2020 Th
Science Assoc
NC-ND licen
Received F
Accepted
1CorrespoCan black soldier fly Desmodium intortum larvae-based diets
enhance the performance of Cobb500 broiler chickens and
smallholder farmers’ profit in Kenya?Mary M. Mutisya,*,y Mawufe K. Agbodzavu ,*,z John N. Kinyuru,y Chrysantus M. Tanga,*
Mathew Gicheha,x Girma Hailu ,* Daisy Salifu,* Zeyaur Khan,* and Saliou Niassy ,*,1
*Plant Health Division, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (Icipe), Nairobi, Kenya; yDepartment
of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi,
Kenya; zInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Kinshasa 4163, DR Congo; and xDepartment of
Animal Science, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, KenyaABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the per-
formance of broiler chickens fed on 3 black soldier fly
larvae (BSFL) (Hermetia illucens) and Greenleaf des-
modium (Desmodium intortum)-based meals. We eval-
uated growth performance, carcass quality, and
profitability under various commercial pathways (door-
step, retail, whole, and assorted). Desmodium and BSFL
powders were formulated into 3 ratios: T1 25:75, T2
50:50, and T3 75:25. A commercial feed was used as a
control. One hundred and twenty mixed-sex 1-day-old
broiler chicks (Cobb) were reared in pens for 42 d in a
completely randomized design. The chickens were
weighed weekly to monitor their growth rate. After the
42-day rearing period, they were slaughtered for carcass
quality evaluation and recording of the weights of in-
ternal organs. During the initial growth phase (7–21 d),
significant effects of fish meal replacement were found one Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of Poultry
iation Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
se (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
ebruary 28, 2020.
November 9, 2020.
nding author: sniassy@icipe.org
420the chickens’ average weight (P , 0.001), average daily
body weight gain (P , 0.001), average daily feed intake
(P , 0.001), and feed conversion ratio (P , 0.001).
However, during the second phase (21–42 d), no signifi-
cant effect of the replacement was detected except on
average daily feed intake (P 5 0.003). No significant
differences were found in terms of the relative weights of
internal organs. It was found that Desmodium-BSFL-
based feeds were more profitable than the control feed,
and the assorted and retail modes of sale generated more
revenue compared to when the chickens were sold at
doorstep and on whole-chicken basis. The return on in-
vestment was higher for a push-pull adopter compared to
a non-adopter. The study found that a BSFL-Desmo-
dium mixture can be a valuable replacement for the
protein component in conventional feed and would pro-
vide a new impetus for the adoption of push-pull.Key words: feed, insect, push-pull, smallholder-farmer
2021 Poultry Science 100:420–430
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.11.021INTRODUCTION
The poultry sector is one of the fastest growing indus-
tries in Kenya (Omiti and Okuthe, 2009) and beyond
(Nkukwana, 2018). The demand and consumption of
broiler chicken meat in Kenya are projected to reach
165 thousand metric tonnes by 2030, up from 55 thou-
sand metric tonnes in 2000 (Robinson and Pozzi,
2011). This growth is a response to rapid urbanization,
growth of the middle class, the rising number ofquick-service restaurants, the ever-growing recent global
health concerns promoting poultry products as a health-
ier source of protein than red meat, high turnover, and
the continuing viability of current broiler chicken sys-
tems (Vernooij et al., 2018). The highest volume of
both poultry meat and eggs is produced by the local
backyard systems characterized by low input and low
productivity. Commercial production systems through
small and medium enterprises are, however, on the rise
with the use of hybrid chickens, and higher input and
productivity (Vernooij et al., 2018).
Chicken producers face several challenges, including
access to safe, affordable feed in terms of energy, protein,
mineral, and vitamin sources (Prabakaran 2003;
Ravindran, 2013). Feed costs account for up to 80% of
a farmer’s total production costs (Van der Poel et al.,
2013), leaving the resource-poor farmers with very small
DESMODIUM-BASED MEAL FOR BROILER CHICKENS 421profit margins. Different birds have different nutritional
requirements for optimal performance (Moges et al.,
2010). Protein is the most expensive component in
poultry feed, and amino acid composition remains a
limiting factor for optimum performance (Mapiye
et al., 2008).
In most developing countries, soybean is the most
preferred source of protein for poultry feed (Chianu
et al., 2009; Rusike et al., 2013). In Kenya and Uganda,
the silver cyprinid fish Rastrineobola argentea,
commonly referred to as “omena” or “mukene,” is also
used as a protein source for feed (Ojwang et al., 2014;
Wangechi et al., 2015). However, both soybeans and
fish meal (FM) are available in lower quantities than
required and are often imported from other countries.
The soybean price fluctuates with the global cost of
fuel, thus becoming less accessible to most farmers.
Liberalization of the feed market in Kenya has resulted
in many small-scale processors infiltrating the market,
supplying expensive substandard poultry feeds with
limited alternatives for farmers. As such, identifying an
affordable and accessible alternative diet is a necessity
for the profitability and competitiveness of the feed
sector (J
ozefiak et al., 2016; Chia et al., 2019; De
Souza-Vilela et al., 2019; Frempong et al., 2019).
The black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens is
considered as a novel protein source for the poultry
and aquaculture industries (Cullere et al., 2016;
Barragan-Fonseca et al., 2017; Nyakeri et al., 2017).
