" CSDúJv .,..... ___ ... _ '' ,, C....'NJII"III·~- ..... ....,..,., • .......... c..":' l .. ¡., ~- .. --""" ... · •' .. -ti: , ,.. ., ..... , . .,. .. . .... -.. . ·' . ~ • • PROJECT PE-3 COMMUNITIES AND W ATERSHEDS ANNUAL REPORT 2002 October 2002 2.1.1. Monitoring the socioeconomic impact of land ownership on the standard of living ofbeneficiaries ofProject Tierra Page 56 2.2. Ex-ante evaluate alternative scenarios of landscape management 59 2.3. Develop and apply the methodological tools for natural resource management at landscape level 60 2.3.1. Mapping, analysis, and participative monitoring ofnatural resources. Case study: sub-watershed of the Río Calico, Nicaragua 60 2.3.2. Finalize and socialize the Rural Atlas ofNicaragua 61 2.4. Promote and implement consortia for landscape management 2.4.1. Bolivian Consortiurn and Project Platform created 2.5. 2 .5.1. 2.5.2. 2.5.3. 2.6. 2.6. 1. Strengthen participation of grass-roots organizations in consortia for landscape management Organic Coffee Proj ect Production and commercialization ofhorticultural produce Production and commercialization of agro-industrial products Monitor and evaluate landscape changes Selection and characterization of reference si tes to assess impact of traditional and improved practices Output 3. Organizations strengthened 3.1. Develop and/or validate methods and tools for developing and strengthening 62 62 62 62 63 63 64 64 key organizations 66 3.1.1. Toolbook 66 3 .1.2. Development of a digital .soil database of Honduras 67 3.1.3. Training in the use ofthe PCARES model 69 3.2. Train local, regional, and national organizations in the use of methodologies and/or tools developed by CIA T 70 3.2.1. Training for intemational partners to help local, regional, and national organizations 70 3.2.2. Application ofthe Soil Quality Indicators Guide 71 3.3. Strengthen small-scale producers, managers, and local, regional, and national organizations tbrougb participatory investigative methods 75 3.3.1. Scaling out from the reference site 75 3.3.2. Training courses in farmer participatory research methods: Thailand and Vietnam 80 3.3.3. Training in participatory research and extension methods, Asia 81 ' Project PE-3: Communities and Watersheds CONTENTS Executive Surnmary Project Overview Project Work Breakdown Structure Project Logical Framework Major Highlights PART ONE. THE ONGOING COMMITMENTS Output 1: Production systems improved l. l. 1.2. 1.2.1. 1.3. 1.3.1. 1.3.2. 1.3.3. 1.3.4. 1.3.5. 1.4. 1.4.1. 1.4.2. 1.5. 1.5.1. Ex-ante evaluate improved system alternatives (identify markets, perform simulation modeling) ldentify new alternatives for improving production systems Tool for the zoning and understanding ofmarkets (Cross Project) Validate new alternatives and improved practices Rice and sorghum participatory plant breeding in Central America Introduction and evaluation of new genetic materials of annual crops in the San Dionisio reference site, Nicaragua Introduction and evaluation of new genetic materials of annual crops in the Luquigüe reference site, Honduras Soil erosion control in Thailand and Vietnam Soil fertility maintenance and improvement in Thailand and Vietnam Promote and support multiplication of successful alternatives validated at farm level Support the development of PES prototypes in the reference si tes Livestock production in the uplands of Laos Monitor and evaluate the adoption of validated improvements Evaluate the SOL monitoring and evaluation system Output 2. lVIore sustainable landscapes 2.1. Benchmark status report at the landscape level (study land use, analyze Page 1 5 6 7 9 13 13 13 15 15 23 27 32 39 43 43 45 51 51 sustainability) 56 • Page 3.4. Support, through incorporating processes of participative investiga tion, local organizations oriented to agricultural research 84 3.4.1. Cassava Development Village formed in Thailand 84 3.5. Promote and support inter-institutional processes and plans for sustainable rural development 85 3.5. 1. Facilitate the execution of action plans ofthe MIS Consortium 85 Output 4. Decision makers supported 4.1. ldentify, at different levels, decision makers related with project tasks and diagnose their needs 86 4.2. Support decision taking at different levels using the information, tools, and methods generated by the project 86 4.3. Strengthen capacity for management and use of information, tools, and methods (train, diffuse, and follow up the process) 87 4.3. 1. Appointment to the Red de Organismos de Cuenca (RENOC) Executive Committee 87 4.3.2. Workshops 87 4.4. Provide technical support for decision taking 4.4.1. Technical support given in Colombia and Africa 4.4.2. Data supplied to farmers for decision taking in Vietnam and Thailand Output S. Efficient, participatory project management 5.1. Foster tbe active participation of partners in tbe planning of project activities in the region 5.2. Actively and permanently coordinate the reference sites, projects, and 90 90 91 93 individuals working in the region 93 5.2. 1. Workshops and meetings 93 5.3. Maintain an efficient information system of the project with its partner s 98 5.3. 1. Workshops and meetings attended 98 5.3.2. New Web site ofNippon Foundation Project 98 5.4. Strengthen joint work with other projects and organizations 99 5.4.1. Efficient program management, communication, monitoring, and evaluation of MIS 99 Page 5.5. Establish a participative system of monitoring and evaluation of the project to monitor its performance and feed back to planning 100 5.5.1. Fully implement the FLSP Project's monitoring and evaluation strategy 100 5.5.2. Outcomes of a technical review ofthe FLSP Project 102 5.5.3. Participatory monitoring and evaluation ofthe Nippon Foundation Project, Thailand and Vietnam 103 5.6. Establish an efficient and participatory administrative system within the project 103 5.6.1. Identify new opportunities of financing the project activities, prepare research proposals, and carry out follow up to these initiatives: Nicaraguan activities 103 5.6.2. Identify new opportunities of financing the project activities, prepare research proposals, and carry out follow up to these initiatives: Honduran activities 105 5.7. Establish a system of efficient administration 105 P ART TWO: THE NEW CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Justification 109 Introduction 109 Watershed Challenges 11 O Research Opportunities 111 Strategies 112 The Framework 114 Impacts and Outputs 116 The N ew LogFrame 119 Research for Development Processes Underway; 2003 and Beyond 123 The Role ofParticipatory Research by Youth in Food Security and Natural Resource Management: Improving Education for Rural Development 123 Honduras 123 Colombia 128 Case Studies ofNatural Resource Management 130 PART THREE: STRATEGIC ISSUES Institutional Capacity Development: A New Emphasis The Previous Experience The New Emphasis Three Paths for Research Findings 131 131 131 132 • Methods and Approaches: The Bolivian Model Methods and Approaches: The Haitian Scenario A New Strategic Vision for Central America . A Strategic Approach to Ecuador: Collaboration with SANREM-CRSP Asia and Africa Ahead Interoal Organizational Aspects Team Building within CIAT Strategic Alliances CATIE UBC Bolivia Haití The Search for Fuoding Accomplishments Projects in the Pipeline Publications Donors Co llaborators StaffList Appendix 1: CIAT- HAP Organization of Activities - Chronogram Appendix II: Work in Asia led by Peter Kerridge Appendix III: Annual Report Project PE - 3 Comrnunities and Watersheds Africa - Tilahun Amede List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Used Page 133 135 136 136 137 139 140 140 141 144 145 145 146 146 146 150 155 155 157 159 167 179 190 Executive Summary This Executive Summary covers work from both the old PE-3 2001-2003 Logframe (shown starting on page 5), in Part One ofthis report, and the new Comrnunities and Watersheds 2003- 2005 Logframe (shown starting on page 119), in Part Two ofthis report. The Hillsides Project had a mandate that was mainly Latin America, but there was only real presence in Honduras and Nicaragua, and very limited presence in Colombia. The logframe design was fragmented, and this led to many different types of research that were not contained as one standing unit. The expectation was that PE-3 would be the integrator ofthe activities of all other CIA T projects in Central America. However, because of its fragmented nature, it became more like a project that was expected to carry around the scientific results of other projects, with difficulties in developing its own scientific outputs. Following the good recomrnendation of the Board, the Project stopped and developed its own conceptual framework. We looked at world developments, the creation of the new challenge programs, etc. In the end, we decided to concentrate around the theme of water and particular! y in using the integrated watershed management approach, and logically changed our name from Hillsides to Comrnunities and Watersheds (C&W). Our coverage moved from a regional to a global presence, with effective presence in Haití, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and China. We have sorne presence in Africa, Ecuador, and are a little more advanced in Bolivia. Because of all these new additions to C&W, we cannot report results in a very coherent or aggregated manner as yet. All the new additions carry a history of ongoing research that has to be adjusted without affecting work that donors already fund. The additions will move into the new framework, and the latest proposals are very much within it, and within the new Water and Food Challenge Programs. 1t is because of the globalization of the project, and its not being fully integrated into the new framework, that the volume of this report is large and rich. Strategic Alliances In times of funding shortage and a strengthened call for impact, going ahead and acting alone does not lead anywhere. 1t is very important to look for alliances at alllevels-advanced research organizations (AROs), National Agricultura! Research Systems (NARS), nongovernmental organízations (NGOs), farmer organizations, etc. This year we have worked hard on alllevels. At the ARO level, we already have two working strategic alliances, one with the University of British Columbia (UBC), and one with the Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE); and as a result have two shared scientists with CATIE and one shared with UBC. In terms of alliances with NGOs, we have developed a very close relationship with CARE Intemational throughout Central America for CARE to be the partner in charge of the development part ofthe Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC) proposal. We have developed strategic alliances with collaboration agreements (convenio de cooperación) with the countries where we work that allow them and us to plan together specific projects based on real needs. We have developed consortia within the countries (e.g .. Bolivia) and have strengthened those that already have a history of consortia to include partners in different stages and scales of our work. Through the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL) we have developed close relationships with farmer organizations in the reference sites and areas where we work. Thus the impact goes from the trial to the farmer. Global Mandate CIAT has decided that C&W goes global. Personnel and projects that are ongoing in Asia have been incorporated into the new project. At the moment, integration is underway and evolving smoothly. In Africa, sorne preliminary activities have taken place, and a person has been assigned to C&W, but cornmunication this year has been difficult. In the case of Central America, we are moving beyond Honduras and Nicaragua to cover other countries in the region, as well as Haiti in the Caribbean. For South America, we are strengthening our presence in Colombia with an emphasis on areas near headquarters. Actions are advanced with Bolivia, and initial steps of collaboration taken with the University of Georgia in Ecuador. Scaling Out Our objective in scaling out is to use work methods and products developed at reference-site level to enter into alliances with different actors (local, national, and regional) allowing us to reach more people with these benefits in less time, and a better way. As an example, scaling out from the San Dionisio, Matagalpa reference si te to other regions of Nicaragua has reached the departments of Jinotega, Matagalpa, Boaco, Chontales, Managua, Estelí, Nueva Segovia, León, and Chinandega. Another example is that of the Haití Project, which is a development project directly resulting from scaling out from germplasm projects and PE-3 in Central America. In Asia, since we have a target to benefit at least 8000 farming households by the end of the Cassava Project in 2003, we need to expand to additional sites every year. In 2002, the project was operating in about 60 sites in Vietnam, Thailand, and China. In both Thailand and Vietnam, the Cassava Project expanded to include four new sites in each country. Iotroductioo of Germplasm Work with Natural Resource Management (NRM) For good NRM, the first condition that needs to be satisfied is food requirements. When food requirements are satisfied, the next step is that additional income is sought. When farmers achieve this, then they start to care about the environrnent. When we attempted to work on NRM, there was always the call for improved germplasm for better food supply. So we started working with germplasm projects and scientists in the concept of SOL, and moved into participatory plant breeding and production systems with other germplasm that was prioritized by farmers and within the mandates of other partners. Our many crop options were expanded. Once these are tested and sorne adoption taking place, then farmers look at where in the landscape the different options would fit because the area is appropriate or good market opportunities presented. While this process takes place, different steps are becoming attracted to elsewhere (scaling out). The main reason for this is because of the numerous alliances at different scales, as mentioned abo ve. Training The process of training trainers and training potential applicants of the research products has been a large effort, compensated by the positive response of professionals and applicants in several institutions of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Colombia. To date, more than 400 staff members of nearly 40 institutions have received training in the use of these research tools. A current demand for training in their use is being fulfilled with the participation of trainers in each country. Training was given on the Local Soil Quality Indicators Guide in Latin America and the Caribbean (Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, and the Dominican Republic) and Africa (Uganda and Tanzania) and it was used to identify and classify local indicators of soil quality related to permanent and modifiable factors. To date, more than 23 action plans have been initiated in Latin America and Africa. For the Youth Project in Honduras, 35 young facilitators coming from six communities of the municipality of Yorito were trained in the first three steps of the CIAL methodology during the first 2 months of 2002. The University of British Columbia (UBC), providing the methodology for evaluation and analysis of water quality through a 3-day workshop in April, produced irnmediate awareness of the water problems in the Yorito urban area among participants. Thirty youngsters and severa! ISP teachers participated in this workshop. This year, the Forages and Livestock Systems Project (FLSP) provided severa! training events for intemational partners to be able to help local, regional, and national organizations, including the training course, "Improving adoption of agricultura! technologies - how participatory research can complement conventional research approaches," for 15 Japanese scientists at the Japan Intemational Research Center for Agricultura! Science (JIRCAS) in Japan from the 4th to the 8th of March, 2002. The FLSP also ran a training course on Participatory Diagnosis from 20- 25 J anuary 2002 for 15 staff of an Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI}-managed project in northem Laos. In Thailand, a 5-day trammg course was held for 30 government officials from the Land Development Dept (LDD), the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Agricultura! Extension (DOAE), and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI). In Vietnam, two farmer participatory training courses were held for local extensionists and key farmers, one in Van Yen district of Yen Bai provine e in north Vietnam, and one in Hue city in central Vietnam. These courses were intended to teach both extensionists and farrners about FPR methodologies as well as cassava production technologies . .., .) Project PE-3: 2001-2003 (For new Communities and Watersheds 2003-2005 Logframe, see page 119) Objectives: To improve the standard of living and food security of hillside farmers in tropical America, and make their interaction with the environment more sustainable. Outputs: (1) lmproved production systems, (2) More sustainable landscapes, (3) Strengthened organizations, (4) Decision makers supported, (5) Efficient and participatory management system ofthe project. Gains: Farmers and locally organized producers use technologies, tools, and methodologies developed by CIAT and its partners at the leve! of reference sites. Results are sustainable, production systems profitable, land use improved, and natural resources preserved at the landscape level. Partner organizations use technologies, tools, and methodologies developed by or with the project for their planning and activities at local, national, and regional levels. Decision makers at different levels have more information, too1s, and methodologies, provided by the project, to support their planning, monitoring, and decisions. Miles tones: 2001: 2002: 2003: Impact: Sustainable and profitable production systems, improved land use, and natural resource preservation on farms, spreading to the landscape within reference sites. Strategic research: Partner organizations use the project's outputs for their activities at local, national, and regionallevels. /mpact: Sustainable and profitable production systems, improved land use, and natural resource preservation at the landscape leve! within reference sites. Strategic research: Decision makers at local, national, and regional levels use the project's results for their activities. Impact: Sustainable and profitable production systems, improved land use, and natural resource preservation on farms, spreading to the landscape beyond the reference sites. Strategic research: Decision makers at local, national, and regional levels use new results from the project for their activities. Users: Farming families and rural communities of the Andean and Central American hillsides. Project sites profit from increased community action aimed at sustaining the productivity of the resource base. As a result, off-site stakeholders benefit. National and intemational development organizations involved in priority setting and investrnents in development. Collaborators1 : SDC, IDRC, DGIS, CIMMYT, CIP, IFPRI, IWMI, IICA, PASOLAC, CARE; universities ofFlorida, Wageningen, Edinburgh, Guelph, Nacional Agraria (Nicaragua); CURLA (Honduras); DICTA, INTA, CONDESAN, CIPASLA, Campos Verdes, CLOs, CIALs, individual farmers. CIAT project linkages: Collaboration with the Ecoregional Program for Tropical Latín America, soils (PE-2), Iand use (PE-4), smallholder systems (PE-5), agroindustries (SN-1), participatory methods (SN-3), forages (IP-5), and impact assessment (BP-1) projects. 1 See page 190 for acronyms and abbreviations used. 5 r Output 1 Production systems improved 1.1 Ex-ante evaluate improved system alternatives (identity markets, perform simulation modeling) 1.2 ldentify new alternatives for improving production systems 1.3 Validate new altematives and improved practices 1.4 l'romote and support multiplication of successful alternatives validated at farm level 1.5 Monitor and evaluate the adoption of validated improvements Project PE-3: Communities and Watersheds 2002 Project Objective To improve the standard of living and food security of hillside farmers in tropical America and make their interaction with the environment more sustainable r Output 2 More sustainable landscapes 2.1 Benchmark status report at the Iandscape Ievel (study land use, analyze sustainability) 2.2 Ex-ante evaluate alternative scenarios of Iandscape management 2.3 Develop and apply the methodological tools for natural resource management at Iandscape level 2.4 Promote and implement consortia for landscape management 2.5 Strengthen participation of grass-roots organizations in consortia for landscapc management 2.6 Monitor and evaluate Iandscape changes r Output 3 1 Organ izations strengthened 3.1 Develop ancl/or validate methods and tools for developing and strengthening key organizations 3.2 Train local, regional, and national organizations in the use of methodologies and/or tools developed by CIA T 3.3 Strengthen small-scale producers, managers, and local, regional, and national organizations through participatory investigative methods 3.4 Support, through incorporating processes of participative invest igat ion, local organizations oriented to agricultura! research 3.5 Promote and support interinstitutional plans for sustainable rural development 1 Output 4 Decision makers supported 4.1 ldentity, at different levels, decision makers related with project tasks and diagnose their needs 4.2 Support decision taking at different Ievels using the information, tools, and methods generated by the project 4.3 Strengthen capacity for management and use of information, tools, and methods (tra in, diffuse, and follow up lhe process) 4.4 Provide technical support for decision taking l Output 5 Efficient, participatory project management 5.1 Foster the active participation ofpartners in the planning of project activities in the region 5.2 Actively and perrnanently coordinate the reference s ites, projects, and individuals working in the region 5.3 Maintain an efficient inforrnation system ofthe project with its partners 5.4 Strengthen joint work with other projects and organizations 5.5 Establish a participative system of monitoring and evaluation of the project to monitor its performance and feed back to planning 5.6 Establish an efficient and participatory administrative system within the project 5.7 Establish a system of efficient administration PE-3 Logframe Work Plan, 2001-2003a Narrative summary Measurable indicators Means of verification lmportant assumptions Goal • Reduced infant mortality National and local The environmental, social, To improve the standard of living and food • Reduced maternal mortality statistics econornic, and political sccurity of hillside farmers in tropical • Reduced soil erosion Local research conditions, on a macro level, are America and make their interaction with the Improved water quality in rivers and streams maintained. environment more sustainable. • • Increased income (monetary amilor in kind) l'urposc • Groups residing at five work sites in Honduras Field verification Local partners continue project- To strcngthcn local processes of sustainable and Nicaragua successfully implement land Institutional reports related activities. Donors remain rural development in the hillsides oftropical management initiatives consisten! with those interested in the proposed project Amcrica, bascd on the experiences of natural ones validated by the project and its partners objectives and continue to give rcsource management (NRM) at benchmark • At least 15 key entities ofthe region have support. sites. access to at least three tools and methods developed by the project OllTI' liT l • Scrccning altcrnativcs in dcmonstmtion parccls foicld vcrification That climate variability is normal. Improvcd production systems. Farmers use in San Dionisio, Yorito, and Cabuyal Project reports technologies developed by CIA T and its ("Supermarket of Options for Hillsides") CIAL reports partners to establish sustainable and profitable • Validating altematives in at least 25 CIALs in production systems. San Dionisio and Yorito • Altematives adopted by at least 100 farmers at project work sites 1 • Successful altematives being transferred to at least 12 sites other than the initial work sites OUTPUT2 • Three local consortia ofNRM operating at Consortia reports More sustainable landscapes. Land use has work sites in Honduras, Nicaragua, and Monitoring reports improved across the landscape because locally Colombia organized farmers are using the tools and • Five local consortia ofNRM in forrnation at methods developed by the project and its other si tes of Central and South America partncrs. • Stable water quality (sediments and . contarninants) as integrating indicator of the status of natural resources in at least three watersheds at the work sites • Environmental monitoring initiated in at least two work si tes in Honduras and Nicaragua Continued. a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. l'E-3 Logframe Work Plan, 2001-2003" (Continued). Narrative summary Measurable indicators Means of verification lmportant assumptions OUTPUT3 • At least 25 CIALs operating at project work CIAL reports Strengthened organizations. Local and si tes Training reports national organizations involved in sustainable • At least 30 CIALs in formation at other work Institutional reports rura l development at various levels (site, sites in the region national, regional) use the technical and • At least 20 national technicians trained and methodological resources developed by the project in their decision making and other promoting CIALs ac tivities. Interinstitutional coordination is cnhanced. OUTPUT4 • At least two technicians of each collaborating Dccision makers supported. Decision institution trained and using tools developed by makers at various levels use and have access the Project and its partners to more information, tools, and methods to use • Digital information (CD-ROM and Web site) in decision making, planning, and monitoring. available and accessible in Honduras and Nicaragua, and in process in other countries • Local decision makers at the leve! of three municipalities with access to site-specific inforrnation on natural resources and trained to use this inforrnation OUTPUT S • Plans and reports opportunely prepared and Planning documents and Efticicnt, participatory project approved by previously established authorities reports management. Different interna! and externa! • Partners are well informed and actively Proceedíngs of 1 partners directly participate in project participate in fieldwork at the project sites Consultative Group and management to ensure adequate and efficient (local consortia) or elsewhere Executive Committee use of the projcct 's resourccs. • National hillside consortia operating in meetings Honduras and Nicaragua Reports of members and • Regional hillside consortium operating consortia • Experiences and lessons learned by the project Disscmination materials and its partners disseminated in Latin America and project reports through different channels (e.g., networks, Direct verification publications, meetings) through networks and 1 New projects adopt methods, techniques, and consortia • i experiences generated by the project and its partners a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. Major Highlights 2002 Scaling Out Our objective in scaling out is to use work methods and products developed at reference- site level to enter into alliances with different actors (local, national and regional) allowing us to reach more people with these benefits in less time, and in a better way. As an example, "scaling out" from the San Dionisio, Matagalpa reference site moved into other regions of Nicaragua, such as the departrnents of Jinotega, Matagalpa, Boaco, Chontales, Managua, Estelí, Nueva Segovia, León, and Chinandega. The SOL (reference site) concept has become a valid instrument to initiate a process of approach to non- traditional partners/ donors through visits and demonstration of the products developed and offered by CIA T. Integration of Germplasm Activities An extensive range of improved germplasm of maize, bean, rice, soya, sweet potato, fodders, and sorghum has been evaluated during the last 4 years at SOL sites. The bean materials are part of the CIAT improvement program, and of the Ensayo Centroamericano de Apaptacion y Rendimiento (ECAR) of the Proyecto Regional de Frijol para Centro América, México y el Caribe (PROFRIJOL). The maize materials are advanced lines generated by the Regional Maize Program (PRM, the Spanish acronym) and Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). The rice materials are commercial varieties and lines with tolerance to drought and piricularia of the CIA T- Centre de coopération intemationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD) Rice Project. The collection of sweet potato is composed of local materials originally introduced by the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). The sorghum materials are from the Intemational Sorghum and Millet Program (INTSORMIL) Network and the Intemational Crops Research Institute for the Serni-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). The forage species under evaluation originate from different sources (local, regional, and CIA T). The collection includes grasses, herbaceous and bushy legumes, and green manures. An extensive range of producer interest groups evaluates the materials, including Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local (CIALs), groups of experimenting producers, and groups of producers organized by support institutions. Of the selection carried out by the producer groups of interest, the improved materials pass to the communities to be evaluated in different environrnents, and their subsequent distribution to producers. The results obtained indicate that the selection of materials by producers based on their expressed criteria in the participative evaluations permits not only the continuous improvement of the different crops, but also the adoption and utilization of the materials on the farms of the producers. Adoption is seen to be quicker. Extensive Training 9 The process of training trainers and training potential applicants of the research products has been a large effort, compensated by the positive response of professionals and applicants in severa! institutions of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Colombia. To date, more than 400 staffmembers ofnearly 40 institutions have received training in the use ofthese research tools. A current demand for training in their use is being fulfilled with the participation oftrainers in each country. This year, the Forages for Smallholders Project (FLSP) provided severa! training events for intemational partners to be able to help local, regional, and national organizations. In a collaboration between CIAT and the Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Program (PRGA), a training course, "Improving adoption of agricultura} technologies - how participatory research can complement conventional research approaches," was given for 15 Japanese scientists at the Japan Intemational Research Center for Agricultura! Science (JIRCAS) in Japan from the 4th to the 8th of March, 2002.The FLSP also rana training course on Participatory Diagnosis from 20-25 January 2002 for 15 staff of an Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI}-managed project in northem Laos. In Thailand, a 5-day training course was held for 30 governrnent officials from the Land Development Dept (LDD), the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Department of Agricultura! Extension (DOAE), and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI). In Vietnam, two FPR training courses were held for local extensionists and key fanners, one in Van Y en district of Y en Bai province in north Vietnam, and one in Hu e city in central Vietnam. Cassava Development Villages in Thailand In Thailand, the government has supported the formation of "Cassava Development Villages" in 11 of the 24 pilot si tes of the Nippon Foundation Project, with the objective of empowering the local community to make their own decisions about the protection of natural resources and the development of new crops or new practices that will improve their 1ive1ihoods. After nearly 2 years, most of these Cassava Development Villages are operating very successfully. After the first year's harvest, most farmers were able to retum the money of the "borrowed" fertilizers, and were thus able to "borrow" more fertilizers for the next crop. The timely availability of fertilizers at a reasonable price was considered as a very important reason for farmers to join this group. The resulting increased yields obtained, together with a relatively good price for cassava roots this year, have considerably improved farmers income from cassava. In addition, working together, farmers have markedly expanded the vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion in their fields; they are also continuing to experiment with application of organic manures and the planting of green manures. The Bolivian Consortium In June 2002, a CIA T six-member team participated in a workshop with Bolivian partners. It was designed with three purposes in mind: (1) to share the final synthesis of 10 previous work on inter-institutional collaboration topics, (2) to prepare the narrative surnmary of a project platforrn on which a variety of specific projects could be drawn, and (3) to search for an organizational scheme to give sustainability to inter-institutional cooperation in Bolivia. As a result of this workshop, a platform was developed for project generation with multi-institutional collaboration. Three work areas were identified after completion of the analysis of previous workshops and visits. An agreement was also reached around operational aspects of collaboration. This agreement gave way to the establishment of an inter-institutional Consortium that has operational guidelines and a very modest organization. Its coordinator is in charge of promoting the Consortium among donors and national institutions and identifying opportunities for the Consortium in Bolivia. Strategic Alliances This year the C& W in developing strategies has made important efforts conducive to strategic alliances. At present, 11 alliances have been made with institutions throughout the world. Strategies include personal interchange, study of institutions (their roles, major activities, and missions), and visits to the sites where institutions work. Another strategy is the joint forrnulation and signature of technical cooperation agreements with GOs and NGOs. With lower resources, the project this year has increased coverage by forming or strengthening strategic alliances. As a result, we already have two staff positions (economists) shared with CATIE, and one (management specialist) shared with UBC. We are working with the Center for Development Research (CDR) in Denmark for a shared PhD student to work in Bolivia. In a different area of interest, an agreement has been signed with UBC. This agreement is not only the basis for interchange of staff, but also opens doors, among other options, for the design of a training program in watershed management that can be jointly led by UBC and CIA T. New activities with new names within the new frarnework have started with the Youth Projects where alliances are already working in aspects of watershed management and environmental services. 11 \ PART ONE: THE ONGOING COMMITMENTS Output l. Production systems improved 1.1. Ex-ante evaluate improved system alternatives (identify markets, perform simulation modeling) See under 1.2.1. and 2.5.2. 1.2. ldentify new alternatives for improving production systems 1.2.1. Tool for the zoning and understanding of markets (Cross Project) Objectives • To carry out the zoning of agricultura! crops using geographical information systems (GIS) that permit us to determine zones fit for basic grains, garden produce, and fruits. • To provide producers and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) with an agricultura} markets intelligence system with which they can determine times of better prices, choose best market (Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, San Salvador, Managua, and Guatemala), analyze price stability of each product, study import trends, and distinguish the different packaging used for transporting, marketing, and giving added value to products. Background and Justification The small-scale rural producers of Honduras cannot negotiate well with intermediaries because they have little knowledge of agricultura! markets, do not have their own transport, are financed at high interest rates, are afraid of sales on credit, and are poor at negotiating with final buyers. Given these circumstances, they obtain very low prices for their products. This impacts directly on their profit margins because input prices always increase through devaluation (most inputs are imported). Ifproducers were adequately informed, they would be able to: • Choose commercial strategies such as grouping together for staggered sowing and thus harvest weekly; • Grow high-demand products to harvest in weeks ofbest prices; • Cultivate small plots of new crops ( of small demand, but high val u e); • Sow crops of high imports and permanent demand; • Be aware of quality requirements, forms of payment, and frequencies of provision of market niches such as hotels, restaurants, hospitals, supermarkets, or fast food chains; and • Improve prices with added value through packaging or through simple processing. The first version of the market tool intends to show the potential of using GIS to carry out crop zoning and to integrate the zoning results to a markets intelligence decision system that includes the elaboration of budgets, analysis and interpretation of historical series of prices, and the study 13 of supply, demand, and imports of local, national, and regional markets. Through this first approximation we intend to attract strategic partners interested in participating in the development or use of the too l. Materials and Methods The work was carried out in two parts: agro-ecological zoning, and market intelligence. The product was tried out in pilot form in the municipalities of Yorito and Sulaco, Honduras, and based on these results it was applied countrywide. Biophysical inputs, such as soil maps of the National Cadastre at a scale of 1:50 000, and the digital database of soils containing laboratory analyses were used for the agro-ecological zoning. To determine climatic variation for height, we used the digital elevation model (DEM) ata scale of 1:50 000 derived from the elevation model, contour maps, and relief. We also used the climatic information available, including precipitation and monthly temperatures. Using these and the DEM, we constructed temperature and potential evapotranspiration surfaces using Hargraves' method, and finally deterrnined periods of general growth. The Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) agro-ecological zoning guide was used for the agroclimatic adaptation. The zoning surfaces can be superimposed on political division maps of Honduras at departmental, municipal, and village level. To analyze the agricultura! markets, we used as information sources the Sistema de Información de Mercados de Productos Agrícolas de Honduras (SIMP AH), the Tegucigalpa Artisan and Producer Fair, the Red de Comercialización Comunitaria Alternativa (RED COMAL), and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food of Guatemala. In the case of SIMP AH, we bought the Honduran weekly average price records of 72 products from March 1996 to April 2002. Each week has a bottom and top price for the markets of Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula; this represents the price at which wholesalers sell to retailers (al so to supermarkets, restaurants, hotels, etc.). SIMP AH has personnel conducting daily surveys at the warehouses. The tendencies of 2002 are kept updated through a subscription paid by the project; prices correspond to three days ofthe week. For the markets ofNicaragua andEl Salvador, we bought records of2001, and paid a subscription for 2002. The Fair prices give a single price per product; prices are detailed and correspond to the largest size of products. Sales are only on the Friday and Saturday of each week in Tegucigalpa. These prices are published in a list (there are also prices for small and medium-size goods, but these were not graphed because they do not apply to all products). This association of producers did not charge for the information because CIAT's Agro-enterprise Project organized the file for them, working for severa! days chronologically ordering the lists, and then working for severa! weeks digitizing the prices in Microsoft Excel. Severa! weeks are without data because lists were not found; the information is available from January 1999; in 2002, prices are updated collectíng the list at the Fair and manually digitizíng it. The prices of RED COMAL correspond to the wholesale weekly price average of the markets of Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula (also for ll other regional markets that were not analyzed because they are supplied by Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula). There are 22 products; survey 14 takers provide the data by visiting the wholesalers of the retail markets. These records were bought and run from January 1999; an annual subscription was paid to update 2002. The Guatemalan prices were downloaded via Internet at (http://www.maga.gob.gt/asp sim/consprOlasp). Data are available for more than 100 products from January 2001 to date, updating is done in the same way, but digitizing the data on the corresponding electronic sheet. To identify periods of better and worse prices, graphs of mobile and polynomial stocking tendencies were made in Microsoft Excel. For statistics of both national and intemational markets, we used graphs of actual performance and of polynomial tendencies. A digital camera was used for the photographic catalogue, taking photos of good and bad quality products, and packaging for transportation and for retail sale. A directory of buyers of agricultura! products will be compiled with information on contacts and requested products. Results and Discussion The product includes agro-ecological zoning maps for 20 agricultura! crops that are classified as vegetables, basic grains, and fruits. The vegetables are chili, tomato, potato, onion, broccoli, cauliflower, · cabbage, and pumpkin. The basic grains include rice, maize, bean, and sorghum. Fruits include avocado, mango, pineapple, lemon, and orange. This only represents an initial base of analysis; the system is capable of receiving the characteristics of specific varieties and translating them as potential zones. The product to be generated is a CD-ROM in Web format that facilitates access to all the information, and permits printing of sheets with market information of each product in a language easy for small-scale producers to understand. Contributors: O~~~; M V ásquez (SL-1) 1.3. Validate new alternatives and improved practices !Olfi~S 1.3.1 Rice and sorghum participatory plant breeding in Central America ,, Introduction ) was first discussed and agreed upon during the fifth CIRAD- Institut national de recherche agronornique (INRA)- Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD)-CIA T meeting held in Cali, June 2001. It was further strengthened by discussions between CIAT and CIR.AD- cultures annuals {CA) and by the visit of Dr Gilles Trouche to Nicaragua, Honduras, and to CIAT's Headquarters in November 2001. The project began in April 2002 with the signing of a Memorandum Of Understanding between CIAT and CIRAD-CA and further outposting of Dr Gilles Trouche in Managua, Nicaragua. The project propases to develop participatory variety selection (PVS) and participatory plant breeding (PPB) approaches for two "model plants" (i.e. , rice and sorghum) for small- and medium-scale farmers undergoing progressive crop intensification and increasing access to markets. 