Accelerating Methane Reductions in Rice Production in Southeast Asia Workshop Report 11-13 March 2025 Manila, Philippines Summary Report 11-13 March 2025 Makati, Philippines 1 About this report: This report summarizes the discussions during the regional stakeholder dialogue and project launch workshop organized by the International Rice Research Institute on Accelerating Methane Reductions in Rice Production in Southeast Asia—Regional Launching and Consultation Workshop, held on 11 to 13 March 2025 in Manila, Philippines. This regional stakeholder consultation was carried out jointly by the newly launched project on Accelerating scaling of Low- Emissions Rice in Southeast Asia (AcceLER), funded by Global Methane Hub (A-2024-18); Accelerating methane reductions in rice production systems through market-based mechanisms (AMR), funded by Clean Climate and Air Coalition (A-2022-110), and the Methane Accelerator in Southeast Asia project (MASEA) (A-2023-108). Citation: International Rice Research Institute. (2025). Accelerating Methane Reductions in Rice Production in Southeast Asia. Workshop Report, 11-13 March 2025, Manila, Philippines. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. Title page photo: Group photo during the second day of the workshop by Charena Escala Disclaimer: This report draws and summarizes content from the presentations, notes, flipcharts, mentimeter polls, and discussions made during the three-day event. An artificial intelligence (AI) was used to assist in the digitalization of handwritten notes and flipcharts scans, which was then carefully checked for any errors. The boundaries and names shown, and the designations used do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IRRI, our partner institutions, or donors. 2 Acknowledgements The report would not have been possible without the contributions of the numerous individuals and organizations that participated in the event. We would like to sincerely thank our country partners from Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam for their invaluable contributions to the discussions held at the workshop and making this report feasible. We express our sincere gratitude to all the presenters and speakers for sharing their expertise on their country experiences, MRV systems, and climate finance. This report was prepared by Karen Pajadan and Tobiah Gonzalez. Substantive inputs and peer- review have been provided by Christian Dohrmann, Alisher Mirzabaev, Katherine Nelson, Bjoern Ole Sander, and Bui Tan Yen. Bun Leanghak, Vorayuth Pakachaipong, Vu Hong Trang, and Rujirat Wongchandaeng provided notes and supplemental information on the workshop discussions further contributing to the development of this report. Our gratitude is extended to the organizing committee Ma. Potenciana Caisip, Christian Dohrmann, Mary Grace Salabsabin-Cayanan and our local coordinators in each countries for ensuring the coordination and accommodation of participants and the workshop’s logistics. We also thank Charena Escala, Ruby Panela, and David Saguid, for their documentation of the event through media coverage, with articles as well as photo- and videography. The International Rice Research Institute expresses its special appreciation to our donor organizations, the Global Methane Hub and the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, for their support, which made this event and publication possible. 3 Executive Summary Rice production is a key component of food security in Southeast Asia; it is also a major contributor to methane emissions, accounting for 10 to 12 percent of agriculture-related greenhouse gases. With global rice demand projected to increase by 30 percent by 2050, the challenge of reducing methane emissions while maintaining food security is urgent. Compounding this issue, rising temperatures threaten to reduce rice yields by 10 percent for every 1°C increase, while irrigation already consumes over half of Asia’s freshwater resources. Despite the availability and growing adoption of low-emission rice technologies such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR), and improved rice straw residue management, inadequate monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems are currently preventing accurate and timely assessments of their adoption rates and trends, and subsequent accounting in the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in the region. Moreover, adoption of methane- reducing technologies has not been so far accompanied by improved farmer livelihoods and incomes from rice production in the region. More research is needed for filling knowledge gaps on how shifting to low-emission rice is contributing to adaptive capacities and climate resilience of usually small-scale and impoverished rice farmers in Southeast Asia. Addressing these challenges requires stronger policy frameworks, targeted investments, and accurate, timely, transparent, and affordable MRV systems. In this regard, a coordinated regional approach can help accelerate methane reduction efforts through harnessing the synergies from collaboration. Governments in Southeast Asia aim to develop clear, actionable roadmaps for scaling low-emission rice technologies in ways that improve the competitiveness and viability of their rice sectors. Digital tools and remote sensing technologies are being currently developed to improve transparency and provide accurate, high resolution, high frequency data for emissions reduction tracking. This regional stakeholder consultation workshop aimed to foster knowledge-sharing and enable countries to leverage insights on the best practices for advancing GHG mitigation in the rice sector as part of the NDCs. The workshop also had the objective of promoting regional collaborations across Southeast Asia on rice GHG reductions and MRV. Key objectives achieved by the workshop are: i) shared experiences in adoption bottlenecks for climate-smart practices in rice production, ii) established new collaborations and partnerships, iii) discussed representative MRV pilot sites across the Southeast Asia region, and iv) identified entry points for aligning national policies, investments, and innovations to support climate mitigation and adaptation in the rice sector that can enable Southeast Asian countries to achieve their rice GHG mitigation targets while promoting livelihoods and welfare of rice producers and consumers. 4 Table of Contents 1. Background ............................................................................................................................................... 9 2. Objectives ................................................................................................................................................. 10 3. Participants ............................................................................................................................................. 11 4. Workshop Outline .................................................................................................................................. 12 5. Findings and Recommendations for Low Emission Rice ....................................................... 13 6. Workshop Discussions by Key Sessions ................................................................................................. 14 6.1. Session 1. Gaps and Opportunities in Policy and Implementation of Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification ............................................................................................................................. 14 6.2. Session 2. Farmer surveys on adoption of methane-reducing technologies and willingness to engage with carbon markets ............................................................................................ 20 6.3. Session 3. Experiences from Implementing MRV Activities, Challenges, and Solutions .... 23 6.4. Session 4. Tools Enhancing MRV Efficacy ................................................................................................. 28 6.5. Session 5. MRV Pilot Sites ................................................................................................................................. 30 6.6. Session 6. Financial Pathways for Low-Emission Rice Projects.......................................................33 6.7. Session 7. Setting NDC Priority Agendas .................................................................................................. 35 6.8. Session 8. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the agricultural sector ......... 37 6.9. Session 9. Policy changes needed to support carbon mitigation in the rice sector ............. 38 6.10. Session 10. How can we integrate the private sector for a key role in financing the gap for low-emission initiatives? ............................................................................................................................ 39 6.11. Session 11. The role of research organizations in supporting low-emission rice initiatives ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 6.12. Session 12. The role of development organizations in supporting low-emission rice initiatives ................................................................................................................................................................... 41 7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 43 8. Annex ........................................................................................................................................................ 44 8.1. Concept Note .......................................................................................................................................................... 44 8.2. Agenda ....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 8.3. List of the Participants categorized by their country and institutional affiliation ............... 51 8.4. Photographic documentation ......................................................................................................................... 53 8.5. Reported MRV suitable areas, methodologies, strategies, tools and agenda priorities, by country ....................................................................................................................................................................... 59 5 List of Figures Figure 1. Challenges and Solutions for Cambodia’s GHG Inventory for the Rice Sector ........................ 15 Figure 2. Companies implementing AWD Projects in the Philippines .................................................. 16 Figure 3. Thailand’s Top-down policy actions delivering co-benefits for the rice sector ....................... 17 Figure 4. Key challenges and Solutions to Viet Nam’s MRV System ..................................................... 19 Figure 5. Survey sites in Thailand, Viet Nam, and Philippines .............................................................. 20 Figure 6. Current irrigation practices in the Philippines ...................................................................... 21 Figure 7. Comparison of Rice Yields Across Irrigation Regimes in Vietnam: Results from the Kruskal- Wallis Test ................................................................................................................................ 21 Figure 8. Farmers’ Acceptable Payment per Hectare for for CSA Implementation, Philippines CSA Implementation in the Philippines ................................................................................................. Figure 9. Farmers’ Acceptable Payment per Hectare for CSA Implementation, Thailand ...................... 23 Figure 10. The RICE-GEM digital platform for Rice GHG Quantification and MRV .................................. 30 Figure 11. Carbon Credit Price Scenarios for AWD Adoption ............................................................... 34 Figure 12. Mentimeter Responses for policy changes supporting carbon mitigation in the rice sector. . 39 Figure 13. Mentimeter responses for attracting private sector engagement in mitigation finance ......... 