A handbook for practitioners in Kenya i A handbook for practitioners in Kenya Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems List of the contributors Authors: Athina Koutouleas, Boaz Waswa, Walter Ocimati, An Notenbaert, Eric Rahn Design and Layout: Sherry Adisa (Independent Consultant) Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems - A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 2023 © Athina Koutouleas, Boaz Waswa, Walter Ocimati, An Notenbaert, Eric Rahn Cover image: Kenyan coffee plant ready for harvest. Source: ©2020 CIAT/Trong Chinh A handbook for practitioners in Kenya iii Glossary Adsorption: when particles of one matter stick to the surface of another matter (as opposed to absorption where particles ‘soak into’ the other phase). Agroecological conditions: the relationship between agricultural production systems and ecological processes influenced by the environment such as soil characteristics, topography and climate. Agroforestry Systems (AFS): tree planting that is deliberately combined with agriculture on the same piece of land. Belowground Biomass Carbon (BGC): the belowground carbon pool which includes all living biomass of live roots. Biochar: any organic material that has been carbonised under high temperatures (300-1000°C), in the presence of little, or no oxygen. Biological control agents (BCA): predators, parasitoids, and pathogens which can be used to control a specific pest and /or disease. Carbon Sequestration: is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool (above-/belowground vegetation biomass and soil organic carbon). The process results in a carbon sink, meaning it removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Contour planting: is a farming practice where farmers plant crops across or perpendicular to slopes to follow the contours of a slope of a field. Cool Farm Tool (CFT): an online digital tool which calculates greenhous gas, water and biodiversity metrics for farmers. https://coolfarmtool.org/ Cover Crops: plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cultural Control Methods: practices that modify the environment to reduce the prevalence of pests, including using resistant varieties, pruning to modify microclimate, disposing infected fruits, etc. Erosion Barriers: a mound in a shallow trench on the contour to intercept water running down a slope and trap sediment. Eutrophication: harmful algal blooms and aquatic dead zones which occur when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients, increasing the amount of plant and algae growth to lakes, estuaries and coastal waters. Evapotranspiration: the sum of water vaporized to the atmosphre from evaporation of the soil and plant surfaces and transpiration through water movement from soil to atmosphere via plants. F1 hybrids: the term used for the first generation hybrid seed/plant that occurs following the successful cross-pollination of one genetically uniform plant variety with another specific genetically uniform variety. Green Manure: fast-growing plants sown to cover bare soil and incorporated in the soil after growth. Greenhouse Gas (GHG): a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy at thermal infrared wavelengths, causing the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N 2O), and ozone (O3). Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systemsiv Integrated Crop-Livestock Management: a form of sustainable intensification of agriculture relying on synergistic relationships between plant and animal system elements to bolster critical agroecosystem processes. Integrated Nutrient Management: the maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner. Integrated Pest-Disease Management: a coordinated and planned strategy for the prevention, detection and control of pests, weeds, and diseases. Integrated weed management: coordinated agronomic practices used to manage weeds, so that the reliance on any one weed control technique is reduced. Intercropping: the practice of growing two or more crops in association with the goal of producing greater yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. Land equivalent ratio (LER): the area required by sole crops to produce the same yields, relative to the area needed to obtain the same yield obtained through intercropping. Local Indicators of Soil Quality (LISQ): are soil metrics such as pH, electrical conductivity, nitrate-nitrogen, and phosphorus-phosphates. Mulch: are loose coverings or sheets of material placed on the surface of soil which can help soils retain moisture and protect soil from erosion. Niche Differentiation: the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist. Phytoremediation: the use of plants for the extraction, immobilization, containment, and/ or degradation of contaminants usually in a biological medium (i.e. water or soil). Regenerative Agriculture: a conservation and rehabilitation approach to food and farming systems. Renovation (of coffee plants): replacement of old coffee plants with new plants. Riparian Buffers: an area adjacent to a stream, lake, or wetland that contains a combination of trees, shrubs, and/or other perennial plants and is managed differently from the surrounding landscape, primarily to provide conservation benefits. Soil Acidification: the buildup of hydrogen cations, which reduces the soil pH. Soil Conservation: is the prevention of loss of the topmost layer of the soil from erosion or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination. Soil Erosion: a gradual process that occurs when the impact of water or wind detaches and removes soil particles, causing the soil to deteriorate. Soil Organic Carbon (SOC): the carbon that remains in the soil after partial decomposition of any material produced by living organisms. Vermicomposting: the process of using earthworms to transform organic materials into rich, organic fertilizers. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya v Visual Soil Assessment (VSA): a method to asses soil quality in the field, by digging a hole and assess several soil quality indicators visually. Waste Valorization: the process of reusing, recycling or composting waste materials and converting them into more useful products including materials, chemicals, fuels or other sources of energy. Water use efficiency: the amount of carbon assimilated as biomass or grain produced per unit of water used by the crop. Windbreaks: linear plantings of trees and shrubs designed to provide economic, environmental and community benefits. Zero-/minimum/conservation tillage is a practice in which crops are sown directly into soil, with little to no tilling, in between the harvest of the previous crop. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systemsvi Contents CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. x i. Purpose of the handbook........................................................................................... 1 ii. Context: Kenyan coffee farming.............................................................................. 2 iii. Defining Regenerative Coffee Agriculture.............................................................. 4 iv. Reasons for practicing Regenerative Agriculture in coffee farming in Kenya......... 8 CHAPTER 2. PRACTICES OF REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE......................................... 10 i. Introduction to practices..........................................................................................11 ii. Application of practices......................................................................................... 21 iii. Stepwise approach for Kenyan coffee systems.................................................... 47 CHAPTER 3. PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE............. 51 i. Planning the transition to Regenerative Coffee Agriculture systems..................... 52 a. Co-design and participatory planning for high chances of success..................... 52 b. Visioning and setting goals................................................................................. 52 c. Dealing with diversity - agro-ecology and socio-economics shape farm typology...................................................................................................... 53 d. Tools which can be used for targeting and priority setting in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture..............................................................................................54 ii. Methods for delivering Regenerative Agriculture....................................................57 a. Top delivering methods for Regenerative Coffee Agriculture............................... 57 b. Demonstration farms.......................................................................................... 57 iii. Monitoring and evaluation..................................................................................... 59 a. Rationale............................................................................................................. 59 b. Methods of measuring indicators........................................................................60 c. Framework for Regenerative Agriculture monitoring.......................................... 66 REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 68 A handbook for practitioners in Kenya vii List of Figures Figure 1. Main coffee growing areas of Kenya............................................................................................................................................................2 Figure 2. The seven entry points for Regenerative Agriculture serve as the foundation of this handbook. By adopting these, coffee farms can preserve and restore soil, water, biota, and the long-term viability of agriculture..........................................4 Figure 3. Integrating trees in coffee systems in Kenya............................................................................................................................................9 Figure 4. Closing the circle between profit, people and planetary needs........................................................................................................... 11 Figure 5. A chord diagram highlighting practices of Regenerative Coffee Agriculture and how they are interconnected..................... 12 Figure 6. Top: An Integrated Nutrient Management plan utilizes multiple approaches to plant and soil nutrition. Bottom: combined use of animal manure, cover crops, compost (including vermicompost and coffee waste compost) and biochar make up an Integrated Nutrient Management plan................................................................................................................ 14 Figure 7. The use of livestock manure is a way of achieving on-farm nutrient cycling and circularity...................................................... 15 Figure 8. An integrated crop-livestock management (ICLM) approach ensures circularity of critical farm inputs and use of valuable outputs............................................................................................................................................................................................ 16 Figure 9. A: Banana plants are a complementary intercrop with coffee. B: Intercropping the cash-crop (coffee) with the staple-crop (beans) is a common practice in East African coffee farming. .................................................................... 18 Figure 10. Agroforestry systems consist of multiple plant and tree species which grow in different strata............................................. 19 Figure 11. Water sources surrounding coffee farms are vulnerable to contamination................................................................................... 20 Figure 12. Mulching coffee using Gravillea leaves in Muranga, Central Kenya. ................................................................................................ 