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Chapter
Agroecological Approach 
to Farming for Sustainable 
Development: The Indian Scenario
Ishwari Singh Bisht, Jai Chand Rana, Sarah Jones, 
Natalia Estrada-Carmona and Rashmi Yadav
Abstract
Agroecology is the application of ecological principles to agricultural systems 
and practices and the application of social justice principles to whole food systems. 
Agroecological farming, an unfamiliar concept to those who treat agriculture and 
ecology as separate subjects, refers to farming for producing food, employment and 
economic benefits in addition to cultural, social and environmental services and ben-
efits. Additionally, agroecology empowers farming communities, as the key agents of 
change, and addresses the root cause of problems of unsustainable agricultural systems 
in an integrated way and provides holistic and long-term solutions to transform the 
food and agricultural systems. As agroecology is at the forefront of transforming farm-
ing and food system sustainability, the present chapter specifically explores the state 
of Indian traditional farming agroecosystems, evidence collected under the ongoing 
Indian UNEP-GEF project “Mainstreaming agricultural biodiversity conservation and 
utilization in agricultural sector to ensure ecosystem services and reduce vulnerability”. 
We discuss traditional Indian farming in view of FAO’s 10 principles of Agroecology 
which is key to help policymakers, practitioners and stakeholders, in planning, manag-
ing and evaluating agroecological transitions.
Keywords: agroecology, agrarian reforms, traditional Indian agroecosystems, 
agroecological transitions, sustainable agriculture
1. Introduction
Agroecology, barely recognized a decade ago within official circles, has taken a 
central stage now in global discussions on food system, environment, and develop-
ment [1–7]. Agroecology offers an alternative and viable strategy for transforming 
food systems to deliver fair outcomes for farmers, society, and the environment 
[8]. Its holistic view of agroecosystems facilitates ecological and social levels of 
coevolution, structure, and function [8]. In particular, agroecology is acquiring a 
new relevance on reconstructing the post-COVID-19 agriculture, one that is able to 
avoid widespread disruptions of food supplies in the future by territorializing food 
production and consumption of healthy and sustainably produced foods [9].
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations asserts 
that agroecology can help alleviate hunger and poverty as well as contribute to 
meeting other sustainable development goals [3]. Agroecological practices such as 
crop diversification, intercropping, agroforestry, mixed crop-livestock systems, soil 
1
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Figure 1. 
The four unique agroecosystems of India being studied presently under the UNEP-GEF project and the extent of 
agricultural area in India.
management measures, and farmer-to-farmer networks have been reported to have 
positive food security and nutrition outcomes [7]. To facilitate the adoption and 
transition towards agroecological production systems, various efforts have helped 
to condense and integrate the various principles and elements put forward as key 
enablers of agroecology as a social movement and science [2, 6, 10, 11, 12].
Here, we use the FAO [11] approved 10 Elements of Agroecology to identify 
how traditional Indian farming systems contribute to each element and discuss the 
knowledge gaps and next steps needed to further advance adopting these principles 
in the Indian context. We mobilize the evidence collected from the UNEP GEF project 
“Mainstreaming agricultural biodiversity conservation and utilization in agricultural 
sector to ensure ecosystem services and reduce vulnerability”. The project’s evidence 
comes from four contrasting agroecosystems (Figure 1) specifically selected to 
cover unique crops and associated diversity adapted to diverse agricultural practices, 
weather pattern and socioeconomic systems. The UNEP-GEF project will directly 
support India’s contribution to the CBD’s Strategic Plan and the Aichi Targets adopted 
at the 10th Conference of the Parties (CoP) of the CBD, by working with farmers to 
document existing cultivars, and trial and scale crop diversification strategies (as one 
of agroecology principles) to enhance agronomic, ecological, and social outcomes [13]. 
Overall, we aim to offer a fundamentally different vision of the way India can produce 
and consume food, while contributing to the creation of equitable food systems.
2. Traditional world agriculture and the Indian agroecosystems
More than half of the world’s cultivated land is still farmed by traditional and 
subsistence methods [11, 14]. This type of farming is usually better adapted to 
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Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
local conditions and has been benefitted from centuries of cultural and biological 
evolution. Small holder farmers have inherited or developed such complex farming 
systems that have helped them meet their subsistence needs for centuries, even 
under adverse environmental conditions with scarce and locally available resources, 
without depending on purchased inputs. In traditional subsistence farming, nearly 
all of the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and the farmer’s 
family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale or trade.
The small holder farmers have designed practices that optimize productivity 
in the long term rather than maximize it in the short term [15]. Inputs originate 
locally and the farm work is performed by family labours or animals that are 
fuelled from local sources. Smallholder farmers, working within these energy and 
spatial constraints, have learned to recognize and use locally available resources 
for agricultural production [16]. Traditional farmers are innovative, and often 
manage and value a plethora of products and characteristics of the farming system 
(e.g. resilience, food availability), beyond the yield of only one commodity. The 
productivity comparisons between Green Revolution and traditional agriculture 
systems have, therefore, been misleading and biased. In order to remedy deficien-
cies in modern agriculture, many scientists in developed countries are now showing 
enhanced interest in traditional agriculture, especially in small-scale mixed crop 
systems. The wealth of traditional farmers’ practical experiential knowledge needs 
to be transferred to farming system productions before it is lost forever.
India represents nearly 7–8% of the recorded species and is one of the 17 
recognized mega-diverse countries of the world, with a large landmass and var-
ied ecosystems [17]. It represents four of the 36 globally identified biodiversity 
hotspots, designated by Conservation International [18]. Besides, there are 22 
recognized agrobiodiversity hotspots [19] that harbor the diversity of native and 
naturalized crops, their wild and weedy relatives, and crop associated biodiversity 
in agroecosystems.
The smallholder farming in all recognized agrobiodiversity hotspots of India is 
mainly subsistence and highly labour-intensive. Agriculture, however, is still the 
biggest land use and the biggest employer in India. Nearly 55% of the population 
rely on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood [20]. Smallholder and 
marginal farmers account for 86.2% of all farmers in India.
3.  The 10 elements of agroecology and the traditional Indian farming 
scenario
The 10 elements of agroecology emanated from the FAO regional seminars 
on agroecology and are intended to help guide countries to transform their food 
and agricultural system. The elements have been grouped under three categories 
as shown in Figure 2 [11]. These 10 Elements of Agroecology are interlinked and 
interdependent, and are a guide for policymakers, practitioners and stakeholders in 
planning, managing and evaluating agroecological transitions, as an analytical tool.
Kumar [21] provides an insight into the agrarian history of pre-green revolution 
India and the reasons contributing to the adoption of “productivity-oriented” green 
revolution agriculture, largely unaddressed in the contemporary literature. Das [22] 
defines it as a tragedy that the green revolution model of agricultural development 
has made such headway that it is almost impossible to do away with the concept 
and practice of ‘increasing production’ of all sectors of agriculture at the cost of 
the environment, economy, ecology, nutrition, diversity, etc. A country with a 
tradition of paddy rice and millet cultivation adopted a new agricultural develop-
ment strategy based mainly on wheat. The multi-crop model existing in different 
3
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Figure 2. 
