Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Makram Belhaj Fraj, Stephen Russell Fragaszy, Noura Abdelwahab, Galal Maowod, Amr AbdelMegeed, Ragaa Tarek Elhariry and Vidhisha Samarasekara Submitted to: Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO) Prepared by: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Makram Belhaj Fraj, Stephen Russell Fragaszy, Noura Abdelwahab, Galal Maowod, Amr AbdelMegeed, Ragaa Tarek Elhariry and Vidhisha Samarasekara Authors Makram Belhaj Fraj, International Expert in Agriculture, Water Management, and Rural Development; Consultant, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka Stephen Russell Fragaszy, International Researcher – Water Climate Change and Resilience, and Al Murunah Project Leader, IWMI, Cairo, Egypt Noura Abdelwahab, Senior International Gender and Social Inclusion Expert, IWMI, Cairo, Egypt Galal Maowod, Community Development Expert, Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Cairo, Egypt Amr AbdelMegeed, Environmental Governance Programme Manager, CEDARE, Cairo, Egypt Ragaa Tarek Elhariry, Communication & Documentation Officer, CEDARE, Cairo Egypt Vidhisha Samarasekara, Strategic Program Director – Water, Climate Change and Resilience, and Al Murunah Project Director, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka  Citation Belhaj Fraj, M.; Fragaszy, S. R.; Abdelwahab, N.; Maowod, G.; AbdelMegeed, A.; Elhariry, R. T.; Samarasekara, V. 2025. Baseline assessment report for Resilient Nature-based Water Solutions pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 72p. doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2025.235 Disclaimer This document was made possible through the support of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland acting through the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) through FCDO Project Number 301142-105. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of FCDO. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, recording workshop proceedings, and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. The boundaries and names shown, and the designations used on maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IWMI, CGIAR, our partner institutions, or donors. Cover: Artichoke fields near houses in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt on January 26, 2025 (Photo credit: Stephen Fragaszy/IWMI ). Copyright © 2025, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged and kept informed in all such instances. Please send inquiries and comments to IWMI-Publications@cgiar.org For access to all IWMI publications, visit: www.iwmi.org/publications http://www.iwmi.org/publications iiiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Acknowledgements The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) acknowledges the contributions and support of the Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) and the project focal point, the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, in the production of this report. Project Al Murunah: Building Climate Resilience through Enhanced Water Security in MENA project (2022–2026) is funded by the UK Government and implemented by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in partnership with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The aim of Al Murunah is to enhance water security in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT) by integrating nature-based solutions for water and agricultural water management.   Collaborators International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Arab Republic of Egypt Government of the United Kingdom (UK Aid) Donor https://www.iwmi.org/ https://new.cedare.org/new.cedare.org/ https://new.cedare.org/new.cedare.org/ https://moa.gov.eg/en/ https://moa.gov.eg/en/ https://almurunah.iwmi.org/ iv v iv vBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Contents Acknowledgement............................................................................................................ iii List of Figures................................................................................................................... v List of Tables.................................................................................................................... v List of Boxes..................................................................................................................... v Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................................. vi Executive Summary......................................................................................................... vii 1. Introduction...................................................................................................................1 2. Climate, Land, and Water Features...................................................................................1 2.1. Climate and Climate Change Projections...................................................................................... 1 2.2. Agroecological and Cropping Zones............................................................................................ 5 2.3 Water resources and infrastructure features..................................................................................8 3. Socio-Economic and Gender Characteristics................................................................... 12 3.1. Local Communities and Gender..................................................................................................14 3.2. Local Political Economy and Employment...................................................................................17 3.3. Access to Finance....................................................................................................................18 4. Agricultural Characteristics..........................................................................................19 4.1. Farming, Cropping, and Production Systems Typology in Beheira................................................... 22 4.2. Farming Skills, Integration, and Diversification........................................................................... 23 4.3. Water Valuation, Use Efficiency, and Productivity........................................................................ 24 4.4. Status of Technical Advisory Services, Investment by Private/Public Sector and Donors................... 25 5. Institutional and Policy Analysis................................................................................... 27 5.1 National- and local-level institutions at the core of the water-agriculture-environment nexus............. 27 5.2 National water and agricultural policies and their relationship to RNBWS........................................ 29 References......................................................................................................................33 Annexes......................................................................................................................... 39 Annex A. Full Text from SWOT and Strategy Analyses.......................................................................... 39 Annex B. Background to the RNBWS Pilot Project in Izbat Al-Hamra..................................................... 42 Annex C. Examples of Indigenous Tree Species, and Aromatic Plants with a High Ecological and Commercial Potential in Abu Al-Matamir............................................................................................................ 43 Annex D. Animal Biodiversity in Abu Al-Matamir: Example of Birds, Mammals, and Reptiles Essential in the Ecosystem Balance......................................................................................................... 43 Annex E. Historical Milestones of National Water Resources Management............................................ 45 Annex F. Details on Beheira Water Resources.................................................................................... 46 Annex G. Example of El-Mahmoudia Canal Water Pollution................................................................. 47 Annex H. Recent History of National-Level Political Economy, Food Subsidy and Land Tenure and Reclamation........................................................................................................................... 48 Annex I. Additional Information on WUAs..........................................................................................51 Annex J. Additional Analysis on National Policies and RNBWS in Egypt................................................. 52 vi viiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt List of Tables Table 1. Urban and rural population of Abou Al Matamir district in 2023.................................................................... 3 Table 2. Institutions at the core of the water/agriculture/environment nexus in Izbat Al-Hamra....................................39 List of Figures Figure 1. General recommendations for Beheira.................................................................................................... x Figure 2. Synthesis – going forward.....................................................................................................................xii Figure 3. Official Map of the Arab Republic of Egypt with Governorate Boundaries, the location of Beheira governorate, and the location of the intervention site in Abu Al-Matamir..................................................... 2 Figure 4. Monthly climatology of temperature (mean, minimum, and maximum in °C) and precipitation (mm) for the period 1991-2020 in Egypt and in Abu Al-Matamir........................................................................... 4 Figure 5. Projected mean temperature for Egypt using multi-model ensemble foe scenarios SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4,5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 with the baseline period of 1995-2014....................................................... 5 Figure 6. Soil classes map.................................................................................................................................. 7 Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the irrigation canal network in Egypt....................................................................... 12 Figure 8. Overall water risk................................................................................................................................ 14 Figure 9. Percent planted area and production of staple, cash, and industrial crops, and average yields in Beheira governorate in 2020............................................................................................................................28 Figure 10.Clustering main staple crops according to crop water requirements (mm/yr) and water value (Egyptian pounds (LE)/m3).................................................................................................................................34 List of Boxes Box 1. Geographical features............................................................................................................................. 3 Box 2. Climate and climate change features......................................................................................................... 6 Box 3. Soil characteristics and agricultural practices............................................................................................. 8 Box 4. Nurturing and capitalizing on Abu Al-Matamir’s ecosystems and biodiversity.................................................10 Box 5. A glimpse into Egypt's vital water management.......................................................................................... 12 Box 6. Overview of Beheira's water resources and risks......................................................................................... 15 Box 7. Quality and management of water in the Delta Region and Lake Edku........................................................... 17 Box 8. General socioeconomic features.............................................................................................................. 