Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
OTHER ARTICLE DOI: 10.46265/genresj.KZEW5023
https://www.genresj.org
ISSN: 2708-3764
A historical appraisal of the tropical forages
collection conserved at CIAT
Rainer Schultze-Kraft *,a, Michael Peters b and Peter Wenzl c
a Emeritus, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)
b Tropical Forages Program, Africa Hub, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya
c Genetic Resources Program, Headquarters, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia
Abstract: A report on the tropical forage germplasm collection conserved in the CIAT genebank is presented. Emphasis
is firstly on the assembling of the collection during 1972−1993 through about 70 major and minor collecting missions
in tropical America, Africa and Southeast Asia. Along with introductions from existing collections, currently some 1,600
accessions of 134 grass species and 21,000 accessions of 637 legume species are being maintained. Secondly, information
on the utilization of the collection, with emphasis on cultivar development based on selection of accessions from the CIAT
collection, is presented. Worldwide, a total of 44 grass and 34 legume cultivars derived from germplasm maintained at CIAT
are reported. Information on germplasm distribution and knowledge sharing during the last four decades is also presented
as well as a brief discussion on future needs.
Keywords: tropics, wild species, grasses, legumes, germplasm, collection, utilization, genebank
Citation: Schultze-Kraft, R., Peters, M., Wenzl, P. (2020). A historical appraisal of the tropical forages collection
conserved at CIAT. Genetic Resources 1 (2), 51–68. doi: 10.46265/genresj.KZEW5023.
© Copyright 2020 the Authors.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are
credited.
Introduction diversity studies and routine germplasm management
and its optimization (1993−2020).
Research related to forage genetic resources at the
This paper summarizes the assembling of the
International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), collection during the first phase as well as its utilization
Cali, Colombia, has been a continuing activity since
and germplasm distribution. Furthermore, research
the inception of the center in 1969. CIAT was on forage diversity and knowledge sharing, including
the third of the international agricultural research
training, are addressed. Data presented were compiled
centers established within the Consultative Group on mainly from information accessible via the CIAT
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), one of
website (https://ciat.cgiar.org/), CIAT annual reports
its missions being the development of beef cattle (accessible at https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/
production in the lowlands of tropical America (Lynam
35699), unpublished reports on germplasm collecting
and Byerlee, 2017). When looking at the development missions, research bulletins of CIAT´s national partner
of the CIAT forages collection and its achievements,
institutions and the like.
two phases can be distinguished: the first phase It should be noted that in the past years there have
focused on assembling the collection and some initial,
been changes in plant nomenclature for numerous taxa
however intensive, characterization and utilization of of particular interest, even at the genus level (Cook
the collected materials (1972−1993); and the second
and Schultze-Kraft, 2015). In this paper we are still
phase consisted of continuing utilization of germplasm,
referring to the earlier used names. Supplemental
Table 1 lists new names of species mentioned in
this report, following the taxonomy of GRIN, the
database of the USDA Genetic Resources Information
∗Corresponding author: Rainer Schultze-Kraft Network (https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/
(Rainer@Schultze-Kraft.de) taxon/taxonomysearch).
Received: 28.09.2020 Accepted: 29.11.2020 Published online: 30.12.2020
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 52
Assembling the forage germplasm Alongside the collecting activities, the introduction
collection of germplasm in the form of donations from existing
collections held by national and international research
At the beginning of research at CIAT in the early 1970s, a and development (R&D) institutions around the globe
focus of the then Beef Production Systems Program was has been an ongoing activity since the inception of the
forage-based livestock production on acid, low-fertility CIAT forages collection. It became the sole source of
soils in humid and sub-humid lowlands of tropical additions to the collection, when germplasm collecting
America, particularly savanna areas. The lack of edaphic with the involvement of CIAT scientists came to an end
adaptation of available, mainly Australian commercial in the 1990s. A total of more than 9,000 accessions
pasture grass and legume cultivars, was soon identified were received as donations; among them, in 2006, a
as the main constraint to their use in Neotropical significant part of the former Australian Tropical Forages
savannas. In the case of legumes, diseases, such as Collection of CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and
anthracnose in the promising genus Stylosanthes, were Industrial Research Organisation) (Table 3).
an additional restriction. It was consequently recognized Two factors contributed to the cessation of collecting
that available species and genotype pools of grasses missions: (1) a sustained decline in funding for tropical-
and legumes needed to be broadened for screening for forages research and (2) the fact that hardly any
adaptation to abiotic (mainly soil) and biotic (pests and tropical-forage species are included in Annex 1 of the
diseases) constraints. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for
Missions were thus initiated in 1972/73 to collect Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA; FAO, 2001), which
germplasm of wild species with forage potential streamlines germplasm distribution through the use
throughout tropical America. The objective was to create of a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
a diverse germplasm pool that can be tapped for cultivar Instead, most tropical forage species are regulated by
development, either by identifying suitable accessions legal frameworks that require case-by-case negotiations
for direct use or through genetic improvement. These of individual material transfer agreements, which would
collecting missions ranged from short excursions, create unmanageable legal overheads given the frequent
particularly within the Center´s host country, Colombia, germplasm exchange in agricultural research.
to field expeditions over several weeks. Another source
of germplasm material was through opportunistic
collecting undertaken by CIAT scientists during field Some concluding remarks on the
visits. The missions were largely funded by CIAT, assembling of the forage germplasm
at the beginning of the collecting phase, also with collection
support from the former International Board for Plant
Genetic Resources (IBPGR; later International Plant With more than 22,000 accessions from a total of 75
Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), now part of the countries of origin, the CIAT collection is the largest
Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT). There tropical forages germplasm collection worldwide. Its
was a focus on acid-soil regions and plant genera of particular value lies in its focus on: (1) plants adapted
known value. Emphasis was on legumes, in many cases to acid, low-fertility soils; (2) legumes; and (3) the large
including associated rhizobia, taking into account that and diverse collection of Brachiaria. This grass genus
the Neotropics are the main center of diversification of comprises currently the economically most important
the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family. The particular value tropical forage species worldwide. The CIAT Brachiaria
of legumes lies in their ability of symbiotic fixation of collection stems mainly from the Center´s collecting
atmospheric nitrogen and the subsequent provision of activities in the 1980s in East Africa and has become
protein-rich forage to livestock. an important source of germplasm for selection and
From 1979 onwards, collecting missions within breeding programs throughout the tropics.
the new Tropical Pastures Program expanded to It is recognized that there are still important gaps in
Southeast Asia, a minor yet important center of terms of countries and regions where germplasm has
legume diversification (e.g. the genera Pueraria and been collected. The collection is likely far from being
Desmodium), and in 1984/85 and 1989 also to representative of the geographic diversity of tropical
Africa, with focus on grasses (particularly the genus Poaceae and Fabaceae (Leguminosae).