The 10 elements of agroecology from FAO [11].
agroecological conditions has been neglected at the cost of environment and socio-
economy, adopting a monocrop model heralded by the green revolution. The green 
revolution increased agricultural production around the world with the planting 
of mainly high yielding wheat and rice varieties that depended on applications 
of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and enhanced farm mechanization. 
The Green Revolution in India started in the late 1960s and with its success India 
attained food self-sufficiency within a decade.
The blind adherence to increasing food production without considering trade-
offs or synergies with other outcomes is now being challenged [21], and enabling 
India to envision alternative futures that address the needs of farmers, society and 
nature. The self-sufficiency in two cereals, wheat and rice, in India came at the cost 
of another form of dependence - the import of rock phosphate for fertilizers and 
petroleum for irrigation pumps and tractors. Dependence on these non-renewable 
and fast depleting sources of energy and minerals also made agriculture a carbon-
emitting sector impacting the climate. The country did not stop being vulnerable; 
it became vulnerable to a different set of interests. With this, deeper ecological and 
existential questions have emerged [22].
In the following sections, we use data collected on the UNEP-GEF project 
to investigate how well FAO’s elements of agroecology are embedded into tra-
ditional farming landscapes in the four agroecologically contrasting regions of 
India, described above (Figure 1). This includes data collected through explor-
atory surveys with farmers across four representative agroecosystems based on 
participatory focus group discussions and observational surveys, between 2017 
and 2020 [23, 24]. Farmer surveys indicate that about 80% of households have 
crop-livestock mixed farming across the four Indian agroecosystems, while the 
remaining 20% are engaged either in crop production or livestock production 
alone (Table 1). Livestock, therefore, are integral sector of all traditional farm-
ing agroecosystems. Farmers indicated that the purpose of crop production is 
mainly for home consumption (subsistence) and only the surplus produce is 
for sale.
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Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
Main agricultural activity (response of mean % households)
1. Mainly crop production 8.52
2. Mainly livestock production 10.60
3. Mixed (crop and livestock) 80.88
Purpose of crop production (response of mean % households)
1. Producing only for sale —
2. Producing mainly for sale with some own consumption 8.32
3. Producing mainly for own consumption with some sales 68.84
4. Producing only for own consumption 22.84
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [23].
Table 1. 
Main agricultural activity and purpose of crop production in traditional Indian farming agroecosystems.
3.1 Diversity
Biological diversity is essential to life, providing the raw material for evolution 
and strengthening ecological stability. This also applies to crop diversity as without 
it, crop improvement is impossible [25]. Traditionally, farmers worldwide, have 
been selecting, improving, developing, protecting and using a wide range of species 
adapted to the often harsh or difficult pedo-climatic conditions through ingenious 
practices, unfortunately, these knowledge, practices and species are disappearing 
fast [26]. The novel agroecosystem designs appropriate to smallholder farmers are 
reported to have been modeled on successful traditional farming systems [27].
Deploying and protecting currently available biodiversity in production land-
scapes, contributes to a range of production, socio-economic, nutrition and envi-
ronmental benefits. Diversification has been a common and key to agroecological 
transition ensuring food and nutrition security and sustainable management of nat-
ural resources in all the traditional Indian agroecosystems researched in the recent 
past [23, 24]. Traditional production systems in India are highly diverse, character-
ized by polyculture farming; crop-livestock small-scale mixed farming; greater 
farmer household production and dietary diversity; use of traditional agriculture 
innovation practices, etc. The benefits of diversification extend to human diets. 
Consuming a diverse range of food resources are important in contributing macro- 
and, micro-nutrients and, other bioactive compounds to human diets [28]. On-farm 
conservation have been reported to result in a number of interlinked elements that 
supports agricultural biodiversity as part of a dynamic system [29].
Multiple strategies exist to diversify production systems. For example, agro-
forestry systems organize crops, shrubs, and trees of different heights and shapes 
at different levels or strata, increasing vertical strata with different habitat and 
resources [30] for biodiversity, climate mitigation and yields. Intercropping com-
bines complementary species to increase spatial diversity. Crop rotations, often 
including legumes, increase temporal diversity and soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. 
Crop-livestock systems in all agroecosystems rely on diversity of local breeds 
adapted to specific environments, that also largely contribute to household cash 
economy and soil fertility and labour relief [31]. Similarly, traditional fish polycul-
ture farming systems follow the same principles to maximizing diversity [32].
In the project sites, in average, traditional systems at the community level 
maintain three varieties per crop (Table 2). Surprisingly, 55% of land is occupied by 
rare landraces (i.e. traditional variety) despite the current lack of economic or social 
5
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Crop diversity variables Diversity measure Diversity 
estimates*
Crop species diversity Species richness 16.0
Within- species (genetic) Cultivar richness 47.8
diversity
Area share of common landraces Share of cropland (%) 46.0
Area share of rare landraces Share of cropland (%) 54.0
Loss of species diversity Species lost as a share of all known crop 20.0
species** (%)
Loss of genetic (within species) Cultivars lost as a share of all known crop 7.0
diversity cultivars** (%)
*Diversity estimates were made per village, as a unit of study, based on 2–3 core villages each across four 
representative agroecosystems of the GEF project (Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
**Information on known crop species and cultivars is based on exploratory surveys.
Table 2. 
Major staple food crop species and within-species (genetic) diversity in traditional farming agroecosystems.
recognition of these conservation efforts. The crop landrace species and varietal 
diversity remains high, although 20% of species and 7% of varieties are considered 
locally extinct. Crop species and varietal diversity has been maintained with the 
active intervention of local farmers. The traditional landraces differing in morpho-
logical characteristics, offer farmers other valued benefits including taste, texture, 
cooking quality, resistance to biotic/abiotic stresses and others besides yield per se. 
For example, in the project sites, we found each agroecosystem has a unique crop/
species combination for multiple uses including food, but also medicinal, incense 
and perfume which have a cultural and social value (Table 3).
Crop diversity loss and agroecosystems homogenization have major conse-
quences for provision of ecosystem system services as well as food system sustain-
ability [33]. Agroecology can help reverse these trends by managing and conserving 
agrobiodiversity, and responding to the increasing demand for a diversity of 
products that are eco-friendly and nutritious. The ‘fish-friendly’ rice produced 
from rice ecosystems, particularly in tropical and subtropical Asia including India, 
can be cited as an example here, which values the diversity of aquatic species and 
their importance for rural livelihoods [34].
Conservation is especially important in the case of disappearing, specially 
adapted varieties, calling for renewed efforts to support farmers as custodians 
of biodiversity and genetic resources [35]. Hence, the importance of policies for 
agroecological transition that enables, recognize and strengthen the collaboration 
between holders of indigenous knowledge and mainstream scientific research. This 
close collaboration will facilitate co-producing knowledge that will guide locally 
relevant and adapted interventions for preserving diversity in the field, and land-
scapes and for food, nutrition, ecosystem services and resilience [36].
