Aflatoxin Contamination and Exposure in Africa Sheila Okoth CTA Working Paper 16/13 | November 2016 Improving the Evidence Base on Aflatoxin Contamination and Exposure in Africa: Strengthening the Agriculture-Nutrition Nexus Sheila Okoth University of Nairobi ii About CTA The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities. CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU. For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int About the Lead and Contributing Author Sheila Okoth, the lead author, is Professor of Mycology at the University of Nairobi, a world-class public collegiate university based in Kenya. Professor Okoth has researched fungi and their metabolites for more than 15 years, with special emphasis on toxigenic properties of Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Sheila is the Vice President of the African Society of Mycotoxicology. For more information on the University of Nairobi, visit www.uonbi.ac.ke Dr Joyce Mynazi Jefwa is a mycorrhizae and mushroom specialist. Joyce is a senior lecturer in the Department of Biological Science at Pwani University, Kenya. About the Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA) PACA is a flagship programme of the African Union Commission (AUC). Its mission is to support agricultural development, safeguard consumer health and facilitate trade by catalysing, coordinating and increasing effective aflatoxin control along agricultural value chains in Africa. About CTA Working Papers CTA’s Working Papers present work in progress and preliminary findings and have not been formally peer reviewed. They are published to elicit comments and stimulate discussion. Any opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies of CTA, donor agencies, or partners. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. This license applies only to the text portion of this publication. Please address comments on this Working Paper to Judith A. Francis, Senior Programme Coordinator, Science and Technology Policy at CTA. iii Contents List of figures v List of tables v Acronyms vi Acknowledgements viii Executive summary ix 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Aflatoxins: An overview 1 Structure of aflatoxins 4 Physical and chemical properties of aflatoxins 5 1.2 Aflatoxin toxicity 6 1.3 Baseline information: Why this study? 7 2.0 Aflatoxin exposure and contamination of food and feed 8 2.1 Exposure assessment applying biomarkers 9 Biomarker studies in Africa 9 2.2 Incidence of aflatoxin contamination of commodities (food and feed) by region 16 Eastern Africa region 16 West Africa region 24 Central Africa region 34 North Africa region 35 Southern Africa region 36 Summary 41 3.0 Aflatoxin control in Africa: State of knowledge 42 3.1 Awareness 42 3.2 Traditional practices 42 Use of plant products 43 Fermentation 43 Smoking 44 Use of contaminated grains as animal feed 44 4.0 Capacity for detection and quantification of aflatoxins 45 4.1 Sampling framework 45 Sampling grains and flour 45 Sampling biological fluids 46 4.2 Analytical methods – access and accuracy 46 4.3 Capacity for aflatoxin determination and quantification 47 5.0 Regional collaboration and mitigation activities 49 5.1 Regional trading blocks 49 ECOWAS 49 UEMOA 50 SADC 50 EAC 50 COMESA 51 iv 5.2 Mitigation activities: Feasibility of interventions and uptake in Africa 52 5.3 Primary interventions 52 Pre-harvest management strategies 52 Post-harvest management strategies 54 5.4 Secondary interventions: Adsorbents/binders 57 6.0 Conclusion 58 References 60 v List of figures Figure 1: Chemical structure of major aflatoxins ................................................................... 5 Figure 2: Chemical structure of other selected aflatoxins ..................................................... 5 Figure 3: Aflatoxin B1 contamination in maize in Nigeria ..................................................... 29 Figure 4: Aflatoxin B1 contamination in groundnuts in Nigeria............................................. 30 List of tables Table 1: Major aflatoxins and the metabolites ....................................................................... 2 Table 2: Aspergillus species - Type of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins produced and their occurrence ............................................................................................................................ 3 Table 3: Physical properties of aflatoxins .............................................................................. 6 Table 4: Human exposure to aflatoxins in Africa – results from biomarker studies .............. 11 Table 5: Human exposure to aflatoxins in Africa – results from urinary biomarker studies .. 13 Table 6: Aflatoxin levels (AFM1) in human milk in Africa ..................................................... 14 Table 7: Reported aflatoxicosis outbreaks in Africa (1960–2016) ....................................... 15 Table 8: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from Eastern Africa ................................................................................... 19 Table 9: Aflatoxin contamination in feed and dairy products in Eastern Africa .................... 23 Table 10: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samples from Nigeria ............. 25 Table 11: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samples from Nigeria ............. 31 Table 12: Export notification of peanut from West African countries to Europe ................... 34 Table 13: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samles from Cameroon .......... 35 Table 14: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from North Africa ....................................................................................... 35 Table 15: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from Southern Africa ................................................................................. 39 Table 16: Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed in South Africa from 1992–2007 .......... 41 Table 17: Aflatoxin management and reduction projects in Africa ....................................... 56 vi Acronyms AATF African Agriculture Technology Foundation AF-alb Aflatoxin–albumin APTECA Aflatoxin Proficiency Testing and Control in Africa AUC African Union Commission BecA-ILRI Biosciences eastern and central Africa-International Livestock Research Institute BMGF Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CTA Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DTMA Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project EAC East African Community EC European Commission ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ELISA Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FTA Free trade area GAP Good agricultural practices GC Gas Chromatography GMP Good manufacturing practices GST Glutathione-s-transferase HBV Hepatitis B Virus HCC Hepatocellular carcinoma HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HPLC High-Performance Liquid Chromatography vii ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IFMP Infant formula milk powder IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture ILRI International Livestock Research Institute ISO International Organization for Standardization LP Locally processed MBM Maternal breast milk MS Mass Spectrometry NAFDAC National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control (Nigeria) NIR Near Infrared PACA Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa QuEChERS Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe REC Regional economic communities SADC South Africa Development Community TLC Thin Layer Chromatography UEMOA Union Economique et Monẻtaire Quest Africaine USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA United States Department of Agriculture VCG Vegetative compatible groups WHO World Health Organization viii Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) and the Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA). Special mention is made of the role played by Judith Ann Francis, Senior Programme Coordinator, Science and Technology Policy at CTA for reviewing, editing and co-authoring various sections of this report. Dr Joyce Jefwa’s contribution as a co-author of the initial report and in researching the food safety and legislative framework is appreciated. The critical and insightful review of early drafts by Dr Amare Ayalew, Programme Manager at PACA, and his technical team added to the precision of the evidence generated. Sincere thanks are extended to the peer reviewers; Dr Martin Epafras Kimanya of the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST) in Tanzania and Dr Owen Fraser, Head of Nestle Quality Assurance Centre in Côte d’Ivoire. The University of Nairobi provided the platform for the literature search and management of funds. ix Executive summary This report reveals that substantial knowledge is available about the aflatoxin challenge that plagues African farmers, other agri-entrepreneurs, and governments. Commissioned by the ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in collaboration with the African Union Commission - Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA), this literature review reveals that a wide range of commodities that are traded nationally, regionally and internationally are contaminated by aflatoxins. African citizens and economies are negatively impacted as a result. Aflatoxins are a problem for agriculture, health and trade in Africa. At high doses, aflatoxins can cause acute poisoning and death, and at chronic lower-level doses they can cause liver cancer and chronic immunosuppression. They are also associated with kwashiorkor and poor growth in young children. The report shows that aflatoxin exposure in humans and livestock, including farmed fish, is pronounced due to:  the widespread occurrence of the Aspergillus fungi that produce aflatoxins  the wide range of agro-ecological conditions, temperature and humidity which favour the growth of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus and other Aspegillus species (A. flavus and A. parasiticus are the two most economically important species)  the wide variety of cereals (maize, millet, rice, sorghum, teff, wheat), and other crops (legumes [including groundnuts], roots and tubers [cassava], spices, and tree nuts) that are contaminated in the field or in storage by the Aspergillus fungi. The contaminated crops are also used in the production of processed foods and animal feeds, resulting in processed foods (e.g. peanut butter and vegetable oils) and foods of animal origin (e.g. eggs, milk and meat) being contaminated as well  many aflatoxin-susceptible grains and legumes are essential staple foods for a wide-cross section of African consumers  a low level of awareness of aflatoxin contamination, the health risks and potential mitigation measures. Low coverage of vaccination against hepatitis B and absence of vaccination against hepatitis A also increase the risk of developing liver cancer  weak governance and legislative framework, nationally and regionally  limited human resource capacity and access to up-to-date laboratory infrastructure for monitoring and evaluating levels of contamination and exposure  numerous unsynergsitic interventions driven by multiple interest groups. The enabling environment for enhanced aflatoxin control is critical. Developing and implementing policy guidelines and national regulations to govern aflatoxin contamination are pre-requisites for success and will build consumer confidence. Accelerating the harmonisation of relevant policies and regulations within and across regional trading blocks and ensuring alignment, as far as is possible, with those of major international trading partners (e.g. the European Union) will enhance intra- and inter-regional trade and access to international markets. Improving capacity and laboratory infrastructure to ensure conformance to standards will also expand market opportunities for African farmers, traders, processors and other value chain actors. There is need to better coordinate the numerous development and research efforts, promote and share good practice, and mobilise stakeholders (especially farmers and other private sector actors) around a shared agenda for achieving greater impact in controlling aflatoxin. x Since farmers (both crop and livestock) are key stakeholders and the first target group in the aflatoxin control chain, priority should be given to building their capacity for adopting good agricultural practices (GAP) (e.g. selection of suitable varieties, site selection and preparation), improving post-harvest management (including proper drying and moisture control, rapid aflatoxin detection), and implementing good manufacturing practices during storage and distribution. Consumers also need to be made more aware of the health risks posed by exposure to aflatoxin-contaminated food and empowered to demand safe, quality food. PACA has contributed towards improving the knowledge base by generating country-specific data on the state of aflatoxin contamination and exposure and has developed action plans in selected countries. These home-grown aflatoxin control action plans are in the process of being mainstreamed into national strategies and frameworks in pilot countries. Other activities include: mobilising support for building capacity in aflatoxin testing (efforts of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BeCA) Hub are noteworthy); compiling research and development activities and outputs; promoting good practice in creating databases accessible to stakeholders; and bringing researchers, policymakers, private sector actors and investors/financiers/donors together to identify strategic joint action and develop plans with clear targets and deadlines for aflatoxin control in Africa. CTA will continue to partner with PACA and other key African and international public and private sector partners in continued efforts to control aflatoxin contamination in Africa for enhanced agricultural performance, agri-business development, trade, nutrition and health. 1 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Aflatoxins: An overview Aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins that are classified in two broad sub-groups; the difurocoumarocyclopentenone series and the difurocoumarolactone series (Table 1). The major types of aflatoxins are; AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2. In human beings and other animals, aflatoxins are reported to be carcinogenic, mutagenic and immunosuppressive. At high enough exposure levels, they can cause acute toxicity and, potentially, death in mammals, birds and fish. They display potency of toxicity, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity in the order of AFB1 > AFG1 > AFB2 > AFG2 as illustrated by their LD50 (lethal dose that causes the death of 50% of subjects) values for day-old ducklings (Carnaghan, 1965; Kraybill, 1970; Jewers, 2015). Day-old ducklings are the most sensitive animals to aflatoxins. The minor aflatoxins have been described as mammalian biotransformation products of the major metabolites. Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus species which are soil-borne fungi that are found worldwide (Table 2). About 20 Aspergillus sp assigned to three sections – Flavi, Nidulantes and Ochraceorosei – have been reported to produce aflatoxins (Baranyi et al., 2013; Table 2). Most species produce B-type aflatoxins although species related to A. parasiticus and A. nomius are usually able to produce G-type aflatoxins. The most economically important species are A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Both are saprophytic (living on dead or decaying material) during most of their life-cycle. They are also plant pathogens and are found on a wide variety of crops produced in Africa including cereals, legumes, oilseeds, roots and tubers, spices, and tree nuts. A. flavus is divided into two morphotypes, the S and L strains (Cotty, 1989). Each morphotype is divided into many vegetative compatible groups (VCGs) that limit gene flow among dissimilar individuals (Papa, 1986; Bayman and Cotty, 1991). Both morphotypes and VCGs differ in many characteristics such as aflatoxin-producing ability (Bayman and Cotty 1993; Cotty 1997; Cotty and Cardwell, 1999). The S strain produces, on average, much higher aflatoxin concentrations than the L strain (Okoth et al., 2012). Some isolates produce no aflatoxins at all and are termed atoxigenic (Cotty, 1990). Aflatoxin-producing ability tends to be similar among members of the same VCG (Bayman and Cotty 1993; Ehrlich and Cotty, 2004). The molecular basis for atoxigenicity is known in some cases (Ehrlich and Cotty, 2004; Chang et al., 2005). In 1993, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified aflatoxin B1 as a human Class 1 carcinogen (IARC, 2002). Aflatoxin B1 is the most potent natural carcinogen known (Squire, 1981; IARC, 2012a) and is usually the major aflatoxin produced by toxigenic A. flavus strains. 