15 Upland rice, otherwise known as aerobic rice, is a developing staple crop in severa! Central American and Caribbean countries, mainly in plains with high rainfall (1300-1500 mm per year), but also on hillsides as a component of diversified cropping systems. The total area of rice, upland and irrigated, in Central America and the Caribbean is 630 000, ha with a global paddy production of about 2 400 000 tons (F AO, 2002)1• In Nicaragua, aerobíc rice covers 55 000 ha of the 83 000 ha that makes up the average total rice area (MAGFOR, 2002f Because of its superior drought tolerance, sorghum provides an altemative production to maize in the driest areas and arid, non-irrigated cropping systems of Central America and the Caribbean. In four Central America countries (Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala) sorghum-planted areas comprise about 255 000 ha, half of which is cultivated by small-scale farmers. In these semi-arid areas, sorghum grain is either used for human consumption (particularly replacing maize in tortillas) or as animal feed (poultry, pigs), while straw is an important forage for cattle during the dry season. Objectives The project aims to further develop PPB methodologies and to improve breeding material. The specific objectives ofthe project are: (1) The PPB work wil1 be conducted in cooperation with existing farmer organizations and other relevant local actors; through these organizations, the project activities wíll be organized. (2) The PPB will be based on the genetic enhancement of locally adapted populations with a broad andlor narrow genetic base, mainly through recurrent selection, but also through more conventional breeding methods. Segregating material and fixed lines derived from populations and crosses developed by the CIAT Rice Project will be used for rice. For sorghum, we proposed that íntroduced segregatíng and fixed material from CIRAD West-Africa Breedíng Programs be used. This material ís genetically and morphologically diversified. Other local improved breeding materials that are available (from the Intemational Sorghum and Millet Program [INTSORMIT..,] and regional national agricultura! research systems [NARS]) will also be used. All of this material would be evaluated first together with farmers for adaptation to local cropping systems. Special emphasis will be placed on environmental adaptation (response to photoperiod, drought and pest tolerance) and on grain and forage quality. Existing composite populations developed from African germplasm may be further enhanced using better local materials to correspond to local constraints and production objectives. Participatory and decentralized plant breeding is a breeding strategy that addresses the needs and preferences of small-scale farmers in marginal areas where conventional plant breeding had little success. PPB proposes to involve farmers and other product users of a specific crop in all stages of a breeding program. Decentralization would ensure that the specific conditions of the target 1 F AO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2002. Datos estadísticos de producción agricola, F AOSTAT, www.fao.org. 2 MAGFOR (Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal). 2002. Datos de producción sobre los granos basícos, ciclo agricola 200 1-2002. Dirección de Estadísticas. N1AGFOR. NI. 16 environment ( climate, soils, agronomic practices, etc.) are respected, in order to better control genotype by environment interactions, which are often very high in tradítional cropping systems in marginal areas. PPB goals may be (Sperling et al., 2001)3: (1) Gains in productivity anda higher product value through quality increment values; (2) Better effectiveness of breeding work because of effective targeting of user needs and production conditions; (3) Biodiversity enhancement and dynamic conservation of diversity; and ( 4) Capacity building and knowledge generation for farmer communities and formal research. Stakeholders' participation in a PPB program can be characterized depending on the stages of participation during the process development of the new varieties, their degree of participation, and the role ofthe different actors (Sperling et al. , 2001). In PPB, _we used to distinguish PVS, in which farmers select for fixed lines or varieties, and PPB, in which farmers participate in the selection ofsegregating material (Witcombe et al. , 1996)4• General Problematic Rice blast (Pyricularia grisae Sacc.) is a major constraint to upland rice production in Central America. Other main constraints for rice production enhancement identified in Nicaragua and Honduras are a lack of improved varieties that are adapted to the diverse farming systems, insufficient weed control, drought, unsatisfactory grain quality for industry requirements, and competitive pressure from imported rice. Factors that limit sorghum yields and farmers' gains include drought, low soil fertility, pests (midge, head bugs, fall armyworm), and diseases, as well as low straw quality and little improved varieties offered. Materials and Methods The first step was to identify sites and partners, and began in November 2001 with a trip to Nicaragua and Honduras. During the first 4 months of implementation of project activities, we focused our activities on these two countries. Emphasís was placed on Nicaragua, the actual project location, because of the country's greater diversity of agroclimatic and institutional environments for both rice and sorghum. For the identification of sites, existing literature from different sources was reviewed- national agricultura! statistics, research publications from NARS, CIAT, and other institutions, studies from NGOs and projects, etc. Additionally, interviews and meetings were conducted with key informants such as national researchers, CIAT staff, extension services, and NGO leaders, in order to verify and complete information. Field visits in the regions during the cropping season will also be frequently organized. 3 Sperling, L. ; Ashby, J. A.; Smith, M. E.; Weltzien, E. ; McGuire. S. 2001. A framework for analyzing participatory plant breeding approacbes and results. Euphytica 122:439--lSO. ~ Witcombe, J. R.; Joshi, A.; Joshi, K. D.; Sthapit, B. R. 1996. Farmer participatory crop irnprovement I. Varietal selection and breeding, methods and their impact on biodiwrsity. Exper Agric 32:443-460. 17 To identify partners, we used both CIAT's long experience and institutional relationships in the region and CIRAD's experience and relationships in Nicaragua developed during the 1990s with projects such as the Programa Regional de Reforzamiento a la Investigación Agronómica sobre los Granos en Centroamérica (PRIAG). Regarding possible NGOs as partners, we mainly looked for local organizations having good experience in technical or/and financia! support to small- and medium-scale farmers in one or both crops, in training for farmer experimentation, and in farmers' organizational capacity building, and NGOs that work with various networks of farmers in the project area. The second step was to perform a diagnostic on crop systems and farmer variety needs. For this purpose, severa! meetings and workshops were organized with farmer groups in the study area. For rice, knowledge on farmers' needs and results of participatory evaluation of new rice varieties, which ha ve been underway since 1998-99, are available for the hillsides areas of Yorito in Honduras, and San Dionisio in Nicaragua. In these regions, rice is considered an altemative staple crop to the two predominant crops, bean and maize. Outside these areas, three meetings were organized jointly with Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) andlor the NGO, Nitlapan, with rice growers in upland rice areas of Rivas (Ochomogo and Pueblo Nuevo villages), Jalapa, and Masaya. Three other meetings are programmed in collaboration with NGOs for September and October in the rice growing areas of Chinandega, Quilali, and W aslala. For sorghum, very few recent data about constraints of cropping systems and farmers' variety needs are available in the existing literature. Therefore, it was considered necessary to conducta more complete diagnostic study at the start of the project. Two students from the Centre national d'études agronomiques des regions chaudes (CNEARC) and the Universidad Centroamericana (UCA) will carry out the study in one representative production area of sorghum with small- and medium-scale farmers in Nicaragua. Felipe Martinez is conducting the first thesis work for an MSc in tropical agronomy. The work comprises a participatory diagnostic of sorghum cropping systems and variety diversity used, and proposals for developing a participatory breeding program for the Madriz Department area, in Estelí region (north central Nicaragua). This study is being carried out in collaboration with the NGO Instituto Nacional de Formación Profesional- Union Nacional de Cafetaleros (INFOP-UNICAM) in four farmer communities that represent the different sorghum production conditions in the semi-arid hillsides in relation to climate, soils, topography, ethnic skills, social organization, and institutional environment. The second thesis work seeks to improve the understanding of cultural practices, constraints (abiotic and biotic), and potentiality for different sorghum cropping systems (including photoperiod-sensitive and -insensitive sorghum type) in three farmer communities of the same region. For the frrst study, workshops were organized in each community to collect general infonnation about the community (natural resource map, social classification). Information was also gathered on the history of the sorghum crop, existing cropping systems, present and traditional varieties used, and farmers' needs to improve sorghum production and use. Individual semi-structured interviews with 1 O to 12 farmers and focus interviews with key informants were held in each community. Following the workshops, local sorghum varieties were collected from each community. The main part of these varieties was planted in one of the communities for a participatory characterization and classification of these by farmers. 18 For the second thesis, about 40 sorghum plots will be studied during the two growing seasons of sorghum, primera and postrera, in the three selected communities. In other regions of Nicaragua, three meetings with sorghum producers were organized in collaboration with local NGOs and with Comités de Investigación Agricola Local (CIALs) in Villa Nueva-Somotillo ( one of the driest region of Nicaragua), Ciudad Dario, and San Dionisio. During each meeting, a rapid participatory diagnostic on sorghum cropping systems, use of grain and stover, existing varieties, and farmers' needs was conducted that permitted us to determine objectives, conditions, and choice of the varieties for the PVS trials during this first year. Two meetings were also organized with farmer groups in Honduras, in the El Paraíso Department in collaboration with the NGO Movimondo, and in Yorito in collaboration with Investigación Participativa para Centro América (IPCA) and the CIALs. Rice and sorghum germplasm introduced from different sources was evaluated. Rice Observation nurseries: 323 CIAT progenies from CIAT-Peru Program and from interspecific crosses Oryza sativa x O. glaberrima, O. sativa x O. barthii, and O. saliva x O. rufipogon for lowland irrigated conditions or favorable aerobic conditions 24 F4 CIAT-CIRAD progenies derived from PCT-4 population for aerobic upland conditions 5 CIAT-CIRAD varieties for upland conditions: CIRAD 409, 446, 447, Oryzica Sabana 6, and Oryzica Sabana 1 O 6 CIAT varieties for irrigated conditions: Fedearroz 50, Fedearroz 2000, BG90-2, Oryzica 1, Selecta 320, and Oryzica 3 Participatory breeding: PCT-18: narrow genetic base population adapted for upland conditions for rice blast resistance and grain quality PCT -17: narrow genetic base population adapted for high-altitude hillsides upland conditions for rice blast resistance, cold tolerance, and grain quality Participatory varietal selection: 14 advanced lines and varieties from INT A Rice Program for upland and lowland conditions 9 CIRAD varieties from collaborative program in Ivory Coast, Brazil, and Madagascar for less favorable upland conditions 15 CIAT-CIRAD advanced lines for high-altitude hillsides Sorghum Observation nurseries: 21 photoperiod-sensitive landraces and improved lines from CIRAD germplasm collection (late-flowering core from different origin, Cameroon, Chad, Mali, Burkina, and Sudan) 30 fixed lines, landraces, and varieties from CIRAD- Institut national pour l'étude et la recherche agronomique (INERA) program in Burkina Faso, and other African origins with drought tolerance, early flowering, foliar diseases, and midge and bugs resistance or double purpose use 13 forage sorghum and pearl millet advanced lines and varieties from the Intemational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)-CIA T program in Colombia 19 Participatory varietal selection: 22 improved varieties from different CIRAD collaborative programs in West Africa (14 from joint CIRAD-INERA program in Burkina Faso) with drought tolerance, foliar diseases, and sorghum midge and bugs resistance or double purpose use 5 improved varieties from INT A Observation nurseries were planted on INTA experirnent stations in Managua (Centro Nacional de Investigación Agropecuario, CNIA), Posoltega (upland rice) and Sebaco (irrigated rice), and at the CIA T SOL-San Dionisio in Nicaragua. PVS trials and PPB work were conducted at the SOL-San Dionisio and SOL-Yorito (Honduras), and in farmer fields in Madriz, Rivas, and Chinandega Departments in Nicaragua. For rice, one observation nursery with 30 lines and varieties was planted on the Posoltega INTA experiment station. Another nursery will be planted during the 2002-2003 dry season with 342 F6 diversified lines for lowland conditions on Sebaco INT A experiment station. Three PVS trials were planted at the CIA T reference sites of San Dionisio (low hillsides - 12 en tries) and Yo rito (medium hillsides- 7 entries, and high hillsides- 12 entries). Two rice populations were sown at San Dionisio (PCT-18) and Yorito (PCT-17) to start PPB work with local CIALs. Two on-farm PVS trials were planted in the Rivas region with both entries. The designs used for PVS trials were randomized complete blocks (RCBD) with two or three replications. For sorghum, four nurseries were planted for observation and seed multiplication in Nicaragua: (1) On the Managua CNIA station with 51 lines and varieties, (2) At the SOL-San Dionisio, 11 lines and varieties, (3) Atan INTA site of experimentation in Madriz during the primera (28 lines and varieties), and ( 4) As for (3) during the postrera (20 lines and varieties) seasons, including local checks. Seven PVS trials were planted during the postrera, each trial at the SOL-San Dionisio and SOL- Yorito, while the remaining four were conducted on farm in the five different communities of Nicaragua and Honduras in which workshops and rapid participatory diagnostic of variety needs with local farmer groups were previously carried out. The designs used for PVS trials were RCBD with two replications. Results These are as yet preliminary and cover the period of April to September 2002. For both Nicaragua and Honduras, the CIAL farmer cornmittees in San Dionisio and Yorito will be partners for both crops. Rice and sorghum are alternative food crops to maize and bean in these mountainous areas. Possible partners in San Dionisio and Y orito include local NGOs and farmer organizations already involved in the SOL and CIAL. INTA is considered a strong, responsible partner in Nicaragua for the research area, because it manages research programs both for rice and sorghum and recen ti y concluded a general agreement of scientific cooperation with CIA T. A specific agreement for the project has been written and will most likely be completed between INT A and CIA T befo re October. 20 Other project partners in Nicaragua will be the NGOs Nitlapan and UNICAM-INFOP. Nitlapan is the first provider of micro-credit for small- and medium-scale farmers in Nicaragua. Besides providing micro-finance, Nitlapan also supplies training and technical assistance to a wide network of farmers. A specific agreement between CIA T and Nitlapan is curren ti y under discussion. For the dry hillside areas in the north of Nicaragua, we have identified the local NGO, UNICAM, as a strong partner for the sorghum activities. For Honduras, we identified the NGO Movimondo and the Alauca area as probable partner and site for sorghum activities. The traditional rice area of Camayagua department has been identified as an appropriate region to conduct PPB rice activities. Diagnostic on crop systems and farmers' variety needs Rice In the traditional upland rice area of Rivas in the Pacific plains of Nicaragua, rice covers about 2000 ha. Small- and medium-scale farmers mainly carry out production. Meetings with rice producers' groups in Ochomogo and San Juan Viejo helped identify fertile soils, rice blast, bugs, climatic conditions (rainfall irregularity, drought, and drying winds in November), as well as access to credit and selling prices. These factors are the major constraints to rice production in the area. Implementation of modem improved varieties of rice from INTA or the Asociación Nacional de Arroceros (ANAR) is generally low and depends on the level of intensification and the institutional environment. In Ochomogo, with the influence of the local farmer cooperative that exploits 70 ha for rice production with irrigation, upland rice producers of this area know and partially use modem varieties. In San Juan Viejo, farmers use two modem varieties; are limited on the flattest areas with better clay soils, but still use four local or old improved varieties to plant on the hillsides' sandy and less fertile soils. Farmers ask for new varieties that will provide plants with intermediate height (80-1 00 cm), early flowering (90-1 00 days to harvest), resistant to blast rice and rice bugs, less fertilizer consuming (in comparison with INT A modero varieties), good grain and straw yields, and adequate grain quality for market. Both villages are very interested in testing new rice varieties within their own environrnents. In the wet, fertile Jalapa valley in northem Nicaragua, upland rice is an important and traditional crop, the third most cultivated after maize and bean. In the 1980s, rice cultivation in the valley reached 3300 ha and then decreased to 1750 ha in the 1990s, and 1000 ha in 2002 because of lack of credit, problems of land property, and low prices on the national market. Because of a govemment program introduced in 2001 to in crease prices paid to the farmers, in order to boost the national production of rice, prices are now more of an incentive for rice producers. In this area, medium- and large-scale farmers or firrns carry out rice production. Blast rice and red rice are the main production constraints, while Cerscosporium and Rhyncosporium diseases appear to be secondary constraints. Farmers use mainly three varieties, ANAR 97, Altamira 9, and Altamira 14. In addition to increasing resistance to the diseases mentioned above, farmers are now asking for more early flowering varieties to permit different planting and harvesting dates. Farmers appear to be satisfied with grain yield potential and grain quality of the above varieties. In Masaya area, where favorable soils and climatic conditions allow diversified farming systems (including maize, rice, bean, cassava, and fruits), rice is maínly produced for family consumption. As in the San Juan Viejo area, the use of "official" modem varieties seems to be 21 low. Since the 1990s, farmers have been accessing new varieties and seed vía informal exchange with other farmers or NGOs. The exact origin of these varieties is not known. Because of recent rainfall irregularity, farmers have been asking for more drought-resistant varieties with intermediate height (1 m) and resistance to lodging. Sorghum The diagnostic study carried out centered on four communities in the Madriz Department, and revealed a great diversity of sorghum cropping systems. Photoperiodic-sensitive sorghum landraces, generally referred to as millon in Nicaragua and maicillo in Honduras, are planted in combination with maize, bean, or insensitive sorghum with different geometric arrangements depending on soils, slopes, or climatic constraints, and farmers' strategies and goals. Because of its rusticity and ability to adapt to poor, unfertilized soils, and its very long cycle (May to December), which allows better support of middle season droughts, millon plays an important role in the kind of low-risk crop that guarantees family subsistence production when maize and/or bean production has failed. Since the mid-1980s, short-cycle and insensitive white grain sorghums have gradually been replacing maize and mi/Ion on the flattest and most fertile lands. As a result, rnillon sorghum is now more concentrated on the hillsides, as is the case in the Pacific area of Somo tillo-Villa Nueva, and in the semi-arid central hillside area of Ciudad Dario- Terra Bona. In the Madriz Department, an interesting connection exists between the diversity of sorghum varieties and the cropping systems with their diversity of production constraints and goals. Therefore, following the workshop organized in each community, 30 varieties were collected in the four communities taking part in this study. Among the varieties, 18 are supposedly photoperiodic-sensitive landraces and two are broomcom varieties. All these varieties were planted both on farm and on the Managua CNIA station. Numerous varieties are thought to come from the border countries of Honduras and El Salvador, demonstrating the importance of informal exchange of seed between farmers. No improved low-height rnillon varieties were found during this survey. Among short-cycle insensitive improved varieties, Tortillera precoz is the most largely diffused variety in the entire Estelí region (Julio Malina, personal communication, 2002). This variety is a derived line from IRAT 204, a CIR.AD-Institut Sénégalais de recherché agricole (ISRA) improved variety from Senegal that is well adapted to Sahelian conditions and has good grain quality. Short-cycle sorghum is mainly planted during the postrera season (August to November) to achieve three different objectives: grain for family consumption (tortilla, pino!), grain for chickens and pigs, and straw for rurninant alimentation (for farm needs or for selling). The importance of these objectives depends on production constraints and on the individual strategies ofthe farmers. The following breeding objectives resulted from the different workshops organized with the farmer groups: (a) Photoperiodic sorghum: Decrease plant height in arder to reduce risks of lodging and better control head insects Improve grain yield Decrease plant cycle for harvesting in December (more early flowering and to reduce flowering-maturity duration) 22 Improve straw quality (more green leaves at harvest, improved stem quality) (b) Short-cycle insensitive sorghum: lmprove grain and stover yields Improve resistance to bugs, sorghum midge, and stocks insects Better grain size to achieve a better price Early cycle and drought resistance Grain quality to give good white tortillas lmprove stover quality for ruminants Crop improvement Following former participatory testing and selection with farmers initially carried out by the NGO Proyecto de Desarrollo de San Dionisio (PRODESSA), and then by the CIAT-Hillsides Project in collaboration with the CIALs in San Dionisio, already farrners have adopted IRAT 301 and IRAT 364/90 in the hillside central regions of ~icaragua. Data from on-farrn trials along with qualitative information from farmers were collected to convince INT A to include these two varieties in the official validation for 2003 with a view to possible official release in Nicaragua. As a result of the last 2 years of on-farm trials with CIALs, the rice varieties IRAT 301, IRAT 362, and IRA T 364 are now in a phase of demonstration trials in the low hillside area of Yorito, Honduras. IRA T 364/90 and IRA T 392 are, meanwhile, in validation trials for high hillside conditions in the same region. An official release of the best two or three varieties has to be decided on in 2003. For all on-station and on-farm trials in 2002, the first results for participatory evaluation and selection with farmers groups and agronornic data will be available in October- November. \ tY L\ ~.o olY-.. ·,J.·, Contributors: G Trouche (IP-4); F Martinez, D Osorio; M Chatel, M Vales (IP-4) 1.3.2. Introduction and evaluation of new genetic materials of annual crops in tbe San Dionisio reference si te, Nicaragua J 0 U.() (¿, Objectives • To determine potential performance and adaptation of improved materials of bean, maize, soya, non-irrigated rice, and sweet potato in the climatic conditions of the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL) site. • To evaluate the potential acceptance of the improved materials, incorporating methods of selection and participative evaluation. Material and Metbods An extensive range ofimproved germplasm ofmaize. bean, rice, soya, sweet potato, fodders, and sorghurn has been evaluated during the last 4 years at SOL sites (Table 1). The bean materials are part of the CIAT improvement program, and of the Ensayo Centroamericano de Apaptacion y Rendimiento (ECAR) of the Proyecto Regional de Frijol para Centro América, México y el Caribe (PROFRIJOL). The maize materials are advanced Iines generated by the Regional Maize Program (PRM, the Spanish acronym) and INTA. The rice materials are commercial varieties and lines with tolerance to drought and piricularia of the CIA T -CIRAD Rice Project. The collection of sweet potato is composed of local materials originally introduced by the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). The sorghum materials are from the INTSORMIL network and ICRISA T. The forage species under evaluation originate from different sources (local, regional, and CIA T). The collection includes grasses, herbaceous and bushy legumes, and green manures. Tab1e l. Crop Bean Maize Soya Rice Sweet potato Sorghum Forages Types oftria1s eva1uated on annua1 crops in the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL), Nicaragua and Honduras, 1999-2002". 1999 2000 2001 2002 VIDAC ECAR (161ines) PIF (51 1ines) PIF (60 1ines) Verification ECAR lines (5) (161ines ofPIF 2001) ECAR Drought-tolerance nursery (16 1ines) ( 40 1ines) Mu1tip1ication (6) lines (ECAR 2000) ENAR ENAR ENAR (lO lines) ENAR (12 rnaterials) (8 materials) ( 1 O varieties) Evaluation ofvarieties and hybrids (9) Adaptation, Multiplication Adaptation and Verification performance (3 ( 1 variety by CIALs) performance ( 6 varieties) lines) ( 6 varieties) Adaptation, Evaluation and Adaptation, performance Tria! ofbest lines of performance ( 12 tolerance to (27 genotypes) 1999 and 2001 lines) piricularia ( 16 lines) ( 12 lines) Seed production of 5 Participative best of2001 improvement based on PCT -18 population Adaptation, Adaptation, performance performance (2 ( 15 genotypes) Iines) Mu1tiplication (2 lines) Adaptation, performance Adaptation and drought tolerance ( 1 O lines) performance ( lO lines) Adaptation and performance ( 12 sensitive lines) Participative improvement Adaptation of Adaptation of Adaptation of legume. Adaptation of legume, legume, grass, legume, grass, and grass, and tree forages grass, and tree forages and tree forages tree forages a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. An extensive range of producer interest groups evaluates the materials, including CIALs, groups of experimenting producers, and groups of producers organized by support institutions. Of the selection carried out by the producer groups of interest, the improved materials pass to the communities to be evaluated in different environments, and their subsequent distribution to producers (Figure 1 ). 2-+ Sources of germplasm • CIAT • Other centers (CIMMYT, ClP, CIRAD, liT A, ICRlSAT) • National Programs (NARS) INTA, DICTA, CENTA) • NGOs • In sito (local germplasm) Seed flow .···· .... ···•· p R o Regional networks and consortia • PROFRlJOL (bean) • PRM (maize) • PRECODEPA (potato) • INTSORMIL (sorghum) • FLAR (rice) • CLA YUCA (cassava) Hillsides Options Supermarket (SOL) (participative strategy) Production of improved seed 1 D u e E R ········ · ··············· · · ·· ·········-~ Deliverv of information · .. S ·· ... NARS (Conventional strategy of evaluation and selection on experiment stations and farms) CIALs Figure l. Flow diagram of germplasm in the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL) reference sites. Results From 1999 to date, producers from the CIALs, producers of the Union de Campesinos Unidos of San Dionisio (UCOSD), and independent producers have participatively evaluated and selected about 180 bean Iines, including 40 with tolerance to drought. Based on the results of participative selection (red, uniform brilliant grain color, size of grain, aii characteristics highly Iinked to the market) producers selected EAP 9508-41, EAP 9509-29, EAP 9510-77, and PRF 9652-57-1, and these were distributed in the communities of Chile, Las Cuchillas, El Carrizal, and El Zarzal. The materials tolerant to drought, RAB 620, RAB 607, RAB 630, RJB 12, and RJB 5, were identified and selected. Producers of the Municipality of San Dionisio have evaluated 42 materials among maize varieties and hybrids to date. HS 5G, DECAL C 343 , HQ INTA 993, and H INTA 991 are among the nevv materials selected by producers and evaluated in the communities of El Carrizal, Zarzal, and Jícaro l. The flow of maíze germplasm to producers was dífficult because multíplication of seed of the better materials needs to be established, and seed needs to be opportunely avaílable for dístribution to producers. Nine materials of ímproved soya have been evaluated sínce the start of the SOL, and four of these-CEA-CH-86, Ñandú, Marlen, and Obando 1-are beíng evaluated at the leve! of five communities, and especially groups ofwomen. To date, 32 rice línes ha ve been evaluated. In the communities of Wíbuse, Jícaro 1, Zapo te, and Jícaro 2 the lines IRAT 301, IRAT 349, IRAT 361, IRAT 362, and IRAT 367 were evaluated. At present, lines are beíng selected for tolerance to piricularia. Seventeen clones of sweet potato were evaluated in the SOL; those selected by producers are Zapallo, Cayetano, Coastal, Koítaki, Toquecito, Xushu, Excel, Angola, and Jonathan. Likewíse nine of these clones were distributed to the regional trials of INTA in Matagalpa, Estelí, Chinandega and León, and Chontales and Carazo. Síxty-two sorghum lines were evaluated at the SOL site, especíally seeking conditions of selectíon for dry sí tes. This year we are emphasízing the selection of materials to be delívered to the cornmunitíes. Conclusions The development of germplasm of different crops through partícipative evaluation and selection ís an example of the integrated character of the SOL. The SOL gives producers more direct and extensíve access to a wide range of germplasm that originates directly from the íntematíonal centers and/or the natíonal networks of research instítutions in crops such as bean, maize, rice, sorghum, sweet potato, cowpea, soya, and forage plants, among others. The results obtained índicate that the selectíon of materials by producers based on their expressed criteria in the participative evaluatíons permits not only the contínuous improvement of the dífferent crops, but also the adoptíon and utilization of the materials on the farms of the producers. Adoption ís seen to be quicker. In cultivations such as maize, a strategy of seed multiplication needs to be implemented because the flow of better materials to producers is impeded by the non-availability of seed opportunely. A SOL is a solution for a site or a small area, beyond which a network of SOL sites is needed, which facílitates coverage and the possibility of genotype x environment studíes. Through integration/collaboration the duplication of work by institutions is reduced, one supports the other (capacity building), and access is opened to an extensive range of germplasm, and flow of information. ~ ~ b-~ )>t:-J' f.1i~ Contributors: PP~Orozc_5i, C l)avie~ ~~ _f3-v _ Collaborators: J,A~eltrán; Ai~chm1dt (PE-2); G'Trouche (IP-4); J'Bosco ~ ~ r• v-~ e \{),"'(~1:7 .26 1.3.3. Introduction and evaluation of new genetic materials of annual crops in the Luquigüe reference site, Honduras Objective To evaluate whether the identification and diffusion of germplasm of annual crops of the SOL- Luquigüe si te has satisfied the demand of producers by: (1) Determining the acceptance of varieties by producers, consumers, and traders through participative evaluations; (2) Evaluating the agronomic characteristic of advanced lines ofthe different crops to determine their potential to form part ofthe present and new systems ofproduction; and (3) Selecting advanced lines for evaluation by CIALs and institutions in diverse agro-ecological conditions of the subregion of Yorito-Sulaco. Introduction Climate changes ( drought), constant reduction of soil fertility, and damage to crops by pests and diseases have considerably reduced crop productivity, which has increased food insecurity and levels of malnutrition in the population of certain communities. To reduce the effects of this problem, in the last 3 years the CIA T has evaluated, and placed at the disposition of small-scale hillsides producers in the SOL-Luquigüe, germplasm with characteristics oftolerance to drought, earliness, and high-quality protein. During this same period, participative evaluations and field tours with producers to trials at the SOL-Luquigüe were developed, which has generated much interest and demand for the materials evaluated. Part of the demand for seed and vegetative material was covered with production from small seed production lots. Material and Methods During 1999-2002, in the first and second seasons, the following annual trials of crops (sweet potato, bean, soya, maize, cassava, and rice) were evaluated: • Five nurseries of lines, populations, and accessions, • 13 evaluation and adaptation trials ofvarieties' elite lines, • Four trials ofvalidation ofvarieties, • Two validations of promising varieties, and • Seven plots of seed multiplication of varieties or advanced lines. The trials had as main objective the identification of materials (lines, populations, or varieties) that showed characteristics of tolerance to pests and diseases, drought, earliness, and good market acceptance. Most experiments followed an RCBD with three repetitions. All trials were sown under the zero labor system, and were evaluated under management conditions that correspond to a low and middle technological level (application of fertilizer, insecticides, and fungicides) because most producers in the region ha,·e no economic resources for the purchase of inputs. 27 The following variables were measured: days to flowering, plant height, presence of pests and diseases, days to maturity, and yield and all its components. Participative evaluations were carried out in the different crop phases, and in sorne crops, such as sweet potato and bean, sampling was taken. Producer members of the CIALs of Luquigüe, Río Arriba, La Ladera, Pueblo Viejo, Mina Honda, and Santa Marta carried out the 16 evaluations; and IPCA acted as coordinator. Independent producers of the communities of Luquigüe and La Sabana de San Pedro also took part. The annual presentation of research results and the distribution and exchange of germplasm to producers and technicians are general activities of the Network of SOL sites. To develop these activities each year the technicians of CIAT, IPCA, and Servicios Técnicos para el Desarrollo Sostenido (SERTEDESO) form the operating committee of the Network that organizes workshops of presentation of results at producer and technician level with two important objectives: (1) To divulge the main research results generated in SOL sites during the last year; and (2) To generate a demand for seed ofthe promising varieties identified. In the development of the workshops, activities are evaluated, important research themes prioritized, collaborative activities among partners established, and participants are given forms for seed requests. Other activities that generate a demand for seed are field tours and participative evaluations carried out with producers from communities within the area of each SOL. In subsequent months, each SOL site and the Network Technical Comrnittee receive requests for seed and vegetative material of the different crops from independent producers and technicians from different institutions. To standardize seed delivery, the Network has elaborated a seed distribution policy in which the quantity and type of material is specified. From May 2000 to mid-September 2002 small quantities of seed of the promising varieties identified were delivered to small-scale individual producers. Also, small verification trials of varieties for evaluation in diverse agro-ecological conditions were prepared and delivered to technicians and CIALs. Results ldentification ofvarieties or advanced fines through participative evaluations Of the varieties evaluated in the 17 trials established in the SOL-Luquigüe from the second season of 1999 until spring 2001, producers selected 25 advanced lines or varieties through participative evaluations. The selection of these materials is based on the criteria shown in Table 2. Members of CIALs and independent producers in Luquigüe, La Sabana, Río Arriba, and La Ladera, which have similar agro-ecological conditions to the SOL-Luquigüe, carried out these evaluations. Producers of the CIALs in high-altitude areas that were greatly interested in evaluating the crops on their own plots also took part. Most of these materials have good possibilities of adoption by producers whenever seed is available. Although every year we maintain small seed production plots, available seed was not 28 sufficient for quick impact in the adoption of these varieties ( e.g., adoption of the variety Tío Canela in the region during the Seeds of Hope Project [SOH]). During an agricultura! cycle, an agreement was made with the small seed enterprise, Asociación de Hombres y Mujeres Progresistas de Honduras (AHMUPROH), to produce seed of promising varieties identified in rice, soya, and maize. However, results went not satisfactory because of operating problems within AHMUPROH, and ofthe management ofmany varieties and crops at the same time. We need to count on a seed production strategy of potential varieties that is well defined to guarantee their widespread adoption. Table 2. Fanner criteria on which selection ofvarieties were based, by crop. Line, variety, or clone selected by crop Sweet potato Xushu 18 Toquecita Cetisa 78 32 Wongmy Rice (high-plant type) IRAT362 IRAT 349 Rice (low-plant type) CR2515 INTA # 1 cr 9545 p 1048 Soya Obando 1 FHIA- 15 Bean EAP 9510-77 SRC 1-12-1 PTC 9557-10 PTC 9558-17 SRC 1-18-1(A) PCE 9351-8 Maize P 73Nic2 Sinematiali 9423 RE Sintético 9521 Across S9623 S99TL WQ Bako S9623 I'oza Rich S9623 Criteria in order of importance Flavor Consistency Tuber shape Performance Earliness, size of panicle and grain, unifonn maturity, flattening of plant, plant height (tall plant facilita tes control of weeds) Performance, healthy foliage, uniform maturity Earliness, yield, flattening of plant Characteristics of the seed (big wide seed, brilliant clear red, healthy and uniform Seeds per pod Presence of disease Unifonn maturity Health of cob Size of cob (large) Weight and size of grain It is important to mention that sorne of these varieties were used in developing new production systems (tria! ofrotation ofannual crops). One ofthe most important benefits that partners ofthe Network of SOL si tes perceive is the access to local, national, and international germplasm. 