UNEP [37] outlines some of the key issues for consideration by policymakers 
to ensure the continued engagement of farmers in conservation and the use of 
agrobiodiversity. Recognizing better the role of farmers as libraries of traditional 
knowledge, custodians of natural resources and providers of nutritious foods and 
ecosystem services reflected in a better social status and quality of life could be a 
good starting point to encourage farmers to continue farming. This requires the 
support of policymakers, for developing the mix of mechanisms or incentives that 
will make farming an appealing, respected and well valued profession and way of 
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Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
Agroecosystem Main crops Main tree/shrub agroforestry 
species
Hill & mountain Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat Main agroforestry species for high 
(Triticum aestivum), minor quality fiber are drooping Fig (Ficus 
millets (ragi, Eleusine coracana; semicordata), Grewia oppositifolia,  
barnyard millet, Echinochloa G. asiatica etc., and for edible fruits 
frumentacea); foxtail millet, Setaria are European nettle tree (Celtis 
italica), black-seeded soybean australis,) Grewia oppositifolia, G. 
(Glycine max), urd bean (Vigna asiatica, Elephant ear Fig (Ficus 
mungo), horsegram (Macrotyloma auriculata), wild Fig (F. palmata), 
uniflorum), mustard (Brassica drooping fig (F. semicordata), willow-
spp.), sesame (Sesamum indicum), leaf fig  
pseudocereals (amaranths, (F. nemoralis), wild Himalayan pear 
Amaranthus spp.; buckwheat, (Pyrus pashia), etc., beside several 
Fagopyrum spp.), miscellaneous others.
vegetables, temperate fruits, etc.
Hot arid Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), Screw bean (Prosopis cineraria), 
mung bean (Vigna radiata), Ziziphus nummularia, wild Caper 
sesame (Sesamum indicum) bush (Capparis decidua), gum arabic 
and cluster bean (Cyamopsis tree (Acacia senegal).
tetragonaloba)
Central tribal plateau Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat Forestry species: gum arabic tree 
(Triticum aestivum), pigeon pea (Acacia nilotica), river tamarind 
(Cajanus cajan), mung bean (Leucaena leucocephala), English 
(Vigna radiata), urd bean, soybean beechwood (Gmelina arboria), North 
(V. mungo) Indian rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo, 
Pongame oiltree (Millettia pinnata), 
and as fruit trees: Malabar plum 
(Syzygium cumini), common guava 
(Psidium guajava), drumstick tree 
(Moringa oleifera), Indian gooseberry 
(Phyllanthus emblica), custard 
apple (Annona reticulata), jackfruit 
(Artocarpus heterophyllus).
7
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Agroecosystem Main crops Main tree/shrub agroforestry 
species
North-eastern region Rice (Oryza sativa), tea (Camellia Agar (Aquilaria agallocha), areca nut 
sinensis), vegetables, sugarcane (Areca catechu), needlewood tree 
(Saccharum officinarum), jute (Schima wallichii), java cassia (Cassia 
(Corchorus olitorius), cotton nodosa), kassod tree (Cassia seamea), 
(Gossypium spp.), black gram (V. white siris (Albizzia procera), betel 
mungo), lentil (Lens culinaris) (Piper betel), long pepper (P. longum), 
green gram (V. radiata), gram bamboos (Bambusa spp.), canes, 
(Cicer arietinum), pigeon pea timbers and other shade trees.
(Cajanus cajan), linseed (Linum 
usitatissimum), castor (Ricinus 
communis), sesame (Sesamum 
indicum), rapeseed & mustard 
(Brassica spp.), banana (Musa 
spp.), papaya (Carica papaya), 
orange (Citrus spp.), pineapple 
(Ananas comosus), areca nut (Areca 
catechu), coconut (Cocos nucifera), 
chili (Capsicum spp.), turmeric 
(Curcuma longa), ginger (Zingiber 
officinale), potato (Solanum 
tuberosum), sweet potato (Ipomoea 
batatas), etc.
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
Table 3. 
Main agroforestry species of the different Indian farming agroecosystems and multiple uses (fibers, food, fodder, 
medicinal, wood, incense/perfume).
living. For example, payment for ecosystem services (PES) can compensate farm-
ers for the services and conservation efforts they provide, beyond food. Similarly, 
market signals that makes cheaper traditional and nutritious food, against highly 
subsidized and less nutritious food can also incentivize the production, consump-
tion and profitability of traditional/indigenous crops, this off course should be in 
tandem with nutritional programs that highlight the nutritional, ecological, agricul-
tural and cultural value of traditional foods. Investing in conservation, protection 
and use of agrobiodiversity in field and plates is an urgent need across countries for 
enabling and facilitating agroecological transitions and production systems that 
provide nutritious food and ecosystem services. Investing, therefore, where the 
most agricultural biodiversity occurs, subsistence farming, is an important  
low-risk option.
3.2 Co-creation and sharing of knowledge
In traditional Indian farming contexts, we find limited responsiveness of 
modern science to societal needs [24]. The gap between experts’ knowledge and 
traditional innovations in actual farming situations were more pronounced when 
sustainability issues are being considered. Sustainability of traditional smallholder 
farming, therefore, requires a holistic approach and an interdisciplinary research 
8
Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
style. The need of a new knowledge base has been strongly felt for transition 
towards more sustainable agriculture [38]. Farmers greatly value local experiential 
knowledge which is not being optimally used and a better strategy to integrate vari-
ous forms of knowledge is needed [39].
Incorporating farmers’ experiential knowledge with formal agricultural 
knowledge is still being debated [40], as the agricultural knowledge system has 
always been very closely connected to the modernisation process in agriculture, 
Management areas and various management actions based on farmers’ indigenous knowledge (IK)
• Biodiversity conservation
○ Management of domesticated and wild farm biodiversity
○ Local community-level on-farm and off-farm vegetation management including forestry resources
○ Managing biodiversity in sacred groves/sacred landscapes
○ Cultivation of medicinal plants.
• Adaptation to climate change
○ The multiple and diversified livelihood skills of farmers is a source of resilience in times of uncertain 
weather and climate change.
○ Maintaining species and genetic diversity in fields provide a low-risk buffer in uncertain weather and 
the diversity in production landscapes is considered a necessity rather than a choice.
• Agroforestry
○ Indigenous knowledge on traditional agroforestry offers opportunities to farmers for sustainable 
management of resources and support socio-ecological and socio-economic benefits.
○ The traditional/cultural knowledge embedded within the rural communities in different agroeco-
systems is the inherent identity that is unique and diverse in all respects to traditional agroforestry 
management and conservation. It is reflected in their cultivation system, ethnobiology and health and 
nutrition management.
• Traditional medicine
○ Use of herbal medicines was reported by native farming communities of all Indian agroecosystems. 
Traditional medicines are used to cure different ailments. Herbal formulations were administered 
either internally or applied externally depending on the type of ailment.
• Customary resource management
○ Traditional knowledge, innovations and practices duly supported by spiritual beliefs and custom-
ary laws are developed and nurtured over many generations. The natural resource-based livelihood 
of native communities enable them to live within the natural limits of specific territories, areas or 
resources upon which they depend for livelihoods and wellbeing.
