WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK i Li en A ri ts / IW M I Water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa A sourcebook Edited by: Javier Mateo-Sagasta (IWMI) Mohamed Al-Hamdi (FAO) Khaled AbuZeid (AWC) Funded by With the technical support of Water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa A sourcebook Edited by: Javier Mateo-Sagasta (IWMI) Mohamed Al-Hamdi (FAO) Khaled AbuZeid (AWC) ii WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Mateo-Sagasta, J.; Al-Hamdi, M.; AbuZeid, K. (Eds.). 2022. Water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa: a sourcebook. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 292p. doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2022.225 / water reuse / water resources / water availability / water scarcity / wastewater management / wastewater treatment plants / resource recovery / cost recovery / municipal wastewater / water quality standards / regulations / guidelines / planning / risk management / water policies / water governance / water supply / irrigation water / groundwater / aquifers / wadi / farmers / gender mainstreaming / gender equality / women / institutional development / governmental organizations / multi-stakeholder processes / funding / business models / population growth / urbanization / migration / health / case studies / Middle East / North Africa / Algeria / Bahrain / Egypt / Iraq / Jordan / Kuwait / Lebanon / Libya / Mauritania / Morocco / Oman / Palestine / Qatar / Saudi Arabia / Sudan / Syrian Arab Republic / Tunisia / United Arab Emirates / Yemen / ISBN 978-92-9090-946-0 Copyright © 2022, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged and kept informed in all such instances (see Fair use below). Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared with care. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IWMI or the other institutions involved. Fair use: Unless otherwise noted, you are free to copy, duplicate or reproduce, and distribute, display or transmit any part of this report or portions thereof without permission, and to make translations, adaptations or other derivative works under the following conditions: ATTRIBUTION: The work must be referenced according to international citation standards, while attribution should in no way suggest endorsement by the institutions involved or the authors. NON-COMMERCIAL: This work may not be used for commercial purposes. SHARE ALIKE: If this work is altered, transformed or built upon, the resulting work must be distributed only under the same or similar Creative Commons license to this one. Please send comments or inquiries on this publication to the editors and on IWMI publications in general to IWMI-Publications@cgiar.org For access to all IWMI publications, visit: www.iwmi.org/publications/ NOTE: This book has compiled data from 19 Arab countries of the MENA region (namely, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Throughout this book the terms ‘MENA region’ and/or ‘the Region’ refer only to those 19 countries. WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK iii Contents Acronyms and abbreviations viii Editors x Author affiliations xi Foreword xii Acknowledgments xiv SECTION 1: EVOLUTION, STATE AND PROSPECTS FOR WATER REUSE IN MENA Introduction 1 Javier Mateo-Sagasta Chapter 1 Context and drivers of water reuse in MENA 3 Nisreen Lahham, Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Mohamed O.M. Orabi and Youssef Brouziyne Chapter 2 Wastewater production, treatment and reuse in MENA: Untapped opportunities? 15 Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Naga Manohar Velpuri and Mohamed O.M. Orabi Chapter 3 Water reuse policy and institutional development in MENA: Case studies from Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia 43 Mohamed Tawfik, Marie-Hélène Nassif, Olfa Mahjoub, Alaa El Din Mahmoud, Ghada Kassab, Mohamed Alomair and Jaime Hoogesteger Chapter 4 Cost of water reuse projects in MENA and cost recovery mechanisms 63 Solomie Gebrezgabher, Theophilus Kodua and Javier Mateo-Sagasta Chapter 5 Water quality standards and regulations for agricultural water reuse in MENA: From international guidelines to country practices 79 Marie-Hélène Nassif, Mohamed Tawfik and Marie Therese Abi Saab SECTION 2: THEMATIC GUIDELINES Introduction 106 Javier Mateo-Sagasta Chapter 6 A guideline for developing bankable water reuse models 109 Solomie Gebrezgabher and M. Ragy Darwish Chapter 7 Gender mainstreaming guidelines 122 Everisto Mapedza, Bezaiet Dessalegn, Malika Abdelali-Martini and Heba Al Hariry iv WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Chapter 8 Guidelines to improve acceptance of water reuse 142 Javier Mateo-Sagasta and Pay Drechsel Chapter 9 Toward a more harmonious planning and governance of agricultural water reuse: Guidelines, practices and obstacles 156 Marie-Hélène Nassif and Mohamed Tawfik SECTION 3: A SELECTION OF OUTSTANDING WATER REUSE CASES IN MENA Introduction 172 Javier Mateo-Sagasta Case Study 1: Morocco Marrakech wastewater treatment plant and urban landscaping 176 Brahim Soudi and Adil Daoudi Case Study 2: Morocco Boukhalef wastewater treatment plant and Tangier green space and golf course water reuse 189 Brahim Soudi, Thomas Fer and Imane El Hatimi Case Study 3: Tunisia Sfax Sud wastewater treatment plant and El Hajeb public irrigated perimeter 200 Chokri Saffar and Ibticem Chamtouri Case Study 4: Tunisia Ouardanine wastewater treatment plant and public irrigated perimeter 212 Chokri Saffar and Ibticem Chamtouri Case Study 5: Palestine Jericho wastewater treatment plant and West Bank date palm irrigation 223 Nidal Mahmoud Case Study 6: Jordan Tala Bay wastewater treatment plant and water reuse by hotels and resorts 236 Loay Froukh Case Study 7: Jordan Wadi Musa wastewater treatment plant and the Sadd al Ahmar alfalfa irrigation area 245 Loay Froukh Case Study 8: United Arab Emirates Al Wathbah-2 wastewater treatment plant and Abu Dhabi irrigation scheme 255 Mohamed Dawoud Case Study 9: United Arab Emirates Jebel Ali wastewater treatment plant and Dubai water reuse 268 Mohamed Dawoud WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK v List of tables Table 1.1 Population growth and urbanization for MENA countries. 6 Table 1.2 Per capita water resources in MENA countries. 8 Table 2.1 Weighted average composition of influent wastewater in municipal wastewater treatment plants in MENA countries. 25 Table 2.2 Weighted average composition of influent wastewater in municipal wastewater treatment plants in MENA countries. 29 Table 2.3 Wastewater production, treatment and reuse in 19 countries within MENA in 2020 (or latest available year). 32 Table 2.4 Resources embedded in municipal wastewater in MENA countries. 34 Table 3.1 The historical development of wastewater treatment and reuse in Egypt. 47 Table 3.2 Institutional mapping of the responsible institutions for wastewater management and reuse activities in Egypt. 48 Table 3.3 The historical development of the water reuse sector in Jordan. 49 Table 3.4 Institutional mapping of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), the responsible institution for wastewater management and reuse activities in Jordan. 50 Table 3.5 The historical development of the water reuse sector in Lebanon. 52 Table 3.6 Institutional mapping of the responsible institutions for wastewater management and reuse activities in Lebanon. 53 Table 3.7 The historical development of the water reuse in Saudi Arabia. 55 Table 3.8 Institutional mapping of the responsible institutions for wastewater management and reuse activities in Saudi Arabia. 56 Table 3.9 The historical development of the water reuse sector in Tunisia. 58 Table 3.10 Institutional mapping of the responsible institutions for wastewater management and reuse activities in Tunisia. 59 Table 4.1 Investment cost of WWTPs with tertiary treatment system (USD/m3). 69 Table 4.2 Investment and operational cost of varying treatment systems in Egypt. 70 Table 4.3 Operational cost per unit of wastewater treated with tertiary treatment systems (USD/m3). 70 Table 4.4 Price and volume of reclaimed water and operational cost recovery from sales of water. 72 Table 4.5 Cost of managed aquifer recharge for different technologies. 74 Table 5.1 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture. 84 Table 5.2 Challenges and solutions for the development and implementation of agricultural reuse standards. 87 Table 5.3 Historical development of agricultural water reuse quality regulations in five MENA countries. 88 Table 5.4 ‘Use conditions’ categories in 12 MENA countries. 92 Table 5.5 Main standards and restrictions for pathogens control. 96 Table 5.6 Physicochemical parameters for the best category of treated effluents in different regulations. 97 Table 5.7 Classification and agronomic parameters adopted to regulate crop production in MENA. 98 Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of a cost-sharing mechanism. 116 Table 9.1 Common community arrangements for wastewater and reuse management found in MENA. 165 Case study tables Table 1.1 Chronology of the development of the Marrakech WWTP. 178 Table 1.2 Regulatory texts relating to the recovery and management of wastewater in Morocco. 182 Table 1.3 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 183 Table 1.4 Sources of funding 2009–2018. 183 Table 1.5 Contributions to infrastructure for green landscaped areas and palm grove reuse. 184 Table 1.6 Marrakech WWTP and green space and golf course reuse project: SWOT analysis. 186 Table 2.1 Regulatory texts relating to the recovery and management of wastewater in Morocco. 193 Table 2.2 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 195 Table 2.3 Boukhalef WWTP and Tangier green spaces and golf courses reuse project: SWOT analysis. 197 Table 3.1 Irrigable areas and land use of farms served by Sfax Sud WWTPs. 203 Table 3.2 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 206 Table 3.2 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery (continued). 207 Table 3.3 Sfax Sud WWTP and El Hajeb Perimeter: SWOT analysis. 210 vi WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Table 4.1 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 217 Table 4.2 The Ouardanine WWTP and Public Irrigated Perimeter: SWOT analysis. 220 Table 5.1 Jericho WWTP: Data sheet. 225 Table 5.2 Capital expenditure, operating costs and cost recovery. 231 Table 5.3 Jericho WWTP and West Bank date palm irrigation: SWOT analysis. 233 Table 6.1 Tala Bay WWTP: Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 241 Table 6.2 Tala Bay WWTP and water reuse: SWOT analysis. 243 Table 7.1 Wadi Musa WWTP: Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 251 Table 7.2 Wadi Musa WWTP and Sadd al Ahmar reuse case: SWOT analysis. 253 Table 8.1 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 262 Table 8.2 Al Wathbah-2 WWTP and Abu Dhabi water reuse project: SWOT analysis. 266 Table 9.1 Jebel Ali WWTP Phase 1 and 2 capacity. 270 Table 9.2 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery. 273 Table 9.2 Funding and financial outlook and cost recovery (c0ntinued). 274 Table 9.3 Jebel Ali WWTP and Dubai Water Reuse Case: SWOT analysis. 277 List of figures Figure 2.1 Wastewater fate flows (adapted from Mateo-Sagasta and Salian 2012). 20 Figure 2.2 Per capita municipal and domestics wastewater generation in MENA countries. 22 Figure 2.3 Wastewater generated in MENA. 23 Figure 2.4 Trends in municipal wastewater generation in selected MENA countries. 24 Figure 2.5 Proportion of domestic wastewater safely treated in 2020 as per WHO (2021). 28 Figure 2.6 Location and distribution of operational water reuse projects in MENA as of 2020. 31 Figure 3.1 Water withdrawal by sector in the five countries in 2017. 45 Figure 4.1 Financial versus economic analysis of water reuse solutions (adapted from Otoo et al. 2016). 66 Figure 4.2 Share of cost components in the total operational cost. 70 Figure 5.1 Main parameters monitored in treated effluents. 