29 Delivery of germp/asm to individual producers Workshops for presentation of results, field tours, and participative evaluations have generated a demand for evaluated germplasm. Figure 2 shows the nurnber of individual producers that ·have received germplasm of annual crops, and Figure 3 shows the comrnunities where these producers live. It is evident that Luquigüe and the savanna of San Pedro are the communities most benefited; however, producers of six other communities have received germplasm, not counting all the region covered by the Comprobación de Variedades (COVA) trials, described later. The availability of seed and vegetative material has directly affected seed delivery to producers. More producers received varieties of sweet patato, cassava, and bean (Figure 2) because the SOL site had exclusive areas for seed production and these crops permit rapid multiplication. 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 o Figure 2. Figure 3. sean cassa'Ja Individual producers that have received germplasm from the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL). C Luquigue OLa Laguna • RioArriba • sulaco 22 • Sabana de San Pedro OLa Ladera C E/Carrizal O Victoria The communities ofthe individual producers that have received germplasm. During the seed distribution process, the ideal strategy for diffusing germplasm was identified. First, identify the group of interest of an agro-ecological area by crop. Then, identify a small group of producer experts of the crop that is representative of the region, in order to build with 30 them an ideo-type of the crop if it is a traditional one and there is experience in growing it. Next, carry out participative evaluations in the trials established in the SOL. Finally, after the agronomic and participative evaluation, present results to producers that form the group of interest, and deliver seed of identified promising varieties. This permits the evaluation of materials in di verse agro-ecological conditions, and the identification of varieties for a region. A strategy for seed multiplication is needed, to guarantee wide adoption. Va/idation ofpromising varieties in diverse agro-eco/ogical conditions ofthe region To select varieties and advanced lines that have passed to another level, for example from an ECAR trial to a COV A trial, the following criteria were used, in order of importance: • Varieties should be first in producer selection made in participative evaluations. • Seed should comply with all the characteristics required by the market for good cornmercialization. • Seed should yield well, and not be tolerant to disease. To establish verification trials of varieties, multi-institutional alliances (Network of SOL sites) were established among the following institutions: IPCA, SERTEDESO, ESA consultants, Consultores de Servicios Agropecuarios del Valle de Y oro (COSA VY), Consultores para el Desarrollo Sostenible (CODESA), Institutes of San Pedro and San Juan de Sula, Dirección de Investigación de Ciencias y Tecnología Agrícola (DICTA), and Proyecto de Desarrollo de Area (PDA)- Y oro. The farmers and technicians of these benefiting institutions participated in the results' presentation workshops and requested gennplasm to evaluate in their areas of influence, municipalities of Yoro (Victoria, Yorito Sulaco, and Jocon), and other departrnents of the country. To satisfy this demand, CIAT and IPCA jointly prepared and delivered a series of verification trials of varieties of the crops requested. Table 3 shows the number of trials made with germplasm originating from SOL-Luquigüe. Table 3. Crop Bean Soya Rice Sweet potato Cassava Number of trials made by institutions using germplasm originating from the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL), Luquigüe". No. of verification Institutions and organizations establishing and evaluating the crop• trials delivered 19 10 3 6 7 SERTEDESO, CIALs ofMina Honda, Guaco, La Ladera, Pueblo Viejo, and PDA-Yoro SERTEDESO, lnstitutes ofSan Juan de Sula and San Pedro, seed delivered to IPCA to prepare trials, and to COSA VY to deliver to producers SERTEDESO CIALs in Patastera, Juvenil La Ladera, and W isilca in Yorito; CIALs in Vallecillos, Santa Bárbara, and Danlí; CODESA; ESA Consultants; 50 plots (60 cuttings), clones of sweet potato in individual form to IPCA and SERTEDESO PDA-Yoro, CODESA Morazán, SERTEDESO, CIALs in Wisilca and La Ladera a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. 31 Altogether, 45 small verification trials of varieties were delivered; of these only sorne ha ve been monitored. Our partners were asked for their support; but few institutions delivered a complete report of trial results. It is important to note that the COY As have two purposes; first, is the adaptation of materials to diverse agro-ecological conditions, and second is to produce seed or vegetative material for those producers interested in the crop. Conclusions The selection of 25 vanehes and advanced lines by producers shows that the offering of germplasm from SOL-Luquigüe is satisfying their demand. The SOL-Luquigüe has permitted direct access to germplasm originating from international centers, programs, and networks of investigation at the level of Central America through deliveries and exchange of germplasm to individual producers, organizations of producers, and institutional partners of the Network of SOL sites. The process of germplasm evaluation, which has been followed in the SOL, has been generally good; however, analysis has been lacking after each cycle of the crop to better identify varieties and advanced lines that can move on from ECAR to COY A trials. It is also necessary to identify groups of interest by crop, and at the same time groups of producer experts. Seed multiplication is an activity that should go parallel to the process of germplasm evaluation to guarantee the adoptio_~t~$t;t va~· !Y or promising line. ·~-' ().4' ... !}{'\ Contributors: f srizuefa, G alma 1.3.4. Soil erosion control in Thailand and Vietnam Rationale When grown on slopes, even gentle slopes of less than 10%, cassava production can result in serious erosion, both sheet erosion and rill or gully erosion. Erosion can be markedly reduced by simple agronomic practices, such as intercropping, fertilizer or manure application, mulching, closer plant spacing, mínimum tillage, contour ridging, and planting of contour hedgerows of closely spaced grasses or legumes. The contour hedgerows ( or any kind of contour barrier) will over time result in natural terrace formation, which reduces the slope and thus runoff and erosion. To find out which of these practices, alone or in combination, is most suitable for a certain area, farmers in project sites were encouraged and assisted in conducting simple farmer participatory research (FPR) erosion control trials on their own fields. Methods In both Thailand and Vietnam the cassava project expanded to include four new sites in each country. In Thailand, farmers from these new sites visited demonstration plots with many altemative options located at the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) Research Center in Huay Bong, Nakhon Ratchasima province, as well as an older FPR pilot site nearby where farmers had already conducted many FPR trials and had planted severa! kilometers of vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion. In Vietnam, farmers from new sites had previously taken part in a field day to harvest FPR trials in a nearby site. After visiting either the demonstration plots or other people's FPR trials, farmers in the new sites often wanted to conduct their own ..,, _, _ erosion control trials. They selected as a group the treatments to be tested and each farmer established and managed the trials on a uniform slope of their own field, usually under the guidance of project staff, students, or local extension workers. Results Table 4 shows the results of an FPR demonstration conducted for the 4th consecutive year at Thai Nguyen University in north Vietnam. The results indicate that a combination of various irnproved practices, such as intercropping cassava with peanut, applying fertilizers and planting contour hedgerows of vetiver grass (Treatment 8) reduced erosion from 68 to 14 tons per ha. This treatment also resulted in the second highest cassava yield and net income. Farmers visiting these trials realize immediately that, even though these practices increase production costs, they can also double or triple net income, while markedly reducing erosion and soil degradation. Thus, there is no doubt that good agronomic and soil conservation practices will in the long term increase yields and income, thus helping to alleviate poverty. Table4. Results of farmer participatory research (FPR) demonstration plots at Thai Nguyen University, Thai Nguyen province, north Vietnam in 2001 (4th year). Treatrnents• Dry Yield {t ha.1) Gross Product. Net soil eassava Peanut Hedgerow incomeb costsc in come loss Dry pods Biomass biomass (mil. dong ha.1) (t ha.1) l. No fertilizer; no ridges, e 67.75 2.75 1.375 2.800 -1.425 monoculture; 1 x 0.8 m; no hedgerows 2. With fert.; contour ridges, e mono- 19.53 13.33 6.665 4.364 2.301 culture; 1 x 0.8 m; no hedgerows 3. With fert.; no ridges, e monoculture; 20.50 14.08 1.57 7.040 4.164 2.876 1 x 0.8 m; Paspa/um hedgerows 4. With fert.; no ridges, e monoculture; 14.96 13.91 2.94 6.955 4.164 2.791 1 x 0.8 m; vetiver+Teph. hedgerows 5. With fert.; no ridges, C+P; 1 x 0.8 m; 16.35 15.83 0.50 4.23 1.34 10.415 5.464 4.95 1 Tephrosia hedgerows 6. With fert.; no ridges, C+P; 1 x 0.8 m; 15.95 15.41 0.41 4.02 1.00 9.755 5.464 4.291 Tephrosia+pineapple hedgerows 7. With fert.; no ridges, e+P; 1 x 0.8 m; 17.98 14.83 0.38 3.95 9.315 5.164 4.1 51 natural grass hedgerows 8. With fert.; no ridges, C+P; 1 x 0.8 m; 13.98 16.9 1 0.33 3.42 1.63 10.105 5.464 4.641 vetiver grass hedgerows 9. With fert.; no ridges, e+P; 1 x 0.8 m; 17.11 14.58 0.45 4.30 1.66 9.540 5.464 4.076 Panicum max. hedgerows 10. With fert.; no ridges, C+P; 0.6x 15.15 18.33 1.22 9.165 4.664 4.501 0.8 m; Brach. brizantha hedgerows a. Fertilizers = 60N+40P20 5+120K20 per ha; C+P = e+peanut; Variety = KM60; Distance between hedgerows: 5m; Intercropping: 2 rows of peanut. b. Prices (dong): cassava, 500 per kg; peanut, 5000 per kg; urea (45% N), 2100 per kg; SSP (17% P20 5), 950 per kg; Ke! (60% K20), 2300 per kg; labor, 10 000 per man day; c. eost of cassava cultivation, 2.8 mil. dong per ha; cost of fertilizers (60N+40P20 5+ 120K20), 0.964 mil. dong per ha; cost of fertilizer application, 0.1 O mil. dong per ha; cost of peanut seed, 0.30 mil. dong per ha; cost of contour ridging, 0.50 mil. dong per ha; cost of labor for intercropping, 1.00 mil. dong per ha; cost of hedgerow seed, planting, maintenance, 0.30 mil. dong per ha . ...,.., -'-' Tables 5 and 6 show the type and number of FPR trials conducted in 49 pilot si tes in Thailand and Vietnam. Farmers in practically all villages liked to test new varieties, because this is a way to obtain planting material of new high yielding and high-starch content germplasm. Besides evaluating the new varieties and lines, they used this as the first step in multiplying the most promising material for later planting in larger areas of their farm. In Vietnam, farmers also continue to conduct FPR erosion control, intercropping, and fertilizer trials as they realize that the combination of high-yielding varieties, balanced fertilization, intercropping, and erosion control barriers is the best way to increase yields and income, while protecting their soil from degradation. This is well illustrated by the results in Table 7 for four FPR erosion control trials conducted by farmers in Dong Rang village in north Vietnam. Highest cassava yields and net income were consistently obtained when cassava was intercropped, well fertilized, and planted with contour hedgerows of Tephrosia candida, vetiver grass, pineapple, or Flemingia macrophylla. All these treatments were very effective in reducing erosion, sometimes down to zero. In south Vietnam, similar FPR erosion control trials showed that hedgerows of Paspalum atratum were equally effective in reducing erosion while increasing cassava yields and net income (Tables 8 and 9). Based on these results, sorne farmers in the five pilot sites in south Vietnam have now planted several kilometers of contour hedgerows of Paspalum atratum in order to reduce erosion and produce fodder for feeding cattle or fish. In Thailand, farmers have discontinued conducting erosion control trials because they all seem to be convinced that planting contour hedgerows of vetiver grass is the most suitable solution. When farmers from a new site visit a village where vetiver grass hedgerows have already been adopted, they become readily convinced of the benefits of this practice, and many take planting material home to start multiplying and planting in their own fields. Because cassava in Thailand is generally planted on gentle slopes, gully erosion is much more serious (and visible) than sheet erosion. Erosion control experiments are not very effective in demonstrating solutions to gully erosion, as the latter occur only in natural drainage ways in the field. Where this is a serious problem, farmers and researchers together have developed a practica! and effective way to stop further gully erosion by placing soil-filled bags across the gully in-line (but slightly below) an already established vetiver hedgerow. Once soil sediments have accurnulated in the gully above the soil bags, vetiver grass· is planted in these sediments, in order to complete the vetiver hedgerow, which will then further reduce the speed ofrunoffwater in the gully. 34 Tahle 5. Number and types of farmer participatory research (FPR) trials conducted by farmers in various pilot sites of the Nippon Foundation Project in Vietnam in 2002'. Province District Corrunune Village Varieties Fertilization Eros ion Intercropping Weed Plant Leaf Pig control control SEacing Eroduct. feeding Thai Nguyen Pho Yen Tien Phong Dac Son Minh Duc 1 1 1 2 Hong Tien 2 Tuyen Quang Son Duong ThuongAm Am Thang 5 1 1 2 - 2 Hong Tien 5 2 3 1 - 1 Yen Bai Van Yen Yen Hung 1 - - 1 MauA 1 - - 1 Dong Cuong 1 - 2 2 Phu Tho Thanh Ba Phuong Linh Kieu Tung 1 - 1 - - 1 Phu Ninh Thong Nhat Phu Ho 2 1 2 2 - 3 Bao Thanh 2 - 1 1 - 2 Hao Binh Luong Son Dong Xuan Dong Rang - - 4 4 - 5 Ha Tay Thach That Thach Hoa 2 3 1 3 Chuong M y Tran Phu Tran Phu 5 - - 3 Thanh lloa Nhu Xuan• 2 - 1 Thua Thien-llue A Luoi Hong Ha 3 2 3 3 - 3 1 8 NamDong Thuong Long 2 2 2 2 - 2 Tay Hoa* 1 l luong Tra lluong Van - - - - - - - 8 Oong Nai Thong Nhat An Vien 1 3 Binh Phuoc Phuoc Long DongTam 5 2 4 Minh Lap 1 2 Baria Vungtau Chau Duc Suoi Rao 2 2 2 2 Son Binh 2 2 2 2 Total: 11 15 25 25 47 24 30 31 o 19 2 16 a. Tota l ~ 169 FPR trials; • = initiated in 2002. T able 6. Number of farmer participatory research (FPR) trials conducted by farmers in various pilot si tes of the Nippon Foundation Project, Thailand, 2002. Provincc: District Subdistrict Village" No. of FPR trials (no. farmers/rai}b farmers Varieties Org. Chem.fert. Chem.+org. Herbicides Green Intercrop manures manures manures Nakhon Daan Khun Thot Baan Kaw Khut Dook 53 1/3 1/2 1/2 - - - 1/2 Ratchasima Thephaarak Bueng Prue 3 and 6 Soeng Saang Noon Sombuun Sapphong Phoot Sratakhian Sratakhian Khonburi Tabaekbaan Nong Phak Raí" 27 1/2 1/2 J/2 - - - 1/5 Prachinburi Naadii KaengDinso Aang Thong } 34 1/5 - - - 115 Khao Khaat Kalasin Mucang Plnm Po Noon Sawan Khamin Khamplaa Nongkungsri Nong Bua Kharnsri Sahatsakhan Noonburi Noon Sawaat Noon Narnkliang Huay Suea Ten } Paa Kluay • 4/4 Naamon Naamon Noon Thiang 50 - 3/3 2/2 - 3/3 Don Chaan Dong Phayung Noon Kokchik• 50 4/4 - 4/4 - - 3/3 Huay Phueng Nikhom Huay Faa . 50 4/4 4/4 3/3 - - Chachocngsao Sanaamchaikhet Thung Phrayaa Thaa Chiwit Mai Thaatakiab Khlong Takraw Nong Yai Kamphaengphet Khanuwaralakburii Bo Tham Siiyaek } 30 - - 1/5 5110 - - 1/5 Ton Thoo ( 'haiyap1111111 Thr p Snthil Nunynnng Klak K hook ¡\ 1111 50 2/~ - 2/2 - 4/4 - 3/6 Kaanchanaburi Law Khwan Thung Krabam Nong Kae 42 2/2 2/2 2/2 - - 2/2 2/2 Srakaew Wang Sombuun Wang Sombuun Baan Khlong Ruam Total: 6 9 9 24 386 19/27 4/6 17/19 7/12 5/9 11111 7/ 15 a. * = initiated in 2002. b. Total = 51 FPR trials; 1 ha= 6.25 rai. Table 7. Results of two farmer participatory research (FPR) fertilizer trials conducted by farmers in Bao Thanh village, Phu Ninh district, Phu Tho, Vietnam, 2001-02 . Treatments• Dry soil Yield Gross Product. Net Ble loss eassava lntercrop incomeb costs in come (t ha"1) (t ha-1) (mil. dong ha" 1) MrNguyen Van Tho; 16% slope: l. e+T, no fert., no hedgerows 16.27 8.91 3.00 6.564 4.750 1.814 1.38 2. e+T, with NPK, vetiver hedgerows 0.25 15.19 3.04 9.166 5.680 3.486 1.61 3. e+T, with NPK, Tephsisia hedgerows 0.12 17.15 2.60 9.460 5.680 3.780 1.66 4. e+P, with NPK, vetiver hedgerows 0.00 14.23 0.90 9.292 6.130 3.162 1.51 5. e+P, with NPK, Tephrosia hedgerows 0.40 14.94 0.90 9.576 6.130 3.446 1.56 Mr Bui Thanh Mai, 12% slope l . e+T, no fert., no hedgerows 16.27 11.47 0.83 7.908 5.200 2.708 1.52 2. e+T, with NPK, no hedgerows 0.50 15.63 1.00 10.252 6.080 4.172 1.69 3. e+T, with NPK, Tephasia hedgerows 0.00 14.44 1.02 9.856 6.130 3.726 1.61 4. e+P, with NPK, Flemingia hedgerows 0.35 13.57 1.01 9.468 6.130 3.338 1.54 5. e+P, with NPK, vetiver hedgerows 0.00 14.65 0.83 9.180 6.130 3.050 1.50 Mr Bui Thi Bam, 16% slope l. e monocult, no fert., no hedgerows 48.00 8.13 - 3.252 2.740 0.512 1.19 2. e+P, with NPK, vetiver no hedgerows 0.00 14.77 0.99 9.868 6.130 3.738 1.61 Mr Nguyen Van ehanh, 20%-22% slope l . e, no hedgerows, with NPK 25.60 8.63 3.452 3.220 0.232 1.07 2. e, Tephosia hedgerows, with NPK 8.20 12.80 5.120 3.270 1.850 1.56 3. e, Flemingia hedgerows, with NPK 4.50 14.24 5.696 3.270 2.426 1.74 4. e, vetiver hedgerows, with NPK 5.80 12.85 5.140 3.270 1.870 1.57 5. e, pineapple hedgerows, with NPK 6.00 13.50 5.400 3.270 2.130 1.65 a. e = cassava, T = taro, P = peanut; NPK = 40 N + 40 P20 5 + 80 K 20 per ha. b. Prices ( dong): cassava, 400 per kg fresh roots; taro, 1000 per kg fresh corms; peanuts, 4000 per kg dry pods. In sorne locations in Thailand, vetiver grass hedgerows, which were established several years ago, have subsequently been destroyed, mainly by tractor drivers that prepare the land on contract. A participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) exercise with farrners in four pilot sites revealed that tractor drivers prefer plowing up-and-down the slope, and in straight lines parallel to the plot border. In same cases, they lift the plow while crossing the contour hedgerow, but this still damages the plants and destroys the effectiveness of the hedgerow. A strong community commitment to protect the hedgerows is needed to convince tractor drivers to plow along the contour, and if necessary, to blacklist or fine those that do not. A community-based Soil Conservation Group with strong leadership in the village is probably necessary to solve this problem. Altematively, farrners should abandon the plow altogether and experiment with mínimum or zero-tillage, using contact herbicides to control weeds. Replicated experiments conducted by researchers in three si tes in Thailand (Table 1 O) indicate that there were no significant differences in cassava yield or starch content between tillage treatments (including zero tillage) in two of the three sites. The use of zero-tillage in itself is an effective soil conservation measure. 37 Table 8. Average results of three farmer parttc1patory research (FPR) cassava erosion control trials conducted by farmers in Dong Tam village, Dong Phu district, Binh Phuoc, Vietnam, 2001-02. Treatments• Dry soil eassava Gross Production Net Farmers' loss yield incomeb costsb in come preferencec (t ha.1) (t ha.1) ('000 dong ha.1) (%) l. eassava monoculture 39.40 19.80 7524 3393 4131 20 2. eassava + vetiver hedgerows 15.80 23.10 8778 3593 5185 30 3. eassava + Leucaena hedgerows 21.80 21.80 8284 3593 4691 o 4. eassava + Gliricidia hedgerows 28.10 21.20 8056 3593 4463 o 5. eassava + Panicum hedgerows 12.70 22.60 8588 3593 4995 50 a. Fertilizers applied 80 N+ 40 P20 5+ 80 K20 per ha. b. Prices (dong): cassava, 380 per kg fresh roots; urea (45% N), 2300 per kg; SSP (1 7% P20 5), 1100 per kg; Kel (60% K20), 2300 per kg; fertilizer cost, 1 043 000 per ha; cost of land preparation, 600 000 per ha; labor for planting, 200 000 per ha; labor for weeding by hand (3x), 1 500 000 per ha; labor for cutting hedgerows, 200 000 per ha; labor for fertilizer application, 50 000 per ha. c. 18 farmers participated. Table 9. Average results of three farmer participatory research (FPR) erosion control trials conducted by farmers in Suoi Rao and Son Binh villages of ehau Duc district, Baria-Vungtau, Vietnam. 200 I- 2002. Treatments Dry soil Yield {t ha·12 Gross Production Net Farmers' loss eassava Maize or income• costs m come preference (t ha) hedgerows <----('000 dong!ha)----> (%) I . e monoculture, no hedgerows 77.47 37.89 - 20 840 5836 15 004 10 2. e , pineapple hedgerows 31.94 31.10 - 17 105 6136 lO 969 17 3. e, Paspa/um atratum hedgerows 21.87 34.54 12.63 18 997 6136 12 861 43 4. e, vetiver grass hedgerows 40.43 30.99 3.68 17 045 6136 10 909 43 5. e+maize intercrop 14.50 24.94 3.53 16 894 7646 9 248 lO a. Prices (dong): cassava, 550 per kg fresh roots; maize, 900 per kg dry grain; cassava fertilizers, 1 095 600 per ha; maize fertilizers, 550 000 per ha; labor for cassava, 4 140 000 per ha (207 man days); labor for maize, 800 000 per ha (40 man days); labor for fertilizer application, 100 000 per ha (5 man days); p1anting and maintenance hedgerows, 300 000 per ha (15 man days); cassava stakes, 500 000 per ha; labor, 20 000 per man da y. 38 Table 10. Effect of tillage treatments on the average fresh root yield and starch content of four cassava varieties grown in three locations, in Tbailand, 2001-2002. Ti11age treatments Cassava root yie1d" Starch content {tlha} (%) L, L2 L1 Av. L, ~ L1 Av. l. No tillage; Glyphosate 11.46 21.45 19.91 17.61 20.2 18.1 25 .3 21.2 2. Chisel plow; Glyphosate 12.03 20.56 17.78 16.79 21.0 17.8 25.0 21.3 3. Subsoiler; Glyphosate 13.70 19.20 16.3 1 16.40 19.7 18.8 25.2 21.2 4. Subsoiler+chisel; Glyphosate 14.85 19.07 21.87 18.60 21.9 19.5 27.5 23.0 5. Cassava harvester; G1yphosate 14.60 18.56 16.08 16.41 19.9 18.6 26.3 21.6 6. 3-disk p1ow 13.66 18.81 18.00 16.82 21.3 18.2 24.2 21.2 7. Subsoiler+ 3-disk p1ow 17.57 24.71 16.60 19.63 21.2 19.1 26.7 22.3 8. 3-disk+7-disk p1ow 11.93 21 .27 18.15 17.12 21.0 18.5 25.2 21.6 9. 3-disk+7-disk +contour ridges 17.47 24.88 18.32 20.22 19.9 18.9 26.2 21.7 10. 3-disk+7-disk +up/down ridges 19.50 23.25 17.52 20.09 18.7 18.8 26.9 21.5 Average 14.68 21.18 18.05 17.97 20.5 18.6 25.9 21.7 a. L1 = farmer's fie1d in Huay Pong, Rayong, L2 = farrner' s fie1d in Khaw Hin Soro. Chachoengsao, and L3 = Thai Tapioca D~v~itt ~ stitute (TTDI) Center in Huay Bong, Nakhon Ratchasima. e;~ Contributor: Ktloweler 1.3.5. Soil fertility maintenance and improvement in Thailand and Vietnam Hund.reds of FPR fertilizer trials conducted by farrners during the past 8 years have clearly shown the importance of adequate and well-balanced fertilization to obtain high yields and net income. This is also very effective in reducing erosion. Although previously farrners in Vietnam were applying too much farrnyard manure (FYM) and P, and not enough K, most farrners in the pilot si tes are now applying a combination of 5-1 O t per ha of pig manure with about 80 kg N, 20-40 kg P20 5, and 80 kg K20 per ha as chemical fertilizers. A replicated experiment conducted for 2 years at Thai Nguyen University (Table 11) indicates that cassava yields could be increased from 3.25 to 18.70 t per ha with the combined application of 10 t per ha ofpig manure and 80 kg N + 80 kg K 20 per ha as chemical fertilizers. Highest net income, however, was obtained with the application ofNK fertilizers and only 5 t per ha of pig manure. Application ofNK fertilizers alone, costing 0.68 million dong per ha, produced higher yields than the application of even 15 t per ha of pig manure alone, valued at 1.5 rnillion dong per ha. Thus, the correct application of chemical fertilizers, preferably in combination with FYM, is the most effective way to increase income and maintain or ímprove soil productivity. 39 Table 11. Effect ofthe application of farmyard manure (FYM) and chemical fertilizers on cassava yield and economic benefit at Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry in Tbai Nguyen province, 2001 (2"d year). Treatments Cassava Height Leaflife HI" Gross Fertilizer Production Net root yield at 8 at 3 incomeb costsb costsc income (t ba"1) months months (million dong ha"1) (cm) (days) l. No fertilizers, no FYM 3.25 87. 1 46.5 0.39 1.625 o 2.80 -1.175 2. 5 t FYM ha·1 7.79 116.6 55.2 0.49 3.895 0.50 3.30 0.595 3. 10 t FYM ba-1 10.02 133.9 65.0 0.52 5.010 1.00 3.80 1.210 4. 15 t FYM ha·1 13. 11 151.8 66.1 0.52 6.555 1.50 4.30 2.255 5. 80N+80K20 ha· 1 , no FYM 15.47 154.5 66.8 0.50 7.735 0.68 3.58 4.155 6. 80N+80K20/ha + 5 t FYM ha" 1 17.98 180.0 68.5 0.48 8.990 1.18 4.08 4.910 7. 80N+80K20/ha + 10 t FYM ha·1 18.70 188.3 70.8 0.49 9.350 1.68 4.58 4.770 8. 80N+80K20/ha + 15 t FYM ba-1 18.50 196.6 73.1 0.48 9.250 2.18 5.08 4.170 a. HI = harvest index. b . Prices (dong): cassava, 500 per kg fresh roots; urea (45% N), 2100 per kg; KCI (60% K20), 2300 per kg; manure + application, 100 per kg. c. Cost of cassava cu1tivation, 2.8 mil !ion dong per ha; cost of cbemical fertilizer application, O. 1 O milhon dong per ha. A replicated long-term trial conducted at Hung Loe Agricultura! Research Center in south Vietnam (Table 12), showed that green manures such as intercropped pigeon pea, Mucuna pruriens, peanut, or cowpea did not have a significant effect on yield, but that the intercropped green manure Canavalia ensiformis, and especially alley cropping with Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium, increased cassava yields significantly after 1 O years of consecutive cropping. The two alley cropping treatments increased net income in the 101h year 2-3 fold compared with the check treatment wíthout alleys or intercrops. 40 Table 12. The effect of green manures, intercropping, and alley cropping on the yields of cassava and intercrops as well as on gross and net income when cassava was grown without fertil izers for the tenth consecutive crop at Hung Loe Agricultura! Research Center in Dongnai, Vietnam, 2001-02. Crops• Cassava Starch lntercrop Gross Production Net yield content yield incomeb costs' in come (t ha"1) (%) (t ha-1) ('000 dong ha"') l. Cassava monoculture 12.10c 26.6c - 5324 3100 2224 2. C+pigeon pea green manure 13.27bc 27.0bc 8.30b 5839 3700 2139 3. C+Mucuna green manure 8.7 1d 25.8d 1.90d 3832 3700 132 4. C+peanut intercrop 12.21c 26.7bc 4.59c 5372 3700 1672 5. C+cowpea intercrop 13.77bc 27.2b 2.4ld 6059 3700 2359 6. C+Canavalia green manure 15.87b 26.0d 2.46d 6983 3700 3283 7. C+Leucaena alley crop 21.14a 28.la 12.67a 9367 3400 5967 8. C+Gliricidia alley crop 21.45a 26.8bc 8.35b 9438 3400 6038 CV (%) 12.00 3.85 12.82 S (0.05) 2.62 0.51 0.95 a. Cassava and intercrops were fertilized with a total of 100 kg N, 40 P20 5, and 100 K20 ha·• only for the fust 7 years. b Prices (dong): cassava, 440 per kg fresh roots. c. Costs: cassava cultivation (without fertilizer or intercrop), 3.1 million dong per ha; intercrop planting, 200 000 per ha; intercrop seed, 200 000 per ha; intercrop harvest/cutting, 300 000 per ha; weeding with intercrop, 100 000 per ha less than without intercrop. In Thailand, most farmers in the pilot sites have now adopted the application of chemical fertilizer to cassava, usually about 150 kg per ha of 15-15-15, 13-13-21 or 16-8-8 (Table 13). However, more and more farmers are now becoming interested in testing animal and green manures in combination with chemical fertilizers. In one village, about 50% of the cassava growing area has now adopted the planting of Canavalia ensiformis as a green manure to be incorporated into the soil before planting cassava. Initial attempts to plant Canavalia as an intercrop between cassava rows, and pulling the green manure up after about 2 months, failed because of strong competition from the green manure. Thus, farmers reverted to the traditional practice of planting the green manure first and incorporating the residues prior to planting cassava. This requires a total cropping cycle of 18 months, which is possible mainly in areas with a somewhat prolonged (6-7 months) and bimodal rainy season. 41 Table 13. Change in the use of new cassava production technologies• in four pilot sitesb in Thailand from 1993 to 2002c as a result of the Nippon Foundation Project. Techno1ogy Baan Khlong Ruam Thaa Chiwit Mai SaEEhongphoot Huai: Suea Ten componen! 1994 1997 2002 1996 1999 2002 1996 1999 2002 1996 1999 2002 Variet ies R90 R90 R5 R 1 K U 50 K U 50 R1 K U 50 K U 50 R1 K U 50 K U 50 (60%) (60%) (67%) (94%) (41 %) (81 %) {91%) (54%) R3 R5 R90 R60 R60 R5 R60 R5 R90 R90 R5 R5 (30% (20%) (19%) (3%) (32%) ( 18%) (5%) {20%) R60 K U 50 K U 50 R5 R5 R72 R90 R90 R72 K U 50 R90 R90 (10%) (20%) (12%) (3%) (22%) (1 %) (3%) {15%) R72 R90 R5 R72 (2%) (5%) (1 %) (11 %) Chemica1 not apply 15-15-15 15-1 5-15 not apply 15- 15-15 15-15-15 not apply 15-1 5-1 5 15-15- 15 not apply 15-15-15 15- 15-1 5 fei1i 1izers 13-1 3-21 (35%) (50%) or 46-0-0 (44%) or and (47%) 13- 13-2 1 13-13-21 15-15-15 46-0-0 15-15- 15 16-8-8 16-8-8 ( 17%) (3 8%) (little) (27%) (little) mixed at (33%) 21-4-2 1 other 13-1 3-21 2:1 ratio 21 -0-0 (13%) (12%) (4%) (12%) 14-4-24 other 46-0-0 (10%) (25%) (7%) 16-20-0 13-13-2 1 (5%) ( 1%) other (20%) Vdi vcr not plan! 46% 29% not plant 3% 20% not plan! 70% 80% not plan! 32% 42% grass Green not plant not plant Cana valía not plant not plant Cana valía not plant not plant Cana valía not plant Cana valía Cana valía manures (little) (little) (little) (20%) (50%) cowpea Crotalaria (little) (little) a. Date collccted from participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) with farmers in Aug 2002; percentages are in terms of ca·ssava area. b. Baan Khlong Ruam village, Wang Soombuun district, Sra Kaew province; Thaa Chiwit Mai village, Sanaam Chaikhet district, Chachoengsao province; Sapphongphoot village, Soeng Saang district, Nakhon Ratchasima; and Huay Suea Ten village, Sahatsakhan district, Kalasin province. c. Nippon Foundation Project started in these pilot sites around 1997, except in Baan Khlong Ruam where it started in 1995. 1.4. Pro mote and support multiplication of successful alternatives validated at farm level 1.4.1. Support the development of PES prototypes in the reference sites Objective To present the evolution and results of applying the concept of Productores Empresarios de Semillas Artesanales (PES). Materials and Methods The Communities and Watersheds Project (C&W), formerly the Hillsides Project, has begun to implement seed production through small businesses as part of its operating plan to be carried out in Haití. As a work strategy, we propose to identify within all the community-based organizations (CBOs) in north and south Haiti, those with the greatest potential for business management and strength in an operative capacity. At present, eight have begun their process of implementation, which will be supported with training in business management, organization, seed commercialization, and technologies in basic grains and forages. These training activities will give rise to implementing action plans, follow up, and monitoring. The concept of the PES has evolved during its implementation. It began with the PES viewed as a group of farmers strengthened with training, organization, follow up, and monitoring, and connected directly with the local market (Figure 4). ~ 'f, ORGANIZATION ,.,"; L"'DIVIDUAL FAR.,1ERS Leadership Respect Honesty looovator Land Residen! TRAÍNING F Training in seed technologies Opportune crop Cleaning Selection Drying Processing Storage Quality tests Costs Commerci•lizatioo Figure 4. Plan of a Productores Empresarios de Semillas Artesanales (PES) formed by individual farmers that decided to organize as a group. Then, the concept evolved toward connecting the PESto the market through a cooperative that makes seed production contracts with selected farmer associates (Figure 5). These farmers are strengthened in agricultura! management and seed technologies; thus trained, they offer good quality seed to the cooperative. The cooperative takes charge of all processes of added value or transformation, which permits it, as well as selling at a price in agreement with the economic capacity of the farmer, to generate employment, particularly in the selection of the seed, 43 CIAT CL,1MYT processing, and packing. Women and children that may be the wives or children of the same associates, or persons of the community carry out these jobs easily. Figure 5. Respect Honesty lnnovator Land Residen! Training in seed tecbnologies Opportune crop Cleaning Selectioo Orying Processing Storage Quality tests Costs Arsagro Cooperative Commercialization Plan of a Productores Empresarios de Semillas Artesanales (PES) formed by farmers that produce seed for a cooperative that carries out the commercialization among their associates. Currently, this concept is maintained in Haití, but now connected to germplasm through the SOL sites (Figure 6). ORGANIZAriON • '¡,. "1 ·-RESEARCH · "' 1 H INDIVIDUAL FARMERS CIP UNIVERSITY L NATIONAL OTJJER L.-> -> Training in seed tecboologies Commercialization GERMPLASM Beao ll800m) where pig feed is in short supply. The Australian Center for International Agricultura! Research (ACIAR) is funding the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) to identify lucerne varieties adapted to adverse environments. Through SARDI, we have introduced 25 of the most promising varieties for the climates and soils of northern Laos for evaluation, both in formal trials, and on farm. The abnormally high rainfall this year harnpered early trials (planted in July). A lucerne specialist from SARDI will visit the sites in September and we expect to re-sow sorne trials in October. We planto continue this CIAT- SARDI collaboration for at least 3 years. (5) Animal health options sourced from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)- Animal Health Laboratory (AHL), and ACIAR In a recent participatory poverty assessment conducted in Laos, farmers in the northem mountainous regions consistently ranked livestock disease as one of the top two causes of poverty. Working on livestock feeding without tackling the equally important problem of livestock disease would threaten the FLSP's potential impacts. The project conducted livestock disease surveys in 12 focus villages at the end of 2001. Three key diseases carne to light that farmers regards as a serious problem and cause many, possibly preventable, deaths: (1) Toxacara vitulorum (an interna! parasite) infection in young buffalo and cattle calves, (2) Classical Swine Fever (CSF) in pigs, and (3) Fowl Cholera (FC) in chickens and ducks. Six other key animal health issues carne to light without having the sarne mortality rates and immediate priority as the three diseases above: (1) Parasite burdens in pigs and cattle, (2) Hemorrhagic septicemia, (3) Externa! parasites of cattle, (4) Dermatitis ofbuffalo and cattle, (5) Pasteurellosis ofpigs, and (6) Blackleg. Results In 2001-2002, the FLSP initiated a treatment prograrn in villages for the first priority disease prob1em (Toxacara). As treatment is straightforward, cheap, and effective, this proved to be a good entry-point to win farmers' confidence. The other two priority diseases are more difficult to control and will require a combination of strategic use of veterinary chemicals and improved housing and management of animals as part of a participatory research process. Table 15 lists the range of animal health options identified by the FLSP as possibilities for participatory research and development. i . 0~. u· ? ~ . Contnbutors: P Kerridge, R Lefroy, P Horne (FLSP ProJect) 48 Tablc 15. Disease• Toxocara infection of buffalo calves ../ Classical Swine Fever (CSF) ./ Dermatitis ../ Externa! parasill's ./ Animal health strategies being developed by the Forages and Livestock Systems Project (FLSP). Technology option • Oral dose ofPyrantel at 20- 30 days of age. • Penning sows for 1- 2 days after birth to give newboms good access to colostrum • Targeted vaccination of weanling pigs 2 wks post-weaning • Vaccination of sows and weanling pigs • Introduction of in- village quarantine zones and animal movement restrictions are a possibility (but will be difficult to introduce) • Greater use of locally available treatments available • Commercial drugs • Locally available trcatmcnts avai lablc • Commercial drugs Training needs • Completed • Technical information • Field training • Vaccine quality control, assurance, and transport • Animal handling • How to treat • How disease is spread • How we can prevent disease • Technical information, including which treatments to use and when to use Likelihood of impact Limitations Short-term impact Long-term impact Low Med High Low Med High X X X X X • Ready access to Pyrantel X X X X X X • Very difficult disease to control in village production systerns for various reasons • "Elimination" is not a realistic option, but • Impact minimization is! • Controlled vaccination of pigs using quality vaccine administered by trained staff will have short-term impact (assuming CSF is disease agent). • Ensuring quality vaccine is administered at the correct time will be difficult to guarantee in the long term. X • Availability, accessibility, and cost of treatment options ( will the benefits warrant the cost?) X • Availability, accessibility, and cost oftreatment options (will the benefits warrant the cost?) Continued. Table 15. Animal health strateg ies being developed by the Forages and Livestock Systems Project (FLSP). (Continued) Diseast:" Technology option Training needs Likelihood of impact Short-term impact Long-term impact Low Med High Low Med High Ascaridosis in • Strategic and • Technical infom1ation X X X pigs and endo- targeted use of including life cycles of parasite hurdens anthelmintics parasites, when to in cattlc (parasite trea tment) treat, and how we might avoid drug resistance llcmorrhagic • Yaccination • Technical information X X Septicemia (liS) • Antibiotic treatment including the nature of and prophylaxis the disease and how it a fter early detection can be controlled of HS through all(i/or treated in the improved awareness event of an outbreak of symptoms and disease recognition fowl cholera • lmproved housing • Technical inforllUition, X X (FC) • Improved sanitation including disease ** • Yaccination recognition, sample collection, and submission • Yaccination strategies, vaccine quality control, and assurance Pasteurellosis/ • Improved sanitation • Technical inforllUition, X X Salmanellosis in and housing including disease p1gs • Antibiotic treatment recognition and sample ** collection Blackleg • Yaccination • Technical inforllUition, X X (Nonghet) • Antibiotic treatrnent including disease ** and prophylaxis recognition and sample after early detection collection a. * *, need disease confirmation through sample collection and analysis; ./ , ready to evaluate with farmers this year. Limitations • If parasite control is not carried out very carefully, we may create a bigger problem then we began with, i.e., creating a population of parasites resistan! to cheap and available drugs. • HS is a sporadically occurring disease, and as a result it is difficult to predict where, when, and if an outb reak will occur. • SymptollUitically difficult to distinguish FC from other diseases of poultry such as Newcastle Disease and A vian Influenza • We will need to identify the agent of disease (Pasteurella multocida) before exploring available options • Diagnosis and disease confmnation initially before exploring options • Blackleg can be effectively controlled once the agent of disease is confirmed. 