• Applied anthropology
○ Indigenous knowledge and institutions are contributing to more culturally appropriate and sustain-
able development. It is also based on the realization that native communities are not only more keenly 
aware of their needs than are outside development agencies but that those needs are culturally defined, 
demanding a substantive rather than a formal appreciation.
• Impact assessment
○ Indigenous knowledge can assist bring awareness about potential impact of a project and steps taken 
to prevent adverse effects to the existing environment but there are currently no guidelines on how 
indigenous knowledge should be integrated into impact assessments.
• Natural disaster preparedness and response
○ Indigenous knowledge can be transferred and adapted to other communities in disaster management, 
it encourages community participation and empowers communities in reducing disaster risk.
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
Table 4. 
Farmers’ experiential knowledge and various management actions related to mainstreaming biodiversity in 
production landscapes.
9
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
the ‘scientification’ of agriculture [41]. The science-based model advocating yield 
maximization, for example, often fail in actual farming situations and farmers 
normally find that experts’ knowledge is of limited practical value [42–44]. This 
gap between theory and practice becomes even more pronounced when sustainabil-
ity issues need to be considered and calls for a new mode of working that enables 
scientists to optimize knowledge within and for different local conditions. In order 
for agriculture to become sustainable and resilient, there is need of knowledge 
networking that facilitates knowledge exchanges, joint learning which facilitates the 
generation and innovation of new and more integrated solutions [39].
Agricultural innovations respond better to local challenges when they are co-
created through participatory processes. Data on farmers’ experiential knowledge 
and various management actions related to mainstreaming biodiversity across the 
four UNEP-GEF project production landscapes are presented in Table 4, collected 
through participatory focus group discussion meetings with farmers from 2 to 3 
core villages in each of the four representative agroecosystems. This shows that in 
traditional systems farmers’ experiential knowledge to agriculture cannot be seen in 
isolation, rather a whole range of interlinked management areas are as important.
Native farming communities in all Indian agroecosystems are especially vulner-
able to weather uncertainties and climate change [24]. The community level climate 
change adaptation plans are often rooted in Western scientific knowledge, largely 
ignoring traditional farmer innovations. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into 
Western science-based climate change adaptation plans is, therefore, an untapped 
opportunity for the policymakers to integrate into climate change adaptation plans 
and legislate accordingly.
Farmers’ knowledge is considered a better resource for managing ecosystems 
[45] that gives an insight on designing social systems that mesh better with ecosys-
tems. The differential farming styles are forms of adapting to diversity within local 
ecosystems. Farming styles are an outcome of ‘co-production’, that is the ongoing 
interplay and mutual transformation of the social and the technical [46], including 
evidently local ecosystems.
As agroecology depends on context-specific knowledge, hence agroecological 
practices should be tailored to fit the environmental, social, economic, cultural 
and political context [11]. The co-creation and sharing of knowledge at multiple 
levels (i.e. farmers, states, ecoregions, countries) plays a central role in the process 
of developing and implementing agroecological innovations to address challenges 
across food systems including adaptation to climate change. Currently, media can 
facilitate fast and massive knowledge interchange with a larger reach than tradi-
tional extension officers. Hence, co-evaluating agroecological practices (i.e. exten-
sion officers, universities, research institutions and farmers) across agroecological 
zones and social-economic context through simple online videos and tutorials 
verified and curated is a new strategy at its infancy for facilitating knowledge 
integration and farmer-to-farmer learning at the new pace and scale that is needed. 
Through the co-creation process, agroecology cross-pollinate traditional knowledge 
and global scientific knowledge.
3.3 Synergies
The IAASTD [47] concluded that the future of agriculture lies in biodiverse, 
agroecological based farming systems that can meet social, economic and envi-
ronmental goals while maintaining and increasing productivity. Agroecology 
is therefore increasingly recognized as the way forward for agriculture, capable 
of delivering productivity goals without depleting the environment and disem-
powering communities. The value of various ecosystem services to agriculture 
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Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
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is enormous and often underappreciated [48, 49]. Agroecosystems also produce 
a variety of ecosystem services, such as conservation of biodiversity, regulation 
of soil and water quality, carbon sequestration, and cultural services [50]. On 
the other hand, depending on management practices, agriculture can also be the 
source of numerous disservices, including loss of wildlife habitat, nutrient runoff, 
sedimentation of waterways, greenhouse gas emissions, and pesticide poisoning of 
humans and non-target species [51].
The trade-offs that may occur between provisioning services and other ecosys-
tem services and disservices should be evaluated in terms of spatial scale, temporal 
scale and reversibility. As more effective methods for valuing ecosystem services 
become available, the potential for ‘win-win’ scenarios increases. Under all sce-
narios, appropriate agricultural management practices are critical to realizing the 
benefits of ecosystem services and reducing disservices from agricultural activities 
[47]. Building synergies enhances key functions across food systems, supporting 
production and multiple ecosystem services.
Agroecology pays careful attention to the design of diversified systems that 
selectively combine annual and perennial crops, livestock, trees, soils, water and 
other components on farms and agricultural landscapes to enhance synergies in the 
context of an increasingly changing climate [11].
Building synergies in food systems delivers multiple benefits. By optimizing 
biological synergies, agroecological practices enhance ecological functions, leading 
to greater resource-use efficiency and resilience. Intercropping with pulses in tradi-
tional farming landscapes saves about USD 10 million in nitrogen fertilizers globally 
every year through biological nitrogen fixation [52] and substantially contributes 
to soil health, climate change mitigation and adaptation. Crop-livestock integration 
in traditional farming systems also highlights synergies as about 15 percent of the 
nitrogen applied to crops comes from livestock manure [53]. Integrated rice sys-
tems, in Asia, combine rice cultivation with the generation of other products such 
as fish, ducks and trees. The total area of land available for rice cultivation in India 
is about 43 million hectares (ha), of which an estimated 20 million ha is suitable 
for adoption of the rice-fish integration system, mainly in rainfed medium lands, 
waterlogged lands etc. By maximizing synergies, integrated rice systems signifi-
cantly improve yields, dietary diversity, weed control, soil structure and fertility, as 
well as providing biodiversity habitat and pest control [54].
At the landscape level, synchronization of productive activities in time and space 
is necessary to enhance synergies between social and nature rhythms. Pastoralism 
and extensive livestock grazing systems manage complex interactions between 
people, multi-species herds and variable environmental conditions, building 
resilience and contributing to ecosystem services such as seed dispersal, habitat 
preservation and soil fertility [55, 56]. In India, the beauty of pastoralist ways of life 
lies in their ability to convert the marginal resources in dry and arid regions; cold 
mountain meadows, and other regions to productive resources such as milk, meat, 
wool, and manure with marginal inputs.
While agroecological approaches strive to maximize synergies, trade-offs also 
occur in natural and human systems. Managing trade-offs is an endless process 
and innate characteristic of sustainable production systems, hence the urgent need 
of getting good at anticipating, managing and meditating trade-offs. Agroecology 
emphasizes the importance of partnerships, cooperation and responsible gover-
nance, involving different actors at multiple scales to promote synergies within the 
wider food system, and best manage trade-offs.