Brachiaria). The latter took into account that Sub- Table 4 provides a summary of the current tropical
Saharan Africa is the main center of diversification of forages collection conserved at the CIAT genebank.
those genera with forage potential in the Poaceae family. Differences of numbers in Table 4 in comparison with
All missions were organized as joint ventures Tables 2 and 3 are due to initial misidentifications and
in association with national research institutions. losses of accessions due to a range of reasons, including
Table 1 provides an overview of the countries where a limited number (or low viability) of collected seeds,
the collecting efforts were undertaken; the main lack of seed setting in the environments available for
genera collected are summarized in Table 2. The regeneration, and insufficient funds for regenerating
germplasm collectors who participated in the missions large numbers of accessions between the 1990s and the
are acknowledged in Supplemental Table 2. launch of the CGIAR Research Program on Genebanks in
the 2010s.
53 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
Table 1. Forage germplasm collecting missions conducted by CIAT with national research institution partners during 1972−1993.
See Supplemental Table 2 for collector names
Year Region and countries (No. of missions) Genera collected
1972-73 South America: Colombia (2), Venezuela (1) Legumes: Mainly Stylosanthes, also Centrosema, Desmodium
& others
1974-75 South America: Bolivia (1), Brazil (4), Legumes: Mainly Stylosanthes, also Centrosema, Desmodium
Colombia (1), Venezuela (1) & others
1976-77 South America: Brazil (1), Colombia (3), Legumes: Mainly Stylosanthes, also Centrosema, Desmodium
Venezuela (1) & others
1978-79 Mesoamerica: Panama (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
South America: Brazil (1), Colombia (1), Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Venezuela (1)
Southeast Asia: Thailand (1) Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
1980-81 South America: Brazil (3), Colombia (2), Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Venezuela (1)
1982-83 South America: Colombia (1), Peru (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Southeast Asia: Malaysia (1), Papua New Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
Guinea (1), Thailand (1)
1984 South America: Brazil (1), Colombia (3), Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Venezuela (1)
Africa: Ethiopia (1), Kenya (1) Grasses: Mainly Brachiaria
Southeast Asia: China (1), Indonesia (1), Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
Thailand (1)
1985 Mesoamerica: Panama (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
South America: Colombia (1), Venezuela (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Africa: Burundi (1), Rwanda (1), Tanzania Grasses: Mainly Brachiaria
(1), Zimbabwe (1)
Southeast Asia: Indonesia (1) Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
1986 Mesoamerica: Costa Rica (1), Mexico (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
South America: Colombia (3), Venezuela (2) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Southeast Asia: Indonesia (1) Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
1987-88 South America: Brazil (1), Colombia (5) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Southeast Asia: China (1), Thailand (1) Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
1989-90 Mesoamerica: Honduras (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium & others
South America: Colombia (1) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Africa: Cameroon (1) Grasses: Hyparrhenia, Andropogon & others
1991-93 South America: Colombia (2) Legumes: Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes & others
Southeast Asia: Thailand (1), Vietnam (2) Legumes: Desmodium, Pueraria & others
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 54
Table 2. Most frequently collected genera with numbers of species and samples (accessions) and target countries, obtained through
collecting during 1972−1993 (CIAT missions with national research institution partners and opportunistic collecting) and conserved
at the CIAT genebank.
Genus No. of No. of Countries of origin1
species accessions
Legumes
Aeschynomene 36 821 BDI, BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, CRI, ETH, HND, IDN, KEN,
MEX, MYS, PAN, PER, PNG, THA, VEN, VNM
Alysicarpus 6 193 BDI, BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, ETH, HND, IDN, KEN,
MYS, PAN, PNG, TGO, THA, VEN, VNM, ZWE
Cajanus 5 75 BRA, CHN, COL, ECU, IDN, PAN, PNG, THA, VNM
Calopogonium 5 446 BOL, BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, ECU, HND, IDN, KEN, MYS,
PAN, PER, THA, VEN, VNM
Canavalia 14 185 BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, ECU, HND, MEX, PAN, PER, THA,
VEN
Centrosema 33 1,677 BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, DOM, ECU, GTM, HND, IDN,
MEX, MYS, PAN, PER, THA, VEN, VNM
Chamaecrista 16 257 BDI, BRA, CHN, COL, CUB, ECU, ETH, HND, KEN, MEX,
MYS, NGA, PAN, PER, TGO, VEN, VNM, ZWE
Crotalaria 16 192 BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, CRI, ECU, ETH, HND, IDN,
MEX, PAN, PER, PNG, THA, VEN, VNM
Desmanthus 9 110 BRA, COL, ECU, HND, MEX, PAN, PER, VEN
Desmodium 56 2,085 AUS, BDI, BLZ, BOL, BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, CRI, ECU,
ETH, GUF, HND, IDN, IND, KEN, MEX, MYS, PAN, PER,
PNG, PYF, SLV, TGO, THA, VEN, VNM, ZWE
Dioclea 15 191 BRA, COL, HND, MEX, PAN, PER, VEN
Flemingia 8 130 CHN, CMR, COL, HND, IDN, MYS, PAN, PNG, THA,
VNM
Galactia 14 462 BOL, BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, CUB, ECU, HND, MEX, PAN,
PER, PNG, VEN, VNM
Indigofera 12 147 BDI, BOL, BRA, CHN, COL, ECU, ETH, KEN, PAN, PER,
PNG, TGO, THA, VEN, VNM
Macroptilium 10 445 ATG, BLZ, BOL, BRA, CHN, COL, CUB, DOM, ECU,
GTM, HND, MEX, PAN, PER, SLV, THA, VEN,
Phyllodium 5 130 CHN, IDN, PNG, THA, VNM
Pueraria 6 187 BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, ECU, HND, IDN, MYS, PAN, PNG,
THA, VEN, VNM
Rhynchosia 17 303 BOL, BRA, CMR, COL, CRI, ECU, ETH, HND, IDN, KEN,
MEX, PAN, PER, PNG, RWA, THA, VEN
Continued on next page
55 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
Table 2 continued
Genus No. of No. of Countries of origin1
species accessions
Stylosanthes 24 2,263 ATG, AUS, BOL, BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, CRI, DOM,
ECU, ETH, GUY, HND, KEN, MEX, MYS, NGA, PAN,
PER, RWA, TGO, VEN, VNM, ZWE
Tadehagi 3 99 CHN, IDN, PNG, THA, VNM
Tephrosia 14 112 BDI, BRA, CHN, COL, ECU, ETH, KEN, MYS, PAN, PNG,
THA, VEN, ZWE
Teramnus 9 304 BDI, BOL, BRA, CHN, COL, CRI, ECU, ETH, HND, IDN,
KEN, MEX, PAN, PER, THA, VEN, ZWE
Uraria 6 109 CHN, IDN, MYS, PNG, THA, VNM
Vigna 39 481 BDI, BRA, CMR, COL, CRI, ECU, ETH, HND, IDN, KEN,
MEX, MYS, PAN, PER, PNG, TGO, THA, VEN, ZWE
Zornia 12 812 AUS, BRA, CHN, CMR, COL, ETH, HND, KEN, MEX,
MYS, NGA, PAN, PER, TGO, THA, VEN, ZWE
59 further legume genera with a total 693
of:
Total of legume samples 12,909
Grasses
Andropogon 2 20 BDI, TGO, ZWE
Brachiaria 17 472 BDI, CMR, COL, ECU, ETH, KEN, RWA, TGO, TZA, ZWE
Hyparrhenia 12 35 BDI, ETH, KEN, NGA, TGO, TZA, ZWE
Panicum 5 20 BDI, ETH, COL, KEN, RWA, ZWE
Paspalum 11 55 BDI, BRA, CHN, COL, DOM, IDN, KEN, MYS, PAN, PER,
PHL, VEN, ZWE
Pennisetum 5 23 BDI, CHN, CMR, ETH, KEN
24 further grass genera with a total of: 127
Total of grass samples 752
1Country abbreviations: ATG = Antigua and Barbuda; BDI = Burundi; BLZ = Belize; BOL = Bolivia; BRA = Brazil; CHN= China, People’s Republic;
CMR = Cameroon; COL = Colombia; CRI = Costa Rica; CUB = Cuba; DOM = Dominican Republic; ECU = Ecuador; ETH = Ethiopia; GTM =
Guatemala; GUF = French Guyana; GUY = Guyana; HND = Honduras; IDN = Indonesia; IND = India; KEN = Kenya; MEX = Mexico; MYS =
Malaysia; NGA = Nigeria; PAN = Panama; PER = Peru; PHL = Philippines; PNG = Papua New Guinea; PYF = French Polynesia; RWA = Rwanda;
SLV = El Salvador; TGO = Togo; TZA = Tanzania; THA = Thailand; VEN = Venezuela; VNM = Vietnam; ZWE = Zimbabwe.