2 Table 1: Major aflatoxins and the metabolites Difuranocoumarins Type of aflatoxins Metabolites Difurocoumarocyclopentenone series Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) Aflatoxin B2a (AFB2a) Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) Metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals and comes from a mother’s milk Aflatoxin M2 (AFM2) Metabolite of aflatoxin B2 in milk of cattle fed on contaminated foods Aflatoxin M2A (AFM2A) Metabolite of AFM2 Aflatoxicol (AFL) Metabolite of AFB1 Aflatoxicol M1 Metabolite of AFM1 Difurocoumarolactone series Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) Aflatoxin G2A (AFG2A) Metabolite of AFG2 Aflatoxin GM1 (AFGM1) Aflatoxin GM2 (AFGM2) Metabolite of AFG2 AFGM2A Metabolite of AFGM2 Aflatoxin B3 (AFB3) Parasiticol (P) Aflatrem Aspertoxin Aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1) Major metabolite of AFB1 in in-vitro liver preparations of other higher vertebrates Source: Adapted from Heathcote and Dutton, 1969; Bbosa et al., 2013 3 Table 2: Aspergillus species - Type of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins produced and their occurrence Species by section Occurrence – countries where aflatoxins are commonly found Type of aflatoxin produced Other mycotoxins References Aspergillus section – Flavi A.arachidicola Argentina, Brazil Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Kojic acid, aspergillic acid Pildain et al., 2008; Calderari et al., 2013 A.bombycis Japan, Indonesia, Brazil Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Kojic acid, aspergillic acid Peterson et al., 2001; Okano et al., 2012; Calderari et al., 2013 A.flavus Worldwide Aflatoxins B1, B2 Cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid, aspergillic acid Varga et al., 2009 A.minisclerotigenes Argentina, USA, Australia, Nigeria, Portugal, Benin, Morocco, Algeria, Kenya Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid, aspergillic acid Pildain et al., 2008; Guezlane- Tebibel et al., 2012; Probst et al., 2012; Soares et al., 2012; El Mahgubi et al., 2013; Moore et al., 2013; Probst et al., 2014 A.nomius USA, Japan, Thailand, India, Brazil, Hungary, Serbia Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Kojic acid, aspergillic acid, tenuazonic acid Kurtzman et al., 1987; Olsen et al., 2008; Manikandan et al., 2009; Okano et al., 2012; Calderari et al., 2013; unpublished observations A.novoparasiticus Columbia, Brazil Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Kojic acid Gonçalves et al., 2012 A.parasiticus USA, Japan, Australia, Brazil, India, South America, Uganda, Portugal, Italy, Serbia Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Kojic acid, aspergillic acid Varga et al., 2009; Soares et al., 2012; Baquião et al., 2013 A.parvisclerotigenus Nigeria Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid Geiser et al., 2000; Frisvad et al., 2005 4 Species by section Occurrence – countries where aflatoxins are commonly found Type of aflatoxin produced Other mycotoxins References A.pseudocaelatus Argentina Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid Varga et al., 2011 A.pseudonomius USA Aflatoxin B1 Kojic acid Varga et al., 2011 A.pseudotamarii Japan, Argentina, Brazil, India Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid Ito et al., 2001; Baranyi et al., 2013; Calderari et al., 2013 A.togoensis Central Africa Aflatoxin B1 Sterimatocystin Wicklow et al., 1989; Rank et al., 2011 A.transmontanensis Portugal Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Aspergillic acid Soares et al., 2012 A.mottae Portugal Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, Aspergillic acid Soares et al., 2012 A.sergii Portugal Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1, G2 Cyclopiazonic acid, Aspergillic acid Soares et al., 2012 Aspergillus section - Ochraceorosei A.ochraceoroseus Côte d’Ivoire Aflatoxin B1 Sterigmatocystin Frisvad et al., 1999 A.rambellii Côte d’Ivoire Aflatoxin B1 Sterigmatocystin Frisvad et al., 2005 Aspergillus section - Nidulantes Ecuador Aflatoxin B1 Sterigmatocystin, terrein Frisvad and Samson, 2004; Frisvad et al., 2005 A.astellatus (=Emericella olivicola) Italy Aflatoxin B1 Sterigmatocystin, terrein Zalar et al., 2008 A.venezuelensis (=Emericella venezuelensis) Venezuela Aflatoxin B1 Sterigmatocystin, terrein Frisvad and Samson, 2004 Source: Adapted from Baranyi et al., 2013 Structure of aflatoxins Aflatoxins have closely related structures and form a unique group of highly-oxygenated heterocyclic difuranocoumarin compounds. The compound is made up of five rings, having a furofuran moiety (rings B and C), an aromatic six-membered ring (A), a six-membered lactone ring (D), and either a five-membered pentanone or a six-membered lactone ring (E) (Figure 1 and Figure 2). AFM1 and AFM2 are hydroxylated products of aflatoxins AFB1 and AFB2, respectively, which bear a hydroxyl group at the junction of the two furan rings (Schuda, 1980). The minor aflatoxins have a hydroxyl group instead of a carbonyl group at ring E (AFR0, 5 AFRB1, AFRB2 and AFH1). In others, the D-ring (AFB1, AFRB2) or the E-ring (AFB3) is opened (Figure 2). Other structural analogs (similar molecular structure) include AFP1 and AFQ1, which are AFB1 metabolites found in urine and liver of rhesus monkeys, respectively (Dalezios et al., 1971; Masri et al., 1974; Sid et al., 1974). Figure 1: Chemical structure of major aflatoxins Figure 2: Chemical structure of other selected aflatoxins Physical and chemical properties of aflatoxins The reactions of aflatoxins to various physical conditions and reagents have been studied extensively to determine the utility of such reactions in the detoxification of aflatoxin- contaminated material. Aflatoxins are colourless to pale-yellow crystals that fluoresce intensively in ultraviolet light, emitting blue (AFB1 and AFB2) or green (AFG1) and green-blue (AFG2) fluorescence from which the designations B and G were derived, or blue-violet fluorescence (AFM1). Aflatoxins are very slightly soluble in water (10–30 µg/ml), insoluble in non-polar solvents, and freely soluble in moderately polar organic solvents such as methanol, chloroform, acetone, acetonitrile and dimethyl sulfoxide (Cole and Cox, 1981). Their melting points are shown in Table 3. 6 Table 3: Physical properties of aflatoxins Aflatoxin Molecular formula Molecular weight Melting point (°C) B1 C17 H12O6 312 268–269 B2 C17 H14O6 314 286–289 G1 C17 H12O7 328 244–246 G2 C17 H14O7 330 237–240 M1 C17 H12O7 328 299 M2 C17 H14O7 330 293 B2A C17 H14O7 330 240 G2A C17 H14O8 346 190 Source: Adapted from O’Neil et al., 2001 Aflatoxins are unstable; to ultraviolet light in the presence of oxygen, to extremes of pH (<3, >10) and to oxidising agents such as sodium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate, chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, ozone and sodium perborate. Aflatoxins are also degraded by reaction with ammonia, various amines and sodium hypochlorite. In a dry state, aflatoxins are stable to heat, up to the melting point. Aflatoxins are very stable and may survive quite severe processes. A. flavus and A. parasiticus are semithermophilic (tolerant to relatively high temperatures) and semixerophytic (tolerant to arid conditions), growing at temperatures from 12 to 48°C and at water potentials as low as -35 megapascals (Kaushal and Bhatnager, 1998). The optimum temperature for growth is 25–42°C. Under conditions of high temperature and low water activity associated with drought, they become very competitive and may become the dominant fungal species in the soil. These two factors, more than any other, contribute to the epidemiology of these two fungi. The optimum temperature for biosynthesis of aflatoxins ranges between 28–35°C. Higher temperatures inhibit biosynthesis (O’Brian et al., 2007; Yu et al., 2011). Conditions in Africa are therefore ideal, favouring the growth of these two species and contamination of commodities across the continent. 1.2 Aflatoxin toxicity Aflatoxin contamination has been reported in a wide range of commodities grown and consumed in Africa: cereals (maize, pearl millet, rice, sorghum, teff, wheat); legumes and oilseeds (groundnuts and peanuts, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed); root and tuber crops; spices (black pepper, chillies, coriander, ginger, turmeric) and tree-nuts (almonds, coconut, pistachio, walnuts); and several vegetables, fruits and even crops such as coffee, cocoa, tea and sugarcane (Sripathomswat and Thasnakom, 1981; Fukal et al., 1987; Imwidthaya et al., 1987; Juan-Lopez et al., 1995; Vinitketkumnuen et al., 1997; Vrabcheva, 2000; Reddy et al., 2001; Thuvander et al., 2001). Aflatoxin contamination occurs at every stage of the supply chain, from pre-production to post-harvesting, marketing and distribution. Aflatoxin accumulation during post-harvesting is a particular challenge for Africa (Miller, 1995; Bankole and Adebanjo, 2003). Once contaminated at any stage in the value chain, commodities remain contaminated throughout all further stages of the chain. 7 Aflatoxicosis is the poisoning that results from ingesting aflatoxins, although exposure also occurs through dermal (skin) and inhalation routes. Two forms of aflatoxicosis have been identified: the first is acute severe intoxication, which results in liver damage and subsequent illness or death, and the second is chronic sub-symptomatic exposure. A review of the literature across all Aspergillus species provides clear evidence that the age of the victim and the dose and duration of exposure to aflatoxin have a major effect on toxicology and cause a range of consequences. While large doses lead to acute illness and death, usually due to liver cirrhosis, chronic sub-lethal doses have nutritional and immunological consequences. All doses have a cumulative effect on the risk of cancer. Susceptibility to aflatoxin poisoning can be divided into three categories: those with a lethal dose that causes the death of 50% of subjects (LD50) of 1 mg/kg body weight (bwt) or less; those with an LD50 of 10 mg/kg bwt or more; and others that are resistant (Schoental, 1967). Dogs, turkey, ducklings, cats and rabbits are highly susceptible animals (Raney et al., 1992; Agag, 2004; Dereszynski et al., 2008). The acute lethal dose of AFB1 in humans is estimated at 3 mg/kg bwt (Hsieh et al., 1977), a value similar to that of rats (Newberne and Butler, 1969; Heathcote and Hibbert, 1978; Eaton and Heinonen, 1997). Similar pathologic findings have been reported in humans and rats (Serck-Hanssen, 1970; Krishnamachari et al., 1975; Ngindu et al., 1982; Chao et al., 1991). Deaths have been reported mostly in humans, poultry, ducklings and dogs, in selected African countries. Human deaths have been linked primarily to the consumption of contaminated maize in Kenya and to a lesser extent due to the consumption of contaminated cassava in Uganda. More recently, deaths have been linked to consumption of contaminated cereals in Tanzania. It is also likely that many aflatoxin-related fatalities go unreported in Africa due to lack of capacity for testing the toxins. 1.3 Baseline information: Why this study? Aflatoxins have gained increased recognition in Africa as more research reveals the negative impacts on health, food security and trade. Though produced in small quantities, the ease with which these highly potent, carcinogenic metabolites permeate African farmers’ fields, is of grave concern. Most aflatoxin-susceptible commodities produced in Africa do not meet internationally accepted standards, (United States Food and Drugs Administration (FDA), international Codex Alimentarius limits, and European Union (EU) regulations). The contaminated produce is often rejected by major buyers, processors and traders and by international regulatory agencies before entry in key export markets. High consumption of aflatoxin-susceptible commodities in Africa is compounded because rejected produce that does not meet international standards enters African food and feed value chains, leading to increased risk of exposure to the toxins. Chronic exposure to aflatoxins contributes to the increased incidence and severity of many infectious and non-infectious diseases. Extended exposure is implicated in: immunodeficiency and immunosuppression; stunting and kwashiorkor and an interference with the metabolism of micronutrients in children; and liver cancer, especially in people with hepatitis B or C, or liver disease. Absence of legislation in several African countries and limited capacity for enforcement where they do exist, do not only put consumers and value chain actors at risk, they limit intra-regional and international trade and do harm to businesses and economies. The extent of the problem, level of contamination and exposure is also under-reported, under-estimated and under- costed, hence compiling baseline information and existing knowledge (on occurrence, 8 management strategies, economic evaluation, exposure patterns and regulatory frameworks and capacities) can support efforts to:  undertake risk assessments to identify gaps and design risk management strategies to improve processes to better formulate and implement appropriate control measures and set new research and legislative agendas  support a more concerted collaborative approach among key partners (including governments, farmers and other private sector actors and knowledge institutes) for effectively managing aflatoxin contamination and reducing risks to human health (especially children under five) and trade (domestic, regional, international). This study, which is based on available literature on Aflatoxin contamination across major value chains in Africa, was commissioned by the ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in collaboration with the Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA). It complements the achievements that PACA has made in building an evidence base to inform policies and programmes for effectively managing aflatoxin contamination in Africa. It will also serve as a basis for facilitating more focused interventions including better coordinated research, education, training, agribusiness development, policy harmonisation and implementation. Building new and strengthening existing strategic partnerships towards a more holistic and integrated approach will contribute to achieving greater impact in controlling aflatoxin contamination in Africa. 2.0 Aflatoxin exposure and contamination of food and feed This section presents available information on aflatoxin contamination of food and feed, and exposure levels in Africa. There is no comprehensive data set from which to evaluate the prevalence of exposure of humans in Africa and other developing countries. However, likely exposure could be estimated by collating the following:  reports of acute poisoning incidences  post-mortem reports in which the toxin has been measured in organs  reports on contamination in foods sampled from households and markets  reports on direct measurements of human biological exposure to aflatoxin. Presence of aflatoxins in agricultural commodities (food and feed) suggests that chronic exposure is a possibility. Whether or not consumption of any particular commodity represents a risk factor is partly determined by how susceptible the commodity tends to be and the amount consumed daily. In most parts of Africa, evaluation of exposure in humans and animals have been reported using data from analysis of aflatoxins in food and feed samples collected from farms, markets, mills and stores. The most reliable measure of exposure, however, may be through analysis of samples of prepared meals because grains are normally sorted, though in varying degrees, to remove kernels that are considered unfit to eat. Quantification of aflatoxins in food may not give exact exposure levels as the amount of aflatoxins present in raw foods may not be the same as that ingested. Some may be lost through processing and – in some cases – the interaction with other food components may affect bioavailability and hence the systemic dose of aflatoxins. The use of biological markers in epidemiological studies on dietary exposure to aflatoxins has enabled progress beyond the determination of levels in food and feeds. 9 2.1 Exposure assessment applying biomarkers Albumin is the only serum protein that binds AFB1 to form a high level of adducts in rats (Skipper et al., 1985), while haemoglobin binds AFB1 in a very low yield (Tannenbaum and Skipper, 1984). Moreover, albumin is readily extracted from human blood and provides a relatively non-intrusive measure of the biologically effective dose of ingested AFB1 (Wild et al., 1990). Identification of the metabolic fate of aflatoxins has provided a more authentic tool for exposure studies from the initial simple detection of free aflatoxins to a more reliable AF-alb adduct (Hendrickse et al., 1982; Tsuboi et al., 1984). The aflatoxin, which binds to albumin, can be AFB1 and AFG1 but not AFB2 and AFG2, which can be metabolised to 8, 9-epoxide (Egal et al., 2005). However, the AF-alb adduct levels should be regarded as a measure of the AFB1 levels ingested, due to the fact that the AFG1 presence in the contaminated food is less prevalent. The molecular markers developed and applied for aflatoxin analysis include the AFB1 metabolites and AFB1 macromolecular adducts. These involve AFM1 and AFB1-N7-guanine in urine, as well as AFB1-albumin adducts in serum (Wang et al., 2001). The latter adduct is considered to better reflect the longer term intake of AFB1 based on the longer half-life of albumin in humans (30–60 days) compared to urinary metabolites (Sabbioni et al., 1987; Groopman et al.,1994; Williams, 2004). The AF-alb adduct, as a biomarker, is more stable and fluctuates less compared with urinary excretion of aflatoxin metabolites over the same period of time (Wild et al., 1992; Groopman et al., 1994). It has thus been considered to have greater value as a biomarker and has been applied in epidemiological studies on human aflatoxin exposure in different countries (Wild et al., 1990; Wild et al., 1993). This approach may be useful for rapid screening of samples for acute exposures and it also reflects chronic exposure that is not available from other markers such as the aflatoxin-N7-guanine adduct in urine. Use of genetic markers to study epidemiology on dietary exposure to aflatoxins has been explored. The association between peanut butter intake as a source of aflatoxins and the gene for glutathione-s-transferase (GST) M1 (GSTM1) genotype in the etiology of the most common form of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been investigated in Sudan (Omer et al., 2001). GSTM1 is used as a genetic marker for cancer risk with regard to the homozygous deletion of the gene (GSTM1 null) leading to a lack of corresponding enzymatic activity. The GST enzymes are involved in detoxification of several potentially carcinogenic compounds. The results showed that there was a positive association between peanut butter intake, a humid storage system, HCC incidence and GSTM1 null genotype. Biomarker studies in Africa Surveys on aflatoxin exposure using biomarkers in Africa show that 85–100% of children have either detectable levels of serum AF-alb or urinary aflatoxins and high exposure levels of AFB1 and AFM1 in human milk (Tables 4, 5 and 6). This is exacerbated by the confirmation of multiple mycotoxin exposure (Jonsyn et al., 1995; Abia et al., 2013; Ezekiel et al., 2014). Aflatoxin exposure begins from utero and continues in the post-natal period through breast- feeding. Cord blood samples in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Sudan – collected from infants whose mothers had aflatoxins in their blood at the time of delivery – tested positive for aflatoxins (Maxwell et al., 1989). The highest levels of aflatoxin exposure observed worldwide using aflatoxin-albumin adducts 10 have been in West African countries. Children in Benin and Togo have exceptionally high aflatoxin exposure, with some individual levels of AF-alb greater than 1,100 