83 Figure 5.2 Examples of options for the reduction of pathogens by different combination of health measures that achieve the health-based targets of ≤ 10-6 DALYs per person per year. 86 Figure 5.3 Microbial threshold and crop restrictions for food crop irrigation. 94 Figure 5.4 Microbial thresholds for public parks and landscape irrigation. 94 Figure S2.1 The waste-water-food value chain. 106 Figure 6.1 Ladder of increasing value propositions related to wastewater treatment based on increasing investments in water quality and/or the value chain. 112 Figure 6.2 Approaches for improving the cost recovery of water reuse models. 116 Figure 6.3 Internal and external drivers and barriers to water reuse models. 118 Figure 7.1 The project cycle in the water reuse context. 130 Figure 7.2 Gender mainstreaming in water reuse. 135 Figure 7.3 Arnstein’s ladder of participation showing different levels of community engagement. 138 Figure 8.1 Attitudes toward water reuse options in southeast United States. 144 Figure 8.2 Strategy for public participation in planned water reuse. 152 Figure 9.1 The large array of stakeholders involved in the governance of agricultural water reuse systems. 158 Figure 9.2 Institutional mapping of governance activities. 162 Figure 9.3 Analytical tool to assess stakeholders’ interest, influence and power relations. 163 Figure 9.4 Board of the role-play game prepared to design reuse systems around Zahleh and Ablah WWTPs. 167 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK vii Case study figures Figure S3.1   Evolution of direct water reuse in MENA; the number of reuse projects. 172 Figure S3.2   Selected cases of water reclamation and direct reuse for productive purposes in the MENA region. 173 Figure 1.1   Map showing Marrakech WWTP and reuse project areas. 177 Figure 1.2 The Marrakech WWTP and water reuse project: Schematic diagram. 178 Figure 1.3 Key institutional players for wastewater treatment and reuse. 180 Figure 1.4 Stakeholders and management model. 181 Figure 2.1 Map showing location of the Boukhalef WWTP. 190 Figure 2.2 Boukhalef WWTP and water reuse system: Simplified schematic diagram. 191 Figure 2.3 Key institutional players for wastewater treatment and reuse. 192 Figure 2.4 Management model of Buokhalef wastewater treatment plant and Tangier green spaces and golf courses reuse project. 194 Figure 3.1 Location map of the existing El Hajeb Perimeter. 201 Figure 3.2 Map showing location of El Hajeb Perimeter and Sfax Sud WWTP. 201 Figure 3.3 Sfax Sud wastewater treatment plant and water reuse system: Schematic diagram 1. 202 Figure 3.4 Sfax Sud wastewater treatment plant and water reuse system: Schematic diagram 2. 202 Figure 3.5 El Hajeb Perimeter management and stakeholder model. 205 Figure 4.1 Location map of the Ouardanine WWTP. 213 Figure 4.2 The Ouardanine WWTP and Public Irrigated Perimeter: Schematic diagram. 214 Figure 4.3 Ouardanine WWTP and Public Irrigated Perimeter: Stakeholder and management model. 216 Figure 5.1 Jericho WWTP: Schematic diagram. SOURCE: Jericho Municipality. 226 Figure 5.2 Jericho location and borders overlaid on a map showing Jericho WWTP and water reuse area. 227 Figure 5.3 Jericho WWTP and West Bank Date Palm Irrigation Project: Stakeholders and management model. 229 Figure 5.4 Percentage of treatment operational cost due to effluent selling for reuse. 230 Figure 6.1 Map of Tala Bay, Jordan showing location of WWTP. 237 Figure 6.2 Tala Bay WWTP: Site map. 238 Figure 6.3 Tala Bay WWTP: Schematic diagram of treatment and reuse system. 239 Figure 7.1 Wadi Musa WWTP location map. 246 Figure 7.2 Wadi Musa WWTP: Schematic diagram for the treatment process and reuse discharge areas. 247 Figure 7.3 Stakeholder and management model: Schematic diagram. 249 Figure 8.1 Metro area population of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi (1950–2030). 256 Figure 8.2 Al Wathbah-2 WWTP: location map and layout. 257 Figure 8.3 Al Wathbah-2 WWTP: Production 2012–2020. 258 Figure 8.4 Al Wathbah-2 WWTP and reuse project: Schematic diagram and management model. 259 Figure 8.5 Emirate of Abu Dhabi Trade Effluent Control Regulations 2010 Framework. 260 Figure 8.6 Trade effluent discharge characterization chart in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. 260 Figure 8.7 Structure of the recycled wastewater collection, treatment and reuse for Al Wathbah-2. 261 Figure 9.1 Jebel Ali WWTP: Location map. 269 Figure 9.2 Jebel Ali WWTP: Layout map. 269 Figure 9.3 Jebel Ali WWTP: Annual capacity 1990–2019. 270 Figure 9.4 Jebel Ali WWTP and water reuse: Schematic diagram. 271 viii WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Acronyms and abbreviations AADC Al Ain Distribution Company (UAE) ABH River Basin Agency (Morocco) ACWUA Arab Countries Water Utilities Association ADC Aqaba Development Corporation ADDC Abu Dhabi Distribution Company ADSSC Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company AFD Agençe Française de Développement ANPE National Agency of Environmental Protection (Tunisia) APDN Northern Development Agency (Morocco) ASEZ Aqaba Special Economic Zone ASEZA Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority AWC Arab Water Council BCM billion cubic meters BOD biological oxygen demand CAP Common Agricultural Policy CAPEX capital expenditure CDR Council for Development and Reconstruction (Lebanon) CE circular economy CEDARE Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe CFU colony-forming unit COD chemical oxygen demand CRA Agricultural Outreach Unit CRDA Regional Commission for Agricultural Development (Tunisia) CTV Territorial Extension Unit (Tunisia) DALY disability adjusted life year DGGREE Directorate General of Rural Engineering and Water Management (Tunisia) DHMPE Directorate of Environmental Health and Environmental Protection DO dissolved oxygen DOE Department of Energy (UAE) EAD Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi EC electrical conductivity EC European Commission ECRA Electricity and Cogeneration Regulation Authority (Saudi Arabia) EP emerging pollutant EPSS Environment Protection and Safety Section (UAE) EWRA Egyptian Water Regulatory Authority FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GASTAT General Authority for Statistics of KSA GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GDA Agricultural Development Group (Tunisia) GTA gender transformative approaches HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point HCWW Holding Company for Water and Waste- water (Egypt) ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas IWMI International Water Management Institute IWPP independent water and power project JICA Japanese International Cooperation Agency JM Jericho Municipality JPTD Jordan Projects for Tourism Development JVA Jordan Valley Authority KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia LARI Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute MAHRP Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources and Fisheries (Tunisia) MALE Ministry of Local Affairs and the Environment MARHP Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries MENA Middle East and North Africa MEWA Ministry of Environment Water and Agriculture (Saudi Arabia) MHER Ministry of Hydraulic and Electric Resources (Lebanon) MHUUC Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities (Egypt) MOA Ministry of Agriculture (Palestine) MoCI Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Saudi Arabia) MSP multi-stakeholder platform MSP Ministry of Public Health MWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation (Jordan) N Nitrogen WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK ix NOPWASD National Organization For Potable Water and Sanitary Drainage (Egypt) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ONAS National Sanitation Utility (Tunisia) OPEX operating expenditure P Phosphorus PFU Palestinian Farmers’ Union PNE National Water Plan (Morocco) PWA Palestinian Water Authority QMRA Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment RADEEMA Water and Electricity Distribution Author- ity of Marrakech (Morocco) RSB Regulation and Supervision Bureau (UAE) RSS Royal Scientific Society (Jordan) RWE regional water establishment SCAD Statistical Center – Abu Dhabi SDG United Nations Sustainable Development Goals SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIO Saudi Irrigation Organization SONEDE National Water Supply Utility (Tunisia) SOP standard operating procedure TSS total suspended solids TWW treated wastewater UAE United Arab Emirates UN Water United Nations Women UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNSTAT United Nations Statistics Division UN-Water United Nations Water US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA United Sates Department of Agriculture WAJ Water Authority of Jordan WHO World Health Organization WLE CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems WWTP wastewater treatment plant x WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Editors Javier Mateo-Sagasta is a Senior Researcher at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) where he works on water pollution control and safe water reuse and coordinates IWMI’s work on water quality across research groups. He has led the ReWater MENA project, a major multi-partner initiative for more and safer water reuse in Middle East and North Africa, and undertakes regional and global assessments on wastewater, water pollution and resource recovery and reuse with UN partners. Javier is the co-chair of the technical advisory committee of the Global Water Quality Alliance and member of the steering committee of the Global Wastewater Initiative. Before joining IWMI, Javier worked as an agriculture engineer and environmental scientist for research centers in Jordan and the Netherlands, the private sector in Spain, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) where he coordinated the water quality program of the Land and Water division for four years, and in multidisciplinary teams mainly in Middle East and North Africa, Latin America, Europe and South Asia. Mohamed AL-Hamdi is the Senior Land and Water Officer and the Delivery Manager of the Regional Water Scarcity Initiative at the FAO Regional Office for the Near East and North Africa. He contributes to FAO’s efforts supporting countries of the region in sustainable water resources management with a focus on inter-sectoral policy coherence, water productivity, water accounting, and non-conventional waters, among others. Prior to joining FAO, Mohamed worked for nine years in the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UN-ESCWA) focusing on water and food security issues. For more than nine years prior to his appointment at UN-ESCWA, he served as the Deputy Minister for Water Affairs at the Ministry of Water and Environment and as the Vice-Executive Chairman of the National Water and Sanitation Authority in the Republic of Yemen. Mohamed holds a PhD in water resources management from Delft University of Technology and an MSc in sanitary engineering from the IHE Institute for Water Education in the Netherlands. Khaled M. AbuZeid is the Regional Water Director at CEDARE and Director of Technical Programs and Member of the Founding Committee and Governing Board at the Arab Water Council as well as lecturer and member of a diverse number of professional associations working on water. He was the team leader of the Nile Basin Decision Support System Conceptual Design, Arab State of the Water Reports, Nile Basin and the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer State of the Water Reports. He developed the 2050 Water Resources Policy Options for Egypt and participated in developing the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer Regional Strategy and the Integrated Model for Egypt Water Resources Management. He was the team leader for Developing Egypt 2030 Wastewater Reuse Vision and Strategy, and the Alexandria 2030 Integrated Urban Water Management Strategic Plan. Khaled has a BSc in civil engineering from Cairo University, and an MSc and PhD in civil engineering from Colorado State University. He is a registered professional engineer and a certified project management