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 56
Utilization stock Centre for Africa/International Livestock
Research Institute);
Germplasm collecting and introduction activities were
– SEAFRAD (South East Asian Forage and Feed
the responsibility of the former CIAT Beef Production Resources Network), with national research
Systems Program (renamed Tropical Pastures Program
institution partners in Southeast Asia; this
(TPP) in 1979) until the late 1980s. Maintenance network developed in the 1990s into the ACIAR
of the collection passed on to the CIAT Genetic
(Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Resources Unit (GRU) after its foundation in 1977 Research) funded Forages for Smallholders
(in 2009 renamed Genetic Resources Program, GRP).
project;
Maintenance encompasses activities such as seed
testing, seed increase, germplasm preservation at • Development, publication and use of network-
different cold storage levels, safety back-ups of the wide common research methodologies (see section
collection, maintenance of living collections, seed Publications below);
distribution, etc. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) • Publication of research results in RIEPT reports
for each of these areas are available upon request. (accessible at https://cgspace.cgiar.org/discover?
The collection is conserved in the GRP´s genebank scope=%2F&query=riept) and the TPP’s journal
at CIAT Headquarters, Cali, Colombia. At the time of Pasturas Tropicales (accessible at https://tropical
writing (2020), 90% of CIAT’s tropical forages collection grasslands.info/index.php/tgft/pages/view/Pastu
is backed-up in the Svalbard seed vault and 77% at ras).
CIMMYT (https://ciat.cgiar.org/what-we-do/crop-cons
ervation-and-use/tropical-forage-diversity/) . As a result of the germplasm evaluation and selection
For effective utilization of the germplasm collection, research conducted by CIAT and its partners, a number
the close interaction between the genebank and CIAT´s of grass and legume accessions that had been provided
TPP (today: Tropical Forages Program, TFP) played a by the CIAT forages collection were developed into
key role, particularly in the 1980s, in view of the TPP’s cultivars by national R&D institutions worldwide, in a
germplasm-focused research agenda and its alliances few cases after incorporating them in national breeding
with national R&D institutions. The main research programs (Table 5). Several issues should be pointed
approaches were: out:
• In relation to cultivars selected from genebank
• Multidisciplinary germplasm characterization and accessions, formal release and/or registration has
evaluation by the TPP with involvement of been and is the exclusive responsibility of national
specialists in the fields of agronomy, plant institutions. In the case of bred lines developed
pathology, entomology, plant and animal nutrition, at CIAT (not included in Table 5), cultivar
legume rhizobiology, soils, pasture establishment, release/registration is done by the private sector,
pasture utilization, farming systems, economics, with authorization by CIAT.
plant breeding, and seed production; • Some cases are mentioned where CIAT accessions
• Stepwise categorization of promising accessions were adopted by end users without a formal
as germplasm evaluations proceeded from small- and documented cultivar release; the real number
plot observations to ultimately animal production is probably much higher. On the other hand,
experiments under grazing; it is most likely that not all released cultivars
• Multi-site testing of germplasm in different eco- were or are actually used by farmers to a major
climatic zones at: CIAT-Quilichao (Colombia), extent. The use of materials from tropical forages
Colombia-Llanos (with ICA, at Carimagua), Brazil- genebanks is further discussed by Hanson et al
Cerrados (with EMBRAPA, at Planaltina), Peru- (2020) and Duncan et al (2020).
Humid Tropics (with IVITA, at Pucallpa), and later • Several important grass varieties, which had
Central America (with Ministerio de Agricultura y been developed by institutions in Brazil [(e.g.
Ganadeŕıa, in Costa Rica); Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu (CIAT 6294) and
• Networking: multi-location testing of elite Panicum maximum cvv. Tanzânia (CIAT 16031),
germplasm within the networks: Mombaça (CIAT 9692) and Tobiatã (CIAT 6299)]
– RIEPT (Red Internacional de Evaluación de Pas- and subsequently introduced to CIAT, are not
tos Tropicales), with national research insti- included in Table 5. Nonetheless, CIAT, within its
tution partners in Latin America and the network evaluation activities in Latin America and
Caribbean); SE Asia, was instrumental for eventual release and
– RABAOC/WECAFNET (Reseau de Recherche en adoption of these cultivars by non-Brazilian end-
Alimentation du Bétail en Afrique Occidentale et users.
Centrale/West and Central African Forage Eval- • Mentioning of cultivar releases of the accessions
uation Network), with national research institu- Brachiaria decumbens CIAT 606 and B. humidi-
tion partners in West and Central Africa and in cola CIAT 679 is restricted to countries other than
cooperation with ILCA/ILRI (International Live- Brazil: Both accessions represent early Australian
cultivars (‘Basilisk’ and ‘Tully’, respectively) and,
57 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
Table 3. Forage germplasm donations received during 1972−2006 from national and international institutions and conserved at
the CIAT genebank, highlighting main genera and number of samples (accessions).