1.5. Monitor and evaluate the adoption of validated improvements 1.5.1 Evaluate the SOL monitoring and evaluation system ¡ OL( 131 Objectives • Evaluate the monitoring system to make adjustments and changes in its implementation • Update activities, events, and the registration of people visiting the SOL-Luquigüe, and of what they take to their farms, that allows us to designa study oftechnology adoption Introduction Yo rito has four SOL sites in the communities of Luquigüe, Mina Honda, San Antonio, and Santa Cruz that form the SOL Network. It has been established to facilitate the exchange of experiences and germplasm, and to give mutual support in developing workshops and field days. The SOL "clients" (i.e. , independent producers of the zone and organized producers, as in CIALs for example) are consulted in the investigation planning process, and invited to visit the sites during field days and tours. They participate in the execution and evaluation of experiments, and they take new varieties to continue experimenting on their own farms. To systematically document this experience and have enough information to designa medium- term technologies' adoption study, a system of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) was established for the Network. Kirsten Probst developed the system in participative form with technicians and producers of the member institutions and organizations of the Network. The system began in March 2000 and concluded with an auto-evaluation in July 2001. Material and Methods The evaluation ofthe M&E system was carried out in July and September 2001. A presentation (summary) was prepared with the results. It includes only the indicators where changes have been observed, or that were important in decision taking. The information was presented to members of the Technical Committee for joint reflection. Guiding questions were elaborated to facilitate the analysis of results (Table 16). Results Evaluation ofthe M&E system ofthe Network and SOL The evaluations of the technical committee of the Network were focused on making improvements to the general monitoring plan. Among the most important changes are: • Indicators for the Network and SOL were selected and organized from the general monitoring plan, which was originally designed for a single SOL si te. • Modifications and adaptations were made to the existing formats according to the objective ofthe Network or SOL site. • Forms were incorporated that were being used to register activities by trial and number of trials established in the region. 5 1 • The person responsible for filling in the Network forrns was defined. • Two evaluations or reflections on the monitoring system were programmed per year, at the end of each agricultura! cycle. Table 16. Questions for analysis and reflection for the indicators of monitoring and evaluation of the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL). Area of observation Improved inter- institutional cooperation Participation of clients/producers in the SOL Activities and events developed in attractive, practica!, and understandable form Indicators • Fulfillment of opera ti ve plan of the Network and SOL • Participation of other institutions and organizations in theSOL • Registration of those who visit the sites and purpose ofvisit • Number of men and women participating in events • Number of workshops and field days jointly organized in each SOL site • Evaluation of events from the viewpoint of producers Questions What do we think of collaboration in the SOL sites? Are there advantages for the organizations in volved? How can we strengthen and irnprove coordination and cooperation? Who are the clients that come to the sites? Do women and welfare groups also visit? How does the quantity and intensity of participation seem? Is there good communication and feedback between producers and technicians? How can it be improved? Are we taking into account the feedback we receive? How can we irnprove producers' interest in new technologies and how can we stimulate experirnentation? Sorne problems confront the M&E system at present. Information for periodic reflection is not yet being used to document activities and results. The system lacks follow up by those responsible. Sorne indicators are not being observed with established frequency. The inforrnation compiled has not been evaluated because of a lack of indicators with specified goals or scales of evaluation. Finally, the collection of information (filling in of forms) is not supported at critica! mornents, for example, in the development of an event or workshop. However, the system has achieved sorne relevant advances. The form for seed requests by individual and institutional producers and the record card of each producer ( client) has allowed completion of gerrnplasm demand and initiation of follow up of the same. The information obtained in the M&E system has been used in making reports and presentations. We believe that the information could be very useful for measuring the impact of activities. Finally, the M&E system is simple and easy to develop. The following recommendations are made for improving the system: • Establish and quantify indicators clearly to be able to evaluate the results that are being obtained. • Train the person responsible for facil itating the system and assign that person the necessary time for developing this activity. • Present summaries of inforrnation generated by the monitoring system at SOL-si te level in a predesigned format that permits periodic feedback. 52 • Implement and adjust the M&E system according to the interests of those responsible for the SOL si tes of Mina Honda and San Antonio. • It would be interesting if SOL clients were to evaluate the results of the M&E system. • To improve the system's operation, only producers that take germplasm to their farms should have a SOL client record card; remaining visitors should be registered in a visitors' book. Analysis of the registration of activities and events deve/oped in the SOL-Luquigüe and of visiting individual producers and organizations The 2002 work plan ofthe Network has nine general activities. Table 17 shows the percentage of advance in the activities that pave the way to obtaining impact in the area of germplasm. Overall, 66% advance has been achieved in field activities, most of which are ongoing. It is important to emphasize the wide diversity of annual crops and fodders that are being prometed, and the collaboration that exists among partners in the development of workshops and joint events; for example, the results' presentation workshops have increased the demand for germplasm at the SOL sites. However, planning and follow up of the research activities and validation have been lacking outside SOL sites. Network partners monitor and document the information generated by the trials under their direct responsibility, but as yet the data have not been condensed in a single database that permits generating a regional recommendation of a particular variety. Table 18 shows the achievements ofthe SOL-Luquigüe up to January 2002. Activities were 75% completed; sorne are being developed during this year. The documentation of the activities that have finished the field phase was carried out partially. Results were analyzed to elaborate presentations in workshops and meetings of farmers and technicians; however, a research paper has not been published. During the last year, 18 field tours and six participative evaluations have been carried out. Overall, one event per month has taken place during the dry period of little activity (Dec-June); nevertheless, in the months (July-August) where the crop shows a good vegetative development and at harvest time (November) events have doubled and tripled, because these are the best times to show the trials and carry out partic ipative evaluations. All events were organized by CIAT, and attended by personnel from DICTA, SERTEDESO, and producer members of 12 CIALs (Pueblo Viejo, Luquigüe, Wisilca, El Portillo, Patastera, Mina Honda, Río Arriba, Cafetales, Laguna de los Careamos, Guaco, Jalapa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Marta) that represent 50% ofthe CIALs in Yorito. Women participated well in events, especially in the field tours (38% of participants); however, men carried out 85% of the participative evaluations with the exception of a cowpea evaluation. Participants qualified events as good; the main reasons for obtaining this qualification were: • We leamed how to differentiate crops and varieties from outside the zone. • We leamed practices or techniques used in production. • Events were well organized with the participation of all. It was recommended that a catalogue be elaborated with the promising varieties identified per ero p. 53 Table 17. Evaluation of Activities 1, 6, and 7 of the Hillsides Options Supermarket (SOL) Network work plan, January 2002. General activity l. Presentation of research results at regionallevel 6. Development of research activities during Spring 2002 7. Multiplication and interchange of germplasm Specific activities• 1.1 Hold workshops, one for institutions and one for producers Presentation for technicians (26-27 /4/02) Regional meeting of CIAL ( 4-5/4/02) 6.1 Presentation and discussion of research activities, validation and production of seed at committee level (29/5/02) 6.2 Establishment of trials in the SOL and other locations 6.2.1 Beans Evaluation oftolerant and drought-resistant materials Trials with best lines of Concha Rosada in different locations (IPCA) 6.2.2 Legume (SERTEDESO) Implement dual cropping rnaize-legume in more areas W orkshops on transformation of foods based on legumes Evaluate rnaterials of perenniallegume 6.2.3 Soya Workshop with youths to inform on nutritional value (Youth Project) Advance (%) 100 100 50 6.2.4 Sweet potato 100 Establishment of demonstration plots in all the region and promotion at the level of school gardens Evaluate sweet potato clones in the high-altitude areas 6.2.5 Rice 50 Analyze the costs of rice production in high-altitude zones Evaluate varieties for high-altitude zones ( 13 rnaterials evaluated plus 2 checks, RIA T 90, CIRAD) 6.2.6 LIMlC 50 Elaborate simple field guides for producers Validate the work in other communities Release results Soils Fair 6.2.7 Forages Evaluation of agropastoral systerns Evaluate drought-tolerant materials Demonstration plots in different places (part A) Evaluate multi-purpose legumes (great benefit for producer) 6.2.8 Sorghum Establish dual-purpose sorghum trial (San Antonio) 7.1 Validation trials (soya, maize, bean, rice) 7.2 Multiplication plots of seed of: bean (EAP-951 0-77, EAP9508-93, SRC 1-12-1, Tío Canela and Concha Rosada), soya (Obando and FHIA-15), sweet potato, rice (IRAT-362), and forages (Cratylia and Toledo) 75 100 100 a. For acronyrns used, see page 190. 54 Table 18. Completion of the Hillsides Options Supermarket (SOL) Network operative plan, from Spring 2001. General activity Specific activities Advance (%) 1.2 Identification of new 1.2.2 Introduce and evaluate in participative manner new genetic 80 alternatives for improving materials of annual crops in SOL production systerns Drought-tolerant bean at low-N levels High-altitude rice tolerant to piricu/aria Short-cycle varieties of soya Varieties of multiple-use sweet potato Comprobación de Variedades (COVA) ofrice, soya, and bean Evaluation of tropical late white maize synthetics 1.2.3 Design new production systems based on crops with market 25 options and management of soil fertility 1.2.4 Evaluate the compatibility of new rotation components to 50 diversify tradicional production systems 1.2.5 Participative evaluation of grains and forage legumes in SOL lOO and producers' farms 1.2.6 Quantification of animal performance in traditional and 50 improved pastures in SOL 1.2.8 Quantify the efficiency of the combination of organic and 70 inorganic sources in the production of annual crops 1.2.1 O Select bushy species with potential for use as improved 70 fallow 1.3 Validate new altematives 1.3.1 Validate, on producers farrns, promising management options 70 and improved practices that come from SOL 1.5 Monitoring and evaluation 1.5.1 Evaluate the SOL system of monitoring 80 of the adoption of validated improvements Producers' demand for trauung is oriented toward non-traditional crops: rice, vegetables, improved pastures, soya, sweet patato, and cowpea. The themes of greatest interest to them relating to these crops are sowing techniques, product transformation, and control of pests and diseases. One of the greatest benefits that network partners perceive is the access to local, national, and international germplasm (Figure 7). Figure 7. Programs and Foundations (FHIA, PRM, ClDICCO} 14% =>roducers of the zone 14% Governmental institutions (DICTA, CURLA)14% m••.,n•ouu• al centers (CIAT, IITA,CIRAD, CIP, IRAT) 58% Origin of gennplasm for Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL)- Luquigüe trials. (For acronyms used, see page 190 ). 55 CIAT was responsible for tria! management, and has facilitated obtaining information, but did not permit the integration and appropriation of germplasm by institutions and producers. Conclusions The M&E system of the SOL Network of sites is flexible, and easy to understand and manage. However, a specific amount of time must be dedicated to this activity to feed information into the system and to make the corresponding adjustments according to Network interests, thus achieving feedback from activities at the right time. The information compiled by the monitoring system generates a base from which to measure impact in the area of observation that is of interest; however, indicator~eed to be quant~ed for comparison purposes. . \\, ~ "\ 1\' .y''l - .1\.. '<.'if vf-,&:' · ·t ~¡.;. . \ \ ,N' W"' r , r... Contributors: L Brizue&? o-Palma; K Probst (University of Hohenheim) Output 2. More sustainable landscapes 2.1. Benchmark status report at the landscape level (study laod use, analyze sustainability) 2.1.1. Monitoring the socioeconomic impact of land ownership on the standard of living of beneficiaries of Project Tierra r Dt+\ ~~ Introduction The municipality of San Dionisia is a zone characterized for having a subsistence economy that depends mainly on maize and bean crops (basic grains), and where there is a low level of diversification of agriculture and few economic options for elevating the standard of living of the inhabitants. Project Tierra arises as a result of an ex-ante evaluation, through a lineal programming model that increased the area of small-scale producers ' plots to give more job opportunities to the poorest strata. Running the model showed that the main benefit did not relate to profit value, but with the possibility of using underused family daily wages. As well as this indicator, other studies carried out in the zone have shown that the poorest persons are those that do not own land for agricultura! use, their main economic activity. Materials and Methods With this hypothesis, it was decided to approve an amount of US$6000 to be given on loan to nine small-scale fanners without land so that they could acquire the land and evaluate, in pilot form, the results shown by the lineal model of programming. The project began in 1998 and the average amount of land acquired by each beneficiary, was 2 manzanas (2.8 ha). A plan of payment over 4 years with 8% annual interest was designed, to be paid in two quotas per year at sowing time. However, almost all the beneficiaries have been 56 unable to repay. Thus, the fund, which was expected to operate as a revolving fund to support other, or the same, producers, has not been able to become definite. At present, the Campos Verdes Association is managing the project. This is a local community organization that CIAT supports and whose board of directors are producers chosen by representatives of the communities. CIAT has followed up the development ofthe hypothesis that was presented at the start ofthe project, maintaining an annual tour of the plots acquired by beneficiaries. Results (1) Uti/ization of labor Four years since the start of the proj ect, no significant changes are observed because of changes or greater use of family labor. However, from the point of view of economic values for this concept, and according to the information supplied by beneficiaries, labor is one of the most important elements, in economic terms, within the costs of production. The integration of family members to agricultura! work is practiced in San Dionisio, in fact most of the labor used is from the family and not on contract (Table 19. In 4 years, the cost of local labor has remained at C$25 and sometimes C$30 daily wage (because of the devaluation of the currency, in dollars this decreased from 3 to 2). Table 19. Use of labor by beneficiaries of Project Tierra befare and after buying land. Beneficiary• Use oflaborb Befare land bought After land bought Land type DIF DN C$/year DIF DN C$/year 1 Rented plot 1 93 2325 Own plot (coffee) 1 nd nd Halfplot 1 93 2325 Rented plot 1 93 2325 Salaried work 1 12 300 Halfplot 1 93 2325 2 Halfplot 2 139 3475 Ownplot 3 232 5800 Salaried work 1 24 600 - - - - Migration 1 nd nd - - - - 3 Rented plot 1 46 11 50 Ownp1ot 1 46 1150 Salaried work 1 47 1175 Salaried work 1 47 1175 4 Halfplot 1 93 2325 Ownplot 1 46 1150 Migration 1 30 1260 Halfplot 1 47 1175 ( coffee cutting) - - - - Migration 1 30 1260 5 Rented plot 2 186 4650 Own plot 2 46 1150 Halfplot 2 186 4650 Salaried work 2 47 1175 Salaried work 1 47 1175 - - - - 6 Rented plot 1 93 2325 Own plot 1 46 1150 Migration 1 30 1260 Migration 1 30 1260 7 Rented plot 1 93 2325 Own plot 2 93 2325 - - - - Salaried work 1 nd nd a. Inforrnation of seven out of nine beneficiaries presented beca use of difficulties in obtaining data. b. The cost of local labor is C$25 ( 14.-t Cordobas/US$); 0 1F, days per farnily; DN, days per year; sorne data not reported by beneficiarles. 57 The difference between working a rented plot and an own plot is significant, although in sorne cases, such as the first one in Table 19, the farmer maintains his way of cultivating in the other two forms because the land that he acquired is just for coffee. Thus, to sow maize and beans, he has to rent land. In the remainder of cases, a half plot appearing after the purchase of land signifies the use of one half in the first season (primera) and the other half in the second season (postrera). If farmers lose their crop in the first season and remain without money, they decide to work the other half plot in the following season. The figures for days worked are an average estimated from the two sowing seasons (about 46 for the first and 47 for the second) giving a total of 93, which increases with the integration of 1 son and of the wife ( estimated as one half because she do es not work all the time nor in all types of labor). This is the most that was observed for family integration in project cases in these 4 years. 2. Income Income from production in the 4 years was very variable, mainly because of exogenous factors and the farmer's own management (Table 20). Table 20. Incorne as a concept ofproduction (4 years ofProject Tierra). Beneficiary• Are a Incomec Obs" (M4 Year 1 Year2 Year 3 Year4 Ave Crop C$ Crop C$ Crop C$ Crop C$ 1.00 Coffee 1000 Coffee 300 Coffee 500 Coffee 810 652 1 Mz scrub 0.25 Bean o Bean o Bean 1500 Bean 1250 687 Maize 480 Maíz e 560 520 HC 2 2.00 Bean 1600 Bean 2000 Bean 1800 1800 Maize 600 Maize 280 Maize 560 480 HC 3 2.00 Bean 800 Bean 1200 Bean 200 733 Maize 280 Maize 400 Maíz e 80 253 4 2.00 Bean 200 Bean 600 Bean 200 333 HC Maize o Maíz e o Maíz e 300 lOO HC 5 2.00 Lost to pests Bean 1280 1280 Maíz e 560 560 HC 6 2.00 Did not cultivate Bean o Bean o o Maize 280 Maíz e 280 280 HC 7 2.50 Bean 1000 No cultivation Bean o Bean 2000 1000 1.5 Mz cu1t. Maíz e 320 Maize 600 460 HC a. Inforrnation of seven out of nine beneficiaries presented beca use of difficulties in obtaining data. b. Mz, manzana == 2.8 ha. c. 14.4 C$ (Cordobas) /USS; sorne data not reported by beneficiaries. d. Obs, observations; HC, home consumption. The incomes correspond to annual cultivations of basic consurnption- maize and bean- and coffee is presented in only one case. Maize has economic value, despite being a net product of home consumption; it is a product of the acquired land and is a cost saved in not having to bu y it. The average prices are C$200 for 1 quintal (1 00 lb sack) of bean and C$40 for 1 quintal of 58 maize. The main savings with the land purchase was the non-payment of rent, which is equivalent to a cost of C$400 (about US$280 at today's prices). As can be seen, the reported amounts for crop sales, besides being variable, are low and the main problems mentioned by beneficiaries are, in order of importance: • Lack of money for the purchase of inputs for production, which obliges them to sow in one season and not the other. • Strong plague of slugs that attack bean (affected four of the farmers) and lack of resources for fighting it. • Year 2 was 1999 for the majority, the year of Hurricane Mitch when almost all crops were los t. • Most of the plots that were bought are situated in difficult places that in sorne cases farrners have been unable to improve; this relates to the soil type and the state in which they were when acquired. Likewise, the distance from home to plot is another obstacle. Conclusions The problems facing farrners of the group Project Tierra are mostly the same as those facing all farrners of San Dionisio-lack of resources to bu y inputs, deterioration of the soil, lack of market options, etc. lt may be said that farrners in San Dionisio have established a culture of credit for production; and the lack of credit to bu y inputs is one of the causes of poor plot management. The economic situation of farrners in general, in other regions as well as in San Dionisio, is the obvious reason behind the limitations that farrners ha ve to stabilize their cycles of production, to improve their practices, etc. This can explain why the project's beneficiaries, even after the purchase of land (despite the small amount), in sorne cases maintain their previous practices of land renta!, partial cultivation, and rnigration, among others. Another obstacle, both to the irnprovement of plots and farrner relations with the Association and CIAT, is the difficulty ofloan repayment, and the follow up that the Campos Verdes Association has to do to on this. At present, the debt has grown because of interest payable for most of them, and this situation has been difficult to handle. Overall, it is considered that an important change has been brought about in the life of the beneficiaries that previously owned no land and have produced crops, even with many difficulties. However, it seems that more time is needed for their economic situation to stabilize. Like all the inhabitants of the countryside, they depend greatly on exogenous factors, not only at the regional leve!, but also at country level, which significantly influence their activity. o''~.J ... Contributor: ME.Baltodano Collaborator: Campos Verdes Association, San Dionisio 2.2. Ex-ante evaluate alternative scenarios of landscape management Activities are developing with the new alliance made with the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada. 59 2.3. Develop and apply the methodological tools for natural resource management at landscape level 2.3.1. Mapping, analysis, and participative monitoring of natural resources. Case study: sub-watershed of the Río Calico, Nicaragua Introduction Evaluating the state of natural resources at local level is complex. It requires the clear participation of the groups of interest involved in this management, and the use of effective and simple decision tools that clearly identify local perception. The CIAT-C&W, with partners in the reference sites, has developed a series of methodological instruments for the taking of decisions in natural resource management (NRM), based on the combination of participative techniques and local indicators. Materials and Methods Guide 3 (Vemooy et al. , 1999)5 of the methodological instruments was used for the local community of the sub-watershed of the Calico River, Municipality of San Dionisio, Matagalpa, Nicaragua, to evaluate the state of forest, water, and soils before and after Hurricane Mitch. The tool combines severa} methodological techniques such as: (a) indicators of soil quality (Burpee and Turcios, 1997)6; (b) transect walk; and (e) participative maps. The local association of organizations, Campos Verdes, applied the methodology with the support of the Intemational Development Research Centre (IDRC), and selected six of the 16 micro-watersheds most affected at the level of their natural resources. This selection was based on comparisons among values of the indicators for water, soil, and forest, among others. The changes in the values of specific indicators before and after Hurricane Mitch pennitted the identification ofthe most affected resources in each micro-watershed. Results This activity finalized with the development of an action plan focused on reforestation, management, soil-water conservation practices, and workshops for reflection with the communities on the natural resources (burning, deforestation, and loss of soils through erosion). Likewise it permitted local management and attainment of econornic resources from national donors Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARENA) - Danish lntemational Development Agency (DANIDA) for the execution of projects in soil conservation and water sources mana2:ement. ~ ... ¡J i) '~ 1. ' ' l 't~· Contributors: j):\J3elt~t JC Zeledón (Campos Verdes); J Moral (UNA) 5 Vernooy, R.; Espinoza, N., Lamy, F. 1999. Participative mapping, analysis, and monitoring of natural resources in a watershed. Guide 3 (in Spanish) of the series "Methodological instruments for decision taking in natural resource rnanagement". CIAT, Cali, CO. 152 p. 6 Burpee, C.G.; Turcios, W.R. 1997. Indicadores locales de la calidad del suelo. Resultados iniciales de Honduras. Documento Interno de Trabajo. CIA T, Tegucigalpa, HO. 28 p. 60 2.3.2. Finalize and socialize tbe Rural Atlas of Nicaragua Objective Elaborate the Atlas ofNicaragua from compiling digital databases. Material and Metbods In the framework of CIAT's collaboration with Nicaragua, in March 2000, an agreement of technical contribution was signed between the Ministerio Agropecuario y Farestal (MAGFOR) and CIAT to elaborate the Rural Atlas ofNicaragua. In 2001, in the Proyecto Centroamericano de Información Geográfica (PROCIG) workshop, Cartagena, partners from Nicaragua decided to include in the Atlas data for more extensive analysis by clients. In this way, the Atlas will be structured from a digital database of physical, geographical, and socioeconomic data, and their corresponding management, analysis, and mapping with GIS technology, These are supplied by the five institutions involved: MAGFOR, Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (INEC), Instituto Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), MARENA, and CIAT. Results The Atlas presents 130 maps and its database on the themes of: • Geography and administration (reference mapping); • Natural physical and environmental characteristics (relief, soils, climate, hydro-geography, man's interaction with the environment, protected areas, natural threats, and potential land use); • Population, both social and cultural (size, fertility, Spanish speaking and others, languages, illiteracy, school attendance, leve! of instruction, dwellings, potable water, sanitary services, electricity); and • Economics and production (population according to econornic characteristics, land area dedicated to agriculture, cattle, and agro-economic models. The launching ofthe Rural Atlas ofNicaragua counted on the participation of 120 people, among which were the Minister of MAGFOR, José August Navarro, Ingeniera Martha Loyman of the Dirección de Estrategias Territoriales, Rev. Miguel Angel Helmet, Director of INEC, Ingeniero Eduardo Marín, Viceminister of MARENA, Ingeniero Mauricio Rosales, representative of INETER, and representatives of departments and institutes of the government, embassies, intemational agencies, and NGOs. Conclusions The Atlas gives support to decision taking in matters of socioeconomic and environmental development in Nicaragua both on the geographical scale (local, departmental, and national) and at the leve! of technicians, policymakers, and politic ians, using the relevant information that is brought together on physical, economic, social, and natural resource aspects that reflect the present status of the rural environment. A clear example of the scope of this new too! is that 6 1 among the most prominent data there is the knowledge that in the border sector between central Nicaragua and the Atlantic, where agricultura! activities take place, the inhabitants have deficient services and are mostly illiterate. The Atlas offers updated information on the identification of critica! areas, regions where agriculture is practiced, concentrations of poverty, and other elements useful for analysis and for generating solutions for the different problems that are presented. Besides being the product of joint work between MAGFOR, INEC, MARENA, INETER, and CIA T, the Atlas is also tangible proof that inter-institutional collaboration is possible, and that it is the way to unite efforts, abilities, experiences, lessons learned, and interchange of info~ation. ft~· Contributors: M Loyman (MAGFOR); L Zúñiga{TNETER); C Coronado (MARENA); MA Helmet (INEC); G Hyman (PE-4); fAfBeltrán vi y-¡,tf J_.Q 1,\ \ 'j\:\ u'{\ 2.4. Promote and implement consortia for landscape management 2.4.1. Bolivian Consortium and Project Platform created As broadly described in Part 3, in June 2002, a CIA T six-member team participated in a workshop with Bolivian partners. It was designed with three purposes in mind: (1) to share the final synthesis of previous work on inter-institutional collaboration topics, (2) to prepare the narrative summary of a project platform on which a variety of specific projects could be drawn, and (3) to search for an organizational scheme to give sustainability to inter-institutional cooperation in Bolivia. As a result of this workshop, a platform was developed for project generation with multi- institutional collaboration. Three work areas were identified after completion of the analysis of previous workshops and visits. An agreement was also reached around operational aspects of collaboration. This agreement gave way to the establishment of an inter-institutional Consortium that has operational guidelines and a very modest organization. Its coordinator is in charge of promoting the Consortium among donors and national institutions and identifying opportunities for the Consortium in Bolivia. 2.5 Strengthen participation of grass-roots organizations in consortia for landscape management 2.5.1 Organic Coffee Project The Comité Local para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Cuenca del río Tascalapa (CLODEST) brought together 45 traditional coffee producers to begin an organic coffee project. At present, there are 35 active members. The BIOLATINA Agency was chosen as organic certifier because it has certified the only coffee-exporting cooperatives in Honduras (Cooperativa Agrícola Cafetalera Triniteca, Ltda [CACTRIL], COHORSIL [Cooperativa Horticultores Siguatepeque Ltda.], and Regional de Agricultura Organica de la Sierra [RAOS]). The producer bears the cost of certification. Most producers have not used pesticides and at the most only chemical fertilizers, while sorne producers have not even used fertilizers. This helps speed the transition 62 process to organic fanning. Producers received training on the management of organic coffee and on commercialization and exportation at RAOS in Marcala, La Paz. The certifier will malee the second inspection without notice when the grains have begun to form. Based on results, sorne producers may receive their organic certification in December 2002. Once export demands are calculated, producers should visit the cooperatives that export organic coffee to negotiate their organic production and transitional production. CLODEST is compiling the production plans of each producer (records of inputs and labor) as required for certification. Regarding ecological benefit, CLODEST is preparing proposals to access funding from the Proyecto de Reactivación de la Economía Rural (RERURAL) Project for the construction of ecological benefits. If funding is not achieved before the 2002 harvest, each producer will dig a pit to collect the residual water from washing the coffee, taking into account that equipment must be well cleaned. Five local inspectors have been appointed to reduce the cost of inspections and to maintain better vigilance on producers. The organic certificate could be used for banana, plantain, and citrus within the plots. The RINAGRO Company (exporter of banana puree) is asking for organic bananas. 2.5.2 Production and Commercialization ofVegetables CIAT is finishing the Cross Project, which will generate much information about the agricultura! markets of Honduras. With this information, CLODEST's commercialization group will organize the planting of test plots on sorne producers' fanns, choosing crops whose harvesting coincides with times of highest prices. Also, tests will be made of the staggering of plantings such that a permanent demand begins to be obtained for garden produce. A village market of agricultura! products will also be prometed in Yorito, a project that failed previously because of lack of supplies. One of the biggest obstacles in summer is the lack of irrigation. Thus, various systems of low-cost, micro-irrigation with low water consumption for smallholdings are being evaluated. These systems avoid hydrological stress; they reduce the use of labor for weeding and fertilizing; and reduce water use. On the Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (SOL) fann, profit values ofvarious crops are being evaluated based on the times ofbest prices. High-fertility trenches are used. These are level furrows along the slopes that have high contents of organic materials to raise crop yields. 2.5.3 Production and Commercialization of Agro-industrial Products Various mixed groups have been formed that are interested in the transforrnation of fruit, bakery, milk, and meat products. One group is registered with the Rural Mobile Agro-industries of the European Union, which will begin to train it from October 2002, both providing equipment and helping in cornmercialization. For the transformation of fruits, CIAT's Rural Agro-enterprise Developrnent Project designed an electric dehydrator. Samples of dry mixed fruits were produced (pieces of pineapple, banana, papaya, and raisins) and were well accepted by a small sarnple of 15 people, only half of which did not like the papaya. More tests are being rnade to rneasure the costs per pound and evaluate other lines and presentations. The Maxi supermarket chain of Tegucigalpa has shown sorne interest in this product and is prepared to buy by consignment and without bar code. They will buy and sell by the pound, labeling the prices according to weight. This is good because it avoids the cost of sanitary registration and bar code. 63 2.6. Monitor and evaluate landscape changes 2.6.1. Selection and characterization of reference to assess impact of traditional and improved practices Justification One of the greatest challenges for Consultative Group on Intemational Agricultura! Research (CGIAR) researchers, govemrnent organizations (GOs) and NGOs, and resource-poor farmers is the need to adopt perspectives that transcend field or farm boundaries and accept solutions necessitating sorne form of collective action among landscape users (Knapp et al, 2000)7• Because of this, the Manejo Integrado de los Suelos de Centro América (MIS) Consortium decided to adopt the concept of reference sites as a common framework for collaborative research and validation with the participation of stakeholders. Several watersheds were selected within these sites. Watersheds, when combined with other issues of scale, are a useful, well- demarcated, agro-ecological mosaic in which agricultura! activity affects the yield and quality of water. Purpose To develop a common framework for research and validation for MIS partners to interact. Materials and Methods During the planning meeting held in Nicaragua in 2000, partners decided to develop collaborative activities in reference sites. These sites should have ongoing research and validation activities and the presence of at least one MIS partner. Four si tes (two for Honduras and two for Nicaragua) were initially selected for this purpose. Later two further sites in Honduras were included. Figure 8 shows their location. MIS partners located in the reference sites carried out the socioeconomic characterization of the reference sites. In sorne cases, information was already available, while in others, collection and systematization was supported with MIS funds. The biophysical characterization of the reference sites comprised several steps: (1) identification of mapping units using available cartographic information for each reference site; (2) description of representative soil profiles using methodology suggested by USDA (1975) in Leighton (1982)8, and the Local Indicators of Soil Quality (Treja et al., 1999)9. Soils were classified according to the American Soil Taxonomy System of the United S tates Department of Agriculture (USDA). Potentialland use capability and land use conflicts were defined based on this information. 7 Knapp, EB; Ashby, J.; Ravnborg, H.M.; Bell, W.C. 2000. A landscape that unites: Community-led management of Andean watersheds. In: La!, R. (ed.). Integrated watershed rnanagement in three global ecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. p. 125-143. 8 Leighton, W. L. 1982. Taxonomia de suelos. Un sistema basica de calsificación para hacer e interpretar reconocimiento de suelos. Version abreviada, SOIL Taxon ( 1975). SMSS Technical Monograph :t\o. 5. 264 p. 9 Treja, M.T. ; Barrios, E. ; Turcios, W.R.; Barreta, H.J. 1999. Participatory rnethod for identifying and classifying local indicators of soil quality at watershed leve!. Guide 1 (in Spanish) of the series "Methodological instruments for decision taking in natural resource rnanagement". CIAT, Cali, CO. 146 p. 6-l Figure 8. Location of the reference sites of the Manejo Integrado de los Suelos de Centro América (MIS) consortiurn in Honduran and Nicaraguan watersheds. Results and Discussion Table 21 summarizes the main biophysical characteristics of the reference sites. Detailed information can be accessed on request from the consortiurn secretary ( ciathill@hondutel.hn) Table 21. Main biophysical characteristics of the reference si tes in Honduran and Nicaraguan watersheds. Parameter Yorito Le m pira San Dionisio Cuscamas Calan Zapotillo Soil type Sedimentary Volcanic Volcanic Volcanic Volcanic Volcanic Land use Forest, Agriculture, Agriculture, Coffee, crops, Forest, crops Crops agriculture livestock livestock livestock Degradation Eros ion Burning Landslides, Deforestation Water nd problems" Deforestation Eros ion Eros ion contamination Fertility decline Fertility Fertility decline decline Water problems• Scarcity Scarcity Scarcity Quality Quality nd Quality Qualitv Quality a. Problems arranged in order of importance. 