In India, a good example of actively seeking for synergies is the agroecological 
system of farming millets, in water deficient Tamil Nadu [57]. They ought to take 
into account not only water use, but also the whole gamut of political and ecological 
11
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Agricultural inputs used in traditional farming agroecosystems*
Use of farmer varieties or traditional landraces (%) 80.5
Use of purchased inputs (%)
• Seeds 11.3
• Inorganic Fertilizer 6.3
• Pesticides —
Use of improved mechanized modern farming practices (%) 10.0
Area share of crops that have non-food uses (%) 6.3
*Percent of households in a village, as a unit of study. In total 2–3 villages each in four representative agroecosystems 
of the GEF project sites were surveyed.
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
Table 5. 
Characteristics of inputs used in traditional Indian farming agro-ecosystems.
issues that are connected to farming such as public procurement, land reform, 
minimum support price, subsidized credit, agricultural extension services, and so 
on. The publicly procured millet output is distributed through the public distribu-
tion system, government schools, and through the network of Amma canteens in 
the state. Amma canteens is a food subsidization programme, a first of its kind 
scheme, run originally by the Government of Tamil Nadu state in India. Its success 
has been an inspiration for many other states of India including Odisha, Karnataka 
and Andhra Pradesh, who subsequently proposed similar schemes.
3.4 Efficiency
Agroecological systems improve the use of natural resources, especially those 
that are abundant and free, such as solar radiation, atmospheric carbon and nitro-
gen. Innovative agroecological practices produce more using less external resources. 
Table 5 lists the inputs used in traditional Indian farming landscapes from across 
the UNEP-GEF study sites. Use of external resources or purchased inputs is mini-
mal in traditional agroecosystems.
Increased resource-use efficiency is an emergent property of agroecological systems 
that carefully plan and manage diversity to create synergies between different system 
components. A key efficiency challenge, for example, is that less than 50 percent of 
nitrogen fertilizer added globally to cropland is converted into harvested products and 
the rest is lost to the environment causing major environmental problems [11, 58].
By enhancing biological processes and recycling biomass, nutrients and 
water, traditional farming communities are able to use fewer external resources, 
reducing costs and the negative environmental impacts of their use. Reducing 
dependency on external resources will ultimately empowers farmers by increasing 
their autonomy and resilience to natural or economic shocks. Agroecology thus 
promotes agricultural systems with the necessary biological, socio-economic and 
institutional diversity and alignment in time and space to support greater efficiency. 
Nonetheless, technological, social and digital innovations remain a critical need 
for offering farmers timely information and reducing labour constraints in already 
heavily overworked farmers.
3.5 Recycling
More recycling means agricultural production with lower economic, social and 
environmental costs. In all traditional subsistence Indian agroecosystems, farming 
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is organic by default with negligible use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. 
Organic farming is primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in 
such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes and 
avoiding use of synthetic inputs (such as inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, 
feed additives etc.). The organic cultivation rely to the maximum extent feasible 
upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, forest litter and other off-farm 
organic waste, and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection. 
The default organic agriculture in all Indian agroecosystems is a unique produc-
tion management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystem health, 
including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is 
accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in 
exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.
Recycling can take place at both farm-scale and within landscapes, through 
diversification and building of synergies between different components and activi-
ties. Agroforestry systems, for example, that include deep rooting trees can capture 
nutrients lost beyond the roots of annual crops [59].
Crop–livestock systems of all traditional Indian agroecosystems, promote 
recycling of organic materials by using manure for composting or directly as fertil-
izer, and crop residues and by-products as livestock feed. Integrating livestock plays 
a key role in nutrient cycling, accounting substantially of the economic value of all 
non-provisioning ecosystem services. Recycling organic materials and by-products 
offers great potential for agroecological innovations.
3.6 Resilience
Enhanced resilience of farmers, communities and ecosystems is key to sustain-
able food and agricultural systems. It is a well-accepted fact now that the high 
external input agriculture of India, with the spread of green revolution paradigm 
and technology, is unsustainable and has placed enormous strain on natural 
resource base of the economy. India’s agrarian issues are being discussed widely in 
policy circles and media but the solutions proposed by policy makers hardly seem 
to be addressing the deep structural malaise that has set in at the core of India’s 
agrarian economy [60]. In the north-western India, the core green revolution area 
is experiencing, massive groundwater depletion, high land degradation, decline in 
the levels of soil organic matter, soil erosion, loss of soil fertility without mention-
ing the countless impacts on human health and wellbeing. By revisiting India’s 
agrarian history and outlining the circumstances under which the green revolution 
model was adopted, Kumar [21] has sought to challenge the blind adherence of high 
productivity agriculture that are likely to open up ways to address the future needs 
of the country.
The search for solutions to problems that plague Indian agriculture must begin 
with fundamentally questioning the green revolution paradigm. Taking agroecology 
as its core, the alternative path calls for making a decisive shift from a production/
economic-centric approach of the green revolution paradigm towards an ecosys-
tem/social-centric approach for resilient farming system.
High crop species and varietal (within-species or genetic) diversity provides 
resilience by contributing to production stability and by enabling long-term adapta-
tion. Intercropping of varieties with varying water-use efficiencies stabilized yield 
in a drought-prone environment. Adaptation to long-term environmental changes 
may reflect both phenotypic plasticity and continued evolution [61]. Maintaining 
evolutionary processes ensures the generation of new combinations of genes in 
response to stresses and climatic variability [62]. Cultivation of varietal mixtures 
may confer enhanced resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses [63, 64]. Crop yield 
13
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
increased by 2.2 percent overall were reported in cultivar mixtures with more 
functional-trait diversity in comparison to monoculture in a study examining the 
relationship between intraspecific diversity and yield in cultivar mixtures [65]. 
Cultivar mixtures also showed higher yield stability than monocultures, especially 
in response to annual weather variability over time.
Enabling agroecological adoption in India requires, therefore, promoting and 
safeguarding the free access of farmers to a range of diverse varieties will improve the 
resilience of production systems [66] by maintaining and supporting seed-exchange 
systems, and associated traditional knowledge. Farmers’ traditional knowledge, pref-
erences and practices, and social networks strongly influence the stress-prone and 
marginal production systems by enhanced use of genetic resources [67–69]. Informal 
seed-exchange systems are especially effective at maintaining high diversity, and 
participation in social networks has been demonstrated to facilitate access to genetic 
resources that can aid farmers in coping with crop failures, drought and environmen-
tal uncertainties [70]. On a landscape scale, diversified agricultural landscapes have a 
greater potential to contribute to pest and disease control functions [71].
3.7 Human and social values
Protecting and improving rural livelihoods, equity and social well-being is 
essential for sustainable food and agricultural systems. Across diverse settings, 
the traditional agricultural “living landscapes”, created by native peoples and local 
communities are the results of the dynamic interaction of people and nature over 
time. These landscapes, rich in agrobiodiversity as well as inherent wild biodiversity 
and cultural and spiritual values, embody human ingenuity and are continually 
evolving [72]. These landscapes and their associated management systems have 
much to teach us about sustainability and resilience in the face of global change.