Period Total no. of Main genera Main donor institutions1
accessions
1972−75 176 Centrosema, Desmodium, Stylosanthes, INIAP (Ecuador), CSIRO (Australia), QDPI
Vigna (Australia), IDRC projects (West Indies, Belize),
Univ. Florida (USA), FAO-David (Panama)
1976−80 1,424 Andropogon, Centrosema, Desmodium, Instituto de Pesquisas IRI (Brazil), IDRC projects
Panicum, Stylosanthes, Zornia (West Indies, Belize), EPAMIG (Brazil), INIAP
(Ecuador), EMGOPA (Brazil), Univ. Florida (USA),
EMBRAPA (Brazil), CSIRO (Australia)
1981−85 1,971 Brachiaria, Calopogonium, Centrosema, ORSTOM (France), CSIRO (Australia), EMBRAPA
Crotalaria, Desmanthus, Desmodium, (Brazil), EMGOPA (Brazil), INTA (Argentina),
Galactia, Leucaena, Macroptilium, QDPI (Australia), EPAMIG (Brazil), FAO-Kitale
Macrotyloma, Panicum, Pueraria, (Kenya), IBPGR-SE Asia
Stylosanthes, Vigna, Zornia
1986−90 1,238 Alysicarpus, Brachiaria, Centrosema, EMBRAPA (Brazil), CSIRO (Australia), Instituto de
Desmodium, Pseudarthria, Pueraria, Zootecnia (Brazil), FONAIAP (Venezuela), Univ.
Stylosanthes, Uraria, Vigna Florida (USA), USDA (USA), IBPGR-SE Asia
1991−95 212 Arachis, Cajanus, Panicum EMBRAPA (Brazil), ICRISAT (India), ICA
(Colombia)
1996−00 218 Arachis, Calliandra, Cratylia, Paspalum, EMBRAPA (Brazil), OFI (UK)
Stylosanthes
2001−06 3,858 Aeschynomene, Centrosema, CSIRO (Australia)
Desmanthus, Desmodium, Lablab,
Macroptilium, Stylosanthes, Vigna
2007−20 0
Total 9,157
1Abbreviations of main donor institutions: CSIRO = Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation; EMBRAPA = Empresa
Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária; EMGOPA = Empresa Goiana de Pesquisa Agropecuária; EPAMIG = Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária de Minas
Gerais; FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; FONAIAP = Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias; IBPGR =
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources; ICA = Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario; ICRISAT = International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics; IDRC = International Development Research Centre; INIAP = Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias; INTA
= Instituto Nacional de Tecnoloǵıa Agropecuaria; OFI = Oxford Forestry Institute; ORSTOM = Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique
Outre-Mer; QDPI = Queensland Department of Primary Industries; USDA = United States Department of Agriculture.
unlike the other countries where CIAT-coordinated In the early 1990s, CIAT gradually changed its
network evaluations were instrumental for selec- germplasm utilization research priority from develop-
tion and release, adoption in Brazil was an entirely ment of grass/legume pastures for acid soils to selec-
CIAT-independent process. tion of multipurpose plants for smallholders. This adjust-
• Brachiaria spp. accessions that were used by ment took into account the need for forage plants to
CIAT internally to produce Brachiaria breeding maintain and restore soil fertility, including in mixed
lines and from which hybrid cultivars were (crop-livestock) production systems, and to contribute
developed by globally operating seed companies to increased small-farmer livelihoods. Since 2006/07 the
(Grupo Papalotla, Dow AgroSciences) within research focus of the CIAT Tropical Forages Program was
public-private-partnership (PPP) agreements, are further refined and includes the adaptation of forages
not included either. Information on those hybrid to climate change and their potential contribution to
cultivars (e.g. ‘Mulato’, Mulato II’, ‘Cayman’, ecosystem services, including the mitigation of green-
‘Cobra’, ‘Camello’) is available in Cook et al (2020). house gas emissions. Within these new developments,
• Table 5 also provides information on the timespan species selection is benefiting from the broad diversity
between germplasm acquisition (collection or represented in the CIAT forages collection.
introduction) and cultivar release.
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 58
Table 4. The tropical forages collection conserved at the CIATgenebank (as of July 2020).
Genus No. of accessions No. of species
Grasses:
Brachiaria 592 22
Panicum 544 11
Paspalum 140 19
Andropogon 89 2
Hyparrhenia 44 12
Pennisetum, Cenchrus, Echinochloa, Axonopus, Setaria, Eragrostis and Chloris 202 68
(more than 10 accessions each) and 19 other genera
Total grasses 1,611 134
Legumes:
Stylosanthes 4,198 31
Desmodium 3,484 71
Centrosema 2,849 33
Aeschynomene 1,182 33
Macroptilium 1,052 11
Vigna 1,026 36
Zornia 947 14
Galactia 561 13
Calopogonium 550 4
Rhynchosia 384 13
Teramnus, Chamaecrista, Desmanthus, Crotalaria, Alysicarpus, Pueraria, 4,848 378
Canavalia, Dioclea, Leucaena, Indigofera, Flemingia, Uraria, Arachis, Clitoria,
Lablab, Tephrosia, Phyllodium, Cajanus and Tadehagi (between 100 and 384
accessions each) and 59 other genera
Total legumes 21,081 637
Grand total 22,692 771
59 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68Table 5. Formally and informally released cultivars developed from accessions provided by the CIAT tropical forages collection.
Species CIAT Accession no. Year of Cultivar name Country Year of Comments
acquisition1 registration/
release
Legumes:
Aeschynomene CIAT 7026 C: 1978 Lee Australia 1984 Collected in Panama in cooperation with IDIAP
americana (Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de
Panamá)
Arachis pintoi CIAT 17434 I: 1983 Mańı Forrajero Colombia 1992 Introduced as CPI 58113 from CSIRO; = cv.