65 The MIS sites have similar land and water resource problems-high deforestation rates, soil fertility depletion, erosion, and seasonal water scarcity. However, their magnitude varies among sites. The upper watershed of Yorito is highly prone to erosion because of the soil type and management practices. San Dionisia is being subjected to an accelerated rate of nutrient exhaustion because of intensive land use pressure. Water quality in the Calan Watershed is facing high contamination problems, and the La Dalia site is experiencing an increasing pressure of livestock activities. These are ideal scenarios to test irnproved Iand use practices and indicators of soil and water quality. They also afford opportunities to quantify the impact of improved agroforestry systems (Quesungual), and mixed crop-pastures systems. Conclusions Reference sites can be an effective way to carry out collaborative research and validation activities among the members of the consortium. They can also play an important role in the exchange of experiences and the evaluation of impact of improved land use systems within a landscape concept. \, ~" Contributor: Miguel Ayarza An activity is beginning with the new alliance formed with the university of British Columbia in Canada. Output 3. Organizations strengthened '- "' 3.1. Develop and/or validate methods and tools for developing and strengthening key organizations 3.1.1. Toolbook Toolbook is computer software that is being used to develop educational material and to organize, store, and present research results. The University of British Columbia (UBC) is using it to integrate and disseminate the results of their research in the Hirnalayan - Andes research network, which we are interested in joining. The characteristics ofthis tool are: Flexibility: Text, maps, graphics, audio, video, animation, and links to other software programs can be combined in an interactive format. Materials can be designed for multiple purposes such as training, public presentations, and reference materials. Addressing Multiple Audiences: Multi-media applications allow users to combine information with different levels of detail into one package, making the content applicable to multiple audiences. Information can be layered multi-dimensionally, that is, key concepts are illustrated 66 frrst and details are layered in a tree-like structure. The main trunk illustrates major points, and branches and sub-branches display greater levels of detail. /nteractive content: Information can be combined in modules, which are interlinked through a menu system. Modules can be standalone or interrelated. By building the interrelationships between modules, the complexity of systems is better illustrated. Ease of Use: Toolbook provides a range of predesigned functions such as clickable buttons, navigation tools, animation, and drawing tools, and uses a simple script programming (similar to English). lts ease of use malees it applicable for education and research institutions, as their primary concem is content. Free distribution: The ability to create a finished product (or drafts) that can be distributed freely to users who do not own the software is critica!. Toolbook«:~ provides functions to build a self- executable version, which can be distributed on CD-ROM. This is effective from the perspective ofboth distribution and cost. Effective communication: The interactive nature of CD-ROMs produced using multi-media software malees the communication of information more effective. Social, economic, biophysical, and cultural information can be interlinked. Content including a range of maps, graphs, audio, and video enhances text-based information. We are putting together information collected about the Herederos del Planeta Juventud, Vida y Naturaleza de Bellavista (HPB) and Asociación de Usuarios del Río Bolo (ASOBOLO) in Colombia, using toolbook. The UBC will use these case studies for its teaching course on environmental scíences, and ASOBOLO and HPB will benefit from having all their data in this easily usable form. Contributor: MC Roa 3.1.2. Development of a digital soil database of Honduras Rationale The sustainable management ofnatural resources depends toa great extent on people's capacity to malee sound decisions based on reliable information. The integration of edaphic information into GIS can be an effective way to assess spatial distribution of land resource problems and to target improved land management options. Over the last 40 years, more than 50 major soil survey studies have been carried out in Honduras in order to characterize the resource base of the country for different purposes. This information is found scattered in many reports and is difficult to access. Since 1995, the CIA T -Hillsides Project has been working with severa} NARS of Honduras to collate, systematize, and georeference soil information contained in those reports. 67 Objective To develop soil databases and user-fiiendly interfaces to allow multiple stakeholders identify areas with similar resource problems and target solutions. Materials and Methods A spatially linked soil database was developed for Honduras in order to assist decision makers in identifying resource problems and target solutions. The work comprised several steps over time. The first step consisted of collecting available information. This was followed by a process of hierarchical organization from the most generic to the most specific type of information. The last part of the work was devoted to the development of a user-friendly system to access the information, and to the linking of the databases to a GIS system. Results and Discussion The first output of the work was the publication of the information in four volumes and the release of the digital soil database HONDSOIL 1.0. With this product, users were able to access the description of 3001 soil profiles and 5678 soil horizons as a function of generic information (report number, location, type of study, institution, date of execution, etc.) and to group soil pro files as a function of a given soil horizon characteristic ( chemical or physical). Table 22 shows, as one example, the result of grouping upper soil horizon characteristics into three main classes. According to these groupings, 63% of the horizons included in this work have a loamy soil texture, 57% are slightly acidic, and 46% have soil organic matter contents between 1%-4%. Seventy percent of soil horizons are located in soils with more than 30% slope. Table 22. Percentage allocation values (in parentheses) of severa) soil properties of the topsoil horizons contained in the HONDSOIL 1.0 database. Soil propert/ Category 1 {o/ol Category 2 (%) Category 3 (%1 pH (H20) <5.5 40 5.5-7.5 57 7.5 3 Texture Sandy 23 Loamy 63 Clayey 14 SOM(%) < 1 10 1-4 46 >4 44 Slope (%) <15 16 15-30 14 >30 70 Soil depth (cm) <10 26 10-15 73 >50 1 a. SOM = soil organic matter. The linkage of the soil databas e to Are View allows visualizing the distribution of soil pro files in the landscape and establishes sirnilarities among sites. By clicking on any point on the map specific information can be accessed about any soil profile (Figure 9). Conclusions Most of the soil survey information for Honduras is now available in paper and electronic form. The digital database is easy to use and allows the user to search for specific soil information for a given area covered by the soil survey studies. It can be used to identify edaphic similarities in the landscape and to improve land management recommendations. Linking the database to GIS and 68 bio-economic models has expanded the usefulness of this database to make spatial analysis and land use scenarios. ...... 1 '" 427110 y .... ,. 1 "'' - -- 1 .... --<· o - 21 • 1) Horboni• Al - 1 35. · JI ...... :14 4 . 211 IIM'IItllt 100 ...... ·- .. """' .... :UI •. - "'" "'·" ... ~· Dono • Cio 1 • c..oono 1.07 ... .... ""' I .M -·· H to4 .. ... ...... • .. ~ p ..... •. -. ...,_, .2 57.2 >2.5 1. 1 0:19 ~ t.ll 007 003 ... .. o A27110 vaarw. t5N100 """""......, 15 l'fUm SP02 Ct .. tlu A ....: Nef"-'-1 ... lfto, tnllltO. ~_,.c. ... . ,........ us " ,.. b:s ,lioot ,.. 121 mln 121 121 TlteM 10 U.....t~t .. 10 A INff A• ·212 s.,. ...... 1 LocMuci 2 Km .. NO O. C4ml 1 1. V ~ to nteNMural ·- .. -- ,.... ..,. ,... .. o p~ ""~ Met 11 ContiMMI I._. lllatW'IOA Cu.l-"-1 ._ .. -S -- ....... c.- %651 • . c- O.KtWO 0 lM 1 KN :VI 1 Figure 9. Location of soil profiles included in the HONDSOIL l. O soil database, and profile outputs using the user-friendly interface. , \JI . T~~~~ s\)' ?'Íti"e-:;.· ,,..\ .._\oP {\'xt""" Contributors: H tlarreto (consultant); MTrejo; M'}\yafza; O Mejia; A !turbe (consultant) 3.1.3. Training in the use of the PCARES model An MIS member participated in the training course given by the Managing Soil Erosion Consortium (MSEC) on the use of the GIS-assisted methodology to model soil erosion and hydrology at watershed leve!. The simulation model , Predicting Catchment Runoff and Soil Erosion for Sustainability (PCARES), is a physical model that can simulate runoff and soil erosion of a catchment area during a rainfall evem. It can predict the spatial and temporal 69 distribution of soil erosion rates; thus, it can be used to identify erosion "hotspots" in a watershed. It is a too! that can help in planning, research, education, and training for resource management at watershed and community scale. The basic inputs to run the model include raster maps of the elevation, soil, and land use of the catchment, and a time series amount of rainfall. Important outputs include a map of source erosion, and runoff discharge and sediment yield at the outlet of a catchment area. --~-~ Contributor: M'Ayarza 3.2. Train local, regional, and national organizations in the use of methodologies and/or tools developed by CIA T 3.2.1. Training for international partners to help local, regional, and national organizations The FLSP Project provided severa! training events for international partners to be able to help local, regional, and national organizations. In a collaboration between CIAT and the Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Program (PRGA), Peter Horne and Ann Braun ran a training course, "Improving adoption of agricultura! technologies - how participatory research can complement conventional research approaches," for 15 Japanese scientists at the Japan International Research Center for Agricultura! Science (JIRCAS) in Japan from the 4th to the 8th ofMarch, 2002. A CD-ROM ofthe training resources used in this course is available from either the PRGA or FLSP. As a follow-up to this course, a second short course will be run by FLSP for JIRCAS in northern Thailand in October 2002. The FLSP also ran a training course on Participatory Diagnosis from 20-25 J anuary 2002 for 15 staff of an International Rice Research Institute (IR.RI)--rnanaged project in northern Laos. The impact of this training is evident in two ways. First, most of the technical problems experienced with forages in the field in the first year have not recurred this year because of direct supervision by the field teams. Second, the field teams have grown in confidence with the participatory research and extension methods that we are applying. They appear to have gained an overall sense of the process, and the purpose of specific activities and meetings. That they have done this within one extension cycle is very rapid and is partly because of the many activities and reviews that they have received throughout the year. None of the field staff had previous experience in conducting extension before working with FLSP. At the beginning of2001, they were provided with an introductory workshop giving them an overview of extension processes and the methodology to be applied. Since then, the National and Provincial staff have Ied them through each step, including accompanying them to the field and supporting them in the implementation of significanr field activities. The staff appears to be imbued with a real sense ofpurpose ofwhat they are doing, and cornmitrnent to their work. ~ ~<-u ~ "t~ Contributors: P Horne, P'Kerridge, R Lefroy (FLSP Project); A Braun (consultant) 70 3.2.2. Application of the Soil Quality lndicators Guide Justification The increasing attention paid to local soil knowledge in recent years is the result of a greater recognition that the knowledge of people who have been interacting with their soils for a long time can offer many insights into the sustainable management of tropical soils. A participatory approach in the form of a methodological guide was developed and used in Latin America and the Caribbean (Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, and the Do mini can Republic) and Africa (Uganda and Tanzania) to identify and classify local indicators of soil quality related to permanent and modifiable factors . Materials and Methods This methodological tool aims to empower local communities to better manage their soil resource through improved decision making and local monitoring of their environment (Figure 1 0). It is also designed to steer soil management towards developing practica! solutions to identified soil constrains, and to monitor the impact of management strategies implemented to address such constraints. A considerable component of this approach involves improving communication between technical officers and farmers, and vice versa, by jointly constructing an effective communication channel. The participatory process used is shown to have great potential in facilitating farmer consensus about which soil-related constraints should be tackled first. Consensus building and trade-off analysis is presented as an irnportant step prior to collective action by fanning communities, resulting in the adoption of improved soil management strategies at the landscape scale. Figure 1 O. ldentify SQI Critical Levels t Develop SQMS to evaluate monitoring capacity Users Feedback ~ Acceptance SQMS • DSS Process using soil quality indicators (SQis) leading to the development of Soil Quality Monitoring Systems (SQMS) as decision support systems (DSS). 71 Participants in the training event associated with the guide are encouraged to develop "action plans". These show the institutional commitment made by participants to apply the guide and the gained insights in their own work plans and environments. Results and Discussion To date, more than 23 action plans have been initiated in Latin America and Africa. Their follow up in the coming years will provide a measure of the impact of this participatory approach in better NRM through improved soil management strategies. Table 23 shows proposed action plans in Honduras and Nicaragua, and Table 24 in Africa. Table 23 . Action plans for follow up in Honduras and Nicaragua•. Location Honduras: San Francisco de los Valles, San Marcos Colonia Lempira, Quimistán, Dept. Santa Bárbara San Marcos de Colon Talgua River Watershed- Olancho Five forest conservation areas Focal areas of institutional interest Work with agricultura] facilitators and fanners F anner groups South of Lempira Francisco Morazán Nicaragua: Turna La Dalia, Matagalpa Six communities in Dept. Matagalpa where the University has communal practices San Francisco de la Cruz, El Sol, and Mata de Tule, Dept. Carazo 12 communities in Dept. Matagalpa El Rama, South Atlantic Region Institutions involved CARE COHDEFOR E~ A COHDEFOR FEPROH CCP CARE-DIPAC FA O-Honduras SERNA L:.ITCAFE CCA CIEETS EAGE FADCANIC a. F or acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. 72 Proposed objectives/results Provide farmers with the information to work on soil structure by means of mulching. Undertake a soils study in this area. Train farmers to better know their soils. Take sound decisions regarding forest management plans. lmprove decision rnaking in NRM. Monitor decision making of local communities in soil rnanagement. Promete a collective effort in NRM. Slow down soil degradation. Fonnulate an NRM plan with cornmunities. lrnprove farrner participation in soil management practices. Improve farmer knowledge of soil. Improve NRM decision making. Improve local soil rnanagement practices. 35 students trained in the use of LISQ. Collect valuable information about the quality of soils in this area. Train students in the use of this methodology to apply it in soil studies in the communities. Train project personnel in the use of LISQ to apply it in development activities. Table 24. Location Mubesa, Tanga, Tanzania Mwanza Bukoba, Lake Zone, Tanzania Mwanza, Tanzania Arusba and Mosbi, Tanzania. Action plans for follow up in Africa•. Institutions involved District Agriculture Development Office LZARDI Agricultura! R&T Institute, Ikiriguru. KAEMP MARAFIP MATI Tengeru MA TI Mlingano KATC Proposed objectives/results • Introduce the tool to the community • Organize a monitoring committee • Train farmers and school children in the use ofthe tool • Apply the LISQ methodology • Facilitate farmers with easy soil testing tools • lntegrate indigenous SQis for soil quality assessment by farmers, trainers, and researchers • Develop resource management interventions based on identified soil constraints at different land use scales • Better understanding of soils by farmers for proper rnanagement decisions and land use planning .. Clear picture ofthe importance oftools by researchers, trainers, and extension staff towards irnprovement of advisory role in integrated soil fertility managernentapproaches • Guide professionals and non- professionals on the irnpact of selected managernent interventions and their implications for future planning and sustainability of the land resource • Farrners and trainees will identify cornrnon constraints to soil quality in the are a. • Training institutes will understand local indicators in the area for training purposes. • To train certificate and diploma students/farmers' groups and extension agents ( especially wornen who are rnajor irnplernenters in agricultura! production) on proper identification and management of soils as indispensable resource to sustain productivity. These in turn will disserninate k.nowledge to other farmers and professionals. A specific result is to increase awareness on the use ofLISQs and incorporate their use in agricultura) practice. 73 Expected impact • 450 households, 2250 people, 600 women, and 300 school children will be influenced by the activities. • 15 MARAFIP ISFM cornponent villages • 12 KAEMP dernonstration sites • 1 O water sanitation women groups Mwanza and Misungwi districts • Five agricultura! youth organizations • Five villages ofthree districts in Mara region • 3000 farmers will be trained. • 1 O demonstration si tes in each region will participate. • 70 students at Ukiriguru Training Institute trained in the use of the tool • 70% of all groups are women. • Integrated use of LISQ and TISQ indicators in decision rnaking about soils • People trained: 30 rnale and 30 fernale extension agents, 20 rnale and 40 fernale farmers, and 3 5 rnale and 25 fernale students. • Training institutes will receive training material for soil management, providing a base for managernent strategies around the institute area. Continued. Table 24. Action plans for follow up in Africa•. (Continued) Location Hai District, Moshi, Tanzania Lushoto, Tanzania HomaBay, Rashuonyo and Suna Districts, Nyanza Province, western Kenya Institutions involved ITECO District Council DALDO SE CAP CARE Kenya, Task Project Nairobi, Kenya KIOF KARI Proposed objectives/results • Setting demonstration areas in Masama division (Hai District), Mwembe, and Usangi (Mwanga District) Wards, where results will be practically interpreted and applied for future expansion to other are as • Train 200 farrners on identification and classification of soil quality • Train and support 15 selected water user groups • Increase farmei-s awareness through wide application of strategies • Control soil erosion to contribute to fertility irnprovement and vegetative growth • Reduction of salt levels in valley bottoms • Production increase • Introduce the application of the SQI tool and identify good SQis • Farmers will increase their knowledge of soil management. • Improve knowledge and skills of extensionists and researchers in LISQ and TISQ integration and application • Enhanced farmer knowledge and practices on NR.J.\4 for improved livelihoods • Application ofthe tool will influence decision making processes in changing soil fertility management at farm level. • Correlation of technical and indigenous knowledge will result in improved soil management practices. • The participatory methodology will ensure women's participation in soil fertility management practices. 7-l Expected impact • Capacity building promoted and gender integration in all development activities assured in ITECO working area • Self-reliant development of irrigation improvement activities consolidated and expanded • About 150 000 poor strata rural population benefited • "Many farmers will be affected, especially women who mostly cultivate in steep slopes ofWest Usambara mountains." • Research and extension workers trained: 42 women and 26 men • Adaptive research farmers: 50 women and 58 rnen • Group resource persons: 120 wornen and 96 men and 1600 farrners • 40 small-scale resource- poor farmers will benefit from this activity. Continued. Table 24. Location U songa, Karapul, Bujumba, Township, South Alego Awassa, Ethiopia lganga District, Uganda Action plans for follow up in Africaa. (Continued) Institutions in volved CARE, J arnaa Wazima Project A wassa Research Center Dept. of Agriculture, Iganga District Africa 2000 Network CIA T -Kawanda Proposed objectives/results • Targeted households will adopt new improved productivity enhancing soil management techniques. • Improved capacity to use LISQs to identify soil constraints, determine and apply relevant rnanagement strategies • Improve ability of extension workers to participatorily identify and prioritize LISQ, and integrate them with TISQ • To explore farmers' indigenous knowledge • To integrate local and technical knowledge • To establish strategies for NRM • To deliver training to experts • Empower extension staff in participatory soil management practices • Improve knowledge and skills among fanners, especially women, to choose appropriate rnanagement techniques • Encourage farmers to put into practice soil rnanagement techniques and other technologies with positive impact to crop yields Expected irnpact • Six community extension workers and four collaborators (GoK staff), three women's groups and one youth group, and four farmer groups totaling 160 men and women • Farmers: 20 women and 30men • 10-20 experts • 54 Extension staff (20% women) • Five comrnunities to work mostly with women's groups • 250 farmers to participate directly (60% women) For acronyms and abbreviations used, see p~e 190. ~:. 1 ¿ , v" x<..<. r·,,iJ (f{ ¡J)' ' ·""" ~"(· l .1 o • ~\V ' y. Contributors: IfBarreto (consultant); M ~rejo, M yarza, O ejia; A !turbe (consultant) a. 3.3. Strengthen small-scale producers, managers, and local, regional, and national organizations tbrough participatory investigative methods 3.3.1. Scaling out from the reference site J ustification Often, research and development projects in agriculture and NRM have very little impact in relation to its arrival and diffusion to the farrners, reduction of poverty, sustainability of the development process, or influence on policies. Thus, the researchers and those involved in development face the constant challenge of maximizing impact and advancing the development process. In the present situation of reduced financing to support research and agricultura! development, interest is growing in "enlarging the scale" (Gonsalves, 2001)10. Larry Harrington 10 Gonsalves. J. 200 l. Escalar: Lo que hemos aprendido en los últimos talleres. LEISA Revista de Agroecología. Experiencias para crecer. Vol. 17, No. 3. 75 and his colleagues (200 1) 11 wamed that if little attention is paid to the increasing of scale we "will have failed in our purpose of contributing to the alleviation of poverty, to improving food security, and to the protection of the environment". This situation allows us to evaluate the focus of scaling out to determine its effectiveness, and identify principies and important lessons to improve our general understanding of the out-scaling process. Objective Utilizing the work methods and products developed at reference-site level ( development of profitable technologies, systems of sustainable production through multi-institutional contribution, using the participative design focus and PM&E that include responsibilities shared at al! decision levels) to enter into alliances with different actors (local, national and regional) allowing us to reach more people with these benefits in Jess time, and a better way. Materials and Methods In the CIA T reference sites in Central America (San Dionisia and Matagalpa in Nicaragua, and Yorito, Yoro in Honduras), diverse CIAT projects are present, such as C&W, Forages, Participatory Research, Agro-enterprises, Soils, Beans, and Rice, arnong others. Since 1999, a process of identifying research priorities and irnplementing altematives has gone on in these reference sites, based on three principies: (1) Participative focus (design, planning, decision taking, monitoring and evaluation of the research projects) integrating all interest groups in the process; (2) Multi-institutional alliances; and (3) A network of experiment si tes that cover the range from research to development. Starting from this technological and methodological offer of CIA T's, during the last 2 years visits to the reference sites with donors, GOs, NGOs, and universities have increased. As a strategy, the following scheme has been utilized (Figure 11) that comprises four phases: ( 1) Approach partners with national or regional coverage, where supply and demand of the institutions are identified at intemallevel and at the level ofthe clients they serve. (2) Visits to the reference sites to get to know experiences at technological and methodological levels. (3) Partners identify products that they can introduce, apply, or investigate in other regions. (4) Elaborate a plan of institutional work that permits learning alliances, the collaboration scheme includes on CIAT's part: germplasm, methodologies, training, accompaniment, and training. Through these steps we expect not only to train participating NGO personnel, but also to enter upon a process that allows us to apply what is leamed, to monitor and follow up these experiences, to leam mutually from concrete work, and to measure the impact to determine that what we did really works and contributes finally to the improvement of the quality of life of the 11 Harrington. L. and collaborators. 2000. Delivering the goods: Generalizing and propagating N'Rl'vl research results through ··scaling out". LEISA Revista de Agroecología, Vol. 17, No. 3. 76 people. Under this plan, NGOs would be able to have facilitators, to count on CIA T's support in the application of what is leamed, to participa te in the collective leaming, and to ha ve access to improved practices improved on the theme of interest previously selected. e;'_,_ 4. Work plan • Coordination of activities with partners • Follow up and monitoring 3. Analysis of demand ~ • Identification oftechnologies evaluated • Prioritization of components and regions for execution ofwork 2. Field visit to reference site • Presentation of experiences and lessons leamed in the - technological and methodological aspects l. Identification of partners • Identification of institutional supply and demand • Interchange of documents Figure 11. Summary of the methodology used at CIA T reference sites. Results During 2001-2002, visits have been made to the reference site with different partners, íncluding: • Donors: Norwegian Agency for Cooperation for Development (NORAD), United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF), Swedish Intemational Development Agency (SIDA), and Swíss Development Cooperation (SDC) • Govemment institutions: MAGFOR, INT A, MARENA, and Programa Socioambiental Forestal (POSAF) • NGOs: Fondo de Desarrollo Agropecuario (FONDEAGRO), Programa de Agricultura Sostenible en las Laderas de Centro América (PASOLAC), and Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) • Universities: Universidad Nacional Agraria (UNA), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua (UNAN)-Matagalpa • Intemational agencies: Agua y Tierra Campesina (A TICA, Bolivia), Inter-cooperación, CIAT-HAP (Haití), Development Altemative Inc. (DAI, Bolivia) and • Groups of producers: with interest in fodders, CIALs, UCOSD Table 25 presents a summary of the scaling out process initiated through different associates in Nicaragua during 2002. The main themes identified by partners are: germplasm, silvopastoral systems, market options, SOL strategy, CIALs, focus on watersheds, methodologies of collective action and training. 77 Figure 12 shows the increase of scale presented by "scaling out" from the San Dionisio, Matagalpa reference site to other regions of the country such as the departments of Jinotega, Matagalpa, Boaco, Chontales, Managua, Estelí, Nueva Segovia, León, and Chinandega. Table 25. Process of scaling out with different partners in Nicaragua, 2002." Partner CIA T projects Theme Si te Duration and state in volved CARE Agro- Market options Matagalpa, Estelí 1 year. In process enterprises C&W Integral rnanagement of Sub-watershed Río 5 years watershed, SOL focus Pueblo Nuevo Concept Note (Esteli) Forages Germplasm City of Dario 3 years Silvopastoral systerns Concept Note Training FONDEAGRO Forages Forage grasses, legumes, and Paiwas 2 years trees Río Blanco In process Ubu Norte POSAF C&W, Establishment of SOL sites Sub-watersheds : 2 years Forages, Training Dipilto and Jícaro, Proposal IPRA Estelí, Molino Norte, Jiguina, Río Grande, Cuenca Sur, and S. Francisco Libre N ORAD C&W Areas not protected by the MBC Central America 5 years Proposal UNAN- Forages Germplasm and training (three Matagalpa 1 year Matagalpa theses) In process INTA C&W, IPRA, Watersheds focus Matagalpa-Jinotega In preparation Forages, Improvement of soils Esteli-Madriz-NS Agro- ClALs, forages, Léon-Chinandega enterprises Monitoring and follow up Boaco-Chontales Masaya-Carazo PRODEGA Forages Germplasm and training Boaco-Chontales 3 years Concept Note UNICEFb C&W Training in support tools for Juigalpa 2 months decision taking in NRM MatagaJpa Finalized Esteli ATICA C&W SOL focus Bolivia Initiating Market options CIAT-HAP C&W SOL focus Haiti 3 years PES In process a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. b. Training and plans of action. 78 Dono- ,Y "' Contributor: R Howeler 3.5. Promote and support inter-institutional processes and plans for sustainable rural development 3.5.1 Facilitate the execution of action plans of the MIS Consortium Introduction and Overview The MIS Consortium was created at a workshop in Honduras, 11-12 August 1999, to focus efforts in the hillsides of Central America, a recognized hotspot for poverty and environmental degradation. Seven NARS from Honduras, six from Nicaragua, and four advanced research organizations (AROs) participated at the launching of the consortium. The same institutions met again in January 20.00 to review progress and develop the consortium's work program and logframe. Since then, the group has met twice to develop proposals around the themes of the consortium. Objective To develop, adapt, and disseminate improved options for the sustainable management of fragile soils in the Central American region. Rationale Hillsides comprise over 87% of the cultivated land in Honduras and 40% in Nicaragua, where ecological vulnerability to erosion, nutrient depletion, and other degrading processes are high. In addition, it is estimated that the population of these areas will double in 35 years and that there are already 63 million hectares of degraded land in the region. Thus, there is an urgent need to stabilize the environment and increase productivity in order to meet burgeoning demands. Results We give here brief highlights of progress, using the outputs of the Soil Water and Nutrient Management (SWNM) Prograrn logfrarne. Output l. Decision support tools for improved SWNM developed and evaluated in different agro-ecological zones: • Nutrient constraints were identified using the nutrient strip methodology. • Trained partners in Central Arnerica and Africa developed action plans for the use of the soil quality indicators guide. 85 • A spatially linked soil database was developed for Honduras m order to assist decision makers in identifying resource problems and target solutions. Output 2. Improved technologies for increased production based on efficient use of water and nutrients adapted and applied by land users: • Reference sites were characterized to assess the impact oftraditional and improved practices. Output 3. Impacts of improved practices on production, the environment and socioeconomic conditions assessed: • The profitability of soil conservation practices in Honduras was documented. • The MSEC decision support system to evaluate the economic impact of soil conservation was tested at field leve! in Nicaragua. Output 4. An improved information and communication exchange framework established and materials produced for stakeholders: • Partners visited the reference sites Output 5. Stakeholders' capacity for better SWNM enhanced: • One MIS partner trained by MSEC on the use of the PCARES model to simulate soil losses at the watershed leve!. Output 6. Efficient program management, communication, monitoring and evaluation: • Two members of the Executive Committee of MIS attended the SWNM steering committee meeting and the Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) meeting ofthe CGIAR in Cali, Colombia. • MIS members d~vel0>ed 11 joint proposals at the last planning meeting in Estelí, Nicaragua. \ ~·' ~ ~·\ - Contributor: M Ayarza 1 (.) rJ.. ' ¡j...') Output 4. Decision makers supported 4.1. Identify, at different levels, decision makers related with project tasks and diagnose their needs See under 5.2.1. Workshops and meetings. 4.2. Support decision taking at different levels using the information, and methodological tools generated by the project Nicaragua. CIAT-Nicaragua given recognition by MAGFOR for its technical and economic support in the elaboration of the Rural Atlas of Nicaragua awarded in August 2002. See under Activity 2.3.2. S6 Honduras. Validation was made of the Guide on Small Seed Enterprise Development (SEED). This year, the C& W provided support for the work of Guillermo Giraldo in Honduras. Fourteen participants attended a workshop in which the Guide was submitted for evaluation and adjustment. Participants made many good suggestions that were incorporated into the text. This material will be used in its final version in Haití, during the training events that are part of the C&W strategy for that country, as previously described. Capacity development is again the core of this activity. G Giraldo has accompanied small seed enterprise promoters in Honduras in a facilitating process that brings to these promoters new tools and new strategies for the establishment and management of small seed enterprises. CIAT Headquarters. New versions of the Guides were proposed and are underway. A few CIAT Board Members (C. Girard, G. Pantin, and J. Jones) in their report on a visit to Honduras indicated that "the various information technology tools, such as atlases and decision support tools, provide one good mechanism for significant, tangible deliverab/es from the project, and these have strategic importance .... " This year, the SDC requested the C&W to present a proposal to disseminate the decision support tools. A proposal was formulated and approved to adapt five of the former Guides to software designed by the UBC. This new product will be in the hands of severallarge Honduran and Nicaraguan NGOs and universities that are interested in using the tools, and training their personnel in the use of the methodologies thereby presented. This is again a capacity development tool that will help institutions better fulfill their respective missions in regard to NRM. An expert from UBC (Dr Sandra Brown) has given training to the Project in the use of the software. A content analysis is being made with severa} of the original authors of the Guides so that the material fits the technical requirements of the ToolBook program. 4.3. Strengthen capacity for management and use of information, tools, and methods (train, diffuse, and follow up the process) 4.3.1. Appointment to the Red de Organismos de Cuenca (RENOC) Executive Committee This year, the C&W was appointed by RENOC to their Executive Cornmittee. This is made up from eight institutions: POSAF-MARENA, UNA- Facultad de Recursos Naturales (F ARENA), INTA, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE)- Fortalecimiento de la capacidad local en manejo de cuencas y prevención de desastres natures (FOCUENCAS), Catholic Relief Service (CRS), MARENA, and Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos (CIRA)- UNAN. 4.3.2. Workshops Bolivia. A planning workshop and visit was carried out at the end of2001 with seven Bolivian GOs and NGOs. During visits to institutions and their work scenarios, it was possible to understand the areas and topics of collaboration among national institutions and the role of CGIAR centers in capacity development. 87 The workshop dedicated time to collectively formulate a synthesis of collaboration areas that could become an input for the preparation of a proposal for inter-institutional cooperation. The final synthesis comprised (a) demands of participating institutions' clients regarding agricultura! production and NRM, (b) other demands from clients that did not fall within that area (i.e., institutional capacity development), and (e) demands in terms of institutional strengthening needs for which "we" require support from other institutions. Once demands were expressed, participants dedicated time to identify technologies and methodologies they could offer to their colleagues to respond to the expressed needs. Finally, participants gave their ideas regarding the methods and strategies to follow to make inter-institutional cooperation a reality. Honduras. The newly appointed Minister of Agriculture answered a call from the C& W to discuss areas and topics for future collaboration with CIAT. He was very much open to providing support to initiatives that CIAT could arrange with the Programa Nacional de Desarrollo Sostenible (PRONADERS) or any other NRM program. A letter from D Pachico on behalf of CIA T was presented to the Minister. After the meeting, a report on the possible areas of collaboration and mechanisms to carry inter-institutíonal cooperation was elaborated and presented to interested parties in CIA T. Haiti. A planning workshop was prepared and coordinated. It counted on the participation of CIAT's project leaders working in the HAP Project, local professional staff appointed to work in the HAP Project, and representatives of DAI. This workshop was a true collaborative multi- stakeholder event that provided a series of results for the improvement of the HAP Project. The C& W, as well as the other CIA T and CIMMYT participants, was able to identify the expected results. The C& W team, working with workshop participants, proposed to obtain the following outputs: (1) Institutional capacity developed for adaptive on-farm trials, and the establishment of SOLs with local partners; (2) Local capacity enhanced through training and technical assistance activities; (3) Strengthening local farmers' organizations in their operational capacity; ( 4) Agricultura} innovations implemented and appropriated by local organizations; (5) SOL established with operational capability to run trials, evaluations, and to disseminate knowledge and respond to other information demands; and (6) Small artisanal seed enterprises established. An important result of this workshop was the preparation of an integrated chronogram, which shows all activities of all CIA T partners, that is useful in the coordinatíon of símultaneous activities. Activities have been carried out as planned. In Part 3, more space is dedicated to the Haitian scenario. Mexico. A workshop was held on the use of the Logical Framework. The C& W considered important the participatíon of one of its members in this facílitation process, requested by the Director General of Mexican Forest, Agriculture, and Livestock Research Institute (INIF AP, the Spanish acronym). Besides helping the researchers of 14 national agricultura! research centers to use the Logframe, the visit would be an opportunity to link with INIF AP with regard to NRM 88 initiatives. A result of this visit was the preparation of an itinerant workshop for the visit of INIF AP researchers to Honduras and Nicaragua. The workshop accomplished its objectives. Many of the participants reported a successful dissernination of the proposed methodology. The Project formulated a proposal for a visit and workshop to Honduras and Nicaragua, which was subrnitted to INIF AP with the previous revision by the Central America Coordinator and the Liaison Officer in Nicaragua. Months later, INIF AP announced a visit of its directors to Honduras to observe the research and development activities taking place in Yorito. This visit will be an opportunity to further develop relationships with one of the strongest NARs in Latín America, for scaling our research and development strategies. Nicaragua. Three workshops were given for the Empresa Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (ENACAL), the Nicaraguan water authority in charge of planning and supervising the aqueducts and swish systems in the country. The CIA T -Nicaragua office made an agreement with UNICEF to prepare 40 of ENACAL's staff in the use of four guides, which were considered to be useful in enhancing the work being done in the country. Capacity development in this case has a good argument. The four tools on which training was delivered were (a) Poverty Profiles, (b) Participatory Mapping, (e) Stakeholdér Analysis, and (d) Organizational Processes. After a previous revision of all decision support instruments, ENACAL's officials elaborated the following needs assessment: "the organizational processes too/ will help us in the promotion and organization of Water Committees, which are now weak; the participatory mapping too/ will help our stakeholders understand the status in which water and other natural resources are and to define action towards their conservation and rational use; the stakeholder analysis will help us and the communities identify and understand sources of conflict in the use of natural resources and the poverty profiles will help us adjust the tariffs according to the different groups that constitute our communities ... " UNlCEF has enthusiastically promised economic support to sorne of the eight Action Plans that were prepared as a result of the training received by the participants who come from 15 different institutions that work in Juigalpa, Matagalpa, and Estelí, three ofthe localities with greater water delivery problems in the country. It is also worth noting that the three workshops were delivered with the participation ofthe Nicaraguan trainers' team. Asia. Since November 2001 (last reporting), the FLSP has provided substantial ongoing training support for project staff. This has included formal training events (Table 27) and continuous on- the-job learning opportunities linked with fann visits, field days, and regular project meetings. 