40 Figure 14. Mentimeter responses on the role of research and development organizations in supporting low-emission rice programs ....................................................................................................... 42 6 List of Abbreviations 1M5R 1 Must do, 5 Reductions AKCMM ASEAN-Korea Cooperation for Methane Mitigation AMIA Adaptation and Mitigation Initiative in Agriculture AMR Accelerating Methane Reduction in Rice-based Systems AWD Alternate Wetting and Drying BTR Biennial Transparency Report CO₂ Carbon Dioxide CSA Climate-Smart Agricultural DNDC-ORYZA Denitrification-Decomposition Model in synergy with IRRI’s Rice Growth and GHG simulation Model DSR Direct Seeding of Rice ESG Environmental, Social, and Governance ETS Emissions Trading Scheme FarMoRe Farm Activity Monitoring and Reporting GHG Greenhouse Gas GPS Global Positioning System IMI Integrated Methane Inversion JCM Joint Crediting Mechanism LLL Land Laser Leveling MASEA Methane Accelerator for Southeast Asia MRV Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action NDC Nationally Determined Contribution PA Purchase Agreements. PPGCPs Public-Private-Grassroots-Community Partnerships PPPPs Public-Private-Producer Partnerships PPP Public-Private Partnerships PRiSM Philippine Rice Information System RCMAS Rice Crop Manager Advisory Service RICE-GEM Rice Computation Engine for Greenhouse Gas Emissions RiceMoRe Rice Activity Monitoring and Reporting System RSM Rice Straw Management SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar SECTOR Source-selective and Emission-adjusted GHG Calculator Tool for Cropland 7 SLCP Short-Lived Climate Pollutant SSNM Site-Specific Nutrient Management TCP Technical Cooperation Program TGEIS Thailand Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory System TGO Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization TROPOMI Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument TRVC Transforming Rice Value Chains T-VERs Thailand Voluntary Emission Reduction Program TWG Technical Working Group UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Institutions ADB Asian Development Bank ARDA Agricultural Research Development Agency ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BOA Bureau of Accreditation CAA Clean Air Asia CAO Commune Agricultural Officers CCAC Climate and Clean Air Coalition CCC Climate Change Commission DA Department of Agriculture DA-CRAO Department of Agriculture Climate Resilient Agriculture Office DAPAI Department of Agricultural Land Management and Planning DCP Department of Crop Production DCCE Department of Climate Change and Environment DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources DOAE Department of Agricultural Extension DRC Department of Rice Crops FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GCF Green Climate Fund GDA General Directorate of Agriculture GISTDA Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development 8 IPSARD Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development IRRI International Rice Research Institute KU Kasetsart University LGU Local Government Unit MARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development PDAFF Provincial Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries PDOE Provincial Departments of Environment PhilRice Philippine Rice Research Institute PPC Provincial People’s Committees PSA Philippine Statistics Authority Sub-DCP Sub-departments of Crop Production TGO Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Units of Measurement °C Degrees Celsius km Kilometers m/s Meters per second percent Percentage 9 1. Background Southeast Asia is a global rice basket that is essential for food security both at national, regional, and international levels. Rice farming is both a major source of GHG emissions contributing to climate change, and also a victim of the impacts of climate change. In support of the Paris Agreement, the countries of the region have developed their NDCs to mitigate GHG emissions, including from the rice sectors. There has been some progress in GHG inventory and monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV), and sector policy planning in the course of each NDC development. However, the ASEAN State of Climate Change Report 2021 indicates a significant region-wide ambition gap and that greater commitments to emissions reduction are needed. To take emission mitigation efforts further, transparent and efficient MRV systems in rice production are required to guide national mitigation efforts. IRRI seeks to accelerate research, partnerships, and scaling efforts that advance low-emission rice production and sustainable agricultural practices. For that purpose, IRRI is implementing several projects on climate change mitigation in rice-based systems in Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam, with each having its own but mutually synergistic focus: • Methane Accelerator for Southeast Asia (MASEA) project on assessing economic viability, regulations, policies, and practices that influence GHG emissions in rice. • Accelerating the Scaling of Low-emissions Rice Production in Southeast Asia (AcceLER) project on developing and improving rice emission MRV systems. • Accelerating Methane Reduction in Rice-based Systems (AMR) project identifying rice sector financing and carbon market opportunities to support climate change mitigation. To create synergies across these projects and national stakeholders, a regional consultation workshop was convened from 11 March to 13 March 2025 in Manila, Philippines, to present and discuss the latest project findings, refine policy and MRV-related recommendations, and identify avenues for scaling up low emission rice sector financing and private-sector engagement. 10 2. Objectives The consultation workshop facilitated project milestones under the respective IRRI projects as well as serving as an entry point for future policy dialogues, training, and ongoing collaborative activities on GHG mitigation in rice at regional and national levels. In summary, the workshop objectives were to: 1. Disseminate Key Research Findings and Co-develop Policy Options • Share results of willingness-to-pay choice experiments and farmer surveys in the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam, exchange on the lessons learned from implementing MRV tools (e.g., RiceMoRe). • Serve as a forum for discussions with country representatives and stakeholders on existing regulations, policy gaps, potential of carbon markets, and recommendations for improvement. • Explore region-specific constraints and opportunities to ensure tailored and synergistic solutions. 2. Explore Applied MRV Experiences and Facilitate Cross-country Exchanges • Showcase successful national experiences and encourage peer-to-peer knowledge exchanges on MRV. • Discuss options to integrate MRV frameworks into broader national and regional climate and agricultural strategies. • Provide information on MRV tools, remote sensing, drone-based data collection, GHG modeling. • Support country teams in forming or strengthening MRV technical working groups. 3. Enhance Climate Finance Engagement and Private Sector Opportunities • Discuss how these findings can inform climate finance, carbon credit projects, and overall policy development. • Highlight business models and carbon market opportunities for private sector involvement in GHG mitigation in rice. • Discuss strategies to leverage climate finance mechanisms, carbon credits, and innovative partnerships. 11 3. Participants The consultation workshop was attended by 66 representatives from national government agencies, international and regional organizations, and the civil society, including IRRI, with expertise in greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture, MRV, and climate finance. The workshop included participants from Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, The Philippines, Thailand, the United States of America, and Viet Nam, as follows: Governmental and associated agencies by country International development agencies by country Cambodia Department of Administration, Planning, Accounting and International Cooperation, General Directorate of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Cambodia International Fund for Agricultural Development Cambodia Department of Climate Change, Ministry of Environment Ghana Global Methane Hub Cambodia Department of Rice Crop, General Department of Agriculture (GDA), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Philippines Food and Agriculture Organization Cambodia Faculty of Agro-Industry, Royal University of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Philippines Climate and Clean Air Coalition Cambodia General Directorate of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Philippines Clean Air Asia Cambodia Office of Environmental Impact Assessment, Department of Planning and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Philippines Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) Indonesia Agricultural Instrument Standardization Agency (BSIP), Ministry of Agriculture Philippines Asian Development Bank Lao PDR National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Philippines Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Malaysia Agrobiodiversity and Environment Research Center, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security Thailand Global Green Growth Institute Philippines Field Programs Operational Planning Division, Department of Agriculture Thailand Public Advisory, The Creagy Company Ltd. Philippines Office of the Deputy Executive Director for Research, Philippine Rice Research Institute, Department of Agriculture USA Purdue University Viet Nam Food and Agriculture Organization and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Philippines Rice Industry Development, Department of Agriculture Thailand Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Kasetsart University Thailand Office of Agricultural Economics, Bureau of Agricultural Economic Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Thailand Rice Science Division, Rice Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Viet Nam Department of Natural Resource and Environmental Economics, Institute for Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development (IPSARD) Viet Nam Food and Cash Crops Division, Department for Crop Production (DCP), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Viet Nam Institute for Agricultural Environment (IAE), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 12 4. Workshop Outline The Accelerating Methane Reductions in Rice Production in Southeast Asia—Regional Launching and Consultation Workshop was held on March 11-13, 2025 in Manila, Philippines. It featured presentations from government representatives from Cambodia, The Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam, IRRI scientists, and specialists from development partners, followed by question-and- answer forums. Country-specific issues for Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam were discussed through breakout group discussions. A panel discussion on the role of GHG emissions reductions in the NDCs brought together Dr. Mai Van Trinh (Viet Nam), Dr. Eduardo Jimmy Quilang (The Philippines), Dr. Chitnucha Buddhaboon (Thailand), and Dr. Sorn Vitchet (Cambodia). Plenary discussions assisted by Mentimeter polls provided an avenue to engage with all participants. On Day 1, the sessions focused on setting the policy context for low-emission rice production in Southeast Asia. The workshop opened with an introduction to IRRI’s work and the launch of the AcceLER project in collaboration with the Global Methane Hub. Presentations from Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam provided insights into national regulatory frameworks, MRV systems, and GHG mitigation efforts in these countries. The presentations on the results of the farmer choice experiments and surveys in the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam made by IPSARD, Kasetsart University, and IRRI highlighted the potential role of incentives to accelerate farmers’ adoption of low-emission rice production practices and integration of the rice sector in carbon markets. Round table discussions