The BSF larvae (BSFL) protein has a wide range of
essential amino acids required for pigs and poultry
(Spranghers et al., 2017). There is a body of research
that demonstrated the potential of BSFL meal as a sub-
stitute in poultry feed (Baldrighi and Zamprogna, 2017;
Schiavone et al., 2019). However, the nutritional compo-
sition of BSFL depends primarily on the composition of
the organic substrate (Liland et al., 2017). This suggests
variability in the amino acid profile (Makkar and
Ankers, 2014), which implies that the exclusive use of
larvae as a protein source might be costly. Not only is
the supplementation of various essential amino acids rec-
ommended (Cullere et al., 2018), but also the integration
of other sources is necessary to provide a diverse and
balanced nutrient composition for the chickens. In that
regard, the use of plant-based proteins such as Desmo-
dium is suggested as a valuable substitute for poultry
feed (Abdullah, 1974; Teguia and Beynen, 2005). In
East Africa, the use of Desmodium is being promoted
as an intercrop in push-pull technology; an agroecologi-
cal farming system developed by the International
Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), for con-
trolling agricultural cereal pests (Khan et al., 2018).
Desmodium is a perennial legume commonly used in
dairy farms for feeding goats and cows (Tolera and
Sundstøl, 2000). It has an impressive protein content,
as high as 24% (Heinritz et al., 2012). As a plant source
of protein, Desmodium has a reasonable content of
methionine-cystine and threonine (Kariuki et al., 2001)
with impressive palatability. No cases of toxicity have
been reported thus far (Chadd et al., 2002;Govindarajan et al., 2003; Rastogi et al., 2011). Some
species of Desmodium are currently being used in the
herbal medicine industry to treat various conditions
such as rheumatism, wounds, hemoptysis, etc.
(Govindarajan et al., 2003; Al Hasan et al., 2011; Tsai
et al., 2011; Rahman et al., 2013). Based on these scien-
tific virtues, it was hypothesized that the integration of
Desmodium and BSFL into chicken feed could substitute
the protein component in FM and provide functional
benefits to chickens (Al Hasan et al., 2011; Ma et al.,
2011). Despite the potential of Desmodium intortum
(DI) to salvage the poultry feed industry, no studies
have been conducted to explore its integration in poultry
feeds to provide cheaper, balanced nutrient-rich diets for
the chickens. Therefore, the present study is aimed at
evaluating the effect of BSFL-DI-based meals on the
growth and cost of production, and hence profitability
of the enterprise.MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Site
The study was conducted at icipe, Duduville campus,
Kasarani subcounty, Nairobi, Kenya (latitude:
21.23228; longitude: 36.9275). The general care and
management of the animals followed accepted guidelines
as described by the Federation of Animal Science Soci-
eties (FASS, 2010).Origin of the BSF Colony
The colony of H. illucens was initiated at the Animal
Rearing and Containment Unit of icipe in Nairobi,
Kenya. The wild population of the H. illucens colony
was established from eggs collected from the field (S
0113014.600; E 03653044.500, 1,612 m above sea level).
The egg clusters were transferred to plastic trays con-
taining pig manure. The manure was hydrated to
approximately 70 6 2% moisture by weight and
confirmed using a moisture sensor with two 12-cm long
probes (HydroSense CS620; Campbell Scientific, Inc.,
Logan, UT). The culture was monitored daily for larval
development, and prepupal stages were kept in trans-
parent rectangular plastic containers (Kenpoly Manu-
facturers Ltd., Nairobi, Kenya) containing moist
sawdust as pupation substrate. An opening was made
in the lid of each container and covered with fine netting
material capable of retaining emerging adult flies. Condi-
tions in the rearing room were maintained at 28 6 1C,
706 2%RH, and a photoperiod of 12L:12D. Adults were
transferred to outdoor cages where a water and sugar so-
lution was provided ad libitum to the flies. When the
adult flies in the cage were 7 d old, moist pig manure
(300 g diluted in 600 mL of water) was provided in plas-
tic containers with the surface covered with wire mesh.
Plastic electrical conduits with multiple grooves were
placed on top of the wire mesh, which provided the flies
with sites for laying eggs. The containers were checked
daily to collect egg clusters deposited by the flies. The
422 MUTISYA ET AL.electrical conduits with egg clusters were transferred into
plastic containers and placed in climate-controlled
chambers. The newly hatched larvae were fed ad libitum
with pig manure until full development into prepupal
stages. The pupae collected were regularly transferred
into outdoor rearing cages designed specifically to hold
the adult fly stock populations. The BSF colony was
maintained at icipe for approximately 4 yr, and once
every 6 mo, wild-caught fly populations were added to
the colony to minimize inbreeding depression.
The fifth instar larval stages harvested from the stock
colony were cleaned by washing in warm water (84C)
for 10 min and then oven-dried using a commercial stain-
less steel fruit/vegetable/meat/fish drying machine:
model CT-C-III series hot air circulating drying oven
(Henan Forchen Machinery Co. Ltd., Henan, China).
