Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic
Resources and Intellectual Property
Rights
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
Dimary Libreros, compiler
Bibliography on
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
Americas Group
Access to Plant Genetic Resources and
Intellectual Property Rights
compiled  by
Dimary Libreros
Cali, Colombia, April 2002
Contents
Introduction  iv
Introducción v
Access to Plant Genetic Resources 1
Intellectual Property Rights 7
Bibliography on  Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights    iii
INTRODUCTION
Plant genetic resources constitute the biological foundation of humankind. Research systems and agricultural production
also depend on them. Plant genetic resources result from natural evolution and human intervention, and are considered
patrimony of the nations. Although their conservation, use and exchange are among the objectives of the Convention
of Biological Diversity and have been recognized internationally, the threats against their safety continue to increase.
On one hand are the social and environmental factors and economic difficulties national programmes face, and on the
other the limitations to exchange them due to the complex political climate in which they prevail.
The political debate of the last years over ownership of genetic resources and the benefits derived from them has
resulted in the appearance of national and international laws regulating access to these resources and intellectual
property rights. This has modified the work environment of those who manage genetic resources because they must
understand the legal environment surrounding their activities and become familiar with a series of agreements whose
provisions are not always clear, do not always harmonize among each other and for whose fulfillment there is not
always appropriate national legislation in place.
IPGRI has for long been interested in this topic, being its main objective to help plant genetic resources professionals
understand the development and adoption of national and international policies. With this aim in mind, IPGRI publishes
Issues in Genetic Resources, a series addressed to researchers and those responsible for setting up laws and policies
on plant genetic resources. This bibliography, which contains work published all over the world since 1984, intends to
contribute to IPGRI’s goal on plant genetic resources policy.
The bibliography contains 433 references with local descriptors. The records are organized in 2 subjects–access to
plant genetic resources (91) and intellectual property rights (342). It includes references on the status of intellectual
property rights in several countries, the application of farmers’ rights to local varieties and the consequences of limiting
access in the development of seed production systems.
We hope this bibliography is useful to researchers and other professionals working with plant genetic resources and
policy aspects. For further contributions and updates, please contact Ms. Dimary Libreros, Information Assistant,
IPGRI - Americas Group (d.libreros@cgiar.org).
iv     Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights
INTRODUCCION
Los recursos fitogenéticos constituyen la base biológica del sustento de la población mundial y de ellos dependen los
sistemas de investigación y producción agrícola.  Los recursos fitogenéticos son producto de la evolución natural y de
la intervención humana y forman parte del patrimonio de los países.
Aunque la conservación, el uso y el intercambio de los recursos fitogenéticos figuran entre los objetivos de protección
de la biodiversidad y han sido reconocidos internacionalmente en el Convenio de Diversidad Biológica,  las amenazas
contra la seguridad de ellos siguen aumentando. Por un lado están los factores ambientales, sociales y las dificultades
económicas que enfrentan los programas nacionales y por otro las limitaciones para intercambiar los recursos
fitogenéticos debido al complejo clima político.
La dinámica de los últimos años ha hecho aparecer leyes y políticas internacionales y nacionales aplicables al
acceso a los recursos fitogenéticos y los derechos de propiedad intelectual, modificando el ambiente de trabajo de
quienes administran los recursos fitogenéticos. Los investigadores y administradores han tenido que esforzarse por
entender el ambiente legal que rodea sus actividades y familiarizarse con una serie de convenios cuyas disposiciones
no siempre son claras y armonizan entre sí, y para cuyo cumplimiento no siempre se cuenta con legislación nacional
apropiada o completa.
El IPGRI ha tenido interés en este tema, siendo su principal objetivo el ayudar a entender el desarrollo y la adopción
de leyes y políticas de carácter nacional e internacional. Para tal fin el IPGRI ha publicado diversos trabajos en la serie
Issues in Genetic Resources, dirigida a los investigadores y responsables de establecer las leyes y políticas en este
tema de los recursos fitogenéticos. Para seguir contribuyendo en este campo se ha compilado esta bibliografía en la
que se incluyen trabajos publicados en todo el mundo desde 1984.
