Technical Report Water, Soil and Resilience: A Roadmap for Enhancing Agricultural Outcomes in Egypt’s Saline Environments Nisreen Lahham, Kamel Amer, Mohamed Safwat Abd El-Dayem, Ragab Abdel-Azim, Ibrahim Gaafar, Mohammed El-Shirbeny, El-Sayed Said Mohamed, Dalia Yassin, Mostafa Khalifa, Youssef Brouziyne, Maha Al-Zu’bi and Mohamed Tawfik December 2025 Acknowledgments This study was initiated under the CGIAR Initiative on Fragility to Resilience in Central and West Asia and North Africa (F2R-CWANA) and finalized under the CGIAR Scaling for Impact (S4I) Program. The authors are grateful for the support of the CGIAR Trust Fund contributors (https://www.cgiar.org/funders). The authors also acknowledge the following CGIAR centers for their valuable contributions: WorldFish, IFPRI and ICARDA. We would like to recognize colleagues from the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD) who contributed to the writing and editing of the reports: Dr. Nisreen Lahham, Agri-food Systems Transformation Expert and Head of Sustainable Rural Development Unit, AOAD, for leading the writing and editing of the report; and Dr. Kamel Amer, Senior Water Resources Expert and Head of the Middle Regional Office, AOAD, for supporting the technical review. The authors acknowledge the constructive exchanges with the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation during the preparatory stage of this work. Special thanks go to the technical teams who contributed to the sampling and laboratory testing of water and soil samples, including Dr. Alaa Gharib, Senior Water Expert, for his work in the Qalyoubia and Ismailia governorates; Dr. Talaat Abou Zeid, Senior Soil Expert, for his work in the Fayoum Governorate; and Dr. Mohamed Ghannam Khattab, Senior Soil Expert, for his work in the Kafr El Sheikh Governorate. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the teams involved in the socio-economic study. The team responsible for designing the questionnaire, selecting samples, training surveyors and drafting the socio- economic component included Prof. Manal El Kheshin, Deputy Director of AERI; Prof. Wafaa Abdel Karim, Head of the Rural Community Development Research Department at AERI; Dr. Rania Mohamed El Driny, Senior Researcher at AERI; and Dr. Mohamed Salah, Researcher at AERI. The statistical analysis of the survey data was carried out by Prof. Amira El Shater, Head of the Statistics Research Department at AERI; Prof. Amal Kamel, Head of the Commodity Analysis Department at AERI; and Dr. Mona Abdel Halim, Researcher at AERI. Field data collection teams across the governorates included: in the Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, Prof. Ashraf Abdallah El-Fetiany, Dr. Mesbah Mohamed Qodrah, Dr. Shaker El-Sayed El-Sharkasy, Dr. Mohamed Abd El-Tawab Mohany, Dr. Mohamed Ashraf Abd El-Malek and Dr. Ali Saad El-Sayed Abu Salem; in the Qalyoubia Governorate, Prof. Manal Mohamed Khattab, Prof. El-Sayed Gad Abdelrahman, Dr. Ahmed Ibrahim Mohamed Ragab, Dr. Ibrahim Abdelaziz El-Hefny, Eng. Ibrahim Helmy Ahmed, Eng. Bassem Fayez Suleiman and Eng. El-Shimaa Salem Hamed; in the Ismailia Governorate, Prof. Hanan Abdel-Meguid El-Amir, Dr. Mohamed Mohamed Awad Khodr and Dr. Mohamed El-Sayed Araqi; and in the Fayoum Governorate, Dr. Noha Ezzat Tawfik, Dr. Mona Shahata El-Sayed, Dr. Hussein Qarni Sayed, Dr. Ayman Mohamed Abdel Rahman, Dr. Mohamed El-Sayed Abdel Fattah El-Namaki and Dr. Essam Atef Ahmed Youssef. Finally, we thank the teams responsible for conducting the Focus Group Discussions across all four governorates: Prof. El-Sayed Gad Abdel Rahman, Dr. Mai Fouad El-Ghayyout, Dr. Amal Shawky El-Shahid, Dr. Abouzeid Ahmed Abouzeid and Dr. Heba Hosni Mahmoud. Their combined efforts and dedication were essential for the successful completion of this study. About CGIAR Scaling for Impact (S4I) Program Scaling for Impact (S4I) is a CGIAR program (2025–2030) that tests, refines, and scales innovations in food, land, and water systems. It works to align those innovations with stakeholder needs to achieve transformative impact. Website: https://www.cgiar.org/cgiar-research-portfolio-2025-2030/scaling-for-impact/ About CGIAR CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food secure future. Visit https://www.cgiar.org/cgiar-research-portfolio-2025-2030/ to learn more about the CGIAR Science Programs. Scaling for Impact CGIARi | © 2025 CGIAR System Organization. This publication is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). To view this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Authors Nisreen Lahham, Agri-food Systems Transformation Expert and Head of Sustainable Rural Development Unit, AOAD, Cairo, Egypt Kamel Amer, Senior Water Resources Expert and Head of the Middle Regional Office, Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), Cairo, Egypt Mohamed Safwat Abd El-Dayem, Senior Water Resources Expert, Cairo, Egypt. Ragab Abdel-Azim, Senior Water Resources Expert, Former First Undersecretary of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Cairo, Egypt Ibrahim Gaafar, Senior Integrated Water Resources Management Expert, Cairo, Egypt Mohammed El-Shirbeny, Professor of Field Irrigation and Water Relations, National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt El-Sayed Said Mohamed, Professor of Soil Sciences, NARSS, Cairo, Egypt Dalia Yassin, Former Director, Agricultural Economics Research Institute (AERI), Cairo, Egypt Mostafa Khalifa, Head of the Department of Regional Studies, AERI, Cairo, Egypt Youssef Brouziyne, Country Representative - Egypt and Regional Representative MENA, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Cairo, Egypt Maha Al-Zu’bi, Regional Researcher – Sustainable and Resilient Water Systems, IWMI, Cairo, Egypt Mohamed Tawfik, Research Consultant, IWMI, Cairo, Egypt Suggested Citation Lahham, N.; Amer, K.; Abd El-Dayem, M. S.; Abdel-Azim, R.; Gaafar, I.; El-Shirbeny, M.; Mohamed, E.