Perenne Amarillo, released 1987 in Australia
Pico Bonito Honduras 1993
Mańı Mejorador Costa Rica 1994
CIAT 18744 I: 1984 Porvenir Costa Rica 1998 Introduced as BRA-012122 from EMBRAPA
Mix of CIAT 17434 I: 1983 Mańı Forrajero Panama 1997 See information on CIAT 17434 and CIAT 18744
and CIAT 18744 resp. 1984 above
CIAT 22160 I: 1993 Reyan No. 12 PR China 2004 Introduced as BRA-031143 from EMBRAPA
Centrosema CIAT 5277 C: 1979 Vichada Colombia 1987 Collected in Colombia
acutifolium
Centrosema CIAT 25522; = mix C: 1980-84 Ucayali2 Peru 1992 Individual accessions collected in cooperation
macrocarpum of 12 accessions SE Asia3 1990s with national institution partners in Colombia
	 	 (8 accessions), Venezuela (3) and Brazil (1)
Centrosema CIAT 15160 C: 1984 Barinas2 SE Asia3 1990s Collected in Venezuela in cooperation with
pubescens FONAIAP
Chamaecrista CIAT 21565 C: 1989 Minyin 2 PR China 2011 Collected in Colombia in cooperation with ICA;
rotundifolia released after introduction as ATF 3248 from
Australia to China
Codariocalyx CIAT 3001 I: 1975 Belize2 SE Asia3 1990s Introduced as CF-29 from IDRC-Belize
gyroides Cora Cora2 Colombia 1990s
Cratylia argentea Mix of CIAT 18516 I. resp. C.: Veranera Colombia 2002 CIAT 18516 introduced from EMGOPA, CIAT 18668
and CIAT 18668 1985, 1984 Veraniega Costa Rica 2001 collected in Brazil in cooperation with EMBRAPA
Continued on next page
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 60Table 5 continued
Species CIAT Accession no. Year of Cultivar name Country Year of Comments
acquisition1 registration/
release
C. argentea (cont.) Mixture of unknown Cratilia2 Venezuela 2000s
CIAT accessions
Bolivia 2000s
Desmodium CIAT 13651 C: 1984 Maquenque Colombia 2002 Collected in Thailand in cooperation with TISTR
heterocarpon (Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological
subsp. Research)
ovalifolium4
CIAT 350 I: 1973 Itabela Brazil 1989 Commercial cover crop variety, introduced from
Reyan No. 16 PR China 2005 FAO Seed Exchange Unit, Rome
Desmodium CIAT 13158 C: 1982 Reyan No. 27 PR China 2010s Collected in Thailand in cooperation with TISTR
strigillosum
Flemingia CIAT 17403 C: 1982 Chumphon2 SE Asia3 1990s Collected in Thailand in cooperation with TISTR
macrophylla
Leucaena CIAT 21888; mix of C. resp. I.: Romelia Colombia 1992 CIAT 17481 and 17482 collected as naturalized
leucocephala CIAT 17481, 17482, 1982 populations in Brazil; CIAT 17491 and 17492
17491 and 17492 introduced as K8 and K72, respectively, from
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Stylosanthes CIAT 10280; mix of 5 C: 1975-77 Capica Colombia 1983 All accessions (CIAT 1315, 1318, 1342, 1693
capitata accessions and 1728) collected in Brazil in cooperation
Alfalfa Criolla2 Venezuela 1990s with EMBRAPA and CSIRO
Stylosanthes CIAT 184 C: 1973 Pucallpa Peru 1985 Collected in Colombia
guianensis var. Reyan No. 2 PR China 1991 Also known as ’Pi Hua Dou 184’, ‘Zhuhuacao’
guianensis
Reyan No. 5 PR China 2000 Selected from CIAT 184
Stylo 1842 SE Asia3 1990s
CIAT 136 C: 1973 Reyan No. 7 PR China 2000 Collected in Colombia
Unidentified CIAT Reyan No. 13 PR China 2003 Origin: mislabeled seed bags or a physical
accession number contaminant in a sample (“CIAT 1044”) of a
different species
Continued on next page
61 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68Table 5 continued
Species CIAT Accession no. Year of Cultivar name Country Year of Comments
acquisition1 registration/
release
S. guianensis var. CIAT 2340 C: 1980 Ubon stylo Thailand 2002 Selection (GC 1480) used for the 4-line mix cv.
guianensis (cont.) Ubon stylo; see below; original accession CIAT
2340 collected in Colombia
Stylosanthes CIAT 11833 (= cross C: 1974 Ubon stylo Thailand 2002 3 selections from CIAT 11833 (GC 1463, GC 1517,
guianensis var. CIAT 10136 × CIAT C: 1978 GC 1579) used for the 4-line mix cv. Ubon stylo; see
pauciora5 2031) Cross: above; original accessions CIAT 10136 and CIAT
1991? 2031 collected in Brazil in cooperation with
EMBRAPA
CIAT 1283 C: 1975 Reyan No. 10 PR China 2001 Collected in Brazil in cooperation with EMBRAPA
Stylosanthes CIAT 10033 C: 1981 Unica Australia 2000 Collected in Brazil in cooperation with EMBRAPA
seabrana
Grasses:
Andropogon CIAT 621 I: 1973 Carimagua 1 Colombia 1980 Original seed sample introduced from Shika
gayanus Planaltina Brazil 1980 Research Station, Nigeria
Sabanero Venezuela 1983
Veranero Panama 1983
San Mart́ın Peru 1984
Llanero Mexico 1986
Andropogon Cuba 1988
Veranero Costa Rica 1989
Otoreño Honduras 1989
Gamba Nicaragua 1989
ICTA-Real Guatemala 1992
Brachiaria CIAT 679 I: 1976 Humid́ıcola Colombia 1992 CIAT 679 is cv. Tully (Koronivia grass), released
humidicola INIAP-NAPO Ecuador 1985 1981 in Australia
701
Continued on next page
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 62Table 5 continued
Species CIAT Accession no. Year of Cultivar name Country Year of Comments
acquisition1 registration/
release
B. humidicola CIAT 679 (cont.) Chetumal Mexico 1991
(cont.) Humid́ıcola Panama 1990
Aguja Venezuela 1989
CIAT 26149 C: 1985 BRS Tupi Brazil 2012 Collected in Burundi in cooperation with ISABU
(Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi)
Brachiaria CIAT 6133 I: 1978 Llanero Colombia 1987 Introduced as B. dictyoneura CPI 59610 from CSIRO
humidicola Yanero2 SE Asia3 1990s
(former species
name for the Ganadero Venezuela 1992
accession Gualaca Panama 1992
concerned: B.
dictyoneura) Brunca Costa Rica 1994
Reyan No. 14 PR China 2004
Brachiaria CIAT 606 I: 1973 Brachiaria Cuba 1986/87 CIAT 606 is cv. Basilisk, released 1966 in Australia
decumbens Señal Panama 1986
Chontalpo Mexico 1989
Barrera Venezuela 1989
Peludo Costa Rica 1991
Reyan No. 3 PR China 1991
Brachiaria CIAT 16309 C: 1984 BRS Ipyporã Brazil 2017 B. brizantha CIAT 16309/ILCA 13619 (B4 at
hybrid (B. brizantha) Embrapa), collected in Ethiopia in cooperation with
ILCA, is one of the parental lines in the
hybridization B. brizantha × B. ruziziensis that led
to this Brazilian cultivar
Brachiaria Unidentified CIAT Reyan No. 15 PR China 2005 Origin: mislabeled seed bags or a physical
ruziziensis accession number contaminant in a sample (“CIAT 6095”) of a
different species
Brachiaria CIAT 16125/ILCA C: 1984 BRS Piatã Brazil 2007 Collected in Ethiopia in cooperation with ILCA
brizantha 13372
Continued on next page
63 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68Table 5 continued
Species CIAT Accession no. Year of Cultivar name Country Year of Comments
acquisition1 registration/
release
B. brizantha CIAT 16467/ILCA C: 1984 BRS Paiaguás Brazil 2013 Collected in Kenya in cooperation with ILCA
(cont.) 12751
CIAT 26110 C: 1985 Toledo Colombia 2002 Collected in Burundi in cooperation with ISABU
Costa Rica 2001
Xaraés, MG5 Brazil 2000/01
Vitória
CIAT 6387 I: 1981 Serengeti2 SE Asia3 1990s Introduced as K-75232A-E from FAO-Kitale, Kenya
CIAT 16835 C: 1985 Karanga2 SE Asia3 1990s Collected in Zimbabwe in cooperation with
Grasslands Research Station Marondera
CIAT 16315/ILCA C: 1984 Capiporã Brazil 2003 Collected in Ethiopia in cooperation with ILCA
13635
CIAT 16488/ILCA C: 1984 Arapoty Brazil 2003 Collected in Kenya in cooperation with ILCA
13079
Panicum CIAT 6901 I: 1988 Reyan No. 8 PR China 2000 Introduced as K 71 from ORSTOM; origin: Kenya
maximum CIAT 6172 I: 1988 Reyan No. 9 PR China 2000 Introduced from Ecuador
CIAT 6799 I: 1983 Agrosavia Colombia 2018 Introduced as G 27 from ORSTOM; origin: Angola
Sabanera
CIAT 16051 I: 1983 Agrosavia Colombia 20206 Introduced as T 90 from ORSTOM; origin: Tanzania
Michaya
Pennisetum CIAT 6263 I: 1979 Reyan No. 4 PR China 1998 King Grass; introduced from IDIAP, Panama
purpureum × P.
glaucum
1C = year of collection; I = year of introduction of a donated accession; 2no formal release; 3several countries; 4formerly known as D. ovalifolium; 5taxon var. pauciflora not recognized by GRIN; 6release
programmed.