La bibliografía contiene 433 referencias con descriptores locales. Los registros están organizados en 2 temas –
acceso a recursos fitogenéticos (91) y derechos de propiedad intelectual (342). La bibliografía incluye referencias
sobre las implicaciones de las limitaciones de acceso en el desarrollo de sistemas de producción de semillas, la
situación de los derechos de propiedad intelectual en algunos países y la aplicación de derechos del agricultor a
variedades locales.
Esperamos que esta bibliografía le resulte útil a investigadores y otros profesionales que estén trabajando con
recursos fitogenéticos. Para información adicional, contactar a Dimary Libreros, Asistente de Información, IPGRI -
Grupo Américas (d.libreros@cgiar.org).
 Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights      v
ACCESS TO PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES
1993. Régimen común de protección a los derechos de los obtentores de variedades vegetales. Decisión 3451. En
Gaceta Oficial del acuerdo de Cartagena. Año X, no. 142, Octubre 29 de 1993. Lima, Perú. Keywords:
Property rights, varieties, plant breeding.
1996. Régimen común sobre el acceso a los recursos genéticos. Decisión 391. En Gaceta Oficial del acuerdo de
Cartagena. Año XII, no. 213. julio 17 de 1996. Lima, Perú. Keywords: Genetic resources, plants, germplasm
exchange, property rights, legislation.
Acharya, R. 1991. Patenting of biotechnology: GATT and the erosion of the world’s biodiversity. Journal of World
Trade 25(6):71-87. Keywords: Genetic resources, breeders rights, biotechnology, GATT, farmers rights, plant
genetic resources.
Ajai, O. 1995. Regulating access to Nigeria’s genetic resources: Issues in the emergent law and implications of article
15 of the Convention of Biological diversity for national legislation.  Paper present at the Global Biodiversity
Forum, 4-5 November, Jakarta, Indonesia. Keywords: Genetic resources, biodiversity, legislation, Nigeria.
Alarcón, E. 1998. Situación institucional de los recursos fitogenéticos en América Latina y el Caribe/Plant genetic
resources in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Institutional overview. Instituto Interamericano de
Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA). San José, Costa Rica. Keywords: Genetic resources, Latin America,
Caribbean, policies.
Alencar, G.S.d., M.C.v.d. Reed, M.C. Van der Reed et al. 1996. 1996: an important year for Brazilian biopolitics?.
Biotechnology and Development Monitor No. 27: 21-22. Keywords: Plant genetic resources, legislation,
intellectual property rights, international agreements.
Annicchiarico, P. 2000. Access to genetic resources: regulatory aspects and implications for development of seed
production systems. Informatore Agrario Supplemento 56(21):13-22. Keywords: Intellectual property rights,
international agreements, patents, plant genetic resources, policy, transgenic plants, breeders rights, right of
access, biotechnology.
Balakrishna, P. and M.S. Swaminathan. 1998. Access to genetic resources and traditional knowledge: Priorities for
national and regional actions. Current Science 75(2):80-81. Keywords: Genetic resources, legislation, indigenous
knowledge, plant genetic resources
Barber, C.V. and A. La Viña. 1995. Regulating access to genetic resources: The Philippine Experience. Paper present
at the global biodiversity forum. 4-5, November, Jakarta, Indonesia. Keywords: Genetic resources, plants,
germplasm exchange, access.
Barton,J.H., D.R. Buxton, R. Shibles et al. 1993. How will intellectual property protection and plant patents influence
germplasm collection, enhancement, exchange, and use. Pp. 855-857 In International Crop Science Congress,
Ames, Iowa, USA, 14-22 July 1992. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, WI, USA. Keywords:
Utilization, breeding, public sector, private sector, ethics, breeders’ rights, biotechnology, technology transfer, plant
genetic resources, intellectual property rights, germplasm exchange.
Barton, J.H. and W.E. Siebeck. 1994. Material transfer agreements in genetic resources exchange - the case of the
International Agricultural Research Centres. Issues in Genetic Resources No. 1, May 1994. International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. Keywords: Germplasm exchange, genetic resources, policy.