highlighted current gaps and opportunities for low- emission rice projects in each country. IFAD shared experiences on financing mechanisms for low-emission rice projects, and FAO presented advancements in remote-sensing technologies for measuring methane emissions. On Day 2, discussions focused on deepening technical insights into implementing Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) including novel digital tools, satellite, and drone-based remote sensing technologies to improve monitoring. Group discussions highlighted key challenges and opportunities for enhancing the farm-level activity data collection, and strengthening national greenhouse gas reporting systems. Participants also identified observation sites for testing and scaling of MRV technologies and the low-emission practices that they would consider including in their national strategies. The day concluded with a panel discussion on national experiences with implementing the Nationally Determined Contributions, GHG Inventory reporting, and MRV development. Discussions during Day 3 of the workshop centered on integrating the rice sector into climate finance, featuring partner presentations on sustainable finance mechanisms and investment opportunities for GHG mitigation in the rice sector. Country representatives and experts discussed strategies for developing rice carbon projects, including pathways in developing carbon markets, and public and private sector collaborations. Group discussions identified priorities for NDC planning and how collaboration across the workshop participants can provide support to national emissions reduction efforts. The event concluded with a plenary discussion on regional collaboration opportunities on reducing rice GHG emissions, and potential policy interventions to increase engagement with the private sector. 13 5. Findings and Recommendations for Low Emission Rice National policies and programs on GHG mitigation in the rice sector need to be mutually aligned, with clear financing roadmaps. There is a need to establish clear methane emission reduction targets for the rice sector, ensuring that mitigation efforts are effectively integrated into national climate strategies. For all NDC targets, both conditional and unconditional, it is essential to design financing roadmaps to attract finance. Successful pilot mitigation programs should be scaled up to the national levels, for example, building on Thailand’s Rice NAMA and Viet Nam’s program on Sustainable Development of One Million Hectares of High Quality and Low-Emission Rice Associated with Green Growth in The Mekong River Delta By 2030. Wider sets of market-driven strategies are needed to increase demand for low-emission high-quality rice. To attract finance for low-emission rice projects, the focus should shift from treating carbon credits as the primary objective to positioning rice sector sustainability and mitigation as the central value propositions across multiple policy, financing and investment tools. This also includes developing market linkages for certified sustainable rice through premium pricing. Bundling of low-emission rice practices, MRV approaches, institutions, financing, and policies needs to be done accounting for each country’s characteristics. Low-emission rice packages, involving the bundling of technological, institutional, financial, and policy options, must be tailored specific to the country’s unique agro-ecological characteristics, adoption suitability, and institutional capacities. During the workshop, the country representatives also emphasized the need for training, knowledge-sharing, and the stocktaking of existing technologies. Furthermore, there is a need to assess the country’s level of readiness for transitioning to low emission rice and initiate projects to help all ASEAN countries to catch up with the most advanced, and facilitate cross-country collaboration. Leveraging novel technologies can enhance MRV efficacy and accelerate the scaling of rice mitigation projects. The workshop highlighted key digital innovations, such as RiceMoRe, FarMoRe, and Thailand’s Farmer Registration Form to help streamline farm activity data collection and support Tier 2 GHG inventories. The potential of remote sensing technologies using drones and satellite imagery to enhance MRV through high-resolution remote sensing and project monitoring were also showcased. Advanced modeling tools, including the Integrated Methane Inversion (IMI) model, DNDC-ORYZA, and The Rice Computation Engine for Greenhouse Gas Emissions (RICE-GEM) can help with GHG modelling by integrating satellite data, digital MRV platforms, and emissions estimation APIs. Utilizing these innovations in national reporting and rice carbon projects can reduce MRV costs and provide viable solutions to scale emissions reduction efforts in the rice sector. Dedicated enabling institutions are needed to drive policy implementation and stakeholder coordination for MRV and low-emission rice systems. The workshop identified locations where rice MRV can be implemented. Capacity building. Capacity building emerged as a critical need. Different sectors require tailored training programs to ensure a clear understanding across national and local levels of carbon markets, emissions reduction strategies, and their implications. Enhanced capacity building would facilitate more effective information sharing, broaden stakeholders' understanding of key concepts, and equip institutions with the necessary skills to support coordinated implementation. Coordination among agencies and data management is a vital area for support as the available data remain fragmented, leading to inefficiencies in monitoring and reporting. 14 6. Workshop Discussions by Key Sessions 6.1. Session 1. Gaps and Opportunities in Policy and Implementation of Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification This session explored the gaps and opportunities in the policy and implementation of Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) systems for the rice sector across Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. While each country has made progress in developing policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, challenges remain in translating these policies into effective on-the- ground actions. Addressing these gaps through strengthened policy enforcement, financial support, and stakeholder engagement presents a significant opportunity to enhance MRV implementation and achieve climate goals. I. Cambodia Cambodia has established policies to support the reduction of GHG emissions in the agricultural sector, reflecting a clear commitment to climate action. However, the implementation of these policies remains limited, posing a significant challenge to achieving meaningful progress. One major obstacle is the absence of a structured mechanism to capture and monitor low-emission practices, making it difficult to assess progress and scale up successful strategies. To address these gaps, identifying and implementing suitable technologies and practices for reducing emissions in rice production is essential. In Cambodia, various low-emission technologies have been introduced, including straw management practices where farmers collect rice straw. Additionally, farmers are adopting Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) as a water management technique. However, the parameters for evaluating these technologies remain broad and not clearly defined. While Cambodia has made progress in identifying areas where water can be controlled to support low-emission rice cultivation, further efforts are needed to determine how to set NDC implementation areas and use collected data to establish precise emission reduction goals. Selecting solutions that are not only effective in lowering emissions but also practical and beneficial for farmers is crucial. Technologies that offer dual advantages—contributing to emission reductions while increasing farmers' incomes—are more likely to gain acceptance and lead to long-term adoption. Equally important is the need for capacity building among both researchers and farmers. Providing training programs and facilitating knowledge exchange can enhance their understanding of climate-smart agricultural practices, leading to more effective implementation of low-carbon technologies on the ground. In addition to technical support, financial incentives can act as a powerful driver for the transition to low-emission practices. Promoting premium pricing as an incentive for sustainably produced rice can further encourage broader adoption. Strengthening policy implementation by integrating financial incentives and establishing a monitoring system for low-emission practices can help bridge the gap between policy support and on-the-ground action. 15 Figure 1. Challenges and Solutions for Cambodia’s GHG Inventory for the Rice Sector Source: Cambodia’s Country Presentation by Dr. Sorn Vichet. II. Philippines The Philippines faces both challenges and opportunities in establishing a robust MRV system for the rice sector. While the country has a GHG inventory that employs a combination of Tier 1 and Tier 2 methodologies, it lacks a sector-specific strategy for reducing emissions in rice production. To achieve its NDC goals, the country must pursue comprehensive policy reforms to develop an effective and cost-efficient MRV system. With a 75 percent GHG emission reduction commitment under its NDC by 2030—72.3 percent of which is conditional on international support — the Philippines require a clear and integrated MRV framework to attract the necessary climate finance. Further complicating implementation are institutional challenges. The political will for methane reduction initiatives is often tied to the incumbent administration creating uncertainty around long-term policy continuity. Additionally, the Philippines follows a bottom-up approach to NDC policy planning, where local governments independently decide which climate policies to implement. Combined with limited stakeholder engagement and coordination, this leads to fragmented efforts. The lack of institutionalized collaboration weakens knowledge-sharing and policy execution, resulting in inconsistencies that undermine the effectiveness of emission reduction programs. Another critical gap lies in the difficulty of demonstrating the economic benefits of rice methane reduction. Demonstrating these benefits is crucial to gaining the support of the private sector and financial institutions for these initiatives. A well-established proof of concept demonstrating that climate-smart agricultural practices maintain yield levels and farmer incomes can drive adoption, encourage private-sector investment, and reassure financial institutions of long-term profitability. Farmers also need assurance that these practices will not lead to yield penalties or reduced income. However, alongside these challenges are significant opportunities for the Philippines to strengthen its climate resilience through targeted policy and financial interventions. The upcoming update of the country’s NDC presents a valuable opportunity to incorporate specific rice mitigation methods and set clear reduction targets for 2035. Strengthening evidence-based 16 policy recommendations and consolidating research from various agencies can provide a robust scientific foundation for these decisions, supporting the development of regulatory frameworks that promote sustainable practices in the rice sector. A next step is to present the identified gaps and findings to the Department of Agriculture’s Undersecretary for Policy, Planning, and Regulations. This can serve as a catalyst for collaborative discussions on developing a clearer MRV policy, promoting coordinated action, and ensuring alignment with the country’s NDC goals. Additionally, tapping into climate financing mechanisms offers a significant opportunity. As one of the most climate-vulnerable countries, the Philippines has a strong case for securing international funding to support these initiatives in the rice sector. These funds can be directed toward infrastructure improvements, farmer incentives, and capacity-building