19 Box 9. Highlights on Egyptian rural women facing multifaceted challenges..............................................................23 Box 10. Highlights on Egyptian rural women facing multifaceted challenges..............................................................25 Box 11. Agricultural credit dynamics...................................................................................................................27 Box 12. Panoramic view of the multifaceted agriculture sector in Beheira................................................................. 31 Box 13. Diverse farming typologies and varied systems..........................................................................................33 Box 14. Strategizing crop cultivation amidst water scarcity in Egypt: insights from crop-water metrics.........................35 Box 15. A tale of opportunities and challenges in agricultural extension, research, and policy.....................................38 Box 16. Institutional actors and policy drivers for agriculture and water management................................................45 vi viiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Abbreviations and Acronyms AR4D Agricultural Research for Development ARC Agricultural Research Center CAPMAS Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics CBO Community-Based Organization EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency GDP Gross Domestic Product IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IWMI International Water Management Institute MALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation MCM Million Cubic Meters MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation NBS Nature-Based Solutions NWRP National Water Resources Plan PBDAC Principal Bank for Development and Agricultural Credit RNBWS Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions SDG Sustainable Development Goal SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats USDA United States Department of Agriculture WRI World Resources Institute WRIA Water Resources and Irrigation Administration WUA Water User Association viii ix viii ixBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Executive Summary This baseline report informs the development of the RNBWS (Resilient Nature-based Water Solutions) pilot project and wider project activities. The RNBWS pilot project1 focuses on addressing several key challenges, including salinity, productivity and environmental performance of farms within existing systems, and women’s involvement in agricultural value chains. The pilot project, includes several key elements. It aims at optimizing agricultural production in irrigation district through laser levelling, drainage improvements, solar-powered surface irrigation system, and soil salinity treatments. Farmer capacity and resource management is also addressed through farmer field schools, targeted capacity building, and establishment and training of the first Water User Association in Izbat, Al-Hamra. Installation of women-owned and neighborhood-based food processing facilities, and entrepreneurship training aims to add value to Izabat’s agriculture sector. More generally, Al Murunah endeavors to address water security challenges in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region through the application of RNBWS with a special focus on agriculture. RNBWS are spatially integrated combinations of nature-based solutions (NBS) for water and agricultural water management, coupled with social and market mechanisms to support their sustainability. This report provides a detailed description and analysis of the biophysical, agricultural, socioeconomic, and policy context relevant to: 1. The technical, social, and market design of the Egyptian RNBWS pilot project; and 2. Wider project activities, especially capability building and training. The RNBWS pilot interventions focus on Izbat Al-Hamra village, a microcosm of the historically cultivated “old lands” in Lower Egypt. The village is located in the district of Abu Al-Matamir in the Beheira Governorate (Western Nile Delta). The pilot is being developed through a participatory multi-stakeholder process that emphasizes the equitable involvement of women. This report presents a synthesis analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) related to RNBWS in Abu Al-Matamir, alongside specific pilot project strategies and general recommendations for RNBWS and integrated agricultural and water resource development in the Beheira Governorate. Summary of Strengths and Weaknesses in Abu Al-Matamir Abu Al-Matamir’s political economy has, for millennia, been highly reliant on agriculture, supported by favorable biophysical conditions. Today, it hosts diverse cropping and production systems, along with well-developed value chain actors—ranging from agricultural inputs to post-processing and marketing. However, the area faces interrelated sustainability challenges arising from environmental degradation—including declining water and soil quality, increasing salinity, emergent water scarcity (particularly at the tail ends of tertiary canals), and the vulnerability of production systems to climate change impacts. These are compounded by constraints in agricultural innovation and finance systems, which are linked to broader socio-economic challenges such as pronounced rural poverty, gender inequalities, and limited access to and control over resources and finance. Summary of Opportunities and Threats in Abu Al-Matamir Abu Al-Matamir’s greatest opportunities lie in integrated development programs that incorporate agricultural innovation—including in water management, green and grey infrastructure for water and wastewater management, and agricultural credit and support services. These programmes can also leverage existing horticulture and dairy (including fodder) value chains to identify entry points for providing vulnerable groups—particularly women and youth—with sustainable income opportunities that reflect prevailing socioeconomic conditions while strengthening smallholders’ capabilities. Conversely, the primary threats stem from climate change, biodiversity decline, and deteriorating water conditions (both in quantity and quality). Broader socioeconomic challenges—including persistent gender disparities, dependency on traditional systems that restrict women’s mobility and land ownership, as well as increasing livestock disease outbreaks, threaten the sustainability and growth of the agriculture sector and rural communities (see full SWOT and strategy analyses in Annex A). 1 Al Murunah Egypt Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot Brief: https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al- Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Eng-250603s.pdf https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al-Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Eng-250603s.pdf x xiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt The SWOT Analysis for the Beheira Governorate is given in Figure 1. Figure 1. The SWOT analysis for Beheira. General recommendations for Beheira: • Diverse agricultural practices need to be promoted by supporting alternative crops that require less water and at the same time offer high economic value. • Directing investments toward varied farming models, such as organic farming and agroforestry can boost RNBWS. • Empowering women through the implementation of policies and mechanisms can greatly reduce gender disparities and, enhance rural women’s access to resources, financial credit, and education. • Increasing investments in agricultural research, technological advancement, and novel practices will ensure sustainable and resource-efficient utilization. • Developing and enforcing policies and support initiatives that guarantee equitable access to resources, credit, and auxiliary services for all farmers and rural women, regardless of farm size. • Expanding agricultural extension services to reach small-scale and rural farmers through targeted investments and integration of technology. x xiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt • Addressing and mitigating water scarcity through the introduction of modern irrigation technologies, advocating for water conservation methods, and prioritizing crops with high water-use efficiency. • Building and fostering a synergistic ecosystem for sustainable agricultural advancement through enhanced collaboration among government agencies, the private sector, NGOs (non-governmental organizations). • Addressing market vulnerabilities through the development of market systems that ensure access to reliable price information, support equitable pricing, and mitigate market volatility. Pilot project strategies emerging from the SWOT analysis The core strategies that emerge from the SWOT analysis and general recommendations for the RNBWS pilot project and wider project activities are given in Figure 2 and are as follows: • Growth strategies that link strengths to opportunities ‐ Leverage existing value chains in Izbat Al-Hamra, Abu Al-Matamir, and the wider Beheira region—particularly those centered around artichoke, okra, and dairy hubs, including fodder crop systems. ‐ Develop an integrated approach by combining medicinal and aromatic plants, agro- and eco-tourism, and for post-harvest processing. These strategies enhance market value addition and empower women by creating safe and trusted workspaces and allow opportunities for skills development, thereby laying the essential groundwork for social transformation in the longer term. • External development strategies that draw on existing strengths to address threats ‐ Enhancing the uptake of advanced on-farm water management technologies. ‐ Implementation of integrated pest management systems. ‐ Development of wastewater treatment and reuse systems. These strategies emphasize the integration of nature-based solutions that support staple crops and promote associated value chains. • Survival strategies for mitigating weaknesses and addressing threats ‐ Adoption of saline-tolerant annual crops. ‐ Encouraging crop diversification — particularly through the expansion of high-value, water-efficient crops. These strategies focus on agricultural resilience and livelihood security of the target communities. • Internal development strategies to overcome internal weaknesses and capitalize on external opportunities ‐ Building the capability of farmers and actors across agricultural support systems. ‐ Facilitate income diversification. ‐ Leveraging nature-based solutions to derive its co-benefits, such as practicing agroforestry for improvement in water and soil quality. ‐ Tapping into existing government programs and utilizing cooperative association frameworks (social infrastructure). These strategies help agricultural communities to adopt innovative (although not necessarily technologically complex) practices and production systems while mitigating the inherent risks of agricultural livelihoods and providing farmers with better access to credit and markets to enhance their financial stability. xii xiiiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Figure 2. Core strategies that emerged from the SWOT analysis and general recommendations. Synthesis – going forward Implementing this multi-pronged strategic framework requires an integrated approach. And RNBWS brings the key components of technical interventions, capacity development, and policy together to address both immediate and long-term challenges of water security, climate resilience, and ecosystem health. By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, NBS, agricultural innovations, strategic utilization of resources, and community engagement — with specific focus on women and youth — RNBWS fosters both socio-economic development and environmental protection. This integrated approach equips the local communities in both Abu Al-Matamir and the broader Beheira Governorate to confront the larger challenges of climate change, water scarcity, and declining water quality. Through improved agriculture, healthier ecosystems, and reduced vulnerability, the communities of Abu Al-Matamir and the Beheira Governorate are set to emerge as a success story in sustainable development within Egypt’s complex land and waterscape. xii xiiiBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt ملخص تنفيذي يشكل تقرير الوضع القائم هذا ركيزة أساسية لتطوير المشروع التجريبي للحلول المرنة لإدارة المياه وحماية الطبيعة )RNBWS( وأنشطة المشروع الأوسع. ويركز المشروع التجريبي على مواجهة العديد من التحديات الرئيسية، بما في ذلك تحديات ملوحة التربة، وتحسين الإنتاجية، والأداء البيئي للمََزارِِع في إطار النظم القائمة، وتحسين مشاركة المرأة في سلاسل القيمة الزراعية. ويتضمن المشروع التجريبي1 عدة عناصر رئيسية. فهو يهدف إلى تحسين الإنتاج الزراعي في منطقة الري من خلال التسوية بالليزر ، وتحسين الصرف ، ونظام الري السطحي الذي يعمل بالطاقة الشمسية ، ومعالجات ملوحة التربة. كما يتم التعامل مع قدرات المزارعين وإدارة الموارد من خلال المدارس الحقلية للمزارعين، وبناء القدرات المستهدفة، وإنشاء وتدريب أول جمعية لمستخدمي المياه في عزبة الحمرا. وإنشاء النوالات التي تملكها النساء في أحيائهن، والتدريب على ريادة الأعمال بهدف إضافة قيمة إلى قطاع الزراعة في عزبة الحمرا. وبشكل أعم، يسعى مشروع المرونة للتغلب على تحديات ندرة المياه في منطقة الشرق الأوسط وشمال إفريقيا -ولا سيما التحديات الزراعية- من خلال تطبيق الحلول المرنة. وهذه الحلول هي عبارة عن مجموعات متكاملة جغرافيًًا من الحلول القائمة على الطبيعة من أجل إدارة المياه والمياه الزراعية، مقترنة بآليات اجتماعية وسوقية لدعم استدامتها. ويقدم هذا التقرير وصفًًا وتحليالًا تفصيليين للسياق البيوفيزيائي، والزراعي، والاجتماعي الاقتصادي، وسياق السياسات المتصلة بما يلي: 1 التصميم الفني، والاجتماعي، والسوقي لمشروع مصر التجريبي للحلول المرنة. . 