Begemann, F., W. Ritter, M. Auer et al. 1996. Teil 2: Statement of the ATSAF-working group “Conservation and
sustainable use of genetic resources as a part of biological diversity” on access to and exchange of plant genetic
resources for food and agriculture. (PGRFA). IGR, ZADI, Bonn, Germany. Keywords: Biodiversity, genetic
resources, sustainability, policy.
Begemann, F. 1996. Access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. The process of discussion in
Germany. IGR, ZADI. Bonn, Germany. Keywords: Plants, genetic resources, agriculture, human feeding,
legislation, natural resources.
Belson, N.A. 1996. The biodiversity convention and the private sector. Diversity 12(1):6-7.  Keywords: Biodiversity,
private sector, genetic resources, international agreements, plant genetic resources.
Bilderbeek, S. 1993. Benefit sharing: the question is how?. Resources Nairobi 4(1):12-20.  Keywords: Economic
policy, conservation, legislation, international agreements, utilization, plant genetic resources, biodiversity,
intellectual property rights.
Braga, C.A.P., C. Fink and C.P. Sepulveda. 2000. Intellectual property rights and economic development. World Bank,
Washington, D.C., USA. World Bank Discussion Papers No. 412. Keywords: Intellectual property rights,
economic development, international agreements, breeders’ rights, biotechnology, plant genetic resources.
Buanec, B.l. 1987. The protection of plant accessions. Biofutur No. 61:49-53.  Keywords: Breeders’ rights.
Caldwell, B.E., J.A. Schillinger, J.H. Barton et al.  1989. Intellectual property rights associated with plants. Soil
Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin; Crop Science Society of America, Inc.; American Society
of Agronomy, Inc., USA. ASA Special Publication No. 52. Keywords: Biotechnology, legislation, breeders’ rights.
Calle, R., D.D. Soejarto, L. Rivier et al.  1996. Juridical and sociocultural problems on the definition of a law
concerning property, usage and access to genetic resources in Colombia. Intellectual property rights, naturally
derived bioactive compounds and resource conservation 51(1-3):127-146. Keywords: Biodiversity,
biotechnology, germplasm exchange, international agreements, intellectual property rights, plant genetic
resources.
Carrizosa Posada, S. and A. Casas Isaza.  2000. La bioprospección  y el acceso a los recursos genéticos.
Corporación Regional de CUNDIMARCA. Bogotá, Colombia. Keywords: Legislation, genetic resources,
Colombia
Condon, P. 1994. Impacts of the Rio Biodiversity Treaty. Agricultural Outlook No. AO-208:24-26. Keywords:
Legislation, plant breeding, international agreements, biodiversity, germplasm exchange, plant genetic resources.
Cooper, D., J. Engels and E. Frison. 1994. A multilateral system for plant genetic resources: Imperatives,
achievements and challenges. Issues in Genetic Resources No.2 May 1994. International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute. Rome, Italy. Keywords: Policy, plant breeding, international agreements, germplasm
exchange, plant genetic resources.
Crespi, R.S. 1990. The patenting of genetic resources. Impact of Science on Society 40(2):175-184. Keywords:
Biotechnology, breeders’ rights, genetic resources, legislation.
Croft, B.J., C.M. Piggin., E.S. Wallis et al. 1996. Sugarcane germplasm conservation and exchange: report of an
international workshop held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 28-30 June 1995. Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, Australia. Keywords: Sugarcane, plant diseases,
varietal reactions, disease resistance, quarantine, genetic resources, germplasm exchange, plant genetic
resources.
Croft, B.J., C.M. Piggin., E.S. Wallis et al.  1996.  Review of restrictions to free access to germplasm exchange
facing Australian and other international sugar industries. Sugarcane germplasm conservation and exchange:
report of an international workshop held in Brisbane Australia 28-30 June 1995. Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, Australia. 6-9 Pp.  Keywords: Sugarcane, plant
diseases, quarantine, germplasm exchange, plant genetic resources.
Cromwell, E., A. Brodie and A. Southern. 1996. Germplasm for multipurpose trees: access and utility in small-farm
communities. Case studies from Honduras, Malawi & Sri Lanka. Overseas Development Institute (ODI),
London, UK. Keywords: Germplasm, introduced species, exotics, small farms, plant breeding, multipurpose
trees.