professional. WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK xi Author affiliations Malika Abdelali-Martini   Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy Marie Therese Abi Saab   Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute Heba Al Hariry   Food and Agriculture Organization, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed Alomair   Saudi Irrigation Organization, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Youssef Brouziyne   International Water Management Institute, Cairo, Egypt Ibticem Chamtouri   Hydroplante, Tunis, Tunisia Adil Daoudi Régie   Autonome de Distribution d’Eau et d’Électricité de Marrakech, Morocco M. Ragy Darwish   Resources and Environmental Economics, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed Dawoud   Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Bezaiet Dessalegn   International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Cairo, Egypt Pay Drechsel   International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka Imane El Hatimi   Amendis, Tangier, Morocco Thomas Fer   Amendis, Tangier, Morocco Loay Froukh   Jordan Wastewater Reuse and Solid Waste Organization Solomie Gebrezgabher   International Water Management Institute, Accra, Ghana Jaime Hoogesteger   Water Resources Management Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands Ghada Kassab   School of Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan Theophilus Kodua   College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana Nisreen Lahham   Arab Organization for Agricultural Development, League of Arab States Olfa Mahjoub   National Research Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and Forestry (INRGREF), University of Carthage (UCAR), Tunisia Alaa El Din Mahmoud   Environmental Sciences Department, Green Technology Group, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Egypt Nidal Mahmoud   Institute of Environmental and Water Studies, Birzeit University, West Bank, Palestine Everisto Mapedza   International Water Management Institute, Accra, Ghana Javier Mateo-Sagasta   International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka Marie-Hélène Nassif   International Water Management Institute, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed O.M. Orabi   International Water Management Institute, Cairo, Egypt Chokri Saffar   Hydroplante, Tunis, Tunisia Brahim Soudi   Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Morocco Mohamed Hassan Tawfik   Water Resources Management Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands; International Water Management Institute, Cairo, Egypt Naga Manohar Velpuri   International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka xii WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Foreword The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region1 is considered the most water-scarce region in the world. Currently, average renewable water resources availability per capita is one-tenth of the worldwide average. Twelve of the world’s 15 most water-stressed countries are in the MENA region. Increasing water scarcity and pollution is becoming a major concern. The water crisis is creating competition for water between sectors and countries with threats to social stability, peace, economic growth and ecosystems. It is expected that water scarcity will be exacerbated as a result of population growth, changing lifestyles and the impacts of climate change in some regions, and governments and international organizations are all looking for solutions. Countries need to urgently adapt to this situation and one promising solution for increasing water supply is the smart reuse of treated water. As this book highlights, the number of (direct) water reuse projects has doubled every decade since 1990, and there are more than 400 operational projects now in the MENA region. Nevertheless, the potential for resource recovery from municipal wastewater in the MENA region is still untapped. Despite the progress, only 10–11% of the municipal wastewater generated in the region is treated and reused directly, while 36% is reused indirectly, mostly in an informal and unsafe manner due to limited water treatment. Approximately 54% of the municipal wastewater is discharged into the ocean or evaporated with no productive use. The region cannot afford this loss. The recovery of lost wastewater could, for example, irrigate and fertilize more than 1.4 million hectares. The recovery of carbon embedded in this wastewater, if recovered in the form of methane, could provide energy to millions of households. MENA needs to overcome the barriers to more and safer water reuse and accelerate the replication of successful reuse cases. In this book, the most recent available data have been collected to review the state of water reuse in the region, and policy recommendations are made to address the challenges that obstruct the potential of water reuse. A number of successful water reuse cases have been selected and analyzed to encourage replication. As highlighted in this book, the factors that will contribute positively to inclusive scaling and replication of safe water reuse projects are: participatory stakeholder processes and effective communication that improves acceptability; economic and finance models that improve cost recovery and sustainability; effective and harmonic policies that address institutional fragmentation; adequate regulations that are ambitious but affordable; safety measures from farm to fork; and gender mainstreaming in water reuse projects and policies that ensures equitable participation and benefit sharing. 1This book has compiled data from 19 Arab countries of the MENA region (namely, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Throughout this book the terms ‘MENA region’ and/or ‘the Region’ refer only to those 19 countries. WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK xiii Mark Smith Director General, International Water Management Institute (IWMI) AbdulHakim Elwaer Assistant Director General and Regional Representative for the Near East and North Africa, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Mahmoud Abu-Zeid President, Arab Water Council (AWC) xiv WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Acknowledgments This book is based on research conducted under the ReWater MENA project, which is led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). ReWater MENA was implemented in partnership with the Arab Water Council (AWC), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute (LARI), Arab Countries Water Utilities Association (ACWUA), Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), and the Royal Scientific Society (RSS) in Jordan. The editors would like to acknowledge the very generous assistance provided by Asad Sarwar Qureshi, Barbara van Koppen, Bruno Molle, Edoardo Borgomeo, Esther Njuguna-Mungai, Jean D’Cunha, Liqa Rashid-Sally, Manzoor Qadir, Miriam Otoo, Olfa Mahjoub, Pay Drechsel, Pierre Louis Mayaux, Youssef Doughan and Zael Sanz Uriarte in reviewing different chapters of this book and recommending improvements. The editors are also grateful for the active participation of different colleagues that collected and validated data and information for this book. These include Adil Daoudi Régie, Alaa El Din Mahmoud, Ananya Shah, Ammar A. Albalasmeh, Bezaiet Dessalegn, Brahim Soudi, Chokri Saffar, Everisto Mapedza, Fadhl Ali Al-Nozaily, Ghada Kassab, Ghada Mostafa, Hanadi Bader, Heba Al Hariry, Ibticem Chamtouri, Ibticem Qadi, Imane El Hatimi, Jaime Hoogesteger, Loay Froukh, Maha Halalsheh, Malika Abdelali-Martini, Marie-Hélène Nassif, Marie Therese Abi Saab, Mohamed Alomair, Mohamed Dawoud, Mohamed Hassan Tawfik, Mohamed Orabi, Muhammad Manhal Alzoubi, Naga Manohar Velpuri, Nidal Mahmoud, Nisreen Lahham, Olfa Mahjoub, Pay Drechsel, Ragy Darwish, Redouane Choukr-Allah, Safaa Baydoun, Sameer Abdel-Jabbar, Sarah Dekhel, Sayed Ismail, Solomie Gebrezgabher, Suhib Abunaser, Theophilus Kodua, Thomas Fer and Youssef Brouziyne. Finally, the editors thank Michael Major, Kimberly Jean Viloria, Samantha Collins and Samuel Stacey of Cultivate Communications for their support for the language editing, copy editing, graphic design and layout of the book. Thanks as well to Revolve Media for their work on some of the graphics. SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Section 1 Evolution, state and prospects for water reuse in MENA Introduction Javier Mateo-Sagasta Section 1 summarizes the best available data on water reuse in the Middle East and North Africa region.1 The chapters of this section review the challenges and opportunities to untap the reuse potential in MENA. It is aimed at a broad audience, including public officers, academics, students and the media. Chapter 1 covers the context and drivers of water reuse in MENA. The MENA region is considered the most water-scarce region in the world. The significant population growth, high urbanization rate, migration, irrigation expansion and agricultural intensification have created an increased water demand in the region. On the supply side, available water resources are diminishing due to decreasing precipitation and runoff and increased evapotranspira- tion because of climate change. The chapter analyzes how these drivers are aggravating the already existing regional water crises. It also shows how water reuse is being adopted formally and informally as part of the solution. It concludes by calling for an accelerated change toward more and safer water reuse. Chapter 2 explores the untapped opportunities for wastewater production, treatment and reuse in MENA. The chapter offers a systematic and synthesized review of municipal waste- water generation, composition and fate in MENA countries based on the best available data from hundreds of sources. The chapter provides definitions and key figures to better under- stand the subsequent chapters of this book. It looks at the dimension of valuable resources embedded in wastewater streams and the extent to which these resources are so far being recovered for beneficial uses. The chapter provides some explanations for situations where the data are weak or scarce. Chapter 3 presents case studies from five MENA countries to illustrate the water reuse policy and institutional landscape development in the region. The chapter explores the policy and 1This book has compiled data from 19 Arab countries of the MENA region (namely, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Throughout this book the terms ‘the MENA region’ and ‘MENA’ refer only to those 19 countries. 