-S. S.; Yassin, D.; Khalifa, M.; Brouziyne, Y.; Al-Zu’bi, M.; Tawfik, M. 2025. Water, soil and resilience: a roadmap for enhancing agricultural outcomes in Egypt’s saline environments. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Scaling for Impact Program. 64p. Front cover photo: Water drainage canal in a salinity-affected area, Ezbet Abou Eita, Kafr Abou Ziada, Desouq, Kafr El Sheikh, Egypt.(photo credit: Dr. Ibrahim Gaafar). Back cover photo: Surface salt accumulation and soil cracking in salinity- affected farmland, Ezbet Abou Eita, Kafr El Sheikh, Egypt. (photo credit: Dr. Ibrahim Gaafar). © 2025 CGIAR System Organization. This publication is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). To view this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Scaling for Impact CGIARiii | Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations iv List of Figures v List of Tables v Summary vii 1. Introduction 1 2. Methodology 2 2.1 Study Area 2 2.2 Water Sampling and Analysis 2 2.3 Soil Sampling and Analysis 2 2.4 Socio-Economic Survey 3 2.5 Stakeholder Engagement 3 2.6 Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis 3 2.7 Roadmap Development 3 2.8 Data Analysis 3 3. Salinity of Soil, Water and Crop Response 3 3.1 Classification of Saline Soils 3 3.2 Water Salinity Classification 4 3.3 Crop Tolerance to Salinity 5 4. Mapping Water and Soil Salinity in Egypt 7 4.1 Mapping Agricultural Water Salinity 7 4.2 Historical Soil Salinity Mapping in Egypt 9 4.3 Recent Mapping of the National Saline Landscapes 10 4.4 Current Shares of Soil Salinity Classes 14 4.5 Temporal and Spatial Changes of Salinity 15 4.6 Projection of Future Salinity Changes 16 5. Field-Level Analyses of Water and Soil Salinity 17 5.1 Water Salinity Analysis 18 5.2 Soil Salinity Analysis 19 6. Socio-Economic Aspects of Saline Soil Crop Production 23 6.1 Influence of Soil Salinity on Crop Choices 23 6.2 Average Variable Cost of Production and Net Return 24 6.3 Salinity-Related Challenges Facing Farmers 28 6.4 Practices Used by Farmers to Mitigate Soil Salinity 29 6.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Drainage and Land Improvement 31 6.6 Development of Crop Yield During 1989 – 2022 32 7. Governance Framework of Saline Landscapes in Egypt 34 7.1 Saline Landscape Management Policies 34 7.2 Legislative Framework with Reference to Salinity 35 7.3 Financing and Investment for Saline Landscapes Management 37 7.4 Actors Involved in Saline Landscape Management 37 8. Summary of the Main Findings of the Project 41 9. The Way Forward: A Roadmap for Managing Saline Landscapes in Egypt 45 Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | iv Acronyms and Abbreviations Acs Agricultural Cooperatives AES Agriculture Extension Service AGERI Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institute AOAD Arab Organization for Agricultural Development ARC Agricultural Research Institute BCM Billion Cubic Meter CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research CIHAM-Bari Mediterranean Agronomic Research Institute of Bari DCAs Drainage Collectors Associations DCAs DEAM Department of Extension and Agricultural Management dS/m Decisiemens per meter DEM Digital Elevation Model DRC Desert Research Center DRI Drainage Research Institute EALIP Executive Authority for Land Improvements Projects EC Electrical Conductivity ECe Electrical Conductivity of saturated soil extract EDP Egyptian Pound EPADP Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects ESP Exchangeable Sodium Percentage EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FGDs Focus Group Discussions GDP Gross Domestic Product GWS Ground Water Sector ICARDA International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas IDAS Irrigation and Drainage Advisory Service IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IIS Irrigation Improvement Sector IS Irrigation Sector IWMI International Water Management Institute KFW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau LST Land Surface Temperature LR Leaching Requirement MALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer NARSS National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science NDSI Normalized Difference Salinity Index NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NWRC National Water Research Center PPM Part Per Million PS Private Sector R&D Research and Development RIGW Research Institute for Groundwater RMSE Root Mean Square Error RS Remote Sensing SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio SIWARE Simulation of Water Management in the Arab Republic of Egypt SSD Sub-surface drainage SWERI Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute TDS Total Dissolved Solids USD United Stated Dollar WMRI Water Management Research Institute WUAs Water Users Associations Scaling for Impact CGIARv | List of Figures Figure 1: Map of Nile Delta governorate .................................................................................................. 2 Figure 2: Salinity–crop yield relationship .................................................................................................. 5 Figure 3: Nile Delta surface soil classification ......................................................................................... 6 Figure 4: Evolution of official drainage water reuse in the Nile Delta from 1984 to 2014 ........................ 7 Figure 5: Drainage water flowing to the sea from 1984 to 2014 .............................................................. 8 Figure 6: Groundwater salinity at depths: (A) <100m, (B) 200m, (C) 400m and (D) 600m below ground surface ................................................................................................................ 9 Figure 7: Soil salinity map of the Nile Delta .............................................................................................. 10 Figure 8: Soil salinity map of the Nile Delta ............................................................................................. 