89 Table 27. Formal training events organized for Forages and Livestock Systems Project (FLSP) staff, 2001-02. Training event Tirning Monitoring and evaluation and animal 13-14 Nov 2001 health issues in Lao POR F ocus-group and village feedback 11-14 Dec 2001 Extension administration 11-14 Jan 2002 Participatory diagnosis 15-21 Feb 2002 26 Feb-03 Mar 2002 Participatory approaches 4-22 Mar 2002 Forage technologies, animal health 1-6 Apr 2002 strategies, gender and equity issues, and environmental irnpact training Luceme management and utilization in . 21 Apr-6 May 2002 smallbolder farming systems Database design 20-28 May 2002 Extension administration 04 June 2002 Cassava agronomy and management Aug 2002 Animal health and forag~ rnanagement 29 Aug-4 Sept 2002 Location• FLSP Office, Luang Phabang FLSP Office, Luang Phabang FLSP Office, Luang Pbabang FLSP Office, Xieng Kbouang FLSP Office, Luang Pbabang IRRI Los Baños, Philippines Livestock Research Centre, NamSuang SARDI, Adelaide, South Australia CIAT office, Vientiane FLSP Office, Luang Phabang Rayong Research Station, Thailand FLSP Office, Xieng Kbouang No. of participants 27 16 12 13 14 1 39 3 12 1 26 a. IRRI = Intemational Rice Research Institute, Philippines; SARDI = South Australian Research and Development Institute. 4.4. Provide technical support for decision taking 4.4.1. Technical support given in Colombia and Africa Colombia The staff of the Corporación Colombiano de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) "Project Guaitara" in Nariño received technical support from C&W for the application of several instruments that would provide inputs to the project to arrest degradation of soils in seven municipalities of this state. Trainers trained by the Project provided support. CORPOICA requested continuous support from the C& W, but we did not ha ve the necessary resources to respond to this request. Africa Building on this year' s visit of the Directors of National Agricultura! Research Centers (Malawi, Uganda) to CIAT, and in collaboration with Ugandan, Malawian, and Mozambican agricultura! research and development institutions, CIA T called on a group of partners and donors to carry out a needs' assessment exercise geared to identify common grounds for collaborative work. A draft concept note was previously discussed with severa! African National Agricultura! Research Organizations (NAROs) under the name of "lnvestment in Rural Innovation and Enterprise Development to Build New Livelihood Opportunities" (Kirkby et al., 2001)12• This concept note 12 Kirkby, R. and others. 2001. Investment in rural innovation and enterprise development to build new livelihood opportunities for the poor in competitive, high-value. ecological agriculture. Draft propasa!. CIA T, Cali, CO. 90 showed the need for a needs' assessment that would give direction toa program geared to build national capacities to improve land management, productivity, and income for poor farming communities by bringing together many elements at the level of farmers as decision makers. As a result of this activity, the rural innovation proposal was sharpened for its presentation to United States Agency for Intemational Development (USAID) officials. Leading this activity helped CIA T staff to become acquainted with the plans, programs, projects, and organizational structure of the partnering NAROs and extension organisms, to better focus CIAT's collaboration. It was also possible to define areas of convergence between CIAT's research agenda and the agendas of N AROs and extension organisms. Inputs were also provided for the design of a collaborative project between CIAT and African institutions. The present activities carried out in the areas of agro-enterprises, participatory research, and soils capitalized on the information derived from these workshops. 4.4.2. Data supplied to farmers for decision taking in Vietnam and Thailand Rationale Farmers make decisions. about the choice of crops or animals and the type of production practices to be employed mainly on the basis of their income generating capacity. To make the right decisions, it is extremely important to supply farmers with correct data on gross income, productíon costs, and net income for each new practice, combination of practices, or cropping system. According to the latest estimates, in all FPR pilot sites combined in Vietnam, various new cassava production technologies have been adapted by 4812 farm households, covering an area of 1411 ha, and resulting in increases in income ofUS$274,400 in 2002. Materials and Methods At time of harvest of the FPR trials in a particular village or area, both participating and non- participating farmers, including from neighboring communities, are invited for a field day. Cassava plants from the center of each plot are harvested and weighed early in the morning so that the visiting farmers can see the piles of harvested roots as well as the calculated yield of cassava and intercrops or the weight of eroded sediments displayed on signs in each treatment. Farmers copy this information on previously handed-out forms and note their own observations or evaluation of each treatment. Afterwards, usually after a joint lunch in the village, the average data of each type of trial are presented to the meeting, including the most accurate values for gross income (using current prices of crops), production costs, and net income. Finally, the assembled farmers vote by raising their hands to indicate their preferences for each treatment. Results Tables 4, 8, and 9 of Activity 1.3.4., Tables 11 and 12 of Activity 1.3.5., and Table 28 show examples of calculations of gross and net income, while Tables 8 and 9 of Activity 1.3A. also indicate the farmers ' preferences. Once farmers start adopting certain varieties or production practices on larger areas of their fields, data on the performance of each variety or practice are 91 again collected for each farmer. Table 28 shows the results of the performance and dissemination of sorne of these technologies in six FPR pilot si tes in Pho Yen district of Thai Nguyen province in north Vietnam. It shows that 273 farmers are now planting new varieties in 8.12 ha, providing an additional income of about 18 million dong. Similarly, in three of the six communes, 73 farmers are now intercropping cassava with peanut in 5.54 ha, which produces an additional income of about 20.4 million dong compared with monocropping. Using similar calculations for all technologies adopted by farmers in all sites in Vietnam, the total additional income from the adoption ofnew cassava technologies was estimated at 4116 million dong or US$274,400 (Table 35 of Activity 5.5.3.). Almost 5000 farmers had adopted one or more technology components in about 1411 ha. Thus, while the total area in Vietnam is relatively small, many households are benefiting from the new technologies. In Thailand, on the other hand, sorne of the new technologies have been adopted in only four sites in 1573 ha, but this has benefited probably less than 300 farmers in those four sites. No numbers are available for all sites in Thailand, but Table 29 indicates that at least 865 farmers have adopted the planting of vetiver grass hedgerows on their cassava fields, while it is very likely they also adopted new varieties and improved fertilization practices. Table 28. Extent of the dissemination of new cassava varieties and intercropping with peanut in six communes of Pho Yen district, Thai Nguyen province, Vietnam in 2001-02, and their effect on gross and net income. Varieties No. of Are a Yield {t ha"'2 Gross Production Net lncrease in farmers (ha) Cassava Peanut in come costs in come net income ('000 t ha.1) (mil. dong) New varieties•: KM60 3 0.11 25.92 12 960 3864 9 096 KM94 9 0.08 23.89 11 945 3864 8 081 KM 95-3 118 3.74 27.98 13 990 3864 10 126 KM 98-7 143 4.19 31.22 15 610 3864 11 746 Vinh Phu (local) 154 8.54 22.82 11 410 3864 7 546 Total new varieties 273 8.12 27.25 13 626 3864 9 762 17.994 lntercropping with peanutb: Cassava monoculture 111 4.38 21.46 10 730 3864 6 866 C+peanut 73 5.54 24.44 0.70 15 720 5164 10 556 20.443 a. Average of six communes. b. Average of three communes. During one PM&E exercise, farmers in Thaa Chiwit Mai in Chachoengsao province were asked whether the project had improved their incomes and their standard of living. Most replied that it had. Although this village is not particularly rich, all farmers do have motorcycles and color TV, while about 50% have washing machines and mobile phones. It is most likely that the project has contributed to a significant improvement in their living standards over the past 4 years. Table 29. Location of fanner participatory research (FPR) pilot sites in Thailand in 2002, and the adoption of vetiver grass for eros ion control in tbose si tes. FPR pilot si tes• Adoption of erosion control practices Province District Subdistrict Village No. of Cassava Vetiver Vetiver farmers area witb (no. of hedgerows vetiver (ha) plants) (km) Nakhon Daan Khun Thot BaanKaw KhutDook 53 49.4 130,000 15.0 Ratchasima Thephaarak Bueng Prue 3 and6 26 34.2 80,000 11 .0 Soeng Saang Noon Sombuun Sapphong Phoot 62 132.5 80,000 20.0 Sratakhian Sratakhian o 4.8 20,000 2.0 Khonburi Tabaekbaan Nong Phak Raí" 27 24.0 50,000 5.0 Prachinburi Naadii Kaeng Dinso Aang Thong } 34 27.2 60,000 4.5 Khao Khaat Ka las in Mueang Phuu Po Noon Sawan 61 49.0 85,500 8.6 Khamin Khamplaafaa Nongkungsri NongBua Kharnsri 67 110.4 111,600 11.2 Sahatsakhan Noonburi Noon Sawaat 63 59.2 86, 170 8.6 Noon Namkliang Huay Suea Ten } 47 40.6 128,330 12.8 Paa Kluay Naamon Naamon Noon Thiang . 50 24.0 16,000 1.6 DonChaan Dong Phayung Noon Kokchik. 50 24.0 16,000 1.6 Huay Phueng Nikhom Huay Faa . 50 24.0 16,000 1.6 Chachoengsao Sanaam Chaikhet Thung Phrayaa Thaa Chiwit Mai 32 10.4 50,000 2.0 Thaa Takiab Khlong Takraw Nong Yai 42 27.2 100,000 5.3 Kamphaengphet Khanuwaralakburii Bo Tham Siiyaek } 42 27 .2 68,000 3.0 TonThoo Chaiyapuum Thep Sathit Naayaang Klak KhookAnu 42 27.2 68,000 4.0 Kaanchanaburi LawKhwan Thung Krabam Nong Kae 42 27.2 80,000 3.0 Srakaew Wang Sombuun W ang Sombuun Baan Khlong Ruam 75 220.8 90,000 9.0 Total: 8 17 20 24 >865 943.3 1,335,600 129.8 a. •, initiated in 2~·...-\} ,,, Contributor: ~Howeler Output 5. Efficient, participatory project management ) -' 5.1. Foster tbe active participation of partners in tbe planning of project activities m tbe region This is an ongoing activity and is manifest in the many meetings with partners for joint planning of activities (see under 5.2.1. below). 5.2. Actively and permanently coordinate the reference sites, projects, and individuals working in the region 5.2.1. Worksbops and meetings During the year, workshops and meetings were held for exchange of inforrnation, planning, and training purposes. Table 30 shows those that took place in Honduras and Table 31 in Nicaragua. 93 Tahlc 30. Workshops and meetings organized by CIAT from September 2001 lo August 2002, Honduras". Event Organizers Date Participating institutions No. of earticieants Results Producers Technicians Thrcc licld tours of trials L Drizuela, 31 Aug 2001 None 28 2 Opinions ofproducers on LIM-1 , Luquigue, Mina G Palma, 6 Sept 2001 the tria! treatment and list Honda, Guaco M Pineda 7 Sept 2001 of terminology u sed Coordination of PRM and L Brizuela, Sept2001 DICTA,PRM - 3 Coordination llcad ofNational Maizc M Palma l'wgralll Thrce Technical L Brizuela 27 Sept 2001 IPCA, SERTEDESO 8 Work plan elaborated and Committce Meetings of the coordinated, and joint Network of SOL si tes activities planned Workshop of prcsentation L Brizuela, 29-30 Mar 2001 IPCA-EAP, SERTEDESO, Institutes of 13 27 Presentation of results of of rcsults al technician G Palma San Juan de Sula, José Antonio Ochoa, trials established in leve! San Pedro, PDA-Yoro, PDA-Jocón, Spring and second season, ESA consultants, FUNDER, PRR, 2001 Biodiversa, IPCA-Zamorano Sweet potato tasting in the G Palma, 13 March 2002 None 20 3 The variety Cetis 78-320 Luquigüc community M Pineda, chosen HCmz W IH kshop of prcscntation M l'eters 1 April2002 SERTEDESO, MAG, INTA - 15 An cvaluation was madc of rcsults in forages and P Argel of the project accivities Meeting ofTechnical 2001-2002 C'ommittee in Costa Rica Soils Fair M Treja, 8 June 2002 Institutes of San Pedro and José 45 8 Producers, students, and L Brizuela, Antonio Ochoa technicians familiarized G Palma with indicators of soil quality Workshop to complete and MCRoa 15 July 2002 CARE, CATIE, CIPAV - 18 Second draft ofproposal elabora te proposals of the completed MBC Tour of reference si te with M Trejo, 3, 4 Aug 2002 None - 5 Interchange of professors ofUCN, UNR L Brizuela information a. ror acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. Table 31 . Workshops and meetings organized by CIAT from September 2001 to August 2002, Nicaragua•. r-- E ven! Field day to evaluate rnaize varieties Training workshop in llonduras on participative monitoring and evaluation W orkshop on mcthodological instruments for NRM - Diploma UNN Jinotcga Workshop of presentation of SOL results Workshop of scenarios with ETH Annual MIS meeting Annual PCCMCA meeting l'artenariado Meeting Organizers PROMESA, CIAT CIAT UNN CIATand partners ETHZ, ClAT, UNA MIS, CIAT IDJAF SDC Date 28 Sept 2001 1-5 Oct 2001 9 Feb 2002 20 Feb 2002 12-15 Feb 2002 19-22 Feb 2002 14-20 Mar 2002 15 Mar 2002 Participating institutions PROMESA, PRODESSA, ADDAC, CIALs IPCA, CLODEST UNN INTA, ADDAC, PCAC, CIALS, ACV UNA, INTA, ADDAC, Swiss Embassy UNA, SERTEDESO, FAO- Lempira Sur, ESNACIFOR, INTA Country reps from Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Guatemala, Dominican Rep., Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Haití, CA TIE, PODAR AGUASAN, MIP- Zamorano, C& W No. of EarticiEants 90 20 23 23 JO 30 200 4 Results • Evaluation and selection by producers of nine maize varieties in the SOL • Training in participative monitoring and evaluation • Training of diploma students in methodological instruments for NRM • Present research results of the SOL-200 1 • Learning of methodology for development of scenarios. in rural areas • Proposals of development scenarios for San Dionisio in 5 years • Presentation of work done in 2001 • Approval of proposals for 2002 • Focus of the meeting on themes of agricultura! technology for competitivity in agro-food chain • Prizc for bcst work in natural resources to "Mapping, analysis, and monitoring ofNRM" too! • Recognition of the work "SOL- an alterna ti ve concept for gerrnplasm flow in crops, with emphasis on participative selection and evaluation" • Definition ofthemes for work on partenariado: (a) criteria for selecting partners, (b) quality of relations with partners, (e) lessons learned • Strengths and weaknesses ofthe partenariado in SDC Continued. Table 31. Workshops and meetings organized by CIAT from September 2001 to August 2002, Nicaragua•. (Continued.) Event Workshop to organize the National Network of Hydrographic Watersheds Meeting ofthe Committee for Municipal 11cvdopmc::nt Soils Fair Planning Workshop of rcsearch activities ofSOL 2002 Presentation of PES Meeting on stratcgic alliance CIAT-INT A Training workshop on methodological instruments for NRM (Juigalpa, Matagalpa, Estdi) Organizers UNA, INTA, POSAF- MARENA, CIAT, CATIE- FOCUENCAS, CRS Mayor's Office UNA, CIAT CIATand partners PROMESSA INTA UNICEF- ENACAL, CIAT Date 21 Mar 2002 3 Apr 2002 6 Apr 2002 25 Apr 2002 21 May 2002 24 May 2002 June 2002 Participating institutions 16 institutions working with focus on watersheds Mayor's Office, C&W, ODESAR, PCAC, local organizations UNA, UNAN, producers INTA, ADDAC, PCAC, CIALs, ACV INT A, PROMESA, MAGFOR 2 Technicians ofENACAL No. of participants 36 technicians and professionals 30 130 20 12 12 45 Results • Consensus on the Network objectives • Definition of priority actions for 2002 and the L TP to 2006 • Fonning ofthe CDM, where it will partic ipate as member ofthe Campos Verdes Association • An integral operative plan elaborated for the municipality; CIA T will support this measure • Socialization of inforrnation • S ha re training with producers on aspects of soil and presentation of results of trials of limiting nutrients • Plan research activities for 2002 • Presentation of the PES experience in Honduras • Revision of the law on certification of seed and authorized seed. Suitable seed will be eliminated. • Definition of so me lines for future meeting between partners of CGIAR and INT A • Elaboration of a model of collaboration between INT A- COlAR and other partners • ldentification of strengths, weaknesses, and sorne recommendations for future meeting • Elaboration of action plans for EN A CAL technicians to be incorporated in 2003 • UNICEF interest in financing work on indicators of water quality • 45 technicians trained in INRM Continued. Table 3 1. Workshops and meetings organized by CIA T from September 2001 to August 2002, Nicaragua•. (Continued.) Event Organizers Date Parricipating institutions No. of 1 articipants PASOLAC evaluation workshop Course-Workshop of socioeconomic evaluation of environmental services PASOLAC National university of Costa Rica and Rafael Landívar University of Guatemala Workshop of partial ETHZ rcscarch results in San Dionisio of representa ti ves of ETI IZ (San Dionisio and Managua) Pr~sentation of summary of MIS-CIAT nH:thods of economic cvaluation of cnvironrm:ntal scrviccs Presentation forum and MIS, CIA T, MIS discussion UNA Sm:ializ:.rt ion uf Rural At las MAUFOR, of Nicaragua INEC, lNETER, MARENA, CIAT 13 June 2002 17-21 June 2002 16-17 July 2002 26 July 2002 12 Aug 2002 29 Aug 2002 a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. PASOLAC organizations Institutions and organizations of Central America UNA San Dionisio, local organizations and institutions UNA, PASOLAC, Network of watersheds National institutions and organizations, donor agencies Coopcration agencies, Uüs, NGOs 30 28 Managua 15 San Dionisia 40 15 45 130 Results • Knowledge ofwork done during the year by PASOLAC organizations • Knowledge and practice of the methodologies of evaluating environmental services • Interchange of experiences and expert knowledge for research consultancies • Wide documentation on the theme • Maps of infrastructure and soil use for se ven communities of San Dionisia that make up the study. These were given to the local communities and organizations, including the Mayor's Office. • Knowledge of methodologies and discussion of scenarios for application • Presentation of 2001 results • Strategy for financing MIS projects • Oflicial prcscntation of Rural Atlas of Nicaragua • Distribu\ion of 120 CD-ROMs 5.3. Maintain an efficient information system of the project with its partners 5.3.1. Workshops and Meetings attended Table 32 shows the workshops and meetings attended during the year m Honduras as participants. Table 32. Workshops and meetings attended as participants from September 2001 to August 2002, Honduras. Workshop/ Place Participating Purpose Results CIAT staff meeting insti tutions attending Meeting (1) La Ceiba Initiate contact to Contact made HCruz with the establish an coordination of agreement between Project Land o CIA T and Land o Lake in Ceiba La k e W orkshop ( 1) Tegucigalpa CIAT, Familiarization with Draft of proposal L Brizuela for the CURLA, the management of for program management FHIA, the NUMAS Program validation and utilization SERTEDESO, of the NillYIAS UNA- Program Nicaragua Training (1) on Yorito IPCA To give information 70% Technicians, monitoring and to the Youth ClALs seven adult evaluation facilitators and practitioners CLODEST Yorito IICA/ Present strategic plan Activities of the L Brizuela Assembly ( 1) HoUand- of the Network of l\etwork of SOL Hillsides SOL sites sites presented to the Operative Plan ofCLODEST Meetings (4) of Yorito None Participate in the Work plans of the L Brizuela Board of meeting ofthe Board l\etwork and G Palma Directors of of Directors to CLODEST, and CLODEST and strengthen decision drafts of proposals REDOLYS taking ofboth were elaborated. organizations a. For acronyms and abbreviations used, see page 190. 5.3.2. New Web site of Nippon Foundation Project A new Web site was developed and opened to make information about the project widely accessible. The Web site can be accessed at www.ciat.cgiar.org/asia cassava/index.htm 98 5.4. Strengthen joint work with other projects and organizations 5.4.1. Efficient Program management, communication, monitoring, and evaluation of MIS Consortium Two MIS planning meetings were conducted in the period 200 l-2002. They were carried out to review the progress of the consortium and elaborate operational plans. Table 33 shows the outcome ofthe last planning meeting in Estelí Nicaragua. Consortium members approved several collaborative proposals that were prepared. Results will be reported in 2003. Additional information about these meetings can be accessed through the Web page of the consortium. Table 33. Proposals developed during the Program Planning Meeting of the Manejo Integrado de los Suelos de Centro América (MIS) Consortium in Estelí, Nicaragua•. Outputs Output 1: Inforrnation about practices and policies for SWNM collected and available to stakeholders Output 2: Improved practices for sustainable management of SWNM Output 3: Improved practices disseminated Proposal Systematization of information and development of databases Economic evaluation of soil eros ion Development of a methodology for local soil classification Testing and calibration ofindicators of soil degradation Characterization of soil improvement under the Quesungual agroforestry system Person responsible A Schmidt (CIAT) ME Baltodano (CIA T) B Mendoza (UNA) M Trejo (CIA T) I Rodríguez (UNA) J Herrick (USDA) E Amezquita ( CIA T) L Welchez (PROLESUR) E Barrios (CIA T) Participatory evaluation of water quality S San Martín (SERTEDESO) Validation ofthe NuMass expert system J Smith (NCSU) M Ayarza (CIAT) Evaluation ofthe hydrologic performance ofthree watersheds in Honduras and Nicaragua Visits to the Quezungual agroforestry system in Lempira S Rivera (ESNACIFOR) L Caballero (EAP- Zamorano) M Somarriba (UNA) S San Martín (SERTEDESO) L Rodríguez (UNA) a. For acronyrns and abbreviations used, see page 190. Funding requested• {US$) 9 000 4 500 2 500 6 700 9 000 6 500 Funds from CRSP consortium 15 000 1 500 Two members of the Executive Committee participated in the SWNM meeting at CIAT in Colombia in 2001. They presented to other consoniums the MIS approaches for SWNM and participated in the discussion ofthe future ofthe S~NI Program. 99 As a part of the strategy for exchange of information among MIS partners, the consortium supported the visits of MIS members to the reference sites in the two countries. Thirty-five representatives from 10 institutions of MIS in Honduras visited the reference sites in Yorito, Lempira, and Calan during 2001. They were particularly interested in the SOL approach developed by CIA T in Y orito, the performance of the Quesungual agroforestry system in the Lernpira site, and the sustainable forest management systems at the Calan site. They made plans for future visits with farrners. S.S. Establish a participative system of monitoring and evaluation of the project to monitor its performance and feed back to planning See also under Part Two for refocusing ofthe project and the new logframe. S.S.l Fully implement the FLSP Project's monitoring and evaluation strategy The FLSP is implementing a practica! framework for M&E to quantify both outputs and impacts, and to provide feedback into the development and extension process. Materials and Methods The M&E strategy of the FLSP was developed from 5 years' experience in trying to come up with an M&E process that was simple, that would capture innovative and unusual outcomes in the field, and that could be conducted by nonspecialists. The strategy, which has been documented elsewhere, is based on: • Capturing outputs in the field through an annual adoption tree survey of all participating farmers; • Monitoring the changes in these outputs through a bilingual database; • Capturing and quantifying impacts in the field through a combination of informal observations, focus group meetings, and household case studies; and • Comparing impacts at the end of the project with outputs from a baseline survey conducted in 2002. This strategy is now fully functional within the project. In April 2002, a baseline survey was conducted using a "case-study" approach with 42 households in project villages. The objectives ofthe baseline study were to: • Provide "baseline" information on individual household livelihoods based on a stratified sample. These households will provide examples of the diversity in livelihoods in villages engaged with the FLSP. • Provide "baseline" data on labor requirements for managing and feeding animals, and productivity of important livestock types . • Build the capacity of project staff to carry out interviews with individual households and analyze the results. These skills will be needed for future impact assessment. • Irnprove the understanding of extension and project staff of the context of farm and livelihood systems in project vi llages. 100 • Explore the opportunities for using sorne of the interviewed households for case studies documenting the impact of project interventions. Within districts, two villages were selected for the baseline study using the following criteria: • Uptake oftechnologies offered by the FLSP has high potential, and • That the selected villages cover the range of farming systems, ethnic groups, market access, and wealth status of all villages engaged with the FLSP. Within villages, the selection ofhouseholds was based on the guidelines that they needed to: • Represent the range of livelihood systems and wealth of households participating in the FLSP; and • Include households with good potential for uptake of the range of technologies offered by the FLSP, while not yet receiving substantial benefits from the technologies. Sorne of these households may be used for longitudinal case studies assessing impact of project interventions from initial testing to integration of technologies. Results Differences in farming and livelihood systems (and majar problems encountered) between villages were much greater than the differences between households within villages. There were sorne indications that this may also be true for "knowledge" on issues such as animal health and management. Respondents in sorne villages seemed to have a good understanding of how diseases were transmitted, while respondents in other villages were very unclear about this issue. A majar difference between "poor" and "better-off' households seemed to be access to land resources, with poor households having smaller fields further away from the village. In severa! cases, poor households had less labor at their disposal. They also had fewer animals ( often no large animals), which are a clear indication of cash reserves. Often, poorer households seemed to be young couples having recently started their own family, people who migrated to the village relatively recently, or single-parent households. Although many Hmong farmers (particularly the men) spoke good conversational Lao, we quickly discovered that using Lao disadvantaged the second respondent ( often the women) in the interview. Using Hmong as the interview language overcame this problem. In many cases, women sat a little further away from the group than did their husbands, showing that the man should be the main respondent. This was particularly noticeable in ethnic Hmong households. Participatory tools such as mapping and matrix weighting helped to overcome their reluctance to participate. Other effective ways of including women more strongly in the interview included (i) addressing sorne questions directly to the woman, and (ii) giving each of the two respondents half of the counters to be used in any weighting so both had to contribute equally to the weightings. The results ofthe survey are currently being tabulated and analyzed. 101 5.5.2 Outcomes of a technical review of the FLSP Project In August 2002, the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) sent one of its technical advisers to: • Assess FLSP progress to date in relation to achievement or likely achievement of project objectives, in particular examining implementation issues, such as the lack of technical support for livestock disease problems and the problems achieving target staff numbers at province level. • Identify problems and issues that either presently impact on FLSP implementation or are likely to do so in the future, and suggest cost-effective strategies to alleviate any negative impacts. • Make recommendations as appropriate to enhance the quality of FLSP implementation in a manner that does not Iead to significant project cost increases. Dr Scoullar concluded, in summary, that: • The innovations are appropriate. Agricultura} productivity is increasing. Planting forages close to homes, thereby also increasing substantially the productivity of labor, reduces environmental pressure on the uplands. • The program is farmer-Ied. • The project is institutionalizing a participatory, facilitative extension strategy consistent with a farmer-led program, whilst ensuring and increasing the technical competence of staff. • A sense ofLao ownership ofthe program is promoted at alllevels. • Food security is increasing. To continue this process and to accelerate adoption, the project needs to: • Increase outreach to rural women; • Expand the extension strategy concept to an enlarged cornmunity-based group approach with selected farmers having a training role; • Within this framework, increase the capacities of extension staff in on-farm analysis of options within smallholder farming systems; • Give priority to the issue of nutrient recycling; and • Irnplement the proposed strategy of disease minimization to meet farmers' needs for improved animal health. He also added, that "having CIA T implement the project is better than a company because they have access to a wide range of technology. A company has only a narrow range of technologies to call on. CIA T has accessed extra-budgetary funding and technical assistance that ha ve benefited the project's program." 102 5.5.3. Participatory monitoring and evaluation of the Nippon Foundation Project, Thailand and Vietnam In order to assess the progress made so far and to evaluate the impact of the project up to this point, a PM&E exercise was conducted in four principal pilot sites in Thailand. In each village, about 30-40 farmers participated in brainstorming, using cards, or in evaluating certain technologies, using seeds of Canava/ia to indicate their preferences. They also conducted a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis and a time-líne to show changes over time in the adoption ofnew technologies. Table 13 of Activity 1.3.5. shows results, while Table 34 summarizes the current adoption of various technology components in these four sites in Thailand, and Table 35 in all sites in Vietnam. Table 34. Extent of adoptiona of various cassava technology components in four pilot sites in Thailand, 2002, as a result ofthe Nippon Foundation Project. Technology component Baan Khlong Ruam Thaa Chiwit Mai Sapphongphoot Huay Suea Ten Sra Kaew Chachoengsao Nakhon Ratchasima Kalasin (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) Varieties 480 100 469 100 396 100 228 100 Chemical fertilizers 480 100 469 100 364 92 180 79 Vetiver grass hedgerows 139 29 94 20 218 55 89 39 Green rnanures 72 15 o o o o 114 50 Intercropping o o o o o o o o a. Estirnated by farmers in each site during participatory monitoring and evaluation in August 2002. Table 35. Adoption of new technologies and the estirnated increase in gross income of farmers in the farmer participatory research (FPR) pilot sites in Vietnam, 2002, as a result of the Nippon Foundation Project. Technology component No. ofhouseholds Are a Increase in income (ha) ( million dong) New varieties 2717 1244 3650.07 Intercropping 689 42 142.80 Erosion control 222 99 118.16 Balanced fertilization 157 26 57.42 Root and leaf silage for pig feeding 1027 147.54 Total 4812 . 1411 4115.99 (US$ 274,400) 5.6. Establish an efficient and participatory administrative system within the project 5.6.1. ldentify new opportunities of financing the project activities, prepare research proposals, and carry out follow up to these initiatives: Nicaraguan activities 1 D Forages 1-12 2002 • Requesting g_ermplasmfrom other institutions ... Cassava 6 2002 2003 • Requesting protocols from other institutions ... Cassava 3 2002 • Selecting materials ... Cassava 3 2002 2003 ·:· Maize: Se/ection ofsuperior materials OPV's 2-3 2002 }> Forages 1-12 2002 o Beans- Se/ection of small- seeded lines in drought and low fertility 4-12 2002 nurseries. 4-12 2003 4-12 2004 • Reproducing_germplasm ... Cassava 3-12 2002 •!• Maize: Request seeds from CIMMYT o[selected cultivars }> Forages l-12 2002 • Seed mu/tip/ication }> Forages 1-12 2002 o Beans - Red and black smal/-seeded lines 3-5 2002 9-12 2003 9-12 2004 o Beans- Drought- tolerant lines 6-8 2002 6-8 2003 ¡ ... 1 . .2 Preliminary' adivities to be· carrie(t out in Haiti "'~~~,~- .- - ~~ ~ .,.. • lnstitutional needs assessment ... Cassava l-6 2002 Continued. 159 CIAT - HAP Organization of Activities - Chronogram. (Continued) ACTIVITIES Months Year rif.:1 :~e;Jimitt~JiY:i'étiViües;fó,~>earm,w outi_ii(.'IQ}tf,.; ~: .• .... #:!' ·~~~- T':TI .. ;:¡p,~~~ .... • ·,..~:·~~~ .. oÍ!- • Farmers' needs assessment "" Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 o Hillsides: Participatory needs assessment ofiJ!oduction systems 3-4 2002 • Farmers' organizations and localleadership identifred "" Cassava 3-9 2002 o Jdentification of farmers' groups interested in participatory evaluation 5 2002 and se/ection of ~ermplasm • Identif~Sation of key fanners for field work "" Cassava 3-9 2002 •!• Maize: Contact farmers for trials testing -Haití Cycle A 2-3 2002 • ldentification oj.q¡ulti-purp_ose R&D sitesfor all activities "" Cassava 3-6 2002 o Hillsides: identification ofpotential SOL sites 7-8 2002 • Collectinl! local germplasm "" Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 };> Forages 2,3 2002 o Hillsides: Team induction on needs assessment 2-3 2002 • Organíúng CIAT Haítio.n team "" Cassava 3-10 2002 _¡;.z~1EStatiliS.bmeiírgeniíiiliísri\l.gln".!fa"fiW(P.IOilf'lfiáJs - .. . "' • Seed availability "" Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 •!• Maize: Seed increase of en tries not available from CIMMYT- Ca/i. 3-7 2002 };> Forages 3 2002 • Definition of experimental p_rotocols "" Cassava 3 2002 > Forages 2 2002 • Seed multiplication "" Cassava 1-12 2002 > Forages 1-12 2002 •!• Maize: Seed increase of entries included in trials. Ca/i. 8-12 2002 1 2003 •!• Maize: Seed increase of best en tries from validation p/ots in Haiti, Cycle 3-7 2003 A •!• Maize: Seed production of best en tries from validation plots Cyc/e 2002- 3 2003 B •!• Maize: Seed production ofbest entries from validation plots, Haiti, Cycle 2003-A ·:· Commercial seed production of se/ected en tries fro m validation plors 8 2003 from Cvcles A and 8 avai/able fo r promotion Continued. 160 CIA T - HAP Organization of Activities - Chronogram ( Continued) _ACTIVIT~ Mnnth., Year '11:!, rw :.o. • ... .. · ofplots ... Cassava 4 2002 2003 2004 }> Forages 2,3 2002 • ... ··- ' trials ... Cassava 4 2003 2004 ·:· Maize: Tria/ testíng of se/ected en tries available from CIMMYT seed. Haití- Cyc/e A 3-7 2002 •!• Maize: Trials analysis and ,¿ft ...... v,. of best en tries. ):¡ 2002 •!• Maize: trials testíng of entries not included in Haiti-Cycle A evaluated in 8-12 2002 Haití Cycle B - 1 2003 ·:· Trials analysis and selection of bes! en tries 8-12 2002 1 2003 }> Forages 3,4 2002 o Beans- Observatíon tria/ of red-mottled bush types, I si tes, N & S 3-8 2002 3-8 2003 3-8 2004 o Beans - Preliminary yield tria/, 1 síte, N & S, red mottled 9-12 2002 9-1 2 2003 9-12 2004 o Beans - On-fann validatíon tria/, red mottled 3-12 2003 3-12 2004 O Beans- Ob,.,, 11atíon tria{ of climbing beans, 1 si te, N & S 3-8 2002 O Beans · Preliminary yield tria/, 1 si te, c/imbers 9=12 2002 o Beans- On-fann va/idatíon tria/, c/imbers 3-12 2003 3-12 2004 o Beans- Observatíon tria/ of red & black fines, 1 si te, N & S 7-12 2002 7-12 2003 7-1 2 2004 o Beans- Preliminary yield tria/, 1 site, reds & blacks 3-12 2003 3-12 2004 Beans- Validations trial, reds, blacks, yellows, &/or 1-3, 3-12 2002 crearos - 5 in north 3-1 2 2003 3-12 2004 Beans- Validations trial, reds, blacks, yellows, &/or 3-5, 9-1 2 2002 crearos - 5 in south 3-1 2 2003 3-12 2004 o Beans- Observatíon of drought tolerant fines, 1 si te, 12 2002 1-3, 12 2003 1-3 2004 o Beans - Preliminary yield tria/, drought tolerant lines, 1 si te, N & S 4-12 2003 4-12 2004 o Beans- Validation tria/. drought tolerar' 4-12 2004 • rr u,., =•u¡;. ... Cassava 12 2002 l 2003 ~ Forages 6,12 2002 Continued. 161 CIAT- HAP Organization of Activities- Chronogram. (Continued) ACTIVITIES Months Year 2.1 Participatory establishment of on-farm (plot} germp_lasm tñafs •' ~· .~'"! :"::,:·· ·'<>t; 7~ • Seed availability "" Cassava 1-4 2004 );o Forages 3 2002 • De{inition oLt!]CIJerimental protoco/s "" Cassava 3 2004 );o Forages 2 2002 • Identijication offarmers to participate in tria/s "" Cassava 3-6 2004 );o Forages 2,3 2002 • Induction off_armers to participate in trials "" Cassava 4,7 2004 );o Forages 2,3 2002 o Hillsides: Estab/tiltment of germ_p/asm farmer-field tria/s 7-8 2002 o Hillsides: Establishment of systems trials on farmers 'fields 8 2003 • Preparation of plots "" Cassava 4 2004 );o Forages 2,3 2002 • Planting tria/s "" Cassava 4 2004 );o Forages 3,4 2002 o Hillsides: establishment o{ systems trials (SOL) 3-4 2002 • Harvesting ... Cassava 12-1 2004 );o Forages 6,12 2002 3.1 Evaluation and sele<:tion o( promisine eermplasm ~~í~'!o ~g ·- • Ot~-farm evaluatio11 ofmaterials );o Cassava 2-12 2003 2004 );o Forages 6,12 2002 ·:· Maize: Validation ofplots/strip plots ofvarieties identified in cyc/e A, in 8-12 2002 farmers 'fields 1 2003 • Promising materials selected "" Cassava 2 2003 2004 )> Forages 11 2002 ·:· Maize: Re1ease of superior varieties identified from validation plots 4 2003 conducted in Haiti-Cycle A ·:· Maize: Release of superior varieties identified from validation plots 8 2003 conducted in Haití Cycle B o Participatory eva/uation and selection of systems tria/s 7-8 2003 • Adjustme11t o{ protoco/s "" Cassava 3 2002 2003 2004 ~3.2 Participatory evaluation~and selectioo of promising germplasm ~- -:;,, .. . • Particlpatory on-farm evaluation ofmateria/s ... Cassava 2-12 2003 2004 Continued. 