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 64
Distribution and efficient utilization of the collection. This includes
the capacity to supply sufficiently large seed samples for
The basis for effective and efficient utilization of
research beyond small-plot level and eventually for on-
CIAT’s forage germplasm has been, and still is, the farm testing.
production and distribution of germplasm samples for
The PPP arrangements between CIAT and the seed
plant introduction work by the Center´s GRU/GRP. industry are proving to be conducive to increased
Since 1980 a total of 93,222 germplasm samples,
adoption of improved-forage technology based on
representing 14,695 accessions, were distributed to 110 breeding lines.
countries. Approximately 41% of these samples went
The number of legume species (15), of which
to CIAT’s TPP/TFP. The remainder was distributed to
users in Colombia (33%), Brazil (9%), Peru, China, cultivars were released (33), contrasts with the number
of grass species (9) and released cultivars (44). We
Venezuela (4% each), Australia, Mexico, USA (3%
each), and 102 other countries. Approximately 47% suggest that this reflects, on the one hand, the particular
focus of CIAT and its research partners on legumes in the
of all externally distributed samples went to national
agricultural research institutes, 23% to universities, 16% past; on the other hand it reflects, to some extent, that
the user community of tropical forages seems to be more
to farmers, with the remainder going to CGIAR centers,
NGOs, companies, regional organizations, and other receptive to grasses as they are easier to manage and
have a better developed commercialization pathway.
genebanks worldwide (Figure 1). Seed samples were
predominantly used for agronomic evaluations (64%),
but also for basic research (13%), capacity building Diversity in the forage germplasm
(12%) and other purposes such as applied research, collection
genetic improvement and conservation, in alignment Basic plant descriptors have been used during both
with the ITPGRFA and the SMTA. The list of accessions the germplasm multiplication phase by the GRU/GRP
included in each seed shipment is linked to available and the primary evaluation phase by the TPP/TFP to
passport data and more recently to accession-specific provide information on phenotypic diversity within a
Digital Object Identifiers (DOI). species and subsequent reduction of accession numbers
For evaluation trials and on-farm experimentation for evaluation (e.g. the formation of core collections).
with accessions that were considered as highly promis- In addition, molecular marker studies have been used
ing by CIAT, its network partners and/or development to assess the genetic (= intraspecific) diversity and to
agencies, seed in larger amounts has been/is being pro- elucidate species relationships for species of particular
vided by the Tropical Forages Program (Tropical Pas- interest. On species that are little-known but of interest,
tures Program until 1992). Between 1982 and 2014, basic floral-biology studies have been performed with
the TPP/TFP produced and distributed almost 64 tons the objective of optimizing germplasm management and
of grass and legume seeds, either free of charge for enabling breeding. The main publications resulting from
research purposes or at cost price for larger quantities, such research are listed below (section Publications).
representing a total of 27,325 samples, to 88 countries The need for basic botanical and genetic studies to
worldwide. expand our knowledge about genera and species of
forage interest must be stressed. Any future diversity
Some concluding remarks on the utilization research is recommended to focus on relevance for:
and distribution of the CIAT forage (1) enhanced germplasm management and utilization
germplasm collection (e.g. identification of duplicates, establishment of
core collections); (2) relationships between traits and
A strong multidisciplinary research program (TPP/TFP) geographic origin of populations; and (3) identification
at CIAT and its alliance with national partners and of genes responsible for particularly important plant
international networks was instrumental for effective traits.
Sharing of knowledge
Training
During the period 1978−1990, the CIAT Tropical
Pastures Program, within its coordinating role in
the RIEPT network, held a yearly course ‘Programa
de Capacitación Cient́ıfica en Investigación para la
Producción de Pastos Tropicales’. The course, aimed
at researchers from Latin America and the Caribbean,
consisted of an intensive multi-disciplinary phase in
which all participants were provided with lectures
Figure 1. Historical distribution of 51,850 tropical-forage and practical training in all disciplines represented in
samples to different categories of germplasm users outside the TPP (thus including the field of genetic resources
CIAT since the inception of CIAT’s tropical forages collection. of forage plants and germplasm handling) and a
65 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
specialization phase. With an average of 20 participants Germplasm collection and biogeography
per course, a total of around 250 researchers were
Schultze-Kraft, R., Reid, R., Williams, R.J., Coradin,
trained during the 13-year period, with about 10
specializing in genetic resources. In addition, several L. (1984). The existing Stylosanthes collections. InThe biology and agronomy of Stylosanthes, eds. H.M.
dozen students from both Colombian and foreign
universities conducted research for their theses (BSc, Stace & L.A. Edye. (North Ryde, N.S.W.: Academic
Press Australia), p. 125–146. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-
MSc and PhD) with focus on genetic diversity of for-
ages under the supervision of TPP/TFP scientists. 661680-4.50011-1
Schultze-Kraft, R., Pattanavibul, S., Gani, A., He,
From 1990 onwards, training activities in forage
germplasm management were essentially taken over C., Wong, C.C. (1989). Collection of native germplasm
resources of tropical forage legumes in Southeast
by CIAT’s GRU/GRP, mainly in the area of germplasm
management and in the form of field days for Asia. In Proceedings of the XVI International GrasslandCongress, Nice, France, p. 271–272.
Colombian university students and technicians, with
demonstrations on field, greenhouse and laboratory Schultze-Kraft, R., Williams, R.J., Coradin, L., Lazier,
J.R., Kretschmer Jr, A.E., Franco, M.A., Hernández, C.A.
activities. Several hundred students, technicians and
researchers participated in this scheme. (1989). 1989 world catalog of Centrosema germplasm /Catálogo 1989 mundial de germoplasma de Centrosema.
(Cali, Colombia: CIAT and IBPGR), 319 p. https://
hdl.handle.net/10568/53945
Selected Publications Costa, N.M.S., Schultze-Kraft, R. (1990). Biogeografia
de Stylosanthes capitata Vog. e S. guianensis Sw.
The following list comprises a selection of publications var. pauciflora. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira 25(11),
that, with regard to research topics and regions, we 1547–1554. https://seer.sct.embrapa.br/index.php/pab
consider representative of the CIAT forage germplasm /article/view/13685
work during the past four decades:
Schultze-Kraft, R., Williams R.J., Coradin, L. (1990).