Agroecology places a strong emphasis on human and social values. 
Agroecological approaches empower communities to overcome poverty, hunger 
and malnutrition by building autonomy and adaptive capacities to manage their 
agroecosystems. Agroecological approaches also promote human rights, such as the 
right to good and healthy food, and stewardship of the environment so that future 
generations can also live in prosperity.
Agroecology also seeks to address gender inequalities by creating opportunities 
for women or other minorities often left behind or ignored. Women make up almost 
half of the agricultural workforce in India. Besides household food security, nutri-
tion and health, women also play a vital role in conservation and sustainable use 
of biological diversity. Their contribution, however, remain unrecognized making 
them economically marginalized and vulnerable to violations of their rights [73].
Table 6 highlights the role of women as agricultural workforce and contribu-
tion of women in household cash income in different farming agroecosystems. 
Self-help groups (SHG) is bringing women together under a common platform. In 
addition to their farming skills, women are learning stitching, embroidery, patch-
work, weaving, food-processing (making use of their locally available resources), 
handicrafts, etc. Women enjoy the learning opportunity as well as the quality time 
spend together. Working for few hours a day for certain days (7–10) in a month, the 
women associated with the group are earning a decent amount, which represents 
in average about 10% of the household cash income. Participating in the SHG has 
helped them to gain self-respect and increase their say in decision making of family 
matters. Agroecology can, therefore, help open spaces for women to become more 
autonomous and empower them at household, community levels and beyond – for 
instance, through participation in producer groups. Women’s participation is essen-
tial for agroecology and women are frequently the leaders of agroecology projects.
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Agroecosystems Agriculture workforce Contribution of women SHG 
to HH cash income (%)
Men (%) Women (%)
Hill & mountain agroecology 36 62 15
(Uttarakhand)
Arid desert (Rajasthan) 56 78 7
Central plateau region (Madhya 54 80 8
Pradesh)
North-eastern region (Assam) 51 72 12
Mean 49.3 (±9.0) 73.0 (±8.1) 10.5 (±3.7)
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
Table 6. 
Agriculture workforce in different agroecosystems and contribution of women self-help groups (SHGs) to 
household (HH) cash income.
In many places around the world, rural youth face a crisis of employment. 
Agroecology provides a promising solution as a source of decent jobs. Agroecology 
is based on a different way of agricultural production that is knowledge intensive, 
environmentally friendly, socially responsible, innovative, and which depends on 
skilled labour. Meanwhile, rural youth around the world possess energy, creativity 
and a desire to positively change their world. What they need is stable, good and 
long-term support and opportunities.
Table 7 indicates probable areas where enhanced job opportunities at commu-
nity level exist in small-holder Indian farming. As a bottom-up, grassroots paradigm 
for sustainable rural development, agroecology empowers people to become their 
own agents of change.
3.8 Culture and food traditions
By supporting healthy, diversified and culturally appropriate diets, agroecol-
ogy contributes to food security and nutrition while maintaining the health of 
ecosystems.
The food we eat plays a huge role in our ability to keep our physical, mental, 
emotional and psychological health in balance. Further, it is being greatly recog-
nized now that without mental health there can be no true physical health. In spite 
of nutrition transition trends, it is widely acknowledged that the traditional farming 
agroecosystems rich in crop and livestock diversity and use of wild harvested foods, 
the food traditions are still prevailing in the life of rural households to a greater 
extent. This is indeed heartening that the traditional food habits are still playing a 
great role in contemporary food habits of the traditional Indian farming communi-
ties; therefore, the possibility of reversing the trends in favor of dietary diversifica-
tion from dietary simplification looks promising with enabling policies [74].
Culture and food traditions play a central role in society and in shaping human 
behavior as agriculture and food are core components of the human heritage. 
However, in many instances, our current food systems have created a disconnection 
between food habits and culture. This disconnection has contributed to a situation 
where hunger and obesity exist side by side, in a world that produces enough food to 
feed its entire population. Almost 800 million people worldwide are chronically hun-
gry and 2 billion suffer micronutrient deficiencies [75]. Meanwhile, there has been a 
rampant rise in obesity and diet-related diseases; 1.9 billion people are overweight or 
obese and non-communicable diseases (cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes) are 
the number one cause of global mortality, a pattern also followed in India [76, 77].
15
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Probable areas Job opportunities and policy support required
Organic farming • Production of organic agricultural inputs.
• Post-harvest farm - to - market supply chains.
• Linking organic farming to marketing interventions.
• Infrastructure development like cold stores to avoid 
post-harvest losses.
Agro-ecotourism • Linking ecotourism to traditional farming landscapes.
• Developing herbal farms, food parks, biodiversity parks, 
sacred grooves, fish farms, wild life parks, rural game 
parks in agricultural landscapes near to ecotourism sites.
• Training the local youths in hospitality management and 
environmental education.
Women-centric jobs, viz. embroidery, • Creating women-centric jobs by forming Self Help 
tailoring, weaving, patchwork, applique, Groups (SHGs).
handicraft, etc. • Requisite skill development and making available all 
need-based equipment/resources at subsidized rates.
Management of Common Property • Nursery raising and planting of agroforestry species.
Resources (CPRs)/ agroforestry species/ • Planting diverse tree species and maintaining diverse 
community forests economically important species at CPRs .
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [23].
Table 7. 
Probable areas/sectors where job opportunities at community level exist in small-holder Indian farming.
Agroecology seeks to cultivate a healthy relationship between people, culture 
and food by rebalancing traditions and modern food habits. Cultural identity and 
sense of place are often closely tied to landscapes and food systems. As people 
and ecosystems have evolved together, cultural practices and indigenous and 
traditional knowledge offer a wealth of experience that can inspire agroecological 
solutions. For example, India is home to an estimated 50 000 indigenous variet-
ies of rice [78]- bred over centuries for their specific taste, nutrition and pest-
resistance properties, and their adaptability to a range of conditions. Culinary 
traditions are built around these different varieties, making use of their different 
properties. Taking this accumulated and tasty body of traditional knowledge as 
a guide, agroecology can help realize the potential of territories to sustain their 
peoples.
3.9 Responsible governance
Agroecology calls for responsible and effective governance to support the transi-
tion to sustainable food and agricultural systems. Table 8 indicates areas where 
largely default organic production of traditional Indian farming agroecosystems 
can be liked to “localized” marketing interventions through enabling marketing 
support. Transparent, accountable and inclusive governance mechanisms are 
necessary to create an enabling environment that supports producers to transform 
their systems following agroecological concepts and practices. Promoting commu-
nity supported agriculture (CSA); linking traditional farming with school feeding 
(MDM) and public procurement programmes; market regulations allowing for 
branding of differentiated agroecological produce, and subsidies and incentives 
for ecosystem services, etc. are some areas where a strong political will and policy 
support is required for sustainable farming and food systems.
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Linking organic farming to Actions at community level and policy support
market-oriented initiatives
Community Supported • Facilitate forming village-level farmer cooperatives.