10 Figure 9: The developed national remote sensing soil salinity map of Egypt .......................................... 11 Figure 10: Nile Delta soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 .............................................................. 12 Figure 11: Siwa soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 ...................................................................... 13 Figure 12: Fayoum Governorate soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 ............................................ 14 Figure 13: Temporal changes of salt-affected areas in south, middle and north Delta ............................ 15 Figure 14: Location of soil and water sampling sites in the four benchmark governorates ...................... 17 Figure 15: Salinity of canals water, groundwater, wells and drains in four governorates: Qalyoubia (top left); Ismailia (top right); Fayoum (bottom left) and Kafr el-sheikh bottom right) .............. 18 Figure 16: Soil salinity at various locations in Qalyoubia Governorate .................................................... 20 Figure 17: Soil salinity at various locations in Ismailia Governorate ........................................................ 21 Figure 18: Soil salinity at various locations in Fayoum Governorate ........................................................ 21 Figure 19: Soil salinity at various locations in Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate .............................................. 22 Figure 20: Relative production costs and relative net return of winter crops ............................................ 27 Figure 21: Relative production costs and relative net return of summer crops ........................................ 28 Figure 22: The relative importance of some agricultural practices and techniques used by farmers to reduce soil salinity ............................................................................................................... 30 Figure 23: Roadmap towards sustainable management of Egypt’s saline landscapes ............................ 45 List of Tables Table 1: Characteristics of saline, sodic and saline–sodic soils ............................................................... 4 Table 2: Water salinity classification based on soil salinity ....................................................................... 5 Table 3: Agronomic classification of soil salinity based on EC ................................................................. 6 Table 4: Distribution of soil salinity classes in Egypt in 2023 .................................................................... 15 Table 5: Crop percentage in the crop pattern during the 2022–2023 season .......................................... 24 Table 6: Total production cost and net return per feddan for selected winter crops in the four benchmark governorates .................................................................................................... 25 Table 7: Total production cost and net return (egp 1000) per feddan for selected summer crops in the four benchmark governorates ........................................................................................... 26 Table 8: Historical records of corn (maize) yield in different governorates................................................ 32 Table 9: Historical records of rice yield in different governorates ............................................................. 32 Table 10: Historical records of wheat yield in different governorates ....................................................... 32 Table 11: Historical records of cotton yield in different governorates ....................................................... 33 Table 12: Laws governing saline landscapes management ..................................................................... 36 Scaling for Impact CGIARvii | Summary Soil salinity presents one of the most pressing challenges to agricultural productivity and food security in Egypt. Affecting approximately 30% to 40% of the Nile Delta's arable land, soil salinity undermines the livelihoods of farmers, threatens the national food supply and hampers economic growth. This summary synthesizes the comprehensive analysis presented in the "Maintaining the Productivity of Saline Landscapes in Egypt" report, highlighting key findings, socio-economic impacts, governance frameworks and strategic recommendations aimed at mitigating salinity-related challenges and enhancing agricultural sustainability. Soil salinity affects nearly 10% of the world's arable land, with about 20% of irrigated lands globally experiencing varying degrees of salinity (FAO, 2021; Shrivastava and Kumar, 2015). In Egypt, the severity of soil salinity is acute, particularly within the Nile Delta, where estimates suggest that 30% to 40% of soils are impacted (SALAD, 2022). This issue not only threatens agricultural yields but also poses significant socio- economic repercussions for farmers and the broader national economy. Despite a long history of combating soil salinity, recent increases in salinity levels have intensified concerns among government authorities, farmers and the research community. The primary objective of this report is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current state of saline landscapes in Egypt, identify best practices for managing salinity and propose strategic interventions to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability. By updating existing knowledge and integrating adaptive measures into national development strategies, Egypt can effectively mitigate the adverse impacts of soil salinity. Effective management of saline landscapes hinges on accurate mapping and understanding of water and soil salinity distributions. The salinity of Nile water exhibits significant spatial variation, with levels around 150 ppm in Aswan, approximately 200 ppm at the Delta Barrage and up to 350 ppm near the Delta's end. Agricultural drainage water salinity is managed through