Biogeography of Centrosema. In Centrosema: Biology,
Botanical studies
agronomy, and utilization, eds. R. Schultze-Kraft & R.J.
Schultze-Kraft, R., Williams, R.J. (1990). Una nueva Clements. CIAT Publication No. 92. (Cali, Colombia:
especie de Centrosema (DC.) Benth. (Leguminosae: CIAT), p. 29–76. https://books.google.com.co/books?id
Papilionoideae) del Orinoco. Caldasia 16(77), 133–137. =MMsSFJwy63gC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA29#v=onepage&
https://revistas.unal.edu.co/index.php/cal/article/view q&f=false
/35508 Coradin, L., Schultze-Kraft, R. (1990). Germplasm
Torres, A.M. (1996). Un herbario de referencia para collection of tropical pasture legumes in Brazil. Tropical
la colección de germoplasma de forrajes tropicales Agriculture (Trinidad) 67(2), 98–100. https://journals.s
conservada por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura ta.uwi.edu/ta/index.asp?action=viewPastAbstract&arti
Tropical. Pasturas Tropicales Bolet́ın 18(3), 71–74. https: cleId=1751&issueId=217
//cgspace.cgiar/handle/10568/87998 Franco, M.A., Ocampo, G.I., Melo, E., Thomas,
Maass, B.L., Torres González, A.M. (1998). Off- R. (Comp.). (1993). Catálogo de cepas de rizobios
types indicate natural outcrossing in five tropical forage para leguminosas forrajeras tropicales / Catalogue of
legumes in Colombia. Tropical Grasslands 32, 124–130. rhizobium strains for tropical forage legumes. Working
https://www.tropicalgrasslands.info/public/journals/4 Document No. 14, 5th Edn. (Cali, Colombia: CIAT), 123
/Historic/Tropical%20Grasslands%20Journal%20archi p. http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/forrajes tropicales/p
ve/Abstracts/Vol_32_1998/Abs_32_02_98_p- df/4th/wd14.pdf
p124_130.ht ml Flores, A.J., Schultze-Kraft, R. (1994). Recolección de
Bystricky, M., Schultze-Kraft, R., Peters, M. (2010). recursos genéticos de leguminosas forrajeras tropicales
Studies on the pollination biology of the tropical forage en Venezuela. Agronomı́a Tropical 44(3), 357–371.
legume shrub Craylia argentea. Tropical Grasslands 44, Keller-Grein, G., Maass, B.L., Hanson, J. (1996). Nat-
246–252. https://www.tropicalgrasslands.info/public/j ural variation in Brachiaria and existing germplasm col-
ournals/4/Historic/Tropical%20Grasslands%20Journal lections. In Brachiaria: Biology, agronomy, and improve-
%20archive/PDFs/Vol_44%20(1_2_3_4)/Vol%2044 ment, eds. J.W. Miles, B.L. Maass, C.B. do Valle, V.
%20(4)%20Bystricky%20et%20al%20246.pdf Kumble. CIAT Publication No. 259. (Cali, Colombia:
Calles, T., Schultze-Kraft, R. (2010). Re- CIAT and EMBRAPA-CNPGC), p. 16–42. https://books.g
establishment of Stylosanthes gracilis (Leguminosae) oogle.com.co/books?id=dMF6QpfVdjMC&lpg=PP1&pg
at species level. Kew Bulletin 65(2), 233–240. doi: =PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false
10.1007/s12225-010-9198-z
Calles, T., Schultze-Kraft, R. (2010). Stylosanthes
(Leguminosae, Dalbergieae) of Venezuela. Willdenowia
40, 305–329. doi: 10.3372/wi.40.40211
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 66
Diversity studies, including characterization and Monographs
preliminary evaluation
Schultze-Kraft, R., Clements, R.J. (eds.). (1990).
Schultze-Kraft, R., Costa, N.M.S., Flores, A. (1984). Cen-trosema: Biology, agronomy, and utilization. CIAT
Stylosanthes macrocephala M.B. Ferr. et S. Costa – Collec- Publication No. 92. (Cali, Colombia: CIAT), 667 p.
tion and preliminary agronomic evaluation of a new https://hd l.handle.net/10568/54383
tropical pasture legume. Trocpical Agriculture
Toledo, J.M., Vera, R., Lascano, C., Lenné, J.M. (eds.).
(Trinidad) 61(3), 230–240. https://jounals.sta. (1990). Andropogon gayanus Kunth – a grass for tropi-
uwi.edu/ta/index.asp?ation=viewPastAbstract&article calacid soils. CIAT Publication No. 90. (Cali, Colom-
Id=2322&issueId=243
Pizarro, E.A. (comp.). (1985). Red de Evaluación de bia: CIAT), 381 p. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/54190
Pastos Tropicales – Resultados 1982−1985. III Reunión Kerridge, P.C., Hardy, B. (eds.). (1994). Biology and
de la RIEPT, Octubre 21−24, 1985. 2 Vols. (Cali, agronomy of forage Arachis. CIAT Publication No. 240.
Colombia: CIAT), 1228 p. https://hdl.handle.net/1056 (Cali, Colombia: CIAT), 209 p. https://hdl.handle.net/ 
8/56339 10568/54359
Schultze-Kraft, R., Benavides, G. (1988). Germplasm Miles, J.W., Maass, B.L., Valle, C.B. do, Kumble,
collection and preliminary evaluation of Desmodium V. (eds.). (1996). Brachiaria: Biology, agronomy, and
ovalifolium Wall. Genetic Resources Communication No. improvement. CIAT Publication No. 259. (Cali, Colombia:
12. (St. Lucia, Qld., Australia: CSIRO, Division of Tropi- CIAT and EMBRAPA-CNPGC), 288 p. https://hdl.handle
cal Crops and Pastures), 20 p. https://www.tropicalgra .net/10568/54362
sslands.info/public/journals/4/GRC/GRC12%5b1792% Cook, B.G., Pengelly, B.C., Schultze-Kraft, R., Tay-
5d.pdf lor, M., Burkart, S., Cardoso Arango, J.A., González
Torres González, A.M., Morton, C.M. (2005). Guzmán, J.J., Cox, K., Jones, C., Peters, M. (2020).