This machine could dry 360 kg/batch of fresh insects
for 2.5 h at 120C. Dried larvae were ground into larval
meal using a Mu€nch hammer mill, model M6FFC-230
(Wuppertal, Germany) and stored for further use in
the formulation of the experimental diets.Origin of Desmodium
Greenleaf Desmodium biomass was harvested from a
15 m ! 15 m push-pull plot located at the icipe Dudu-
ville campus. Desmodium plants were trimmed every
month, and harvested biomass was dried under the
shade until required quantities were collected from the
field for the experiment. Dried biomass was ground
into a powder using a Retsch milling machine, model
SM 100 (Haan, Germany), before the experiment.Diet Formulation
The analyzed nutrient and essential amino acid
composition of the meals are presented in Table 1. The
test diets were formulated according to the Kenya Bu-
reau of Standards as guided by NRC specifications for
broiler starter and finisher feeds. The isonitrogenous
and isoenergetic diets (3,000 kcal/kg ME, 220 g CP/Table 1. Analyzed nutrient composition (% dry matter basis) of
BSFLM, DIM, and FM.
BSFLM DIM FM
DM 95.9 86.0 92.0
CP 43.8 20.5 42.6
Ether extracts 28.3 2.40 5.40
Crude fiber 20.9 30.5 1.80
Ash 12.9 7.80 49.0
Essential amino acids of BSFLM and DIM
Methionine 0.8 1.3
Lysine 2.9 3.4
Threonine 1.7 4.2
Arginine 2.2 4.1
Histidine 1.3 1.7
Leucine 2.8 5.4
Isoleucine 1.8 3.3
Valine 2.6 4.8
Phenylalanine 1.9 4.3
Abbreviations: BSFLM, black soldier fly larvae meal; DIM,Desmodium
intortum meal; FM, fish meal.kg, and 3,000 kcal ME, 180 g CP/kg) were prepared
by replacing the FM content in the conventional diet
(control diet) with BSFL and DI. The following formula-
tions were tested: 25% DI 175% BSFL (T1), 50% DI 1
50% BSFL (T2), and 75% DI 1 25% BSFL (T3).
The ingredients used in the feed formulation are
shown in Table 2. For the finisher diets, the different
mixtures containing all the required ingredients were
pelletized at a temperature of 65C using a 50 to
80 kg/h pellet machine (Muharata Co. Ltd., Nairobi,
Kenya). The pellet size was customized at 3-mm size
for chickens, as indicated by the manufacturer. The
dry matter, ash, CP, crude fiber, and ether extracts of
the test diets FM, BSFL meal (BSFLM), and Desmo-
dium meal were analyzed according to the Association
of Official Analytical Chemists methods. Amino acid
content of the BSFLM and Desmodium was determined
following the methods of 994.12.Growth Performance
One hundred and twenty (n) mixed-sex 1-day-old
broiler chicks (Cobb500) were sourced from Kenchic
Ltd. hatchery in Thika, Nairobi, Kenya and reared for
42 d (i.e., 7 d adaptation phase and 35 d feeding phase).
The chicks were placed in a common brooder room of
5 ! 6 feet for the first 7 d. Brooder temperatures were
maintained between 33C and 35C using light heating
bulbs of 250 W suspended at 45-cm height over the
brooder to provide heat. These bulbs were supplemented
with an automated thermostat heater model (WH30,
3 KW wall heater; Xpelair, Peterborough, UK). Before
the commencement of the experiment, all the chicks
were fed on starter mash (conventional feed) purchased
from Unga Feeds Ltd. (Nairobi, Kenya), which is the
largest animal feed manufacturer in East Africa. The
chicks were fed at a rate of at least 125 g per day per
chick. Feather-sexing was performed before the chicks
were randomly distributed in 12 pens each measuring
1.5 m ! 1.8 m ! 1.5 m in a poultry house. Sexing was
done to ensure that each pen contained 10 chicks (5 fe-
males and 5 males). The pens were separated using
wooden blocks. A metallic mesh was used as the source
of ventilation on the upper side of the pens. Each treat-
ment was replicated 3 times in a completely randomized
design. The whole experiment comprised 120 chickens,
with 30 chickens in each treatment, including the
control.
Clean sawdust was obtained from a local carpentry
workshop and spread on polythene papers on the floor
of the cages at a height of 5 cm from the ground. After
the 7 d brooding period, the chicks were weighed individ-
ually to obtain their initial weight before being intro-
duced to starter diets of the BSFLM-DI formulations.
The chickens were fed daily between 9:00 and 10:00
am. Feeding was ad libitum but to monitor the bird’s
daily intake, 12.5 kg of each feed treatment was
measured daily using a weighing scale (model: Camry
EK 5055-005, Zhongshan Camry Electronic Co. Ltd.,
Zhongshan, Guangdong, China). The weight of feed
DESMODIUM-BASED MEAL FOR BROILER CHICKENS 423
Table 2. Feed composition for broiler starter and finisher diets (diets [g/kg] as fed) of experimental diets.