24 Figure 13. A: Cover crops can be used to cover any exposed soil in the coffee field and help fix nitrogen. B: This is common beans in coffee systems.......................................................................................................................................... 25 Figure 14. A: Erosion barriers should be used on sloping terrains and can be constructed with natural materials such as rock and vegetation. B: Grass strips can be used as vegetative erosion barriers...................................................................... 26 Figure 15. Prominent weeds on Ugandan coffee farms (left to right) include Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), East African couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica and/or D. scalarum), Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and Buttercup oxalis, Wood sorrel or Sourgrass (Oxalis spp.).......................................................... 28 Figure 16. Vermicomposting of coffee pulp............................................................................................................................................................. 30 Figure 17. Biochar production and application in coffee farming. ...................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 18. Granular fertilizer can be applied as a ring around the coffee tree just before the cropping season..................................... 32 Figure 19. Covering manure prevents nitrogen loss through leaching, run-of and volatilization................................................................. 34 Figure 20. The basis of an Integrated Pest and Disease Management system is to use a variety of approaches. Priority should be placed on forecasting, prevention, monitoring and then control of the outbreak of a pest or pathogen in the coffee field.................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Figure 21. Natural enemies of coffee pests and diseases can be used in the field as a form of biological control................................ 36 Figure 22. Uprooted coffee plants offer insights into the root architecture.................................................................................................... 38 Figure 23. The landscapes around a coffee farm can be fragmented for different agricultural and forestry purposes using trees as windbreaks where high winds occur..................................................................................................................................................... 43 Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systemsviii Figure 24. Pruning and stamping to improve productivity................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 25. Black soldier fly larvae can be used as a sustainable feed for livestock. ..................................................................................... 46 Figure 26. A simple stepwise approach to implementing Regenerative Agriculture on a coffee farm starting with the soil and moving downward towards waste.............................................................................................................................................47 Figure 27. The relationship between farm types and resources. ....................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 28. Cost-benefit analyses relating to a change in farm practice should include ecological, economic, social and cultural factors. In doing so, all pieces of the puzzle can fall into place. .................................................................................... 55 Figure 29. Farmer training and demonstration farms are valuable tools for the delivery of Regenerative Coffee Agriculture............ 58 Figure 30. Different scales at which Regenerative Agriculture practices are relevant.................................................................................. 59 Figure 31. Soil ideotype based on average visual soil assessment by farmers based on 14 local indicators of soil quality (LISQ) comprising the farmer manual. Regenerative Agriculture systems (REG) compared to conventional farming systems (CON). ............................................................................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 32. Soil sampling in a Kenyan Regenerative Agriculture system............................................................................................................ 62 List of Tables Table 1. Overview of the 7 entry points into Regenerative Agriculture matched with specific practices that can be implemented on a Kenyan coffee farm. +, ++, +++ indicate relevance of the practice to the entry point, with the relevance increasing with the number of ‘+’. ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Table 2. Summary of coffee pest and disease interactions with predators and biological control agents................................................37 Table 3. Ecosystem services of agroforestry tree species, position and abundance on coffee farms in the Aberdare Forest Reserve in Central Kenya................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Table 4. Coffee yields and grade “A” quality percentage from a Kenyan mixed-cropping systems versus coffee grown alone (adapted from Mithamo, 2013). Different alphabetical letters indicate significant differences..................................................... 42 Table 5. Agricultural trade-off analysis, which can be used in the decision-making process concerning on-farm practice changes towards a Regenerative Agricultural approach....................................................................................................................... 55 Table 6. Universal indicators of Regenerative Agriculture.................................................................................................................................... 60 A handbook for practitioners in Kenya ix Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Kenyan workshop participants who played a pivotal role in shaping the content of this guidebook through their rigorous peer review and constructive critique. They are representatives of the following organizations: Ministry of Agriculture; Coffee Research Institute; County Government of Bungoma; County Government of Embu; County Government of Kirinyaga; County Government of Nandi; County Government of Nyeri; Coffee Association. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to Mirjam Pulleman for the crucial inputs on the framing and content and Vincent Johnson and Olga Spellman from the Alliance Bioversity-CIAT Science Writing Service for their invaluable editorial review. The development of this guidebook was made possible through support by IDH under the Coffee Farmer Income Resilience Program funded by the Ikea Foundation. Andrew Gita, and Arthur Nganga from the IDH East Africa Coffee team. Special thanks for the support of James Kamakia, Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systemsx CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Purpose of this handbook Context: Kenyan coffee farming systems Defining Regenerative Coffee Agriculture Reasons for practicing Regenerative Agriculture in coffee farming systems CIAT /Neil Palmer. Coffee and banana intercropping systems in Rwanda. i ii iii iv CH4, CO2 CO2 CO2 NH3, NOX, NO3 CH4,CO2, N20 C-N a C-N C-N C-N N C-N5. 4. 3. 2.1. d c b e CH4, CO2, N20 A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 1 i. Purpose of the handbook CH4, CO2 CO2 CO2 NH3, NOX, NO3 CH4,CO2, N20 C-N a C-N C-N C-N N C-N5. 4. 3. 2.1. d c b e CH4, CO2, N20 The purpose of this handbook is to inform the promotion and adoption of Regenerative Coffee Agriculture in Kenya to restore and conserve soil, water and biodiversity in and around farming systems. By using strategies that address multiple environmental and production challenges, Regenerative Agriculture practices can result in both social and economic benefits for farmers. In this context, this handbook has been developed to provide: • An understanding of Regenerative Agriculture in the context of coffee farming. • A preliminary framework for deploying Regenerative Coffee Agriculture in Kenya The handbook is targeted at field agronomists, technicians, lead farmers, village advisors and extensional officers to build their understanding of Regenerative Agriculture so that they can integrate it into project planning and execution. The handbook complements the coffee management manuals and handbooks already in use by the coffee sector. Farm scale livelihood activities, greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and carbon (C) sequestration in integrated smallholder crop-livestock system in Kenya. The number (1-5) represent farm components: (1) livestock, (2) manure management systems (MMS), (3) soil, (4) crops and (5) trees. The letters (a-e) are associated with fluxes of C and N: (a) fodder, crop residues and concentrattes, (b) dung, urine and bedding materials, (c) inorganic fertiliser, manure and crop residues, (d) nitrogen uptake by crops, (e) the biomass harvested that can follow different pathways: livestock feed, compost heap and mulch. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems2 KENYA WEST POKOT TRANS NZOIA BUNGOMA ELGEYO MARAKWET BARINGO NAROK MACHAKOS TAITA TAVETA MAKUENI NAIROBI BOMET KERICHO KAJIADO EMBU NYERI KIAMBU KIRINYAGA MURANGA NAKURU MERU UASIN GISHU MIGORI SIAYA KISII KISUMU BUSIA HOMA BAY NYAMIRA NANDI ii. Context: Kenyan coffee farming Coffee is one of the major cash crops in Kenya, ranking third after tea and horticultural products.  Approximately 70% of Kenyan coffee is produced by smallholder farmers organized around various co-operatives. The coffee crop is also grown in small, medium, and large estates, i.e., individually managed coffee plantations. The estimated area under coffee production in Kenya is 119,617 hectares, spread across 33 counties (Figure 1). The main growing regions include Baringo, Bomet, Bungoma, Busia, Elgeyo Marakwet, Embu, Homa Bay, Kajiado, Kiambu, Kirinyaga, Kisii, Kisumu, Machakos, Makueni, Meru, Migori, Muranga, Nairobi, Nakuru, Kericho, Nandi, Narok, Nyamira, Nyeri, Pokot, Siaya, Taita Taveta, Trans Nzoia and Uasin Gishu. Approximately 204 million coffee plants are in use, producing 45,000 million tons of green beans per year. An estimated 6 million Kenyans are involved in the country’s coffee industry, including approximately 800,000 smallholder farmers. Many Kenyan coffee farming households engage in off-farm income-generating activities. This is enabled by higher education levels and access roads connecting rural communities to the cities. Possibilities for off-farm income provide Kenyan coffee farmers with better access to inputs such as fertilizers, machinery and labor forces as well as more secure household livelihoods. Facts and figures Figure 1. Main coffee growing areas of Kenya. Source: https://www.kalro.org/coffee/ A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 3 Kenyan coffee farming systems Coffee arabica is the main coffee grown in Kenya. The majority of coffee is grown without shade, although shaded coffee is becoming increasingly popular as it helps mitigate some of the effects of climate change. Coffee is grown under two main systems: • Coffee monocropping systems that only have coffee on the plot with trees as boundaries. • Coffee agroforestry systems (AFS), which grow a mixture of annual and perennial plant and tree species together with the coffee crop within the plot. Kenyan coffee is usually grown under rainfed farming systems. However, some large estates have established irrigation systems. There are two coffee harvest seasons in Kenya: April to June and October to December. The smallholder coffee farms typically have non-coffee fields, for example maize intercropped with beans, sometimes in combination with forages (e.g., Napier grass) and a few livestock for milk production. These staple foods are critical for food security and milk production provides an important additional income stream for the coffee growing households. Despite these income streams, some smallholder Kenyan coffee farmers may not have access or means to purchase seasonal farm inputs. For this reason, the handbook promotes the use of low-cost, nature-based strategies wherever possible as a first line of defense. By adopting this mindset, Regenerative Agriculture practices can reduce and/or eliminate dependency on purchased inputs which in turn, reduces running costs for coffee farmers. However, we do not exclude the use of agrochemical or other inputs, if deemed necessary by the farmer. Coffee plants utilize light energy, ground water and soil nutrients to produce fruits (called coffee cherries) with seeds which are harvested, processed and roasted to produce coffee beans. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems4 iii. Defining Regenerative Coffee Agriculture Regenerative Agriculture is a conservation and rehabilitation approach to farming. This method is holistic and designed not only to sustain soils but also to regenerate them, improving soil health as the central foundation for Regenerative Agriculture. By strengthening soil health Regenerative Agriculture helps make agroecosystems more productive and resilient, while also improving farmers’ livelihoods. The practices of Regenerative Agriculture also create important opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In the context of coffee systems, the handbook defines Regenerative Coffee Agriculture as a holistic land management practice for coffee production, which builds resilience to address climate change, poverty and ecological degradation. By practicing Regenerative Coffee Agriculture, the whole coffee farm system: the soil; the coffee plant; the people who cultivate it and the surrounding environment benefit from positive effects. Practices are designed to close the nutrient cycle, build better soil health, crop resilience and nutrient density. Figure 2. The seven entry points for Regenerative Agriculture serve as the foundation of this handbook. By adopting these, coffee farms can preserve and restore soil, water, biota, and the long-term viability of agriculture. Regenerative Coffee Agriculture is a new coffee farming approach led by restorative principles and practices that are centered around optimizing soil and plant health; reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; improving waste and water management; and improving livelihoods of coffee farmers. Many of the practices put forward in this handbook are compatible with traditional coffee farming systems across the tropics and can be easily tailored to small-holder farmers’ resources and needs. By considering both the human interests and ecological aspects of farming, Regenerative Coffee Agriculture practices provide a number of benefits to above and belowground plant and animal life, smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, and the local ecosystems surrounding coffee growing areas. The key entry points into Regenerative Agriculture are highlighted in Figure 2 and below. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 5 Seven entry points for Regenerative Agriculture 1. Build soil health Soils are at the very base of terrestrial life and food production. 95% of our food is produced in soil. Functions of healthy soils: • Moderates nutrient cycles (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus) • Supplies the nutrients needed for healthy crops, animals and human beings. • Sustains plant and animal life (biodiversity) • Regulates water • Filters potential pollutants • Supports structures • Regulates climate through carbon sinks Soil is finite and takes hundreds of years to form. Over exploitation of soils has intensified due to human activity. This has led to soil erosion, fertility decline, salinization, and compaction; biodiversity loss; climate change and loss of resilience, all ultimately leading to reduced productivity and production capacity of our soils and ecosystems. Regenerative Agriculture requires active soil management to reduce risk of soil degradation and improve soil health. Soil management is thus critical to securing increased productivity, enhanced ecosystem resilience, supporting biodiversity of animals, plant and microbial life, lowering GHG emissions and enabling soil carbon storage. Soil health can be built using soil cover crops and mulch; maintaining living plant and tree roots; minimizing soil disturbance, and integrating livestock for on-farm nutrient sources. 2. Enhance biodiversity Biodiversity is essential for the natural processes that support all life on earth. Different organisms perform different functions (supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural) in their ecosystem. Pollinators such as birds, bees, other insects and other creatures are estimated to be responsible for generating a third of the world’s crop production. Healthy soils are packed with microbes that are vital for liberating nutrients that plants need in order to grow, which are then passed to humans through food. Microbes may also help suppress harmful pathogens. Agriculture is therefore reliant upon invertebrates that help maintain healthy soils for to crops grow in. Soil fauna also condition the soil (e.g., earthworms), and assist decomposition processes. Trees, bushes, wetlands and wild grasslands naturally slow down water losses by structurally aiding the soil to absorb rainfall. Trees and other plants clean the air and help to tackle the global challenge of climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide. Plants are also a source of useful medicine and extracts for human use. Oversimplification of the ecosystems through cultivation and deforestation, and shifts to monoculture tends to disrupt this natural balance. Further use of harmful agrochemicals also compromises biodiversity. Regenerative Agriculture calls for adopting farming practices that move away from monoculture and integrate biodiversity conservation practices. In this context, the aim is to leverage functional diversity, which in turn can improve crop production and resource-use efficiency. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems6 3. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase carbon sequestration Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cause warming across various aspects of climate, including surface air and ocean temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns and sea level rise. More than 20% of human-induced net Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions originates from agriculture (e.g. mineral fertilizer use), forestry and land use change (IPCC, 2022). Sustainable production of agricultural goods depends on favorable and stable climatic conditions, as well as on biodiversity and related ecosystem services (i.e., benefits provided by healthy soils and ecosystems, such as nutrient cycling, climate and water regulation, pollination, and natural pest control). Major efforts will be needed in the future to both reduce the contribution of agriculture- related GHG emissions and sequester more GHG (such as CO2) at the farm level. Regenerative Agriculture promotes adopting farming practices that enable carbon sequestration and minimize farm-level GHG emissions. This is achieved by better managing organic manures, and relying less on synthetic inputs, as well as avoiding conversion of high- to low-carbon ecosystems. 4. Improve water use Today the world is undergoing climatic shifts. With this comes the challenge of unreliable rainfall and more frequent flood episodes. Water sources are also at risk of contamination due to soil erosion and runoff. There are concerns of eutrophication of surface waters in many parts of the world. Moreover, conflicts around water are emerging between upstream and downstream users. Regenerative agriculture calls on farmers to adapt their water-use practices by more efficiently managing floodwaters and drainage and minimizing overuse and water pollution from farm runoff and drift. 5. Better waste management Globally, large volumes of agricultural waste are being generated each day to meet the increasing demands of the fast-growing population. These are produced from different sources including crop residues, processing, livestock, and aquaculture. Agricultural waste is a global issue since the vast majority is currently burned or buried in soil, causing air and water pollution, and global warming. Limited or improper waste management has created an urgent need to devise strategies for timely and sustainable waste utilization and valorization (recycling, reuse or composting) for human-food and health security. Waste management is a central theme of regenerative agriculture. By re-using, re-cycling or up-cycling coffee waste materials as close to the source as possible (at the farm level or in the processing facilities), then wastes can be more effectively and safely managed. 6. Increase farm resilience and climate adaptation Agricultural resilience is about equipping farmers to absorb and recover from environmental or market shocks and stresses to their agricultural production and livelihoods. Some shocks are short-term, others long-term. Some come suddenly while others are predictable. Climate changes, which farmers are currently experiencing today, mean that adaptation strategies must be implemented to ensure crop and farm resilience. Without adaptation, climate-change effects are predicted to reduce global crop yields by between 5 and 30% by 2050. Simultaneously, farms need to increase in efficiency in order to support a growing global population. This means optimizing use of equipment, labor, and inputs, and reducing energy use, waste or by-products. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 7 Regenerative agriculture is a holistic approach that considers the farmers’ interests, resources and needs. By implementing a selection of suitable practices, Regenerative Agriculture can increase resilience, adaptability, and efficiency of farms worldwide. 7. Optimize plant health with reduced reliance on external inputs Inorganic fertilizers and pesticides have been invaluable in meeting global food demand and boosting farmer profits. However, their improper use also leads to negative external environmental and health impacts. Detrimental effects on the environment can degrade the farmers’ resource bases. Overreliance on these inputs can put farmers’ businesses at risk when prices are too high, or access becomes limited. Increasing fertilizer use efficiency and minimizing toxic pesticide use can be achieved by enhancing nature-based, on- farm resources. Nutrient depletion is of high concern in East Africa because the exported nutrients in harvested products and nutrient losses through erosion, leaching and volatilization are often not replenished, due to lack of access to mineral fertilizers and low availability of biomass for organic fertilizers resulting from low yields (i.e. biomass production) and competing interests (fuel, feed, construction, etc.). Regenerative Agriculture encourages the use of both an integrated nutrient and pest-disease management system. This means that a diverse range of methods are used to bolster plant nutrition and control pests and diseases. By utilizing a wide range of manures, composts, green manures, natural enemies and biological pesticides, reliance on synthetic inputs reduces and soil and plant health is optimized. Alliance Bioversity-CIAT/ Walter Ocimati Regenerative Agriculture practices put into play on the Kenyan coffee farm can boost crop productivity and ecosystem vitality. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems8 iv. Reasons for practicing Regenerative Agriculture in coffee farming in Kenya Agriculture currently faces serious problems of poor soil quality, soil erosion, ecosystem degradation, and poor water and food quality. Some of these threats are a direct result of adopting unsustainable farming practices, or the lack of means to adopt sustainable ones. Many agricultural systems extract resources from the land without adequately replenishing them. They also convert diverse landscapes to homogenous cropland and use agrochemicals in ways that compromise human and ecosystem health. There are growing concerns about the proliferation of weeds, pests, and diseases. Climate change threatens the livelihoods of millions of people. Increasing temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and more severe and increased frequency of extreme weather events requires substantial efforts to adapting farming to climate change, with smallholder farmers being the most vulnerable, and having low adaptive capacity. Moreover, several agricultural practices contribute significantly to GHG emissions, thus intensifying climate change. Increasing climate instability is negatively impacting agricultural productivity, while the simplifying agricultural landscapes makes them less resilient to climate shocks, as well as pest and disease outbreaks. This puts millions of households at risk of losing their livelihoods. Agriculture, forestry, and land-use changes account for more than 20% of all global GHG emissions. Deforestation contributes a considerable amount of these GHGs by releasing CO2 and causing a substantial loss of photosynthetic carbon-sequestration potential. Coffee farming systems in Kenya face similar challenges. Studies have shown that climate change could dramatically decrease the suitability of most regions for coffee cultivation by 2050, including East Africa. Projected changes in temperature, precipitation, as well as declining soil health impact the coffee crop’s growth, phenology, and productivity, as well as the aroma and taste of coffee beans. Rising global temperature has led to increasing pressures by coffee pests and diseases, leading to increased pesticide dependency. These practices have knock-on health effects on those farmers handling agrochemicals, the environment, and coffee consumers. Kenyan coffee farmers are dynamic and tend to manage a diverse range of crops, trees and livestock (Figure 3). Interactions within these farming systems can influence key ecosystem and social factors such as soil and/or plant nutrient status, greenhouse gas fluxes, carbon stock exchanges, pollination services, household income and food security. Adopting Regenerative Agriculture promotes cultivating food crops in harmony with livestock and nature, helping the land recover from degradation and conserving healthy agroecosystems and landscapes. Regenerative Agriculture applied to coffee systems therefore increases opportunities to not only improve the productivity and quality of coffee, but the farming systems as well as the health of the ecosystems they rely on, ensuring improved, more sustainable livelihoods for rural households. Additionally, the global coffee market is demanding coffee produced in safe and environmentally sustainable ways. This trend offers an opening for coffee farmers to modify their production systems to benefit from non-commodity markets with higher prices. Overall, Regenerative Agriculture will benefit coffee crop productivity, the environment and the rural communities implementing these practices. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 9 Figure 3. Integrating trees in coffee systems in Kenya (Source: Boaz Waswa/Alliance Bioversity-CIAT). Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems10 CHAPTER 2. PRACTICES OF REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE Introduction to practices Application of practices Stepwise approach for Kenyan coffee systems i ii iii A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 11 i. Introduction to practices The main overarching principle of Regenerative Agriculture is to harmonize three P’s of agriculture: profit, people and the planet. By striving to close the circle between these three P’s, future coffee farming systems stand to be more sustainable (Figure 4). A wide range of on-farm practices can be applied to operationalize Regenerative Coffee Agriculture. By implementing these practices, coffee farmers stand to improve soil and plant health, protect and save water bodies, contribute to biodiversity conservation, improve economic resource management, and reduce the carbon footprint specifically linked to coffee farming in Kenya. Farm labor Biodiversity and habitat provision SOM surplus Nitrogen surplus Climate regulation Redude greenhouse gas emissions Reducing water runoff Improve clean water supply Reduce water shortages Close nutrient loops Improve soil structure Improve soil biodiversity Improve soil organic matter Maintain cultural diversity Improve farmer wellbeing Sustainable farm income Stable yields Provide food and materials Minimize waste Minimize external inputs Invert carbon emissions Mitigate climate change Improve nutrient cycling Improve human health Enhance and improve soil health Improve economic prosperity Improve water quality and availability Greenhouse gas emissions Nutrient cycling Primary productivity Operating profit Water regulation and purification People Planet Pr ofi t Figure 4. Closing the circle between profit, people and planetary needs. (Source: Schreefel et al. 2022). Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems12 IDH-James Kamakia Optimal soil health is crucial to the vitality and longivity of the perennial coffee plant. Regenerative Coffee Agriculture principles are guides for on-farm conduct and action. The combination of these principles maximizes the benefits for farmers and the local ecosystems. Note: some principles may not be applicable to all Kenyan coffee farming systems. In this chapter, a wide range of different practices are firstly introduced (Figure 5), and then detailed for application on a Kenyan coffee farm. Combing several of these farming practices maximizes benefits for farmers and local ecosystems. Applying these principles enables coffee farmers to improve soil and plant health, protect and save water bodies, contribute to biodiversity conservation, improve economic resource management, and reduce the carbon footprint linked to coffee farming. A suggestion is made on a stepwise approach for implementing regenerative coffee farming in smallholder farms in Kenya. Figure 5. A chord diagram highlighting practices of Regenerative Coffee Agriculture and how they are interconnected. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 13 Soil conservation practices aim to protect the soil from water and wind erosion and improve soil health and related functions. This also contributes to protecting water bodies through avoided runoff and sedimentation as well as building the water filtration capacity of healthy soils. Soil conservation practices are always important but need particular attention on steep slopes and close to water bodies. Because coffee is a perennial crop, critical stages of soil exposure are during establishment and rehabilitation/renovation. Hence careful planning is required to avoid exposure of bare soils to water and wind erosion. Soil conservation in coffee Regenerative Agriculture includes: a. Maintaining soil cover b. Using deep rooting plant and tree systems c. Building soil organic matter and thereby its carbon storage capacity. Practices that contribute to soil conservation are cover cropping, contour planting, erosion barriers, mulching, reduced soil tillage, and terracing. Other practices such as agroforestry, intercropping, organic matter management, and selective weed management, also contribute to soil conservation. 1: Soil conservation Integrated weed management aims to keep weed pressure below an economic threshold in a sustainable manner through combining preventive and corrective methods. In the early establishment period, coffee plants are most sensitive to weed competition for water, nutrients, and light. Competition also increases during the dry season when water resources are limiting. Weeds can take up a significant part of the applied fertilizers leading to economic losses. Weed control is most important in systems where more light reaches the soils, such as in full-sun systems, particularly at low planting density and during early establishment when coffee plants are still small. At the same time, if weeds are removed under these conditions, the soil is left bare and prone to erosion. Integrated weed management intends to manage these trade-offs while minimizing the use of chemical herbicides. Integrated weed management in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. Preventive measures that outcompete weeds through mulching, cover crops, intercrops, agroforestry and appropriate planting densities; b. Selectively managing beneficial weeds (e.g., low-growing, shallow rooted annuals, nitrogen fixing, habitats for pollinators or natural pest control agents) and non-beneficial weeds; c. Corrective measures (physical, chemical) once a critical economic threshold has been reached. 2: Integrated weed management Weeds can compete with coffee plants for nutrients, water, and sunlight, reducing crop yields. Source: https://wikifarmer.com/ weed-management-in-a-coffee- plantation/ Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems14 3: Integrated nutrient management (INM) Figure 6. Top: An Integrated Nutrient Management plan utilizes multiple approaches to plant and soil nutrition. Bottom: combined use of animal manure, cover crops, compost including vermicompost and coffee waste compost) and biochar make up an Integrated Nutrient Management plan. Integrated nutrient management combines the use of organic resources and mineral fertilizers. It offers a means to enhance crop productivity by maximizing the agronomic efficiency of applied inputs (i.e. application rates that increase yield to a level that makes economic sense where fertilizer costs are considered) (Figure 6). It combines practices that include the appropriate use of mineral fertilizers and organic resources, and minimizes negative effects on soil health (e.g., soil acidification), water (e.g., eutrophication aka. increase in algae or plants in water due to excess nutrients), and air (i.e. GHG emissions). The right nutrient source, rate, timing, and placement is informed by agroecological conditions (soil conditions, climate), crop genetic yield potential, crop management, and crop stage (establishment, vegetative growth, fruit development). Unbalanced plant nutrition is one of the main causes of low coffee yields. For example, nitrogen (N) is the most indispensable nutrient for coffee production. Yield losses of up to 60% have been reported to occur when no N fertilizer is applied during the early reproductive stages of coffee plant development. However, yield responses from mineral fertilizer application are reduced in soils with a low soil organic matter content, due to the higher levels of nutrient losses through leaching and volatilization, while inadequate soil pH levels can make nutrients unavailable to plants. Although many Kenyan coffee farmers use both organic and mineral fertilizers, insufficient nutrient inputs (volume and sources) and soil fertility tend to limit yields. Given this, there is a high need for INM on Kenyan coffee farms. Organic manures Green manure, crop rotation, intercropping Synthetic fertilizers Bio- fertilizers Crop residues, organic wastes Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 15 Integrated nutrient management in coffee Regenerative Agriculture includes: a. Alleviating local soil constraints including soil pH and competition (e.g., weeds, insufficient pruning, excessive shading in agroforestry systems) or plant productive capacity (e.g., old plants, low yielding varieties) which can limit crop response to nutrient inputs. b. Combining organic resources of nutrients with the judicious use of mineral fertilizers to deliver essential nutrients to the coffee plants and associated crops. c. Prioritizing on-farm nutrient cycling (also linked to integrated crop-livestock management practices) as a means of achieving circularity and reducing dependency on external resources (Figure 7). d. Appropriate use of organic and mineral fertilizer (right nutrient source, timing, rate and placement) to avoid nutrient losses through runoff, leaching or volatilization thus reducing GHG emissions (N2O, CO2). e. Using high quality organic inputs as nutrient sources for intercrops and coffee plants, whilst protecting beneficial soil biota. f. Avoiding soil and nutrient loss through erosion. g. Monitoring nutrient balances through regular soil testing. Figure 7. The use of livestock manure is a way of achieving on-farm nutrient cycling and circularity. 