2 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK institutional landscape of wastewater treatment and reuse in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Tunisia and Saudi Arabia. It analyzes the key elements that contribute to, or hinder, the development of water reuse policies and institutional arrangements in the selected countries. It does so by observing the different trajectories each country has followed in developing its water and sanitation sector over the years. The chapter analyzes the key policy and institutional mile- stones as well as the bottlenecks that shaped this development throughout the years. It starts by identifying the most important policies and institutional reforms (milestones) that shaped the current water reuse institutions and arrangements, then analyzes the current interactions and de facto functioning of the different governmental institutions that operate in the sector. Chapter 4 explores the cost recovery mechanisms of water reuse in the MENA region. It assesses several wastewater treatment and reuse projects in the MENA region by focusing on indicators such as their costs and cost recovery or revenue generation mechanisms and the associated technologies. The chapter draws on primary and secondary data collected from existing wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the region with varying value propositions to estimate the investment and operational cost of WWTPs per volume of wastewater treated and operational cost recovery from water reuse. Chapter 5 examines how water quality standards and regulations for agricultural water reuse in the MENA region evolve from international guidelines to country practices. The chapter analyzes national regulations and guidelines for irrigation water reuse in the MENA region with a focus on five countries: Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Jordan and Tunisia. It introduces the main regulatory approaches adopted worldwide with a focus on the WHO and FAO guidelines that proved influential in the region. The second part of the chapter reviews the historical development of countries’ regulations within the larger development of water reuse poli- cies. The third part compares the health-based, agronomic and physicochemical standards against different international guidelines and other MENA country regulations, with a partic- ular interest in human-health standards and restrictions imposed on agricultural practices. The fourth part of the chapter questions the adoption (or lack thereof) of the internationally promoted risk management approaches and unpacks some challenges preventing their translation into national policies and practices. The chapter concludes with common trends in designing qualitative regulations for agricultural water reuse in the MENA region and draws recommendations for future policy and research activities. CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 3 Chapter 1 Context and drivers of water reuse in MENA Nisreen Lahham, Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Mohamed O.M. Orabi and Youssef Brouziyne 4 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Key messages � In recent decades, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has experi- enced the fastest global decline in available water resources in the world and, currently, the average per capita renewable water resources availability is 10 times less than the global average. � This situation has been aggravated locally and millions of people that have been internally displaced now require increased domestic water supply in a context of already stressed water resources. � MENA’s population is expected to grow rapidly from 381 in 2015 to 680 million in 2050. Such population growth, together with a rapid urbanization, agricultural expansion and intensification and changing consumption patterns is forecast to drive the increase of water demand by 50% in 2050. � Much of the MENA region is forecast to experience more warming than the global average, with average temperatures expected to rise by at least 4°C by 2050, even if global warming is limited to a 2°C increase. Precipitation is also forecast to decrease in most of the MENA region by mid-century. � Demographic growth and urbanization have also translated into greater waste- water production. The capacity for sanitation and wastewater treatment is not growing at the same rate and therefore the amount of wastewater discharged untreated into the environment keeps growing in some countries. An increasing amount of water pollution further aggravates the situation and makes less water safe for use. � Water scarcity and pollution are driving thousands of farmers in the region to use marginal quality water to irrigate, posing potential health, agronomic and environ- mental risks. These risks need to be assessed and mitigated. � Despite increasing water scarcity, substantial amounts of wastewater (treated or untreated) are still lost in the sea or evaporated on land or across rivers with no beneficial use, missing opportunities for resource recovery. 1.1. Introduction The MENA region1 occupies an approximate territory of 12.5 million square kilometers (km2), which is about 9.5% of the planet’s land area (FAO 2022a).2 Home to 5.4% of the world’s population (World Bank 2022a), the region contains only 1% of the world’s renewable fresh- water (Kandeel 2019). The MENA region is considered the most water-scarce region in the world, with average water resources per capita at 550 cubic meters (m3)/capita/year (FAO 1This book has compiled data from 19 Arab countries of the MENA region (namely, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Throughout this book the terms ‘MENA region’ and/or ‘the Region’ refer only to those 19 countries. 2As the rest of the regional figures in this chapter, these figures have been calculated based on data from the 19 analyzed countries. CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 5 2022b). That amount is half the 1,000 m3/capita threshold for water scarcity and just above the 500 m3/capita threshold for absolute water scarcity, according to the UN Water Stress Index (Frascari et al. 2018). The significant population growth, high urbanization rate, migration, irrigation expansion and agricultural intensification have created an increased water demand in the region. On the supply side, available water resources are diminishing due to decreasing precipitation and runoff and increased evapotranspiration, as a result of climate change (IPCC 2021). This chapter analyzes how these drivers are aggravating the already existing regional water crises. It also shows how water reuse is being adopted formally and informally as part of the solution. It concludes by calling for an accelerated change toward more and safer water reuse. 1.2. Population growth, urbanization, migration and agricul- ture intensification Since 2000, the MENA region has experienced an average population growth of 1.8% annu- ally (World Bank 2022b). The total population has increased from around 70 million in 1950 to around 418 million in 2020 (World Bank 2022a). MENA’s population is expected to keep growing, in part because of its young age structure, with one-third of the region’s population aged under 15. As a result, the population of MENA is projected to more than double between 2000 and 2050. Population growth is coupled with increasing trends in urbanization. About 73% of the MENA population (305 million) lived in cities in 2020, doubling since 1960 and exceeding the global average of 56% (UN 2018). Table 1.1 shows the relationship between population growth and urbanization in the countries of the MENA region, from 1970 to 2050. In countries such as Algeria, Jordan, Iraq and Morocco more than 60% of people already live in cities. Except for some countries, such as Sudan and Yemen, most countries in MENA have experienced extensive urbanization over the past 30 years, even in countries where population growth has been low or moderate. Urbanization growth is expected to accelerate, and the region’s urban population is expected to increase by 10% in 2050, reaching nearly 560 million (UN 2018). Population growth in some of the MENA countries was not limited to natural demographic increases but was also affected by an influx of cross border displacement of people, due to the turmoil and series of conflicts and economic crises in countries such as Syria, Iraq, Yemen or Lebanon. Not only were citizens moving from rural to urban areas, but refugees from other countries were also relocating to cities. About 2.7 million refugees are hosted in different MENA countries, with an additional 12.4 million people internally displaced. Abrupt reloca- tions of population further increase water demand and impact water quality in host commu- nities. Migration puts increased pressure on municipal water resources for both migrant and host communities. The Syrian refugees in Jordan, for instance, have contributed to a 40% 6 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK increase in the demand for water in the northern governorates (Borgomeo et al. 2021). In Lebanon, 25% of the population are refugees who require an increased domestic water supply in a context where local authorities already struggle to provide water for its population. Urbanization and income growth are some of the key drivers of the changing lifestyle and diets in the MENA region, which in turn contribute to increased water demand. Even though poverty persists, and about 20% of the population lives on less than USD 2 a day (World Bank 2022c), average income per capita has increased. This rise in income has transformed consumption patterns and diets toward water-intensive products such as meat and dairy (Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2018). The growing demand for water-intensive products, as seen in other parts of the world, has increased the demand for irrigation in many MENA countries such as Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco, as these countries are major exporters of many fruits and vegetables. TABLE 1.1 Population growth and urbanization for MENA countries. Country/Region Population (millions)a Urban population (%)b 1970 2001 2015 2020 (estimated) 2050 (forecast) 2015 2050 (forecast) Algeria 14.5 31.5 39.7 43.9 66.6 70.8 84.5 Bahrain 0.2 0.7 1.4 1.7 2.4 89.0 93.2 Egypt 34.5 70.2 92.4 102.3 174.1 42.8 55.6 Iraq 9.9 24.2 35.6 40.2 79.2 69.9 80.5 Jordan 1.7 5.2 9.3 10.2 14.2 90.3 95.3 Kuwait 0.7 2.1 3.8 4.3 5.4 100 100 Lebanon 2.3 4.0 6.5 6.8 6.6 88.1 93.4 Libya 2.1 5.4 6.4 6.9 8.8 79.3 88.4 Mauritania 1.1 2.7 4.0 4.6 9.0 51.1 72.9 Morocco 16.0 29.1 34.7 36.9 47.5 60.8 77.2 Oman 0.7 2.3 4.3 5.1 7.6 81.4 94.9 Palestine 1.1 3.3 4.5 4.8 10.1 75.4 85.5 Qatar 0.1 0.6 2.6 2.9 3.9 98.9 99.7 Saudi Arabia 5.8 21.2 31.7 34.8 46.7 83.2 90.4 Sudan 10.3 28.0 38.9 43.8 81.2 33.9 52.6 Syria 6.4 16.8 18.0 17.5 34.6 52.2 71.9 Tunisia 5.1 9.8 11.2 11.8 13.9 68.1 80.2 UAE 0.2 3.3 9.3 9.9 10.3 85.7 92.4 Yemen 6.2 17.9 26.5 29.8 57.9 34.8 57.2 TOTAL 119.1 278.3 380.8 418.3 680.0 71.3 82.4 SOURCES: aUN 2019; bUN 2018. CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 7 The agricultural sector is the largest user of water in MENA (FAO 2022c). By 2050, the agricul- tural sector is expected to produce about 100% more food to ensure food security, which will require substantial and additional amounts of water. Forecasts suggest that these drivers will continue into the next decades, increasing the demand for water resources. It is anticipated that these trends in population growth combined with economic growth will result in a 50% increase in water demand by 2050 (Mualla 2018). 1.3. Water scarcity and water stress Water stress in the MENA region, measured as water withdrawals as a percentage of total renewable surface freshwater availability,3 is greater than in any other region in the world. Currently, the average per capita renewable water resources availability is 10 times less than the worldwide average (Table 1.2) (FAO 2022b). Eight countries in the region (Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Qatar, Yemen, Algeria and Bahrain), hosting 60% of the regional population, are in the global top 10 highest levels of water stress (World Bank 2018). MENA water resources have experienced the fastest global rates of decline, decreasing by about two thirds over the last 40 years (World Bank 2018). The surface water resources of the region are not only the scarcest, but they are also the most variable and unpredictable in the world. Surface freshwater availability varies greatly from year to year (World Bank 2018). Demographic growth and urbanization have also led to greater wastewater production. The capacity for sanitation and wastewater treatment is not growing at the same rate in many countries and therefore the amount of wastewater discharged untreated into the environment keeps growing (WHO 2021). Climate change profoundly affects the availability and quality of water resources in the region, further worsening the vulnerability of the region’s water security (IPCC 2021). Increased temperatures and evapotranspiration and reduced precipitation and runoff commencing from climate change pose additional pressures on water resources (World Bank 2018). Since the 1960s, temperatures in the MENA region have increased by about 0.3°C per decade (Waha et al. 2017). In general, the hotspots of temperature increase are in Southern Egypt, Eastern Turkey and most of the Saharan desert, where temperatures increased up to 4°C per decade (ESCWA 2019). Even if global warming is limited to a 2°C increase by 2050, the MENA region is set to experience temperatures well beyond this projection because of the desert warming amplification phenomenon. Temperatures are expected to rise in the region by at least 4°C by 2050 (Wehrey et al. 2022). 