Broiler starter diets Broiler finisher diets
Control T1 T2 T3 Control T1 T2 T3
Feed ingredients
Maize germ 528.8.0 527.0 540.0 550.2 550.0 526.0 534.0 576.5
Wheat pollard 104.0 108 97.6 98.9 201.6 200.5 198.2 165.5
Corn oil 24.60 16.3 11.4 4.0 27.2 22.1 15.2 5.4
Fish meal 325.4 0 0 0 191.0 0 0 0
Desmodium intortum 0 82.65 165.3 247.0 0 55.0 110.0 165.0
BSFL meal 0 247.95 165.3 82.7 0 165.0 110.0 55.0
Limestone 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 22.6 22.6 22.6 22.6
Salt 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6
Dicalcium phosphate 0.5 1.0 3.3 3.2 0.5 1.7 2.9 3.3
Broiler premix1 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Mycotoxin binder 0.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
Calculated values for ME and nitrogen free extracts
ME (kcal/kg) 2,997 3,018 3,021 3,037 3,052 3,053 3,059 3,100
Non-phytate phosphorus (%) 0.4558 0.4528 0.4572 0.4532 0.4537 0.4546 0.4597 0.4528
Nitrogen-free extracts (%) 43.9 44.1 42.0 42.1 45.2 44.6 43.5 34.0
Analyzed nutrient content (% DM basis) of experimental diets
DM 88.9 89.7 89.3 89.8 88.4 89.2 89.5 89.7
CP 22.1 23.1 22.8 21.4 21.5 22.5 22.0 21.0
Ether extracts 6.8 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.4 7.9 8.1 9.2
Calcium 0.900 0.9389 0.9290 0.9938 0.8746 0.8715 0.8850 0.8635
Total phosphorus 0.5592 0.5563 0.5692 0.5643 0.5540 0.5620 0.5784 0.5592
Crude fiber 3.4 5.7 7.1 7.6 3.1 5.9 7.3 7.8
Ash 9.7 10.1 9.8 9.4 8.7 7.9 7.3 7.5
T1 5 25% D. intortum 1 75% BSFL, T2 5 50% D. intortum 1 50% BSFL, T3 5 75% D. intortum 1 25% BSFL, and control 5 commercial feed.
Abbreviation: BSFL, black soldier fly larvae.
1Broiler premix (provided per kg of diet) 5 vitamin A (IU) 625,0000, vitamin D3 (IU) 100,0000, vitamin E (IU) 15,000, vitamin K3 (mg) 1,000,
vitamin B1 (mg) 500, vitamin B2 (mg) 2,500, vitamin B6 (mg) 2,500, vitamin B12 (mg) 10, pantothenic acid (mg) 600, nicotinic acid (mg) 15,000, folic
acid (mg) 500, biotin (mg) 35, choline chloride (mg) 15,0000, iron (mg) 2,0000, copper (mg) 2,500, zinc (mg) 25,000,manganese (mg) 15,000, iodine (mg)
600, cobalt (mg) 400, butylated hydroxytoluene (antioxidant, mg) 12,5000.
Figure 1. Diagram showing external and internal organs measured.consumed per cage was measured by the difference
(weight of feed in the bucket the following day during
feeding time subtracted from the weight of feed in the
bucket the previous day). Finisher diets containing
BSFL and Desmodium were provided to the chicks after
21 d. Clean drinking water was provided ad libitum us-
ing Kenpoly plastic feeders (10 L capacity; Nairobi,
Kenya) per pen until the end of the rearing period
when the chickens were isolated for slaughtering. The
chickens were maintained at 28 6 1C, RH of
65 6 5%, and a photoperiod of 12L:12D. Waterproof
Universal Serial Bus temperature/humidity data loggers
were placed strategically inside the poultry house to
monitor the internal conditions of the rearing facility.
All the chickens were vaccinated against Newcastle dis-
ease on the 14th day. The chickens were weighed weekly
by placing them in a tared plastic container using a
weighing balance (Camry EK 5055-005). The body parts
of the chickens were also measured weekly using a
measuring tape. The following measurements were
recorded, as shown in Figure 1: 1) body length: the
length from the tip of the beak to the uropygial gland;
2) body width: the circumference of the body measured
at the tip of the pectus; 3) thigh length: the length be-
tween the hip bone and the knee on the right limb; 4)
shank length: the length between the knee and the regio-
tarsis on the right limb; 5) wing length: the length from
the base of the shoulder to the tip of the longest primary
feather; and 6) neck length. The measurements were car-
ried out with the assistance of 2 trained techniciansthroughout the study period. The 2 technicians were
trained on handling the chickens and accurate data
recording. The measurements were conducted with min-
imal disturbance of the chickens to avoid stressing them
in the process.
424 MUTISYA ET AL.Slaughtering and Carcass Dissection
The performance trial lasted 42 d, after which the
chickens were feed-restricted overnight. Five chickens
from each replicate were randomly selected for carcass
and organ weight evaluation. The chickens were weighed
to capture the live weights. The birds were sacrificed hu-
manely by a professional following procedures reviewed
and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and
Use Committee (IACUC). The birds were first stunned
electrically before slaughtering. The chickens were then
scalded at 75C in a water bath for about 30 s before
defeathering. The carcasses were reweighed to determine
feather weight by subtraction. The dressed chickens
were later eviscerated to remove the internal organs,
and the wings were removed by cutting anteriorly,
severing at the humeroscapular joint. The cuts were
made through the rib head to the shoulder girdle, and
the back was removed intact by pulling anteriorly. Inter-
nal organs such as the liver, gizzards, heart, and spleen
were weighed (Figure 1). The wings, thighs, breast,
and organs were dissected from each carcass and
weighed separately with a sensitive weighing balance
(Camry EK 5055-005) in grams. The carcasses were
then packaged in Ziploc plastic bags measuring 28 cm
! 40 cm and frozen at 220C for subsequent analysis.Profitability
The net monetary benefit was calculated using the
partial budgeting procedure, which assesses the costs
and benefits associated with a specific change in an indi-
vidual enterprise within the business operation (Soha,
2014). Only variable input costs are used in a partial
budget. The net benefit is the difference between the
gross farm-gate benefit and total variable input costs.