4: Integrated crop-livestock management (ICLM) An integrated crop-livestock farming system approach enables cross-linkages between many on-farm practices, to improve the efficiency of land, labor, finance, and nutrient investments, while providing more diversified income sources (Figure 8). Integrated crop-livestock management (ICLM) is a core aspect of regenerative agriculture in Kenya, as it can contribute substantially to farm profits and to sustaining production levels, while minimizing the dependency on external nutrient sources. Furthermore, ICLM can buffer the economic impacts of bi-annual yield variation and cash shortages between harvests in coffee, and thereby improve farmers’ livelihoods. Many Kenyan coffee farmers keep livestock on their farm, and milk production is an important income source. The majority of Kenya’s dairy cattle are kept by smallholders in crop-livestock systems with an average of 1-2 dairy cows. Local horned breeds along with Ayrshire, Friesian, Guernsey, Holstein, and Jersey are the main dairy cow breeds; however, goats and buffaloes also contribute to dairy production in East Africa. ntegrating coffee and livestock farming can provide valuable on-farm nutrient sources (i.e., animal manure) and alternative income and/or human foodstuffs (i.e., dairy products) Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems16 for smallholder coffee farmers. However, in many cases, there is substantial opportunity to improve land-use efficiency, nutrient cycling, and income, while reducing GHG emissions. Livestock production Manure sources Fodder/ forage crops Crop residues Financial inputs Integrated Crop-Livestock Management (ICLM) Figure 8. An integrated crop-livestock management (ICLM) approach ensures circularity of critical farm inputs and use of valuable outputs. Integrated crop-livestock management in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. Responsibly utilizing animal manures (i.e. manure collection and handling, storage, and application). b. Integrating soil conservation practices by sowing forages as intercrops. c. Optimizing farm-level resource allocation to improve animal feed, manure production and livestock related income sources. d. Promoting on-farm circularity and waste management by re-using coffee pulp and husks as fodder for livestock (e.g., coffee pulp and husks in addition to other organic waste as feedstock to black soldier flies, which provides protein-rich animal feed). e. Reducing GHG emissions (N2O, CO2) associated with animal agriculture. 5: Integrated pest and disease management (IPDM) The primary objective of this key area is to bolster soil and plant health, particularly through integrated nutrient management and the use of resistant varieties. Secondly, IPDM uses cultural control to avoid favorable pest microclimates and to create habitats for beneficial insects. Thirdly, where preventive measures are not sufficient, IPDM applies physical and biological control, and judicious use of insecticides and fungicides where necessary. Good knowledge of pest life cycles and monitoring is a prerequisite. In doing so, terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity can be better protected, including beneficial organisms for pest control and pollination. Some prominent coffee pests and diseases found in East Africa include coffee berry borer, white coffee stem borer, green scale insect, coffee root mealybug, nematodes, coffee leaf rust, coffee berry disease, coffee wilt disease and brown eye spot disease. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 17 IPDM in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: ■ Prioritizing preventive measures and making use of cultural control ■ Monitoring pests and diseases ■ Continuously evaluating pest-disease pressures and adjusting corrective measures ■ Sensible use of chemical control (as a last measure). 6: Intercropping The practice of ‘intercropping’ refers to growing two or more crops on the same field at the same time. Intercropping and cover cropping have distinctive objectives (food production vs. soil conservation, respectively) and therefore make use of different plant species. The harvested products of intercrops are exported from the field resulting in nutrient loss, while cover crops are not exported and nutrients are recycled and even added in the case of legumes. Intercropping is different to agroforestry, as intercrops are non-woody species that typically provide harvests in a short time after planting, while agroforestry refers to integrating woody trees, which take several years before they can be harvested (e.g., fruits, timber). Most intercrops are smaller than coffee (except for banana and plantains) and therefore do not modify microclimate at the coffee tree layer (but they do so at soil level), which is another important difference to agroforestry. Intercropping in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: ■ Preferring intercrops, which are complementary with the allometry of coffee plants (i.e., architecture of branches and root systems) and in nutrient and water use and in turn, provide a high land equivalent ratio and niche differentiation. ■ Using intercrop varieties that contribute to food security (i.e., they provide for household nutrition), household income, or animal feed for ICLM. Traditionally, Kenyan coffee farming features the use of intercropping. These systems combine agroforestry, banana, beans, coffee (Figure 9), perennial fruit trees (avocados, macadamia, etc.), sweet potato and vegetables. Vegetables as intercrops were a common feature to almost all identified systems, for the primary reason that they mature and sell quickly, generating a fast household income. Vegetable cultivation was also identified as providing labor opportunities for women and youth (vulnerable groups typically not involved in coffee farming). A Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems18 Figure 9. A: Banana plants are a complementary intercrop with coffee. B: Intercropping the cash-crop (coffee) with the staple-crop (beans) is a common practice in East African coffee farming. (Sources: Alinde Mulinde and An Notenbaert). 7: Agroforestry and landscape actions Agroforestry systems (AFS) are defined as “agriculture with trees”. As some Coffea species originated from forests of the Congo basin and West Africa as well as Uganda (C. canephora) and the Afromontane forested regions of southwestern Ethiopia and South Sudan (C. arabica), a certain level of shade tolerance is inherent to its genetic resources. Therefore, growing coffee together with timber, fruit, fuel biomass, or for other services (e.g., nitrogen fixation, shade) trees have been part of a viable agricultural system since the origin of coffee domestication. Trees within a coffee AFS may be planted within coffee plots, as living fences, garden zones, riparian buffers or as woodlots (Figure 10). Trees are either remnants, naturally regenerated or purposively planted. High quality planting material can ensure higher economic benefits of timber and fruit trees but requires more investment costs than naturally regenerated trees. The former, however, are limited to the seeds available in the soil. Forest-derived coffee agroforestry systems (i.e., planting coffee in forests and selectively removing trees) is not part of Regenerative Agriculture due to the associated loss in biodiversity and carbon stocks from deforestation. Agroforestry and landscape actions in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. Creating habitat to bolster biodiversity (including pollination and pest control ecosystem services) b. Protecting water bodies (e.g., riparian buffers) c. On-farm nutrient cycling including nitrogen fixation d. Protecting soil from erosion or nutrient leaching and/or run-off e. Microclimate regulation for the coffee plant B A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 19 Figure 10. Agroforestry systems consist of multiple plant and tree species which grow in different strata. f. Diversifying income with high-value tree biomass and /or products g. Increasing on-farm carbon sequestration (above- and belowground biomass and soil carbon) Rehabilitation and renovation are strategies for ensuring long-term productivity of healthy coffee plants through pruning, stumping and/or replacing old or sick plants with new improved and adapted varieties. The main objective of this practice is to maintain coffee productivity over time, which can increase time-averaged annual yields. In doing so, renovation or rehabilitation of old coffee farms can positively contribute to land use efficiency by avoiding expansion of coffee areas into areas of higher ecological importance. Renovation and rehabilitation of coffee farms in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. Renovating and / or rehabilitating coffee plants as a means of managing age-density-yield relationships. b. Establishing new plantations to include intercropping and agroforestry designs (i.e. re-design of coffee systems). c. Selecting locally-adapted and/or improved varieties, cultivars, or hybrids. 8: Renovation and rehabilitation of existing coffee farms Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems20 Waste management is the process of reusing, recycling or composting waste materials from a particular process and transforming them into alternative products and/or services. Coffee production generates waste from the coffee berries amounting to more than 50% of the fruit mass. This waste product can be routinely converted into high-value by-products for both the coffee farm itself and/or alternative industries. Waste management in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. Reducing material or loss residues (i.e. bad coffee berries collected during harvest). b. Re-using coffee pulp, husk, silver skin and leaves for alternative purposes or sources of income. 9: Waste management De-pulping, fermentation and washing steps in the ‘wet’ coffee processing system uses large volumes of water (15–20 L for 1 kg of coffee bean) and generates polluted effluent water (containing tannins, phenolic and alkaloids), which are traditionally discharged into nearby water sources such as streams or rivers. Additionally, synthetic inputs such as fertilizers or pesticides can also run-off into water sources close to coffee farms (Figure 11). Wastewater treatment in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture includes: a. On-farm recycling of wastewater. b. Decontaminating of wastewater which is re-directed into nearby water bodies 10: Wastewater treatment Figure 11. Water sources surrounding coffee farms are vulnerable to contamination. A h an db oo k f or pr ac tit ion er s i n K en ya 21 ii. A pp lic at io n of p ra ct ic es Th e fo llo w in g se ct io n w ill d et ai l a n um be r o f d if fe re nt m et ho ds w hi ch c an p ut R eg en er at iv e Ag ri cu lt ur e in to p ra ct ic e in th e co ff ee fa rm . T he se m et ho ds a re n ot s pe ci fi c to th e co ff ee c ro p bu t a re h ig hl y co m pa ti bl e w it h th e fa rm in g sy st em a nd th e re so ur ce s av ai la bl e to K en ya n co ff ee fa rm er s. T ab le 1 pr ov id es a n ov er vi ew o f t he p ra ct ic es an d ho w th ey c an s er ve a s m or e th an o ne o f t he e nt ry p oi nt s in to R eg en er at iv e C of fe e Ag ri cu lt ur e. Ta ble 1. Ov er vie w of th e 7 en try po int s i nt o R eg en er at ive Ag ric ult ur e m at ch ed w ith sp ec ifi c p ra ct ice s t ha t c an be im ple me nt ed on a Ke ny an co ffe e f ar m. +, ++ , + ++ in dic at e r ele va nc e o f t he pr ac tic e t o t he en try po int , w ith th e r ele va nc e i nc re as ing w ith th e n um be r o f ‘+ ’.   