3Physical water scarcity is measured in terms of water usage relative to the natural endowment of surface freshwater resources, so it does not capture the contribution of non-conventional water supplies or groundwater resources that may have been developed to relieve water stress. 8 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Precipitation levels in the MENA region have also fallen and most of the countries have become drier, with an annual average precipitation below 350 millimeters (ESCWA 2019). Whereas average global precipitation has risen since 1950, with a faster rate of increase since the 1980s (IPCC 2021), precipitation in the MENA region is forecast to decrease. Significant declines are forecast around the Mediterranean region of North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Northern Egypt) and the Levant (Lebanon, Jordan and Syria) (ESCWA 2019). Rainfall in Jordan, for example, is forecast to decrease by 30% by the end of this century (Wehrey et al. 2022). The MENA region is expected to become a global hotspot for droughts (Driouech et al. 2020) with declining precipitation, declining runoff and increasing evaporation by 2050 (IPCC 2021). These trends suggest interrelated implications leading to intensifying the region’s current water scarcity. Increased water scarcity is forecast to make gross domestic product drop between 6 to 14% yearly by 2050, reduce labor demand by up to 12% and lead to significant land-use changes, including the loss of beneficial hydrological services (World Bank 2018; Taheripour et al. 2020). TABLE 1.2 Per capita water resources in MENA countries. Country/Region Per capita annual renewable fresh water (m3) 1970 2000 2015 2020 Algeria 763 366 282 276 Bahrain 506 158 78 74 Egypt 1,593 804 596 584 Iraq 8,478 3,604 2,393 2338 Jordan 497 176 96 94 Kuwait 23 9 4.931 5 Lebanon 1,862 1,077 660 657 Libya 301 127 106 105 Mauritania 9,364 4,104 2,662 2589 Morocco 1,737 985 815 805 Oman 1,803 600 300 290 Palestine 708 248 176 172 Qatar 444 905 21 21 Saudi Arabia 375 110 73 71 Sudan 708 NA 926 904 Syria 2,471 983 982 992 Tunisia 872 468 404 399 UAE 453 43 16 16 Yemen 329 114 75 74 MENA 1,752 827 561 551 NOTES: NA=data not available. SOURCE: FAO 2022b. CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 9 By 2041–2070, groundwater recharge could tumble 30 to 70% (relative to 1961–1990). Morocco and Tunisia are especially vulnerable due to their preexisting water scarcity and heavy reliance on groundwater sources (World Bank 2018). Climate change could also degrade important coastal groundwater sources as sea level rise drives saltwater intrusions into freshwater aquifers (IPCC 2021). 1.4. Water reuse as a response to the MENA water crisis Water scarcity and pollution are forcing thousands of farmers in the MENA region to use raw or diluted wastewater to irrigate. The use of raw wastewater in agriculture has been reported in different countries of the region although the total extent of the practice is unknown. The lack of data is due partly to the informal character of most of the wastewater irrigation or even, in some cases, a deliberate intention not to disclose data. This may be done because farmers fear difficulties when trading their produce or when practitioners do not want to acknowledge what could be perceived as malpractice. Direct use of untreated wastewater occurs where alternative water sources are scarce or unavailable, i.e., usually in drier climates but also in wetter climates in the dry season. The reasons for such use can be lack or low quality of alternative water sources (e.g., ground- water salinity), or the unaffordable costs of accessing freshwater (e.g., costs of pumping). Although officially disapproved or illegal in most countries, direct use of untreated waste- water is a reality that still takes place around towns and cities (Raschid-Sally and Jayakody 2008). The most common reuse form is in agriculture. For example, untreated wastewater is used on farms because it is cheaper than using groundwater from boreholes, for which farmers have no capacity to pay. In other cases, farmers use wastewater from malfunctioning treatment plants or sewers, taking advantage of the already collected resource. In other cases, waste- water is the only water flowing in irrigation canals in the dry season and at the tail ends of irrigation schemes. In some extreme cases, farmers rupture or plug sewage lines to access the wastewater. Indirect water reuse is by far the most extensive type of reuse in the region (Velpuri et al. in review). It occurs when treated or untreated wastewater is discharged into freshwater streams where it becomes diluted and is subsequently used – mostly unintentionally – by downstream users (e.g., farmers, households or industries). In areas where a large portion of the wastewater is still not safely treated (WHO 2021), the practice poses risks to farmers and consumers, particularly if such water is used to irrigate vegetables to be eaten raw. Addi- tionally, the opportunity to sell crops into urban food markets encourages farmers to seek irrigation water in the city vicinity. Several examples of indirect use of untreated wastewater have been reported across the region. For instance, in Egypt, untreated wastewater is discharged into el Rwahi Drain, which 10 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK finally ends up in the Rosetta Branch of the River Nile. Similarly, the Zarkoun Drain discharges into the Mahmoudiah Canal. Eventually, this water is used for irrigation (Tawfik et al. 2021). Another example is from the extreme east of Algeria. The Medjerda wadi is one of the water sources used for agricultural irrigation in the city of Souk Alhras (northeast of Algeria). The wadi receives contaminated raw domestic and industrial wastewater, which farmers use to meet the water requirements of their crops (Mamine et al. 2020). This reality should not be neglected. Farmers are using polluted water to irrigate. Risks need to be assessed (Mara and Bos 2010), and the practice needs to become safer. Solutions need to consider cost-effective wastewater treatment, but not only that. A combination of solutions from farm to fork can offer multiple barriers to health risks (WHO 2006, 2016). On-farm practices such as the use of drip irrigation or irrigation stoppage several days before harvesting to favor pathogen die off can be very effective to ensure food safety (Abi Saab et al. 2022) and can offer an additional safety net in case wastewater treatment is interrupted or dysfunctional. Once harvested, produce should not be recontaminated during transport or in markets by, for example, using unhygienic practices or unsafe water. BOX 1.1 The benefits of planned water reuse in agriculture. The recovery of resources such as water, nutrients/fertilizers and organic matter from wastewater, in support of food production, can have benefits for all sectors involved: cities, agriculture and the environment. Agriculture can benefit from the reuse of urban effluents in several ways, the most important being: (i) improving the reliability of the water supply, (ii) improving the fertilizing capacity of the nutrients of the urban effluents and (iii) bringing agricultural production closer to consumption centers. Cities can benefit from reuse mainly for three reasons: (i) they can strengthen their food security by supplying peri-urban agriculture with water and nutrients; (ii) reuse can effectively contribute to solve their wastewater treatment problem and in partic- ular the removal of nutrients, which can be used by plants rather than ending up in water bodies causing eutrophication of lakes or pollution of groundwater with nitrates; and (iii) they can increase their water availability, when wastewater is reused for municipal uses, or when reclaimed water is exchanged for fresh water between cities and agriculture. The environment, and especially aquatic ecosystems, can benefit from the safe treatment and reuse of wastewater. Reuse can improve water quality and increase its availability for environmental uses. In addition, reuse systems associated with peri- urban agriculture and agroforestry have a high potential for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 11 On the other hand, despite increasing water scarcity, substantial amounts of wastewater (treated or untreated) are still lost in the sea or evaporated on land or across rivers with no beneficial use. The direct and planned use of recycled water is still marginal (see Chapter 2). Accelerating change toward more and safer water reuse has benefits for all sectors involved (Box 1.1) but will require the formulation and implementation of appropriate and effective policies (Box 1.2; see Chapter 3), including incentives for financial sustainability of wastewater treatment reuse projects (see Chapter 4) and affordable regulations that ensure safety (see Chapter 5). BOX 1.2 Increasing importance of wastewater treatment in MENA’s water strategies. In the MENA region, and under the current water scarcity situation, which is expected to worsen, treated wastewater constitutes a constant and perennial resource. Most national water strategies and plans in the region rely on wastewater treatment as a key component in the national water resources mix to reduce water deficits, preserve the natural environment and support socioeconomic development. In Morocco, and since the implementation of the National Liquid Sanitation Plan (PNA) in 2006 and the new National Shared Liquid Sanitation Plan (PNAM) in 2019, more than 157 wastewater treatment plants have been developed and the rate of treatment has increased from 7% in 2006 to more than 50% in 2020 (Alami 2022). The reuse of treated wastewater is part of the recently introduced water strategy relating to the development of water supply by valuing non-conventional resources. Morocco’s long- term objective is to reuse 300 million m3 per year by 2050, across the whole country (SK 2022). The first pilar of Egypt’s National Water Resources Plan (2017–2037) is composed of a set of actions to manage water quality, such as pollution control, and sewage and industrial water treatment. In 2021, Egypt’s Minister of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities announced that Egypt is constructing 151 sewage treatment plants across the republic, with a capacity of 5 million m3 of water per day (Morsy 2021). In Jordan, one of the most water-scarce countries in the world, the government has a 2016–2025 National Water Strategy which charts a target volume of treated waste- water of 240 million m3 annually by 2025 (MWI 2016). References Abi Saab, M.T.; Jomaa, I.; El Hage, R.; Skaf, S.; Fahed, S.; Rizk, Z.; Massaad, R.; Romanos, D.; Khai- rallah, Y.; Azzi, V.; Sleiman, R.; Abi Saad, R.; Hajjar, C.; Sellami, M.H.; Aziz, R.; Sfeir, R.; Nassif, M.H.; Mateo-Sagasta, J. 2022. Are fresh water and reclaimed water safe for vegetable irrigation? Empirical evidence from Lebanon. Water 14(9): 1437. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091437 https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091437 12 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Alami, M. 2022. Réutilisation des eaux usées: Un investissement de 2,34 milliards à l’horizon 2027. La Vie Éco. Available at https://www.lavieeco.com/economie/reutilisation-des-eaux-usees-un-investisse- ment-de-234-milliards-a-lhorizon-2027/ (accessed on August 31, 2022). Borgomeo, E.: Jägerskog, A.; Zaveri, E.; Russ, J.; Khan, A.; Damania, R. 2021. Ebb and flow: Volume 2. Water in the shadow of conflict in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1746-5 Drechsel, P.; Qadir, M.; Galibourg, D. 2022. The WHO guidelines for safe wastewater use in agriculture: A review of implementation challenges and possible solutions in the global south. Water 14: 864. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14060864 Driouech, F.; ElRhaz, K.; Moufouma-Okia, W.; Khadija, A.; Saloua, B. 2020. Assessing future changes of climate extreme events in the CORDEX-MENA region using Regional Climate Model ALADIN-Climate. Earth Systems and Environment 4: 477–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00169-3 ECP (Egyptian Code of Practice) 501. 2015. Egyptian code of practice for the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes. Cairo, Egypt: The Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Communities. (In Arabic). ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations). 2019. Moving towards water security in the Arab Region. Beirut, Lebanon: United Nations publication issued by ESCWA. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2022a. Land area. Estimated average for the MENA region. AQUASTAT Database. Available at https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/ index.html (accessed on March 05, 2022). FAO. 2022b. Total renewable water resources per capita. Estimated average for the MENA region. AQUASTAT Database. Available at https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html (accessed on March 05, 2022). FAO. 2022c. Agricultural water withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal. Estimated average for the MENA region. AQUASTAT Database. Available at https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/ index.html (accessed on August 08, 2022). Frascari, D.; Zanaroli, G.; Motaleb, M.A.; Annen, G.; Belguith, K.; Borin, S.; Choukr-Allah, R.; Gibert, C.; Jaouani, A.; Kalogerakis, N.; Karajeh, F.; Ker Rault, P.A.; Khadra, R.; Kyriacou, S.; Li, W.-T.; Molle, B.; Mulder, M.; Oertlé, E.; Ortega, C.V. 2018. Integrated technological and management solutions for wastewater treatment and efficient agricultural reuse in Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 14(4): 447–462. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4045 IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change). 2021. Technical Summary. In: Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L.; Gomis, M.I.; Huang, M.; Leitzell, K.; Lonnoy, E.; Matthews, J.B.R.; Maycock, T.K.; Waterfield, T.; Yelekçi, O.; Yu, R.; Zhou, B. (eds.). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp.33−144. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.002 Kandeel, A. 2019. Freshwater resources in the MENA region: Risks and opportunities. Middle East Insti- tute. Mamine, N.; Khaldi, F.; Grara, N. 2020. Survey of the physico-chemical and parasitological quality of the wastewaters used in irrigation (Souk Ahras, North-East of Algeria). Iranian (Iranica) Journal of Energy & Environment 11(1): 78–88. https://dx.doi.org/10.5829/ijee.2020.11.01.13 Mara, D.; Bos, R. 2010. Risk analysis and epidemiology: the 2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Mateo-Sagasta, J.; Zadeh, S.M.; Turral, H. 2018. More people, more food, worse water? A global review of water pollution from agriculture. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 228p. https://www.lavieeco.com/economie/reutilisation-des-eaux-usees-un-investissement-de-234-milliards-a-lhorizon-2027/ https://www.lavieeco.com/economie/reutilisation-des-eaux-usees-un-investissement-de-234-milliards-a-lhorizon-2027/ https://doi.org/10.3390/w14060864 https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00169-3 https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html https://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4045 CONTEXT AND DRIVERS OF WATER REUSE 13 Morsy, A. 2021. Egypt builds 151 dual, triple sewage treatment plants for EGP 32 bln. Ahram Online. Available from https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/409876/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt- builds--dual,-triple-sewage-treatment-plants.aspx (accessed on August 31, 2022). Mualla, W. 2018. Water demand management is a must in MENA countries… but is it enough. Journal of Geological Resource and Engineering 6: 59–64. MWI (Ministry of Water and Irrigation). 2016. National Water Strategy 2016–2025. Amman, Jordan: Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Raschid-Sally, L.; Jayakody, P. 2009. Drivers and characteristics of wastewater agriculture in developing countries: Results from a global assessment. (Vol. 127). Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). SK. 2022. Baraka: Le Maroc prévoit le traitement de 100 millions de m3 des eaux usées d’ici 2027. L’Opinion. Available at https://www.lopinion.ma/Baraka-Le-Maroc-prevoit-le-traitement-de-100- millions-de-m3-des-eaux-usees-d-ici-2027_a26911.html (accessed August 31, 2022). Taheripour, F.; Tyner, W.E.; Sajedinia, E.; Aguiar, A.; Chepeliev, M.; Corong, E.; de Lima, C.Z.; Haqiqi, I. 2020. Water in the balance: The economic impacts of climate change and water scarcity in the Middle East. Washington, DC.: World Bank. Tawfik, M.H.; Hoogesteger, J.; Elmahdi, A.; Hellegers, P. 2021. Unpacking wastewater reuse arrange- ments through a new framework: Insights from the analysis of Egypt. Water International 46(4): 605–625. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2021.1921503 UN (United Nations). 2018. Urban population (% of total population). Estimated average for the MENA region. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. World Urbanization Pros- pects: The 2018 Revision. Retrieved from https://population.un.org/wup/Download/ (accessed on March 05, 2022). UN (United Nations). 2019. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World Population Prospects 2019, Online Edition. Rev. 1. Retrieved from https://population.un.org/ wpp/Download/ (accessed on March 5, 2022). Velpuri, N.M.; Mateo-Sagasta, J.; Mohammed, O. In review. Spatially explicit wastewater generation and tracking in the MENA region. Science of the Total Environment. Waha, K.; Krummenauer, L.; Adams, S.; Aich, V.; Baarsch, F.; Coumou, D.; Schleussner, C.F. 2017. Climate change impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region and their implica- tions for vulnerable population groups. Regional Environmental Change 17: 1623–1638. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2 Wehrey, F.; Fawal, N. 2022. Cascading climate effects in the Middle East and North Africa: Adapting through inclusive governance. CEIP: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved from https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and- north-africa/3027645/ (accessed on July 18, 2022). World Bank. 2018. Beyond scarcity: Water security in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA Development Report. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/27659 World Bank. 2022a. Population, total. Estimated percentage for the MENA region. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL (accessed on March 05, 2022). World Bank. 2022b. Population growth (annual %). Estimated average for the MENA region. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW (accessed on March 05, 2022). World Bank. 2022c. World Development Indicators. Poverty and Inequality Platform. people lived below the $1.90 per day poverty line in 2018. Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved from https://data. worldbank.org/region/middle-east-and-north-africa (accessed on March 05, 2022). https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/409876/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-builds--dual,-triple-sewage-treatment-plants.aspx https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/409876/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-builds--dual,-triple-sewage-treatment-plants.aspx https://www.lopinion.ma/Baraka-Le-Maroc-prevoit-le-traitement-de-100-millions-de-m3-des-eaux-usees-d-ici-2027_a26911.html https://www.lopinion.ma/Baraka-Le-Maroc-prevoit-le-traitement-de-100-millions-de-m3-des-eaux-usees-d-ici-2027_a26911.html https://population.un.org/wup/Download/ https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/ https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2 https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/3027645/ https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/3027645/ https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/27659 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/27659 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW https://data.worldbank.org/region/middle-east-and-north-africa https://data.worldbank.org/region/middle-east-and-north-africa 14 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Wehrey, F.; Fawal, N. 2022. Cascading climate effects in the Middle East and North Africa: Adapting through inclusive governance. CEIP: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved from https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and- north-africa/3027645/ (accessed on July 18, 2022). WHO (World Health Organization). 2006. Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and grey- water. World Health Organization: Paris, France, 2006; Volume II, 182. WHO. 2016. Sanitation safety planning: manual for safe use and disposal of wastewater, greywater and excreta. World Health Organization: Geneva. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publica- tions/ssp-manual/en/ WHO. 2021. Country files for SDG 6.3.1. Proportion of wastewater safely treated. Available at https:// www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/water-sanitation-and-health/moni- toring-and-evidence/water-supply-sanitation-and-hygiene-monitoring/2021-country-files-for-sdg- 6.3.1-proportion-of-water-safely-treated (accessed on April 15, 2022). https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/3027645/ https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2267979/cascading-climate-effects-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/3027645/ http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/ssp-manual/en/ http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/ssp-manual/en/ WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 15 Chapter 2 Wastewater production, treatment and reuse in MENA: Untapped opportunities? Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Naga Manohar Velpuri and Mohamed O.M. Orabi 16 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK Key messages � Water reuse has great potential to help overcome some of the challenges posed by the increasing pressure on already stressed water resources. � Wastewater is the only source of water that increases as population and water use grow. Currently, the MENA region1 produces around 21.5 billion cubic meters (BCM) of nutrient-rich municipal wastewater per year. � Many MENA countries are substantially improving their wastewater treatment rate, however, about 40% of produced domestic wastewater and a substantial portion of industrial wastewater in the region are still left untreated. This poses serious risks to human health and ecosystems and reduces the amount of fresh water that is safe to use. � The region has doubled the number of projects for direct water reuse every decade since 1990, and indirect water reuse is frequent. Nevertheless, up to 54% of the municipal wastewater that is produced is still not put to good use. It is either being discharged into the sea or evaporated (on land or along rivers). � This wasted wastewater, if recovered, can increase the energy, nutrients and water availability and enhance the region’s ability to adapt to changes in climate and enhance food security. The lost wastewater, if fully recovered, could additionally irrigate and fertilize more than 1.4 million hectares (ha). The carbon embedded in the generated wastewater, if recovered in the form of methane, would have a caloric value to provide electricity to 8 million households. � The region needs to overcome the factors that limit the materialization of the regional full water reuse potential, including: cultural barriers and distrust; institutional fragmentation; inadequate regulatory frameworks; and the lack of appropriate tariffs, economic incentives and financial models, which undermines cost recovery and the sustainability of reuse projects. � The region also needs standardized data collection and reporting efforts across the formal and informal reuse sectors to provide more reliable and updated infor- mation, which is essential to develop proper diagnosis and effective policies for the safe and productive use of these resources. 