Dembo, D., C. Dias, W. Morehouse et al.  1986. Technology to aid the poor: constraints to access resulting from
privatization - the case of biotechnology. The international context of rural poverty in the Third World. Issues for
research and action by grassroots organizations and legal activists. Council on International and Public
Affairs, New York, USA. Pp.103-127. Keywords: Biotechnology, private sector, research, law, poverty, groups,
rural development.
 Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights     2
Duesing, J.H. and J.G. Raeber. 1989. Requirements of industrial firms for intellectual property protection in plant
breeding and plant biotechnology. Proceedings of the XII Congress of EUCARPIA), Gottingen, German Federal
Republic, 27 February-4 March 1989. Vortrage fur Pflanzenzuchtung 16:253-269. Keywords: Biotechnology,
Breeders’ rights, plant genetic resources.
Duesing, J. 1992. The Convention on Biological Diversity. Its impact on biotechnology research. Agro Food Industry
Hi Tech 3(4):19-23. Keywords: Genetic resources, Breeders’ rights, biotechnology, plant genetic resources.
Ehrenberg, C. 1975. Gene bank as a supply source. II. [Forest genetics]. K-Skogs Lantbruksakad Tioskr 114 (1/
2):41-48. Keywords: Forest trees, plant collections, germplasm exchange.
Evenson, R.E. 1999. Intellectual property rights, access to plant germplasm, and crop production scenarios in 2020.
From the symposium ‘Post Green Revolution trends in crop yield potential: increasing, stagnant, or greater
resistance to stress?’ held at the annual ASA-CSSA-SSSA meeting, Baltimore, USA, 19 October 1998. Crop
Science 39(6):1630-1635. Keywords: Intellectual property rights, breeders’ rights, germplasm, biodiversity,
genetic resources, patents, farmers’ rights, plant genetic resources.
Evenson, R.E., V. Santaniello, D. Zilberman et al. 2000. Economics of intellectual property rights for agricultural
technology. Agriculture and intellectual property rights: economic, institutional and implementation issues in
biotechnology. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. Pp. 91-120.  Keywords: Biotechnology, intellectual property
rights, plant breeding, technology, agricultural development, regulations, plant genetic resources, agricultural
policy.
FAO. 1999. Seed policy and programmes for sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the regional technical meeting on
seed policy and programmes for sub-Saharan Africa, Abijan, Cote d’Ivoire, 23-27 November, 1998. Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome, Italy. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No.15. Keywords:
Seed production, farmers, germplasm exchange, economic impact, development programmes.
Ferreira, P. 1999. Diseño de una política de acceso a los recursos genéticos y productos derivados para Colombia.
Proyecto. En: Cuadragésima quinta sesión consejo programa nacional de biotecnología. COLCIENCIAS.
Documento interno. Pp 671-692. Keywords: Genetic resources, policies, legislation, Colombia.
Florez, M. and G.A. Velez. 1998. Situación del acceso a los recursos genéticos en Colombia. Revista semillas en la
economía campesina No.12 (Noviembre):2-6.  Keywords: Germplasm exchange, policies, legislation,
Colombia.
Fraleigh, B. 1991. Access and ownerships of plant genetic resources - historical context, current practices and
resents trends. Proceedings of a workshop on national policy issues in plant genetic conservation. Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada. October 1991. Keywords: Genetic resources, policy, germplasm exchange, genetic resources
conservation.
Genetic Resources Action International. 2000. Last chance for an open access regime?. Seedling 17(2):2-8.
Keywords: Biodiversity, plant genetic resources, organizations, private ownership, legislation.
Glowca, L. 1998. A guide to designing legal frameworks to determinate access to genetic resources. UICN, Gland,
Switzerland and Bonn. Keywords: Genetic resources, germplasm exchange, policies.
Grajal, A. 1999. Regimen de acceso a recursos genéticos impone limitaciones a la investigación en biodiversidad en
los países andinos. Interciencia 24(1):63-64. Keywords: Biodiversity, genetic resources, intellectual property
rights, regulations, policy, legislation, plant genetic resources.