The cost-benefit analysis was carried out, taking into ac-
count the prices and practices in poultry farming in
Kenya where conventional feeds are used, carcass
weights are low, and production is low-input and unsta-
ble. Prices were compared of the current methods of
selling in Kenya which are either doorstep or retail. A
preliminary baseline survey indicated that farmers and
local butchers mostly practice the doorstep method of
selling, whereby chickens are sold as a whole and the
price is negotiable and not dictated by the weight of
the chicken. In retail, the chickens are sold either whole
or in an assorted form (a combination of various parts of
the chicken); the price is usually fixed and is dictated by
the weight of the chicken. A comparison was also made
between a push-pull adopter who had free access to Des-
modium and a non-push-pull adopter who needed to
source Desmodium for $5.5 per bale of 15 kg. The cost
of BSFL was based on the retail price of $0.99 for 1 kg
in Kenya. The price of feed varied from one treatment
to another as the ingredients and quantities used varied.
Among the non-push-pull adopters, the cost of the entire
feed per treatment was as follows: treatment 15 $97.87,
treatment 25 $79.55, and treatment 35 $64.07.94. For
the push-pull adopters, the price was as follows amongthe treatments: treatment 1 5 $87.37, treatment
2 5 $64.03, and treatment 3 5 $38.49. The cost of the
control feed amounted to $86.07. The cost of labor was
defined as the cost of time spent by a worker attending
to the chickens (feeding, cleaning the poultry house,
immunizing, and slaughtering), calculated according to
the wage in Kenya of $5 per day for the 42-day rearing
period. Apart from the feed, the cost of other inputs
that were involved in production, such as water, elec-
tricity, labor, sawdust, immunization, and the cost of
chicks used, was calculated as a whole, as these amenities
were shared by the chickens and hence remained con-
stant across the treatments. This cost was calculated ac-
cording to the current rates in Kenya and amounted to
$97.06 for the entire rearing period. To determine the to-
tal revenue obtained from each treatment, the selling
price of the chicken at the end of the rearing period
was used. A small survey was conducted among farmers
and retailers (local butchers and supermarkets around
Nairobi). On average, a whole chicken retailed at around
$6.50 and this was used to calculate the revenue ob-
tained at doorstep, as the weight of the chicken was
not considered. For the assorted method of selling, the
chicken is usually sold in pieces (chicken breast, thigh,
wing, back) with or without internal organs (usually
liver and gizzard). The price is usually based on weight
and, from our survey, this retailed between $9.50 and
$12 per kg. To obtain the price of an assorted package
of a particular treatment, we obtained the weight of
the various pieces in that treatment and multiplied it
by the cost per kg. On average, 1 kg of the other chicken
pieces retailed as thighs 5 $10.42, drumsticks 5 $6.54,
wings 5 $10.43, gizzard 5 $ 7.26, liver 5 $4.26, and
breast 5 $10.57.
Profit was the difference between the accrued revenue
and the production cost. The cost-benefit ratio was ob-
tained by dividing the total revenue by the cost of pro-
duction. In contrast, the return on investment was
obtained by dividing the profit by the production cost
and then multiplying the result by 100.Data Analysis
To calculate the weekly growth rates of the body
length, thigh length, wing length, and body width, a
linear regression was fitted to the weekly data collected
in each chicken.
A linear regression line with an equation of the form
Y 5 ax 1 b was obtained where x was the explanatory
variable (week) and Y was treated as the dependent var-
iable (weight). The slope of the line was a, while b was
the intercept (the value of Y when x 5 0). The slope
or the tangent of the regression lines, which was the
growth rate, was then compared among different treat-
ments (diets). Because the body, thigh, breast, wing, in-
testines, heart, and spleen weights did not meet those
assumptions, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used to check
for the presence of any significant difference among diets.
All data were checked for normality and homogeneity of
variance using the Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests. The
DESMODIUM-BASED MEAL FOR BROILER CHICKENS 425AllPairsTest in the PMCMRplus (R Core Team, 2019)
package was used for all-pairs comparisons with Bonfer-
roni corrections after a significant Kruskal-Wallis test.