1This book has compiled data from 19 Arab countries of the MENA region (namely, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Throughout this book the terms ‘MENA region’ and/or ‘the Region’ refer only to those 19 countries.” WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 17 2.1. Introduction The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is the most water-stressed region in the world. Freshwater withdrawals exceed renewable water resources in almost all countries in the region. The gap between the supply and demand is widening every year. Currently, the average per capita renewable water resources availability (551 m3/year) is 10 times less than the worldwide average (FAO 2020). Since 2000, the region has witnessed a series of conflicts and droughts. This has led to a considerable displacement of people and has potential for long-term impacts on the already stressed land and water resources (Taheripour et al. 2020). Pathogens heavily affect many rivers in the region (UNEP 2016). The occurrence of emerging pollutants in water is also a growing concern (Haddaoui and Mateo-Sagasta 2021; Ouda et al. 2021). Pollution reduces even further the amount of water that is safe to use. Water scarcity and pollution are impacting various sectors of the economy (Fragaszy et al. 2022a; Fragaszy et al. 2022b). These pressures on the water resources and infrastructure may become structural and be aggravated by population growth, changes in our consumption patterns and climate change. Population and urbanization have grown and will continue to grow. The de facto population of the region has increased from 272.2 million inhabitants in 2000 to 418.3 million estimated for 2020 (UN 2019). Urban agglomerations like ‘Greater Cairo,’ Riyadh and Dubai now host 25.5, 8.6 and 4.5 million people, respectively, and are forecast to grow at an annual rate of 1.5–2% by 2030 (CAPMAS 2022; GASTAT 2019; GD 2021). Changes in calorie intake and diets have also increased the demand for a greater diversity of foods, including meat and dairy products, which have large water footprints. This has increased water demand for irrigation and food production (Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2018). Forecasts suggest that these drivers will continue to widen the water supply and demand gap in the next decades. On top of all this, precipitation in the region is forecast to decrease, with more frequent and intense droughts, while evapotranspiration will increase (Zittis 2018; Babaousmail et al. 2022). Water scarcity is forecast to reduce GDP by 6–14% yearly by 2050 (World Bank 2018). Furthermore, increased water scarcity could reduce labor demand by up to 12% and lead to significant land-use changes, including loss of beneficial hydrological services (Taheripour et al. 2020). Agriculture is the largest user of water in MENA and is particularly susceptible to water avail- ability, accessibility and quality. The sector is expected to produce more food to ensure food security. This will require substantial and additional amounts of water. Taheripour et al. (2020) conclude that “unless new and transformative policies for sustain- able, efficient and cooperative water management are promoted, water scarcity will nega- tively impact the region’s economic prospects and undermine its human and natural capital.” Governments in MENA are responding to this water crisis by urgently seeking interventions to increase water security by optimizing water management, narrowing the supply-demand 18 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK gap and preventing water quality degradation. Such interventions typically include increases in water use efficiency and productivity, reductions in unproductive water loses in water networks and increases of the water budget by using non-conventional sources of water, such as municipal effluents. Municipal effluents are mostly (99%) made of water. The 1% that remains is made of different compounds including valuable resources such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These resources can be recovered and used as fertilizers for agriculture, organic carbon that can be used as an ameliorator of soils or energy in the form of methane. Nevertheless, these effluents also have pathogens and chemicals that can pose risks to human health and the environment. If these hazards are removed or controlled, the resources embedded in wastewater can be recovered and used with benefits for all. Rather than losing wastewater that has been discharged to the sea or evaporated on land or along rivers, we can recover it and bring new water back to the water budget. Additionally, agriculture can benefit from a constant flow of water all year round, thus making agricultural systems more resilient to droughts. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen can be reused as fertilizers with increased yields. Cities can increase their food security if water reuse favors the development of productive green belts around urban areas. Cities can also use agriculture as a tertiary treatment where crop uptake nutrients that otherwise could pollute receiving waters. The environment will also benefit from reduced pollution and the conservation of fresh water for environmental purposes. Water reuse has great potential to help overcome some of the challenges posed by the increasing pressure on already stressed water resources (WWAP 2017). MENA cities and towns produce millions of cubic meters of wastewater every year. The fate of this wastewater is very different depending on the local context: wastewater can be collected or not, treated or not and finally used directly or indirectly or evaporate or be disposed in the sea with no beneficial use (Box 2.1; Box 2.2; Figure 2.1). BOX 2.1 A note on definitions (adapted from Mateo-Sagasta 2015) Wastewater can be defined as “used water discharged from homes, businesses, industry, cities and agriculture” (Asano et al. 2007). According to this definition, there are as many types of wastewater as water uses (e.g., urban wastewater, industrial wastewater or agricultural wastewater). When wastewater is collected in a municipal piped system it is called ‘sewage.’ The term ‘wastewater’ as used in this book is basically synonymous with municipal wastewater, which is usually a combination of one or more of the following: domestic wastewater consisting of blackwater (from toilets) and greywater (from kitchens and WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 19 bathing); water from commercial establishments and institutions, including hospitals; industrial effluent within the city or town, where present; and stormwater and other urban runoff. Municipal wastewater does not include industrial wastewater (including wastewater from the mining, manufacturing or energy sectors) or agricultural waste- water generated and collected outside human settlements. Wastewater can be collected or not, treated or not, and finally used directly or discharged to a water body and be either reused indirectly downstream or lost when it is discharged to the sea or evaporates with no beneficial use. Wastewater collection Wastewater can be collected and treated on-site (e.g., in septic tanks) or off-site (e.g., in piped sewerage systems connected to a treatment plant). The design and size of a septic system can vary widely; typically, within the tank there is sedimentation and primary treatment of wastewater and the partially treated effluent percolates to the soil through a constructed soak pit. It is also frequent in middle- and low-income countries that such tanks are not properly designed and maintained and the effluent drains directly into open canals. Sewerage systems collect wastewater from house- holds but also from other commercial activities and industries within cites as indicated above. Types of wastewater treatment Before being treated, sewage usually goes through pre-treatment to remove grit, grease and gross solids that could hinder subsequent treatment stages. Later, primary treatment aims to settle and remove suspended solids, both organic and inorganic. The most common primary treatments are primary settlers, septic and imhoff tanks. In secondary treatment soluble biodegradable organics are degraded and removed by bacteria and protozoa through (aerobic or anaerobic) biological processes. Typical secondary treatments include aerated lagoons, activated sludge, trickling filters, oxidation ditches and other extensive processes such as constructed wetlands. Tertiary treatment aims at effluent polishing before being discharged or reused and can consist of the removal of nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorous), toxic compounds, residual suspended matter or microorganisms (disinfection with chlo- rine, ozone, ultraviolet radiation or others). Nevertheless, this third stage/level is rarely employed in low-income countries. The tertiary treatment process can include membrane filtration (micro-, nano-, ultra- and reverse osmosis), infiltration/percola- tion, activated carbon and disinfection (chlorination, ozone or UV). Finally, water reclamation refers to the treatment of wastewater to make it suitable for beneficial use with no or minimal risk. 20 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK FIGURE 2.1 Wastewater fate flows (adapted from Mateo-Sagasta and Salian 2012). BOX 2.2 Types and examples of uses of reclaimed water (adapted from Mateo-Sagasta 2015) Agricultural and forestry irrigation: irrigation of crops, forests, agroforestry or commercial nurseries. Landscape irrigation: reuse for parks, schoolyards, freeway medians, golf course, cemeteries, greenbelts or residential. Industrial uses: cooling water, boiler feed, process water or heavy construction. Groundwater recharge: groundwater replenishment for saltwater intrusion control or subsidence control. Recreational uses: leisure activities like fishing, boating, bathing or snowmaking. Environmental uses: lakes and ponds, marsh enhancement, stream-flow augmentation and fisheries. Potable reuse: Planned augmentation of a drinking water supply with reclaimed water. It can be indirect potable reuse (e.g., through groundwater recharge or by blending in water supply reservoirs with a subsequent drinking water treatment) or direct potable reuse (e.g., pipe-to-pipe water supply). Non-potable urban uses: All other urban uses that do not involve potable reuse or landscape irrigation, such as fire protection, air conditioning or toilet flushing. The direct use of wastewater implies that treated or untreated wastewater is used for different purposes (such as crop production, aquaculture, forestry, industry, gardens or golf courses) with no prior dilution. When it is used indirectly, the wastewater is first discharged into a water body where it undergoes dilution prior to use downstream. Reuse can be planned or unplanned. Planned water reuse refers to the deliberate and controlled use of raw or treated wastewater, for example, for irrigation. Most indirect use occurs without planning. Aquifer recharge might be an exception. WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 21 Improving the treatment of wastewater, increasing the direct use of treated wastewater and making the indirect use of polluted water safer are key to addressing the MENA water crisis. This chapter offers a systematic and synthesized review of municipal wastewater generation, composition and fate in MENA countries based on the best available data from hundreds of sources. The chapter also provides definitions and key figures to better understand the subse- quent chapters of this book. The chapter also looks at the dimension of valuable resources embedded in wastewater streams and the extent to which these resources are so far being recovered for beneficial uses. Where data are weak or scarce, the causes of such data gaps are discussed. 