pico gram (pg) aflatoxin-lysine equivalents/mg albumin (Gong et al., 2002; Gong et al., 2003; Gong et al., 2004). The exposure is widespread (99%) and associated with child stunting, child mortality, immune suppression and childhood neurological impairment. Seasonal and geographical differences in aflatoxin exposure are also reported within Benin, Egypt, The Gambia and Senegal with serum levels higher during the dry seasons compared to wet seasons (Turner et al., 2000; Gong et al., 2004; Polychronaki et al., 2007; Watson et al., 2015). A cross-sectional serosurvey in Kenya confirmed regional influence on exposure patterns (Yard et al., 2013). In this study, 600 serum specimens from the 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey – a nationally representative cross-sectional serosurvey – were analysed for aflatoxin levels. Seventy-eight percent of the sampled group was exposed to aflatoxins and the exposure varied by province; it was highest in Eastern (median = 7.87 pg/mg albumin) and Coast (median = 3.70 pg/mg albumin) provinces, and lowest in Nyanza (median = < limit of detection [LOD]) and Rift Valley (median = 0.70 pg/mg albumin) provinces. Sex, age group, marital status, religion and socioeconomic characteristics did not influence exposure. Although Kenya has experienced multiple aflatoxicosis outbreaks as previously mentioned and often resulting in fatalities, the extent of exposure in the country has, for a long time, remained unknown. Several studies have reported correlation between demographic factors and aflatoxin exposure. In Benin, Ghana, Kenya and Togo, age, sex, socioeconomic status and agro- ecological zone and weaning status was significantly associated with aflatoxin-albumin concentration (Gong et al., 2002; Jolly et al., 2006; Leroy et al., 2015). There is also a correlation between AFM1 in human milk, AFB1 in sampled food and socioeconomic status of mothers in Nigeria (Adejumo et al., 2013). Low-income mothers were vulnerable to aflatoxins. Biomarkers in urine, have also shown that rural populations were more exposed to several mixtures of mycotoxins in Nigeria (Ezekiel et al., 2014). Similar results on the influence of socio-economic status on exposure pattern to aflatoxins were reported from a longitudinal evaluation of two cohorts in southwestern Uganda (Kang et al., 2015). From the 713 archived (between 1989 and 2010) serum samples from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)- seronegative participants, 90% of samples were positive for AFB-Lys. There existed a correlation between the adduct levels and residential areas and occupations from further analysis of one of the cohorts sampled four times from 1999 to 2013 (Table 4). The exposure, however, did not vary by demographic parameters such as sex, age group and education level. Although a link between aflatoxins and hepatoma was suggested decades ago in Uganda (Alpert et al., 1968; Serck-Hanssen, 1970; Alpert et al., 1971), only a few other human exposure studies have been assessed in Uganda: a pilot investigation in a small number of children (Wild et al., 1990) and a pilot study (Asiki et al., 2014). A study from Ghana revealed that all of its participants were exposed to aflatoxins and that the exposure was very high among HIV-infected pregnant and early postpartum women. Serum levels were twice as high in HIV-infected women than in uninfected women and these high levels increased dramatically during pregnancy and early postpartum (Natamba et al., 2016). Aflatoxins have been implicated in the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor, a severe manifestation of protein energy malnutrition in children, since the 1980’s (Hendrickse, 1984; Hendrickse, 1991). Though the mechanisms underlying this relationship is still unclear, studies in Africa (Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Zimbabwe) have detected aflatoxins most frequently and at high concentrations in the sera and liver of children with kwashiorkor 11 who conversely showed aflatoxins least frequently in their urine and in concentrations that were disproportionately lower compared to sera/urine aflatoxin levels in other groups (Hendrickse et al., 1982; Lamplugh et al., 1982; De Vries et al., 1986; De Vries et al., 1990; Ramjee et al., 1991; Oyelami et al., 1998; Onyemelukwe et al., 2012; Castelino et al., 2015). Oyelami et al., (1997) detected aflatoxins in autopsies of lung specimens from children who died from kwashiorkor in Nigeria. These findings indicate altered aflatoxin metabolism in kwashiorkor, supporting existence of a relationship that is further strengthened by a similar geographical distribution of kwashiorkor and aflatoxin presence in food and the similarities of the metabolic disturbance induced by both in animals. Synergisms of kwashiorkor and aflatoxin in causing intestinal function damage, reduced immune function and impaired liver function, are suggested hypotheses. Table 4: Human exposure to aflatoxins in Africa – results from biomarker studies Country Subject Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Concentration of aflatoxin albumin levels (AFB1-lysine equivalent pg/mg albumin) Remarks References Benin and Togo Children (9 months to 5 years) 99 5–1,064 (mean 32.8) Greater in fully-weaned children Gong et al., 2002; Gong et al., 2003; Gong et al., 2004 Egypt Pregnant women 35 Mean 4.9 Co-exposure Piekkola et al., 2012 Egypt and Guinea Infants Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, B2a, G2a, B3, GM1, and P as well as aflatoxicol Hatem et al., 2005; Polychronaki et al., 2008 Guinea Adult male > 90 nd–385 Co-exposure of aflatoxin and hepatitis B or C viruses Diallo et al., 1995 The Gambia Children (3–4 years) 100 2.2–459 Daily consumption of food with > 100 ppb of aflatoxins Turner et al., 2000 The Gambia Children (6–9 years) 93 5–456 Turner et al., 2003 The Gambia Adults 99 5% >100 Wild and Hall, 2000 12 Country Subject Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Concentration of aflatoxin albumin levels (AFB1-lysine equivalent pg/mg albumin) Remarks References The Gambia Maternal blood at pregnancy 4.8–260.8  Effect on growth Turner et al., 2007 Cord blood 5–30.2  Infants (16 weeks 5–189.6  The Gambia Children (3–4 years) 95 2.2–250.4 Wild et al., 1993 The Gambia Children 100 up to 720 Influence of ethnicity and villages Allen et al.,1992 The Gambia, Kenya Adults 100 7–338 Wild et al., 1990 Ghana Pregnant women During pregnancy 100 High levels of aflatoxins in HIV-positive women increased as pregnancy progressed Natamba et al., 2016 HIV- uninfected 1.2 (±0.08) HIV-infected Postpartum 1.91 (±0.12) HIV- uninfected 1.15 (±0.13) HIV-infected 3.8 (±0.19) Ghana Adults 0.12–3 Influence of demographic factors Jolly et al., 2006 Kenya Women 100 7.47 4.7–7.1 times higher in poor compared to the best-off women Leroy et al., 2015 Sierra Leone Cord blood during pregnancy Maternal blood at delivery 58 75 Co-occurrence Jonsyn et al., 1994 Tanzania Children (12–22 months) 84 2.8–652 Greater in fully- weaned children Shirima et al., 2013; Shirima et al., 2015 13 Country Subject Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Concentration of aflatoxin albumin levels (AFB1-lysine equivalent pg/mg albumin) Remarks References Uganda Kang et al., 2015 1989–2010 90 0.4–168 (mean 1.58) 1999–2013 93 0.4–122.5 (mean 1.18) Table 5: Human exposure to aflatoxins in Africa – results from urinary biomarker studies Country Subject Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/ concentration (AFM1) Remarks References Cameroon Adults (83% HIV-positive) 83 Detected Co-exposure Abia et al., 2013 Cameroon Kwashiorkor Male 44, female 43, 0.109–2.84 µg/l Tchana et al., 2010 Marasmic Male 60, female 33, 0.109–0.864 µg/l Kwashiorkor control Male 15, female 6.3 0.007–0.15 µg/l Egypt Pregnant women 48 19.7 pg/mg Co-exposure Piekkola et al., 2012 Egypt and Guinea Infants Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, M2, B2a, G2a, B3, GM1, P, aflatoxicol Hatem et al., 2005; Polychronaki et al., 2008 Ghana Adults Non-detectable to 11,562.36 pg/mg Peanut and maize consumption Jolly et al., 2006 Ghana Children 100 24.7–8368.9 pg/mg Weaning food Kumi et al., 2015 Nigeria Children, adolescents, adults 50.8 Detected in samples from all age categories Chronic lifetime exposure Ezekiel et al., 2014 Sierra Leone Infants (urine, serum, stool) 100, 94, 94 Jonsyn et al., 1999 Sierra Leone Adults 98 Co-exposure Jonsyn-Ellis et al., 2000 South Africa Adults 0 Not detected Co-exposure Shephard et al., 2013 14 Table 6: Aflatoxin levels (AFM1) in human milk in Africa Region Frequency of aflatoxin positive samples (%) Contamination rate/concentration (AFM1) Remarks References Egypt 20 Mean 2.75 µg/kg Alla et al., 2000 Egyptian 37 Detected Polychronaki et al., 2006 Egypt 36 10.27–21.43 pg/ml Influence of socioeconomics Polychronaki et al., 2006 Egypt 56 Seasonal pattern observed Influence of peanut consumption Polychronaki et al., 2007 July 64 pg/ml (6.3–497 pg/ml) January 8 pg/ml milk (4.2– 108 pg/ml) Egypt Milk powder (IFMP) Maternal breast milk (MBM) 74.413 ± 7.070 ng/l 9.796 ± 1.036 ng/l Average daily exposure MBM = 52.684 ng/l IFMP = 8.170 ng/l El-Tras et al., 2011 Cameroon 4.8 0.005 – 0.652 µg/l Tchana et al., 2010 The Gambia 100 Hudson et al., 1992 Nigeria 82 3.49–35 ng/l Influence of socioeconomics Adejumo et al., 2013 Sierra Leone 91 Co-exposure Jonsyn et al., 1995 Sudan 54.2 Mean 0.401 ± 0.525 µg/kg Max. level of 2.561 µg/kg Peanut butter, vegetable oils and rice influence AFM1 burden Elzupir et al., 2012 Sudan and Zimbabwe 10–50 ppt (0.01– 0.05 ng/l) Wild et al., 1987 Tanzania 0–0.55 ng/ml AFM1 Exposures 1.13–66.79 ng/k body wt/day Magoha et al., 2014 Deaths in humans, poultry, ducklings and dogs have been reported in many African countries due to aflatoxicosis outbreaks linked to the consumption of several contaminated products (Table 7). 15 Table 7: Reported aflatoxicosis outbreaks in Africa (1960–2016) Year Those affected Numbers affected Country Sources of aflatoxins Recorded effects with a focus on mortality References 1960 Ducklings 16,000 Kenya - Rift Valley Groundnut feed Death Peers and Linsell, 1973 1977/78 Dogs/ poultry Large numbers Kenya - Nairobi, Mombasa, Eldoret Feed Death Muraguri, 1981; FAO, 1988 1981 Humans 12 Kenya - Machakos Maize Death Ngindu et al., 1982 1984/85 Poultry Large numbers Kenya Imported maize Death CIMMYT et al., 1986; FAO, 1988 1988 Human 3 Kenya - Meru North Maize Death Autrup et al., 1987 1989 1991 Poultry Large numbers Morocco Feed (2,000– 5,625 µg/kg) Death Kichou and Walser, 1993 2001 Humans 3 Kenya - Meru North Maize Death (16) Probst et al., 2007 26 Kenya - Maua 2003 Humans 6 Kenya - Thika Maize Death Onsongo, 2004 2004 Humans 317 Kenya - Eastern, Central Maize Death (125) Lewis et al., 2005 2005 Humans 75 Kenya - Machakos, Makueni, Kitui Maize Death (32) Azziz- Baumgartner et al., 2005; Daniel et al., 2011 2006 Humans 20 Kenya - Makueni, Kitui, Machakos Maize Death (10) Muture and Ogana, 2005; Daniel et al., 2011 2007 Humans 4 Kenya - Kibwezi, Makueni Maize Death (2) Wagacha and Muthomi, 2008 2008 Humans 5 Kenya - Kibwezi, Kajiado, Mutomo Maize Death (2) Muthomi et al., 2009 1967 Humans 3 Uganda Cassava Death (1) Serck-Hanssen, 1970 1987, 2000, 2005 Dogs South Africa - Gauteng Province Dog food Death Bastianello et al., 1987; Reyers and Miller, 2000; Naicker and Botha, 2005 2011 Dogs Over 200 South Africa - Gauteng Province Dog food (< 5–4,946 μg/kg) Death Arnot et al., 2012 16 Year Those affected Numbers affected Country Sources of aflatoxins Recorded effects with a focus on mortality References 2016 Humans 67 Tanzania Dodoma, Manyara Cereals 14 confirmed deaths, 53 suspected cases Buguzi, 2016 9 (a family) Large number Chemba and Kondoa District, Dodoma Cereals Source: Adopted from a Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) report (Kangethe, 2011) and updated 2.2 Incidence of aflatoxin contamination of commodities (food and feed) by region The data presented summarises the available literature on the occurrence of aflatoxins in a range of commodities (food and feed) across various regions in Africa as an indicator of the extent of the exposure. The data also reflects research efforts and various areas of interest across the continent. The data are not exhaustive. Eastern Africa region Among Eastern African countries, cereals (maize, rice, sorghum), peanuts, pulses, cassava and sweet potatoes are the major crops in terms of area planted and consumption. Overall, maize is the most worrisome followed by peanuts in terms of susceptibility and consumption of aflatoxin contaminated foods and feed (Table 8 and Table 9). Kenya Maize and other cereals such as millet and sorghum are staple foods depending on the region. Research on aflatoxins in Kenya has concentrated mostly on maize, peanuts and dairy farming. Maize-meal is consumed at a rate of about 258 g/person/day (ACDI/VOCAa, 2015) and has been the cause of all human aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Consumption of peanuts is at a lower level, estimated at 1.1 g/person/day. Both maize and peanuts also form major portions of the gruel used to wean children and these have been shown to be a source of aflatoxin exposure (Okoth and Ohingo, 2005; Nelson et al., 2016). Most of the peanut samples tested are far beyond acceptable limits for aflatoxins as set by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (Table 8). Regional variation in aflatoxin contamination of maize has been reported with drought-prone semi-arid eastern regions recording higher levels of contamination of up to 48,000 µg/kg (Daniel et al., 2011; Kilonzo et al., 2014) compared with the highlands and western Kenya that have recorded a high of 4,500µg/kg (Okoth and Kola, 2012; Mutiga, et al., 2015). Sirma et al. (2015) reported levels of 0.17–5.3 µg/kg from 67% of maize collected from parts of the Rift Valley region, which is the major producer of maize in the country. Ninety-two percent of millet samples were positive for aflatoxins with a range of 0.14–6.4 µg/kg, while 50% of sorghum samples were positive with a range of 0.21–210.1 µg/kg. Home-grown maize has significantly lower levels of contamination than market samples, though those from eastern Kenya are still far above acceptable limits (Daniel et al., 2011; Okoth and Kola, 2012; Mutiga et al., 2015). In 2010, surveillance of maize resulted in the confiscation of 2.3 million 90 kg bags of aflatoxin- 17 contaminated maize harvested in the country by Kenyan authorities (Njoroge, 2010). This harvest was considered unfit for both human and animal consumption. Commercially processed products are also a source of exposure. In October 2011, 25 t of contaminated Unimix (a high-protein mix containing maize flour) destined for relief efforts in drought-affected areas of Kenya was recalled (Menya, 2011). Traditional maize preparation methods (e.g. fermentation and dehulling) in eastern Kenya have been reported to reduce aflatoxins by up to 71% (Mutungi et al., 2008). Dairy farming is another source of aflatoxin exposure and high levels of AFB1 have been recorded in feeds (Lanyasunya et al., 2005; Kang’ethe and Lang’a, 2009) (see Table 8). Contaminated milk and milk products with aflatoxin AFM1 is a concern. The list drawn up by Ochungo et al. (2016) of regions that are at risk of an aflatoxin outbreak from milk literally covers all production areas in the country. Protein-rich supplements (cottonseed cake, sunflower cake, fish-meal and other oil-seed by-products), cereal grains and their by-products (maize bran, maize germ, wheat bran and other grain milling by-products) are a rich source of nutrients for moulds. These fungi readily contaminate crop residues and homemade dairy concentrates as a result of poor handling and storage conditions in smallholder farms. This problem is worsened by farmers’ widespread practice of using spoilt (pest- or mould-damaged) grains to formulate dairy rations. Uganda Plantains, cassava, maize, sweet potato and beans are – in that order – the most important staple foods in Uganda with consumption recorded at 172 kg, 101 kg, 31 kg, 82 kg and 16 kg/person/year, respectively (Haggblade and Dewina, 2010). Peanut consumption is lower, at 4.6 kg/year. Most research on aflatoxin contamination since the 1960s has focused on maize and peanuts. High incidence of liver cancer in the country has been attributed to consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize and peanut (Okobia and Bunker, 2003; Kaaya and Warren, 2005). Table 8 summarises comprehensive epidemiological studies conducted in Uganda on aflatoxin exposure from 1967 to 2001 (Kaaya and Warren, 2005). A greater proportion of these studies were conducted on foods sampled at the market-level than from farms, and they indicate that foods from the former are more contaminated with aflatoxins than from the latter, with some having levels above the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) Codex Alimentarius recommended limits of 20 µg/kg (FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius, 2004). Not much has been reported on aflatoxin contamination of livestock feed, but it is believed that spoilt maize is used in animal feed. Tanzania Tanzania has the highest maize and peanut consumption rate (349 g/person/day and 15 g/person/day, respectively) among Eastern African countries (Lamb et al., 2015). Other staples are cassava, rice, wheat and sorghum. According to 2012 prevalence data from Abt Associates, in collaboration with the Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority, aflatoxin contamination is a concern in the eastern (Morogoro) and western (Shinyanga) zones of Tanzania. In the eastern zone 43% of maize samples were above regulated levels (5 µg/kg), with an average contamination of 50µg/kg; and in the western zone, 40% of samples were above 5 µg/kg, with average contamination of 28µg/kg. In the southern zone (Ruvuma), none of the samples were above 5µg/kg. Groundnut samples from the northern, southern (Mtwara) 18 and western zones were contaminated with AFB1 levels above 5 µg/kg; with mean contamination of 20 µg/kg, 18 µg/kg and 20 µg/kg respectively. Other data are captured in Table 8. Burundi and Rwanda Beans, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes and plantains are the major crops produced in these two countries. Maize consumption is 155 g/person/day in Burundi and 39 g/person/day in Rwanda (Lamb et al., 2015). Groundnut consumption is estimated to be much lower at 6.3 g/person/day in Burundi and 2.5 g/person/day in Rwanda. There is not much information on