programs, contributing to a more enabling environment for sustainable agricultural practices. Several companies have already initiated rice carbon projects in various provinces of the country (Figure 2). Meanwhile, political transitions present an opportunity to advance policy reforms. The upcoming elections provide a window to engage new leaders and policymakers and advocate for strengthened climate action in the rice sector. Engaging these leaders early and positioning them as advocates of sustainable practices can generate momentum for policy reform and implementation. Lastly, establishing a dedicated and centralized body can bridge the gap between government agencies, research institutions, and farmers, ensuring a more streamlined approach to implementation of MRV. Figure 2. Companies implementing AWD Projects in the Philippines Source: The Philippines’ Country Presentation by Dr. Jimmy Quilang. III. Thailand Thailand has made notable progress in advancing sustainable agricultural practices, yet significant challenges remain in effectively implementing its MRV system for the rice sector. While policies supporting low-emission rice production are in place, gaps in market integration and 17 practical implementation hinder progress. One of the challenges is the lack of effective market linkages for low-emission rice. Without clear pricing mechanisms and incentives, farmers may lack the motivation to adopt low-carbon practices. Establishing a transparent and reliable traceability system will ensure that low-carbon rice is accurately labeled and valued, boosting consumer confidence and supporting premium pricing. Another challenge lies in the identification of advocates within the farming community who can speak for and demonstrate the benefits of low-carbon rice production. In addition to prominent agricultural leaders, successful farmers who have effectively implemented climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices can serve as influential advocates. Furthermore, technological advancements are crucial to overcoming challenges in rice farming during the wet season. Optimizing CSA practices, introducing better-adapted low-GHG rice varieties, and crop diversification by integrating high-yielding varieties alongside rice can provide farmers with new opportunities. Establishing clear market pathways for low-carbon rice, empowering farmer advocates, and advancing agricultural technologies can help Thailand achieve its climate goals while improving farmer livelihoods. Thailand’s strength is the establishment of its Thailand Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory System (TGEIS), which is an excel based tool dedicated to centralize the collection of greenhouse gas emission data further enhancing and standardizing its data management system; an existing handbook providing guidelines for Monitoring, Reporting, and verification of Greenhouse Gas Inventory specific for the rice sector developed by the ONEP; and an existing certification mechanism for carbon credits through its Thailand-Voluntary Emission Reduction Program (T- VER). These existing guidelines and mechanisms enable the clear entry points, and operations for mitigation programs and carbon projects in Thailand's rice sector (Figure 3). Figure 3. Thailand’s Top-down policy actions delivering co-benefits for the rice sector Source: Thailand’s country presentation by Dr. Chitnucha Buddhaboon. IV. Viet Nam Viet Nam has made significant strides in developing policies to support low-emission rice production, but there remains a clear gap between policy and implementation. Translating the existing policies into concrete actions on the ground has proven challenging. One major hurdle is 18 the lack of funding to fully implement planned activities, creating a disconnect between what is outlined in policy documents and what is executed in the field. Additionally, there is a gap in the mechanisms—clear guidelines, well-defined benefits for stakeholders, and concrete implementation plans—needed to translate policy into field implementation making it difficult for policies to be effectively carried out. Moreover, gaps in the legal framework and resources hinder the implementation. Implementing an effective MRV system is a vital approach to monitor progress toward the country's NDC goals. However, financing remains a critical factor in operationalizing MRV implementation plans, even on a small scale, and subsequently scaling them up. A well- functioning MRV system is closely linked to Viet Nam's greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory. The inventory system should be mandated by the local government, with technical experts and officials responsible for its development and management. Establishing a comprehensive MRV system requires careful planning, actionable strategies, and measurable results, all of which necessitate financial resources. To bridge funding gaps, Viet Nam relies on a combination of domestic budgets and external financial support from international agencies. Technical expertise from various institutions further strengthens the system, ensuring alignment with international standards and facilitating knowledge exchange. Another challenge is the lack of sufficient incentives for the private sector, including businesses and cooperatives, to implement low-emission practices at scale. Without clear benefits, participation from these key stakeholders remains limited, slowing down the adoption of climate- smart practices. Another critical challenge is the absence of a market for low-carbon rice. While this presents a gap, it also represents a major opportunity to establish a new income source for farmers. Coupling MRV implementation with price premiums for low-emission rice or accessing carbon markets could provide additional financial support while encouraging the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. This market-based approach offers an opportunity to ensure the long-term sustainability of MRV systems while driving emissions reductions. However, there is uncertainty regarding consumer willingness to pay a premium for sustainably produced rice, highlighting the need to address knowledge gaps on the demand side. A successful transition to low-emission rice production requires promoting both supply and demand. Aside from premium pricing there are other opportunities to strengthen the low-emission rice sector. The government’s One Million Hectares program is a key initiative that aims to transition rice production to a low-emission, high-quality system while also increasing the awareness of consumers on its environmental benefits. Additionally, integrating the agricultural sector into the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) or voluntary carbon markets can create financial incentives for low-emission practices. 19 Figure 4. Key challenges and Solutions to Viet Nam’s MRV System Source: Viet Nam’s Country Presentation, by Le Trong Hai. V. Cross-country commonalities There are common challenges that hinder the effective implementation of MRV systems in the rice sector within these countries. While each country has shown commitment to reducing GHG emissions, gaps remain in policy enforcement, financial support, and stakeholder engagement. Limited incentives for private sector participation, weak market linkages for low-emission rice, and insufficient monitoring mechanisms are currently complicating progress. Additionally, knowledge gaps among consumers and farmers are restricting the widespread adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices. However, significant opportunities exist to address these challenges. Strengthening policy implementation through clear guidelines, capacity building, and financial incentives can drive the adoption of low-emission practices. Premium pricing for sustainably produced rice, increased consumer awareness, and participation in carbon markets offer pathways for financial support and market expansion. Additionally, empowering farmer advocates and fostering collaboration among stakeholders can further enhance the success of MRV systems. 20 6.2. Session 2. Farmer surveys on adoption of methane-reducing technologies and willingness to engage with carbon markets Figure 5. Survey sites in Thailand, Viet Nam, and Philippines Source: Presentation by Dr. Alisher Mirzabaev. Farmer surveys, employing a multistage sampling design, were conducted across the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam to assess the adoption of methane-reducing technologies and farmers' willingness to engage with carbon markets as part of the MASEA and AMR projects. Farmers across these countries are reliant on rice production as it is their primary source of income. Regulations and developments in the sector compelling them to change behavior will have a significant impact on their livelihood. Water shortages were a significant concern for farmers in all three countries. Most farmers in the Philippines reported experiencing water shortages during the last three dry seasons, while farmers in Viet Nam faced shortages regardless of the planting season. In Thailand, 51 percent of respondents faced similar challenges over the last three dry seasons. Water sources also varied, with the largest plots across surveyed sites in the Philippines and Thailand relying primarily on irrigation canals. In Viet Nam, however, farmers in the Mekong River Delta sourced water from rivers, streams, or natural canals, while those in the Red River Delta and Coastal Region mostly used irrigation canals. There is evidence to show that multiple drainage is being widely adopted by most farmers in Thailand and Viet Nam, while irrigation methods in the Philippines were more varied as shown in Figure 6. Farmers in Nueva Ecija and Iloilo predominantly used continuous flooding, whereas those in Davao del Sur applied multiple drainage. The adoption rates of multiple and single drainage, based on a basic water regime criterion, also reflected significant variation. Thailand and Viet Nam are leading in AWD adoption, with 80 percent of farmers in Thailand and 63 to 77 percent in Viet Nam practicing drainage, whereas the Philippines remained behind at only 29 percent. However, stricter criteria incorporating field observations and farmers' knowledge revealed much lower adoption rates of real Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), particularly in the Philippines (5 percent) and Viet Nam (7-8 percent). In contrast, Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) 21 adoption was notably higher, reaching 96 percent in Thailand, 89 percent to 96 percent in Viet Nam, and 37 percent in the Philippines. Figure 6. Current irrigation practices in the Philippines Source: Presentation by Dr. Alisher Mirzabaev. Despite these variations in adoption, further analysis using the Kruskal-Wallis test showed no statistically significant differences in net incomes and yields across irrigation regimes in the countries. The only exception was Soc Trang in Viet Nam, where single and multiple drainage were associated with slightly higher yields (Figure 7). This suggests that the choice of irrigation regime does not lead to substantial differences in agricultural productivity or financial returns. Figure 7. Comparison of Rice Yields Across Irrigation Regimes in Vietnam: Results from the Kruskal-Wallis Test Source: Presentation by Dr. Le Trong Hai. The surveys also highlighted distinct levels of awareness and adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies. In the Philippines, most farmers were not aware of AWD, DSR, 22 and RSM. In contrast, Thai and Vietnamese farmers showed a broader range of awareness, with many demonstrating at least slight familiarity with these technologies. This limited awareness about CSA practices in the Philippines may also explain why surveyed farmers in the Philippines expected significantly higher payments for CSA implementation (Figure 8) compared to those in Thailand (Figure 9). With lower familiarity, Philippine farmers may perceive greater risks and uncertainties when adopting these new practices. Interestingly, farmers from Davao who practiced multiple drainage reported lower payment expectations than those in the other two provinces, suggesting that hands-on experience can reduce perceived risks and financial concerns. Support systems for AWD adoption further reflected the importance of institutional involvement. Across all three countries, most respondents reported receiving support from national and local governments, primarily in the form of training and seminars. Meanwhile, farmers across regions expressed a strong preference for financial incentives, input subsidies, and free access to machinery as their preferred incentives for shifting to CSA practices. Regarding carbon market engagement, farmers in the Philippines and Thailand were presented with various scenarios involving carbon market programs that featured different rice farming technologies with lower methane emissions. The attributes included in the set choices were varying contract payment amounts, duration, and training access. In both countries, farmers preferred shorter-duration contracts, likely due to the average ages of farmers of about 59 and 58 years, respectively, making them hesitant to commit to long-term agreements. In Viet Nam, different attributes were emphasized in alignment with the country's political and governmental context. Farmers considered support services, compensation for additional costs, price premiums, and access to training. Notably, they showed a clear preference for options offering the highest Figure 8. Farmers’ Acceptable Payment per Hectare for for CSA Implementation, Philippines CSA Implementation in the Philippines Source: Presentation by Dr. Alisher Mirzabaev. 