Also, the weight at days 7, 21, and 42, and the
ADBWG, ADFI, and FCR were analyzed with one-
way ANOVA or a GLM with gamma distribution and
log-link function to compare the different diets. All these
analysis were carried out in R version 3.0.1 (R Core
Team, 2019). The net monetary benefit was calculated
using the partial budgeting procedure, which assesses
the costs and benefits associated with a specific change
in an individual enterprise within the business operation
(Soha, 2014).Ethical Approval
The experimental design and all procedures conducted
were based on animal welfare principles recommended
by the NRC to avoid any discomfort or pain
(McGlone, 2001). Sound animal husbandry practices
were used to provide systems of care that permitted
the chickens to grow to maturity and express their
species-specific behavior. Adequate veterinary care was
provided to ensure proper animal health, and research
assistants involved in the study were trained and moti-
vated to achieve high-quality animal care throughout
the experiment. A program was put in place for disease
prevention, surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment
(McGlone et al., 2001). Chickens were slowly acclima-
tized to handling by frequent exposure to kind and
gentle handling by research personnel, starting at 1 d
of age to ease handling at later stages of the study and
to increase feed efficiency as well as body weight gain
(Gross and Siegel, 1983). Ethical approval for the study
was provided by the IACUC of the Kenya Agricultural
and Livestock Research Organization—Veterinary Sci-
ence Research Institute; approval code: KALRO-
VSRI/IACUC019/30082019.RESULTS
Effect of Different Diets on the Growth
Performance of Birds
During the first feeding phase (days 7–21), there was a
significant effect of the replacement of FM with BSFL
and DI meals on the growth performance of broiler
chickens (Table 3). There were, however, no significant
differences in the parameters analyzed except for the
ADFI for the second phase (days 21–42) (P 5 0.003)
and whole feeding period (days 7–42) (P , 0.001).Effect of the Treatments on Weekly Growth
Rates of Body Length, Thigh Length, Wing
Length, and Body Width
Generally, there were significant differences in body
length, thigh length, and wing length between the treat-
ments (Table 4). Chickens fed on T2 and T3 had thehighest body length. The thigh length was higher in
T3 and control compared to the other treatments. The
wing length was significantly higher in the control but
not significantly different from T3. No significant differ-
ence was observed in body width (P 5 0.309).Effect of the Treatments on the Dressed
Carcass and Relative Weight of Internal
Organs
The replacement of FM with BSFL and DI meals had
no significant effect on the dressed weight of carcasses
(P 5 0.836) as well as on the relative weight of internal
organs (liver, heart, spleen, gizzard, and intestines) for
all treatments (Table 4).Profitability of BSFL-Desmodium-Fed Full
Chicken Sold at Doorstep, Retail, or
Assorted Prices
BSFL-Desmodium-based diets were observed to be
more profitable for feeding Cobb500 broiler chickens
than the control diets. Chickens fed with T3 feed gener-
ated more return on investment than the other treat-
ments. Push-pull adopters achieved more economic
returns (profits) than the non-adopters. Also, chickens
fed with conventional FM feed (control diet) were only
profitable when sold at the retail model (Table 5). Simi-
larly, chickens sold as assorted pieces generated more
revenue compared to those sold at the doorstep (per
unit) (Table 5).DISCUSSION
The current study demonstrated clearly that the
mixture of BSFL (insects) and Desmodium (legume fod-
der) could act as a protein substitute for fish and soya
meals in poultry feed. This study confirms previous find-
ings on the benefits of BSFL as an excellent protein sub-
stitute in poultry feed (Onsongo et al., 2018). The use of
the 2 sources of protein gave equally promising results as
shown in Table 3, and analysis of the BSFLM suggests a
judicious balance between BSFL andDesmodium to pro-
vide satisfactory chickens (Jobling, 2012). In our current
study, the CP value of the BSFL was higher than what
was reported by Makkar and Ankers, 2014 and Liland
et al. (2017). BSFL protein content can range between
39 and 44% depending on the substrate (Tibayungwa
et al., 2011; Lalander et al., 2019), and this difference
in our study and that reported by others is proof of the
same. The 2 most limiting amino acids in poultry diets,
methionine and lysine, vary between 1.6 and 2.0, and
3.7 and 4.0, while tryptophan is exceptionally high in
Desmodium compared to BSFL and this has been shown
in this study. Threonine levels were also relatively high
in Desmodium. This suggests that the inclusion of Des-
modium might have a significant positive effect on ani-
mal performance, although no significant differences
were observed in our current study at slaughter. Legume
426 MUTISYA ET AL.
Table 3.The effect of replacing fish meal with black soldier fly larvae meal andDesmodium intortummeal in broiler
chicken diets on mean (6SE) growth performance during different growth phases.
Variables T1 T2 T3 C P-values
Starter phase (days 7–21)
Weight at day 7 (g) 167.1 6 0.54a 167.4 6 1.2a 168.1 6 1.0a 167.2 6 1.4a 0.917
Weight at day 21 (g) 785.8 6 11.5a 667.6 6 11.8c 687.4 6 10.3bc 719.9 6 9.9b ,0.001
ADBWG (g/day) 44.2 6 0.8c 36.9 6 0.9a 37.7 6 0.6ab 40.2 6 0.8b ,0.001
ADFI (g/day) 61.6 6 0.1a 59.5 6 0.2b 56.1 6 0.2c 60.9 6 0.1d ,0.001
FCR 1.4 6 0.0b 1.6 6 0.0a 1.50 6 0.0b 1.5 6 0.0ab ,0.001
Finisher phase (days 21–42)
Weight at day 21 (g) 785.8 6 11.5a 667.6 6 11.8c 687.4 6 10.3bc 719.9 6 9.9b ,0.001
Average weight at day 42 (g) 2,015.9 6 42.9a 2,027.2 6 24.6a 1,990.0 6 50.3a 1,990.0 6 35.9a 0.879
ADBWG (g/day) 61.7 6 1.73a 64.4 6 1.2a 65.0 6 2.1a 60.5 6 1.9a 0.221
ADFI (g/day) 120.8 6 0.0b 120.6 6 0.0b 120.4 6 0.0a 120.6 6 0.0ab 0.003
FCR 2.0 6 0.0a 1.9 6 0.0a 1.9 6 0.0a 2.0 6 0.0a 0.212
Overall period (days 7–42)
Average weight at day 7 (g) 167.1 6 0.5a 167.4 6 1.2a 168.1 6 1.0a 167.2 6 1.4a 0.917
Average weight at day 42 (g) 1,999.6 6 43.8a 2,033.9 6 139.2a 1,990.0 6 50.3a 1,990.0 6 35.9a 0.847
ADBWG (g/day) 52.4 6 1.2a 53.2 6 0.7a 52.0 6 1.4a 52.0 6 1.0a 0.865
ADFI (g/day) 91.3 6 0.0d 90.2 6 0.0b 88.8 6 0.2a 90.8 6 0.0c ,0.001
FCR 1.7 6 0.0a 1.7 6 0.0a 1.7 6 0.0a 1.8 6 0.3a 0.6089
Within a row, means followed by different letters are significantly different by multiple comparisons test (P value , 0.05).