2 أنشطة المشروع الأوسع، وخاصة بناء القدرات والتدريب. . تركز تدخلات المشروع التجريبي للحلول المرنة على قرية عزبة الحمراء، وهي نموذج مصغر »للأراضي القديمة« المزروعة تاريخيًًا في الوجه البحري. وتقع القرية في مركز أبو المطامير بمحافظة البحيرة )غرب دلتا النيل(. ويقوم تطوير المشروع التجريبي على عملية تشاركية تضم عددًًا من أصحاب المصلحة وتؤكد على المشاركة المنصفة للمرأة. ويمثل هذا التقرير تحليالًا مختصًرًا لنقاط القوة، ونقاط الضعف، والفرص، والتهديدات )تحليل سوات( المتصل بالحلول المرنة في مركز أبو المطامير، إلى جانب استراتيجيات محددة للمشروع التجريبي وتوصيات عامة تتعلق بالحلول المرنة وتطوير الموارد الزراعية والمائية المتكاملة في محافظة البحيرة. ملخص نقاط القوة والضعف في مركز أبو المطامير اعتمد اقتصاد أبو المطامير -منذ آلاف السنين- اعتمادًًا كبيرًاً على الزراعة، بفضل ظروفه البيوفيزيائية المواتية. واليوم، يضم نظم حصاد وإنتاج متنوعة، إلى جانب عناصر متقدمة في سلسلة القيمة، تتراوح من المدخلات الزراعية إلى مرحلة ما بعد التصنيع والتسويق. ومع ذلك، تواجه المنطقة تحديات متداخلة من حيث الاستدامة تنبع من التدهور البيئي، وتشمل انخفاض جودة المياه والتربة، وزيادة ملوحة التربة، وظهور ندرة المياه )خصوصًًا عند نهاية الترع(، وضعف نظم الإنتاج في مواجهة آثار تغير المناخ. وتتفاقم هذه التحديات بالقيودُُ المفروضة على الابتكار الزراعي والنظم المالية، والمرتبطة بتحديات اجتماعية اقتصادية أوسع مثل الفقر البارز في الريف، و أوجه عدم المساواة بين الجنسين، والاستفادة المحدودة من الموارد والتمويل والسيطرة عليهما. ملخص الفرص والتهديدات في مركز أبو المطامير تكمن أفضل فرص أبو المطامير في البرامج التنموية المتكاملة التي تتضمن الابتكار الزراعي، بما فيها في مجالات إدارة المياه، والبنية التحتية الخضراء والرمادية لإدارة المياه ومياه الصرف، والائتمان الزراعي، وخدمات الدعم. وتستطيع هذه البرامج أيضًًا أن تستغل سلاسل قيمة البستنة ومنتجات الألبان الموجودة )بما فيها الأعلاف( لتحديد مداخل من أجل منح المجموعات المهمشة -ولا سيما النساء والشباب- فرص دخل مستدامة تعكس الظروف الاجتماعية الاقتصادية السائدة مع تعزيز قدرات صغار الملاك. وعلى العكس، تنبع التهديدات الرئيسة من تغير المناخ، وانخفاض التنوع الحيوي، وتدهور الظروف المائية )من حيث الكمية والجودة(. وبالنظر إلى التحديات الاجتماعية الاقتصادية -بما فيها أوجه التفاوت المستمرة منذ فترة طويلة بين الجنسين، والاعتماد على النظم التقليدية التي تحد من حركة المرأة وتملكها الأراضي، وزيادة تفشي الأمراض بين الماشية- نجد أنها تهدد استدامة القطاع الزراعي والمجتمعات الريفية ونموهما )انظر تحليل سوات والتحليلات الاستراتيجية الكاملة في الملحق )أ((. 1. الرابط التالي هو الترجمة الإنجليزية لموجز المشروع التجريبي المذكور أعلاه: https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al-Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Eng-250603s.pdf https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al-Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Arabic-250616.pdf https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al-Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Arabic-250616.pdf https://almurunah.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/52/2025/06/Al-Murunah-Egypt-Pilot-Eng-250603s.pdf xiv xvBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt الشكل )1( التوصيات العامة للبحيرة • يجب تعزيز الممارسات الزراعية المتنوعة من خلال دعم المحاصيل البديلة التي تحتاج كمية أقل من المياه وتقدم قيمة اقتصادية عالية. • يمكن أن يؤدي توجيه الاستثمارات نحو نماذج زراعية متنوعة، مثل الزراعة العضوية والحراجة الزراعية إلى تعزيز الحلول المرنة لإدارة المياه وحماية الطبيعة. • يمكن أن يؤدي تمكين المرأة من خلال تنفيذ سياسات وآليات إلى تقليل أوجه التفاوت بين الجنسين، ، وتعزيز وصول المرأة الريفية إلى الموارد والائتمان المالي والتعليم. • ستضمن زيادة الاستثمارات في البحوث الزراعية والتقدم التكنولوجي والممارسات الجديدة الاستخدام المستدام والفعال للموارد. • تطوير وإنفاذ سياسات ودعم مبادرات التي تضمن الوصول العادل إلى الموارد والإ^ئتمان، والخدمات المساعِدة لجميع المزارعين، والنساء الريفيات، بصرف النظر عن حجم المزرعة. • توسيع خدمات الإرشاد الزراعي لتصل إلى صغار المزارعين والريفيين من خلال الاستثمارات المستهدفة ودمج التكنولوجيا • معالجة ندرة المياه والتخفيف من حدتها من خلال إدخال تقنيات الري الحديثة، والدعوة إلى طرق الحفاظ على المياه، وإعطاء الأولوية للمحاصيل عالية الكفاءة في استخدام المياه. • بناء وتعزيز نظام إيكولوجي تعاوني للتقدم الزراعي المستدام من خلال تعزيز التعاون بين الجهات الحكومية والقطاع الخاص والمنظمات غير الحكومية. xiv xvBaseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt • معالجة نقاط الضعف في السوق من خلال تطوير أنظمة السوق التي تضمن الوصول إلى معلومات موثوقة عن الأسعار ، وتدعم التسعير العادل ، وتخفف من تقلبات السوق. استراتيجيات المشروع التجريبي الناشئة عن تحليل سوات: انطلاقًاً من تحليل سوات SWOT والتوصيات العامة، تظهر عدة استراتيجيات أساسية للمشروع التجريبي للحلول المرنة وأنشطة المشروع الأوسع: · استراتيجيات النمو التي تربط نقاط القوة بالفرص تشمل استغلال سلاسل القيمة الموجودة في عزبة الحمراء، وأبو المطامير، ومحافظة البحيرة، وخصوصًا السلاسل المتمحورة حول الخرشوف، والبامية، ومراكز إنتاج الألبان، بما فيها نظم محاصيل الأعلاف. وهناك استراتيجية نمو أخرى تتمركز حول التنمية المتكاملة وتستند إلى النباتات الطبية والعطرية، وتتضمن السياحة الزراعية والبيئية إلى جانب دعم التصنيع اللاحق للحصاد والتسويق لزيادة القيمة. ومن الممكن أن تشكل هذه المبادرات الأساس لعملية تحول اجتماعي طويلة المدى من خلال إتاحة مساحات آمنة وموثوق بها توفر للمرأة التمكين وفرص التدريب المهاري التي تحتاجهما بشدة. · استراتيجيات التنمية الخارجية التي تعتمد على نقاط القوة القائمة لمواجهة التهديدات وتشمل استخدام تقنيات إدارة المياه المتقدمة في المزارع، وتنفيذ نظم متكاملة لإدارة مكافحة الآفات من أجل المحاصيل الأساسية، وتطوير نظم معالجة مياه الصرف وإعادة استخدامها. وتؤكد هذه الاستراتيجيات على تكامل الحلول القائمة على الطبيعة وتعزيز سلاسل القيمة ذات الصلة. · استراتيجيات البقاء الهادفة إلى التخفيف من نقاط الضعف ومواجهة التهديدات تشمل تدعيم زراعة محاصيل سنوية مقاومة لملوحة التربة والتشجيع على تنويع المحاصيل، وخاصة من خلال التوسع في زراعة المحاصيل عالية القيمة التي تستخدم المياه بكفاءة. · استراتيجيات التنمية الداخلية التي تسعى للتغلب على نقاط الضعف الداخلية للاستفادة من الفرص الخارجية تحظى بأهمية بالغة. وتشمل تأكيدًا قوياً على بناء قدرات المزارعين والأطراف الفاعلة عبر نظم الدعم الزراعي لتبني ممارسات ونظم إنتاج مبتكرة )ليست بالضرورة معقدة تقنيًا(. وتركز الاستراتيجيات أيضًا على تنويع مصادر الدخل والاستفادة من المنافع المشتركة للحلول القائمة على الطبيعة، مثل إصلاح جودة المياه والتربة من خلال الزراعة الحراجية. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، تهدف هذه الاستراتيجيات إلى دعم تحسين الاستفادة من القروض ودخول السوق عبر الاستفادة من البرامج الحكومية الموجودة و«البنية التحتية الاجتماعية« للجمعيات التعاونية. الشكل )2(: الاستراتيجيات الأساسية التي انبثقت عن تحليل سوات SWOT ولتوصيات العامة. xvi 1Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt المضي قدما يتطلب تنفيذ هذا الإطار الاستراتيجي المتعدد الجوانب نهجا متكاملا. وتجمع الحلول المرنة لإدارة المياه وحماية الطبيعة بين المكونات الرئيسية للتدخلات التقنية وتنمية القدرات والسياسات معا لمواجهة التحديات الفورية والطويلة الأجل للأمن المائي، والقدرة على الصمود في وجه تغير المناخ، وصحة النظام البيئي. من خلال تعزيز الممارسات الزراعية المستدامة ، والحلول القائمة على الطبيعة، والابتكارات الزراعية، والاستخدام الاستراتيجي للموارد ، والمشاركة المجتمعية - مع التركيز بشكل خاص على النساء والشباب- ستعمل الحلول المرنة لإدارة المياه وحماية الطبيعة على تعزيز التنمية الاجتماعية والاقتصادية وحماية البيئة. يجهز هذا النهج المتكامل المجتمعات المحلية في كل من أبو المطمر ومحافظة البحيرة الأوسع نطاقا لمواجهة التحديات الأكبر المتمثلة في تغير المناخ وندرة المياه وتدهور جودة المياه. من خلال تحسين الزراعة والنظم البيئية الصحية والحد من الضعف، من المقرر أن تبرز مجتمعات أبو المطمير ومحافظة البحيرة كقصة نجاح في التنمية المستدامة داخل المشهد المصري المعقد للمياه والأراضي. xvi 1Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt 1. Introduction Objectives of Al Murunah This report has been produced as part of the Al Murunah project. The primary goal of Al Murunah is to demonstrate the feasibility of Resilient Nature-based Water Solutions (RNBWS) in enhancing water security in the face of climate change and land degradation. In addition, the project seeks to address barriers to the broader implementation of RNBWS by bridging knowledge and experience gaps and tackling a range of technical and socio-economic challenges. Definition of RNBWS and problems they address RNBWS are spatially integrated combinations of nature-based solutions for water and agricultural water management. They encompass innovative agro-ecological and ecological water management techniques, coupled with social and market mechanisms that support long-term sustainability. In essence, RNBWS involve people working with their local natural environment to sustain water and ecosystems while improving livelihoods. Water scarcity and environmental degradation—exacerbated by climate change, demographic pressures, and economic development—pose profound challenges to agricultural production and rural communities across the MENA region, particularly affecting vulnerable groups such as women, youth, and low-income families. Pilot project in Egypt To achieve the project’s objectives, rural communities and government agencies will co-develop and implement RNBWS pilot projects in four MENA countries: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Occupied Palestinian Territories. In Egypt, government stakeholders selected Izbat Al-Hamra, located in the Abu Al-Matamir district of the Beheira Governorate in the Nile Delta, as the pilot site through a robust and participatory site selection process (IWMI 2022). Purpose of this report and the participatory processes it informs This Baseline Report provides a detailed description and analysis of the biophysical, agricultural, socioeconomic, and policy context that is particularly relevant to the development of the RNBWS pilot. It also informs the project’s broader components, including capability building, national-level planning and upscaling, and knowledge generation. The report will guide the technical, social, and market design and implementation of the pilot. These elements are being developed through pragmatic participatory processes, including structured decision-making. The design of these processes draws on International Water Management Institute (IWMI)’s extensive experience in the field (Evans and Varma 2009; Amerasinghe et al. 2013; Melaku and Minh 2021; Shunglu et al. 2022; Lienert 2020; IWMI 2022). 