2.2. Production, composition and treatment of municipal wastewater 2.2.1. Production of wastewater Wastewater is a resource that can be mined, and as such, it is important to understand how it is geographically distributed in the MENA region. Municipal wastewater is generated where population concentrates, which is typically along the coasts and large rivers. Munic- ipal wastewater production does not only depend on population density but also on the per capita wastewater production, which mainly depends on the per capita municipal water use, which, in turn, is more related to the income per capita than to actual renewable water resources abundance. High-income countries such as Bahrain or Kuwait, which are water scarce but have access to seawater and can afford water desalination at a large scale, typically have much higher per capita wastewater generation than countries such as Yemen, Mauritania or Sudan or than water-scarce middle-income countries where desalination is limited, such as Jordan, Morocco or Tunisia (Figure 2.2). Within countries, rural areas use less water per capita than urban areas and this also has an effect on the per capita wastewater generation. Figure 2.2 illustrates how municipal wastewater generation per capita is calculated as the total municipal wastewater generated in 2015 as per AWC (2019) divided by the population per country in 2015 as per UNSTAT. Saudi Arabia (KSA) and Kuwait are exceptions and munic- ipal wastewater data was drawn from GASTAT (2020) and CSB (2020), respectively, since the data from AWC (2019) was unrealistically low. Domestic wastewater generation per capita in Figure 2.2 is calculated as the total domestic wastewater generated in 2020 as per WHO (2021) divided by the population per country in 2020 as per UNSTAT. Saudi Arabia and Qatar are exceptions and municipal wastewater data was drawn from GASTAT (2020) and PSA (2019) respectively as the data from WHO (2021) was unrealistically high for Saudi Arabia and low for Qatar. 22 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK By definition (see Box 2.1) figures for municipal wastewater should be larger than domestic wastewater, but this is not always the case in the data shown in Figure 2.2. This may be due to the different years compared (2020 for domestic and 2015 for municipal) or because of deeper methodological inconsistencies between sources. Both WHO (2021) and AWC (2019) collect data from country primary sources, which tend to use different methodologies and define terms differently. This may also be because in some MENA countries, there are very few industries, especially those that use lots of water, such as the textile industry. Figure 2.3 shows the spatial distribution of the municipal wastewater generation in MENA resulting from combining per capita wastewater generation and population density based on Jones et al. (2021) and Velpuri et al. (forthcoming). Jones et al. (2021) provided a spatially explicit distribution of global wastewater for 2015 at a special resolution of 5 arcmin (~10 km). This approach has been refined for the MENA region by developing and using the SEWAGE-Track model (Velpuri et al. forthcoming), which uses data from the nominal year 2015, has a resolution of 1 km, and differentiates and incorporates data on per capita wastewater production in rural and urban areas. With these data and tools, we can precisely identify the location of where wastewater is generated (Figure 2.3). Cities are obviously hotspots of wastewater generation and produce 72% of the municipal wastewater in the region (the other 28% is generated in rural areas) (Velpuri et al. forthcoming). Nevertheless, water-demanding agricultural lands and tree plan- tations (the main users for reclaimed water in the region) are not always close to cities and sometimes are upstream of wastewater generation sites. FIGURE 2.2 Per capita municipal and domestics wastewater generation in MENA countries. WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 23 This poses economic challenges for reuse since pumping wastewater back and beyond a given distance or height is not always economically feasible. In smaller towns and villages, which are closer to the WWTPs or surrounded by agricultural land, the challenge is typically that wastewater is collected on-site in septic tanks with limited treatment capacity. Effluents from septic tanks either percolate to groundwater or are discharged to open canals (if septic tanks are sealed) with very low treatment and poor removal of pathogens, which limits the potential for safe reuse. When considering the trends, wastewater is the only source of water that increases as population and water use grow (Figure 2.4). This is particularly apparent in countries such as Egypt, which is the most populated country in MENA and experiencing booming growth of its urban areas, especially in and around Cairo. This trend is going to continue in the coming decades and the wastewater sector needs to adapt to cope with this increasing production of wastewater. An increasing body of evidence suggests that the economic costs (including environmental and health costs) of discharging wastewater into the environment untreated are higher than the costs of managing it properly (Hernandez-Sancho et al. 2015). From a resource mining perspective, the growth of wastewater production and treatment of waste- water as an economic asset (Drechsel et al. 2015) offer opportunities to increase economic and social benefits in a circular economy. FIGURE 2.3 Wastewater generated in MENA. NOTES: The map in the central region shows the distribution of wastewater generated by Jones et al. 2021. The insights for urban agglomerations in the periphery of the map show the wastewater generated by the SEWAGE-Track model (Velpuri et al. 2022). 24 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK The composition of raw municipal wastewater and the resources embedded, or the hazards contained in it, vary in different countries and in different cities within countries. Water in municipal wastewater comes from households, from rainwater that drains cities and from industries and commercial activities. Most of the nutrients in wastewater come from human excreta. The excretion of nutrients per capita is highly dependent on diets (e.g., protein consumption), which differ depending on the country, wealth status and culture. Most of the nutrients are in urine. In wastewater, phosphorus does not come only from human excreta but also from detergents used in laundry and dishwashing (Mateo-Sagasta 2015). As a result of these material flows, municipal wastewater concentrates valuable resources but also hazards such as pathogens or dangerous chemicals (Table 2.1; Box 2.3). Pathogens tend to come in excreta. Chemical hazards enter wastewater via discharges from economic activities connected to sewers, but also via household cleaning or pharmaceuticals excreted by people. The concentration of these resources and hazards depends very much on people’s consumption patterns, diets, household and municipal water use and rainfall entering sewage systems (dilution). Table 2.1 shows the weighted average composition of raw wastewater in MENA countries based on influent data from 166 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The averages have been weighted with the influent volumes of wastewater to the treatment plants FIGURE 2.4 Trends in municipal wastewater generation in selected MENA countries. NOTES: Mashreq includes Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Egypt; Maghreb includes Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia; GCC includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates); Least developed countries include Sudan and Yemen. WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, TREATMENT AND REUSE 25 so that the composition of the influent wastewater in large treatment plants has a larger influ- ence on the national averages. Data shows that wastewater tends to be stronger (i.e., with higher concentrations) in counties with less municipal water use per capita, such as Jordan or Mauritania. The composition of municipal wastewater offers valuable information on both the risks and opportunities of water reuse. WWTPs designers will consider the wastewater composition and concentration when selecting technology or resource recovery processes. For example, for strong wastewater in warm climates, WWTP designers may choose anaerobic systems that tend to yield less sewage sludge and maximize energy recovery through biogas generation. TABLE 2.1 Weighted average composition of influent wastewater in municipal wastewater treatment plants in MENA countries. Country TSS BOD COD T-N T-P FC EC TDS No. of WWTPs from which data has been collected(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (CFU/ 100 mL) (dS/m) (mg/L) Algeria 357 330 660 23.2 10.0 1.84E+08 2.4 1,642 20 Bahrain 179 219 410 NA NA NA NA NA 1 Egypt 243 209 391 40.2 6.4 1.43E+09 1.1 654 13 Iraq 230 214 395 NA NA NA 1.9 1,379 5 Jordan 628 624 1245 100.0 10.5 2.87E+07 1.4 978 22 Kuwait 250 234 431 31.5 21.8 3.41E+07 1.0 645 4 Lebanon 412 291 618 63.1 12.0 1.13E+06 1.3 962 15 Libya 216 298 431 NA 2.8 NA 2.8 1,664 5 Mauritania 658 535 1811 NA NA NA 2.1 1,506 1 Morocco 475 1354 907 82.7 11.3 7.83E+08 2.7 1,869 9 Oman 420 245 920 87.7 12.0 1.45E+08 1.7 944 7 Palestine 781 471 951 66.6 10.2 2.22E+06 2.9 2,268 10 Qatar 150 178 418 35.0 5.0 5.01E+06 2.0 1,329 2 KSA 321 213 413 25.6 13.2 2.54E+06 2.3 1,488 10 Sudan 447 411 1076 NA NA NA 1.2 709 3 Syria 539 355 542 46.8 2.5 3.90E+07 2.3 1,701 3 Tunisia 419 372 899 92.9 12.6 7.93E+06 3.2 2,477 23 UAE 277 258 589 NA 6.2 NA 3.8 2,108 8 Yemen 444 743 1307 NA 15.0 2.93E+06 2.6 1,899 5 MENA 296 285 523 55.2 13.2 7.15E+08 2.5 1,490 166 TSS: Total dissolved solids, BOD: biological oxygen demand, COD: chemical oxygen demand, T-N: total nitrogen, T-P: total phosphorus, FC: fecal coliforms, EC: electric conductivity, TDS: total dissolved solids. Sources: See complete list of sources by country at https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstreams/59970641-29d2-442e-8f36-2a8afbee1f59/download 26 WATER REUSE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA: A SOURCEBOOK BOX 2.3 Emerging pollutants (EPs) in raw and treated wastewater in MENA (from Haddaoui and Mateo-Sagasta 2021) Emerging pollutants are of increasing concern. Raw municipal wastewater in the MENA region has been reported to concentrate pesticides like endosulfan or DDT, pharmaceuticals such as acetaminophen, ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, diclofenac or carbamazepine, and dozens of other emerging pollutants. The limited actual treatment of these wastes and wastewater in many MENA countries results in a large portion of these EPs making their way to water bodies, in turn increasing the risk of exposure downstream. Even in the cases where wastewater is collected and treated, the removal efficiency for EP in existing WWTPs is at best limited. The data on EP removal effectiveness in treatment plants of the MENA countries suggest that secondary treatment is ineffective in the reduction of most EPs (e.g., pharmaceuticals compounds like carbamazepine, erythromycin and sulfamethox- azole). Tertiary treatment improves the elimination of many EPs, but this improvement is inadequate for some pollutants (e.g., tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and amoxicillin). The extent of the wastewater treatment coverage and the types of wastewater and drinking water treatment technologies in most MENA countries are far from sufficient to effectively address the environmental and health risks posed by the EPs. Given the limited financial capacities of the middle- and low-income countries, and the limited effectiveness of the removal of EPs by the tertiary treatments, it is not practical nor affordable to promote wastewater treatment as the only way to address waterborne EPs. Instead, we recommend prioritizing a more cost-effective combination of solu- tions that includes a change in consumption and production patterns to prevent pollu- tion from EPs at the source, wastewater treatment expansion to the ex