Grajal, A. 1999. Biodiversity and the nation state: regulating access to genetic resources limits biodiversity research
in Developing Countries. Conservation Biology 13(1):6-10.  Keywords: Biodiversity, genetic resources,
legislation, plant genetic resources.
Gupta, A.K. 1997. Suggested ethical guidelines for accessing and exploring biodiversity. Madras Agricultural
Journal 84(10):569-573. Keywords: Ethics, biodiversity, resource utilization, plant genetic resources, rural
development.
Hardon, J. 1996.  National sovereignty and access to genetic resources. Biotechnology and Development Monitor
No. 27: 24. Keywords: Plant genetic resources, international agreements, germplasm exchange.
 3     Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights
Hendricks, F., V. Koester and C. Prip.  1994.  Access to genetic resources: A legal analysis. Pp 159-198 In
Biodiplomacy - genetic resources and international relations. (V. Sanchez and C. Juma (eds.)).
Environmental Policy Series No. 4. African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), Nairobi, Kenia.
Keywords: Genetic resources, germplasm exchange, policy.
Hernández, A.M. 1999.  Biodiversidad y propiedad intelectual: la propiedad intelectual en la Organización Mundial del
Comercio y su relación con el convenio sobre diversidad biológica. Instituto de investigación de Recursos
Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia. Keywords: Biodiversity, Plant genetic
resources, policy, intellectual property rights.
Hexmitte, M.A.  1989.  Intellectual property and plant creation. Actes et Communications Economie et Sociologie
Rurales, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique No. 4, 103-109.  Keywords: Breeding, biotechnology,
breeders’ rights, plan genetic resources, germplasm exchange.
Heywood, V., N. Caffini, J. Bernath, L. Craker, A. Jatisatienr and G. Giberti.  1999.  Medicinal and aromatic plants as
global resources. Proceedings of the Second World Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, WOCMAP 2
sustainable use conservation and ethnobotany, Mendoza, Argentina, 10-15 November, 1997. Acta Horticulturae.
No. 500: 21-29.  Keywords: Essential oil plants, plant genetic resources, harvesting, intellectual property rights,
biodiversity, nature conservation, natural resources, sustainability, medicinal plants.
Hoerner, D.R., P.S. Baenziger, R.A. Kleese et al. 1993. Exchange and release of biological material: one company’s
perspective. Intellectual property rights: protection of plant materials. Proceedings of a workshop, 26-28
January 1993, Washington, DC, USA. CSSA Special Publication No. 21:115-117. Keywords: Plant breeding,
companies, technology transfer, breeders’ rights, Intellectual property rights.
Houser, D.J. 1993. Exemptions under patents and certificates covering plants and comments on material transfer
agreements. Intellectual property rights: protection of plant materials. Proceedings of a workshop, 26-28
January 1993, Washington, DC, USA. CSSA Special Publication No.21:107-109. Keywords: Plant breeding,
contracts, varieties, breeders’ rights, intellectual property rights.
Hunter, R.B., P.S. Baenziger, R.A. Kleese et al. 1993. Science based identification of plant genetic material
Intellectual property rights: protection of plant materials. Proceedings of a workshop, 26-28 January 1993,
Washington, DC, USA. CSSA Special Publication No. 21:93-99. Keywords: Plant breeding, varieties, restriction
fragment length polymorphism, breeders’ rights, intellectual property rights.
IPGRI. 1996. Access to plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of benefits - a contribution to the debate on
systems for the exchange of germplasm. Issues in Genetic Resources No. 4, June 1996. International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute. Rome, Italy. Keywords: Plant genetic resources, germplasm exchange, policy,
international agreements.
International Development Research Centre. 1987. Different countries, different needs. IRDC’s view of plant breeders’
rights. IDRC Reports, International Development Research Centre, Canada 16(2):24-25. Keywords: Breeders’
rights, plant breeding, genetics.
 Jackson, M. and R. Huggan. 1993. Sharing the diversity of rice to feed the world. Diversity 9(3):22-25. Keywords:
Rice, gene banks, germplasm exchange, plant genetic resources.
 Jaffe, W. and M. Rojas. 1994. Attempt to implement the Biodiversity Convention in the Andean region.
Biotechnology and Development Monitor No.2:15. Keywords: Biosafety, plant genetic resources, intellectual
property rights, legislation, breeders’ rights, policy, international agreements.