Agriculture (CSA) initiatives • Consolidation and pooling of farm land for collective farming.
• Awareness campaigns for popularizing the nutritional superiority of 
organically grown native crops among urban consumers.
• Mobilizing urban consumers become CSA members.
Linking organic food to school • Empowering the local district administrations to make changes to 
meal (MDM) programmes menu of MDM served in government schools to suit the local tastes.
• Divert a substantial Ministry of Human Resource Development 
(MHRD) budget for local purchasing of native healthy food for MDM 
directly from small-holder native farmers.
Enhanced market access and • Make food-based approach as major initiative for household nutrition 
value chain development for and health.
local plant food resources • Where there is no secure market for raw produce, build capacity of 
farmers for processing/packaging to enhance benefit from localized 
sale.
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [23].
Table 8. 
Linking organic farming to marketing interventions, community level actions and policy support.
Promoting Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA) Initiatives: In small 
holder Indian farming, CSA initiatives are considered a better approach for sustain-
able agricultural development [23]. Hence, CSA can gain and play a larger role 
on satisfying the local/regional nutritional and food needs, where consumers are 
becoming more concerned about the environment, health, and animal welfare, due 
to food scandals related to the industrialized and globalized food systems [79–81]. 
Also, alternative production systems such as organic agriculture, are distancing 
from its original ideology due to the high industrialization and long supply chains 
[82, 83]. Therefore, new and alternative arrangements bringing farmers and con-
sumers closer together and shortening supply chains, like farmers’ markets, farm 
shops, subscription box schemes, and CSA are supporting sustainable farming and 
consumption [84, 85].
Reinforcing solidarity, direct human relationships, mutual trust, small scale, 
and respect for the environment and life overall is key in the new economic and sus-
tainable models [86]. Most CSAs were initially based on vegetable production but 
a wide range of other agricultural produce is increasingly being covered now [87]. 
Therefore, the agroecological transition should strengthen and bring closer farmers 
and consumers to return to both production and food sovereignty, where farmers 
and consumers are empowered, autonomous, happy and where farmer’s key role in 
culture and society valued and recognized [88].
Linking traditional agriculture with school meal (MDM) programme: A 
crucial step in enhancing the nutritional standards of MDM in traditional farming 
agroecosystems of India, would be through the introduction of nutritionally rich 
local crops in the MDM menu [23].
Structured demand guarantees large yet predictable sources of demand to 
smallholder or marginal farmers, thereby giving them income security. A coopera-
tive model would be better as farmers would retain bargaining power in the supply 
chain. As for local schools in villages, the cooperatives themselves could supply 
the commodities based on the requirement, which is how it works in Brazil [89]. 
However, there is need of ensuring strict monitoring at every stage of procurement 
17
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
and payment. For a school meal scheme to be a success for both children and 
farmers, like Brazil’s PNAE, existing structural loopholes in both the education and 
agricultural sectors have to be plugged [90]. Eventually, such contracts could also be 
extended from school meals to include public colleges, offices and hospitals.
Enhanced market access and value chain development for local plant food 
resources: Enhanced “localized” market access and value chain development 
for local plant food resources can be an important initiative, making traditional 
agriculture in Indian agroecosystems sustainable [23]. The native crops from 
traditional farming areas have a greater potential for value chain development and 
other marketing interventions. There is enough scope for development of local and 
distant markets in which traditional varieties command a price premium. With 
enhanced awareness about the nutritional importance of local crops in the commu-
nity, in well-functioning markets, the native crop landraces can be competitive and 
have enough potential to provide commercial opportunities fetching a premium 
price (Table 9).
Off-farm employment for rural youth at community level: Farm and non-
farm employment opportunities at community level for rural youths is considered 
very vital to bring sustainability in agricultural production [23]. Policies that help 
to generate part-time, farm and non-farm employment at community level in rural 
areas can, therefore, help sustain small farms. Organic farming; agro-ecotourism; 
women-centric self-help groups (SHGs) for several non-farm jobs viz. embroidery, 
tailoring, weaving, patchwork, applique, handicraft, etc., and community man-
aged agroforestry/forestry interventions can generate enough jobs for rural youths 
for year-round employment. Non-farm income already accounts for a significant 
proportion of household income in rural India [91]. Hence, the Mahatma Gandhi 
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) of India, aimed at enhanc-
ing livelihood security in rural areas at the community level for reducing out-migra-
tion of rural youth in search of off-farm employment elsewhere, but the scheme 
often failed due to misappropriation and subversion of funds in many states [24].
Promoting food-based approach towards community nutrition and health: 
Food-based approach towards community nutrition and health under overall 
eco-nutrition framework, needs to be promoted [92–94]. An econutrition model 
has been suggested for a healthy human nutrition that can be best achieved by an 
Agroecology Organic crops with high marketing potential
Hill & Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), soybean (local black-seeded, Glycine max), black 
mountain gram (Vigna mungo), horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), finger millet (Eleusine 
coracana), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea), buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.), 
amaranths (Amaranthus spp.), aromatic (including basmati) and red rice (Oryza sativa).
Hot arid Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), fenugreek (Trigonella 
foenum-graceum), mung bean (Vigna radiata), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sesame 
(Sesamum indicum).
Central tribal Sharbati wheat (Triticum aetivum); durum wheat (Triticum durum), pigeonpea (Cajanus 
plateau cajan); Kodo-Kutki (Paspalum scrobiculatum and Panicum sumatrense); Basmati/aromatic 
rice (Oryza sativa), and organic cotton grown in different parts of central plateau region 
are in great demand nationally/ internationally.
North- Joha (aromatic) rice (Oryza sativa), ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma 
eastern longa), chili (Capsicum spp.), oranges (Citrus spp.), black pepper (Piper nigrum) and 
region pineapples (Ananas comosus).
Sourced from: Bisht et al. [24].
Table 9. 
Organically grown crops with high marketing potential grown in some Indian agroecosystems.
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approach to agriculture that is biodiverse. Integrating environmental and human 
health, focusing especially on the many interactions between agriculture, ecology, 
and human nutrition are being explored [95, 96]. A more radical transformation of 
agriculture will be required for development of sustainable agriculture by ensuring 
that ecological change in agriculture is only possible with comparable changes in the 
social, political, cultural, and economic arenas that help determine agriculture.
An inter-disciplinary collaboration is required to define priority research 
questions to co-deliver economic, environmental and health goals [97]. Food-based 
solutions to hunger, malnutrition and poverty are of global concern and must be 
addressed if food and nutrition security is to be achieved in a sustainable manner 
[98]. According to the HLPE [99], “A sustainable food system (SFS) is a food system 
that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, 
social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future 
generations are not compromised”.
Promoting indigenous food sovereignty: Food sovereignty prioritizes local 
and national economies and markets and empowers peasant and family farmer-
driven agriculture, artisanal fishing, pastoralist-led grazing, and food production, 
distribution and consumption based on environmental, social and economic 
sustainability [100].