stringent government policies that ensure official reuse remains below 1200 ppm (1.0 - 2.0 dS/m). Over the past four decades, officially reused drainage water has steadily increased to meet rising water demands. However, unofficial reuse, estimated between 3-5 billion cubic meters (BCM) annually, averages 3200 ppm (5 dS/m), with salinity levels increasing northward in the Nile Delta, thereby exacerbating soil salinity issues. Groundwater salinity across the Nile Delta ranges from 0.35 to 24.0 dS/m (227 to 15,264 ppm), with salinity levels increasing with depth. In some northern Delta areas, salinity reaches as high as 70 dS/m (45,000 ppm) due to seawater intrusion. Groundwater used for irrigation typically has salinity levels between 0.93 dS/m and 3.7 dS/m (596 to 2,351 ppm), though variations exist based on specific locations and depths. Figures illustrating the evolution of official drainage water reuse, drainage water flowing to the sea and groundwater salinity at various depths provide visual insights into the salinity dynamics over time. The 2024 national salinity assessment offers a detailed map of soil salinity across Egypt, covering cultivated regions within and beyond the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula and the Fayoum Depression. Non-saline soils (<2 dS/m) cover 32% of the total area, predominantly in the Nile Valley and South Delta. Slightly saline soils (2-4 dS/m) occupy 22%, primarily in the Nile Valley and southern Middle Delta. Moderately saline soils (4-8 dS/m) constitute 18%, located in the northern Middle Delta and reclaimed fringes of old lands. Strongly saline soils (8-16 dS/m) represent 25%, mainly in the North Delta, the Fayoum Governorate, Siwa and newly reclaimed areas. Extremely saline soils (>16 dS/m) account for 3%, found in the far North Delta, the Fayoum Governorate, Siwa and North Sinai. The national remote sensing soil salinity map and temporal changes in salt-affected areas across the South, Middle and North Delta indicate that while some regions are experiencing increased salinity due to inadequate reclamation efforts, others show improvement thanks to local initiatives and effective management practices. A thorough water salinity analysis involved collecting 180 water samples from four governorates—Qalyoubia, Ismailia, Fayoum and Kafr El-Sheikh—during the 2022-2024 summer and winter seasons. The analysis aimed to evaluate salinity levels across different water sources used for irrigation. In Qalyoubia, canal water is predominantly non-saline (<0.7 dS/m) and shallow groundwater wells range from non-saline to slightly saline (0.7-2.0 dS/m). Ismailia’s canal water remains non-saline in both seasons, with mostly non-saline groundwater wells in winter, except for slight salinity in northern areas and Qantra. Fayoum's canals maintain non-saline water (0.23 to 0.73 dS/m), while drainage water salinity increases from 2.0 dS/m at drain starts to 6.82 dS/m near Lake Qaroun due to drainage from salt-affected soils. In Kafr El-Sheikh, canal water is mostly fresh, with some canals receiving saline drainage, exhibiting slight salinity in summer (1.61 dS/m and 0.98 dS/m) and moderate salinity in winter (1.81 dS/m and 1.32 dS/m). Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | viii The soil salinity analysis encompassed 564 soil samples collected from 51 locations across the four governorates over four seasons: summer, post-summer, post-Nili and winter. The samples were analyzed at three soil depths: 0-30 cm, 30-60 cm and 60-90 cm. In Qalyoubia, soils are predominantly non-saline (0-2 dS/m) across most locations and depths. Ismailia exhibits soil salinity ranging from non-saline (0-2 dS/m) to slightly saline (2-4 dS/m), with notable salinity near Qantra Drain at the surface layer (4-8 dS/m). Fayoum's soils are mostly moderately saline (4-8 dS/m), with highly saline soils (>8 dS/m) near Lake Qaroun due to salt accumulation. Kafr El-Sheikh shows a mix, with approximately 50% of samples being non-saline or slightly saline, while significant saline soil presence (4-8 dS/m) is observed in regions like Zawia, Sidi Salem, Hamool and Biala. Soil salinity not only impacts agricultural yields but also has profound socio-economic implications for farmers and rural communities. Crop selection is significantly influenced by soil salinity, with farmers favoring salt-tolerant crops to ensure optimal yields and economic viability. During the 2022-2023 season, wheat remained the dominant crop in saline areas, particularly in Fayoum (63.9%) and Qalyubia (26%), while perennial clover and sugar beet also demonstrated adaptability to saline conditions. In the summer season, rice and cotton were prevalent in non-saline areas, whereas maize and summer vegetables dominated moderately saline regions. Perennial orchards showed high percentages in Fayoum and Ismailia, indicating their suitability to saline soils. This strategic crop selection underscores farmers' efforts to balance economic returns with environmental constraints, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of soil salinity. The economic viability of crop production in saline soils is a critical determinant for farmers. Comparative analysis reveals that production costs in saline soils are consistently higher than in non-saline soils across all governorates, primarily due to additional inputs such as increased irrigation for leaching salts and soil amendments. For instance, wheat in Qalyubia shows a net return ratio of 102.3% in non-saline soils, while in Fayoum, the same crop reaches an impressive 212.9%. Similarly, summer crops follow this pattern, with higher production costs in saline environments leading to better economic returns in non-saline areas. Visual representations of relative production costs and net returns highlight the economic strain imposed by salinity on farmers, emphasizing the necessity for effective salinity management practices to alleviate financial burdens and sustain agricultural