 Jain, H.K. 1992. GATT proposals and India’s seed policy. Seed Research 20(2):65-69.  Keywords: Seeds, breeders’
rights, international trade, agricultural trade, breeding, agricultural policy.
 Jain, H.K.  1994. The GATT proposals on agriculture: scientific implications. Indian Farming 44(1):3-6.
Keywords: Agricultural trade, trade liberalization, agricultural research, breeders’ rights.
 Jayashree, W., J. Watal and C. Juma. 2000. Intellectual property and biotechnology: trade interests of developing
countries. International conference on biotechnology in the global economy. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
USA, 23 September 1999. 2(1-3):44-55. Keywords: Biotechnology, international agreements, international trade,
biodiversity, international cooperation.
 Bibliography on Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights     4
Kate, K. and S.A. Laird. 1999. The commercial use of biodiversity: access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing.
Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, UK. 398 pp. Keywords: Genetic resources, research, right of access,
resource allocation, biodiversity, pharmaceutical products, plant protection, biotechnology, international
agreements.
Kaul, J., R.K. Kohli, K.S. Arya et al. 1996. Trade in biodiversity convention. Pp. 320-322 In  Proceedings October 1-3
1996, DAV College, Chandigarh, India. Keywords: Agroforestry, environment, trade, biodiversity, nature
conservation, biotechnology, breeding, germplasm, genetic resources, intellectual property rights, technology
transfer.
Komen, J. 1992. CGIAR statement on genetic resources and intellectual property. Biotechnology and Development
Monitor No.11:20. Keywords: Biotechnology, breeders’ rights, genetic resources, CGIAR, intellectual property
rights, plant genetic resources.
Lesser, W., J.P. Berland and R. Lewontin. 1987. Plant breeders’ rights and monopoly myths. Nature 330(6145):215.
Keywords: Breeders’ rights, plant genetic resources.
Lesser, W. 1991. Patent protection in developing countries: the state of the debate. AgBiotech News and
Information 3(4):631-636. Keywords: Biotechnology, breeders’ rights, developing countries.
Lobo, M. and M. Gutierrez. 2000. Acceso a los recursos genéticos de los paises andinos. Pp. 81-85 In  Investigación
agrícola y propiedad intelectual en la América del Sur. Anales de un seminario para dirigentes y técnicos
del sector. Rio de Janeiro. 23-26 Agosto/1999. IICA, Brasilia D.F., Brasil. Keywords: Andean region, genetic
resources, germplasm exchange, plant genetic resources.
Lopez Herrera, A. 1995. Farmers’ rights of ornamental plant producers. Revista Chapingo. Serie Horticultura
1(3):127-134. Keywords: Farmers’ rights, legislation, ornamental plants, breeders’ rights.
MacDonald, J.F. 1995. Genes for the future: discovery, ownership, access.  National Agricultural Biotechnology
Council, Ithaca, USA. NABC Report No. 7. Keywords: Plant breeding, genetic resources, policy, intellectual
property rights, biodiversity, agriculture, biotechnology, farmers’ rights.
Mariaca, J., V.V Damme, P.V. Damme et al. 1999. Access to genetic resources in member countries of the Andean
Community. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cherimoya, Loja, Ecuador, 16-19 March.
No. 497:367-383.  Keywords: Cherimoyas, genetic resources, biodiversity, legislation, organizations, plant genetic
resources.
McNally, R. and P. Wheale. 1996.  Biopatenting and biodiversity. Comparative advantages in the new global order.
Ecologist 26(5):222-228. Keywords: Intellectual property rights, industry, legislation, biotechnology, biodiversity.
Moss, H. 1996. The application of intellectual property protection to biodiversity and agriculture in South Africa:
consequences, concerns and opportunities. Working Paper Land and Agriculture Policy Centre No. 36.
Keywords: Plant genetic resources, breeders’ rights, intellectual property rights, farmers’ rights, indigenous
knowledge, legislation, biodiversity, biotechnology.