aflatoxin contamination of foods in Burundi and Rwanda, but levels as high as 425 µg/kg have been reported in groundnuts in Burundi (Constant et al., 1984). High contamination levels of all staple foods have also been reported with maize having up to 3,219 µg/kg, peanuts 1,755 µg/kg, cassava 534 µg/kg and beans 154 µg/kg (Nyinawabali, 2013). Aflatoxin exposure (ng/kg bwt/day) in Eastern African countries, based on data from Global Environment Monitoring System/Food data, are estimated at: Burundi 10–180; Kenya 3.5–133; Rwanda (no data); Tanzania 0.02–50; Uganda 10–180 ng/kg bwt/day (Palliyaguru and Wu, 2014). Sudan In Sudan, wheat, sorghum or maize flour is used to make porridge, which is a staple food. Beans and fish are also popular. Sudan is a leading global producer of peanuts; a key ingredient in Sudanese cooking and the most researched for aflatoxin contamination in that country. There is conformance to the high standards for the European export market. Sorting results in the elimination of contaminated kernels, however, rejected kernels find their way into the local market, particularly for oil-processing. Varying levels of aflatoxin contamination have been reported in the peanut value chains; 2%, 64%, 14% and 11 % for kernels, butter, cake and roasted peanuts, respectively (Younis and Malik, 2003). Other vegetable oils such as cottonseed, sesame and sunflower oil, are produced in local factories and consumed by almost all segments of the population. These oils, including peanut oil as well as other products, are a source of aflatoxin exposure (Table 8). Low aflatoxin levels have been recorded in cereal grains and legume seeds collected from retailers (Abdel-Rahim et al., 1989) but a 54% prevalence of aflatoxin contamination was found in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients sourced directly from livestock farms and feed production sites (Rodrigues et al., 2011). Ethiopia The major staple crops in Ethiopia include a variety of cereals (mainly teff, wheat and barley), pulses, oilseeds and coffee. Peanuts are one of the most valuable cash crops in eastern Ethiopia and are also consumed in large amounts. Aflatoxin contamination is endemic in Ethiopia due to predisposing factors such as end-season drought, harvesting methods and storage conditions, and low or limited knowledge of aflatoxins and related risks by value chains actors. Cereals, spices, pulses, peanut and dairy products are all high-risk commodities (Table 8 and Table 9). However peanut seems to be the most worrisome with high levels of aflatoxins reported in samples of peanuts from both storage facilities and markets (Eshetu, 2010; Chala et al., 2013). Levels of AFB1 as high as 738 µg/kg and 692 µg/kg have been found in peanuts and sorghum, respectively (Fufa and Urga, 2001). Use of less-susceptible varieties could reduce exposure as demonstrated by analyses of aflatoxin accumulation in different varieties 19 of peanut (Chala et al., 2014a). Maize, millet, barley, red pepper and teff were most frequently found to have levels above 20 µg/kg. Exposure from consumption of staple cereals seems to be chronic, though at lower levels compared to exposure from peanut and its products (Chala et al., 2014b; see Table 8). Table 8: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from Eastern Africa Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Ethiopia Peanut 34.7 Bisrat and Gebre, 1981 Peanut butter 105 Peanut 5–250 Amare et al., 1995 Ethiopia Babile Darolabu Gursum Babile Darolabu Gursum Peanut 87 88 59 Storage samples 293–11,865 15–4,939 15–5,563 Market samples 15–9,765 15–1,977 16–10,087 Chala et al., 2013 Ethiopia Spices 8 250–252 Fufa and Urga, 1996 Legumes 13 Ethiopia Peanut 73 Trace: 447 Eshetu, 2010 Ethiopia Barley, sorghum, teff and wheat Trace: 26 Ayalew et al., 2006 Ethiopia Maize < 26 Ayalew, 2010 Kenya - Eastern Province Maize kernels 45 18–480 Mean dietary exposure: 292 ± 1,567 ng/kg bwt/day Kilonzo et al., 2014 Dehulled maize (Muthokoi) 20 12–123 Mean dietary exposure: 27 ± 154 ng/kg bwt/day 20 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Maize-meal 35 6–30 Mean dietary exposure: 59 ± 62 ng/kg bwt/day Kenya - Nairobi Market samples for feed 95 > 10 (5.13–1,123) Okoth and Kola, 2012 Maize and maize products for food 83 > 10 (0.11– 4,593.93) Kenya and Malawi Malted grains 29 Non-detectable: 1,020 Kenji et al., 2000 Kenya - Nairobi, Western Province Peanut (82 fresh samples) 0–26.3 0–2377.1 Ndung’u et al., 2013 Kenya - Eastern Province Maize Non-detectable: 48,000 Daniel et al., 2011 2005 36 samples 2006 18 samples 2007 24 samples Kenya - Western Province Maize (14 samples from National Cereal Produce Board warehouses) 57 43 2 samples > 20 ≥ 100 > 1,000 Lewis et al., 2005 Kenya - Western Province Maize (samples from households and markets) 335.5 20.1 10.6 > 20 >100 > 1,000 Mwihia et al., 2008 Maize for relief efforts < 20 Kenya - Western, Nyanza and Nairobi Provinces Peanuts and peanut products: 96% raw podded peanuts < 4 4% raw podded peanuts > 10 69% peanut butter and 75% spoilt peanuts > 10 68% of peanut samples stored in plastic jars >10 Mutegi et alb., 2013 Supermarkets 28 Informal markets 48 Kenya 350 samples of maize and maize products from local markets and government warehouses 55 > 20 µg/kg 35 > 100 µg/kg 7 > 1,000 µg/kg ≤ 46,400 ≤ 1,800 CDC, 2004a,b; Lewis et al., 2005; Mutegi et ala., 2013 21 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Kenya - Western Province Peanut ≤10 Mutegi et al., 2012 Sudan Sesame Groundnut 14.3 3.57 0.2–0.8 0.6 Idris et al., 2010 Sudan Groundnut paste Peanut butter 16.67 97 12.93 < 10 Kabbashi and Ali, 2014 Sudan Peanut butter (specialist health food outlets) 64 36 1 sample < 10 16–318 345 Kabbashi and Ali, 2014 Sudan Peanut, sesame, cottonseed oils from factories and traditional mills 14.3 43.7% sesame 0.2–0.8 3.57% groundnut 0.6 Yousif et al., 2010 Sudan Peanut butter and peanut samples Average of 87.4 in west Sudan and 8.5 in central Sudan Omer et al., 1998 Sudan Peanut butter 100 1–170 Elshafie et al., 2011 Sudan Peanut, sesame, sunflower and mixed oils from retailers and factories 36.8–100 0.43–339.9 Elzupir et al., 2010 Sudan Sorghum 11.13–120.2 Saeed, 2015 Tanzania Maize 45–87 3–1,081 Kamala et al., 2015 Tanzania Maize 18 ≤ 158 (12% > 10) Kimanya et al., 2008 Tanzania Maize-based foods 32 0.11–386 Mean dietary exposure: 1–786 ng/kg bwt/day Kimanya, 2014 44 57–825 Mean dietary exposure: 0.38– 8.87 ng/kg bwt/day Uganda Groundnut Groundnut paste 100 100 940 720 Osuret et al., 2016 22 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Uganda Maize, peanut and cassava 50 Positive Kaaya and Miduuli, 1992 Uganda Peanut (varieties) Kaaya et al., 2001 Kumi - newly harvested 28 0–5 Kumi - stored 7 months 48 0–22 Mayuge - newly harvested 50 0–10 Mayuge - stored 5 months 40 0–18 Uganda Peanut (farm level) 60 7.3–12.4 Kaaya et al., 2006 Uganda - southwest Peanut, cassava, millet, sorghum flour, eshabwe sauce (90 food samples) 0–550 Kitya et al., 2010 Uganda - mid- altitude (moist) Maize kernels 83 9.7 Kaaya et al., 2006 Uganda – mid- altitude (dry) 70 7.7 Uganda - highland zone 55 3.9 Uganda Peanut 15% > 1 ppm 3% > 10 ppm Lopez and Crawford, 1967 Uganda Beans Maize Sorghum Groundnut Millet Cassava Rice (480 samples) 72 45 38 18 16 12 29%: 1–100 (all sample types except cassava) 8%: 100–1,000 (maize, beans, sorghum, peanut and cassava) 4% > 1,000 (beans, sorghum, peanut and cassava) Alpert et al., 1971 Uganda Produce Marketing Board and Animal Feed Mill Maize, peanuts, soy beans, poultry feed 100 Trace - > 20 Sebunya and Yourtee, 1990 Uganda Maize 0–50 Ssebukyu, 2002 23 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Uganda Heinz mixed cereals, Cerelac, cornflakes Non-detectable Nakamya, 2008 Wheetabix, porridge oats 10–20 Baby soya, Kayebe, Mwebaza rice porridge, jacinta millet and Mukuza 20–50 Table 9: Aflatoxin contamination in feed and dairy products in Eastern Africa Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 References Kenya Milk (processed) Raw 100 0.012–0.127 µg/kg 0.0002–0.013 µg/kg Obade et al., 2015 Kenya Dairy products 59 32 9 < 2 ppt 2–50 ppt > 50 ppt Sirma et al., 2014 Kenya Animal feed (830 samples) 86 67% > 5 µg/kg Kang’ethe and Lang’a, 2009 Milk samples (613 samples) 72 20% > 0.05 µg/l Kenya Milk samples Animal feed 45.5 98.6 49% > 0.05 µg/l 83% > 10 µg/kg Kang’ethe et al., 2007 Sudan Groundnut cakes (18 samples) 11 0.013 µg/kg 0.014 µg/kg Walaa et al., 2015 Sudan Cow milk (35 samples) 100% > 0.05 µg/kg 77% > 0.5 µg/kg Ali et al., 2014 Powdered milk (12 samples) 50% > 0.05 µg/kg 33% > 0.5 µg/kg Sudan Cattle milk 95 0.22–9.60 µg/l Elzupir and Elhussein, 2010 24 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 References Ethiopia Animal feed Milk (dairy farmers) Milk (traders) All samples 8.2 26.3 0.028–4.98 µg/kg ≤0.05 µg/kg >0.5 µg/kg Gizachew et al., 2015 Feed (dairy farmers) Feed (feed producers, processors and traders) All samples 10.2 . 26.2 7–419 µg/kg ≤ 10 µg/kg . > 100 µg/kg Wheat bran 31 µg/kg Noug cake 290–397 µg/kg EU limit of AFM1 in milk = 0.05 µg/kg Codex Alimentarius (Codex) limit of AFM1 in milk = 0.5 µg/kg WHO/FAO (Codex) limit of AFM1 is 0.05 µg/kg West Africa region Staple foods in West Africa are maize, cassava, yam, rice and plantains, served with beans, legumes, meats, fish, peanut sauce, palm oil, spices and chillies. Countries include Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Generally there is a wide variation in climate conditions ranging from tropical hot and humid conditions in most of West Africa to desert and arid conditions in the northern parts of Mali and Niger. The varying temperatures and humidity are favourable for the growth of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin production. Tables 10, 11 and 12 provide an overview of aflatoxin contamination in West Africa as well as data on the export notifications from West Africa to Europe based on literature reviewed. Aflatoxin contamination has significantly constrained exports of peanut from West Africa to European markets. Nigeria Numerous surveys on aflatoxin contamination of food and feed in Nigeria have been carried out (Table 10) which indicate a wide range of commodities are impacted. Recorded aflatoxin readings are as high as 1,000–5,000 µg/kg in groundnut, maize, rice and millet beer. The Nigeria Mycotoxin Awareness and Study Network has created mycotoxin maps of the country that summarise the occurrence of aflatoxin contamination in maize and peanuts (Figure 3 and 4) respectively. The Southern Guinea Savanna and Sudan Savanna zones in Nigeria have been reported to have significantly higher aflatoxin contamination than other cooler dryer agro- ecological zones (Udoh et al., 2000). 25 Table 10: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samples from Nigeria Commodities contaminated Frequency of contamination Range of concentration (µg/kg) Mean concentration (µg/kg or µg/l ) References Groundnut 100–2,000 Darling, 1963 Maize 100% 30.9–507.9 Atehnkeng et al., 2008 Stored maize grains 137.33–596.85 Adetuniji et al., 2014 Stored groundnut 35% 100–2,000 Peers, 1965 Palm wine Bassir and Adekunle, 1969 Bitterleaf > 94 Bassir, 1969 Groundnut Dried fish Cereals (millet sorghum and rice) > 900 600–700 150–300 Okonkwo and Nwokolo, 1978 Sorghum < 20 Dada, 1978 Sorghum 8/8 . 8/8 30.32–211.2 2.4–208 Uriah and Ogbadu, 1982 Groundnut Groundnut oil Cottonseed oil 0–600 > 98 > 65 Abalaka and Elegbede, 1982 Poultry feed made of groundnut cake (aflatoxicosis in pekin ducklings) 3,000 Ikwuegbu, 1984 Livestock rations 4–340 Gbodi et al., 1984 Poultry feed 69/120 0.57–2.55 Oyejide et al., 1987 Maize 27/64 21/64 5/6 43/64 0–960 0–543 0–83.33 0–23.53 0.27–372.49 1.5–113.2 2–203 92–13.33 Gbodi, 1986 Acha 4/24 2/24 0–20 0–12 Cottonseed 3/8 3/8 2/8 1/8 0–271 0–36.6 0–183 0–9.1 52.25 24.85 38.13 1.14 26 Commodities contaminated Frequency of contamination Range of concentration (µg/kg) Mean concentration (µg/kg or µg/l ) References Millet beer 10/10 500–5,000 Obasi et al., 1987 Peanut cake 18/20 29/29 20–455 13–2,824 236.69 Akano and Atanda, 1990; Ezekiel et al., 2012 Cowpea Maize Millet Rice Sorghum Cottonseed Groundnut Groundnut oil Melon seed Palm kernel 3/268 81/281 10/275 13/279 22/318 17/28 414/634 56/57 22/30 41/55 0–48 0–1,250 0–160 0–40 0–40 0–8,000 0–40 0–53 31.6 74–218 42 5 5 105 151–767 9.5 19 Opadokun, 1992 (samples collected from 1962–1985) Restaurant dishes (gari, bean with soup) Dried okra Dried pepper 17/17 31.2–268.32 Obidoa and Gugnani, 1990 Maize Maize cake Maizeroll snack 25–777 15–1070 10–160 200 233 55 Adebajo et al., 1994 Red hot chili pepper > 2.2 Adegoke et al., 1996 Maize 144/288 234–908 234 Tijani, 2005 Human milk Cow milk Ice cream 5/28 3/22 2/6 4 3.02 2.23 Atanda et al., 2007 Mouldy rice 97/196 0–1,642 200.19 Makun et al., 2007 Mouldy sorghum 91/168 0–1,164 199.51 Makun et al., 2009a Makun et al., 2009b Powdered milk . Bean Wheat 7/100 29/50 27/50 0–0.41. 0–137.6 0–198.4 0.016–0.325 59.29 85.56 Makun et al., 2010 27 Commodities contaminated Frequency of contamination Range of concentration (µg/kg) Mean concentration (µg/kg or µg/l ) References Rice 21/21 21/21 21/21 19/21 21/21 4.1–309 1.3–24.2 5.5–76.8 3.6–44.4 27.7–371.9 37.2 8.3 22.1 14.7 82.5 Makun et al., 2011 Melon seed 30/120 2.3–15.4 Bankole and Mabekoje, 2004 Maize 20/103 3–138 Fonio millet 13/16 4/16 4/16 0.08–1.4 0.07–0.1 0.2–2 0.4 0.08 0.6 Ezekiel et al., 2012 Commercial poultry feed 44/58 29/58 35/58 6/58 6–1,067 10–114 8–235 10–20 198 34 45 13 Ezekiel et al., 2012 Rice Beans Cassava flour Semovita Yam Wheat meal Maize Gari Human milk 19/21 15/17 3/4 2/6 6/7 2/3 3/3 13/18 41/50 *nd –0.3 nd–0.89 nd–0.07 nd–0.17 nd–0.27 nd–0.06 0.11–0.2 nd–0.69 nd–92.14(ng/l) 0.14 0.15 0.05 0.09 0.14 0.04 0.16 0.25 15 (ng/l) Adejumo et al., 2013 Dried yam chips 97.5% 190 Abiala et al., 2011 Rice samples 18.4% Mean of 5 Abdus-Salaam et al., 2015 Maize Maize cake Maize roll snacks 45% 80% 12% 25–770 15–1,070 10–160 Adebajo et al., 1994 Pre-harvested maize 18.4% 3–138 Bankole and Mabekoje, 2004 Maize Maize-based gruels 45% 25% 25–770 0.002–19.716 Williams et al., 2004 Maize 2–19% 716 4.6–530 Oyelami et al., 1996 28 Commodities contaminated Frequency of contamination Range of concentration (µg/kg) Mean concentration (µg/kg or µg/l ) References Muscle tissue/beef Fresh samples 21.7 Sundried samples 2.9 Oyero and Oyefulo, 2010 Liver Fresh samples 33.9 Sundried samples 3.1 Heart Fresh samples 55.9 Sundried samples 27.9 Kidney Fresh samples 85.2 Sundried samples 75.8 Pepper 12/20 0.05–19.45 0.39–2.21 Makun et al., 2012 Milk types 100% 0.15–0.96 Okeke et al., 2012 Poultry feed 100% 0–67.9 15.5 Adebayo-Thato and Etta, 2010 Peanut cake 20–455 Akano and Atanda, 1990 Peanut cake 90% > 20 Ezekiel et al., 2012 Rice 64/86 41/86 4–292 0.4–27.2 157.34 5.17 Olorunmowaju, 2012 Groundnut 72/82 61/82 4–188 0.4–38.4 53.06 8.08 Ifeji, 2012 * Not detectable 29 Figure 3: Aflatoxin B1 contamination in maize in Nigeria Source: Adapted from: Abt Associates, 2012a 30 Figure 4: Aflatoxin B1 contamination in groundnuts in Nigeria Source: Adapted from: Abt Associates, 2012a Benin and Togo In Benin and Togo, maize is a staple food, consumed and stored across all agro-ecological zones and a major source of aflatoxin contamination. There have been reports of higher aflatoxin accumulation from the south to the northern drier parts in Benin (Setamou et al., 1997) and in other commodities (e.g. dried yam, okra and pepper) (Table 11). Traditional processing of maize for the preparation of maize-based foods (makume, akassa, and owo) in Benin was shown to reduce aflatoxin content by up to 93% (Fandohan et al., 2005). Effective methods for significant aflatoxin removal were sorting, winnowing, washing and crushing combined with dehulling of maize grains (Fandohan et al., 2006). Fermentation and cooking showed little effect (Fandohan et al., 2005). Ghana Peanuts and maize are the crops most researched when looking at aflatoxins in Ghana. Peanut samples from the 1994 crop season in six locations in southern Ghana contained aflatoxin concentrations at levels ranging from 12–110 µg/kg (Awuah and Kpodo, 1996). A higher range of contamination (5.7–22,000 µg/kg) was obtained from damaged kernels sampled during a nationwide survey covering 12 markets in all 10 regions of Ghana, demonstrating the importance of sorting as a useful method of aflatoxin management. 31 Aflatoxins were not detected in 50% of visibly undamaged kernels tested and were present at low levels (0.1–12 µg/k) in the remaining undamaged kernels (Awuah and Kpodo, 1996). High levels of aflatoxins were recorded in maize collected from silos and warehouses and fermented maize dough samples from major processing sites and markets (Kpodo et al., 1996; Kpodo, 2001; see Table 10). In a separate study, implementation of good manufacturing practices (GMP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) in traditional processing of kenkey in a plant in Accra was shown to reduce aflatoxins. Levels of aflatoxins in kenkey samples reported at the plant before implementation of GMP and HACCP were between 64.1 and 196 μg/k, and after implementation dropped to between 14.5 and 17.2 μg/k (Amoa-Awua et al., 2007). Other West African countries (Senegal, the Gambia and Guinea Bissau) Peanut is the principal export crop constituting 80% and 66% of the earnings from agricultural exports in Senegal and The Gambia, respectively. Its production, handling, processing and marketing employ 86% and 70% of the active labour force in Senegal and Gambia, respectively. The UK imports most of Senegal’s peanut exports (86%) (Caswell, 1985). In The Gambia, on average, 45% of agricultural land is annually allocated to peanut, with production fluctuating around 107,000 t. Guinea Bissau does not export peanuts. Being a staple food, consumption of contaminated peanut results in chronic aflatoxin exposure, as confirmed by high levels in cooked food in The Gambia (Hudson et al., 1992; Turner et al., 2000; Wild and Hall, 2000). Table 11: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samples from Nigeria Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Benin Dried yam 98 2.2–220 (mean 14) Bassa et al., 2001 Benin Cereals ≤ 14 ≤ 58 AFG1 Bouraima et al., 1993 Benin Cashew nuts Not detectable Lamboni et al., 2016 Benin Yam chips 20 80 > 15 > 4 Mestres et al., 2004 Benin (four agro- ecological zones) Cowpea Not detectable Houssou et al., 2009 Benin Cassava chips Not detectable Gnonlonfin et al., 2012 Benin - North zone Benin - South zone Maize 56 . 