productivity. Farmers operating in saline landscapes face a multitude of challenges that impede their agricultural productivity and economic stability. Survey data from four governorates reveal that soil quality deterioration is a primary concern, with 78% of farmers in Kafr El-Sheikh, 70% in Fayoum, 56% in Ismailia and 36% in Qalyubia, reporting significant soil quality issues. Shallow groundwater levels further exacerbate these challenges, affecting 72% of farmers in Kafr El-Sheikh, 66% in Fayoum, 40% in Ismailia and 30% in Qalyubia. Irrigation water scarcity is another critical issue, with the highest dissatisfaction reported in Kafr El- Sheikh (84%) and significant concerns in Fayoum (64%), Ismailia (40%) and Qalyubia (26%). Poor drainage is identified as a major problem by 61.5% of farmers overall, with Kafr El-Sheikh leading at 76%, followed by Fayoum (60%), Qalyubia (56%) and Ismailia (54%). Additionally, limited access to modern technology and the high cost of technological methods present substantial barriers, particularly in Kafr El-Sheikh and Fayoum, where 58% and 60% of farmers, respectively, report on these issues. Furthermore, approximately 71.5% of farmers face difficulties in conducting water and soil analyses, underscoring the need for accessible testing services. Although fertilizer use poses the least concern at around 14%, the cumulative impact of these challenges necessitates integrated solutions addressing both environmental and economic barriers to enhance agricultural productivity and ensure the sustainability of farming communities in saline landscapes. In response to the adverse effects of soil salinity, farmers have developed and adopted various strategies to manage and mitigate salinity, aiming to sustain agricultural productivity. These practices are categorized into three main groups: crop choices, agricultural practices and agricultural procedures. Farmers prioritize reclamation of crops like rice, salt-tolerant crops such as wheat, sugar beets and perennial orchards, and dry crops that require less water to reduce salt accumulation. Agricultural practices include deep plowing and tillage to enhance soil aeration and promote salt leaching, regular maintenance of irrigation canals and drainage systems to prevent salt buildup, seasonal cleaning of branch drains to ensure efficient water flow, digging farm drain ditches to remove saline water and continuous subsurface drain maintenance to manage soil moisture and salinity effectively. Agricultural procedures encompass regular gypsum application to displace sodium ions and improve soil structure, soil leaching through excess irrigation to flush salts from the soil profile, halting cultivation during high-salinity periods to prevent salt accumulation, using treated drainage water for irrigation, communicating with extension services for guidance on best practices and practicing reciprocal irrigation to balance salinity levels. These mitigation practices demonstrate farmers' resilience and adaptability in managing saline landscapes. However, their effectiveness is contingent upon access to resources, knowledge and support from agricultural institutions. Enhancing farmer education, providing access to affordable technologies and ensuring robust extension services, are critical to maximizing the efficacy of these practices. Scaling for Impact CGIARix | Effective governance is pivotal for the sustainable management of saline landscapes. Egypt has instituted several policies aimed at controlling soil salinity and enhancing agricultural productivity. The Subsurface Drainage Policy, initiated in 1970, aims to mitigate rising water tables caused by continuous irrigation through the installation of subsurface drainage networks in old agricultural lands. This policy has achieved nearly 100% coverage of Egypt’s irrigated old lands with drainage systems, leading to yield increases of up to 20% for major crops and a shift towards higher-value crops (Ritzema and Abdel-Dayem, 2011; World Bank, 2008). The Land Improvement Policy of 1971, spearheaded by the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR), focuses on reclaiming salt-affected soils and enhancing the productivity of saline-sodic soils, particularly in the Northern Delta characterized by heavy clay soils. Strategies under this policy include soil amendments, crop rotation and the introduction of salt-tolerant crop varieties. Additionally, the Sustainable Drainage Water Reuse Policy launched in the late 1970s by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI), ensures the sustainable reuse of drainage water for irrigation by monitoring both quantity and quality. Currently, approximately 13 BCM of drainage water is officially reused for irrigation in El-Fayoum, the Nile Valley and the Delta. Despite these robust policies, challenges persist in policy implementation, particularly in regions with unofficial water reuse practices. Securing adequate financial resources for large-scale drainage and reclamation projects remains a significant hurdle, as does the integration of advanced technologies for monitoring and managing soil and water salinity. Additional initiatives, such as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and continuous research and development programs, aim to optimize water resource use and innovate salinity management techniques. Effective governance also involves a myriad of actors, both primary and secondary, including governmental bodies like the Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects (EPADP) and the Drainage Research Institute (DRI), research institutions such as the Soil, Water and Environment Research Institutes (SWERI) and the farming community as end-users. Secondary actors include the Irrigation Sector (IS), Department of Extension and Agricultural Management (DEAM), Drainage Collectors Associations (DCAs), and various research and development organizations. Collaborative efforts through Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), research