T1 5 25% D. intortum 1 75% BSFL, T2 5 50% D. intortum 1 50% BSFL, T3 5 75% D. intortum 1 25% BSFL, and
control 5 commercial feed.
Abbreviations: ADBWG, average daily body weight gain; FCR, feed conversion ratio.fodders have been shown to positively improve the per-
formance of both layer and broiler chickens due to high
fiber content, which boosts digestion and metabolism
and thus leads to an increased rate of feed conversion
(Krauze and Grela, 2010). The CP level of FM in our
current study was 42.6%, an amount that is way lower
compared to previous reports by Leiber et al. (2017)
who found CP levels of 60.3%. The ash content of FM
was also higher (49%) according to the same study.
This suggest that the FM in this study was of lower qual-
ity which could be ascribed to adulteration by feed
millers or suppliers (high sand content, use of poor qual-
ity fish, and long storage) as frequently reported in East
Africa (Nalwanga et al., 2009).
Our findings suggest that the inclusion of Desmodium
might have played an important role in the performance
of the chickens as observed in previous feeding experi-
ments with other livestock (Kaitho and Kariuki, 1998;
Kariuki et al., 1999; Larbi et al., 2000; Jones and
Jones, 2003; Dierenfeld and King, 2008). Leiber et al.Table 4. The effect of replacing fish meal with black soldi
chicken diets onmean (6SE) weekly growth rates of body len
weight of internal organs at 6 wk.
Variables Control T1
Body length (cm) 1.87 6 0.02c 1.85 6
Thigh length (cm) 0.58 6 0.02a 0.54 6
Wing length (cm) 0.99 6 0.06a 0.91 6
Body width (cm) 3.18 6 0.03a 3.08 6
Dressed carcass weight (g) 1,816.0 6 55.96a 1,874.0 6
Relative weight: liver (%) 2.18 6 0.55a 2.28 6
Relative weight: intestines (%) 5.07 6 0.25a 4.44 6
Relative weight: gizzard (%) 3.65 6 0.14a 3.77 6
Relative weight: heart (%) 0.61 6 0.02a 0.62 6
Relative weight: spleen (%) 0.08 6 0.01a 0.09 6
Within a row, means followed by different letters are significan
0.05).
T1 5 25% D. intortum 1 75% BSFL, T2 5 50% D. intortum
control 5 commercial feed.(2017) also reported similar results using BSFL and
legume fodders of alfalfa and pea.
Although the dressed weight of the chickens did not
differ significantly at the end of the 42-day rearing
period, T1, which had the highest percentage of BSFL,
had the highest carcass weights followed by T2. The di-
gestibility of Desmodium was not tested; however, re-
ports have confirmed high digestibility of BSFL
(Dierenfeld and King, 2008). In broiler chickens, most
meat is deposited around the thighs and breast muscles
(Kokoszynski et al., 2017). In T1 and T2, the thighs
and breasts recorded the highest weights, and this
must have contributed to the increased weights of these
2 treatments. Although the neck and wing weights of T3
and the control diets seemed to be higher compared to
those of T1 and T2, meat deposition around these areas
is usually low, and this explains their low overall weights
compared to the other 2 treatments.
Chickens fed diets T1 and T2 recorded the highest in-
ternal organ weights, that is the liver, heart, and gizzard,er fly larvae and Desmodium intortum meal in broiler
gth, thigh length, wing length, body width, and relative
T2 T3 P-values
0.02c 2.05 6 0.02a 1.97 6 0.04b ,0.0001
0.01a 0.54 6 0.01a 0.61 6 0.02b 0.025
0.10b 0.91 6 0.04b 0.96 6 0.05ab 0.003
0.03a 3.16 6 0.02a 3.12 6 0.04a 0.309
38.11a 1,833.0 6 52.42a 1,805.0 6 74.25a 0.836
0.11a 2.25 6 0.37a 2.21 6 0.48a 0.934
0.19a 4.85 6 0.25a 4.69 6 0.27a 0.322
0.13a 3.82 6 0.14a 3.88 6 0.19a 0.738
0.02a 0.59 6 0.03a 0.58 6 0.04a 0.386
0.01a 0.10 6 0.01a 0.11 6 0.02a 0.703
tly different based on a multiple comparisons test (P value ,
1 50% BSFL, T3 5 75% D. intortum 1 25% BSFL, and
DESMODIUM-BASED MEAL FOR BROILER CHICKENS 427
Table 5. Cost-benefit analysis on the sale (US$) of chickens fed with insect Desmodium-based feed between a push-pull adopter and non-push-pull adopter according to various commercial
pathways.