25 2–2,500 (mean 220) (mean 100) Hell et al., 2000a; Hell et al., 2000b 32 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Benin, Mali and Togo Dried okra Dried hot pepper Mean 6 Mean 3.2 Hell et al., 2009 Benin and Togo Maize, peanut 91 3.6% > 20 Egal et al., 2005 Burkina Faso Maize Groundnuts Animal feed 50 50 22 Kpodo et al., 2000; Warth et al., 2012 Burkina Faso, Niger, Senegal Peanut 1–450 (mean 143) Waliyar et al., 1994 Côte d’Ivoire Oilseeds <20 Kershaw, 1982 Côte d’Ivoire Peanut 13 >50 Wyers et al., 1991; Kouadio et al., 2014 Côte d’Ivoire Maize 12.6 7.9 4.4 73 ≤ 360 > 250 > 1,000 > 10 Pollet et al., 1989 Côte d’Ivoire Cereals 86 > 20 Sangare-Tigori et al., 2006 The Gambia Groundnut sauce 90 19–944 (mean 162) Hudson et al., 1992 Maize 90 2–35 (mean 9.7) Millet 100 1–27 (mean 9.8) Sorghum 25 2–16 Rice 70 2–19 (mean 7.9) Leaf sauces 100 21–34 Ghana Peanut 31.7 12.8 Williams et al., 2004 Ghana Weaning food 100 7.9- 500 Kumi et al., 2015 Ghana Peanut 3–220 Mintah and Hunter, 1978 Ghana Maize 355 2–662 Kpodo et al., 1996; Kpodo et al., 2000 Ghana (silos and warehouses) Maize 20–355 Kpodo et al., 1996 Ghana (processing sites) Fermented maize dough 0.7–313 33 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Ghana Kenkey Maize kernel 77 66 ≤ 200 ≤ 2,000 Kpodo, 2001 Ghana Weanimix (weaning food from beans, groundnut and maize) 100 7.9–500 Kumi et al., 2014 Ghana Peanut paste (100 samples) 86 65 samples > 30 (highest = 3,300) Kpodo, 1997 Ghana Sorghum 3 7.5 8 8.1 Bankole and Kpodo, 2005 Soya beans 5 ≤ 36 Cassava 4 4–21 Cashew paste 3 ≤ 370 Rice < 2 Maize cake < 8 Agushie < 15 Mali Peanut 47–2,100 Soler et al., 2010 Mali Peanut butter 2.34–189.34 Babana et al., 2013 Mali Peanut ≤ 20 Waliyar et al., 2015 Niger (1989, 1900 and 1991) Peanuts (26 lines) 37 1–750 Waliyar and Hassan, 1993 Senegal Peanut oil 80 57–82 (mean 40) Diop et al., 2000 Senegal Peanut butter 90 2.3–189.3 Keita et al., 2013 Senegal Maize Sesame 120 1.2 Diedhiou et al., 2011 Senegal Peanut oil 85 40 Williams et al., 2004 4.6–530 Sierra Leone Fish, fermented food Jonsyn 1989; Jonsyn and Lahai, 1992 34 Table 12: Export notification of peanut from West African countries to Europe Notified by Countries concerned Subject France France (D), Togo (O) Aflatoxins (B1 = 128.1; total = 133.2 µg/kg) in raw peanuts in shell from Togo Lithuania The Gambia (O), Lithuania Aflatoxins (B1 = 101; total = 144 / B1 = 30; total = 46 µg/kg) in groundnut kernels from The Gambia Poland Poland, Senegal (O) Aflatoxins (B1 = 80.56; total = 95.57 / B1 = 76.77; total = 90.94 µg/kg) in raw groundnut kernels from Senegal UK Poland, Senegal (O) Aflatoxins (B1 = 39.57; total = 43.77 / B1 = 30.14; total = 33.44 µg/kg) in groundnut kernels from Senegal UK Nigeria (O), Spain, UK Aflatoxins (B1 = 65; total = 84 µg/kg) in groundnut oil from Nigeria UK Nigeria (O), Spain, UK Aflatoxins (B1 = 19; total = 23 µg/kg) in peanuts from Nigeria UK Ghana (O), Spain, UK Aflatoxins (B1 = 100; total = 120 / B1 = 28; total = 30 µg/kg) in groundnut paste (peanut butter) and groundnuts UK Ghana (O), Spain, UK Aflatoxins (B1 = 76; total = 112.7 µg/kg) in peanut butter from Ghana O = origin; D = destroyed European Commission (EC), Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Portal: https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/rasff- window/portal Source: Adapted from Senghor (2015) Central Africa region Central Africa consists of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The staple foods of this region are cassava, rice, millet, sorghum, squash, pumpkin and plantain. There is little information on aflatoxin contamination in this region except for Cameroon (Table 13). High levels of aflatoxins were reported in peanuts collected from rural areas in Kinshasa in DRC (Kamika and Takoy, 2011). AFB1 levels increased from the dry season to the rainy season with values ranging from 1.5 to 390 and 12 to 937 µg/kg, respectively. Seventy percent of the peanut samples from both seasons exceeded the maximum limit of 5 µg/kg. In a separate study, 75% of peanut samples exceeded the maximum limit (Ilunga, 2014). 35 Table 13: Aflatoxin contamination in household and market samles from Cameroon Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/total concentration of AFB1 (µg/kg) References Cameroon Maize Peanut meal Poultry feed mixtures 9 100 93.3 (broiler) 83 (layer feed) ≤ 2–42 39–50 2–52 2–23 Kana et al., 2013 Cameroon Eggs 7.86 Speijers and Speijers, 2004 Cameroon Cassava chips 33 5.2–14.5 Essono et al., 2008 Cameroon Dried food commodities 51 Mean 2.6 Njobeh et al., 2010 Cameroon Maize Peanut Cassava 74 62 24 6–645 6–125 6–194 Ediage et al., 2014 North Africa region Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia make up North Africa. Their major staples are wheat, barley, rice, nuts, herbs, beans and pulses. Spices are also used extensively to flavour food and as medicines. Egypt, Libya and Morocco The preservative and antioxidant properties of spices make them highly valuable. Spices are reported to be a significant source of aflatoxin exposure due to the tropical climatic conditions in areas where they are grown. Furthermore they are usually dried on the ground in the open air in poor hygienic conditions that promote growth of moulds and production of mycotoxins (Martins et al., 2001). In Cairo, aflatoxins were detected in processed meat that contained spices but aflatoxins were absent in fresh meat (beefsteak and minced meat), canned meat, salami. The contamination of processed meat with aflatoxin was shown to be correlated with the addition of spices to fresh meat (Nagy and Youssef, 1991). Aflatoxins ranged from 8–35 µg/kg in spices and 2–150 µg/kg in processed meat. When 120 samples of 24 different spices were examined in Egypt, an aflatoxin range of 8–35 µg/kg was recorded in 16 samples of anise, black pepper, caraway, black cumin, fennel, peppermint, coriander and marjoram (El- Kady et al., 1995). Similar levels have been reported in Morocco. Peanuts and dairy products are also of concern in this region (Table 14). Table 14: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from North Africa 36 Country Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/concentration (µg/kg) References Egypt Hazelnut 90 25–175 Abdel-Hafez and Saber, 1993; Williams et al., 2004 Peanut and watermelon seeds 82 Positive Soybean 35 5–35 Spices 40 > 250 Walnut 75 15–25 Egypt Milk 38 0.023–0.073 Amer and Ibrahim, 2010 Egypt Raisin 3 220–300 Youssef et al., 2000 Egypt Peanut 1,056 (AFM1) El-Gohary, 1996 Egypt Milk Cheese 20 10–20 3–6 (AFM1) 0–0.5 (AFM1) Alla et al., 2000 Egypt Cereal, pulses, fenugreek, peanut, and cottonseed cake 33 3–12 Girgis et al., 1977 Egypt Maize Rice 9.75 5.15 Madbouly et al., 2012 Libya Milk Cheese 71 17 0.03– 3.13 ng/ml (AFM1) 0.11–0.52 ng/ml (AFM1) Elgerbi et al., 2004 Libya Maize 9 7.1–13.9 Youssef, 2009 Libya Commercial baby cereals 2.4 19–70 Kofi et al., 2011 Morocco Milk 88.8 0.001–0.117 μg/l (mean 0.0186 μg/l) 3.26 ng/person/day Zinedine et al., 2007b Morocco Poultry feed 4 17 1 farm ≤ 110 110–200 2,000–5,625 Kichou and Walser, 1993 Tunisia Sorghum 38 15.4 Oueslati et al., 2014 Southern Africa region Maize, groundnuts and cassava are major food and cash crops in Southern Africa and are the crops most researched regarding aflatoxins. Samples of a range of commodities from selected 37 countries (Botswana, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe) have been found to contain unacceptable levels of aflatoxins (Table 15). Levels of contamination and exposure in the Republic of South Africa based on literature reviewed are profiled in Table 16. Botswana, Malawi and Zambia In Botswana, Mphande et al. (2004, 2014) reported the presence of aflatoxins greater than 20 µg/kg in half of the samples of peanut meals. In Malawi levels of up to 1,020 µg/kg were reported in grains (Glaston et al., 2000). In a separate study AFB1 was detected in 45.3% of the maize samples with 12.3% of them exceeding 5 µg/kg. The traditional flour production procedures reduced AFB1 significantly in this order: soaking of dehulled maize (72.4±5.4, 75.4±3.5 and 80.9±5.3% for 24, 48 and 72 h soaking periods, respectively) > dehulling of maize (mean 29.3±5.4%) > sun drying (11.7% max). Sun drying followed pseudo-first order kinetics in AFB1. A maximum AFB1 reduction of 88.1 ± 3.1% was achieved using a sequence of dehulling, soaking for 72 h and sun drying the flour for 4.5 h (Matumba et al., 2009). Njapau et al. (1998 also observed that village processing techniques in Zambia reduced aflatoxin content of maize and peanut products. In 30 trials, maize kernels were dehulled, soaked for 24 h, washed and dried before grinding into flour and boiling in water to a thick consistency (Nshima). Shelled peanuts were either dry-roasted as whole kernels or ground into peanut meal and cooked. Dehulling, following by 24 h soaking (steeping) and subsequent washing significantly reduced the aflatoxin B1 content of maize flour from 900 to 150 µg/kg, and similarly that of aflatoxin G1 from 929 to 114 µg/kg. Preparation of Nshima did not result in a substantial reduction in aflatoxin content, and neither did extension of the cooking duration of 2 h. Whereas boiling peanut meal yielded a moderate reduction in the content of aflatoxins B1 and G1, roasting whole peanut kernels greatly reduced (P<0·001) the concentrations of the toxins from that in raw kernels (AFB1 = 8600 µg/kg and AFG1 = 6200 µg/kg) to 1300 and 1200 µg/kg, respectively. All malt and beer samples in Malawi, and 15% and 43% of the sorghum and thobwa (opaque sweet beverage) samples, respectively, collected from the southern region of Malawi during the humid month of January 2010, were contaminated with aflatoxins. The sorghum malt prepared for beer brewing had a significantly higher total aflatoxin content (average 408 ± 68 µg/kg Standard Error of the Mean [SEM]) than any other type of sample. The average aflatoxin content in the beer was 22.32 µg/l, which is higher than the permissible maximum level in ready to eat foods set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (10 µg/kg). Thus consumption of opaque sorghum-based traditional beer poses a risk of aflatoxin exposure. In a separate study, traditional maize based opaque beers collected from tribal (chewa) rituals and commercial village brewers from Lilongwe and Dowa districts in Malawi in August 2012 were analysed for aflatoxins. With exception of one beer sample, all the beers contained aflatoxins at a mean concentration of 90 ± 95 μg/kg. Consumption of 1.0–6.0 l of the traditional beer from this study translates to daily aflatoxin exposure of 1.5–9.0 μg/kg bwt/day for a 60 kg adult (Matumba et al., 2014). Cassava is the second most important staple (after maize), nourishing over 30% of the population in Malawi and Zambia. As cassava is highly perishable, it is often processed into dry forms such as kadonoska, kanyakaska, makaka, and fermented and unfermented flour to increase shelf life. Kadonoska, kanyakaska and makaka are processed into flour for nsima (in Malawi) or nshima (in Zambia), confectioneries or stored for later use. A study was conducted 38 to assess the level of fungal and mycotoxins’ contamination in commonly processed cassava products. A total of 92 and 88 samples of processed cassava products comprising makaka, flour, kanyakaska, kadonoska, scrapes and grates were collected in the rainy season of 2008 and 2009 in Malawi, respectively. Further, 22 samples of processed cassava products comprising dried cassava chips and flour were collected in the rainy season of 2009 in Zambia. None of the samples in 2008 were contaminated with aflatoxins. Similar results were obtained in 2009, with almost all the samples in Malawi and Zambia having aflatoxin levels much lower (<2.0 µg/kg in Malawi and <4.2 µg/kg in Zambia) than the Codex Alimentarius Commission maximum permissible level of aflatoxins of 10.0 µg/kg, implying that the cassava products analysed were safe for human consumption (Chiona et al., 2014). Peanut is also an important crop in Malawi both as food and a cash crop. A total of 1,397 groundnut samples collected from farm homesteads, local markets, warehouses and shops in 2008 and 2009 had 46% and 23% of the total samples respectively contaminated with levels greater than 4 ppb, and 21% of the samples in 2008 and 8% in 2009 were above 20 ppb. Similarly high AFB1 contamination, was recorded across the country with 11–28% of all samples collected from the warm low to mid-altitude ecologies, recording contamination ≥20 ppb and low contamination (2–10% of samples) in the mid to high altitude cool ecologies (Monyo et al., 2012). In a recent study, samples of locally (Malawian) processed and imported maize- and groundnut-based food products (peanut butter, roasted groundnuts, peanut based therapeutic foods, instant baby cereals, maize puffs and de-hulled maize flour) were collected from popular markets in Lilongwe and analysed for aflatoxins. No aflatoxins were detected in all samples of imported baby cereal and locally processed de-hulled maize flour. However, all locally processed maize-based baby foods had aflatoxins above the EU maximum tolerable level of 0.1 µg/kg set for food for health purposes. In 75% of locally processed maize puffs, aflatoxins were detected at levels of up to 2 µg/kg. Peanut based therapeutic foods had aflatoxin level between 1.6 and 2.9 µg/kg. Locally processed peanut butter had aflatoxin levels in the range of 34.2–115.6 µg/kg, which was significantly higher than their imported counterparts (<0.2–4.3 µg/kg). Samples of locally processed skinned and de-skinned roasted groundnuts contained aflatoxin levels in the range of 0.5–2.5 µg/kg and 0.6–36.9 µg/kg, respectively. These results show that publicly marketed foods are a source of exposure (Matumba et al., 2014). 39 Table 15: Frequency of aflatoxin contamination and concentration levels in household and market samples from Southern Africa Region Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/concentration (µg/kg) References Botswana Peanut 78 12–329 Mphande et al., 2004 Botswana Sorghum Peanut Maize 40 71 0 1–64 (mean 0.3) 1.64 (mean 23) Siame et al., 1998 Botswana Opaque beer 0 Nkwe et al., 2002 Botswana Peanut butter 0 0 Mupunga, 2013 Malawi Grains 12.3 1,020 > 5 Glaston et al., 2000 Malawi Opaque beer 99 90 ± 95 Matumba et al., 2014 Malawi Sorghum malt for thobwa Sorghum malt for beer Beer Thobwa 100 100 100 43 6.1–54.6 μg/l 4.3–1138.8 μg/l 2.1–7.1 μg/l 8.8–34.5μg/l Matumba et al., 2011 Malawi Peanut 2008 2009 46% > 4 23% > 4 Monyo et al., 2012 Malawi Maize 100 2–150 Mwalwayo and Thole, 2016 Malawi Imported baby cereal and locally processed (LP) de-hulled maize flour 100 Not detectable Matumba et al., 2014 LP maize-based baby foods 100 > 0.1 LP peanut-based foods 75 1.6–2.9 34.2–115.6 LP peanut butter < 0.2–4.3 Imported peanut butter 0.5–2.5 Malawi and Zambia Cassava flour (2008 and 2009) Malawi < 2 Zambia < 4.2 Chiona et al., 2014 40 Region Commodity Frequency of aflatoxin- positive samples (%) Contamination rate/concentration (µg/kg) References Zambia Peanuts 55 0.014–48.67 Bumbangi et al., 2016 Zimbabwe Peanut Peanut butter 100 6.6–622 6.8–250 (mean 73.5) Mupunga, 2013 South Africa South Africa has both a well-developed commercial farming system and subsistence farming. Maize and groundnuts are the crops of interest for aflatoxins, especially in rural areas. Individual samples of agricultural commodities specifically submitted over a 10-year period (1984–1993) to a commercial testing service found aflatoxin contamination in 229 of the 1,602 submitted samples, with levels in maize, other cereals, oilseeds, poultry feed, animal feed, forage and soybean in the range of 1–500 µg/kg (Dutton and Kinsey, 1996). Surveys carried out by the South Africa Maize Board (SAMB) since 1986 shows low incidence of aflatoxin contamination in local maize. Analytical reports from SAMB showed that contamination of unprocessed commercial maize was nil or < 2µg/kg in the following years: 1986 (n=456), 1987 (n=496), 1988 (n=277), 1990 (n=55) and 1991 (n=166) (Viljoen et al., 1993; Rheeder et al., 1995). From 1992 onwards, higher levels have been reported as shown in Table 16. Surveys on maize and groundnuts produced by subsistence farmers during the 2005/06 and 2006/07 seasons in KwaZulu-Natal, recorded an increased area with contamination of up to 20 µg/kg compared to the 2004/05 season. Incidences of > 20 µg/kg were also reported. Surveys of commercial sorghum during the 2007/08, 2008/09 and 2009/10 seasons recorded mean contamination of up to 0.9 µg/kg (Flett et al., 2015). Aflatoxin contamination in peanut butter used in a national school-feeding programme showed contamination of 271 µg/kg (PROMEC Unit, 2001). Generally, overall contamination levels are low, but high levels are sporadically observed. Regular monitoring of commodities is paramount. Contamination of feed and animal products is also of interest in South Africa due to previous aflatoxicosis outbreaks in animals following consumption of contaminated feed. Analysis of samples of feeds, forage, maize and milk taken at nine dairy farms, and processed milk collected from the dairies to which the farms had delivered their fresh milk showed aflatoxin contamination. All milk samples from the dairy farms were positive for AFM1, ranging from 0.02–1.5 µg/l. Milk available on the retail market was also frequently contaminated with AFM1, at levels of 0.01–3.1 µg/l (Dutton et al., 2012; Mulunda and Mike, 2014). 41 Table 16: Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed in South Africa from 1992–2007 Year Commodity Sample size Aflatoxin concentration (μg/kg) Reference 1992 Maize 5/118 20 Viljoen et al., 1993 1993 White maize Yellow maize 2 50 Rava et al., 1996 1994/95 Maize 291 < 1–6 Rava, 1996 156 < 1 62 (feed) < 1 1996 Baked or boiled areca nuts 0.1 Van der Bijl et al., 1996 Raw areca nuts 10 3.5–26.2 (mean 8.9) 1989 Maize (for export to Taiwan) < 0.5 Rheeder et al., 1994 1987 Maize 90 Nil Marasas, 1988 1999/00 Maize 1/50 22 Anon, 2001 2006/07 Peanut in: KwaZulu-Natal Mpumalanga Limpopo ≤ 131 ≤ 160 ≤ 2 Ncube et al., 2010 Summary In summary, aflatoxin exposure is ubiquitous among the African countries studied, with a wide number of commodities having relatively high levels of aflatoxins far above Codex limits. Variations in aflatoxin exposure that exist between countries are largely a function of diet as well as economic status. An average estimation of exposure rates based on annual consumption, as is appropriate for cancer risk because of the cumulative nature of this response, indicate that aflatoxin exposure was 3.5–14.8 ng/kg/d in Kenya, 11.4–158.6 ng/kg/d in Swaziland, 38.6–183.7 ng/kg/d in Mozambique, 16.5 ng/kg/d in former Transkei South Africa (Eastern Cape), and 4–115 ng/kg/d in The Gambia (Ding et al., 2015). The exposure in Ghana, as measured from peanut consumption alone, is estimated to be 9.9–99.2 ng/kg/d (Awuah, 2000). Prevalence testing is needed in other areas where data are not currently available to establish a fuller picture for the country. 