162 CIA T- HAP Organization of Activities - Chronogram. (Continued) • Cassava ... Cassava o ... a Beans- Trip by M Blair a Beans - Trip by S Beebe •!• Maize: Validation of plots/strip plots of varieties identified in Cycle B, in farmers' fields 163 3 3 6-11 5 10 5 8 10 5 1-2 3 3-7 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004 2003 2004 2003 Continued. CIAT- HAP Organization of Activities- Chronogram. (Continued) ACTI}'!'ill:S Months Year lftitl" n~~;;, -:"f«JJ Forages _6,_!_1 2002 • J!jotic and _!llJ]()tic .... """"" • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 • Root rol • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 o Beans- Bean /in es evaluated for root rot severity in modified cultivation 3-12 2003 systems 3-12 2004 • Druul!ltt >- Forages 6,11 2002_ o Beans- Bean fines evaluatedfor drought effects in modified cultivation 3-12 2003 systems 3-12 2004 • n; . • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 )> Forages 6,11 2002 • Weeds • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 • D . ""'""'""' .. • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 • Cassava 1-12 2002 2003 2004 1~5.:-~~{:j~;:f ~"~· l"':;a.... · ·-~""' ."': 1/r· :~ ; .. ~ • M· r.: •. r:. ofp• clones • Cassava 1-12 2003 2004 • rJ. .u:.,;ng seed ·•· " .. .. .,, .. ~.Y· "'""' '" p/ots • Cassava 2 2003 2004 )> r: . 4,8 2002 • VI U~,__, • ... 'seed ... ulfin!' -. .... v .. p/ots • Cassava 4 2003 2004 )> Forages 8 2002 • _!lanting ~- .1!.1. plots • Cassava 4 2003 2004 Continued. 16-+ CIAT- HAP Organization of Activities- Chronogram. (Continued) ACTIVITIES ~~~ • ~n · and release o{vr-·1~1n .. "" Cassava •:• Maize: R,.,,.,..,,. of varieties identified from validation plots wudu~;lcu in Haiti-Cycle A •:• Maize: Release of _. varieties identified from validation plots conducted in Haití B .llfi: li!iJ , ... • TI.Jb:i,_"lg lo carry out needs o Hillsides. Haitian team ,., on needs assessment • Tt .. .,:b.lifor the 'of un-{úwtlrials • • • • "" Cassava o Hillsides. Traif'ing techf'icians and far me'" {or systems trials work o Hillsides: Training technicians on participatory gennplasm evaluation and selection ~ rorages Traininxof ... for ' ·of, . L .l . ~y ... Cassava '[o rel'!!!!_resu/ts ... Cassava To .. .,., .. : .. :. pu1 in ~"~ tria/s ~ Fv.u5 ..., ForK"'' . .1 . .• :. and . •:• Maize: Training in artisanal seed production, variety maintenance, stora~e. etc. o Hillsides. Trainin~ on 5~, .T, , .... :nm:c;tw" aT!devaluatTo,. • To .u 1 system trials "' Cassava • To · and -• ~ trials "' Cassava • To ,.,.,u~t. CIALs "' Cassava o Tramm~ rnl n ..... 1 seed_producers {orsmal/ seed "'"'"'' '·"'".:; devewpmem o TJ'E~·n_ing seed P' vd¡.,_._,., in ,,...,. .. 5~ ¡._¡[ skills 165 Months 9-12 4 8 5 6 Year 2004 2005 2003 2003 2002 2003 2004 2003 2002 6Jl 2002 6 2002 2003 6 2002 2003 TI 2002 8-12 1 6 6,11 4 9 6 l-2 2002 2003 2002 2002 2003 2004 2003 2004 2003 2004 2003 2003 Continued. CIA T- HAP Organization of Activities- Chronogram. (Continued) ACTIVITIES Months Year 7.1 Establishment, management and monitoring of trials in diverse production ~tems. - Hillsides o Identifica/ion of sites for SJISiems trials 1-2 2003 o Administrative arrangements for tria/ si tes use 1-2 2003 o Participatory establishment of SJISiems tria/s (SOL) 3-4 2003 o Participatory evaluation of systems trials 7-8 2003 o Participatory selection of promising intercrops 1-2 2004 8. 1 Development of seed delívery systems - HiJisides o Jdentification of sites fr:>r the establishment of seed systems 4-5 2002 o Jdentification and selection offarmers interested in smal/ seed 4-5 2002 enterprises o Identification of farmers interested in multiplica/ion of vegetative 4-5 2002 materials o Participatory establishment of pilot (demonstration) enterprise for seed 6-12 2002 production o Establishment of a ve~etative seed multiplication site 6-12 2002 o Establishment of smal/ seed enterprises. 2-12 2003 o Pro vide technica/ support for seed J!!Ocessin~ infrastructure 2-8 2003 o Participatory monitoring and evaluation of smal/ seed enterprise 1-2 2004 performance o Seed commercialization and vegetative material distribution 3-12 2004 o Final impact evaluation of seed enterprise performance and vegetative 1-2 2005 material distribution 9.1 .. Progress and ,finar repo~~~,. "'"i@: · · ~· . llít"''fi~~., \ .. ..... ...~ ' ~li',... ~191:.~ ~ • Trimester progress reports as requested by DA/ ... Cassava Beans Maize, Forages, Hillsides 3, 6, 9, 12 2002-2004 166 Appendix II: Work in Asia led by Peter Kerridge Use of Participatory Approaches in Ensuring Sustainable Livelihoods for Poor Communities in the Steep Uplands of Central Vietnam Le Van An26, Hoang Thi Sen1, Nguyen Xuan Hong1, Hoang Huu Hoa1, Le Quang Bao1, Nguyen Thi Cach 1, Nguyen Thi My Van, 1 and Peter Kerridge27 Abstract The paper describes experiences in using participatory approaches to improve food security and facilitate involvement of the rural community in natural resource management (NRM)28 . The research was carried out in Hong Ha, A'Luoi district, Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam, from 1998-2000. The govemment was compelling farmers to abandon shifting cultivation and engage in permanent agriculture, however, they did not allocate sufficient land for producing food for subsistence needs. Characterization was carried out in 1998 through a formal survey of 60 households and a participatory diagnosis that showed the main problems were food insecurity, sickness, low education, and inability to generate cash income; many households only having rice for 4-6 months. Food insecurity was associated with low soil fertility, pests and diseases, restricted access to land, and Iack of agricultura! inputs. Women highlighted problems of food insecurity, sickness and poor family planning. Various interventions were introduced through interest groups in 1998. The most successful was increasing irrigated rice yields through improved varieties and fertilization, while improving pig and fish production increased cash income. The project facilitated allocation of land from a failed sugar scheme to the commune, who allocated it to the poorest households with the capacity to work the Iand. Rights of access to and use of non-agricultura! land was clarified through stakeholder meetings. Involving the community in planning and decision-making gave them the confidence to negotiate with the project and govemment officials. Women now have more involvement in public activities. Researchers gained a much better understanding of working with farmers through interdisciplinary teams. There are still challenges in reaching the poorest households, introducing co-management of forest resources, and extending the process more widely to other communes. l. Introduction Mountainous areas cover more than 70% ofthe area ofVietnam and provide livelihoods for one- third of the population. Many govemment programs have been carried out to improve the management of these mountainous resources and the livelihoods of the communities, but there have been problems during implementation, including issues of land rights, forest tree tenure, and altemative management systems. 26 Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue city, Thua Tbien-Hue, Vietnam 27 CIA T Regional Office for Asia, Vientiane, Lao PDR 28 Initiators ofthe work were Ignacio Sanz John Graham, Peter Kerridge, and Le Van An. 167 Hong Ha commune, the research area, is in an important watershed in Thua Thien Hue province, and is typical ofthe highland area in the Central region ofVietnam. Tbere is diversity in land use and culture, continuing poverty, and public concem about resource management. It is located in a mountainous area, west ofHue City. In 1998, the population was 1100 persons from five ethnic groups. The government was compelling farmers to abandon shifting cultivation and engage in permanent agriculture. In 197 5, farmers were allocated 150 ha, including 13 ha of wetland rice, for agriculture, but this was not enough to produce food for their subsistence needs. The other portions of the 14 11 O ha commune area were controlled by a Watershed Protection Board, Forestry Department, and S tate Forestry Enterprise. Although the main idea of carrying out the research was to facilitate community involvement in NRM29, it quickly became apparent that the main concem of the community was food security. Hence, early interventions were focused on improving food production and increasing household incorne. This paper describes the experience of the Upland Tearn30 in characterizing the household and land resources and implementing interventions during the first phase, 1998-2000. 2. Methods Participatory methods were used to define and analyze the problems facing the Hong Ha community, in evaluation and dissemination of various interventions, and in assessment of the progress. These were complemented by more formal methods of survey and assessment. 2.1 Definition and analysis of problems lnitially, contact was made through representative meetings called b y the commune leadership that gave strong support to the project. Then the Upland Team worked directly with individual households and groups of households. While the leadership cooperated in ensuring that households from the .five villages and different wealth groups3 were represented at communal meetings, they influenced the initial selection of farmers who participated in the evaluations of new interventions. Households were characterized in 1998 through structured interviews of 60 representative households. This provided information about the livelihood systems and served as a baseline for measuring changes with time, a follow-up survey being conducted in 2000. This was complemented by participatory diagnoses with men and women from the five villages and different wealth groups, using mapping, seasonal calendars, matrix scoring, and weighting tools. The role of gender in the household was studied using structured interviews of representative households and separate group discussions with men and women. A study was made of indigenous knowledge, in particular, as it related to shifting cultivation and use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Changes in forest management were assessed with information 29 The lnternational Development Research Centre (IDRC) Community-Based Natural Resource :vfanagement Program supported the project. 30 A research team was formed from staff of the Departments of Agronomy, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Social Sciences, and Economics in the University of Agriculture and Forestry and University of Hue. 31 The village and commune leaders place households into categories of Better-off, Average, Poor, and Very Poor. These categories are related to the amount of land cultivared. and number of anirnals owned. The very poor are usually families with.a household maJe head being absent or incapacitated, thus lacking labor for cultivation. 168 obtained from group discussions, household vlSlts, field observations, and secondary data collection. This allowed classification of forests using local criteria, and identification of present and altemative methods for forest management. The information was compiled and the technical assessment presented at a commune meeting for checking accuracy and obtaining supplementary information. 2.2 Evaluation of interventions The community was most interested in interventions that would improve food security and generate cash income. Interest groups of five to eight farmers were formed around a range of technical interventions, rice improvement, pig production (women's group), ponded fish production, home gardens (which included fruit trees, pineapple, pepper, and vegetables), cassava, maize, food legumes, and improved forages for cattle. Also, an interest group was formed on forest management, and a. water line installed to one of the villages. Interest groups received training in management practices, and were provided with materials such as seed, fertilizer, fingerlings, and piglets to carry out production trials. Visits were made during the · season to discuss progress and collect data. Field days were organized during and at the end of the season to demonstrate results to a wider group of farmers. The commune leadership suggested the initial members of the interest groups whose interest was confirmed in meetings and individual visits. Other households subsequently joined the interest groups on a voluntary basis. There were limits to numbers in sorne cases ( e.g., pig raising because of limited availability of new piglets, or fish production because of limited water supply for, and resources to, build fishponds). However, in other cases, there was a large increase in numbers of farmers evaluating new interventions ( e.g., by the end of the second growing season, 75 households were evaluating new rice varieties). 2.3 Assessment of results Progress was monitored on a regular basis at meetings of the interest groups. At the end of the first year, representatives from different wealth groups, both participants and non-participants, prioritized different interventions initiated in the first year. At the end of the project, an assessment was made of the extent to which the project had met its objectives. Two days were spent in the field carrying out individual and group interviews of households, followed by an assessment by the Upland Team members ofthe information obtained during these field visits32. 3. Results 3.1 Characterization of natural resources Hong Ha commune is mountainous, comprising 14 11033 ha with only 300 ha having a slope <15%. The rainy season extends from September to January with an average rainfall of 2690 mm. Maximum temperatures of 38-40 °C can occur during May to July, while mínimum temperatures can fall to 12 °C during December to February. Table Al shows land types. 32 This exercise was facilitated by Dr Sam Fujisaka, CIA T agricultura! anthropologist. 33 Though the Land Office of A ' Luoi District lists 18,950 ha in Hong Ha commune. 169 Table Al. Different land types in Hong Ha commune Land type Natural forests with full canopies Natural forest regenerating Planted forests Bush covered land "reserved" by community for shifting cultivation Imperata grassland Agriculturalland -home gardens, lowland rice, other crop land a. NTFP, non-timber forest products. Approx. area (ha) 7850 4560 710 1000 4830 150 (1998) 275 (2000) Land use rights• State, Cornrnunity for extracting NrFPs State, Cornrnunity for extracting NrFPs S tate State, Cornrnunity Uncertain, rights given as land developed Permanent land use right for Community The use of the natural forests in a traditional manner by Hong Ha villagers (Table A2) shows the diversity of non-timber products that can be gathered without causing damage to the forest. However, all sta.keholders lacked information and knowledge on forest management and use rights (Table A3). TableA2. Role ofnon-timber forestry products in the livelihood ofthe Hong Ha Cornrnunity. Kind of forestry product Frequency ofuse Usage Timber Rarely Building houses Firewood Frequently Daily cooking (everyday) Can e Rarely House devices Palm leaves Rarely (yearly) Covering roofs Bamboo Rarely (yearly) Home food sprouts Wild taro Sometimes ( every Pig food three months) Medicinal Rarely Medica! treatment plants Honey Rarely Food, medica! treatment, for sale Wild animals Usually ( every F ood, for sale month) The state allocates the "right of use" of land to organizations, households, and individuals who are called land users. Initially, all lands with forest cover were assigned to State Management Forestry Offices and Water Protection Boards. Land was often assigned on the basis of surface area and slope, without taking into account the state of the vegetation. Thus, in sorne cases, land used by communities for cropping was assigned as forestland. This applies to many areas used for shifting cultivation. On the other hand, large areas of so-called ''waste land", often covered by Imperata grassland, were not assigned. Although the households knew they could appropriate this land for cultivation, the "land right of use" tenure remained uncertain in relation to crops grown, and so they questioned doing so because of the large amount of labor required. On the other hand, State Forestry Agencies expressed their "use of right" role by using them for reforestation. Through planting forest trees, these agencies have gradually re-established their management right over /mperata grassland. However, because the area planted annually is quite 170 small, in reality, many areas of Imperata grassland are still not under State management and could be available to the Cornrnunity or for Co-management activities. TableA3. Linúts in the knowledge of stakeholders in forest management in Hong Ha. The rnain stake-holders The Song Bo W atershed Management Forestry Department A'Luoi Forestry State Enterprise Hong Ha villagers Limitin_g information!knowledge The principies of managing upper watershed forests. Social-economic information of the local communities. Information and knowledge on restoring forests using indigenous trees. Information and knowledge of how agriculture and forestry can cooperate. Knowledge of establishing and maintaining forests. Unclear about the administrative borders and the distribution of protected natural resources. Unclear about land use classification used by the authorities Lack of knowledge of forest management practices of the Government. In contrast to land tenure, forest tree tenure in Hong Ha is diversified with more possibilities for cornrnunity ownership. Tree tenure is governed by factors as such as species, tree size, parts of product extracted, and type of land use tenure. District, cornrnune, and village administration allow households to use forest trees to ensure their mínimum needs for tirnber and other forest products are met. Households have ownership of trees planted on land with permanent land-use rights for cultivation. Thus, although Cinamomum species were planted with funds provided by Program 327, ownership resides with the households. Fanners make the decisions on location, planting, density, and harvesting. Planting timber species on land used for cropping can contribute to the security of the land-use rights. Thus, planting trees on land used for shifting cultivation ensures land-use rights are protected temporarily under the cornrnune laws ensuring food security for households, even though "shifting cultivation" is actively discouraged by government policy. However, during the period of rapid expansion of the Government reforestation prograrns, the slash-and-burn areas were at risk during the fallow period, that is, without the presence of a crop or planted trees, and were resumed. Most of the reforestation in Pahy, Can Sam, and Pa Ring villages was carried out on the shifting cultivation fallows. With respect to planted forests, the right to land use and management by households is only assured where there is complete coverage by forest trees. Following harvest, as in the case of the 8 ha in Con Tom village, land use rights reverted to the Cornrnune People's Committee, which then assigned the land to others. However, according to the Cornmune leaders, those households that had planted trees were given back their land use and cultivation rights wherever this was possible. This security with respect to land-use rights was also demonstrated when the Bo River Watershed Management Board expanded areas under their management by reforestation of areas of Imperata grasslands. Legally, the Board only has the right to manage the forest and vegetation cover without actually becoming the "land users". However, when the Imperata grasslands and 171 shifting cultivation areas under fallow were replanted with perennial trees with State funding, in order to develop and maintain protected forests, the role of management agencies was enhanced. This improved knowledge of land and tree tenure will allow the community to negotiate with other stakeholders to acquire more assets than would be available from agriculturalland alone. 3.2 Characterization of Households Social structure: In 1998, the population of 1100 in 185 families was from four minority groups (Ka Tu -69%, Pa Coh- 20%, Ta Oi -7%, Pa Hy- 3%) anda few households ofKinh and Van Kieu -1%. Many households contained 8 to 1 O persons. It was estimated that there were only 300 able laborers, 200 being old or incapacitated, and the remainder children. The Chairman and Secretary of the People's Cornmittee together with the village heads are responsible for administrative affairs, but the traditional system of "village elders" is still respected. The traditional system uses informal ru~s, customs, religion, and beliefs as a basis of self- management. The government system of officials at village and commune levels is linked to higher anns of government, administers government policy, and prometes political organizations such as Farmer Women and Youth associations, who can play a key role in village life. Men have authority over women. The community recognizes four wealth levels (Table A4). The moderate and better-off wealth groups ha ve larger fann areas, (including irrigated rice and home gardens) and livestock/household than the poorer groups. Rice yields are similar between groups. Table A4. Different wealth groups (%)in Hong Ha commune. Wealth 1998 2002 Annual income Criteria groi!QS (VND/personl" Better-off 19 29 >900,000 Have invested in capital for production, laborers, off-farm income, adequate food, savings Eat rice with cassava for 6 months, rest cassava Modera te 37 45 600-850,000 Have enough cash for daily expenditure and stable life, but lack capital for investment and ha ve sorne shortage of food Eat rice with cassava for 4 months, rest cassava Poor 34 20 300-600,000 Lack capital for investment, insufficient cash for daily expenditure, a small area for crops with no clear production plan, and lack food for 4-6 months Eat rice with cassava 2-4 months, rest cassava/ banana Very poor 10 5 <300,000 Lack labor, not willing to borrow capital, no production plans, many young children and lack adequate food for 7-9 months. Eat rice for 2 months, rest cassava and banana when available a. IUS$=15,000 VND Production activities. Villagers previously practiced slash-and-bum agriculture and extracted forest products. The govemment is encouraging sedentary agriculture based on upland crops, paddy rice, and livestock. The main production/income sources (in descending order) are cassava, rice, social/ off-fann income, bananas, NTFPs, livestock; with home gardens, and maize being important in sorne families. 172 Diagnosis of problems: A participatory diagnosis of the very poor and better-off people from the five villages disclosed that their main problems were lack of capital, sickness, lack of food, low education, and lack of labor. Lack of food was associated with low crop yields caused by low soil fertility and incidence of pests and diseases, restricted access to land previously available for slúfting agriculture, damage from wild animals, lack of labor, and lack of agricultura} inputs. The community also indicated that sorne of their problems were associated with lack of technical knowledge and poor communication. Women lúghlighted the problems of food insecurity, sickness, and poor family planning. The highest incidence of food scarcity, labor demand, and health problems occurs during preparation of land for cropping. 3.3 Gender analysis Women contribute more time than men in all activities of agricultura! production, but with activity equal in forest management. Poultry and pig raising are women's responsibility, wlúle oottle fall under m en' s domain. Mal e farmers participated more than the female farmers in hunting and collecting rattan, while the women spent more time than men in gathering herbs and fuel wood. Men and women participated equally in off-farm occupations. While women contribute to decisions on crop and livestock production, men make most other decisions. Men have a higher educational level than women; land certificates were mostly in men's names; men participated much more than women in social activities, and had greater access to credit, information, and training. Thus, there is gender discrimination in accessing to resources and benefits. Women' s first concern was improving food crop production, while that of m en was generating cash. 3.4 lndigenous knowledge Indigenous knowledge is very important in determining farming achvttles in slash-and-burn agriculture, even as to the days to plant certain crops. The moon is the symbol of plant and animal development, with different pairs of good and bad days. Hence, taking account of the phases of the moon helps to assure good harvests. Note is taken of changing patterns of weather, activities of wild life (e.g., where bees build their hives, worm activity, the color of frogs, and sounds of birds). Soil selection and land classification is based on the observation of the color, characteristics of the soil, and the vegetation. Imperata is a sign of degraded soil. Soils are classified according to texture, color and stoniness, and the terrain. Natural regeneration of soil fertility takes 7-10 years under forest. Crops and varieties are then selected according to their adaptation to different soils and terrain. Farmers follow a system of cropping that is optimum where no inputs are used and few products are sold to the market. Further, these ethnic communities follow practices that minimize soil erosion and enhance soil fertility, such as rotating crops, intercropping, mulching with crop residues and wild plants, minimal cultivation (with digging stick). They understand the need to leave trees in the steepest parts of the landscape, and occasionally will build stone and bush barriers along the contour to collect water. Care is taken so as not to burn forest or other people's lands by choosing the day and time of day for burning, with it often done collectively. The "owner" of the land sows the first rice seeds. During harvesting, farmers select the seed and varieties for next coming season, and dry and store it above the cooking area. 173 4. Interventions Opportunities. As noted above, the most serious problem faced by the community was food insecurity. In discussions with the community, priority was given to interventions that would increase crop and livestock production and generate cash income: • Rice varieties for yield (suggestion coming mainly from community [C] or project [P]) and disease resistance (C, P) • lmproved rice management (P) • New cassava varieties and management practices (P) • Introducing new varieties of maize and food legume crops (C, P) • Green manure crops to bring Impera/a grasslands into production (P) • lmproving home gardens by introducing more fruit, vegetables, and pepper (C, P) • lmproved pig breeds and management practices (C, P) • Jncreasing fish production in ponds (C, P) • lmproved grasses and legumes for supplementing livestock (P) In addition, • A community group on forest management was formed (P) • Water was brought by pipe to15 households in one village to overcome health problems (C, P). Irrigated rice trials. Five farmers in the interest group compared the yield of four new varieties with the so-called IR38 in 1998. The new varieties TH30 and D116 gave higher yields (up to 4.1 tlha) than the control variety, IR38, even in the absence of fertilizer (Figure Al). They are suitable for low fertility soils, but also respond strongly to fertilizer application, more so than KSB140 and VN D95-19. Figure Al. fB With fertilizer • No fertilizer 45 r----------------------------------. 40 r-------------~ 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 o KSB140 VN:>95-19 TH30 0116 IR38 Comparison of variety and fertilizer on yield. 174 A commune field da y was held to demonstrate the results, and subsequently 100 fanners were given 5 kg of TH30 for evaluation. Results were obtained from 75 farmers. TH30 produced higher yields than the local variety, IR38, in all villages. Ninety-five percent of households decided to use the new varieties. Five households evaluated the use of fertilizer with the new variety, TH30 (fertilizer application was 200 kg livestock manure plus 8 kg urea, in two applications, for 500m2). Fertilizer increased rice yield from an average of3.17 to 4.21 tons per ha. By 2000, all fanners were using one or other of the new rice varieties, together with fertilizer application. Upland rice: Five households tested KLN39-1 and CH5 with the traditional variety. Yields were 25.5, 17.5, and 18.5 quintals per ha, respectively. As the growing period ofthese new varieties is only 95 days, they can be harvested before the "flooding" time. Also, an earlier crop would allow for planting a second crop ora forage crop after the rice harvest. Cassava: Little interest was shown in cassava in 1998, because farmers were Iooking for an alternative to cassava as the main food crop. However, sorne farmers agreed to evaluate new cassava varieties in 1999. More interest was taken in 2000, when they realized the value of cassava for fattening pigs. With fertilization, yields (t!ha) were: traditional variety, 17.2; Xanh Phu Tho (an alternative eating variety), 24.1; and KM98-l (animal feed/starch), 34.3 t/ha. Fanners also evaluated rates of fertilizer, intercropping cassava with brown or black beans, and various crops and grasses for contour hedgerows. They have adopted a moderate rate of a fertilizer application (30:30:90 : NPK) that increases yield by 70%, and intercropping with beans. They are now ensiling cassava leaf meal for feeding to pigs. Other crops: Improved maize varieties yielded 3.0-3.5 t per ha, with a glutinous variety yielding 2.8 t per ha. Black mung bean was widely adopted as an intercrop with maize and cassava. NRM il1terventions: The one interest group formed around forest management was notan active group. Fanners showed little interest in using legumes to improve lmperata grassland, probably because there was no convincing demonstration of improved productivity. It is understandable that the cornmunity did not want to be in involved in the general issue of resource management when they were more concerned about producing sufficient food. Government programs of reforestation of shifting cultivation and Imperata grasslands to protect the watershed were looked on as sources for off-fann income rather than as conservation activities. However, during the 3 years, the community became more aware of their rights to land and tree use. They were able to negotiate with district officials for the recovery of 8 ha of forested flat land and allocation of land that had been set aside for sugar production. They are now aware that they may engage in rehabilitation programs on Imperata grassland, but lack the capital resources needed for investment. Also, the Forestry Service and Water Protection Board are now acting less as policemen, and more open to sorne community ownership or management of forestland. 175 5. Outcomes and lmpacts Socioeconomic changes. Results from the follow-up survey of the 60 representative households give sorne measure of overall changes. Land available for wetland rice production and fishponds among the poor substantially increased (Table A5). However, the apparent large increase in land in upland rice production is probably an artifact that can be attributed to the farmers revealing the real areas planted to shifting cultivation after they developed confidence in project members and became aware of their land use rights. Correspondingly, there was a large percentage increase in net income of the poor from rice, food crops, and home gardens (Table A6), and movement of households from lower to higher wealth groups. Increases in income occurred from outputs in the agriculture sector, with a large decrease from the forestry sector. This is a bit disconcerting because the forestry sector offers the best opportunities for income generation in the long-term. Table A5. Changes in land use (m2) for different enterprises among the ~ealth groups. W ealth groups W etland rice U~land rice Cro~s ,, Físh~onds 1998 2000 Change 1998 2000 Change 1998 2000 Change 1998 2000 Change l. Better-off 750 910 21 200 870 3 18 980 1430 46 130 260 92 2. Average 710 860 21 440 1260 184 7 10 2230 214 190 300 56 3. Poor 330 760 128 440 1020 135 420 1530 268 80 230 183 4. Very poor 180 150 -17 100 500 400 130 650 408 120 o - Table A6. Changes in net income ('OOOVND). W ealth group Rice Food crops Home gardens No. households in wealth groups Better-off 1998 960 1530 460 35 2000 1280 2020 550 55 Change 33% 32% 20% Modera te 1998 690 1090 260 68 2000 1170 1850 370 84 Change 71% 70% 46% Poor 1998 370 370 90 62 2000 840 1520 200 38 Change 126% 140% 113% Verypoor 1998 210 390 60 18 2000 215 400 50 10 Change 2% 3% -15% Other specific outcomes were: Food security: Shortage offood was reduced from 3.5 to 1.4 months per year34 . Crop production: Farmers have adopted new irrigated rice varieties, maize and bean varieties, and incorporated vegetables in the home garden for consumption. Maize is an alternative crop for food, and is grown as a reserve crop between the two seasons for irrigated rice. Beans are 3~ Based on the need for 15 kglrice equivalent/person/month for the uplands. 176 grown as intercrops. High-yielding cassava varieties are being grown for livestock feeding. Crop management has improved, with farmers using fertilizer and manure for rice and other crops in permanent cropping areas. Gender: The project met practica! needs of both men and women. Installing a water pipe in Arom village reduced the water supplying activities of women and children from 2.5 to 1 hours per day, in addition to the water being used for borne gardens and fishponds. This result prompted the government to install similar systems in the other villages. New methods of planting rice reduced labor input by women, while pig raising increased their labor input, but with the compensation that they now had a new income source to spend. Men benefited most from raising fish. There is still a gender gap in accessing technical training and obtaining benefits from all project activities. Natural resource management: It was learnt that commune institutions can play an important role in effectively managing and ensuring equal benefits of the natural resources to the local community. However, it will be necessary to merge community involvement with State administration requirements to create a more synergistic management system. It is imperative to integrate issues of land use rights issues in projects that are involved in rural development and resource management. Tree ownership rights, on any scale, can help secure land use rights. Likewise, it is important to integrate gender issues in planning and implementing projects on NRM research and development. Facilitation: The project acted as a bridge or facilitator for the different organizations with an interest in NRM, such as the Departments of settlement, agriculture, forestry, culture, health and community development organizations, helping them solve problems together. The advantage of third-party facilitation between stakeholders deserves to be more widely recognized by govemment organizations. 6. Lessons learned There were many lessons learned in applying participatory approaches to reducing poverty and improving resource management. Sorne of these were: • There is a need to exercise care in selecting farmers for evaluation if results are to be shared equitably. Households from different wealth groups need to be included in interest groups, whose membership should be kept open to all households, splitting into new groups if membership beco mes too large. • Men and women have different perceptions ofproblems and different needs. Women have less opportunity to attend training sessions than men because of their role in looking after the house and children, and this needs to be taken into account in designing training for them. Establishing interest groups aimed at helping them increase cash income and improve their self-confidence can improve the position ofwomen. • Farmer-to-farmer visitation, within and between communes, is an efficient way of spreading ideas. • Information from different wealth groups and men and women can be obtained, analyzed, and confirmed more rapidly using panicipatory diagnosis than formal surveys, although the 177 Iatter are more objective in assessing impact. However, surveys should be short with interviewers using a conversational approach. • Focus groups are efficient for monitoring progress and discerning needs. • There is a need to be aware of and respect fanners' schedules when interacting with them, because their time is as valuable to them as is that ofthe researchers. • In most areas, participatory methods can be complemented by non-participatory methods, for exarnple, in resource mapping and interpretation. • Stakeholder analysis needs to be carried out prior to collective action. As users of a resource have different interests and resources, their form of participation is likely to be different. Sometimes, differences are difficult to reconcile. Thus, it is necessary to identify the roles, resources, and interests of each user before planning and promoting cooperative activities. Initial priority is best given in those areas where there is a conunon interest. • State authorities learned that there could be hannonious cooperation between the State and the Community in managing the forest and land resources based around government decrees, provided that local rights were taken into account. In conclusion, it is difficult to attribute the proportion of change caused by the activities of the project itself as there were a lot of concurrent government investment in improving roads, supplying electricity and improving communications during the 3 years. Nevertheless, the project was recognized as a bridge between the many organizations operating in the area and the community. 178 Appendixill ANNUAL REPORT PROJECT PE- 3 COMMUNITIES AND WATERSHEDS- AFRICA Tilahun Amede (10. 2002) l. Modeling Cropping Systems to lmprove Human Nutrition in Ethiopian Mountainous Highlands Rationale The food situation in sub-Saharan Africa is continuing to deteriorate as a result of environmental calamities (drought, occasional flooding etc .. ), decline in soil fertility, increasing pests and diseases, land scarcity and poor market access, coupled with discouraging policy environments, which caused a recurring food shortage. Food shortage is predominantly taken as a function of quantity. Governmental & non-governmental institutions, donors and aid organizations have rarely treated food shortage as a function ofnon-balanced nutrition (quality). This research was designed to reveal whether the current farming system ofthe uppermost Ethiopian highlands (Ginchi) furnish balanced human nutrition, both in terms of quality and quantity. The Ginchi highlands enjoy a mixed farming system with barley as the most dominant crop. Although livestock is an integral part ofthe system, animal products are rarely consumed at the household level as they are used as scarce source of cash. Analyzing households' production of nutrients could be valuable in guiding intensification ofthose systems in which markets are less important than securing subsistence. The model could offer a better household nutrition by readjusting crop combinations, increasing the land area allocated to crops rich in requisite nutrients by decreasing the land area of another component, or suggesting dietary supplements that could be accessible within or around the vicinity. Methods Ginchi is one of the benchmark si tes of AHI, where integrated ecoregional research in INRM is conducted in collaboration with national partners and IARCs. It is 80 kms west of Addis Ababa, representing Ethiopian mountainous highlands (3000 m asl), with an average farm size of 3.0 ha, and an average family size of 6. The watershed is dominated by barley-fallow-barely, and crop diversity is restricted by low mean temperature. For the analysis, farm size lhousehold, household family composition by age and sex, crop land allocation, household food allocation/ distribution, crop yield on farm was collected. Secondary data was also collected on average crop yield in the district, nutritional composition of each produce before and after processing, and other relevant data was assembled. An optimization model was employed to analyze the scenario of nutrition and cropland allocation. 