7 en tr y po in ts R eg en er at iv e A gr ic ul tu re 1. B ui ld s oi l he al th 2. E nh an ce bi od iv er si ty 3. R ed uc e gr ee nh ou se ga s em is si on s an d in cr ea se c ar bo n se qu es tr at io n 4. Im pr ov ed w at er us e 5. B et te r w as te m an ag em en t 6. Im pr ov ed fa rm re si lie nc e an d cl im at e ad ap ta ti on 7. O pt im iz at io n of pl an t h ea lt h w it h re du ce d re lia nc e on ex te rn al in pu ts Pr ac ti ce s 1. So il co ns er va ti on 1. 1 M ul ch in g ++ + ++ + + ++ + + ++ + 1. 2 C ov er c ro ps ++ + + ++ + + + ++ ++ 1. 3 Ze ro -/ m in im um / co ns er va ti on ti lla ge ++ + + + + + ++ + + ++ 1. 4 E ro si on te rr ac es ++ + + + + + + + 1. 5 C on to ur p la nt in g ++ + + + + 2. In te gr at ed w ee d m an ag em en t 2. 1 C ul tu ra l c on tr ol m et ho ds ++ ++ + + + + ++ + 3. In te gr at ed n ut ri en t m an ag em en t 3. 1 U si ng li ve st oc k m an ur e ++ + + + ++ ++ + + ++ + ++ ++ + Re ge ne ra tiv e A gr icu ltu re in Co ffe e F ar mi ng Sy ste ms 22 7 en tr y po in ts R eg en er at iv e A gr ic ul tu re 1. B ui ld s oi l he al th 2. E nh an ce bi od iv er si ty 3. R ed uc e gr ee nh ou se ga s em is si on s an d in cr ea se c ar bo n se qu es tr at io n 4. Im pr ov ed w at er us e 5. B et te r w as te m an ag em en t 6. Im pr ov ed fa rm re si lie nc e an d cl im at e ad ap ta ti on 7. O pt im iz at io n of pl an t h ea lt h w it h re du ce d re lia nc e on ex te rn al in pu ts 3. 2 C om po st ++ + + + ++ ++ + + ++ + ++ ++ + 3. 3 G re en m an ur es ++ + ++ ++ ++ + + ++ ++ + 3. 4 Ve rm ic om po st in g ++ + ++ ++ + ++ + + + ++ + 3. 5 C of fe e w as te m an ur e co m po st ++ + + ++ ++ + + ++ + ++ ++ + 3. 6 B io ch ar ++ + + ++ + + ++ ++ + ++ ++ + 3. 7 C ov er in g m an ur e so ur ce s ++ + ++ + + + + 4. In te gr at ed c ro p- liv es to ck m an ag em en t 4. 1 C ov er in g m an ur e so ur ce s ++ + ++ + ++ + + R es ou rc e cy cl in g ++ + ++ + ++ 5. In te gr at ed p es t a nd d is ea se m an ag em en t 5. 1 P la nt a nd n at ur al p re da to rs + ++ + ++ ++ + 5. 2 Pe st a nd d is ea se re si st an t co ff ee p la nt v ar ie ti es + ++ ++ + 5. 3 N at ur al fo re st b ar ri er s (e .g ., fo re st c or ri do rs o r i sl an ds ) t o tr ap p es ts /p at ho ge ns ++ + + ++ + ++ + ++ ++ + A h an db oo k f or pr ac tit ion er s i n K en ya 23 7 en tr y po in ts R eg en er at iv e A gr ic ul tu re 1. B ui ld s oi l he al th 2. E nh an ce bi od iv er si ty 3. R ed uc e gr ee nh ou se ga s em is si on s an d in cr ea se c ar bo n se qu es tr at io n 4. Im pr ov ed w at er us e 5. B et te r w as te m an ag em en t 6. Im pr ov ed fa rm re si lie nc e an d cl im at e ad ap ta ti on 7. O pt im iz at io n of pl an t h ea lt h w it h re du ce d re lia nc e on ex te rn al in pu ts 5. 4 Pe st a nd d is ea se m on ito r an d su rv ei lla nc e + + + + + + ++ + 5. 5 B io lo gi ca l c on tr ol a ge nt s + + + + + + + + ++ 6. In te rc ro pp in g 6. 1 L eg um es in te rc ro ps ++ + + ++ + + + 6. 2 B an an a/ p la nt ai ns in te rc ro p + + ++ ++ + 7. A gr of or es tr y an d la nd sc ap e ac ti on s 7. 1 M ul ti pu rp os e tr ee s (F ru it / Sh ad e tr ee s) ++ + ++ + ++ + + + ++ + ++ + 7. 2 W in db re ak s + ++ + ++ ++ + ++ + 8. R en ov at io n an d re ha bi lit at io n of e xi st in g co ff ee fa rm s 8. 1a P ru ni ng + + + + ++ + 8. b St um pi ng + ++ ++ + 8. 2 Im pr ov ed c of fe e va ri et ie s + + ++ + ++ + 9. W as te m an ag em en t 9. 1 R e- us e co ff ee w as te (p ul p, hu sk s an d le av es ) ++ ++ + + ++ 10 . W at er m an ag em en t 10 .1 P la nt re m ed ia ti on o r 10 .2 A ds or pt io n + + + ++ + + Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems24 1:Practices to achieve soil conservation Figure 12. Mulching coffee using Gravillea leaves in Muranga, Central Kenya. (Source: Boaz Waswa/ Allaince Bioversity-CIAT). 1.1 Mulching Mulching is the placement of any organic material over the top of a soil surface to protect it. Regenerative Agriculture circularity can be achieved by using organic, on-farm sources of mulching materials (e.g., shade tree leaf litter, banana leaves or fibers, well-decomposed coffee husks and local grasses such as Cymbopogon spp. and Panicum spp.). The mulching material improves soil moisture, moderates soil temperature, reduces evaporation, suppresses weed growth, reduces soil losses and improves soil fertility. If organic materials are limited, mulch can be applied as a ring 10 to 30 cm from the coffee stem (Figure 12). To maximize the known benefits of mulching on coffee yields, it is recommended that a mixture of organic materials is applied to the coffee farm soil system at regular intervals. It must be noted that mulching alone is not a sufficient substitute for exported nutrients in the context of coffee production (see Integrated Nutrient Management). In its natural environment coffee grows in a bed of forest litter. Its superficial root system is therefore adapted to function most efficiently under such conditions. On commercial coffee farms we attempt to simulate these conditions by keeping the bare soil permanently covered with a layer of organic mulch material. Mulch is most beneficial when done to trap soil moisture and to keep soil cool during the hot seasons and months. Mulching at 10 – 30 cm away from the coffee plant stem (e.g., ring mulching) allows for covering of the feeder roots; avoids shallow rooting of the coffee plant and/or prevents seasonal termites from feeding too close to the plant stem. Mulch can be applied in strips in between the rows (inter-row mulching) of coffee trees. The approach can be considered more economical because it requires considerably less mulching material and the results are almost as good. Timing of applying the mulch is important to minimize splash erosion and encourage infiltration in the exposed area between the coffee trees. Mulch can also be applied as a ring placed in a 0.5m circle around the main stem soon after planting out and each year for the next three to four years. Mulch must be at least 10-20 cm deep). 1.2 Cover crops Cover crops are annual or perennial plants grown in fields intended to cover exposed soil in between primary crop harvest periods and/or for nitrogen fixing purposes (Figure 13). Cover crops are non-cash crops that are grown specifically to protect the soil and improve soil health. In Kenyan coffee systems, annual and perennial cover crops are commonly used to prevent soil erosion, suppress weeds, and enhance soil fertility. Unlike green manure crops, cover crops are not primarily grown for the purpose of being incorporated into the soil to improve soil fertility, but rather to provide cover and other benefits to the soil and cash crop. Farmers may grow leguminous cover crops intercropped with coffee plants. These crops A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 25 fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, which, when incorporated to the soil, release nitrogen that can be used by the coffee plants. Examples of cover crops reported in the Kenyan coffee system are Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean), Crotalaria, Desmodium, Dolichos, Lablab and Mucuna species. These species have been found beneficial in terms of coffee yield increases, biomass accumulation, ground cover and weed suppression. Mucuna and desmodium can be grown in between the coffee trees to serve as permanent cover. Care should be taken with the use of Desmodium as it is a climbing plant which may require frequent pruning to ensure it doesn’t interfere with the coffee plant growth. It is a slow-growth intercrop but once established has been shown to be effective in weed control. Cover crops may be incorporated while still green into the soil (i.e. as green manure), converted into mulch or used as fodder to support livestock integration. Green manure refers to the practice of growing crops that are specifically intended to be incorporated into the soil to improve its fertility. When they have matured, they are cut down and tilled into the soil. As they decompose, the plants release nutrients back into the soil, which can help to improve soil health and fertility. In mature systems, cover crops are more common in Robusta coffee as there is more open space between coffee rows, while the smaller Arabica coffee is usually planted at higher density with little space between rows. During establishment, when coffee trees are still small, there is more space for cover crops and/ or intercrops. Selective weed management is another form of cover cropping where naturally occurring herbaceous vegetation is used (see Integrated Weed Management). Example of spacing of cover crops in coffee systems Crop Distance from the coffee trees (m) Spacing (cm) Year 1 Year 2 Between rows Within rows Mucuna sp. 1 1.5 40-50 30 Desmodium sp. 1 1 30-40 30 Figure 13. A: Cover crops can be used to cover any exposed soil in the coffee field and help fix nitrogen. B: This is common beans in coffee systems. (Source: Peter Ndambiri, Sustainable Management Services Limited). A B Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems26 1.3 Zero-/minimum/conservation tillage Zero-/minimum/conservation tillage is a practice in which crops are sown directly into soil, with little to no tilling, after the harvest of the previous crop. Conventional soil tillage comprises all the physical, mechanical, chemical or biological actions conducted to prepare the land for planting and establishing a crop. Prolonged ploughing using disc harrows has been associated with widespread soil degradation and loss of soil fertility. Minimum/conservation tillage embraces one principle of conservation agriculture that is minimum soil disturbance. Minimum tillage should be used in combination with other practices such as mulching and cover crops, and crop rotation using legumes in conservation agriculture systems. Minimum tillage slows mineralization of soil organic matter through less exposure to climatic elements and soil micro and macro fauna. It reduces the release of GHG from the soil. Minimal tillage also minimizes water evaporation from the soil and can contribute to saving labor for weeding coffee systems. 1.4 Erosion terraces Coffee cultivation on sloping land in tropical highlands of East Africa is highly prone to soil erosion. This is especially the case for Arabica coffee which is grown at high altitudes. The associated financial losses of soil erosion rise with increasing land slope. Given this, steep slopes should not be used for new coffee farms in Kenya. Erosion barriers which are locally sourced or made from low- or no-cost materials should be used as a best practice for existing Kenyan coffee farms positioned on steep slopes. Erosion barriers can be constructed with natural materials such as rock, land contouring (e.g., bunds and trenches), or vegetation (e.g., use of trees or shrubs along slopes) (Figure 14). In Kenya farmers use Fanya juu terraces. Fanya juu means “throw the soil up” in Kiswahili. The terraces formed are ideal for fodder grasses and help prevent soil erosion. Cultivation becomes easier as the terraces spread out to make the land more level and when combined with manure/fertilizer yields increase. This practice is common and appropriate for sloping land such as that found in Kiambu, Murang’a, Meru, Kisii and Mount Elgon regions. Often the terraces are reinforced with grass strips that are harvested regularly and fed to animals. Figure 14. A: Erosion barriers should be used on sloping terrains and can be constructed with natural materials such as rock and vegetation. B: Grass strips can be used as vegetative erosion barriers. (Source: Boaz Waswa/Alliance Bioversity-CIAT). A B A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 27 1.5 Contour planting When a coffee plantation is on land with a slope of more than 5%, the coffee trees should be planted along the contour (coffee rows should follow a line at constant elevation). To manage rainfall run-off use anti- erosion measures such as contour ridges, contour bunds, and contour ditches, and vegetative measures of erosion control that also run along the contour between the coffee rows. Contour planting is recommended for conservation and other management considerations such as energy use when spraying and more even application of water via irrigation systems. Contour planting offers high potential for Regenerative Agriculture especially for hilly and sloping farmlands. Coffee is commonly cultivated on steep slopes making the crop system prone to soil erosion. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems28 Specific Regenerative Agriculture practices and advice for the Kenyan coffee farmers include the combined use of the following: 1. Identifying the weed species with the highest on-farm pressure (Figure 15). 2. Identifying life-history traits for example:: i. Are the weeds perennial or annual? ii. Can the weeds be of benefit at the farm-level (e.g., fodder source, cover crops between coffee rows, attract pollinators)? iii. Do the weeds’ root architecture compete with the coffee plants? iv. What are the interactions with pests, diseases, beneficial species, allelopathic effects? 3. Understanding the weed life cycle and its response to environmental conditions and crop phenology. 4. Monitoring environmental conditions and weed populations. 5. Preventing or providing early response to control weeds (when it reaches a certain economic threshold). 6. Using recommended herbicide dose rates for control of perennial weeds. 2: Practices to achieve integrated weed management Figure 15. Prominent weeds on Kenyan coffee farms (left to right) include Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), East African couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica and/or D. scalarum), Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and Buttercup oxalis, Wood sorrel or Sourgrass (Oxalis spp.) Photos ©: Harry Rose, Forest and Kim Starr, Joseph DiTomaso, James H. Miller & Ted Bodner. 2.1 Cultural control methods Cultural control methods for weed suppression include routine slashing in the dry and wet seasons, selective weed management (i.e. strip weeding) or “clean” weeding with hand tools or by use of small machinery such as single-axle tractor (which do not heavily compact the soil), if available to the farmer. Agroforestry, cover crops (to displace weeds) and mulching can be preventative measures for weed control. Beneficial weeds with shallow root systems and low growth not disturbing the coffee branches can be left as groundcover between coffee rows. A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 29 3.1 Livestock Manure Livestock Manure used in coffee-based systems offers many benefits. Livestock manure is known to provide valuable nutrients to the soil. Manure can also provide additional benefits by improving the soil’s biological, chemical, and physical properties. A well-composed manure consists of four main components: carbon, nutrients, microbial life, and water. Carbon from manure improves many soil health indicators, such as water holding capacity, nutrient cycling, and raising and/or buffering soil pH. Manure in the soil increases the cation exchange capacity, which affects the soil’s ability to hold onto available nutrients and improves nutrient use efficiency. Manure also improves soil biodiversity. Manure is an important part of recycling nutrients. Manure application increases soil biological activity by food to microorganisms and introducing new and important microorganisms. Nutrients from manure can also mean coffee farmers divert financial resources away from commercial fertilizers and in turn use less of inorganic forms of fertilization. Manure provides part of the required nutrients, and it can also increase the efficiency of mineral fertilizer use. Efficient handling of livestock manure is outlined in the next section below (in Integrated crop-livestock management). Using high-quality livestock manure increases these benefits, whereby quality mainly depends on manure type, storage and treatment methods. 3.2 Compost Compost is an organic fertilizer source which adds nutrients to the soil and helps in maintaining the soil structure. Adding compost to the soil contributes to both soil biota and plant growth. It also helps to prevent erosion, and increases the water retention capacity of sandy soils, amongst other benefits. The basic requirements for composting include organic waste materials (manure, grass or hay, sawdust, food waste among other things) found on the farms. Compost has similar benefits to livestock manure. Compost can be made by piling organic materials in layers and covering to enable these to decay. An initial addition of urine can fast-track composting processes. It can also be produced in composting pits where the materials are moved and mixed from first pit to the fourth pit. The compost should be ready after 6 – 9 weeks depending on the type of material used for the compost. Around this time the well decomposed compost should have a rich brown color and crumbles easily into small particles in the hand. 3.3 Green manure Green manures are fast-growing plants, typically legumes that fix nitrogen, sown to cover bare soil and later incorporated or ploughed into the soil, and provide an additional source of nitrogen and soil carbon (C). Canavalia ensiformis, Mucuna pruriens, Crotalaria ochroleuca and Lablab purpureus have been tested in Eastern Africa and elsewhere.. Green manure application was shown to improve maize yields; however, this was dependent on the site, season and species of plant used as green manure. Care should be taken in the species selection of the green manure used. For example, Mucuna pruriens can become highly invasive and smother whole forest canopies, if left unmanaged. 3.4 Vermicomposting Agricultural practices generate diverse wastes from crops and livestock which can be turned into useful fertilizers for application on coffee or other crops. Improper handling of such waste can cause a very unhygienic environment. Vermicomposting is one way to turn the organic waste on the farm into useful and high-quality inputs. 3: Practices to achieve integrated nutrient management Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems30 Vermicomposting is the process of using earthworms to transform organic materials into rich, organic fertilizers (Figure 16). The growth of earthworms in organic waste is termed vermiculture. The final product of this process produces vermicompost. Vermicomposting also produces vermicast (also called worm castings, worm humus, worm faeces, worm manure). It is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. Vermicomposting uses epigeic earthworms that live in and consume surface litter. These worms can be domesticated and used to produce high quality vermicompost. Figure 16. Vermicomposting of coffee pulp (Source: Sustainable Management Services Limited). Vermicompost is superior in a number of important ways: Vermicompost is a high-quality fertilizer for crop production. A typical nutrient content of the compost is 1.9% nitrogen, 0.3% phosphorus and 2.7% potassium. Vermicompost acts as an inoculant during compost production. Worms have several other possible uses on farms, including value as a high-quality animal feed for poultry and fishery. Vermicomposting supports supplemental income as it does not require farmers to invest highly in commercial fertilizers. It is hygienic with little or no odor compared to normal manure. It requires no external energy inputs for aeration. It is a waste recycling and management practice. It generates an efficient vermicompost byproduct that can be used on the farm or sold to make income. The worms themselves can be sold to earn income. 3.5 Coffee waste compost Coffee waste compost can be produced by composting the coffee pulp and husks (see also Waste management). Coffee processing produces of huge volumes of coffee pulp as waste, either locally on the farm or centrally on a processing facility. Often this is burnt and produces smoke that pollutes the air. Coffee pulp, however, can be used to produce high quality compost that can be applied back on the coffee farms to supply nutrients. Coffee pulp organic compost can be made by mixing coffee husk, manure, and water and composting it at a temperature of about 60°C. This compost will mature and be ready to use in 4 months. The compost from coffee pulp and manure is rich in potassium and nitrogen, making it suitable for soil A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 31 improvement in coffee systems. Between 6 and 12 kg per plant (25-50 tons per hectare per year for densities < 5000 plants per hectare) can provide similar results as when using the recommended amount of mineral fertilizers. About 2500 kg pulp are produced with a yield of 1250 kg parchment coffee. Hence, this would allow fertilizing 104-208 plants with sufficient nutrients. Applying and incorporating this organic compost can result in an increase in stable soil organic matter. Other benefits include improvement in soil properties such as reduced soil erosion, improved water infiltration and soil aeration, accelerated decomposition of soil minerals over time, and enhanced soil microbial biodiversity, which can help suppress diseases and pests. 3.6 Biochar Biochar is a charcoal-like substance obtained by the burning of organic waste under oxygen-restricted conditions (Figure 17). This can be produced from coffee pulp. Biochar can be applied on the surface of the soil as a soil amendment to improve soil functions (e.g., by increasing pH and soil fertility), enhancing water holding capacity and reducing land degradation. Because of its high levels of potassium, biochar is used as an organic substitute, replacing chemical fertilizers used to provide the soil and coffee plant with sufficient potassium. Biochar can also be added to organic compost to increase the levels of carbon in the mixture. The quality of the biochar strongly depends on the feedstock (i.e., organic inputs used) and pyrolysis protocol (i.e., temperature profile to produce biochar), which has led to difficulties in comparing effects on soil fertility and the amount required for intended effects in the research literature. However, the positive effects on soil carbon storage are well evidenced, and there is an indication that biochar can act as a nitrification inhibitor, therefore reducing GHG emissions. Therefore, biochar contributes to climate-change mitigation and adaptation; however, there is a lack of knowledge on costs, site-specific benefits, and practical guidelines for high-quality biochar production. When produced in large amounts, biochar can have impressive carbon sequestration properties. By being applied and stored in the soil for hundreds of years, it stores carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Compost Adding biochar enhances composting process ∙ Reduces GHG ∙ Accelerates composting process ∙ ”Charges” biochar with nutrients ∙ Reduces nutrient leaching ∙ Reduces ammonia volatilization New revenue stream ∙ Used as a building material mixed into plaster, made into bricks Coffee crops Adding biochar as soil amendment ∙ Increases yield ∙ Decreases fertilizer inputs ∙ May increase disease resistance ∙ Improve soil water management Biochar Plant prunings/ leaf litter Wastewater filtration ∙ Filters production runoff Biochar production ∙ Produces heat for applications such as cooking or drying ∙ Generates energy Soil Amendment Carbon Sequestration Residue Management Other Uses Coffee pulp/husk parchment Figure 17. Biochar production and application in coffee farming. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems32 Any management practice that results in greater carbon return to the soil increases stabilization of soil C, or reduces C losses that may lead to soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in the soil. Given this, the use of livestock and other manure forms, compost, biochar, mulching, intercropping and recycled use of coffee residues are on-farm practices that can increase carbon sequestration in soils. Biochar has a particularly high potential for soil carbon sequestration. If biochar is produced using a pyrolysis system rather than hand/homemade, the quality can be standardized, and the heat produced can be used to dry the coffee beans. 3.7 Fertilizer application Coffee requires an adequate and timely supply of both macro- and micronutrients. The nutrients can be supplied from various sources such as fertilizers, manure, or compost. Fertilizer programs are based on established inherent soil fertility characteristics and expected production levels. Soil testing is critical to know the status of the soil and determine which nutrients to apply. The essential macronutrients – elements required in large quantities – include primary macronutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), and the secondary macronutrients required in moderately- high quantities such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S). Micronutrients are required in very small quantities but are essential for plant growth. They include zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and chlorine (Cl). Lack of any of the nutrients in the soil is manifested through nutrient-deficiency symptoms, poor coffee health and reduced productivity. Conventional fertilizers provide plants with three main nutrients, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, but soils are often deficient in secondary or micronutrients such as zinc or boron. Examples of compound fertilizers with primary nutrients NPK are 17:17:17 and 20:10:10, and are applied at a rate of approximately 250g per tree six months before flowering based on the soil analysis report. For new coffee plants, soil-applied inorganic fertilizers should be applied at the rate of 50g/tree/application. This can be conducted with up to four applications per year. For mature coffee, inorganic fertilizers are applied alternatively at the rate of 100g/tree/application or as per soil analysis recommendation. Four applications can be made in a year in the months of March, May, August and November. The use of blended fertilizers that contain both macro and micronutrients will ensure that the coffee trees receive all the required nutrients for healthy growth and higher yields. Spreading varied compost sources and biochar on the farms around the coffee trees seasonally can bolster plant health and coffee yields. Figure 18. Granular fertilizer can be applied as a ring around the coffee tree just before the cropping season. (Source: Rainforest Alliance). https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/business/certification/early-feedback-on-the-new-certification-program-kyagalanyi-coffee-shares-their-implementation-experience/ A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 33 4: Practices for achieving integrated crop- livestock management (ICLM) Fertilizer program and placement Appropriate fertilizer types and application rates depend on overall soil fertility status, coffee plant age, planting density, and yield objectives, and can be determined through soil analysis. ■ There are various coffee nutrition programs depending on the developmental stage of the plant. ■ Fertilizers can be granular or in liquid form. Granular fertilizer can be applied and mixed with soil at planting, or as a ring around the coffee tree just before the cropping season (Figure 18). ■ Liquid fertilizers are formulations of soluble fertilizers often applied to the coffee tree foliage to supplement soil-applied fertilizers, correcting nutrient deficiency and supplementing nutrient availability where soil nutrient uptake is impeded during dry weather, cold spells or other nutrient lockup. When utilizing manure from on-farm livestock, its storage and application must be considered. A step-by- step approach to this is provided below: 1. Manure should be collected directly within animal housing/enclosures (to prevent loss of any dung or urine) using a waterproof floor and a cover against rain. Loss of urine should be prevented as it is a valuable source of nitrogen and potassium fertilizer. 2. Manure should be stored and left undisturbed until the first mixing of compost piles approximately four weeks after collection. 3. Major losses in ammonia released from animal manure can be avoided by covering the manure with an inexpensive plastic cover and changing the distribution method of manure from surface application to rapid below-ground incorporation (Figure 19). 4. Apply well-rotted manure to the coffee and other crops at the time when crops need the nutrients. 5. Manure can be placed on soils around the coffee trees seasonally. 6. Cover or plough the manure into the soil and cover with mulch. If family-sized digesters are accessible for Kenyan coffee farmers, generating biogas from manure in these digesters is another valid option for mitigating GHG emissions. Importing purchased animal feeds is also costly and boosts GHG emissions. Thus, using intercrops (such as leguminous fodder) and coffee waste by-products (i.e. coffee pulp and husks) as alternative animal-feed sources is a crucial element of ICLM in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems34 Figure 19. Covering manure prevents nitrogen loss through leaching, run-of and volatilization. (Source: adapted from ILRI). 5: Practices to achieve Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) The main working practices which contribute to integrated pest-disease management in Regenerative Coffee Agriculture are summarized and detailed below (Figure 20). Many of the listed approaches are common farming practices which can be guided by the official coffee growing manuals. 5.1 Possible approaches for achieving IPDM: 5.1.1 Increase plant and natural predator biodiversity to facilitate natural pest and disease control by enabling appropriate habitats and avoiding the use of broad-spectrum pesticides. 5.1.2 Avoid microclimates that are favorable for pests and diseases (e.g., high intra-canopy humidity) through cultural practices such as appropriate planting designs, regular pruning, and shade management. 5.1.3 Use pest and disease-resistant varieties, and rehabilitate/renovate aging coffee trees. 5.1.4 Improve soil health and plant nutrition to enhance the plants’ natural defenses. 5.1.5 Create natural barriers and/or make use of traps to prevent the spread of pests and diseases across the farm and region. 5.1.6 Anticipate and monitor the early onset of key pests and/or diseases using early warning systems or weather data e.g., ExpeRoya for monitoring of coffee leaf rust. Keep good records of annual pests and disease prevalence and control practices as well as any noticeable links to weather patterns. 5.1.7 Moderate the coffee field micro-climate through cultural practices such as pruning of coffee plants and nearby shade trees. This can help to increase rainfall wash-off, lower the intra-canopy humidity levels and allow for better air circulation which can reduce favorable conditions for fungal pathogens. 5.1.8 Favor the use of biological pesticides and control agents, as well as selective pesticides at low dosages, only when pest/disease populations reach an economic threshold. 5.1.9 Establish new coffee plantations using plantlets from healthy, pest-disease-free sources. https://edepot.wur.nl/362491 A handbook for practitioners in Kenya 35 5.2 Agroforestry as a pest and disease management tool With increasing habitat complexity comes an improvement in ecological pest-disease control and overall plant health. Therefore, the biodiversity which exists within a coffee Agroforestry System (AFS) can become a part of a coffee Regenerative Agriculture IPDM by helping to reduce dependency on pesticides in coffee farming. This is achieved through the shaded environment and plant species abundance which provide habitats for antagonists and natural native enemies of coffee pests and diseases. The context of agroforestry within the landscape matrix can further improve ecological pest-disease control through enabling ecological connectivity with forest remnants and other land uses of high ecological value. 1. Planning, record keeping & forecasting 2. Pest trapping & monitoring 4. Biological control 5. Chemical control 3. Cultural control & sanitation Integrated Pest & Disease Management (IPDM) Figure 20. The basis of an Integrated Pest and Disease Management system is to use a variety of approaches. Priority should be placed on forecasting, prevention, monitoring and then control of the outbreak of a pest or pathogen in the coffee field. ! A word of caution concerning the use of shade trees and coffee pest- disease interactions: AFS can also act as an environmental buffer to the very pests and diseases which a coffee farmer is attempting to control. Given this, on-farm management practices (such as timely pruning of shade trees) can be used to avoid favorable microclimate modifications for the pests or pathogens. High humidity with coffee AFS was repeatedly found to promote the severity of foliar coffee fungal pathogens such as Hemileia vastatrix (causal agent of CLR), Colletotrichum kahawae and Mycena citricolor. Given this finding, densely shaded coffee AFS must be avoided if leaf diseases are of concern. Another example of how AFS should be used with caution in coffee Regenerative Agriculture is found in the case of Black Coffee Twig Borer (BCTB). Infestation by this beetle is suppressed when dense canopies of sap-exuding shade trees are grown together with coffee. ,On the other hand, some research including farmer surveys have highlighted the potential of Ficus spp. and Albizia chinensis as an alternative host to the BCTB. However, it is not certain that the benefits of using these species outweigh the costs associated with BCTB. Other plant species such as Almeidea rubra, Alseis floribunda, Plinia grandifolia and Casearia sylvestris may also serve as alternate hosts for BCTB. Farmers who are confronted with BCTB should weigh up the costs-benefits of using these particular species together with coffee production especially when planning conversion to Regenerative Agricultural practices. Regenerative Agriculture in Coffee Farming Systems36 5.3 Biological control agents (BCA) Biological control agents (BCA) include the use of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens to control a specific pest and /or disease (Figure 21). BCA are compatible with coffee Regenerative Agriculture as they offer an alternative to the use of chemical pesticides (i.e. insecticides and fungicides). Several known and trialed BCA are available for use on coffee farms (Table 2); however efficacy varies according to environmental demands of the BCA, handling and timing of applications. Given this, many BCA still require further in-field testing for some of the major coffee pests and diseases. Cephalonomia stephanoderis (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Coffee Berry Borer (CBB) Prorops nasuta (Source: Jaramillo & Vega, 2009) (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Coffee Berry Borer Cathartus quadricollis, (Source: SNSB, Zoologische Staatssammlung Muenchen). Natural enemy of CBB and Black Coffee Twig Borer Leptophloeus sp., Natural enemy of CBB and Black Coffee Twig Borer Vespidae spp (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Coffee Leaf Miner (CLM) Anoline lizards (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of CLM Ceraeochrysa cubana (Credit: Zimlich, 2011). Natural enemy of CLM Mirax insularis (Source: Gallardo et al 2008). Natural enemy of CLM Diomus spp. (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Green Coffee Scale Coccinellids (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Green Coffee Scale Coccophagus rusti (Source: Wikipedia). Natural enemy of Green Coffee Scale Female Phymastichus coffea. (Source: Dr G