Mugabe, J., C.V. Barber, G. Henne et al.  1996. Managing access to genetic resources: towards strategies for benefit-
sharing. Biopolicy International Series  No. 17. Keywords: Intellectual property rights, environmental policy,
genetic resources, policy, plant genetic resources.
Muzio, G. 1996. Brazil: Collective intellectual rights and control of access to biological resources. Pp. 1-6 In
Intellectual property rights, collective rights, biodiversity. Ocassional papers No.1, Paper 6. Institute for
sustainable development, Addis Ababa. Keywords: Intellectual property rights, germplasm exchange, plant
genetic resources, Brazil
Palmer, T.P. 1984. Access to international plant and animal gene sources. New Zealand Agricultural Science
18(1):2-6. Keywords: dairy industry, poultry industry, breeding, disease, germplasm exchange, plant genetic
resources, New Zealand.
Paull, H., S.J. Bennett and P.S. Cocks. 1998. From free access to fair trade: political dimensions of collecting in situ
plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). Genetic resources of Mediterranean pasture and forage
legumes. Proceedings of an international workshop held at York, Western Australia, Australia, 14-18 October 1996.
Current Plant Science and Biotechnology in Agriculture Vol. 33:171-181. Keywords: Genetic resources, plant
genetic resources, fodder legumes, pasture plants, intellectual property rights, policy, breeders’ rights.
5     Bibliography on  Access to Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights
Rana, R.S. 1998. Access to genetic resources and equitable benefit sharing: the Indian experience. RIS
Biotechnology and Development Review 1(2):1-10.  Keywords: Genetic resources, intellectual property rights,
legislation, biotechnology, plant genetic resources.
Reid, W.V., C.V. Barber and A. La Vina. 1995. Translating genetic resources rights into sustainable development: gene
cooperatives, the biotrade and lessons from the Philippines. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter (102):1-17.
Keywords: Conservation, international agreements, biodiversity, genetic resources, legislation, policy,
sustainability, plant genetic resources.
Robertson, J. and D. Calhoun. 1995. Treaty on biological diversity: ownership issues and access to genetic materials
in New Zealand. European Intellectual Property Review 17(5):219-224. Keywords: Biodiversity, intellectual
property rights, international agreements, plant genetic resources.
Rosendal, G.K. 1991. Property rights of gene resources - a social scientist’s perspective. Proceedings of NFU’s
annual conference 1991: natural resource use and changing society: interdisciplinary approaches to development
Aas 23-24 May 1991. NORAGRIC-Occasional Papers. Series C Development and Environment No. 9:206-218.
Keywords: Legislation, genetic resources, legal rights.
Ruiz, M.M. 1995. A genetic resources access regime for the Andean Pact Countries: Issues and experiences. Paper
presented at the Global Biodiversity Forum, Jakarta, Indonesia, 4-5 November. Keywords: Genetic
resources, germplasm exchange, policy, Andean region.
Ruiz, M. 1999. Los centros internacionales de investigación agrícola y los posibles impactos de la políticas y normas
de acceso a recursos genéticos: el caso del CIAT y el CIP en la región andina. Serie de política y derecho
ambiental, Lima, Perú. http://www.spda.org.pe/bloque_3/politica.htm. Keywords:  Plant genetic resources,
germplasm exchange, international institutions, policy.
Salazar, R., J.A. Cabrera, D.D. Soejarto et al.  1996. Intellectual property legislation in Costa Rica in light of the
Biodiversity Convention. Intellectual property rights naturally derived bioactive compounds and resource
conservation. Proceedings of an international symposium, San Jose, Costa Rica, October 20-22, 1994. Journal
of Ethnopharmacology 51(1-3):177-193. Keywords: Access, genetic resources, legislation, international
agreements, intellectual property rights, plant genetic resources.
Sehgal, S. 1995. First the seed - then you can worry about patents. Biotechnology and Development Monitor No.
25:24. Keywords: Intellectual property rights, legislation, breeders’ rights, plant genetic resources.
Silva, F.A.L. 1997. The access law: comments on the Senate Law Project No. 306, from 1995, authored by senator
Marina Silva, that “discusses the access to genetic resources and their derivatives and regulates other
procedures. Horticultura Brasileira 15(Supp):148-153. Keywords: Legislation, history, genetic resource.
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