Molecular and morphological phylogenetic analy- Tropical Forages: An interactive selection tool. 2nd and
sis of Brachiaria and Urochloa (Poaceae). Molec- revised Edn. (Cali, Colombia and Nairobi, Kenya: CIAT
ular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37, 36–44. doi: and ILRI). www.tropicalforages.info
10.1016/j.ympev.2005.06.003
Andersson, M.S., Peters, M., Schultze-Kraft, R., Gal- Some thoughts about the value of the CIAT
lego, G., Duque, M.C. (2006). Molecular character- tropical forages germplasm collection
ization of a collection of the tropical multipurpose Having safeguarded the germplasm is a major achieve-
shrub legume Flemingia macrophylla. Agroforestry Sys- ment in view of increasing world-wide genetic erosion
tems 68(3), 231–245. doi: 10.1007/s10457-006-9014-9 due to habitat destruction and land use changes. The
Andersson M.S., Schultze-Kraft, R., Peters, M., Duque, very availability of conserved germplasm represents an
M.C., Gallego, G. (2007). Extent and structure of genetic option value whose potential impact cannot be calcu-
diversity in a collection of the tropical multipurpose lated and should not be underestimated.
shrub legume Cratylia argentea (Desv.) O. Kuntze Given that the CIAT tropical forages collection is
as revealed by RAPD markers. Electronic Journal of an in-trust collection, held by CIAT on behalf of
Biotechnology 10(3), 386–399. doi: 10.2225/vol10- the countries of origin of the accessions, another
issue3-fulltext-2 incalculable option value is that all accessions stored in
Research methodologies the genebank are available to users under an SMTA at
any time. In this context, an important potential benefit
Mott, G.O., Jiménez, C.A. (eds.). (1979). Handbook to the 75 countries of origin of the germplasm conserved
for the collection, preservation and characterization of at CIAT’s genebank is that it is available for repatriation.
tropical forage germplasm resources. (Cali, Colombia: The present report has to content itself with
CIAT), 95 p. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/54059 showing the number of released cultivars developed
Paladines, O., Lascano, C.E. (eds.). (1993). Forage from CIAT’s forages collection. An estimation of the
germplasm under small-plot grazing: Evaluation method- total economic benefits derived from the collection
ologies. CIAT Publication No. 210. (Cali, Colombia: is beyond the possibilities of genebank managers or
RIEPT – CIAT), 249 p. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/5 scientists engaged in developing varieties. For this,
6518 field studies are suggested to be necessary, which have
Toledo, J.M. (ed.). (1982). Manual para la evaluación to involve resource economists for the assessment of
agronómica: Red Internacional de Evaluación de Pastos acreages planted to the new cultivars, resulting livestock
Tropicales (RIEPT). (Cali, Colombia: CIAT), 150 p. http production increases, benefits to the environment (e.g.
s://hdl.handle.net/10568/54148 soil conservation and improvement) and estimates of
Schultze-Kraft, R., Mannetje, L.’t. (2000). Evaluation increased livelihoods of end users.
of species and cultivars. In Field and laboratory meth-
ods for grassland and animal production research, eds. L.’t Some considerations for the future
Mannetje & R.M. Jones. (Wallingford, UK: CAB Interna-
tional), 179–204. doi: 10.1079/9780851993515.0179 Although this report is concerned with both past and
present, a couple of thoughts related to the future
seem to be appropriate. Funding for tropical-forage
research and deployment has declined considerably
67 Schultze-Kraft et al Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68
over the last decades. Ex situ conservation of forages in addition to those at the CGIAR centers
is substantially more expensive on a per-acces- ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Re-
sion basis than conservation of other crops such as search in the Dry Areas) and World Agroforestry
grains and pulses because cross-pollinating, wild Centre (ICRAF) cannot be considered adequately
and/or weedy accessions with long, asynchronous representative of the geographic and taxonomic/
life cycles are substantially more expensive to re- genetic diversity of the tropical and subtropical
generate thaninbred crops with short, synchronous Poaceae and Fabaceae (Leguminosae), neither at
life cycles (Koo et al, 2003), yet funding for tropi- the level of the individualcollections nor at that of
cal-forage research and deployment has declined their consolidated total. It is suggested that such gap
considerably over the last decades. Accordingly, to analyses:
ensure the long-term conservation and availability • Consider both neglected areas/regions and gen-
of critically important tropical-forage genetic re- era/species of particular interest with emphasis on
sources, genebanks need to focus on the species with potential as forage and for environmental services.
the greatest forage potential. A panel of well-known • Be based on ecogeographical surveys paying
tropical-forage experts has grouped the species con- particular attention to regions where biodiversity
loss (including danger of genetic erosion) has been
served at the CIAT and ILRI collections into priority identified and/or is likely to occur.
categories based on the species’ proven or suspected • Consider the need for germplasm with focus
forage potential (Pengelly, 2015). Lowpriority acces- on adaptation to the particular environmental
sions of both collections will be archived to focus con- challenges of the future in terms of the effects
servation efforts on more promising species, with a view of climate change, such as increasing soil salinity,
towards multiplying selected groups of ‘bestbet’ acces- rising water table (including flooding), drought,
sions so that larger quantities of starter seeds can be temperature extremes etc. Collecting is suggested
provided for research projects to shorten the path be- in areas of currently similar conditions under
the assumption that germplasm occurring there
tween the genebank and germplasm use in the field. has genetic adaptation to the respective limiting
Compared with tropical-forage collections at ILRI factors.
in Ethiopia (17K accessions), USDA in the US (15K
accessions), KARI (Kenya Agricultural Research Insti- Such gap analyses can be the basis for future
tute) in Kenya (15K accessions), the Australian Pas- internationally coordinated collecting actions — when
tures Genebank (APG) in Australia (13K accessions), they become feasible — but independently may also
EMBRAPA in Brazil (9K accessions), INTA in Argentina, stimulate immediate plans of action at national levels.
and IGFRI (Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Insti- Acknowledgements
tute) in India, CIAT’s collection is particularly rich in
legumes adapted to infertile, acid soils. A full list of The cooperation and engagement of the germplasm
accessions, including passport data, photos of plants, collectors (Supplemental Table 2), who contributed to
flowers and seeds and images of herbarium specimens, the tropical forages collection conserved at CIAT, are
can be accessed on the Genesys web portal by filtering gratefully acknowledged.
for ‘COL003’ for CIAT and ‘forages’ as a crop (https://
www.genesys-pgr.org). Supplemental data
In 2021, the CIAT genebank will achieve all the Supplemental Table 1: Recent nomenclatural changes
CGIAR Genebank Platform’s ‘performance targets’ for of tropical forage species mentioned in this document
its forage collection (Crop Trust, 2016). One of these under their previous names, based on the taxonomy
targets is making more than 90% of all accessions accepted by the USDA Genetic Resources Information
available for immediate distribution, which means the Network (GRIN).
genebank holds sufficient numbers of seeds that have
been tested and found to be free of more than 40 Supplemental Table 2: Plant collectors who partici-
different pathogens of quarantine importance. The pated in the collecting missions mentioned in Table 1.
collection, therefore, will qualify for long-term funding
from the Endowment Fund of the Global Crop Diversity Author contributions
Trust to ensure its in-perpetuity conservation. R.S.K. contributed to the conception and design of the
Although increasing germplasm collections by further submitted manuscript. All authors contributed to data
collecting is currently difficult to justify, the policy gathering and analysis and to the drafting, revision and
framework may change over time, for example through final approval of the submitted manuscript. The views
an expansion of the ITGPRFA’s scope to include all plant expressed in this publication are those of the authors and
genetic resources for food and agriculture. Efforts to do not necessarily reflect the views of CIAT, now part of
identify the most important collection gaps, therefore, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT.
are indicated to prepare for future collections. As
suggested above, the forage germplasm collections Conflict of interest statement
currently conserved at the aforementioned genebanks, The Authors declare no conflict of interest.
Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (2), 51–68 CIAT tropical forages collection 68
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