23 price premiums for low emission rice, indicating the substantial role financial incentives play in technology adoption. Figure 9. Farmers’ Acceptable Payment per Hectare for CSA Implementation, Thailand Source: Presentation by Dr. Orachos Napasintuwong. Overall, the survey results underscore the need for tailored interventions to enhance CSA technology adoption and carbon market participation. Increasing farmer awareness, providing targeted financial support, and ensuring accessible technical training are crucial to fostering a more resilient and low-emission agricultural sector in the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. By addressing these factors, policymakers and stakeholders can facilitate a smoother transition to sustainable farming practices and contribute to more effective climate action. 6.3. Session 3. Experiences from Implementing MRV Activities, Challenges, and Solutions This section presents the experiences of Southeast Asian countries in implementing MRV activities for the rice sector, highlighting the challenges they face and the solutions they are pursuing. While Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam have made notable progress in developing their MRV systems, gaps in data collection, reporting accuracy, and institutional capacity remain. By examining their experiences, insights can be gained to further strengthen MRV implementation and support the achievement of national and regional climate goals. I. Cambodia Cambodia encounters distinct challenges in implementing MRV activities, particularly in terms of data availability, collection methods, and institutional capacity. Currently, key information gaps include water regime data, including flood and dry periods and the duration of water use. 24 Additionally, more comprehensive data is needed on fertilizer usage, field operations, and residue management practices, such as whether straw is burned or incorporated. To enhance data collection methods and improve monitoring of emission changes as part of Cambodia’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), capacity-building efforts are necessary to strengthen the skills of relevant stakeholders and address data gaps. Developing robust networks for data collection and integrating additional parameters into GHG calculations will contribute to more accurate assessments. Establishing an effective monitoring system will further support transparent and reliable data reporting. Currently, rice farming data is collected through estimates provided by village leaders to commune officers. The types of data gathered weekly include information on land preparation, planting area, variety, yield, harvested area, climate risks, and market prices. To set baselines for rice emissions, Cambodia considers parameters such as water regime, fertilizer use, and residue management. These baseline emissions are calculated using the gathered data, though gaps in data collection processes may impact the accuracy of emissions estimates. Additionally, Cambodia lacks digital instruments specifically designed for the rice sector MRV. The absence of a comprehensive digital platform hinders the country’s ability to manage large-scale data collection, analysis, and reporting. After data collection, the approval and reporting process follows a structured pathway, starting at the commune level and advancing through the district and provincial levels. It then reaches the national level, where the General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA) submits the information to the Department of Planning and Statistics (DPS) and the Minister. To bridge the identified gaps, immediate priorities include capacity-building programs, funding support, and the recruitment of experts in data management and emissions monitoring. Developing digital databases and piloting these systems in select regions can generate valuable insights for scaling up the activities. Furthermore, establishing a clear MRV framework for rice production and strengthening institutional arrangements will contribute to the long-term sustainability of emissions monitoring and reporting efforts. II. Philippines In the Philippines, the implementation of MRV activities for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in rice farming has made some progress but continues to face challenges. One of the primary gaps is the absence of detailed and specific baseline data on rice farming practices. While some baseline data exists, it does not provide sufficient information to determine whether farmers are actively reducing GHG emissions through their practices. Additionally, PhilRice's Ricelytics dataset, updated through a five-year survey cycle, may not be sufficient for continuous monitoring. This interval creates a gap in the temporal scale, limiting the ability to capture seasonal or annual changes in farming practices and emissions. Although increasing the survey frequency could provide more accurate and timely data, it would require significant resources. Data on rice farming in the Philippines is collected through various methods and involves multiple stakeholders. In addition to Ricelytics, the Philippine Rice Information System (PRiSM) utilizes satellite imagery and remote sensing technology to generate landscape-level data. The Rice Crop Manager Advisory Service (RCMAS) collects data through farmer self-reporting and provides site- specific recommendations. Additionally, broader agricultural statistics are accessible through 25 the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). Identifying key parameters for data collection across these sources is essential to ensure efficiency and accuracy. In addition to leveraging existing datasets, incentives can open up opportunities for self- reporting mechanisms. The I-FARM program provides eligibility for free insurance to registered farmers. Furthermore, data fragmentation remains a challenge in MRV implementation. Various agencies collect data using different methodologies, making it difficult to standardize and consolidate information. To address this, the data management framework should be centralized, and data from different projects should be integrated into a national database. The need for clearer policies and stakeholder engagement has also been underscored in recent forums, such as the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) meeting. Establishing clearer guidelines and communication channels would facilitate greater involvement and ensure smoother implementation of MRV activities. Building on these insights, there is a timely opportunity to unite relevant stakeholders who play significant roles in MRV implementation. Establishing a dedicated Technical Working Group (TWG) would enhance cross-sector collaboration, ensuring alignment between national policies and NDC goals. A unified approach, supported by coordinated policy reforms, would strengthen the country’s MRV system, fostering transparency and accountability in emissions reporting. Achieving this level of coordination will require strong inter-agency collaboration, with clearly defined roles for each institution. Key stakeholders include the Climate Change Commission (CCC), Department of Agriculture and its Climate Resilient Agriculture Office (DA-CRAO), Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), and other relevant agencies. Research institutions like PhilRice are well-positioned to oversee monitoring and reporting, while independent third parties can conduct verification to ensure transparency and accuracy. Additionally, local government units (LGUs) and private sector stakeholders play a critical role in promoting data transparency and reliability. Recognizing the importance of private sector involvement, Japanese firms are investing in the development of project-level MRV systems. These partnerships provide valuable resources and technological expertise, strengthening monitoring and reporting mechanisms. Currently, PhilRice has a limited stock of gas chambers for emissions measurement, primarily located in Central Luzon. With continued support from Japanese companies, plans are underway to expand the observation sites. This expansion is essential for enhancing the accuracy of emissions parameters, bolstering the national MRV system, and effectively tracking emission reduction progress. Financial constraints remain a major hurdle, highlighting the pressing need for international support to sustain MRV activities, especially since 72.3 percent of the country’s NDC target for emission reductions is conditional. While MRV systems are essential for tracking baselines and emission reduction targets, their implementation costs should not burden farmers. Instead, mechanisms must be in place to support both farmers and developing countries in adopting these systems without financial strain. Additionally, strong advocacy at the local government level is required to institutionalize policies and incentives that promote MRV adoption. The success of MRV activities in the Philippines depends on enhancing inter-agency collaboration, effectively engaging stakeholders, and creating sustainable financial mechanisms to support these initiatives. 