2. Climate, Land, and Water Features 2.1. Climate and Climate Change Projections Geographic and administrative overview of Beheira Governorate and Abu Al-Matamir Beheira Governorate (30.8481° N, 30.3436° E) is west of the Nile Delta in northern Egypt (Figure 3). By area, it is the fifth largest governorate in the country (9,826 km2), accounts for 6.5% of the national population, and contributes 2.9% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (World Bank 2021). Beheira is known for its fertile lands and agricultural activities, which represents 55% of the local GDP (ITDA 2017; UNFRA 2020). According to the Internal Trade Development Authority (ITDA 2017), total agricultural land area in Beheira was about 723,907.8 ha, of which 60% comprises historically cultivated “old lands.” This represents about 16% of the governorate’s total land area. The population of 6,670,630 people lives on 27.7% of the land (the remaining 72.2% is largely uninhabited desert area), and the population density stands at 941.2 individuals per km2. 2 3Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt The governorate is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Rashid Branch of the Nile to the east, and the governorates of Alexandria, Matruh, Giza, and El Menoufia to the south (Figure 3). Significantly, Beheira claims the distinction of having the largest expanse of agricultural land in Egypt (note that the southern, desert parts of Beheira are not considered in this study). Figure 3. Official map of the Arab Republic of Egypt with governorate boundaries, the location of Beheira Governorate, and the location of the intervention site in Abu Al-Matamir. Source: EEAA 2018. Note: Izbat Al-Hamra is starred in blue. Administratively, the governorate is subdivided into 15 districts: Abu Al-Matamir, Abu Hummus, Al-Delengat, Mahmoudiyah, Rahmaniya, Badr, Damanhour, West Nubariyah, Hosh Essa, Edku, Itay Al-Barud, Kafr Al-Dawwar, Kom Hamada, Rosetta, and Natrun Valley. These districts encompass 15 cities and 77 rural local units, which are further subdivided into 470 villages (‘Wadi al-Natrun’), cumulatively comprising 5,333 rural communities. Notably, some areas feature both a ‘Markaz’ (district) and a ‘Kism’ (center) bearing identical names. Administratively, Abu Al-Matamir (Figure 3) encompasses 7 local units, 46 principal villages (of which Izbat Al-Hamra is one), and 651 hamlets. According to the 2023 census done by the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (Table 1), the district population is 88.6% rural. Abu Al-Matamir spans 1,370 km2, with a cultivated area of 116,403 ha and an estimated population of 603,622. It is flanked by the districts of Kafr Al-Dawwar and Abu Hummus to the north, Nubariyah and Wadi al-Natrun to the south, Hosh Issa to the east, and the Alexandria governorate to the west. Abu Al- Matamir is at the crossroads of the region’s primary agricultural and desert roads. This setting, and the district’s vast desert tracts, explain the fact that it has been a major site for agricultural expansion in desert areas where “new lands” are rehabilitated for cultivation (Morsy and Aboelkhair 2021). Table 1. Urban and rural population of Abu Al-Matamir district in 2023. Urban Rural Total Male 34,840 278,091 312,931 Female 34,013 256,678 290,691 Total 68,853 534,769 603,622 Source: EEAA 2018 2 3Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Izbat Al-Hamra Egyptian stakeholders, through a participatory process, selected Abu Al-Matamir as the focus for the Al Murunah RNBWS pilot project because of its status as a traditional agricultural region (Annex B), with Izbat Al-Hamra being representative of productive ‘old lands.” Izbat Al-Hamra has an agricultural area of about 924 ha overall, with 795 ha and 830 ha grown in winter and summer seasons, respectively.2 Also, the village has limited potential for significant agricultural expansion, which was a key consideration given the emerging challenges of water scarcity. Its traditional and tightly knit social fabric is shaped by its rural, agrarian character: the village has a population of about 25,000 people, most of whom work in agriculture or related livelihoods. The geographical features are given in Box 1. Box 1. Geographical features of Beheira Governorate Beheira Governorate, known for its fertile soils and agricultural richness, is located in northern Egypt and comprises 15 districts, including Abu Al-Matamir. It plays a pivotal role in the nation’s agricultural framework. Over recent decades, the governorate has experienced significant changes in land use, marked by a notable expansion of agricultural areas. Abu Al-Matamir, which includes historically cultivated Old Lands as well as expansive desert areas, benefits from a strategic location. It exemplifies a traditional agricultural region, with a historical legacy tied to grain storage during the Roman era. The district remains predominantly reliant on agriculture, which continues to shape its economic and social fabric. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: Beheira Governorate possesses the largest expanse of agricultural land in Egypt, with a rich agricultural history and vibrant present-day farming activities. • Weaknesses: The reliance on agriculture, while economically significant, may also render the region vulnerable to environmental and market fluctuations affecting this sector. • Opportunities: The strategic location of Abu Al-Matamir, and its vast desert tracts, offer potential for future, regulated agricultural expansion without harming existing fertile areas. • Threats: The continuous agricultural expansion may pose sustainability issues, potentially impacting water availability and environmental health in the longer term. Climate Overall, Egypt is categorized under a hot desert climate, according to the Köppen climate classification (BWh; Köppen 1884). However, Abu Al-Matamir is significantly cooler and wetter than the national average due to its proximity to the Mediterranean coast, which in turn plays a vital role in shaping its agriculture and biodiversity. Throughout the year, the temperature ranges are typically warm to hot, with an average annual temperature oscillating between 14–30°C. The average monthly temperatures range from a low of 8°C in January to a peak of ca. 35°C in August. Peak temperatures occur during the summer, especially July-September, while the December– February period is milder, with the coolest month’s average temperature being 15°C as shown in Figure 4. Precipitation is scarce throughout the year, with an annual average of 80 mm, concentrated mainly during the winter season. Rainy days are rare, with January, February, and December experiencing about 3 days of rain each, with average precipitation of 19 mm, 16 mm, and 15 mm, respectively. There is a completely dry spell from May to September. While early winter rains enhance the early vigour of wheat, barley, berseem, and minor crops such as pulses and sugar beet, primary summer crops—including maize, rice, and cotton (as well as fruits and vegetables)—rely heavily on continuous irrigation. Humidity levels generally revolve around the 60% mark throughout the year, with a slight decrease during March and April to about 52–55%. Lastly, sun hours progressively increase as the calendar year progresses, starting from 7.2 hours in January and peaking at 11.7 hours in June, before gradually reducing again until the end of the year. ² Tutwiler, R. 2010. Personal Communication, MEST 430 The Nile: Environment, Irrigation and Civilization. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo. 4 5Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Climate change projections According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), by the end of the century the North African region, including Egypt, will experience an increase in temperature of 1.1°C to 4.1°C, depending on the emissions scenario. For Egypt, the best-case, medium-case, and worst-case scenarios will lead to an increase of 2, 4, and 8°C, respectively (Figure 5). Precipitation is anticipated to decrease up to 20%, which could exacerbate water scarcity in Egypt and have negative impacts on agricultural productivity. Multi-model ensembles show high variation in anomalies for the September- November convective season and March-June, which resembles some tropical climate features. According to a report by the UNFCCC (2019), sea levels will rise 100 cm by 2100, but this is not expected to affect the Abu Al-Matamir interior area, including Izbat Al-Hamra. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, heatwaves, and floods. These events could have negative impacts on agricultural productivity, human health, and infrastructure. Over the past decade, Egypt has witnessed a significant uptick in extreme weather events, leading to both human casualties and economic setbacks (Khalil and Hassanein 2016; EEAA 2018). Key incidents include: • Heatwaves: Data from 1990−2015 from the Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate across 11 Egyptian Governorates show two critical heat spikes, one in 1998 and another in 2010. These spikes had notable adverse effects on crop yields. For instance, the winter of 2010 saw average temperatures rise by 2.2°C above normal, resulting in a yield decline for wheat crops—21.2% in Upper Egypt and 8.2% in the Nile Delta. • Cold waves: January 2008 experienced below-normal temperatures, damaging up to 50% of citrus crops, 40% of beans and bananas, 30% of mangos, 20% of tomatoes, and 2% of potatoes. • Strong winds and locust attacks: A significant locust invasion occurred in November 2004 along a 60 km Mediterranean coastal front. It was a phenomenon not seen in the preceding 50 years and was attributed to wind direction changes. Figure 4. Monthly climatology of temperature (mean, minimum, and maximum in °C) and precipitation (mm) for the period 1991-2020 in Egypt and in Abu Al-Matamir. Source: Climate Knowledge Portal3 and climatedata.org4 Note: Egypt—thick lines and dark bars and Abu Al-Matamir—thin lines and light color bars. Sunshine hours are provided for Abu Al-Matamir only (bars in yellow). Below graph lines in blue, red, and green correspond to the extent of winter, summer and Nili cropping seasons. 3 Egypt data via the World Bank Climate Knowledge Portal at https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/egypt/climate-data-historical 4 Abu Al-Matamir data via the Climate Data website at https://en.climate-data.org/africa/egypt/beheira-governorate/abu-al-matamir-478895/ http://climatedata.org https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/egypt/climate-data-historical https://en.climate-data.org/africa/egypt/beheira-governorate/abu-al-matamir-478895/ 4 5Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt • Flash floods: January 2010 brought about the worst flash floods since 1994, resulting in 15 fatalities, the evacuation of 3,500 people, and an estimated USD 25.3 million in losses, affecting areas like the Sinai Peninsula and the Red Sea coast. • Snow and rainstorms: December 2010 storms led to freezing temperatures and wind speeds up to 60 km/h. The inclement weather was responsible for 18 deaths and 59 injuries, along with significant disruptions to transportation infrastructure, including the Suez Canal (EEAA 2018). These events underscore the escalating risks and the need for resilient solutions. Specific events for the study region were not reported in the literature. Climate change effects on reduced precipitation should be studied in upstream Nile countries, as transboundary collaboration is key to maintaining the existing agroecosystems of the Nile Delta and Valley. Other effects—such as changes in vernalizing temperatures and the increasing frequency or intensity of heatwaves, frost events, and storm shocks—should be studied in the intervention area using high-resolution climate change downscaling methods. Climate and climate change features of Abu Al-Matamir, situated in Beheira Governorate are given in Box 2. Figure 5. Projected mean temperature for Egypt using multi-model ensemble for scenarios SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4,5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 with the baseline period of 1995-2014. Source: https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/egypt/climate-data-projections 6 7Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Box 2. Climate and climate change features of Abu Al-Matamir Abu Al-Matamir, situated in Beheira Governorate, Egypt, experiences a notably milder and wetter climate than other Egyptian regions due to its proximity to the Mediterranean coast, making it agriculturally significant. Annually, temperatures fluctuate between 14 and 30°C, with minimal and sporadic rainfall peaking in the cooler months of January and February. Climate change predicts more frequent heatwaves and up to a 20% decrease in precipitation, which could impact water supply and agricultural productivity. Despite an anticipated rise in sea levels of between 20 and 50 cm, Abu Al-Matamir’s interior area is expected to remain unaffected. Historical climatic events have demonstrated the vulnerability of Egypt’s agriculture and infrastructure to extreme weather events, underscoring the need for resilient, adaptive strategies. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: The region has a relatively mild climate compared to other Egyptian areas, contributing to its agricultural vitality and local biodiversity. • Weaknesses: Despite its strategic geographical advantage, the area is subjected to potentially detrimental climatic changes, notably in precipitation and temperature, which could strain agricultural practices. • Opportunities: Implementing innovative and adaptive agricultural practices could enhance resilience against climatic changes and sustainably optimize the region’s agricultural output. • Threats: Predicted climate change impacts, such as increased temperature, reduced precipitation, and heightened frequency of extreme weather events, pose a significant risk to local agriculture, water resources, and potentially human health and infrastructure. 2.2. Agroecological and Cropping Zones The agroecological features of Abu Al-Matamir are influenced by several factors, including soil class, prevalent agricultural practices, and natural ecosystems. Soils Beheira falls within the geomorphological domain of alluvial Nile silt, featuring a gentle topography with elevations ranging from 20–60 m above sea level (Khalil et al. 2014). The predominant soil is Typic Torrifluvents, a Fluvents subclass according to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil taxonomy. These soils are characteristic of floodplains like the Nile Delta and are particularly prevalent in semi-arid regions (AbdelRahman et al. 2022). FAO’s soil classification for Beheira shows the prevalence of Calcaric Fluvisols, Eutric Gleysols, and Eutric Vertisols (Figure 6). In Izbat Al-Hamra, clayey soil with Vertic traits indicates a Eutric Vertisol dominance, leading to drainage issues. Figure 6. Soil classes map. Source: FAO and IIASA (2023) FAO 90 classification. Note: Cross mark shows Izbat Al-Hamra location. 6 7Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Locally, soil texture comprises 54–56% clay, 24–25% silt, and 20–21% sand, with less than 1% gravel. The soil holds moderate levels of organic carbon (0.56–1.07%) and a cation exchange capacity of 40–41 cmol/kg, indicating salinization risks. Hydraulic properties of these Eutric Vertisols, calculated using USDA equations, reveal a total available water of about 142 mm/m. Key parameters include total soil porosity (54%), field capacity (47.6%), and wilting point (33.3%), based on an average organic matter of 2% and a reference bulk density of 1.21 kg/dm3 . Despite being relatively nutrient-rich due to their fluvial origin, these soils are vulnerable to secondary salinization under arid conditions and suboptimal irrigation practices (EC > 4.0 dS m−1). They also display intrinsic phosphorus deficiencies. Water table levels fluctuate between 120 and 160 cm, potentially affecting orchards and trees due to capillary salt movement. However, salt-tolerant annual crops could benefit from such water table dynamics, enhancing water productivity. Quemada and Cabrera (1995) also affirm the fertility of these Vertic Torrifluvents, especially in drainage channels rich in sediment-derived nutrients. Soil pH generally ranges from 6.9 to 7.5, although some fields may be slightly alkaline (7–8.3). Given the expected low sulfur content, these soils require phosphorus and potassium fertilization. Their best use is for annual staple crops; orchard cultivation poses challenges that may require raised beds and localized irrigation to prevent soil cavities and root respiration issues. The unique biota of the region, encompassing distinct flora, fauna, and microbial life, markedly determines the soil’s framework, nutrient profile, and other essential attributes. Prevalent agricultural practices Cropping in irrigated areas in Egypt follows three main seasons: winter (November–May), summer (March–August), and Nili (July–November) (Sims 2014; Barnes 2010). Major crops vary between the Delta and Valley regions: rice dominates in the Delta, while the Valley focuses on sugarcane. Key winter crops are wheat and berseem, the latter serving either as a soil improver or fodder depending on its growth duration. Minor winter crops include pulses, barley, and sugar beet. Summer farming primarily involves maize, rice, and cotton, the latter being Egypt’s top export crop. Fruits and vegetables are also cultivated but are secondary (see note on cropping season in Figure 4). Open field cropping is the primary landscape in Beheira, supplemented by livestock farming and limited forestry. The major crops cultivated include wheat, rice, corn, and cotton, along with various fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, potatoes, and citrus fruits. The area’s crop production depends heavily on seasonal patterns and the availability of water resources for irrigation. Given the arid climate, irrigation is vital for agriculture in Abu Al-Matamir. Farmers utilize mainly flood irrigation systems in subsistence farming, as well as localized methods like drip and sprinkler systems to maximize water-use efficiency in commercial setups. Soil characteristics and agricultural practices of Abu Al-Matamir is given in Box 3. Box 3. Soil characteristics and agricultural practices of Abu Al-Matamir Abu Al-Matamir, nestled within Egypt’s Beheira Governorate, features distinctive agroecological aspects shaped by its unique soil class and dominant agricultural practices. The prevalent soil type, Typic Torrifluvents—typical of floodplains—exhibits nutrient richness but is prone to secondary salinization and phosphorus deficiency. With a fluctuating water table impacting salt movement and vegetation, the soil presents a delicate balance: it amply supports salt-tolerant crops while posing challenges due to its pH and nutrient conditions. Coupled with the necessity for efficient irrigation amid the arid climate, the farmers oscillate between traditional (in subsistence farming) and modern agricultural practices (in commercial setups), seeking a balance that safeguards productivity while handling the intricacies of the soil’s dichotomous nature. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: The region’s soil, though complex, hosts a nutrient-rich profile beneficial for certain crops. • Weaknesses: Susceptibility to salinization and intrinsic phosphorus deficiencies pose agricultural challenges. • Opportunities: The adaptation of farming practices to harness soil and water attributes could enhance agricultural sustainability: salt/drought-tolerant short-cycle-duration alternative crops, alternative soil amendment (biochar, crushed dry lignin residues), raised-bed plantation, and context-appropriate and affordable water-saving hardware. • Threats: Fluctuating water table levels and potential future shifts in climatic conditions can jeopardize both soil structure and agricultural yield. 8 9Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Natural ecosystems Biodiversity in Abu Al-Matamir is characterized by a spectrum of plant and animal species, amongst which several possess notable economic or ecological value. Noteworthy indigenous tree species such as the Egyptian willow (Salix aegyptiaca) and the Egyptian acacia (Acacia nilotica) can be readily observed in the region. The area is also home to various aromatic plants like chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), marjoram (Origanum majorana), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise (Pimpinella anisum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), black cumin (Nigella sativa), and henna (Lawsonia inermis), all of which bear both high ecological and economic significance (Annex C). Exploring viable avenues for cultivating these plants within systems that bolster local value chains and conserve nature is imperative. For instance, the native tree species not only support livestock farming (as a fodder resource) but also enhance the biodiversity of the area, while local wildlife, inclusive of birds and mammals, fulfill pivotal ecological roles. Additionally, the cultivation of aromatic plants alongside winter cash vegetable crops under protected agricultural systems (which are low in water consumption) presents a potential avenue for diversifying income. These models are particularly suitable for women and younger farmers and would foster rural entrepreneurship aimed at both local and national markets. Solutions should be designed through a market systems approach focused on particular cropping systems. For instance, to tackle the challenges related to access to market, Abdelhaleem and Ghaly (2021) recommend the implementation of contract farming for pivotal aromatic plants managed by agribusiness and regulated by the Government of Egypt. This strategy would shield farmers from unethical traders (commissioners) and intermediaries by establishing distribution outlets connected to cooperatives or associations, thereby streamlining the marketing chain. Support for this approach could emanate from public extension services at regional agricultural departments, which could guide subsidies toward agricultural inputs, exert control over the value chain, and/or promote best practices (Hassanein et al. 2005; Shaltout et al. 2010). Abu Al-Matamir is home to a range of animal species, including birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects. Notable bird species found in the area include the Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca), the spur-winged lapwing (Vanellus spinosus), and the white-eyed gull (Lchthyaetus leucophthalmus) (see Annex D for illustrations and more detail). These birds play essential roles in the local ecosystem, such as seed dispersal and pest control. Establishing a bird observatory site as an ecotourism pilot could be an option to help local municipalities receive additional revenue to support ongoing environmental protection activities, such as seasonal canal cleaning and other activities in natural water bodies. Mammals native to the region include the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) and the golden jackal (Canis aureus). Reptiles like the Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus) and the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) can also be found in the area. These animals contribute to the overall health of the ecosystem by controlling rodent populations and maintaining balance within the food web. Insect biodiversity is also vital in the region, with numerous species of pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and moths, playing a crucial role in the pollination of both wild and cultivated plants. Other insects, such as ladybugs and lacewings, provide natural pest control, reducing the need for chemical pesticides. Although limited, wetland areas near Abu Al-Matamir may support a range of aquatic species, including fish, amphibians, and aquatic plants. These habitats provide additional ecosystem services such as water purification, flood control, and support for various bird and animal species. Information on Nurturing and capitalizing on Abu Al-Matamir’s ecosystems and biodiversity in Abu Al-Matamir in given in Box 4. 