In traditional Indian agroecosystems, without any formal interventions, 
food sovereignty exists de facto. Re-introduction of indigenous food production 
practices will help restore food sovereignty to native communities [101]. The food 
sovereignty initiatives, world over, are community-led. There are reports that many 
tribal communities in USA, for example, are regaining control of their food supply, 
they are growing traditional foods and collaborating with the federal government to 
retain rights for hunting and gathering [102].
The subsistence farming agroecosystems of India are expected to set the stage 
for future research that demonstrates how the local foods contribute to a sustainable 
agriculture–food–nutrition strategy. In India, there is no formal awareness about 
indigenous food sovereignty movements and no formal partnerships with native 
farming communities doing their part to address the challenges linked to ensur-
ing indigenous food sovereignty. Formal Food Sovereignty Alliances need to put 
the traditional farming communities at the centre of decision-making on policies, 
strategies and natural resource management [103, 104].
3.10 Circular and solidarity economy
Circular economy is based on the principles of eliminating waste, continued use 
of resources and regenerating natural systems [105]. The solidarity economy refers 
to a wide range of economic activities that prioritizes social profitability over purely 
financial profits.
As per a recent tentative estimate by an Environmental Research and Action 
Group “CHINTAN” (www.chintan-india.org/sites/default/files/2019–09/ Food%20
waste%20in% 20 India.pdf), about 40% food produced in India is wasted. Despite 
adequate food production, it has been reported by the UN that about 190 million 
Indians remain undernourished. It is further estimated that the value of food wast-
age in India is around ₹92,000 crores (13,000 million USD) per annum. These are 
some bleak statistics, but they help us realize the magnitude of the problem of food 
waste, as much as inequity, in India. A substantial food waste along the food chain, 
accounting for more than 30% of the agricultural production, is also a big concern 
at the global level [106].
Prioritizing local markets and supporting local economic developments by creat-
ing virtuous cycles, agroecology seeks to reconnect producers and consumers through 
19
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
a circular and solidarity economy [107]. Agroecological approaches help create more 
equitable and sustainable markets by promoting fair solutions based on local needs, 
resources and capacities. Shorter food circuits strengthen better producer-consumer 
linkages. It can increase the incomes of food producers while maintaining a fair price 
for consumers [107]. These include new innovative markets [108, 109] alongside more 
traditional territorial markets, where most smallholders market their products.
Regenerative agriculture is already gaining momentum in India. Application of 
circular economy principles is likely to make agricultural production more regen-
erative, creating a more diverse and resilient food system; preserving the integrity 
of the natural systems, and supporting rural livelihoods and incomes [110].
A broad range of circular economy opportunities exists for India to consider 
when shaping the future of its food system and agricultural activities until 2050. By 
capturing these opportunities, India could build a food and agricultural system that 
leverages the current small-farm structure to create a network of farmers, symbiotic 
in their practices and committed to regenerative approaches.
With on-going COVID-19 pandemic, it has forced us to revisit the way we tend 
to modify our agricultural practices. We need to sustain out food and nutritional 
security, farming with new technological developments vis-à-vis traditional 
agroecological methods need to be merged. In short, learnings from the past need to 
be married with the present practices while eyeing the future.
Kumbamu [111] critically examines and analyses place-based as well as network-
based strategies of alternative development organizations that claim to be building 
sustainable social and solidarity economies (SSE) in the political context of neolib-
eral globalization. While the Indian state and market forces are actively promoting 
the neoliberal agri-food system, alternative development organizations are working 
with farmers to build the SSE based on the principles of democracy, inclusiveness, 
reciprocity, cooperativism, and socioecological sustainability. Using a case study 
approach, the article analyses how SSE initiatives are aiming to reclaim control 
over the local agri-food sector. Specifically, the article examines how community 
development organizations mobilize farmers based on the principles of agroecology 
and the politics of seed and food sovereignties.
4. Conclusion
Agroecosystem management is at a crossroads today. The challenge that modern 
agriculture is presently facing is not to increase productivity but to strengthen the 
resilience of our food production in the face of ever increasing stress on the system. 
The major long-term trends and challenges faced, as highlighted in the FAO [75] 
report, will determine the future of food security and nutrition, rural poverty, the 
efficiency of food systems, and the sustainability and resilience of rural livelihoods, 
agricultural systems and their natural resource base.
With the present global climate change and the dwindling natural resource base, 
it will be difficult to continue growing food in a way that will support the future 
human generations. This is where agroecology comes in, which is the founda-
tion of sustainable agriculture and the best path forward for feeding the world. 
Agroecology provides robust set of solutions to the environmental and economic 
problems for design and management of sustainable farms.
The agroecological approach specifically aims to transform agriculture to build 
locally relevant food systems that strengthen the economic viability of rural areas 
based on short marketing chains, and both fair and safe food production.
Increasing dependence on hazardous pesticides and other purchased chemical 
inputs will degrade soil, pollute water and threaten the essential ecological services 
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
to agriculture. By shifting farming policies and practice to embrace agroecology, we 
can create a food system - one rooted in productivity, resilience, equity and sustain-
ability to sustain this and future human generations.
Traditional farming practices as adopted by small holder Indian farming com-
munities in different agroecosystems showcase a better way forward that recognizes 
multifunctional dimensions of agroecological approaches to agriculture including 
use of locally available resources and indigenous knowledge and practices. The 
de facto organic biodiverse agriculture of different traditional Indian production 
landscapes demonstrates a bottom-up, grassroots paradigm for sustainable rural 
development empowering native farmers to become their own agents of change. 
This has power to protect and improve rural livelihoods, equity and social well-
being, considered essential for sustainable food and agricultural systems.
As agroecology requires a whole-systems approach based on traditional knowl-
edge, alternative agriculture and local food system experiences, blending modern 
science with farmers’ experiential knowledge is considered important for enabling 
agricultural innovations. Agricultural innovations respond better to local challenges 
when they are co-created through participatory processes. The local food movement 
and year-round employment opportunities for rural youth are key components to 
help bring about the much needed transformation to agroecological farming and 
food systems. Making agriculture more environmentally, socially and economi-
cally sustainable will, in turn, lead to overall rural development, critical to shifting 
India’s rural farmers out of poverty.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the project partners and the farmer households of different 
farming agroecosystems for effectively interacting and sharing valuable informa-
tion on traditional farming and native food systems under the UNEP-GEF project 
“Mainstreaming agricultural biodiversity conservation and utilization in agricul-
tural sector to ensure ecosystem services and reduce vulnerability in India (Project 
Code: A 1265)’ being executed jointly by Alliance of Bioversity International and 
CIAT, and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
21
Biodiversity of Ecosystems
Author details
Ishwari Singh Bisht1*, Jai Chand Rana1*, Sarah Jones2, Natalia Estrada-Carmona2  
and Rashmi Yadav3
1 The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, NASC Complex, Pusa Campus, 
New Delhi, India
2 The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, Montpellier, France
3 ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 
India
*Address all correspondence to: bisht.ishwari@gmail.com and j.rana@cgiar.org
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms 
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, 
provided the original work is properly cited. 
22
Agroecological Approach to Farming for Sustainable Development: The Indian Scenario
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100281
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