26 III. Thailand In Thailand, efforts to collect, report, and verify emissions data are being streamlined through digital platforms and coordinated institutional involvement. Farmers register their agricultural practices using a digital platform managed by the Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE). This system collects key data points, including GPS mapping, irrigation or rainfed status, crop variety, expected yield, mechanization practices, and other farming practices. To encourage participation, registered farmers become eligible for government support programs, including disaster response assistance, crop insurance, input support, and subsidies. These incentives provide significant motivation for farmers to participate in the registration process. In support of these efforts, the government has allocated a substantial domestic budget to fund local projects aimed at increasing rice production, reducing costs, and lowering methane emissions. The rice sector currently emits approximately 30 million tons of CO₂ equivalent per year, with a target to reduce emissions by more than 2 million tons by 2030. Encouraging farmers to adopt low-emission technologies and sustainable practices is central to achieving these goals. Thailand is exploring ten low-emission rice technologies under the Green Climate Fund (GCF) Project. Collaborations with Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and IRRI further support the local application and implementation of low-emission activities. The ThaiRice NAMA project is another critical initiative, aiming to reduce approximately 1.5 million tons of emissions over five years, significantly contributing to the national reduction target. Thailand's approach considers the diversity of its rice ecosystems, with 25 percent of rice areas being irrigated and 75 percent rainfed. While some low-emission technologies are suitable across regions, others are ecosystem-specific. Decision-making on applicable technologies involves careful evaluation of local conditions to ensure the most effective practices are implemented, maximizing emission reductions while supporting farmers in their transition to more sustainable rice production. While these initiatives encourage participation, challenges in emissions data collection, reporting, and verification remain. Missing data on key factors, including alternate wetting and drying (AWD) practices, fertilizer use, straw incorporation and burning, crop establishment, organic amendments, and water availability, complicate accurate emissions reporting. Farmers often hesitate to report illegal activities such as straw burning, complicating efforts to gather reliable information on straw management. A more effective approach would be to ask how the straw was managed — whether it was removed, incorporated into the soil, or handled through other means — rather than directly inquiring about burning. Verifying AWD implementation is challenging since it's difficult to confirm seasonal application and predict future water management decisions due to uncertain water availability. As a result, information is often gathered retrospectively by asking farmers about past practices. To address this, enhancing the farmer registration form with questions on previous water and straw management is suggested. This would provide a more comprehensive dataset, improving the accuracy of emissions estimates. Additionally, farmer registration data can be further linked to other models to enhance GHG estimations, and integrating this data with weather, soil, and climate information could further improve accuracy. Meanwhile, Kasetsart University (KU) plays a significant role in auditing MRV data and conducting surveys to fill data gaps. The Thai Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory System (TGEIS) manages emissions data and further supports the monitoring and reporting processes. 27 Baseline emissions data were established using research surveys conducted across agro- ecological zones, with 2019 designated as the base year by the Department of Climate Change and Environment (DCCE). However, concerns remain that earlier assumptions may have underestimated emissions, as some key factors could have been excluded from the calculations. Integrating this previously omitted data could lead to higher reported baseline emissions, raising uncertainty about how NDC reporting committees might respond to these adjustments. Notably, Thailand can perform Tier 3 calculations, providing a more accurate and detailed assessment of emissions. IV. Viet Nam Viet Nam has a relatively well-established reporting system that follows a clear structure from the local to the national level. Data collected on rice production, including yield and fertilizer use, contributes significantly to MRV efforts. However, the current methods of data collection remain largely manual, posing challenges to ensuring accuracy and timeliness. Extension officers typically gather information from farmers, cooperative members, and input suppliers on a seasonal basis. This data includes planting progress, harvesting activities, yields, area, prices, rice varieties, and fertilizer types and quantities. To establish baselines for rice emissions, Viet Nam considers key parameters such as water management, planted area, yield, and fertilizer use. The approval process for rice activity data reporting follows a systematic flow, starting at the district level before advancing through the province and ultimately reaching the national scale. For each project, the development of an MRV system must be mandated, creating an opportunity to integrate project-level MRV frameworks into national and sector-level systems. A structured approach involves establishing a clear reporting mechanism at the local level, feeding into sectoral and national MRV systems. Regular reporting and transparent methodologies ensure accurate tracking of emissions reductions and progress toward NDC targets. However, a significant limitation is the absence of accurate, georeferenced, near-real-time activity data. A recent survey also revealed a low rate of straw removal and highlighted inaccuracies in residue management data. Similarly, fertilizer data remains unreliable, as farmers often mix fertilizers, making it difficult to obtain precise input information. Water management practices further complicate data accuracy, as farmers’ decisions vary depending on seasonal activities. Pre-season activities are particularly challenging to capture accurately, even with surveys. Additionally, conflicts over data interests and sharing have resulted in some datasets remaining unpublished or inaccessible to stakeholders. These challenges highlight several gaps that hinder the establishment of a fully functional MRV system. Capacity limitations across various stakeholders, including farmers, community extension networks, researchers, and government officials, further exacerbate the situation. Strengthening their understanding of GHG emissions and MRV processes is essential. Moreover, Provincial People’s Committees (PPCs) require capacity building to develop and approve local budgets for MRV-related activities. On the other hand, to facilitate MRV activities, digital tools such as RiceMoRe and FarMoRe have been developed. RiceMoRe is used for monitoring, reporting, and verification at the district, province, and national levels, while FarMoRe operates at more localized levels, covering similar functions. However, ensuring their widespread use and integration into the broader data management system remains a challenge. 28 Capacity building and incentives for farmers are key to encouraging data reporting. Contract farming with enterprises can motivate farmers to maintain accurate diaries/logbooks of their activities. Strengthening partnerships with cooperatives for consistent activity monitoring and empowering the community extension network will further improve data reliability. State-owned companies could also play a role in monitoring data, ensuring systematic reporting across regions. Establishing an integrated database, or data warehouse, for land use in agriculture and crop production is essential. By overlaying land mapping units and biophysical maps with census data, Viet Nam can generate reliable and transparent MRV data. In addition, coupling MRV implementation with price premiums for low-emission rice or accessing carbon markets could provide additional financial support while encouraging the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. This market-based approach offers an opportunity to ensure the long-term sustainability of MRV systems while driving emissions reductions. V. Cross-country commonalities Southeast Asian countries face diverse challenges in implementing MRV systems for the rice sector. The Philippines has made progress but requires improved data integration, stronger collaboration among agencies, and expanded monitoring infrastructure. Thailand leverages digital platforms and farmer registration systems, yet gaps in capturing accurate emissions data remain. Viet Nam has established a structured reporting system with tools like RiceMoRe and FarMoRe, though data accuracy and system integration are ongoing challenges. Cambodia, with limited digital infrastructure, faces significant data and capacity gaps. Strengthening digital systems, building institutional capacity, and enhancing coordination will be essential for these countries to achieve accurate emissions monitoring and meet their NDC commitments. 6.4. Session 4. Tools Enhancing MRV Efficacy The workshop provided the platform to discuss different tools, models, and strategies being developed to reduce the costs of implementing MRV for methane mitigation projects in the rice sector. Digital data collection methods have demonstrated their ability to enhance both the quantity and quality of farm activity data, while modelling tools offer diverse approaches for GHG emissions estimation. Additionally, satellite imagery and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for remote sensing was highlighted as a promising method to improve scalability of projects. Enhancing Farm-activity collection The Rice Activity Monitoring and Reporting System (RiceMoRe) is a digital tool developed by IRRI to collect and centralize records of farm activity data, enabling data access from the field provincial, and national level. It allows for efficient tracking of agricultural practices and rice cultivation progress, facilitating improved GHG emissions estimation. A similar platform was also developed focusing on Farm Activity Monitoring and Reporting (FarMoRe) which can be utilized for project-level MRV. The Ministry of Agriculture of Viet Nam, which has been testing the two digital tools, recommends utilizing them to collect more detailed farm activity data, and quantify GHG emissions at the regional level. To strengthen data integration and interoperability, Viet Nam also suggests connecting RiceMoRe to local systems, and integrating it with national crop advisory services. Thailand’s Farmer Registration Form is a digital form launched by Thailand’s Rice Department in 2009 which requires farmers to register and report their farm characteristics before each cropping season. While other countries have been using manual logbooks, Thailand’s digital 29 registration process is able to increase the collection of farm-activity data and allow ease of reporting to high level data management. By registering, farmers gain access to incentives such as participation in Thailand’s minimum price guarantee scheme, eligibility for crop insurance, relief or compensation support for damages caused by natural disasters, and other government welfare programs. Through digitalization and incentives, Thailand is able to achieve a 100 percent farmer registration rate. During the group discussions, it was explored how the form can include the irrigation and rice straw management practices done by the farmer in the last season to elicit relevant data for Tier 2 GHG emission estimation. Farmers can access the form through https://efarmer.doae.go.th. Enhancing Greenhouse Gas Emissions Modelling Integrated Methane Inversion Tool (IMI). Srijwal Adhikari presented the Integrated Methane Inversion model developed at Harvard, which leverages Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data from Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2, along with methane concentration data from the Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) on Sentinel-5, to conduct national-scale methane emissions mapping. IMI addresses the challenge of atmospheric mixing and weather dynamics, which prevent satellite observations from directly attributing emissions to specific sources. By integrating bottom-up atmospheric transport models—which estimate emissions based on activity data and emission factors—with top-down satellite-derived methane concentrations, IMI can provide weekly methane estimates at a spatial resolution of up to 25×25 km². The Denitrification-Decomposition Model in synergy with IRRI’s Rice Growth and GHG simulation Model (DNDC-ORYZA) was used by Viet Nam to calibrate and validate nitrogen and methane emissions estimations in carbon and ecosystem service markets. It was specifically used during the AgResults project to validate emission reductions and rice yields from participants in the competition. The Rice Computation Engine for Greenhouse Gas Emissions (RICE-GEM) is a modeling tool presented by Dr. Bui Tan Yen and Dr. Alice Laborte, designed to estimate and map GHG emissions from rice cultivation activities by synergizing artificial intelligence, FarMoRe, RiceMoRe, and Sentinel-1 SAR data. It has shown reliable capacity to identify the adoption of key mitigation practices such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Direct Seeded Rice (DSR), and rice straw management (RSM), showing its high potential to streamline MRV systems and reduce costs. By leveraging IRRI’s SECTOR API1 to estimate Tier 1 and Tier 2 emissions, and Oryza API to estimate Tier 3 emissions, RICE-GEM can be used for national level reporting, research, and rice carbon projects, providing a standardized framework for data collection, GHG estimation, and enhancing MRV systems at all levels. 