8 9Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Box 4. Nurturing and capitalizing on Abu Al-Matamir’s ecosystems and biodiversity Abu Al-Matamir’s rich biodiversity—including a multitude of plant, animal, and insect species—presents ecological, economic, and social benefits with potentially significant implications for sustainable development. The area, flourishing with indigenous trees and a variety of aromatic plants, also demonstrates high suitability for cultivating high-value vegetables (such as leafy greens and other cash crops). This biodiversity forms the basis for eco-friendly, nature-based solutions, potential cash crop production, and opportunities in agro- and eco-tourism (like bird observatories and nature parks). Accordingly, Abu Al-Matamir’s biodiversity offers opportunities that—if harnessed judiciously through informed and strategic interventions—could foster a symbiotic integration of economic development, biodiversity conservation, and societal well-being. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: A richly diverse biotic environment fosters a plethora of opportunities for agricultural and economic development in Abu Al-Matamir. • Weaknesses: Constraints in technical knowledge and financial resources impede optimal crop cultivation and conservation practices. • Opportunities: Creation of a niche market for aromatic and winter cash vegetable crops, agro/eco-tourism, and nature-based solutions can enhance both ecological and economic vitality. • Threats: The fragility of biodiverse ecosystems to external factors, like pests and diseases, poses risks to the sustainability and productivity of the region. 2.3 Water Resources and Infrastructure Features Egypt faces substantial water management challenges due to its heavy reliance on the Nile, which provides roughly 95% of its freshwater—approximately 55.5 billion cubic meters (BCM) annually—according to the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement with Sudan (FAO 2016). Groundwater, including from the Nile and desert aquifers, contributes around 7.75 BCM, while treated wastewater adds 9.31 BCM5, rainwater 1.05 BCM, and desalination 0.1 BCM, bringing the total water input to approximately 67.3 BCM (Abd Ellah 2020). With an annual freshwater supply of approximately 570 cubic meters per person, Egypt contends with growing water scarcity. Total water usage is roughly 61.3 BCM, with about 6 BCM flowing into the Mediterranean. Irrigation accounts for the vast majority of water use, followed by domestic consumption (10 BCM) and industrial use (5 BCM). Additionally, evaporation from Lake Nasser accounts for a significant loss of approximately 10 BCM (El-Gafy and El-Ganzori 2012; El- Gafy et al. 2013). National water resources management Addressing water scarcity—particularly in its agricultural hub, the Nile Delta—Egypt faces multifaceted water and irrigation management challenges that are increasingly exacerbated by climate change (MALR 2022). The construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 significantly improved agricultural water management but also introduced problems like soil degradation (Gouda 2016). The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) coordinates with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) to align water supply with the seasonal needs of diverse crops. However, budget constraints and increasing farmer autonomy have introduced challenges, such as a tendency to grow water-intensive crops and inadequate canal maintenance (Gouda 2016). Egypt has acknowledged the climatic implications on water management in its Vision 2030 strategy and is adopting water-saving technologies and automation measures (Ibrahim and Ibrahim 2003; McCarl et al. 2015; CEDARE 2011; Allam et al. 2005). Legal advancements, such as Law No. 147 of 2021, a comprehensive legislation governing water resources and irrigation, and the National Water Resources Plan (NWRP 2005), underscore Egypt’s progress toward sustainable water use and governance. These advancements promote efficient irrigation, improved drainage, and conservation practices, alongside administrative restructuring. ⁵ Egypt reuse wastewater at 9.31 BCM in 2015 with the aim of reaching 16.26 by 2037 (Tawfik 2022). 10 11Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt The new law not only consolidates water management authority but also strategically empowers a range of stakeholders through “associations of water users,” mandated to collaborate with MWRI in implementing a holistic water management approach. This continues the trajectory of reforms, including Law 12/1984, the Irrigation and Drainage Law, and the Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment Program, which enabled local water user associations (WUAs) to undertake local irrigation for enhanced water utilization efficiency (Kassim 2009; Law 213/1994; see more in Section 6). Furthermore, the law addresses licensing of water management equipment, designates critical water consumption areas, and institutes provisions for newly irrigated lands and Nile preservation. Meanwhile, the NWRP outlines a comprehensive strategy focused on irrigation enhancement, the adoption of modern methods, and strategic drainage water reuse, with a special emphasis on salinity-affected areas (see more details in Annex E). In the Nile Delta, farm-level irrigation is operated at the “Marwa” level, which is managed by individual farmers (Figure 7). Within “Mesqas” (tertiary, small irrigation channels), when there is a WUA, farmers elect a representative to liaise with the district irrigation engineer from the MWRI. WUAs are responsible for routine “Mesqa” maintenance, discussions related to water allocation, and conflict resolution. The MWRI is tasked with ensuring sufficient water supply at both the primary and branch canal levels. A few pilot WUAs are also involved in managing water at the branch canal level, which is the main focus of the new law. Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the irrigation canal network in Egypt. Source: Gouda 2016, with adjustments by Kassim et al. 2018. According to guidelines established by the Water Resources and Irrigation Administration (WRIA; Kassim et al. 2018), farmers receive water allocations bi-monthly, each for a duration of five days. The regulatory framework stipulates that 167 m3 is allocated per ha per day (16 mm). Based on this framework, the total estimated water availability per ha per month is calculated as 1667 m3 per month (5.6 mm/day). When extrapolated to the village level, the total estimated monthly water availability amounts to 1,540,000 m3 (which is for 924 ha in Abu Al- Matamir). A glimpse into Egypt’s vital water management is provided in Box 5. 10 11Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Box 5. A glimpse into Egypt’s vital water management Egypt, primarily sustained by the Nile, confronts imminent water scarcity due to the intersection of its agricultural dependency, population demands, and environmental factors. The Nile River, the source of 95% of the country’s freshwater, has been a lifeblood for agriculture in regions like the Nile Delta. However, with escalating utilization by sectors including agriculture (85% of water use), domestic, and industrial fields, coupled with environmental and climate challenges, the strain has become palpable. Policies and technological developments, like the 2021 Water Resources and Irrigation Law and NWRP 2005, seek to address these issues by enhancing sustainable usage, governance, and innovative agricultural practices amidst an evolving socio- economic landscape. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: The Nile, augmented by various water sources like groundwater and, to a lesser extent, treated wastewater, underpins Egypt’s primary agricultural regions, like Beheira Governorate. • Weaknesses: Amidst robust policy frameworks, implementation struggles arise due to factors like climate change, historical agricultural practices, and burgeoning demands from multiple sectors, particularly agriculture. • Opportunities: Advances in water management technologies, alongside potential international cooperation on Nile water management, offer prospects for enhancing Egypt’s water efficiency and security. • Threats: Persistent water scarcity, exacerbated by population growth, evolving agricultural trends toward more water-intensive crops, and potential geopolitical conflicts over Nile waters, present significant challenges to Egypt’s water stability. Water resources in Beheira Examining the Beheira Governorate reveals a notable commitment to strategic water management, given its agricultural significance. The MWRI (2018) underscores that the region has an availability of approximately 5.5 BCM of renewable water resources annually (of which Nile surface water accounts for 3.8 BCM), apportioned for agricultural (2.9 BCM), domestic (2.2 BCM), and industrial use (0.4 BCM). As of 2019, daily per capita consumption stood at 118 liters. Southern Beheira exploits several groundwater sources, notably from the Quaternary aquifer system, which are utilized for irrigation and potable water. However, challenges in water level and quality arise from over-extraction. In contrast, northern Beheira, especially Abu Al-Matamir, is predominantly reliant on Nile surface water. Beheira is noteworthy for leveraging unconventional water resources. The region exhibited a potential reuse of nearly 63.4 million cubic meters (MCM) annually from wastewater treatment plants and housed desalination plants, like the Borg El Arab, with a combined capacity of approximately 326,000 cubic meters daily. The governorate is trying a diversified approach towards water management, albeit working through obstacles like initial costs and public trust regarding unconventional technologies. Beheira also has the option to better utilize its natural surface water lakes, namely Lake Edku, Lake Burullus, and Lake Manzala, through prudent management to address challenges such as pollution, deteriorating water quality, and overfishing. By adopting a sustainable approach, Beheira could explore eco-friendly, integrated aquaculture and agriculture through aquaponic systems and employ green buffers with native vegetation. These measures would not only optimize water use but also fortify biodiversity and water quality, embodying a synchronized, innovative solution to safeguarding and enhancing the governorate’s aquatic and agricultural resources amidst environmental predicaments (more details in Annexes F and G). Water risk features Overall water risk is calculated using the World Resources Institute (WRI 2023) Aqueduct data from 2019 by aggregating indicators across three categories: 1) physical quantity (e.g., groundwater table decline, seasonal variability), 2) physical quality (e.g., untreated connected wastewater), and 3) regulatory and reputational risk (e.g., unimproved or no sanitation). Based on this calculation, the risk for the studied area includes greater than 80% stress in the northwestern Delta, including the Beheira governorate (Figure 8). This risk is aggravated by a multitude of factors. 12 13Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt According to the World Bank (2021), water governance in Egypt is characterized by fragmented responsibilities and limited financial resources. This can lead to inefficient use of water resources and unequal access to water among different user groups. Also, according to a report by UNICEF (2014), 7.3 million people are deprived of access to safe water, among whom 5.8 million live in rural areas and 1.5 million in urban areas, and 8.4 million people do not have access to improved sanitation, mostly in rural areas. This can increase the risk and impact of waterborne and water- washed diseases, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly. Figure 8. Overall water risk. Source: https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/water-risk-atlas/ Note: Higher values indicate higher water risk. An overview of Beheira’s water resources and risks is given in Box 6. https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/water-risk-atlas/ 12 13Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Box 6. Overview of Beheira’s water resources and risks The Beheira Governorate in Egypt is characterized by its presently abundant, yet increasingly threatened, water resources due to looming sustainability and quality issues. Beheira leans heavily on the Nile and its branches, various lakes, and groundwater sources for sustaining its populace and their intensive agricultural activities. Lakes such as Edku and Burullus serve crucial roles in irrigation and fisheries, while Lake Manzala grapples with significant pollution challenges. The area, particularly in the southern realm, faces a gradual diminishment of groundwater levels due to over-extraction. Contrastingly, the north, including Abu Al-Matamir, relies predominantly on Nile water. Unconventional water resources, like desalination and wastewater treatment plants, play a pivotal role in alleviating water scarcity, albeit confronting challenges related to cost, maintenance, and public acceptance. Overall water risk, encompassing aspects of physical quantity, water quality, and regulatory hurdles, affects the region with over 80% stress. This exacerbates dilemmas of resource management, equitable access, and governance fragmentation, highlighting the need for a synergistic approach to sustainable, inclusive, and efficient water management. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: Beheira enjoys a substantial availability of natural and unconventional water resources, supporting its agricultural and domestic needs. • Weaknesses: The governorate contends with critical issues such as pollution, over-extraction of groundwater, and the potential onset of scarcity, particularly during dry periods. • Opportunities: Implementing comprehensive water management strategies, harnessing unconventional water resources like desalination, and tapping into technological advancements could fortify its water security. These are high investments to increase supply, which is not the scope of Al-Murunah. Improving demand management through water-saving technologies is an option we can opt for. • Threats: Persistent challenges in water governance, pollution, and global climatic shifts threaten the sustainability and quality of Beheira’s water resources. Water quality in the Delta Region Drainage systems in the Delta Region predominantly receive effluent from insufficiently treated domestic and industrial wastewater sources, as well as agricultural runoff. A seminal study by the Drainage Research Institute (Nijland 2000) revealed that the Delta and Fayoum drains collectively receive an estimated 13.5 BCM of wastewater annually. Approximately 90% of this originates from agricultural activities, 6.2% from localized domestic sources, 3.5% from dispersed domestic sources, and the remaining 3.5% from specific industrial points. Significantly, a long-term increase in salinity levels has been observed in the Delta’s drainage water. For example, salinity levels escalated from 2,400 g/m3 in 1985 to 2,750 g/m3 in 1995. Additionally, a geographical gradient in salinity has been identified; as one progresses northward, the salinity intensifies. In the southern Nile Delta, drainage water exhibits salinity levels ranging between 750 and 1,000 g/m3. Contrastingly, the central regions register levels around 2,000 g/m3, while the northern sectors display markedly elevated salinity levels, ranging from 3,500 to 6,000 g/m3. This suggests that the pilot project area of Izbat Al-Hamra is among the most exposed to salinity stress, making crop management systems based on salt-tolerant crops, raised-bed plantation, and localized irrigation an imperative. Pollution in Lake Edku, a brackish-water lake in the northern Delta Lake Edku, situated 40 km east of Alexandria and 18 km west of Rosetta, is a shallow brackish water lake, with depths between 1.0 and 1.5 meters. It has a single connection to the Mediterranean at El Meadia. Historically, the lake’s surface area has witnessed significant shrinkage over the decades. Currently, it spans 8,000–8,400 ha, a significant reduction from its earlier 21,420 ha in the late 19th century. A milestone event in its history was the establishment of the drainage network in the Beheira Governorate in the 1920s, which transformed the lake into a catchment area for water from a whopping 84,000 ha. Lake Edku gets its water mainly from three drains situated on its southern and eastern flanks. While seawater mainly influences its western side, the construction of the Aswan High Dam has resulted in a surge in the lake’s annual drainage. Presently, 90% of the water in Lake Edku is agricultural drainage, and the remaining 10% is seawater. This composition has considerably lowered the lake’s salinity, leading to notable shifts in its biological and chemical traits. Primarily, three main drains facilitate the flow of agricultural drainage water to the lake: Edku Khairy, Tard El-Boseily, and Tard Barseek. This water, however, is not free from pollutants, as untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters 14 15Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt find their way into these channels and eventually into the lake. Despite the push for reusing drainage water, there are inherent limitations to this practice, because repeated reuse leads to an accumulation of salts in the farming terrain. Moreover, the seepage from drainage might contain toxins and chemicals detrimental to aquifers, as discussed by AbuZeid and Elrawady (2014) and FAO (2005a). A recent study focusing on pollutants in the El-Mahmoudia agricultural irrigation stream in El-Beheira Governorate, Egypt (Radwan et al. 2019), found that the water quality of the El-Mahmoudia canal is concerning (see example of canal pollution in Annex G). Quality and management of water in the Delta Region and Lake Edku is given in Box 7. Box 7. Quality and management of water in the Delta Region and Lake Edku The Delta Region, inclusive of Lake Edku, experiences a formidable challenge with managing water quality, chiefly attributed to the intricate entanglement of agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastewater. Salinity levels in the Delta’s drainage water have perceptibly surged over the years. Lake Edku, once expansive, has succumbed to significant reductions in its area and has transitioned into a catchment for agricultural drainage from a colossal 84,000 ha area. A shift in its water composition to agricultural drainage has altered its biological and chemical characteristics, presenting consequential ecological repercussions. Notwithstanding, the overall water management practices in the region are shackled by contamination from multifarious sources, encompassing pesticides, plasticizers, and potentially hazardous organic and inorganic substances, underscoring an imperative to implement adept water treatment and comprehensive water management strategies to safeguard and optimize the utility of this precious resource. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: The Delta Region, through its various water bodies and agricultural prominence, presents a rich aquatic ecosystem and supports intensive agricultural practices. • Weaknesses: Water quality is gravely imperiled by the confluence of agricultural, industrial, and domestic effluents, amalgamating pollutants and escalating salinity, particularly in the northern Delta and Lake Edku. • Opportunities: Investment in and development of advanced wastewater treatment facilities, plus revitalizing regulatory frameworks, can enhance water quality, preserve ecosystems, and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. This is not a scope for this project, as the budget could be too high. However, we can focus on a Mesqa-level introduction to pollute trap plant species. • Threats: Persistent influx of diverse contaminants, coupled with potential climatic shifts and suboptimal regulatory adherence, jeopardize the long-term viability and utility of the water resources within the Delta Region. 3. Socio-Economic and Gender Characteristics Demographic and socio-economic indicators The demographic profile of Beheira Governorate presents a complex mosaic of both rural and urban communities. Census data indicate a gradual increase in the number of households in Beheira, accounting for 6.3% of Egypt’s total households in 2006, rising to 6.6% by 2017. At the same time, the average household size declined from 4.34 members in 2006 to 4 members in 2017. Although signs of urbanization are evident, most of the population—specifically 5 million people—still reside in rural areas, underscoring the need for a nuanced strategy to tackle poverty. Gender distribution within the governorate is relatively balanced, with men comprising 51.5% of the population and women 48.5%. Infrastructure connectivity among Beheira households has improved over the years. In 2006, 92% of the households had access to public water networks, while sanitation connections reached only 29%. By 2017, these figures had increased to 96% and 31%, respectively. Moreover, nearly the entire population had access to electricity by that time, highlighting significant strides in the provision of essential utilities. 14 15Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt In education, Egypt has seen a steady decline in illiteracy rates, falling from 39% in 1996 to 21% in 2017. Nevertheless, Beheira Governorate continues to exhibit one of the higher illiteracy rates in Lower Egypt, at 27% in 2017 (UNFPA 2020). According to the Ministry of Education, the region hosts approximately 3,400 educational institutions serving over 1.5 million students. It also accommodates several higher education institutions, including Damanhour University and Kafr El-Sheikh University. Turning to healthcare, the governorate offers a range of services through both public and private establishments. However, access to healthcare remains limited, particularly in rural areas and among economically disadvantaged communities. Regarding marital status, the 2017 census found that 22% of Beheira’s adult population remained unmarried. Labor statistics from CAPMAS in 2021 reported that the workforce consisted of 1,993,000 individuals aged 15 and older. Unemployment rates showed substantial variation by geography and gender. In rural areas, unemployment stood at 61%, compared to the 38% in urban areas. Gender disparities were also stark, with female unemployment reaching a striking 77%, compared to 22.83% for males. However, these statistics do not account for informal work, in which most rural women are engaged. Despite its economic potential, Beheira Governorate faces significant challenges in reducing poverty and unemployment. The proportion of the population living below the national poverty line rose to 47.7% in 2017/2018, exceeding the national average by over 30%. According to the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (EEAA 2018), the poverty rate in the governorate was 47.1% in 2019, considerably higher than the national average of 32.5%. This high rate—which poses a major concern—is closely associated with elevated unemployment levels, particularly among women and young people. In rural areas, the poverty rate is even more alarming, at 53.6%. Looking forward to 2030, the government has set an ambitious target to reduce Beheira’s poverty rate to a low 10.6% (Baye and Epo 2011; Verme et al. 2014). The complexity of rural poverty in the region is shaped by a myriad of factors, including climate conditions, market dynamics, gender disparities, cultural norms such as mobility constraints and limited access to assets, and government policies. In a broader context, the Egypt Human Development Report (UNDP and MPED 2021) highlights a substantial income disparity between urban and rural areas. On average, urban per capita income is 67% higher than those in rural regions. Furthermore, an urban resident is 17 times more likely to fall within the top income percentile than someone from a rural background. In November 2021, the Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, in collaboration with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), released 27 reports detailing the localization of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) across Egypt’s 27 governorates (MoPED 2020). These reports aim to support the achievement