179 Results In the Ginchi farming system, farmers leave about 45% oftheir land fallow for two major reasons. Firstly, the soil fertility status of the soil in that location is so low that it couldn't support a continua! cropping, and hence fallowing at least for one year is a precondition to grow crops. Secondly, the system is a mixed farming system whereby the livestock is equally important likes that ofthe crop sector. As there is limited pasture land to keep the animals during the cropping season farmers are obliged to lea ve part of their land fallow for grazing. The largest proportion of land is allocated for barley followed by wheat and potato. The amount of land allocated for legumes and vegetables is relatively small. As presented {Table 1), the system furnishes a considerable amount of energy, protein, zinc and iron per consumption unit, much higher than the recommended rate. The energy supply is by about 27% higher than the recornmended rate. The system also offers about 20x more zinc that it is required. However, the production system was also in asevere nutrient deficit in tenns calcium and vitamines. Vitamine A is one ofthe most deficit nutrients in the system. Table l. Human nutrition in Ginchi systems: Comparison of nutrients that the current system furnishes per consumption unit to the amount of nutrients recommended for a balanced nutrition. So urce Recommended Current D ifferences Allowance Allowance (Cu/day) (Cu/day) Energy 2000 2550 549.24 Pro te in 37.53 48.127 10.597 Vit A 10 2.336 -7.664 Zinc 15 320.07 305.07 Iron 7.61 33.614 26 .004 Calcium 528 211.24 -316.76 Niacin 15 .2 19.656 4.456 Thiamine 0.92 1.423 0.603 Ascorbic ac: 25 .42 0.024 -25.396 Co llaborators Holeta Research Centre, Ann Stroud, B. Mackyntre(WB), Dorit Kaluski (Ministry ofhealth, Israel) 2. Pathways for Integration of Legume Cover Crops: After Effects, Tradeoffs and Decision guides Rationale The current farming system ofEast African highlands is predominantly exploitive, overmining nutrients from certain corners of the farm mainly through continuos cropping and nutrient movement. Replenishment of nutrients through application of mineral fertilisers became 180 '• unaffordable for small-scale farmers. One strategy could be systematic integration ofN-fixing legume cover crops into the farming system. Organic inputs from legumes could increase crop yield through improved nutrient supply/availability and/or improved soil-water holding capacity. Moreover, legumes offer other benefits such as providing cover to reduce soil erosion, maintenance & improvement of soil physical properties, increasing soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, microbial activity, reduction of soil temperature and weed suppression. There are severa! studies in Africa that showed positive effects ofLegume Cover Crops (LCCs) on subsequent crops. However, the success rate of LCCs in improving crop yield varied across locations/agro-ecologies/soil types is not well established. Despite the positive effects oflegumes on the productivity ofthe following crop achieving effective adoption ofLCCs and forage legumes in sub-Saharan Africa has been also low. Farmers prefer food legumes to legume cover crops in that the opportunity cost is so high to allocate part of the resources to LCC. Therefore, there is a need to test the adaptability and after effect of legumes and develop an effective guideline that targets different legume types to different niches of different agro-ecologies and socio-economic conditions. Methods The research was conducted in southem Ethiopian highlands (2000 masl, 1300 mm rainfall, bimodal, on a slightly acidic nitisol area). As presented in the CIAT- Annual report, 2001, the area is known for very high population pressure, smallland holdings ( < 0.3 ha of farm land for a family of 7) and very intensive cropping. The outfield is the most depleted. LCCs were introduced to the system through a farmers field school approach, and then the seeds of legumes of choice were distributed to the interested farmers. An on-farm evaluation ofthe effects of LCCs was also conducted in 2001 and 2002 growing seasons. Five legumes namely vetch, canavalia, tephrosia, crotalaria and mucuna were planted in three replicated plots, with a plot size of 12m2. vetch and crotalaria were broadcasted while the others were planted in rows direct following recommended spacing and seed rates. The crops received phosphorus at a rate of 30 kglha P20s at planting. After four months ofvegetative growth, the green biomass ofthe legumes was weighed and incorporated directly to the soil. Maize (var A511) was planted about one month after incorporation on all plots. Three additional nitrogen treatments were included namely, O N, 30 N and 60 N per hectare to draw a nitrogen equivalent curve. In another participatory experiments, after farmers monitored the introduced legumes in 1999/2000, 26 farmers from four villages selected species of their choice LCC and tested them in their farms together with a food legume, Pea. During the growing seasons of2000 and 2001, we monitored which farmer selected what, how did they manage the LCCs in comparison to the food legume and for what purpose the legumes were used. Biomass production ofthe various legumes under farmers ' management was also recorded. Besides structured questimmaire and formal survey, an informal repeated on-field discussion using transect walks were used to identify the socio-economic factors that dictated farmers to choose one or the other option and to prioritise the most important criteria of decision making using pair wise analysis matrix. More over, farmers invited non-participating neighbouring farmers for discussion; hence the decision made is expected to represent the community. Based on these series ofresearch work a draft decision guide was developed. 181 Results Productivity of LCCs The research was conducted in a midfield, where variability in slope and soil fertility arnong plots was not apparent. There was enough rainfall for establishment and vegetative growth for most of the growing period. In the three months growing period, the herbaceous legumes varied in bíomass productivity significantly. Crotalaria and vetch were fast growing and also early maturing than the others. On the other hand, tephrosia was growing relatively slow at the initial stage of growth, which is reflected in the biomass accumulation. Accordingly, the biomass yield of crotalaria was significantly higher than the other legumes, while the biomass of tephrosia was much lower than all the others (Fig.l ). A similar experimental result was also obtained in the previous seasons on farm trials. Figure l. - 5 - ~ .r:. ~ 4 - U) o o 3 ...J - .... o U) 2 U) - r ~ E 1 o m 4 .~ - - 1 m - ni 3 .5 J: ;:J - 3.0 "'C Q) 2 .5 ·;:. e 2 .0 ni ... 1.5 C) Q) 1.0 .!::! ni ~ 0.5 0.0 - r ~ - >< ~~ >< >< J ~ - )< ><>< ~ )< - ~ >< ~ )< ~ ~ - :X >< ~ ~ ~ - ~ :X ~ :X >< :X ~ :X - >< >< :X >< ~ >< :X X~ Biomass yield of legume cover crops and their corresponding effect on the following maize crop in southem Ethiopia. 182 After effect of LCCs on maize yield Fig. 1 shows the after-effect of various LCCs in comparison to different of nitro gen fertilizers. The result showed that maize grown after legurnes produced significantly higher grain yield than the check (maize grown with out nitro gen fertiliser) and gave a maize yield at least equivalent to 30 kg ofN/ha regardless ofthe legume species. The yield obtained from the plots ofvetch, canavalia and mucuna was almost similar, while the yield obtained from crotalaria and tephrosia plots was significantly lower than that ofthe other species. Although the biomass of crotalaria incorporated to the soil was much higher than the others, the effect was not evident on maize yield. This could be explained by the fact that crotalaria had very high lígnin content than the others at the time ofharvesting and incorporation, which possibly affected the processes of decomposition and nutrient release. By considering the type of produce the farmers grow in the neighbouring field of equal size, which was sweet potato, and calculating the costs and benefits ofthe LCCs and neighbouring field, we found out that the opportunity cost of growing LCCs was much higher than anticipated. The maize yield gain obtained after growing LCCs in a short season should be more than two folds for the farmer to consider growing LCCs as potentially profitable interventions. Tbe Decision Guide The decision tree was developed based on the following background information from the site augmented by a quantitative data on the agronomic performance and soils characteristics. l. Farmers preferred food legurnes over non-food legumes regardless of soil fertility status of their farm. 2. The above ground biomass of grain legumes (graín & stover) is exported to the homestead for feed and food while the below ground biomass of grain legumes is small to effect soil fertility. 3. The probability ofthe manure to be returned to the same plot is less as farmers prefer to apply manure to the perennial crops (Enset & Coffee) growing in the borne stead. 4. The tested legurnes may fix nitrogen to fulfil their partial demand (we have observed nodules in all although we did not quantify N-fixation), but in conditions where the biomass is exported, like vetch for feed, most ofthe nutrient stock would be exported. Therefore, we did not expect significant effect on soil fertility. 5. LCCs produced much higher biomass when planted as relay crops in the middle ofthe growing season than when planted at the end ofthe growing season as short-term fallows due to possible effects of end-of season drought. 6. The homestead field is much more fertile than the outfield; hence those legumes sensitive to water and nutrients will do better in the homestead than in the outfield. The guide is developed based on the data obtained from farmers and communities and after a pair wise matrix analysis was done to prioritise the decision criteria, and also by taking into account the market effects. The most important criteria at the lowest level is the presence or absence oflivestock in the household followed by who manages the farm, market access, the size of the land holding and the land quality. The factor that dictates the decision at the highest leve! 183 was land productivity, which was governed mainly by soil fertility status. Growing food legumes was the priority of every farmer regardless of wealth (land size, land quality & number of livestock). Farmers with livestock integrated feed crops regardless of land size, land productivity and market access to products. However, the size and quality of land allocated for growing feed legumes depended on market access to livestock products (milk, butter and meat). Those farmers with good market access are expected to invest part of their income on externa} inputs, i.e. inorganic fertilisers. Hence farmers ofthis category did not allocate much land for growing LCCs, but applied inorganic fertilisers. In the homestead field, there was no land allocated for LCCs in the system, not only because farmers gave priority to food legumes, but it also became very expensive for farmers to allocate the fertile plot ofthe farm for growing LCCs. The most clear spatial niche for growing LCCs is the most out field, especially in poor farmers' field with exhausted land and limited market- driven farm products. Because the land ofmost poor house holds was on the verge ofbeing out of production due to the iniquitous nature of land management practices through years long share cropping arrangements. Co llaborators R. Delve, R.Kirkby, Areka Research Centre, Ethiopia 3. Towards Addressing Land Degradation in Ethiopian Highlands: Opportunities and Challenges Rationale Land resource degradation is one of the major threats to food security and natural resource base in Ethiopia. Hundreds of years of exploitve traditionalland use, aggravated by high human and livestock population density have led to the extraction ofthe natural capital, which caused the farming of uncultivable sloppy lands and overexploitation of slowly renewable resources. The outcome is that half ofthe highlands are eroded, ofwhich 15% are so seriously degraded that it will be difficult to reverse them to be agriculturally productive in the near future. ln the mountainous highlands, there is a direct link between land-based resources and rural livelihoods. Decline in soil fertility as a result of land degradation decreases crop/livestock productivity and hence household income. Depleted soils commonly reduce payoffs to agricultura! investments, as they rarely respond to externa! inputs, such as mineral fertilizers, and hence reduce the efficiency and return of fertilizer use . Degraded soils have also very poor water holding capacity partly because of low soil organic matter content that in turn reduce the fertilizer use efficiency. The objective of this paper is to comprehend the land degradation paradigm in Ethiopian Highlands and suggest an outline that could be used by farmers, researchers and policy makers to reverse the alarming trend of degradation of the re so urce base. 184 Methods While TSBF-CIAT/AHI has been working closely with the Ethiopian Agricultura! Research Organisation (EARO) and the Buro of Agriculture, and conducting participatory research in two benchmark sites ofthe Ethiopian highlands on INRM issues, it became apparent that land degradation is the most fundamental threat for the Ethiopian Agriculture. Based on the systems intensification work that we have been conducting in the two sites, augmented by secondary data on relevant themes, the following approach was suggested to address land degradation in the country. Results Root Causes of Land Degradation in the mountainous highlands The majar environmental factor that caused significant soil and nutrient loss in the mountainous highlands ofEthiopia is water erosion. For instance, the amount of soil loss due to water erosion was about 230 t/ ha/ year under cultivated plots in Andit tid, N orthern Ethiopia . It is partly true for most ofpart of Sub Saharan Africa, whereby the majar agents of land degradation are water erosion, wind erosion, chemical degradation and others that affected soilloss by 47, 36, 12 and 3.5 %, respectively. The contribution of different management factors towards land degradation in Africa is estimated to be 49%, 24%, 14%, 13% and 2% for overgrazing, agricultura! activities, deforestation, overexploitation and industrial activities. The livestock sector is a very important component of the system both as an economic buffer in times of crop failure and economic crisis and as a supportive enterprise for crop production. There is a considerable concem, however, that the number of animal holdings per household is much higher than the carrying capacity ofthe land. Another influential factor that aggravated land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands is deforestation. The forest cover went down from 40% at the beginning ofthis century to less than 3% at present. Deforestation accelerated land degradation in many ways. Firstly deforested land is easily susceptible to erosion, both wind and water, and hence causes a considerable nutrient movement. Secondly the arnount of litter that could ha ve contributed for maintaining the nutrient balance is considerably reduced. Thirdly deforestation in the highlands caused lack offuel wood, and as a result farmers used manure and crop residue as cooking fuel, which otherwise could have been used for soil fertility replenishment. Wood products could be also a very important cash crop, like that of Eculaptus trees in East African Highlands. Overmining soil nutrients is also an important factor that contributed most for soil fertility decline in the region. For example, barley is the single dominant crop in the mountainous highlands of Ethiopia. The system has very low crop diversity with legume component of less than 3%. The system receives externa} inputs very rarely with a fertilizer rate of less than 5 kg/ha, and the practice of applying this limited amount of mineral fertilizer is a recent practice. Another cause of land degradation is lack of early awareness ofthe managing cornmunity about soil erosion and soil fertility decline. When fanners were asked to describe their indicators of soil erosion they stated gully/rill formation, exposed underground rocks, landslides, wash away of 185 crops, shallowing of soils and siltation of the soil. These are soil traits that appear in a much la ter stage of soil degradation, after the soil organic matter and nutrients of the soil are removed. If farmers respond to soil erosion at this stage, the probability of reversing the fertility status to its earlier value would be difficult. Similarly farmers indicators of soil fertility decline include stunted crops, yellowing of crops, weed infestation, and change of soil color to red or Grey, traits that again appear at the later phase of soil fertility decline. Integrated Soil Fertility Management options Traditionally, the major nutríent management strategy promoted by governmental and non-governmental organizations was mainly application of mineral fertilizers, which became unaffordable and non-economical to subsistence farmers . An integrated nutrient management technology became essential dueto its multiple benefits: as nutrient saving, such as in controlling erosion and recy<;;ling of crop residues, manure and other biomass, or nutrient adding, such as applying mineral fertilizers and importing feed stuffs for livestock. The traditional field operation in Ethiopian highlands, which could be characterized by multiple tillage , cereal-dominated cropping and very few perennial components in the system, is very erosive for soils and nutrients . As land degradation is a complex phenomena affected by many externa! and interna! factors, it demands a multidisciplinary & integrated approach to address the social, biophysical and policy dimensions as suggested below. l. Community-based soil and water conservation measures It is fundamental to minimize the movement of soil and nutrients through application of system compatible soil conservation measures. When a cropland covered by crops or grasslands is compared to a frequently hacked farmland in Areka, run-off was reduced by about 90 and 100 % and soilloss by 68% respective! y. Hence soil nutrient loss and runoff could be minimized through increasing the frequency of crop cover, especially by those crops with mulching habits and higher leaf area index to rninimize the rainfall effects. Results from soil and water conservation project (SCRP) showed that perennial crops like banana and fruit trees or annuals with mulching and runner habits, like sweet potato, could reduce erosion effects significantly. Following the 1984/85 drought, there was a huge campaign in Ethiopian highlands on constructing terraces in sloppy lands for soil and water conservation purposes, using the food for work scheme of the world food programme. However, the approach was top down and did not participate the local community in decision making processes. The consequence was that farmers failed to maintain the terraces and in sorne case farmers have destroyed the terraces. When farmers were asked to list the reasons for rejecting soil and water conservation technologies they listed five major driving forces namely, high labour cost, it decreases farm size, it is inconvenient during farm operations especially for a U-turn of oxen plough, and multiplication of rats in the stone bunds. By considering those farmers criteria and by adopting participatory planning and implementation approaches the African Highlands lnitiative prograrn have facilitated adoption 186 and dissemination of soil conservation technologies at Areka, Southem Ethiopia. The major driving force for the adoption ofthe technology was its integration with high value crops (e.g. bananas, hops) and fast growing drought resistant feeds (e.g. Elephant grass, pigeon pea) grown on the soil bunds. How ever, the sustainable integration of soil & water conservation technologies depended heavily on the effectiveness oflocal by-laws to limit free grazing and movement of animals during the dry spells. Hence there may be a need to reconsider the local policy so as to facilitate the integration of natural resource management technologies to local communities. 2. Employing lntegrated Nutrient Management Re-building the organic matter of the soil and the nutrient stock in a short period of time requires an intensive systems approach, by combining compatible system components. These include the possible combination of judicious use of mineral fertilizers, improved integration of crops and livestock, improved organic residue management through composting and application of farmyard manure, deliberate crop rotations, short term fallowing, cereal-legume intercropping and integration of green manures. Because ofthe inconsistent and very low use ofmineral fertilizers, most of the interna! N cycling in small holder systems results from mineralization of organic residues. Such process may contribute most of the N for the annual crops until the labile soil organic fraction (N-capital) are depleted . One potential source of organic fertilizer in the mountainous highlands is farrnyard manure. There is a large concentration of livestock that could produce a considerable amount of manure to be used for soil fertility replenishment. However, there is a strong trade-off for manure use between soil fertility and its use as a cooking fuel. Recent survey in the upper central highlands showed that more than 80% ofthe manure is used as a source offuel. Only those farmers with access to fuel wood could apply manure for soil fertility replenishment. The quality ofmost manures is also very low as it was composed not only of pure dung but also a mixture of dung and crop residues from the stall. Wet season manure has a higher nutrient content than dry season manure, and pit manure has a better quality than pilled manure. Besides the quality, the quantity ofmanure produced on-farm is lirnited to satisfy the demand side. To produce sufficient manure for sustainable production of 1-3 tonnes/ha of maize it requires about 10-40 ha of dry season grazing land and 3 to 1 O of wet season pasture land, which is beyond the accessibility of Ethiopian farmers due to land shortage. Another potential organic so urce is crop residue. However, there is strong tradeoff for use of crop residue between soil fertility, animal feed and cooking fuel. In the upper Ethiopian highlands crop residues are used as a major source for dry season feed and supplementary feed for the wet season. Hence little is remaining as a crop aftermath to be returned to the soíl. Although legumes are known to add nitro gen & improve soil fertili ty, the frequency of legumes in the crop sequence in the upper highlands is less than 10%, which implies that the probability of growing legume on the same land is once in ten years. The most reliable option to replenish soil fertility is, therefore, promoting integration of multipurpose legumes into the farming systems. Those high quality legumes tested in the Ethiopian highlands include tephrosia, mucuna, crotalaria, canavalia, and vetch. However, despite a significant after-effect ofLCCs on the preceding maize yield (up to 500% yield gain over the local management) farmers were 187 reluctant to adopt them because of trade-off effects for (ood, feed and soil fertility purposes. In an attempt to understand factors affecting integration of soil improving legumes in to the farming systems of southem Ethiopia, the most important socio-economic criteria affecting the decision of farmers were land productivity, farm size, land ownership, access to market and need for livestock feed. By considering the decision-making criteria of farmers combined with quantitative data on the resource flows, it was possible to integrate the technology to about 10% of the partner farmers in southem Ethiopia. 3. Systems Approach to INRM Sustainable natural resource management in the region demands an investment in and improvement ofthe natural capital, human capital and social capital. Given the complexity of the problem of land degradation, and its link to social, economical and policy dimensions, it requires a comprehensive approach that combines local and scientific knowledge through community participatio~ capacity building of the local actors through farmers participatory research and enhanced farmer innovation. This approach requires the full involvement of stakeholder at different levels to facilitate and integrate social, biophysical and policy components towards an improved natural resource management and sustainable livelihoods. Watershed management as a unit ofplanning and change imposes the need for increased attention to issues of resource conservation and collective action by the comrnunity. The issues ofland degradation may include afforestation ofhillsides, water rehabilitation and/or harvesting and soil stabilization, soil fertility amendment through organic and mineral fertilizers and increasing vegetation cover by systematic use of the existing land and water resources. This could be achieved by working closely with communities and policy implementers in identifying and implementing possible solutions to address land degradation and other common landscape problems, like grazing land improvement, gully stabilization and by monitoring and documenting the processes for wider dissemination and coverage. Sorne ofthe watershed conservation related solutions should be tried and implemented on specific test locations using farmers' own contribution and the INRM team's technical supervision. However, a wider application ofthese solutions to larger areas may require attracting additional funding investments from the district, donors or other NGOs in the area. The local village comrnunities may also effect changes in the norms and rules goveming tbe use of natural resources in their vicinity. Traditional rules and local by-laws ( e.g. written and unwritten and called "afarsata" or awatcheyache) regarding the use and sharing of resources exist in most villages and these need to be identified and studied with a view to effect reform or renew their emphasis in the community. Integration of Agroforestry technologies in the farming systems of the Ethiopian highlands failed because of absence of national and/or local policies /by-laws that prohibit free grazing and movement of animals in the dry season. Experiences from the 1980s carnpaign of 'Green Campaign' in Ethiopia also showed that it is almost impossible to address the issue ofland degradation without the full involvement and comrnitment ofthe local community. The local by-laws in resource arrangement and use should be facilitated and supported, as the rules and regulations at the locallevel could be implemented effectively through elders and respected members of the community with tolerance and respect. There may be a church and/or witchcraft dimensions to these, and there may be changes over time that might help to understand why people are doing what they are doing. In addition, the influence of 188 national and regional policies on local resource management should be understood. These will form an important subject of community wide discussion and deliberation. Collaborators Areka Research Centre, Holleta Research Centre, A. Stroud, R. Kirkby, B. Vanlauwe, R.Delve. Budget Project PE- 3 Communities and Watersheds- Africa PROJECT PE3: Communities and Watersheds- Africa So urce Amount (US$2 Prop_ortion 02 Unrestricted core 0% Core substitution Carry over from 2001 0% Subtotal Special projects 117,173 100% Total 117,173 100% 189 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Used Acronyms ACERG A CIAR ACV ADDAC AGUASAN AHL AHMUPROH ANAR ASDI ASOBOLO ATICA AusAID AVINA BMC CACTRIL C&W CATIE CCAD CCD CDM CDR CENTA CFLI CGIAR CIALs CIDA CID ES CIDICCO CIEETS CIMMYT CIP CIPASLA CIPAV CIRA CIRAD CIRAD-CA Asociación de Centros Educativos del Cañon del Río Garrapatas, Colombia Australian Center for International Agricultura! Research Asociación Campos Verdes, Nicaragua Asociación para la Diversificación y Desarrollo Agrícola Comunal, Matagalpa, Nicaragua Programa agua y saneamiento en America Central, of SDC Animal Health Laboratory of CSIRO Asociación de Hombres y Mujeres Progresistas de Honduras Asociación Nacional de Arroceros, Nicaragua A~encia Sueca de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Asociación de Usuarios del Río Bolo, Colombia Agua y Tierra Campesina, Bolivia Australian Agency for International Development Asociación para la Vida y la Naturaleza, Costa Rica Biological Mesoamerican Corridor Cooperativa Agrícola Cafetalera Triniteca, Ltda. , Honduras Communities and Watersheds Project, formerly Hillsides Project Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Costa Rica Comisión Centro Americano de Ambiente y Desarrollo, Guatemala Comisión Cristiana de Desarrollo, Honduras Comité de Desarrollo Municipal, Nicaragua Center for Development Research, Denmark Centro Nacional de Tecnificación Agrícola, El Salvador Canada Fund for Local Initiatives Consultative Group on International Agricultura! Research Comités de Investigación Agricola Local Canadian International Development Agency Comité Interinstitucional para el Desarrollo de Sulaco, Honduras Centro Internacional de Información sobre Cultivos de Cobertura, Honduras Centro Intereclesial de Estudios Teológicos y Sociales, Nicaragua Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, Mexico Centro Internacional de la Papa, Peru Consorcio Interinstitucional para una Agricultura Sostenible en Laderas, Colombia Centro para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción Agropecuária, Colombia Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos, Nicaragua Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement, France CIRAD- cultures annuals, France 190 CLAYUCA CLODEST CLOs CNEARC CNIA CODESA COHDEFOR COHORSll.. CONDESAN CORPOICA COSAVY COVA CPs CRS CRSP CSF CSIRO CURLA CURM cvc DAI DALDO DANIDA DAR DFID DGIS DICTA DIPAC DOA DOAE EAGE EAP-Zamorano ECAR EEC ENA EN A CAL ENAR ESNACIFOR ETHZ FADCANIC FAO Consorcio Latinoamericano y del Caribe para la Investigación y el Desarrollo de la Yuca Comité Local para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Cuenca del río Tascalapa, Honduras Comités Locales Centre national d' études agronomiques des regions chaudes, France Centro Nacional de Investigación Agropecuario, Nicaragua Consultores para el Desarrollo Sostenible, Honduras Corporación Hondureña de Desarrollo Forestal Cooperativa Horticultores Siguatepeque Ltda, Honduras Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria Consultores de Servicios Agropecuarios del Valle de Y oro, Honduras Comprobación de Variedades Challenge Programs Catholic Relief Service, Honduras Collaborative Research Support Project ofUSAID Classical Swine Fever Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia Centro Universitario Regional del Litoral Atlántico, Honduras Centro Universitario Regional de Matagalpa, Nicaragua Corporación autónoma regional del Valle del Cauca, Colombia Development Altemative Inc. District Agriculture and Livestock Development Officer, Tanzania Danish Intemational Development Agency Delegaciones Regionales de Acueductos Rurales, ENACAL, Nicaragua Department for Intemational Development, UK Directoraat Generaal voor Internationale Samenwerking, (Dutch Ministry for Development Coopera/ion), Neths Dirección de Investigación de Ciencias y Tecnología Agrícola, Honduras Diversification ofthe Agro-forestry Community Project ofCARE Department of Agriculture, Thailand Department of Agricultura! Extension, Thailand Escuela de Agricultura de Estelí, Nicaragua Escuela Agrícola Panamerican-Zamorano, Honduras Ensayo Centroamericano de Apaptacion y Rendimiento European Economic Community Escuela Nacional Agrícola de Olancho, Honduras Empresa Nicaragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados, Nicaragua Ensayo Nacional de Adaptación y Rendimiento Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Forestales, Honduras Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule-Zentrurn (Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology), Zurich Fondo de Desarrollo para la Costa Atlántica de Nicaragua Food and Agriculture Organization ofUnited Nations, ltaly 191 FARENA FC FEPROH FHIA FlllS FLAR FLSP FOCUENCAS FONDEAGRO FSEW FLSP FSP FUNDER GoK GTZ HAP HPB HS ICRAF ICRISAT IDIAF IDRC IDS IFAD IFPRI IFS IIA IICA UTA INEC INERA INETER INFOP INIFAP INRA INRM INTA INTECFOR INTSORMIL IPCA Facultad de Recursos Naturales, UNA, Nicaragua Fowl Cholera Fomento Evnagélico para el Progreso de Honduras Fondo Hondureño de Investigación Agropecuária Fondo Hondureño de Inversion Social Fund for Latín America and the Caribbean Irrigated Rice Forages for Smallholders Project Fortalecimiento de la capacidad local en manejo de cuencas y prevención de desastres natures, CATIE project Fondo de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Nicaragua Farming Systems Extension Worker Forages and Livestock Systems Project Forages for Smallholders Project Fundación Nacional de Desarrollo Rural, Honduras Government ofKenya GTZDeutsche Gesellschaft fiir Techische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency Jor Technical Cooperation) German Agency for T echnical Cooperation Hillsides Agricultura! Program in Haití Herederos del Planeta Juventud, Vida y Naturaleza de Bellavista, Colombia Hemorrhagic Septicemia International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Kenya International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales International Development Research Centre, Canada Institute for Development Studies, UK International Fund for Agricultura! Development, Italy Intemational Food Policy Research Institute, USA International Foundation for Science, Sweden Instituto de Investigaciones Agrícolas, Bolivia Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Uganda Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, Nicaragua Institut national pour 1' étude et la recherche agronomique, Democratic Republic of Congo Instituto Nacional de Estudios Territoriales, Nicaragua Instituto Nacional de Formación Profesional, Honduras Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias, México Institut national de recherche agronomique, France Integrated Natural Resource Management workshop Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Nicaragua Instituto Técnico Forestal, Nicaragua International Sorghum and Millet Program, USA Investigación Participativa para Centro América project 192 IPRA IRD IRRI ISP ISRA ITECO IWMI JIRCAS KAEMP K.ARI K.ATC KlOF LDD LE ISA LZARDI MAG MAGFOR MARAFIP MARENA MATI MBC MIS MOVIMONDO MSEC MSU NARO NASA NCSU N ORAD NUMAS ODESAR PADF PASOLAC PCAC PCARES PCCMCA PDA PES PIF PLA PODAR POSAF PRECODEPA Investigación Participativa en Agricultura/Participatory Research in Agriculture of CIA T Institut de recherche pour le développement, France International Rice Research Institute, Philippines Instituto San Pedro, Y o rito, Honduras lnstitut Sénégalais de recherché agricole Irrigation Training and Economic Empowerment Organization lntemational Water Management lnstitute Japan Intemational Research Center for Agricultura! Science Kagera Agricultura} and Environmental Management Project, Tanzania Kenya Agricultura} Research Institute Kilimanjaro Agri. Training Center, Tanzania Kenya Institute of Organic Farming Land Development Department, Thailand Low Externa! Input Sustainable Agriculture Lake Zone Agricultura! Research and Development Institute, Tanzania Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Honduras Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal, Nicaragua Mara Region Farmers Initiative Prograrn, Tanzania Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Nicaragua Ministry of Agriculture and Food Training lnstitute, Tanzania Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Project Manejo Integrado de los Suelos de Centro América consortium NGO for intemational cooperation and solidarity, Honduras Managing Soil Erosion Consortium Michigan State University, USA National Agricultura! Research Organization National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA North Carolina State University, USA Norwegian Agency for Cooperation for Development Nutrient Management Support System Organización de Desarrollo Sostenible Agrícola, Nicaragua Pan American Development Foundation ofUSDA Programa de Agricultura Sostenible en las Laderas de Centro América Programa Campesino a Campesino, Nicaragua Predicting Catchment Runoff and Soil Erosion for Sustainability model Programa Cooperativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos Alimenticios, Guatemala Proyecto de Desarrollo de Area, Y oro, Honduras Productores Empresarios de Semillas Artesanales Programa Investigaciones en Frijol Participatory Leaming and Action Programa cooperativo de Desarrollo de la Agroindustria Rural de America Latina y el Caribe Programa Socioambiental Forestal, Nicaragua Programa Cooperativa de Papa 193 PRIAG PRGA PRM PROCIG PRODEGA PRODESSA PROFRUOL PROINPA PROLESUR PROMESA PROMIC PRONADERS PRR QPM RAOS REDCOMAL REDOLYS RENOC RERURAL SAG S ENESA SANREM SARDI SDC SECAP SEED SERNA SERTEDESO SIBTA SIDA SIMPAH SLU SMS SOH SOL SQMS SWNM SWOT TAG TOA TSBF Programa Regional de Reforzamiento a la Investigación Agronómica sobre los Granos en Centroamérica Systemwide Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis for Technology Development and Institutional Innovation ofthe CGIAR Programa Regional de Ma1z Proyecto Centroamericano de Información Geográfica Proyecto de Desarrollo Rural Ganadero, Nicaragua Proyecto de Desarrollo de San Dionisio, Nicaragua Proyecto Regional de Frijol para Centro América, México y el Caribe Fundación Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos, Bolivia Proyecto Lempira Sur, Honduras Proyecto Mejoramiento de Semilla, Nicaragua Programa Manejo Integral de Cuencas, Bolivia Programa Nacional de Desarrollo Sostenible Programa de Reconstrucción Rural, Honduras Quality Protein Maize Project Regional de Agricultura Organica de la Sierra, Honduras Red de Comercialización Comunitaria Alternativa, Honduras Red de Organizaciones Locales de Yorito y Sulaco, Honduras Red de Organismos de Cuenca, Nicaragua Proyecto de Reactivación de la Economía Rural, Honduras Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganadería, Honduras Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuaria, Honduras Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management, a CRSP project South Australian Research and Development Institute Swiss Development Cooperation Soil Erosion Control and Agroforestry Project Small Seed Enterprise Development Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente, Honduras Servicios Técnicos para el Desarrollo Sostenido, Honduras Sistema Boliviano de Técnología Agropecuario Swedish Intemational Development Agency Sistema de Información de Mercados de Productos Agrícolas de Honduras Sveriges Lantbruks Universitet (Swedish University of Agricultura! Science) Subject Matter Specialist Seeds ofHope Project Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera (Hillsides Options Supermarket) Soil Quality Monitoring Systems Soil Water and Nutrient Management program Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats analysis Technical Assistance Grant Trade-Off Analysis Project Tropical Soils Biology and Fertility Program, Kenya 194 TTDI UAGRM UBC UCA UCN UCOSD UGA UNA UNAN UNDP UNICAFE UNICAM UNICEF UNN UPWARD USAID USDA VIDAC Abbreviations AROs CBO CBWM DEM FPR FYM GIS GOs HC HI LISQ M&E NARS NGO NRM NTFP OPVs PDs PM&E PPB PRA PVS R&D Thai Tapioca Development fustitute Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno, Bolivia University ofBritish Columbia, Canada Universidad Centroamericana Universidad Central de Nicaragua Union de Campesinos Organizados de San Dionisio, Nicaragua University of Georgia, USA Universidad Nacional Agraria, Nicaragua Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua United Nations Development Programme Union Nacional de Cafetaleros, Nicaragua Universidad Campesina Estelí, Nicaragua United Nation's Children's Fund Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua Users' Perspectives with Agricultura! Research and Development, Manila, Philippines United States Agency for Intemational Development, WA United States Department of Agriculture Vivero de Adaptación Centro Americano de grano rojo advanced research organizations community-based organization community-based watershed management digital elevation model farmer participatory research farmyard manure geographic information systems government organizations home consumption harvest index local indicators of soil quality monitoring and evaluation national agricultura! research systems nongovernmental organization natural resource management non-timber forest products open-pollinated varieties participatory diagnoses participatory monitoring and evaluation participatory plant breeding participatory rural appraisal participatory variety selection research and development 195 R&T RCBD RRA SL SQI TISQ research and training randomized complete block design rapid rural appraisal sustainable livelihoods soil quality indicator traditional indicator of soil quality 196