1 Source-selective and Emission-adjusted GHG Calculator Tool for Cropland (SECTOR) 30 Figure 10. The RICE-GEM digital platform for Rice GHG Quantification and MRV Source: Presentation by Dr. Alice Laborte, and Dr. Bui Tan Yen. The Drones4Rice Project is an initiative led by IRRI, in collaboration with PhilRice, the Department of Agriculture and other partners, to explore the use of drones in MRV for rice carbon mitigation projects. Autonomous drones are capable of covering up to 500 hectares with a pixel resolution of 1–10 cm. Utilizing multispectral, RGB, and thermal sensors, drones can monitor various phenomic traits across rice landscapes such as vegetation, crop stressors, field uniformity, nitrogen content, and diseases which can support farm management decision making. Additionally drone technology can be applied for field water level detection, which could improve irrigation timing and AWD implementation. Furthermore, drone technology allows project managers to adjust data collection frequency based on project needs, but with a wind tolerance of 10 m/s, its flight schedules may be constrained by weather conditions. For more information on these tools: https://ghgmitigation.irri.org/. 6.5. Session 5. MRV Pilot Sites This section discusses the identification and selection of pilot observation sites for MRV activities in the rice sector across Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. It highlights the methodologies, tools, and collaborative approaches that can be used to monitor emissions and implement low-emission practices. I. Cambodia In Cambodia, two main locations have been identified as pilot observation sites for conducting greenhouse gas (GHG) measurements and trialing low-emission rice cultivation practices. Prey Vieng has been selected for its irrigated rice fields, while Battambang covers both rainfed and https://ghgmitigation.irri.org/ 31 irrigated rice areas. These locations offer diverse environments for assessing emissions and implementing sustainable farming methods. The General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA) is responsible for selecting and approving these observation sites. At the national level, the GDA provides leadership in decision-making, ensuring alignment with Cambodia’s agricultural and climate policies. For implementation, several organizations are actively involved in data collection, approval, reporting, and verification processes, including the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and GDA divisions such as the Department of Agricultural Land Management and Planning (DAPAI) and the Department of Rice Crops (DRC). Additionally, the Provincial Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (PDAFF) and the Provincial Departments of Environment (PDOE) contribute at the regional level, while district-level authorities and Commune Agricultural Officers (CAO) support field-level activities. Cambodia has various government programs and incentives that support low-emission rice practices. In Prey Vieng, improved agricultural practices are promoted through carbon finance mechanisms for paddy farmers, with the support of Kosher Climate and Gold Standard. These initiatives ensure alignment with international carbon credit frameworks. Meanwhile, Battambang hosts projects such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) project, Green Carbon initiatives from Japan, agricultural conservation programs, and Cambodia’s Climate Action and Low-Carbon Rice Project 2030. To reduce emissions and enhance sustainability, both Prey Vieng and Battambang will trial various low-emission rice cultivation practices, including Direct Seeded Rice (DSR), short- duration rice varieties, Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM), Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Rice Straw Management (RSM), and Land Laser Leveling (LLL). II. Philippines In the Philippines, the implementation of MRV activities involves a strategic focus on leveraging existing policies and initiatives. To optimize site selection, it is essential to systematically establish criteria that prioritize progressive farmers and aim to capture diverse ecosystem dynamics while accounting for varying ecological conditions. This approach will provide a more comprehensive understanding of agricultural practices and their environmental impacts. The entities that play a crucial role in MRV activities include the Climate Change Commission (CCC), which serves as the central coordinating body, supported by the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), and other relevant agencies. While the DA and PhilRice can oversee implementation, state universities and colleges (SUCs) can provide research support and technical expertise. Moreover, collaboration with local government units (LGUs) is essential, as the DA does not directly control local-level implementation. Effective partnerships with LGUs ensure that MRV activities are well-integrated with regional agricultural practices and priorities. Engagement with the private sector and development partners further enhances MRV efforts. Existing initiatives, including the Adaptation and Mitigation Initiative in Agriculture (AMIA) Village program, farm clustering models, and IFARM sites, provide valuable opportunities for scaling up climate-smart agricultural practices. Capitalizing on these established programs allows for the efficient deployment of resources and expertise. Additionally, institutions like IRRI and PhilRice are actively promoting practices such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Direct- 32 Seeded Rice (DSR), and Rice Straw Management (RSM) as part of the transition to low-emission rice farming. To enhance MRV effectiveness, the PhilRice Monitoring and Evaluation framework can serve as a vital mechanism. Aligning MRV activities with existing agricultural programs and leveraging institutional capabilities will strengthen the Philippines’ capacity to monitor emissions, implement sustainable practices, and achieve its climate goals. III. Thailand Pilot observation sites for MRV-relevant activities are selected based on criteria such as eligibility for ground data collection and satellite monitoring capabilities. These sites are located in the Central Plains region of Thailand, specifically in Phitsanulok and Chainat. Both irrigated and rainfed rice fields in these areas provide diverse data points for monitoring. The selection and approval of these sites should involve the Rice Department, in collaboration with the Geo- Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (GISTDA). GISTDA also partners with the Carbon Atlas initiative to focus on satellite monitoring and piloting carbon sequestration efforts. Additionally, further monitoring can be conducted using the ORYZA GHG model and GHG chamber measurements. Financial support for these activities is provided in part through the Global Methane Hub funded AcceLER project in collaboration with the Rice Department and GISTDA as well as by the Agricultural Research Development Agency (ARDA). The Department of Agricultural Extension (DOAE) plays a key role in implementing the MRV system. Its responsibilities include farmer registration and data collection, with support from the Community Rice Center and the Consolidating Farms Project. Support for low-emission initiatives is evident across the ten technologies implemented under the GCF project. If the MRV pilot study will be conducted in Chainat, two additional questions are suggested to be included in the DOAE farmer registration form: one on water management practices from the previous season, and another on straw management, specifically whether the rice straw was incorporated or baled. Meanwhile, the Volunteer Rice Farmers Program, consisting of 100,000 farmers, will play a significant role in testing and adopting low-emission practices. Using a combination of bottom- up and top-down approaches, farmers will provide valuable feedback on technologies and act as early adopters and innovators. Demonstration fields will be established to showcase these practices, with representatives from the Rice Department overseeing the program's activities. This collaborative effort is expected to strengthen the implementation of low-emission rice farming practices and contribute to more accurate emissions data collection in Thailand. IV. Viet Nam Pilot observation sites for emissions monitoring and verification are strategically identified in the Mekong Delta across multiple provinces, including Can Tho, Dong Thap, Kien Giang, Soc Trang, Tra Vinh, and An Giang. These sites are part of various projects such as the One Million Hectares initiative, TRVC, and Oxfam, which aim to promote low-emission rice farming. Data collection and analysis are supported by tools like Kobo, FarmMore, ReGrow, and RiceHero. Stakeholders involved in the selection and approval of sites include the provincial Sub- departments of Crop Production (Sub-DCP), the Department of Crop Production (DCP), and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD). This collaborative approach ensures that both national directives and local knowledge are integrated into the implementation process. Extension officers, Sub-DCP officers, cooperatives, and businesses collaborating with implementing entities manage data collection and reporting. These stakeholders play a 33 significant role in ensuring that reliable information is gathered from the sites. The verification process is expected to be conducted by a third-party agency certified by the Bureau of Accreditation (BOA) or the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to ensure accuracy and transparency in reporting. Several government programs and strategies support low-emission rice initiatives. The One Million Hectares program, designed to promote sustainable rice cultivation, is a significant initiative contributing to emissions reduction. Additionally, efforts are being made to develop carbon markets and establish standardized guidelines for branding low-emission rice. In terms of cultivation methodologies and low-emission practices, techniques such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) and the 1M5R approach — which emphasizes reduced water use, fewer seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, and increased yield — are being implemented. By applying the One Million Hectares guidelines to these sites, it will contribute to the overarching goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in rice production. Suggestions from Viet Nam offer further opportunities to strengthen emissions monitoring and data management. Using tools like RiceMoRe to quantify GHG emissions at the regional level and enhancing FarMoRe with geo-referencing and mapping capabilities can improve data accuracy. Integrating RiceMoRe with local data systems for activity tracking and measuring emission factors by ecological subregions—upstream freshwater areas, low downstream and coastal zones with brackish or saltwater, and by soil types—will provide more precise emissions data. Additionally, collecting management and activity data at the field or cooperative level and linking RiceMoRe with other software and advisory systems can strengthen emissions monitoring and reporting. These insights can further support Cambodia’s efforts in implementing effective low- emission rice farming practices. 