collaborations and community engagement ensure a coordinated approach to saline landscape management. These collaborative efforts are essential for resource sharing, joint initiatives, and aligning policies and practices with on-the-ground realities, thereby enhancing the overall effectiveness of salinity management strategies. To ensure sustainable management of saline landscapes and maintain agricultural productivity, a strategic roadmap has been developed. This roadmap outlines a phased approach, integrating assessment, pilot projects, scaling and continuous improvement, with active involvement from all stakeholders. • Phase 1, spanning Year 1, focuses on comprehensive assessment and stakeholder engagement. Detailed assessments of water and soil salinity across all affected regions will be conducted using remote sensing and ground-truthing methods to ensure accurate and up-to-date data. Concurrently, continuous dialogue with stakeholders, including farmers, government agencies, research institutions, and international partners, will incorporate diverse perspectives and expertise. Integrating salinity data with national development strategies will inform targeted interventions. • Phase 2, covering Years 1 to 3, involves the implementation of pilot projects and capacity building. Pilot initiatives will test and demonstrate best practices in saline landscape management, such as advanced irrigation techniques, soil amendments and crop rotation strategies. Capacity building efforts will train farmers and local authorities on effective salinity management practices through workshops, training programs, and extension services. Additionally, the promotion of innovative solutions will encourage the adoption of technologies and practices that enhance water use efficiency and soil health. • Phase 3, spanning Years 3 to 5, focuses on scaling up and policy integration. Successful pilot projects will be expanded to larger areas based on their success and adaptability, ensuring broader implementation of effective salinity management strategies. Policy reforms will integrate successful practices and lessons learned into national policies and guidelines to ensure widespread adoption and institutionalization of best practices. Infrastructure development will invest in enhancements to irrigation systems, drainage networks and storage facilities to support large-scale implementation. • Phase 4, commencing in Year 5 and beyond, emphasizes monitoring, evaluation and adaptation. Robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks will be developed to continuously assess soil and water quality, agricultural productivity, and the effectiveness of implemented practices. Feedback mechanisms will create loops to incorporate findings from monitoring activities into ongoing management strategies, ensuring adaptive management in response to emerging challenges and opportunities. Adaptive management will Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | x involve modifying strategies based on monitoring results, emerging research and changing environmental conditions to ensure long-term sustainability. Key strategies underpinning this roadmap include promoting best practices in saline landscape management through dissemination via extension services and farmer cooperatives, encouraging the adoption of resilient crop varieties and demonstrating the effectiveness of innovative solutions through pilot projects and demonstration farms. Improving water use efficiency through precision irrigation technologies and water- saving practices such as drip irrigation and alternate wetting and drying is also crucial. Cultivating salt- tolerant crops by developing and introducing enhanced varieties through research and breeding programs and providing incentives for farmers to adopt these crops will bolster resilience against salinity. Infrastructure development will focus on enhancing irrigation and drainage systems and investing in storage facilities to manage water resources effectively during dry seasons. Strengthening institutional structures to manage irrigation and drainage systems efficiently and enhancing coordination among government agencies and stakeholders will support effective salinity management. Enhancing service delivery by improving access to agricultural extension services, technical support and financial resources for farmers is vital. Facilitating access to affordable soil and water testing services will enable informed decision-making. Empowering farming communities by involving them in decision-making processes ensures that management strategies are aligned with their needs and traditional knowledge. Fostering community-led initiatives and peer-to-peer learning will enhance collective action against soil salinity. Lastly, fostering partnerships and collaborations by leveraging expertise, technologies and resources from national and international entities through strategic partnerships will drive innovation and investment in salinity management. In conclusion, the roadmap for managing saline landscapes in Egypt emphasizes a holistic and phased approach, integrating assessment, pilot testing, scaling and continuous improvement. By fostering collaboration among stakeholders, promoting best practices and investing in infrastructure and capacity building, Egypt can effectively mitigate the impacts of soil salinity and ensure sustainable agricultural productivity. Active involvement of farming communities and strategic partnerships will be pivotal in achieving long-term success and resilience in the face of salinity challenges. Scaling for Impact CGIAR1 | 1. Introduction Soil salinity affects 10% of the world’s total arable land and poses a significant threat to feeding the rapidly growing population. It is estimated that about 20% of irrigated land globally is affected by salt to varying degrees (FAO, 2021; Shrivastava and Kumar, 2015). Numerous studies have revealed that extensive areas across more than 180 countries experience different levels of soil salinization. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that there are more than 833 million hectares of salt-affected soils around the globe (FAO, 2021). The annual economic loss globally due to reduced productivity on salinized lands or migration from salt-affected regions is estimated at USD 27.3 million (Mishra et al. 2023). Over two-thirds of salt-affected soils are located in arid and semi-arid climatic zones, including the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia, making these regions critical global hotspots for salinity issues with serious environmental challenges. Saline landscapes can develop due to natural and environmental factors, such as the drying of lakes or seas or their proximity to areas where underground saline water rises to the surface (salinization or saltwater upwelling). Salinity can also be caused by inappropriate land-water-crop management practices, including inefficient irrigation, the use of low-quality water, excessive application of chemical fertilizers and inadequate drainage systems. Soil salinization leads to decreased soil fertility, reduced plant growth and lower crop yields. This, in turn, has far-reaching implications for land degradation, food security, rural livelihoods, the national economy and ecosystem health (Shahid et al. 2013; Agrawal et al. 2015; Gorji et al. 2017). In Egypt, the agriculture sector plays a crucial role in the national economy, contributing approximately 14.5% of GDP and employing 28% of the workforce (Ministry of International Cooperation). Strategic development initiatives have been implemented to boost agricultural production by 30% by 2024, focusing on both horizontal and vertical expansion strategies (Egypt Forward, 2021). However, the sector faces several challenges, including water scarcity, fragmented land ownership, and most critically, rising levels of water and soil salinity. Egypt has been combatting salinity for a long time, but the increasing salinity levels have raised concerns for the government, farmers and the research community. Reports suggest that approximately 30 to 40% of the Nile Delta soils are affected by varying levels of salinity (SALAD, 2022). To effectively address this issue, Egypt must enhance its understanding of the current salinity risk and integrate adaptive measures into its development strategies. These steps are essential to overcome, cope with or mitigate the inevitable impacts of salinity. This effort should include early-stage monitoring and mapping of soil salinity; to facilitate the scaling up and implementation of effective soil reclamation programs aimed at reducing or preventing future increases in soil salinity (Allbed and Kumar, 2013). Several studies conducted in Egypt have focused on monitoring and mapping soil salinity and its impact on productivity (Nahry et al. 2015; Mahmoud and Mahmoud, 2020; Hammam and Mohamed, 2018). Salinity maps for the Nile Delta that encompass the majority of Egypt's old agricultural land (5.24 million feddans), were produced by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) in 1989 and by the National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS) in 1998. However, these assessments have primarily focused on the technical aspects of salinity, particularly crop salt tolerance, while often overlooking the adverse socio-economic effects, such as food access and availability (De Vos et al. 2016). A recent unpublished study by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) reported significant impacts of salinity on commodity prices, cost of living, food insecurity and internal migration between governorates in Egypt (IFPRI, unpublished paper). The ongoing project, "Maintaining the Productivity of Saline Landscapes in Egypt," is a multidimensional initiative that maps soil salinity and addresses social, environmental and economic aspects at technical, institutional and policy levels. The study identifies best practices for managing saline landscapes in Egypt within specific regions. At the national level, a recently developed remote sensing-based salinity map is being used to pinpoint priority areas for intervention, evaluate current salt-affected areas in comparison to historical records and forecast the future extent of the salinity issue. This map will function as an early warning system to guide planning and decision-making for salinity management and control. The approach combines a bottom-up strategy at the farm/watershed level, with a top-down strategy that engages various stakeholders from different governmental entities. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 2 2. Methodology The methodology for this study combined field data collection, laboratory analysis, remote sensing, socio- economic surveys and stakeholder engagement, to comprehensively assess soil and water salinity and their impacts on agricultural productivity in Egypt. The approach was designed to provide both spatial and temporal insights into salinity patterns and to inform actionable interventions for sustainable saline landscape management. 2.1 Study Area The research focused on four governorates representing major saline-affected regions in the Nile Delta (Figure 1): Qalyoubia, Ismailia, Fayoum, and Kafr El-Sheikh. These areas were selected to capture a representative spectrum of salinity conditions across the Nile Delta, the Nile Valley and reclaimed lands. The study also incorporated data from national assessments covering the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula and the Fayoum Depression. Figure 1. Map of Nile Delta governorate Source: El-Agha, 2015 2.2 Water Sampling and Analysis A total of 180 water samples were collected across the four governorates during both summer and winter seasons from 2022 to 2024. Sampling locations included canals, drainage systems and groundwater wells. Salinity levels were measured using standard electrical conductivity methods (dS/m) and spatial variations were mapped using GIS techniques. Analyses focused on identifying trends in canal water, drainage water and groundwater salinity, and their implications for irrigation suitability. 