Full chicken fed with insect Desmodium-based feed between a push-pull adopter and non-push-pull adopter at doorstep and retail
Doorstep (p/u) Retail (p/kg)
Cost-
Production Total selling Return on Production Total selling benefit Return on
cost (US$) price (US$) Profit/loss (US$) Cost-benefit ratio investment (%) cost (US$) price (US$) Profit/loss (US$) ratio (%) investment (%)
Push-pull adopters
T1 6.15 6.50 0.35 1.06 5.69 6.15 8.82 2.67 1.43 43.41
T2 5.37 6.50 1.13 1.21 21.05 5.37 8.67 3.30 1.61 61.45
T3 4.52 6.50 1.98 1.44 43.81 4.52 8.56 4.04 1.89 89.38
Control 6.10 6.50 0.40 1.06 6.56 6.10 8.61 2.51 1.41 41.14
Non-push-pull adopters
T1 6.50 6.50 0.00 1.0 15.38 6.50 8.82 2.31 1.36 35.54
T2 5.89 6.50 0.61 1.10 10.36 5.89 8.69 2.80 1.48 47.54
T3 5.37 6.50 1.13 1.21 21.04 5.37 8.56 3.18 1.59 59.22
Control 6.10 6.50 0.40 1.07 6.55 6.10 8.61 2.50 1.41 40.98
Assorted chickens fed with insect Desmodium-based feed between a push-pull adopter and non-push-pull adopter
Push-pull adopters Non-push-pull adopters
T1 6.16 13.46 7.31 2.19 118.67 6.50 13.46 6.96 2.07 107.08
T2 5.37 13.07 7.70 2.43 143.39 5.89 13.07 7.19 2.22 122.07
T3 4.52 13.32 8.80 2.95 194.69 5.37 13.32 7.95 2.48 148.04
Control 6.10 12.88 6.78 2.11 111.14 6.10 12.88 6.78 2.11 111.14
Push-pull: a farming strategy for controlling agricultural pests by using repellent “push” plants and trap “pull” plants.
1US$ 5 100 Kenyan Shilling.
T1 5 25% Desmodium intortum 1 75% BSFL, T2 5 50% D. intortum 1 50% BSFL, T3 5 75% D. intortum 1 25% BSFL, and control 5 commercial feed.
Abbreviations: p/kg, price per kg; p/u, price per unit.
428 MUTISYA ET AL.although there were no significant differences. T1 and T2
feeds had the highest levels of fats, probably from the
BSFL that was used, and the levels were considerably
higher than that of the conventional feed. This could
have contributed to the large livers as an adaptation to
digest the fats, as reported by Zaefarian et al. (2019).
The similarity in the concurrent increase in gizzard
and liver sizes in this study also concurs with the findings
of Møller et al. (2019), who found similar results as a
chicken’s response to diets containing antioxidants.
This can be ascribed to the antioxidant properties of
Desmodium, as demonstrated by Govindarajan et al.
(2003). Compared to the various treatments, the giz-
zards of the control chickens were relatively smaller
compared to those of BSFL-Desmodium-fed chickens.
The low levels of sand and grit in the test diets could
have directly caused the gizzard to be overworked,
thus getting enlarged in the process (Sacranie et al.,
2012).
The results of this study provide chickens with
marketable sizes. There was a considerable variation in
terms of the weight of the different body parts that is
directly linked to commercial value or market price. It
was found that the sale of full chicken meat at retail pri-
ces provided higher profits compared to sales at door-
step. This study also demonstrated that backyard
production systems with regular feeding regimes were
less profitable due to the high input cost incurred. The
doorstep approach to the sale of chicken meat is a com-
mon practice among smallholder farmers at the farm
level, whereby the price of the chicken does not depend
on its live weight. Contrarily, for retail sales, the chicken
prices are usually determined by the weight of the
chicken or its assorted parts, and the prices are usually
fixed. The retail sale of chicken meat is commonly prac-
tised in supermarkets, which largely depend on the prin-
ciple of willing seller, willing buyer. Equally, backyard
chicken production is profitable, especially if the farmer
is a push-pull adopter due to own Desmodium sourcing.
Generally, the sale of assorted chicken is mainly prac-
tised on a retail basis. When compared to the sale of
whole chicken, this method of selling is highly profitable
for both farmers who use Desmodium and BSFL feeds
and those who use conventional feeds.
In summary, this study demonstrated that a Desmo-
dium-BSFL mix could act as a poultry feed protein sub-
stitute. The cost-benefit analysis indicated that the use
of insects and Desmodium is cost-effective, especially
when farmers have free access to Desmodium. The
approach used in this study needs to be promoted along
with push-pull technology for rapid uptake.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this research was provided by
the Push-Pull for Sub-Saharan Africa Project funded
by Biovision Foundation, Switzerland. The authors of
this study also acknowledge support from the
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research,
WOTRO Science for Global Development (NWO-WOTRO) (ILIPA—W 08.250.202), the Canadian Inter-
national Development Research Centre (IDRC), and the
Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR) (INSFEED–Phase 2: Cultivate
Grant No. 108866-001) and the Rockefeller Foundation
(SiPFeed–Grant No. 2018 FOD 009) through the Inter-
national Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
(icipe).
We also gratefully acknowledge the icipe core funding
provided by UK Aid from the Government of the United
Kingdom, the Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the Swiss Agency for
Development and Cooperation (SDC), the Federal Min-
istry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ), Germany, and the Kenyan Government. The
views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the offi-
cial opinions of the donors.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Isaac Osuga
for his insight on feed composition, Isaiah E. Rachami,
Faith Wamurango Nyamu, Shem Ondiaka, Joshua M.
Wambua, Claudia Munuhe, and Diana Kemunto
for their technical support in the laboratory and
for providing dried black soldier fly larvae produced at
icipe.DISCLOSURES
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The fun-
ders had no role in the design of the study; in the collec-
tion, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of
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