6.6. Session 6. Financial Pathways for Low-Emission Rice Projects Potential financial instruments to support rice carbon mitigation projects were discussed during stakeholder consultations and expert engagements. A range of mechanisms was identified, reflecting the diverse financial structures required to scale low-emission rice initiatives. Leveraging Carbon Markets and Policy Frameworks. Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement provides mechanisms for financing rice carbon mitigation projects. By allowing countries to trade verified mitigation outcomes, nations integrating methane reduction from rice into their NDCs may generate funding through international carbon markets. However, for this potential to be realized, there is a critical need for clear policy frameworks that define emission reduction targets, carbon credit registration procedures, and the role of the private sector in compliance- based markets. Additionally, private sector engagement is essential, particularly in realigning corporate social responsibility programs to invest in carbon mitigation. The Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization (TGO) provides a methodology and a platform for private companies to participate in its Voluntary Emission Reduction Program (T-VERs) and generate standard or premium carbon credits from AWD projects which they can exchange in the T-VER registry. Additionally, companies such as Creattura, Ostrom, Green Carbon, and Kubota are already involved in rice carbon projects in the Philippines and Cambodia. To achieve financial viability for AWD projects, the carbon credit price must offset MRV and market participation costs. Given the present low market rate, strategies to minimize MRV expenditures or increase carbon credit demand are critical. 34 Figure 11. Carbon Credit Price Scenarios for AWD Adoption Source: Presentation by Ray Almonares of The Creagy Company Ltd. Innovative Financing Models. Blended finance provides an opportunity to align concessional and non-concessional loans from public, philanthropic, and private investors. Other innovative payment mechanisms—including results-based payments, green bonds, and benefit-and-burden- sharing models—can cater to diverse investor risk profiles. These financing approaches could be combined with corporate voluntary purchase agreements (PA) and forward contracts to ensure a balanced supply and demand for rice carbon credits. Viet Nam’s AgResults Project demonstrated the potential of incentives, awarding cash to agricultural enterprises that successfully met emissions reduction and yield improvement targets. E-vouchers provided to farmers may also support initial testing and adoption of technologies such as laser land levelling (LLL) technologies. Redefining Public-Private Partnerships for Scaling Mitigation are critical for financing and implementing low-emission rice projects. Expanding these models to Public-Private-Producer Partnerships (PPPPs) and Public-Private-Grassroots-Community Partnerships (PPGCPs)2 ensures deeper integration of smallholder farmers and local communities into climate-smart rice value chains. Aligning and defining mutually agreed-upon objectives through multi-stakeholder dialogues is essential to create long-term, scalable and “win-win” solutions. Governments should take the lead in providing enabling policy ecosystems, mitigation planning, and standardizing data management and reporting systems. Private institutions can be encouraged to invest in mitigation programs through shared investment benefit frameworks. Research and development institutions can provide technical support, capacity building, and knowledge-sharing platforms to equip implementing stakeholders with the technical expertise needed to implement MRV. 2 The concept of PPPPs and PPGCPs were introduced by Mr. Frew Behabtu of IFAD, and Dr. Kofi Boateng of the Global Methane Hub respectively 35 6.7. Session 7. Setting NDC Priority Agendas This section explores the key priorities identified by Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam for advancing low-emission rice farming and integrating into carbon markets. Across the four countries, the most recurring priorities where more support is needed include (1) GHG inventory improvements (Tier 2 & Tier 3), (2) MRV system development, (3) quantifying GHG reduction potential, (4) suitability mapping for low-emission practices, (5) capacity building on carbon markets, and (6) guidance on legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon markets. Several countries also highlighted the need for policy formulation to attract international financing for NDCs, benefit-and-burden sharing models, and financial mechanisms. While some countries prioritized data accessibility and financing linkages, others emphasized institutionalizing carbon markets and learning from pilot projects. I. Cambodia Cambodia’s top priorities include suitability mapping for low-emission practices, quantifying GHG reduction potential, and developing an MRV system. They also placed moderate emphasis on GHG inventory with Tier 2 & Tier 3 emission factors, capacity building on carbon market knowledge, policy formulation for NDC finance, guidance in developing legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon markets and developing proof-of-concept for jurisdictional approaches/book-and-claim/others. II. Philippines Discussions highlighted several key priorities to advance the Philippines’ efforts in low-emission rice farming and carbon market integration. First and foremost, capacity building emerged as a critical need. Different sectors require tailored training programs to ensure a clear understanding of carbon markets, emissions reduction strategies, and their implications. This includes lectures and workshops designed to build knowledge across national and local levels. Enhanced capacity building would facilitate more effective information sharing, broaden stakeholders' understanding of key concepts, and equip institutions with the necessary skills to support implementation. Another significant priority is the development of policies and actionable projects. A comprehensive roadmap and strategy are necessary to attract international financial support. Proof of concept financial models play a key role. When farmers and investors see tangible evidence of financial returns and environmental benefits, participation in low-emission rice initiatives will increase. Effective financial models will not only incentivize adoption but also enhance the credibility and scalability of low-emission projects. Coordination among agencies and data management is another vital area for support. The available data remain fragmented, leading to inefficiencies in monitoring and reporting. Establishing an integrated data management system would ensure alignment and transparency in GHG inventory and MRV processes. Furthermore, facilitating inter-agency collaboration and determining data ownership will enhance the accuracy and reliability of submitted reports. Finally, strengthening legal and regulatory frameworks is crucial to creating an enabling environment for carbon markets and low-emission agricultural practices. While the Philippines has made progress with its NDC submissions and ongoing updates, gaps in regulatory frameworks remain. Providing support to draft and implement policies that establish market mechanisms and ensure the credibility of carbon credits will provide a solid foundation for future 36 initiatives. Additionally, studying case examples from other countries and learning from their experiences can offer valuable insights for tailoring solutions to the Philippine context. III. Thailand Thailand highlighted the need for policy and budget support from the top down to attract international financing. They also emphasized the importance of a mechanism to support both the internal (government) and external (private) sectors on several issues: capacity building on carbon market knowledge, legal and regulatory frameworks for carbon markets, and quality assurance and quality control. Additionally, Thailand sought clarity on implementing benefit and burden-sharing models. IV. Viet Nam Viet Nam focused on GHG inventory with Tier 2 or Tier 3 emission factors, quantifying GHG reduction potential to establish targets and financial needs, and suitability mapping for low- emission practices with province-specific considerations. They also emphasized policy formulation to attract international financing for NDCs. Benefit-and-burden sharing models were a key concern, with a focus on determining the contributions of different stakeholders (nations, businesses, and farmers) and the types of benefits to be distributed (such as input support, finance, and branding to meet market requirements like carbon border adjustments). V. Indonesia Indonesia faces the challenge of balancing increased rice production for food security with its commitment to ambitious emission reduction goals, as outlined in its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets. To support these objectives, Indonesia requires assistance in several key areas. Firstly, assistance is needed to improve emissions monitoring and reporting capabilities through international collaboration, and to empower farmers with the knowledge and tools necessary for low-emission agriculture. Secondly, Indonesia needs capacity building and technical assistance to develop a functional carbon economy and align economic incentives with sustainable practices, bridging the gap between agricultural expansion and climate goals. Finally, it needs to enhance the knowledge of non-government stakeholders, including farmers and the private sector, about the economic benefits of reducing emissions, thereby encouraging greater participation in meeting climate commitments. VI. Malaysia Malaysia seeks support for attracting financing for its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), particularly through international grants like the Green Climate Fund (GCF). Securing more projects will not only enhance the country’s mitigation efforts but also strengthen its participation in carbon market practices. Additionally, IRRI's expertise can support Malaysia in preparing its Biennial Transparency Report (BTR), ensuring accurate greenhouse gas (GHG) quantification. Furthermore, IRRI can provide valuable guidance in developing a robust Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) system, contributing to effective policy formulation and implementation aligned with Malaysia’s climate commitments. VII. Lao People’s Democratic Republic Lao PDR currently lacks a comprehensive framework for implementing its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and needs support in developing clear guidelines and a roadmap. VIII. Cross-country commonalities 37 The shared priorities identified by participating countries outline a clear strategy for advancing low-emission rice farming and integrating into carbon markets. A core focus is capacity building, encompassing a thorough understanding of carbon market mechanisms, the requisite legal and regulatory frameworks, and robust MRV systems to streamline transparency and accountability. Furthermore the countries need assistance in suitability mapping for low-emission practices, and quantifying GHG reduction assessments for targeted implementation and maximizing impact. Finally, demonstrating the economic viability of carbon projects through evidence-based analysis is essential for attracting investment and long-term sustainability. By addressing these interconnected priorities through targeted support and regional collaboration, these nations can significantly enhance their ability to meet NDC goals and promote sustainable agricultural practices. 6.8. Session 8. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the agricultural sector Countries in Southeast Asia have diverse perspectives on the impact of their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) on the agricultural sector, reflecting the balance between environmental goals and economic realities. While the overall objective of reducing emissions is widely acknowledged, the extent to which the NDCs benefit or burden the agricultural sector varies. In Thailand, the government believes that the