of the SDGs at the governorate level. They establish quantitative targets for SDG indicators and identify the developmental challenges unique to each governorate. In doing so, they highlight key priority sectors and target groups, facilitating focused investments. Collectively, these reports are poised to support the advancement of Egypt’s Vision 2030. The “decent work” indicator offers a comprehensive overview of employment conditions in Beheira, revealing both the existing challenges in the employment landscape and progress made. This ensures that projects can be adjusted in real-time and that indicators are periodically reviewed and updated as needed. Income improvement and wealth generation opportunities in Beheira connected to RNBWS To address poverty in rural areas, nature-based and farming businesses can be pivotal. They can implement modern, sustainable agricultural practices and enhance farmers’ access to markets through digital platforms. These businesses can also develop agricultural value chains, prioritizing fair compensation for farmers and supporting their entry into markets. Additionally, encouraging agri-tourism and local crafts can create diverse income streams. These efforts, integrated with skill development and microfinance initiatives, could elevate rural economies—crucially uplifting women and youth—while also preserving local ecosystems and traditions. Beheira has a real growth rate of approximately 4.4%, and this dynamic region contributes nearly 2.9% of Egypt’s overall GDP. The local economy is significantly diversified, yet agriculture and the wholesale and retail trades emerge as the most prominent sectors. Specifically, agriculture directly accounts for a substantial 45% of Beheira’s local economy, serving as the primary income source for a large proportion of the region’s residents. Beyond agriculture, Beheira hosts a diverse array of industries. Notably, the region is a hub for spinning and weaving, rug and carpet production, cotton ginning, and chemical dyeing processes. The governorate is home to four distinct industrial zones: the Netron Valley, Al-Bousili Desert, New Nubariyah (including packing, packaging, and food processing), and Edco. These zones serve as critical areas for business and manufacturing activities. In terms of manufacturing, Beheira is on an upward trajectory, with sectors such as textiles, food processing, and chemicals 16 17Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt making substantial contributions. According to 2019 CAPMAS data, the governorate had 730 registered industrial establishments, signifying a vibrant manufacturing landscape. However, it is important to note that these industries are primarily concentrated in urban centers like Damanhour and Kafr El-Dawwar, indicating a geographical skew in industrial development. General socioeconomic features of the Beheira Governorate is given in Box 8. Box 8. General socioeconomic features of the Beheira Governorate The Beheira Governorate, reflecting a blend of rural and urban societies and a balanced gender distribution, faces escalating challenges despite its growing economy and industrial sectors. While the region has seen progress in infrastructure, literacy rates, and utility access, it continues to struggle with notably high poverty and unemployment rates—especially in rural areas. A strong agricultural backbone defines its economy, yet hurdles like technological deficits, resource limitations, and persistent water scarcity issues pose significant impediments. Numerous industries flourish, yet they are largely localized to urban centers, underlining a geographical imbalance in development. SWOT Analysis • Strengths: Beheira boasts a progressing economy with a robust agricultural sector and an array of industries. • Weaknesses: The governorate grapples with stark socio-economic challenges, including pronounced poverty, particularly in rural areas, and significant disparities in industrial development between urban and rural areas. • Opportunities: Modern agriculture and agricultural product processing. • Threats: Persistent issues like escalating poverty, high unemployment rates, and resource scarcity, particularly in water and technology, could stymie sustainable and equitable development across both urban and rural communities in Beheira. 3.1. Local Communities and Gender Overview of challenges women face Rural Egyptian women encounter an array of challenges in agriculture. These range from systemic barriers that prevent access to land and natural resources to the burdens of unpaid labor and entrenched familial inequalities. Their roles are often marred by job insecurity, insufficient remuneration, and a void in social protection measures. Furthermore, women face the looming threats of adult and, alarmingly, child marriage while being sidelined from leadership and decision-making roles. Gender-based violence is a significant challenge in Beheira Governorate and other parts of Egypt and can have a significant impact on women’s ability to participate in agriculture and other sectors. Gender-based violence is particularly prevalent in rural areas (33% compared to 4% in urban areas in Lower Egypt) (UNFPA 2016) and can take many forms, including physical, sexual, and economic violence. In a global assessment of climate–agriculture–gender inequality hotspots, Egypt was ranked 14th globally, indicating very high vulnerability (Buruah and Najjar 2022). This analysis reaffirms that Egypt grapples with severe climate risk exposure, low adaptive capacities, and an amplified vulnerability of its women to the detrimental impacts of climate change. The pivotal role of empowering Egyptian women cannot be overstated, especially when envisioning a balanced and holistic development trajectory for Egypt. In recent history, the subject of women’s empowerment has come to the fore, garnering significant attention on multiple fronts. The Global Gender Gap Report places Egypt in fourth position among 19 Middle East and North African countries, boasting a commendable score of 0.639 (UNDP and MPED 2021). However, as reported by the National Council for Women in 2018, a closer look reveals that Beheira Governorate has no women holding leadership roles, reflecting discrepancies in implementing the National Strategy for the Empowerment of Egyptian Women 2030. 16 17Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Women’s roles and interactions in agriculture, irrigation, and food production systems APRP (2001) explored women’s roles in agriculture and irrigation through national surveys. They found that most women farmers (including landowners) are widowed (70%) and typically manage smaller plots of land (averaging 0.56 ha as opposed to 1.47 ha for men). These women predominantly engage in farming for household consumption. Women’s access to land is a significant challenge in Beheira Governorate, with women owning only a small percentage of agricultural land. According to a study by the International Land Coalition, women in Egypt as a whole own just 14% of agricultural land, and this is likely to be even lower in Beheira Governorate (Seyam and El Bilassi 1995; Daily News Egypt 2019). Interestingly, almost no women consult irrigation engineers, whereas 10% of men do so annually. A large majority of women farmers have never attended school, compared to 60% of men. According to a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute (Kassim et al. 2018), women play a significant role in agricultural production in Beheira Governorate, particularly in livestock and dairy production. However, women’s participation in other aspects of agriculture, such as land preparation and irrigation, is more limited, in part due to cultural/social norms and gender stereotypes. Women show less interest in taking on greater roles in managing the ‘Mesqa’ (irrigation canals). The aforementioned USAID study (2001) found that women are hesitant to join WUAs, with half seeing no benefit in membership. This reluctance is rooted in cultural norms that traditionally exclude women from these management systems. Even when they own land, women are usually expected to send male representatives to meetings rather than attend themselves. The survey showed that 43% of farmers’ wives assisted in agricultural activities, averaging 22 hours per week. These wives are mainly involved in cultivation, livestock care and, to a lesser extent, irrigation. Yet, fewer than 10% of farmers take their wives’ suggestions seriously regarding these tasks. Despite their pivotal role in agriculture, women remain largely excluded from vital agricultural support systems, including extension, business development, and financial services. This disconnect stems from a combination of factors: an unrecognized role in food production, accessibility issues related to land ownership, and limited access to agricultural technologies and job opportunities. Rural women’s challenges, access to credit, and livelihood opportunities Due to male migration to the Gulf Cooperation Council states and urban areas within Egypt, rural women are increasingly responsible for farm work and irrigation. This makes them a key demographic in water planning, especially as they also use water for domestic purposes. CGIAR field investigations (Baruah and Najjar 2022) showed that Egyptian farmers face diverse circumstances and challenges within the agricultural landscape: • While some agribusinesses with ample land and financial resources manage to thrive, the majority—including women- and youth-led enterprises in smallholding structures—are limited to subsistence farming and poultry rearing. These groups grapple with soaring crop input and animal feed costs. Instances of family scams have compounded their financial struggles, leading to debt and health issues. • Despite such challenges, resourceful and adaptable women farmers with supplementary income from various small businesses, like groceries, hairdressing, and occasional labor, have shown remarkable resilience through skillful budgeting, sustaining their families amid intermittent financial constraints. • Vulnerable groups, such as single mothers and youth, are striving to earn an income alongside Takaful support, aspiring to secure an education for their children. • Daily-wage laborers, often lacking formal education, confront variable income, inflation, and health concerns. Access to credit and financial services is a key factor in supporting agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods. However, women in Beheira Governorate and other parts of Egypt face significant barriers to accessing credit and financial services due to factors such as limited collateral (derived from limited access to resources, namely land), low literacy rates, and cultural norms that restrict women’s mobility and autonomy. Gender disparities in credit access are therefore obvious, with only 7% of female farmers having accounts at formal financial institutions, compared to 12% for male farmers. This gap exists despite the fact that rural women contribute significantly to food production, accounting for about 60% of total output (World Bank 2014). These profiles collectively highlight the complex interplay of economic, health, educational, and social factors shaping the lives of Egyptian farmers, and women in particular. All farmers have noted the changing agricultural dynamics influenced by climate shifts and pests, prompting a search for modern agricultural techniques despite financial constraints, primarily to ensure stable futures for their families. 18 19Baseline Assessment Report for Resilient Nature-Based Water Solutions Pilot in Izbat Al-Hamra, Egypt Abu Al-Matamir-level gender features and barriers Rural women in Beheira reflect wider national-level challenges faced by women in agriculture, ranging from systemic barriers preventing access to land and natural resources to the pressures of unpaid labor and familial inequalities to illiteracy and limited access to necessary information and technology. These challenges not only hamper their individual progress but also impact the sector’s overall performance. A study by Helil and B