42 3.0 Aflatoxin control in Africa: State of knowledge 3.1 Awareness Poor awareness about aflatoxins, appropriate control measures to control contamination in the field and in storage, and the negative health effects of aflatoxin consumption are reported in most African countries (Narrod et al., 2011; N’dede et al., 2012; Abt Associates, 2013a; Ephrem et al., 2014). In a study on farmers in Nigeria, out of 2,689 respondents, only 860 (32%) knew what mycotoxins were (Idahor and Ogara, 2010). Other studies have reported similar findings (Ezekiel et al., 2013). In Benin, Ghana and Togo awareness rates have been reported as follows: 20.8% among farmers, 26.7% among traders, 60% among poultry farmers and 25.2% among consumers (James et al., 2007). In a separate study among health workers in Ghana, 80.6% of respondents knew about aflatoxin poisoning through lectures and reading but none had ever told their patients about the risk of aflatoxin ingestion (Ilesanmi and Ilesanmi, 2011). Surveys in Kenya and Mali revealed that most farmers who had heard of aflatoxin obtained that information via local language radio and extension workers, and a lack of understanding contributed to poor control of aflatoxin in the region (Unnevehr and Grace, 2013). In Kenya, households in the drylands, where aflatoxicosis outbreaks occurred in 2004, had a higher perception of risk, as expected, but low knowledge on safety attributes and necessary measures to minimise exposure to aflatoxin. In most parts of Tanzania, knowledge of aflatoxins is low and farmers do not discard aflatoxin-contaminated harvests (Abt Associates, 2013a). Neither do they receive lower prices for aflatoxin-contaminated food since markets do not differentiate between aflatoxin-free and aflatoxin-contaminated food. In Ethiopia, 98.7% of farmers, 96.7% of traders and 70% of consumers were unaware of aflatoxin contamination and its consequences (Ephrem et al., 2014). Moreover, there was no significant difference in responses between farmers (97.3%) and traders (96.7%) in knowledge of long- term exposure to aflatoxigenic fungi and aflatoxin. Nyangaga (2014) reported that 56.6% of traders in major open markets in Nairobi County were aware of aflatoxin contamination but cattle feed traders were more aware than food traders. Recommendations by Nyangaga (2014) included raising awareness, improving storage facilities and providing guidelines to control aflatoxin levels. Households that are more market- oriented (i.e. sell more than 25% of their produce) and have assets are more willing to pay for aflatoxin risk-reducing technologies in both Kenya and Mali (Tiongco et al., 2011a; Tiongco et al., 2011b; N’dede et al., 2012). In Kenya’s drylands, where outbreaks of aflatoxicosis had occurred, respondents were more willing to pay for improved seeds, and tarpaulins and metal silos for drying and storing grain, compared to other regions. Of grave concern, is the fact that there is “no set ‘agenda’ for agricultural extension services to include aflatoxins, mycotoxins, food safety, or GAP in their messaging” (Abt Associates, 2013a), the full adoption of which can contribute to improving farmers’ knowledge and awareness on aflatoxin control. 3.2 Traditional practices In the context of aflatoxin control in Africa, it is important to examine some traditional practices. In Benin, local maize varieties were determined to have lower aflatoxin levels than imported varieties (Hell et al., 2008). Planting maize varieties that are less susceptible to fungal growth has been reported to be one of the best methods to help alleviate the effects of mycotoxin- producing fungi (Brown et al., 2001). Grains harvested with the husks when mature during dry 43 weather, and early removal of any damaged maize kernels or cobs, has also been demonstrated to be an effective method for aflatoxin control applied in rural African settings (Hell et al., 2008). Traditionally, sorting was done manually or even through winnowing to get rid of the lighter grains, which were assumed to be lighter due to insect or mould damage. Methods such as visual sorting, winnowing, washing, crushing and dehulling have been found to contribute up to a 40–80% reduction in aflatoxin levels in grains (Whitaker, 2003; Fandohan et al., 2005; Waliyar et al., 2008a). Sorting is highly recommended for reducing aflatoxin contamination, especially in groundnuts, in countries such as Benin, Ghana and Togo (Park, 2002; Turner et al., 2005; Hell et al., 2008; N’dede et al., 2012). Water has also been used to sort grains – allowing floating grains presumed to be damaged to be removed and heavy grains that sink to be cooked. In Kenya and Malawi, soaking and cooking in magadi soda, malting and roasting are other methods that have been used to reduce the levels of aflatoxins in maize (Glaston et al., 2000; Makokha et al., 2002; Fandohan et al., 2005; Mutungi et al., 2008). In Morocco, grapes have been dipped in sieved ash solutions with quicklime salt and water, to prevent rot formation and fermentation (Mazhour, 1983). Some communities in western Kenya use ash to reduce insect pests that have been documented to increase the effects of fungi in maize kernels (Avantaggiato et al., 2003; Munkvold, 2003). Use of plant products Many farmers use local plant products, either in their pure form or as oil or water extracts, to control insects during storage. Ocimum gratissimum, Aframonium spp., Zingiber officinalis, Xylopia aethiopica, Monodera myristica, Ocimum baslicum, Tetrepleura tetrapeta and Piper guineense have all been tested for their ability to inhibit the mycelia growth of A. flavus, while P. guineense inhibits the growth of all tested maize pathogens. Essential oils from Azadirachta indica and Morinda lucida inhibit the growth of toxigenic A. flavus and significantly reduced aflatoxin synthesis in inoculated maize grains (Bankole, 1997; Nguefack et al., 2004). Ground Aframomum danielli (Zingiberaceae) has been shown to control moulds and insect infestation in stored maize and soybeans for up to 15 months under ambient conditions in southwestern Nigeria (Adegoke et al., 2000). The role of natural botanical products in controlling post- harvest aflatoxin contamination, however, is underdeveloped and under-researched. Further tests are needed to determine inhibition mechanisms and identify the active ingredients of the natural products that inhibit fungal growth for commercialisation. Fermentation Fermentation (mainly associated with lactic acid bacteria and yeast) not only improves the taste of food, but has also been shown to increase the availability of specific nutrients and to reduce the accumulation of mycotoxins (Nout et al., 1993; Mokoena et al., 2006; Oluwafemi and Da-Silva, 2009; Chelule et al., 2010; Okeke et al., 2015). North and West Africa have a rich tradition of using fermentation to prepare traditional staple foods; maize, millet or sorghum (Ross et al., 1992; Bankole and Adebanjo, 2003; Benkerroum, 2013) and aflatoxin- decontamination effects of fermentation have been documented (Fandohan et al., 2005). In South Africa, sour gruel referred to as amahewu and the beverage Incwana are cereal-based fermented foods (Chelule et al., 2010). While fermented foods have deep cultural values, their role in mitigating risk from aflatoxin contamination need further study and technological improvements to standardise processes if they are to be promoted widely. 44 Smoking Smoking has been used not only to reduce the moisture content in grains, but also to reduce the effects of insects and to act as a fungicide (Daramola, 1986; Hell et al., 2008). In Nigeria, smoking has been applied to reduce moisture content in food crops and meat and has been shown to reduce aflatoxin levels in stored maize and fish (Udoh et al., 2000). Use of contaminated grains as animal feed Grains found to be contaminated with aflatoxins were traditionally converted to animal feed by farmers, to minimise financial losses. This practice is not recommended especially given the levels of exposure linked to the consumption of derived products such as contaminated milk as has been previously reported. 45 4.0 Capacity for detection and quantification of aflatoxins Specific, sensitive and simple analytical methods for detection and quantification of aflatoxins are needed given their presence in very low concentrations in foods and feed. Accurate determination of the aflatoxin content of a commodity is influenced by the way each step in the evaluation process from sampling to extraction, clean-up and quantification is carried out. 4.1 Sampling framework The general approach to sampling for aflatoxin testing is by collecting representative samples from which inferences can be made. Variability in results from sampling is much higher than variability in sample preparation and analysis, thus adequate sampling is extremely important (IARC, 2012c). The physical state of samples determines the sampling strategy employed, i.e. whether the sample is a grain, fine or coarse powder, or liquid. Different sampling procedures have been developed to obtain representative samples for laboratory testing. Additionally, several regulatory bodies and agencies provide guidelines on appropriate procedures compliant with regional and international best practices. A manual on effective sampling methodologies for detection of mycotoxins in foods highlights various sources of errors in sampling, including: inadequate sample sizes, biased sampling procedures, inadequate sample comminution, and improper subsampling for analysis (Whitaker et al., 2011). Sampling grains and flour Aflatoxin concentrations show a skewed or uneven distribution in whole kernels, making it difficult to collect a sample that accurately represents mean concentration. Thus distribution of ingredients within an analysed sample is a critical aspect (Cheli et al., 2012). When sampling grains for aflatoxin testing, it is preferable to take a homogenised sample from harvesting or handling operations. Therefore it is better to sample shelled maize rather than ear maize, and to sample ground maize rather than shelled maize (Davis et al., 1980). The techniques routinely used to sample grains for aflatoxin analysis include: probe, stream and field sampling, ranked in that order of preference. The choice of sampling technique is dependent on the aim of the sampling exercise. Probe sampling is done using commercially available probes and is appropriate for grains that are properly blended; in sampling a bag of maize, it is better to take portions from top, middle and bottom and combine into a sample. Stream sampling involves taking small portions from a moving stream of grains at periodic time intervals and combining the portions into a sample. Field sampling, coordinated with harvesting, ensures a very large number of maize ears are represented in the sample of shelled maize. Whenever possible, initial sampling should yield a minimum quantity of 4.54 kg to be ground and passed through a No. 14 sieve, be thoroughly blended, and then properly sub-divided into a 1 kg sample. The 1 kg sample is then ground, passed through a No. 20 sieve, thoroughly blended, and properly subdivided to yield five to nine analytical samples (Ware, 1991). As a rule of thumb a larger sub-sample is required for coarsely-ground material than for finely- ground material. Cereal millers, middlemen and silos provide large storage facilities that require a sampling plan. However in Africa, smallholder farmers often store their harvest in granaries made out of local plant material that may be iron-roofed. Others store in bricks, either in sacks or 46 polypropylene bags stacked onto each other. Others still keep unshelled maize grains in stores on the store floor. Sampling in this case can be varied to best suit the situation. Sampling biological fluids Bio-monitoring of aflatoxins occurs by analysing the presence of aflatoxin metabolites in blood, milk and urine. Additionally, excreted DNA adducts and blood protein adducts can also be monitored (Bennett and Klich, 2003). When working with human biological materials, the Helsinki declaration and good clinical practice are the cornerstones that form the principles and ethics of samples collection (WMA, 2004). The protocol for sampling and testing should be submitted to an ethical review committee for consideration, comment, guidance and, where appropriate, approval. For research animals, it is a must that their welfare be respected. Sampling methods to be used to determine AFM1 levels in milk are specified by the EC Directive (EC, 1998) and Decision (EC, 1991). From a batch of milk mixed by manual or mechanical means, a minimum sample of 0.5 L is collected, composed of at least five increments. The batch is accepted if the concentration of AFM1 in the sample does not exceed the permitted limit (IARC, 2012c). EC Directive 2002/98/EC sets quality and safety standards for the collection, testing, processing, storage and distribution of human blood and blood components. Whole blood is collected using blood collection tubes. Urine is collected in clean bottles and kept refrigerated or frozen depending on period of storage before analysis. 4.2 Analytical methods – access and accuracy Methods for detecting and quantifying aflatoxins in agricultural food crops, feed and samples from human and animal subjects can be grouped as: 1) Chromatographic methods a) Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) b) High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) c) Gas Chromatography (GC) 2) Spectroscopic methods a) Fluorescence Spectrophotometry b) Frontier Infrared Spectroscopy 3) Immunochemical methods a) Radioimmunoassay b) Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) c) Lateral Flow Devices (Immunodipsticks) d) Immunosensors Chromatographic methods, such as TLC and HPLC, are the most widely used techniques in aflatoxins analysis and regarded as the official analytical techniques, and are mounted with various detectors. The most recent of these methods use immunoaffinity columns (IACs) for sample extraction and clean-up before HPLC analysis. The highly specific nature of mass spectrometry (MS) eliminates need for extract purification (IARC, 2012c). The development of multi-analyte HPLC-MS/MS methods has enabled analytical chemists to combine analytical steps with a confirmatory test by measuring the mass spectrum of the HPLC peak. 47 Immunoassays have emerged as better alternatives for routine and on-site detection of aflatoxins. These adapted rapid-screening methods include ELISAs, fluorometric methods, lateral flow devices, and a range of tests that give a yes/no result for contamination above or below a set control level. These methods have been developed for situations where quick decisions are required, such as at granaries, silos and factories (IARC, 2012c). Quantitative or semi-quantitative ELISAs have the advantage of not requiring sample extract purification and can handle many samples in a single experiment. Its disadvantages include cross- reactivity with related mycotoxins, matrix interference problems, possible false positive/negative results and that confirmatory liquid chromatography (LC) analysis is required (Pascale and Visconti, 2008). Some of the very sensitive immunoassay methods require skilled and well-trained operators. A number of authors have published updates on the developments in mycotoxin analysis covering limit of detections and recovery percentages, and the advantages and disadvantages of various methods (Pascale and Visconti, 2008; Maragos and Busman, 2010; Shephard et al., 2011; Shephard et al., 2013; Berthiller et al., 2014; Wacoo et al., 2014). In Africa, most researchers use immunoassays, which are considered as screening methods. For more accurate and precise identification and quantification of mycotoxins present, chromatographic methods are used, e.g. HPLC or LC-MS/MS. These methods are not only precise and accurate but they can be used to analyse multiple mycotoxins in a single run whilst using a very simple method for sample preparation (e.g. QuEChERS). Despite these benefits, chromatographic methods require a stable electricity supply and ready availability of special reagents, consumables and spare parts, as well as trained personnel to operate and maintain them. This makes routine use of these analytical methods more likely in well-developed modern laboratories and less likely in laboratories hosted by government-run national institutions in Africa. 4.3 Capacity for aflatoxin determination and quantification The challenges associated with mycotoxin testing in Africa include lack of political commitment, infrastructure, trained personnel, sustainable supplies, instrument maintenance and repairs, and laboratory quality control and assurance schemes. Considering cost, speed of analysis, availability of personnel and facilities, as well as the characteristics of the tests (sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility) – TLC, HPLC, ELISA and other immunoassays have been identified as the preferred methods for the African region (FAO/WHO, 2005a). Validation of the methods is often carried out by official laboratories or regulatory bodies, and supported by international organisations such as the Association of Official Analytical Chemists and International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In most studies in Africa, direct competitive ELISA procedures are applied unless there is collaboration with foreign laboratories to use the more advanced techniques. The few laboratories that conduct aflatoxin testing using chromatographic methods are costly and are inaccessible to local researchers. Promotion of local development of antibodies and immunoassay kits can help obviate commercial costs, but caution needs to be exercised in maintaining quality of such kits. Laboratories under the CGIAR Consortium are well equipped and have highly-skilled staff who carry out mycotoxin testing. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), a CGIAR centre, has developed a simple, robust, versatile, low-cost, effective competitive ELISA (cELISA) test for the detection of aflatoxin (ICRISAT, 2009). The 48 CGIAR centres have the benefit of favourable funding, which supports the development of their diagnostics capability. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), for example, through an Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) funded project has established an aflatoxin research and capacity-building platform at the Biosciences eastern and central Africa (BecA-ILRI) Hub in Nairobi, Kenya, which is open to biosciences researchers focused on improving food security in Africa. At the platform there is a laboratory team working to develop new aflatoxin diagnostics, such as the electronic nose, that are more suited to the African context. Another technology being worked on at the BecA-ILRI Hub is Near Infrared (NIR) to predict the presence of aflatoxin in samples. NIR is supplied by South Africa-based Bruker® who offer technical support. Compared to other African countries, South Africa is advanced in aflatoxin-testing technology and is well equipped. NIR, if operational, will be non-destructive, requiring no sample preparation or extraction solvents, making it quick and reliable for quantitative and qualitative analysis. However, a need still exists for methods that are applicable to small-scale farms, where resources are limited and rapid decisions are needed concerning contamination (Harvey et al., 2013). 49 5.0 Regional collaboration and mitigation activities Food safety can only be guaranteed by policies and legislation that safeguard consumers, minimise economic and health risks, and ensure functioning of food markets in an orderly manner (Jabbar and Delia, 2012). Many African countries have established food laws and regulations mainly based on Codex Alimentarius standards to allow exports to be accepted in different international markets (Mutasa and Nyamandi, 1998). Crop exports from Africa cannot easily access European markets due to the strict sanitary and phytosanitary requirements imposed on their products (Otsuki et al., 2001). Standards still remain important barriers to trade (Bhat and Vashanti, 1999; Rios and Jaffee, 2008; Unnevehr and Grace, 2013). Standards for ‘acceptable’ aflatoxin levels in food vary widely across African countries, from 0–50 ppm. Studies on the status of food and feed safety legislations in Africa identified significant gaps, inadequate linkages between strategies, and outdated and overly prescriptive laws that failed to address a whole range of food safety concerns (FAO/WHO, 2005a; Jabbar and Delia, 2012; Hell, 2015). Failure to meet standards for aflatoxin have had a negative impact on African trade, with a loss of up to US$750 million annually (Jabbar and Delia, 2012). Africa’s inability to meet the regulatory standards set by many importing countries, especially the EU, is cause for concern. PACA, in collaboration with regional economic communities (RECs), is working toward improving the enabling policy and institutional environments to support countries to update and harmonise legislation (Waliyar et al., 2008b; Ayalew et al., 2013), to enforce standards and maintain larger trading blocks that can negotiate with importing countries and larger bodies, such as the World Trade Organization. 5.1 Regional trading blocks There are 14 RECs in Africa that are officially recognised by the African Union (AU), some of which overlap in membership (Hell, 2015). The RECs include Arab Maghreb Union, Commutẻ Economique et Monẻtaire des Etats de I’Afrique Central (EMAC), Communautẻ de EtasSahẻlo Sahariens, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the East African Community (EAC), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), South Africa Development Community (SADC), Southern Africa Customs Union (SACU), and Union Economique et Monẻtaire Quest Africaine (UEMOA). Aflatoxin contamination undermines the free trade agreements of RECs in Africa. ECOWAS ECOWAS is a regional integration group of 15 member countries, eight of which have food safety legislation in place (Hell, 2015). Only Benin, Ghana and Nigeria have specific standards for aflatoxin while the other five use Codex limits as required by major trading partners (Hell, 2015). Most research data on levels of aflatoxins and affected commodities have been collected from Benin, Ghana and Nigeria, but smaller studies have occurred in Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Senegal and Togo. Little or no research has been documented from other countries including Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Niger and Sierra Leone. ECOWAS countries are at different levels on instituting GAP to reduce mycotoxin through post-harvest and processing interventions. Examples include the use of good practices and Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PIC) bags; good post-harvest practices 50 in maize (Guinea); special sorting of groundnut to reduce aflatoxin; screening technology; and reduction of post-harvest losses of grains and pulses (Hell, 2015). Some Western and Central African countries have also set up food testing laboratories under the French Protocol which is an agri-food quality programme (Tulasne, 2002). Twenty-three laboratories are currently participating in the regional network, creating openings for product certification for national, regional and international markets. UEMOA UEMOA is a regional organisation of eight francophone (Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) countries in West Africa that share a common currency. A programme of SPS harmonisation began in early 2003, focusing on the preparation of a legislative framework and associated treaties, training of officials to interpret and implement the treaties, and strengthening of quality control laboratories. With EU support, UEMOA established legal and regulatory frameworks for food safety; a regional certification scheme and harmonisation of 36 national standards; enhanced the competitiveness of enterprises that complied with international trade rules and technical regulations; and developed national and regional infrastructure for quality, standardisation and conformity assessment. SADC SADC represents 15 member states (Angola, Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe). There is good cooperation over food contamination emergencies in SADC. Varying laboratory capacities have been identified between member states, so the upgrading of existing facilities into regional centres of excellence has been recommended (FAO/WHO, 2005b). Some countries are sharing facilities amongst several states as a more cost-effective and sustainable arrangement to deal with the problem of poor laboratory facilities. The SADC Secretariat has carried out a number of activities aimed at improving the capacity of member states to implement the SPS Annex to the SADC Protocol on Trade. The activities were funded through an EU-sponsored Regional Economic Integration Support programme. In Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia – with collaborators from the USA and UK – the Peanut and Mycotoxin Innovation Lab) 5-year project, which is expected to end in 2017 is implementing aflatoxin management interventions, education, and analysis at various steps along the peanut value chain; production, post-harvest handling, and processing issues that impact aflatoxin contamination levels, yield and profitability. EAC EAC represents six states in Eastern Africa (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda). Several workshops have been held to raise awareness and build capacity on aflatoxin control in the EAC. The United States Agency for International Aid Development (USAID) is very active: 51  USAID Leveraging Economic Opportunities (LEO) project is evaluating SPS trade policy constraints within the maize and livestock/animal-sourced products value chains in Eastern Africa.  USAID’s Feed the Future initiative: capacity building activities with the EAC to strengthen laboratory diagnostics and quality assurance, as well as methods to augment surveillance for plant disease and control of product contaminants such as aflatoxin. Technical assistance activities that are addressing aflatoxin include:  The Kenya-based East Africa Trade and Investment Hub project funded by the USAID regional mission developed harmonised guidelines for sampling, testing and grading procedures and methods for the East African States 2013 Staple Food Standards. The programme – Development Alternatives Inc. Trade Africa: East Africa Trade and Investment Hub (2014–2019) – has several project goals, including a strong SPS initiative to increase EAC inter-regional trade in staple foods by 40%. The project builds on the policy environment with EAC integration in trade and investment.  Developed and implemented in Kenya, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)-run ‘Aflacontrol Survey’, which targeted maize (Kenya) and groundnut (Mali) was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF).  The ‘Aflastop Storage Drying for Aflatoxin Prevention’ maize storage and drying programme, funded by USAID and BMGF, offered farmers and traders practical technological options to store and minimise the risk of aflatoxin contamination.  BMGF also funded research to create a low-cost diagnostics test for aflatoxin. The aflatoxin test-kit was piloted in 2013 but funding was not sustained.  Run by the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the Aflasafe project develops and tests biological control products for 11 sub-Saharan African countries and has developed and proposed protocols for aflatoxin sampling in maize and groundnuts which are being piloted. The project is also assisting the World Bank’s AgResults Aflasafe commercialisation pilot in Nigeria. Funded by BMGF, through PACA, the project also leverages funds from several other donors including USAID and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). COMESA COMESA represents 19 member states (Burundi, the Comoros, DRC, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sudan, Swaziland, Seychelles, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe). Maize traded in the COMESA region is duty free, but borders are often closed if there is a perceived shortfall of the crop in exporting countries. Aflatoxins in COMESA countries therefore challenge regional and international trade. COMESA, in collaboration with the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services, has worked towards the harmonisation of aflatoxin sampling and testing protocols in the region through capacity building (28–29 February 2012, Nairobi, Kenya). The aim was to develop a regional action plan to lead to agreed regional protocols for aflatoxin sampling and testing procedures (Byanyima, 2012b). Another workshop in Uganda in 2013 and supported by USDA, established priorities for SPS capacity building using Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. A 2014 African Agriculture Technology Foundation (AATF)/AUC/COMESA/IITA/PACA/ USAID regional workshop looked at the challenges posed by aflatoxins and opportunities to improve health, trade and food security through regional efforts to mitigate aflatoxin contamination. 52 A major achievement of COMESA has been the creation of the tri-partite free trade area (FTA), by merging EAC, COMESA and SADC FTAs. The tri-partite FTA agreement laid out a legally binding coordination mechanism to enable the three RECs to harmonise SPS programmes and implement risk-based SPS measures, ensuring smooth flow of food and agricultural products across the tri-partite region. The coordination of activities of regional bodies in relation to aflatoxin control is challenging given the overlapping mandates, yet the efforts by PACA to harmonise regulations can possibly lead to sustainable outcomes and greater impact. Coordinating legislation and standards is currently under way to address aflatoxin control across the value chain by enforcing GAP and paying attention to production practices by smallholder farmers. However equal attention should also be given to the adoption and implementation of good manufacturing practices to reduce the levels of aflatoxin in contaminated foods and feed. 5.2 Mitigation activities: Feasibility of interventions and uptake in Africa Aflatoxin mitigation requires a multifaceted approach since contamination can take place anywhere along the value chain. Mitigation interventions can be primary, targeting the prevention of the occurrence of the toxins in food and feed, or secondary, which attempt to prevent exposure of humans and animals to the toxins after ingestion of contaminated food or feed. Developing mitigation strategies for the prevention or reduction of aflatoxins requires a good understanding of the factors that influence the infection process and the conditions that influence toxin formation. Soil type and condition, and the availability of viable spores, are important factors. Environmental factors that favour A. flavus infection in the field include high soil and/or air temperature, drought stress, nitrogen stress, crowding of plants and conditions that aid the dispersal of conidia during silking (Diener et al., 1987). Factors that influence the incidence of fungal infection include presence of invertebrate vectors, grain damage, oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in stores, inoculum load, substrate composition, fungal infection levels, prevalence of toxigenic strains, and microbiological interaction (Horn, 2003). Crop rotation and management of crop residues are also important in controlling A. flavus infection in the field. Significant inroads are being made in establishing various promising pre- and post-harvest control strategies in Africa. 5.3 Primary interventions Pre-harvest management strategies Pre-harvest technologies are seen as the most promising, cost-effective and easy-to-use technologies for farmers (Bhatnagar-Mathur et al., 2015). A combination of strategies is needed to adequately prevent mycotoxin contamination in the field. Plants may be developed that resist fungal infection and/or reduce the toxic effects of the mycotoxins themselves, or interrupt mycotoxin biosynthesis. Breeding Plant resistance is generally considered a highly desirable approach to reducing or eliminating A. flavus infection and subsequent accumulation of aflatoxin. Potential biochemical and 53 genetic resistance markers have been identified in crops, particularly in maize, and are being utilised as selectable markers in breeding for resistance to aflatoxin contamination. Efforts to enhance plant resistance to aflatoxin contamination have mainly focused on the fungus, inhibition of aflatoxin production and resistance to insects, and drought tolerance, by applying both conventional and transgenic technology. Gene clusters housing the genes governing formation of aflatoxins have been elucidated and are being targeted in strategies to interrupt the biosynthesis of these mycotoxins. The focus on resistance to insects and drought tolerance is because of a suggested correlation between them and aflatoxin contamination in some studies. Various programmes funded by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) are screening maize germplasm for resistance to aflatoxin accumulation in Africa. The University of Nairobi, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Stellenbosch University and the Agricultural Research Council, funded by CIMMYT, have screened inbred lines from Kenya and South Africa for resistance to aflatoxin and fumonisin accumulation. Breeding trials with inbred lines identified as having low susceptibility to Aspergillus ear rot and aflatoxin accumulation are ongoing. The Agricultural Research Council of South Africa is also carrying out separate trials. ICRISAT has also reported new peanut varieties with low pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination (Nigam et al., 2009). In Malawi and Tanzania, the McKnight Foundation and Collaborative Crop Research Programme-funded groundnut breeding programme worked from 2010 to 2013 to identify lines with low aflatoxin contamination. In Malawi the project was implemented by ICRISAT, the National Agricultural Research Services and the National Smallholder Farmers’ Association of Malawi, while in Tanzania it was implemented by Naliendele Agricultural Research Institute. ICRISAT has reported the following breeding lines to be resistant to A. flavus seed infection and colonisation: ICGVs 87084, 87094, 87110, 91278 and 91284. The following peanut cultivars have shown stable resistance to A. flavus across locations: J 11, 55-437, and PI 337394F. Some of these breeding lines also possess aflatoxin resistance and are also high yielding. Efforts have been made to develop aflatoxin-resistant transgenic peanut plants (Waliyar et al., 2015) as an effective long-term genetic approach to the problem. For maize, the transgenic approach has focused mainly on expression of recombinant insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), expression of antifungal peptids and proteins, and the use of Host Induced Gene Silencing technology. No product is currently on the market except for Bt maize which is grown only in South Africa where it was approved for commercial use in 1998 (Marnus et al., 2006). Conflicting reports have been documented on the ability of Bt toxin technology against the European corn borer to reduce aflatoxin levels in maize. One study has shown no significant effect of Bt maize while other studies have shown mixed results (Wu, 2007; Ostrý et al., 2015). The effect Bt maize has on lowering levels of aflatoxins is not pronounced compared with fumonisins and this should be expected because of the different infection pathways of the fungi producing these toxins. These data therefore require further research studies to be conclusive (Diaz-Gomez et al., 2016). The development of transgenic plants expressing genes that protect against fungal infection, for example, would be a more effective strategy. Environmental stresses, such as drought and heat, have been shown to promote aflatoxin production through the accumulation of reactive oxygen species within the host plant tissues, 54 which in turn initiate toxin production by A. flavus (Chen et al., 2004; Guo et al., 2008; Fountaina et al., 2015). Drought- and insect-resistant maize and groundnut varieties have been reported to have relatively lower pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination than the check cultivars in other parts of the world (Holbrook et al., 2000; Tubajika and Damann, 2001; Guo et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2015). Breeding for stress-tolerant cultivars is therefore seen as another strategy for management of aflatoxins. CIMMYT, jointly with IITA, launched the ‘Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa’ (DTMA) project in 2006 to work in close collaboration with national agricultural research systems in participating nations to mitigate drought and other constraints to maize production in sub-Saharan Africa. DTMA has released several such drought tolerant varieties in 13 African countries (CIMMYT, 2015). Biocontrol Atoxigenic biocontrol of A. flavus that can outcompete closely related, toxigenic strains in field environments, consequently reducing levels of aflatoxins in crops, is commercially packaged and sold as AflasafeTM. IITA, in partnership with the USDA–Agricultural Research Service and AATF developed Aflasafe™, which is already registered in Kenya and Nigeria. IITA has reported consistent reduction of aflatoxin contamination in maize and groundnuts by 80–90%. The product is ready for registration in Burkina Faso and Senegal and is being tested in Zambia. Trials are being expanded in Ghana, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda. In Kenya and Burkina Faso, IITA has identified separate sets of four competitive atoxigenic strains isolated from locally-grown maize to constitute a biocontrol product called aflasafeKE01™ and aflasafe-BF01, respectively (IITA, 2012). The use of other organisms, such as bacteria and yeasts, as biocontrol agents are still under experimentation (Aliabadi et al., 2013). Wu and Khlangwiset (2010) describe the use of pre-harvest Aflasafe™ in Nigeria and post-harvest management in Guinea as cost-effective in terms of improved health outcomes: the monetised value of lives saved and quality of life gained by reducing aflatoxin- induced hepatocellular carcinoma compared with the cost of the two interventions. However, the long-term consequences of the use of these biocontrol products to both farmers and the environment have been questioned (Ehrlich, 2014; Ehrlich et al., 2014). Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) GAP aims at reducing the load of the fungus in soil, reducing environmental stresses on plants and ensuring growth of healthy plants. The following practices are being promoted to reduce aflatoxin contamination: selection of healthy seeds, early planting, avoidance of mono- cropping, treatment of foliar diseases, application of lime or gypsum, mulching, maintenance of optimal density of plants in the field, avoidance of end season drought through irrigation, and removal of dead plants from the field before harvest (Waliyar et al., 2013). Post-harvest management strategies Although aflatoxins can contaminate commodities anywhere along the value chain, dramatic increase is normally observed in storage. Crop management practices at harvest and post- harvest are an effective way of avoiding, or at least diminishing, infection by A. flavus and subsequent aflatoxin contamination. These include, harvesting at maturity, avoidance of damage of kernels, rapid drying on platforms to avoid contact with soil, drying seeds to 8% moisture level, appropriate shelling methods to reduce grain damage, sorting, use of clean and aerated storage structures, control of insect damage, and avoidance of long storage 55 periods. Several methods and tools are being promoted and tested in collaboration with farmers in Africa. Examples are outlined below: Storage and drying options by AflaSTOP The AflaSTOP project in Kenya is testing storage and drying devices to reduce aflatoxin accumulation on smallholder farms (ACDI/VOCAb, 2015). Three different storage devices are currently being evaluated for commercialisation: GrainPro Grain Safe II manufactured by GrainPro; metal silos made out of aluminium by local artisans; and Purdue Improved Crop Storage initially introduced to West Africa by Purdue University and currently manufactured in Kenya by Bell Industries Metal Silo. Hermetic bags have also been used by ICRISAT in Mali and GrainPro company is now manufacturing them in Kenya (Villers, 2015). AflaSTOP is testing the shallow bed dryer, which is reportedly showing promising results. It is a completely new device that has never gone on the market. The basic configuration of this mechanical dryer is a furnace, a heat exchanger and a supply of air (provided by fan). The heat from the furnace moves through the heat exchanger and through the raised bed that contains the grain. Mobile maize dryers are already being used by grain handlers in Kenya (Wanjiru, 2011). Storage methods by Cultivate Africa’s Future CultiAF is a joint programme of the Australian International Food Security Research Centre and Canada’s International Development Research Centre. The project is testing the efficacy of air-tight metal storage silos and thick plastic ‘super bags’ for storing grains to reduce aflatoxin accumulation in maize grains (ACIAR, 2015). Storage practices to reduce aflatoxin contamination IFPRI worked with households in Meru, Kenya, to test the effect of inexpensive improved post- harvest and storage practices on aflatoxin contamination of maize and the effect of reduced consumption of contaminated maize on growth of children under 2 years by swapping contaminated maize with clean maize (Hoffmann et al., 2014). The results were positive. Sorting options Electronic devices such as Near-Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging and high-speed dual- wavelength sorters have been tested to remove maize and peanuts contaminated in the field with aflatoxin (Pearson et al., 2004; Wei et al., 2015). These methods are expensive and not suitable for smallholder farmers. Detoxification and decontamination Segregation and detoxification of aflatoxin-contaminated commodities has been suggested. In Malawi segregation of aflatoxin-contaminated peanuts by visual or mechanical means has been attempted. In Senegal and Sudan, industrial detoxification of aflatoxin-contaminated peanut oilseed cake by processes such as ammonia and formaldehyde treatment are in place (Grenier et al., 2012). Industrial plants with decontamination capacities ranging from 0.5 t to 600 t are in operation (Bhat, 1991). However, such products (detoxified seed cakes) are useful only as animal feed and the possible deterioration of animal health by excessive residual 56 ammonia in the feed remains a concern and regulatory measures permitting the marketing of such detoxified products have yet to be formulated. Detoxification of crude oil by binding aflatoxin in groundnut oil and cake has been presented as a possible method for use at the small-scale industry or household level (Mehan, 1995). The use of red clays in West African countries has been found to be effective in binding aflatoxin in contaminated groundnut cake. In Senegal, it was found that exposure to sunlight for 18–24 hours in transparent and translucent containers destroyed 100% of the toxin in contaminated oil (Kane, 1996). The method is simple and is suggested for use by oil processors at the village level. Other aflatoxin management initiatives are listed in Table 17. Table 17: Aflatoxin management and reduction projects in Africa Project initiative Country of implementation Project objective Project link/references Feed the Future Innovation Lab Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia Technologies along the peanut value chain, and education http://pmil.caes.uga.edu/researc h/NCSU202/index.html 2013–2017 Platform for African European Partnership on Agricultural Research for Development (PAEPARD)-CRF project Malawi Practices in peanut farming, knowledge management, and policy http://www.fanrpan.org/docume nts/d01766/ 2014–2017 Safe Food Safe Dairy, Government of Finland Kenya GAP http://safefood.uonbi.ac.ke/ Food Africa, Government of Finland CGIAR Research Programme in Benin, Ghana, Cameroon, Kenya, Senegal, Uganda https://portal.mtt.fi/portal/page/p ortal/mtt_en/projects/foodafrica World Food Programme Uganda Technologies along maize value chain, and education http://documents.wfp.org/stellent /groups/public/documents/speci al_initiatives/WFP265205.pdf 2013–2014 Flemmish Interuniversity Council- Insitutional University Cooperation (VLIR- UOS) funded project 2011–2016 Tanzania Effective strategies for minimising exposure of mycotoxins in maize based complementary foods in Tanzania Kamala et al., 2015; Kamala et al., 2016 Diagnostics for aflatoxin detection Testing contaminated lots of commodities can be seen as a post-harvest technology that can be used to manage aflatoxin exposure. A set of diagnostic solutions is required that can be 57 used by both smallholder and commercial farmers in the field during harvest, in village and commercial mills, and in silos. These should be inexpensive and portable. A number of initiatives seek to address the lack of diagnostic tools characterised by a few inaccessible laboratories. Some of these include Agristrips, Dipstrips and E-nose, but none are being used by smallholder farmers. In Kenya the Aflatoxin Proficiency Testing and Control in Africa (APTECA) programme, hosted by the mycotoxin diagnostics platform at the BecA-ILRI Hub, is contributing to the availability of safe maize on the market through partnership with the commercial maize milling sector. APTECA trains millers in sampling and testing and provides routine proficiency testing and verification of mill results by the ISO accredited Texas A&M AgriLife laboratory housed at the BecA-ILRI Hub (Herman, 2016). 5.4 Secondary interventions: Adsorbents/binders Addition of adsorbents (also named binders or sequestering agents) to livestock and poultry feed is practiced in Africa. These agents bind aflatoxins in the gastrointestinal tract and are capable of reducing its availability (Huwig et al., 2001; Phillips et al., 2002). Research with mycotoxin binders has been conducted for over 20 years with strong evidence about the performance of some of them. Substances used as mycotoxin binders include indigestible adsorbent materials such as silicates, activated carbons, and complex carbohydrates. Several of these adsorbent materials are recognised as safe feed additives and are used as flow agents and pellet binders, but not specifically as aflatoxin binders or for treatment of aflatoxicosis (Grenier and Applegate, 2015). Use of binders in humans has been suggested for Africa and trials have been carried out with human subjects in Ghana (Phillips et al., 2008), and as recently as 2015 in eastern parts of Kenya by the Centre for Disease Control (Awuor et al., 2016). However the binding capacity of adsorbents has raised controversial questions regarding their influence on the utilisation of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals, and their use in human diets has stirred even more reactions. Diversifying diets and consumption of probiotics have been promoted to reduce aflatoxin exposure (Liu and Wu, 2010; Nduti et al., 2016). The synergistic effect of Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and aflatoxin in inducing hepatocellular carcinoma by thirty-fold has been documented (Groopman and Kensler, 2005). HBV vaccination has also been seen as a practical intervention for reducing the risk of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer and cirrhosis (Kuniholm et al., 2008). 58 6.0 Conclusion This literature review demonstrates that a wide range of commodities that are produced in Africa and traded domestically, regionally and internationally are contaminated with aflatoxins. Commodities can be attacked by the Aspergillus sp. anywhere along the value chain and once infected the aflatoxins remain. No single technology or intervention emerges as a standalone strategy for wide-scale adoption in Africa. Each has its unique benefits and drawbacks. The report also demonstrates that significant investments have been made, especially by the research, academic and donor community, in investigating the aflatoxin challenge and exploring possible solutions to control contamination, with varying measures of success. However, despite the vast knowledge base, the challenge of controlling aflatoxin contamination persists, with continued negative impacts on human health, agri-businesses, trade and socio-economic development. A major factor that contributes to the pronounced exposure to aflatoxins in humans (as well as livestock, including farmed fish) in Africa, is the wide range of agro-ecological conditions, temperature and humidity, which favour the growth of Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and other Aspegillus species. This is further complicated by the fact that the variety of cereals and other crops (roots and tubers, spices, legumes) that are contaminated in the field or in storage by the Aspergillus fungi are essential staple foods for a majority of Africans. For example aflatoxin levels as high as 138,000 µg/kg have been reported in pre-harvest maize samples in Nigeria and 48,000 µg/kg in stored maize. Contaminated crops are also used to produce a range of processed products (e.g. peanut butter and local brews) and animal feeds, resulting in both food and feed being contaminated. In Africa, contamination levels of foods and feeds commonly exceed internationally acceptable standards. Aflatoxins found in feeds can also be efficiently converted to toxic metabolites in milk, meat and eggs. No country is immune and African consumers and livestock remain at risk. Exposure levels have been found to be up to 1,064 pg/mg aflatoxin albumin levels in blood samples based on biomarker studies, although this analytical technique is relatively new. Apart from causing acute poisoning and death at high doses in both humans and animals, at chronic lower-level doses aflatoxins cause liver cancer, immunomodulation, stunting and kwashiorkor in young children. Reports of death resulting from severe aflatoxin poisoning and/or presence of aflatoxins in organs have been reported in both humans and animals in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. The effects of chronic exposure cannot be quantified, but correlation with stunting in children in West Africa has been reported. Liver cancer causes about 26,000 deaths annually in sub-Saharan Africa. Ample evidence of other effects on humans due to chronic exposure have been deduced from animal studies. Awareness of aflatoxins and the associated risks among African consumers and value chain actors (e.g. farmers, traders) is low. Knowledge is only high in areas where outbreaks have occurred and more so among educated populations. Inclusiveness of actors along commodity value chains in the fight against aflatoxins is imperative. Investing in public education and designing and implementing an effective communication strategy along value chains must be a priority for countries in the fight against aflatoxins. Studies have shown that consumers and buyers (processors, traders, exporters) are willing to pay a premium for aflatoxin free products. The premiums, however have to ensure that a wider cross-section of Africans can purchase 59 safe food at affordable prices; the demographic data shows that poorer people are more exposed and at greater risk. There is little evidence that the biology of the Aspergillus sp. under diverse environmental conditions and the prevailing context of smallholder farming systems is well understood and applied in developing new technologies and piloting innovative solutions to control aflatoxin contamination in Africa. Adopting GAPs and controlling moisture content, especially during storage and transport, have been shown to be very effective in managing fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination and must be promoted widely in Africa. Farmers should be the primary target group in the fight against aflatoxin contamination in Africa. They need to be empowered with knowledge and appropriate technologies and given incentives and rewards for adopting good practice. The report points to promising pre-harvest innovations that depend on the manipulation of the fungal population ecology (e.g. AflasafeTM), and reproduction and gene manipulation (e.g. breeding for resistance), but consideration should be given to the potential environmental impact of these products. For example, the possibility of atoxigenic biocontrol strain acquiring aflatoxin pathway genes through vegetative fusion and sexual reproduction could exacerbate the aflatoxin contamination problem. Breeding of Aspergillus Ear Rot-resistant maize to reduce aflatoxin and fumonisin accumulation is widely accepted as a safe and easy-to-use option. However, the aflatoxin resistant genes are polygenic, therefore requires gene pyramiding using numerous genotypes with novel genes which could take many breeding seasons to come up with a resistant variety. Greater knowledge of gene function and expression under a range of environmental conditions is a necessity given the knowledge of host-induced environmental reactions. Further, some of the resistant varieties are not adapted to, or do not yield well in the agro-ecologies endemic to aflatoxin contamination in Africa. Weak governance and legislative framework is a major drawback in the fight against aflatoxins. Enforcement of regulations at every stage of a commodity’s value chain is not possible, especially because small-scale farming systems and informal markets and trade predominate. The ideal workable situation is for countries to develop and apply stringent standards and enforce regulations backed by GAPs and appropriate sampling and testing to drive innovations to control aflatoxin contamination, as is the case in developed countries. Country governments are encouraged to invest in building certified and accessible infrastructure for training manpower, and testing and grading commodities. Another option is to provide incentives such that all enterprises (small, medium and large) can self-regulate to ensure conformance with relevant local, regional and international standards. However, absence of standards and ineffective implementation of regulations is not an option if Africa is to effectively address the aflatoxin challenge. Harmonisation of legislation within trading blocks and strictness in upholding the rules will also contribute to mitigation of aflatoxin contamination. While international exports are easier to control (as recipient countries have well equipped accredited testing laboratories to ensure adequate enforcement and limit what comes into their countries), Africa must seek to do the same. 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