2.3 Soil Sampling and Analysis Soil salinity assessment involved 564 soil samples collected from 51 locations across the four governorates over four seasons: summer, post-summer, post-Nili, and winter. Samples were analyzed at three depths: 0 -30 cm, 30 - 60 cm and 60 - 90 cm. Laboratory analyses measured electrical conductivity (EC) to classify soils into non-saline, slightly saline, moderately saline, strongly saline and extremely saline categories. Spatial distribution maps were generated using GIS and remote sensing data, integrating historical trends and current conditions. Scaling for Impact CGIAR3 | 2.4 Socio-Economic Survey A structured socio-economic survey was conducted to capture farmers’ perceptions, cropping patterns, production costs, and adaptive strategies in saline landscapes. The survey targeted representative farmers in each governorate and included questions on soil and water challenges, crop selection, agricultural practices and access to services and technologies. Statistical analyses were performed to quantify the impact of salinity on yields, production costs and net returns, and to identify correlations between salinity levels and socio- economic outcomes. 2.5 Stakeholder Engagement To ensure practical relevance and policy alignment, the study engaged key stakeholders, including government agencies, research institutions, CGIAR centers and farmer cooperatives. Workshops and focus group discussions were conducted to validate field and survey findings, gather local knowledge and inform the development of a strategic roadmap for saline landscape management. 2.6 Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis National and regional salinity patterns were mapped using remote sensing datasets combined with ground- truthing measurements. GIS was used to integrate soil and water salinity data, monitor temporal changes and generate detailed spatial representations of salinity distribution. These analyses facilitated the identification of hotspots and priority areas for intervention. 2.7 Roadmap Development The study’s findings informed the design of a phased roadmap for managing saline landscapes, integrating assessment, pilot interventions, scaling and continuous monitoring. The roadmap was developed in consultation with stakeholders and incorporated best practices in irrigation management, soil reclamation, crop selection, institutional coordination and capacity building. 2.8 Data Analysis Quantitative data from water and soil analyses, as well as socio-economic surveys, were processed using standard statistical methods to evaluate trends, correlations and economic implications. Qualitative data from stakeholder consultations and focus groups were thematically analyzed to capture perceptions, challenges and local knowledge on salinity management. The combined analysis enabled evidence-based recommendations for policy, institutional interventions and on-farm practices. 3. Salinity of Soil, Water and Crop Response 3.1 Classification of Saline Soils Salt-affected soils are classified based on their electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and pH levels, which are essential to determine the extent and type of salinity or sodicity. There are three main types of salt-affected soils, each linked to specific plant characteristics, soil properties and plant growth relationships: saline, saline-sodic and sodic soils (Ayers and Westcot, 1985; Zamora Re et al. 2022; Mishra et al. 2023), as illustrated in Table 1. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 4 Table 1. Characteristics of saline, sodic and saline–sodic soils Type of Electrical Exchangeable Sodium Dominant Presence of pH salt-affected conductivity Sodium Adsorption Anion cation sodium soil Ece (dSm-1) Percentage Ratio (SAR) (Na+) in soil (ESP) (%) Saline soils >4 <15 <13 CL-, Ionic phase in <8.8 SO4-- solution Sodic soils <4 >15 >13 HCO3-, Colloidal phase 8.5-10.5 CO3-- on clay exchange Saline-sodic >4 >15 Variable Anions of Both ionic soils both kind of and colloidal soils >8.8 Source: Author’s creation These three groups of salt-affected soils differ in their physical and chemical properties. a- Saline soils In saline soils, the predominant exchangeable cations are calcium and magnesium. This soil is typically characterized by irregular plant growth and the presence of white, salty crusts on the surface. Saline soils maintain overall normal physical conditions, characterized by good structure and permeability, as most salts in the soil solution actually enhance soil structure and facilitate water infiltration. Consequently, water penetration is not a major concern in saline soils. However, the presence of salts in the root zone can negatively impact crop yields by restricting the ability of roots to absorb water due to osmotic stress. This stress limits the potential spread of roots and their ability to take up soil solution, causing water to move from areas of lower salt concentration (the plant tissue) to regions with higher salt concentration in the soil. As a result, plants may wilt even when soil moisture is adequate. b- Sodic soils Sodic soils are characterized by high levels of exchangeable sodium (>15%), elevated pH levels (8.5 to 10.5) and low concentrations of calcium and magnesium. These conditions lead to the dispersion of soil particles, causing them to act independently. This dispersion destroys soil structure and clogs pore spaces, which hinders water movement into and through the soil. Sodic soils often appear black due to the dispersion of organic matter and may have a greasy or oily-looking surface, resulting in little or no vegetative growth. These soils are sometimes referred to as "black alkali" or "slick spots" (Gangwar et al. 2020). c- Saline-sodic soils Saline-sodic soils, characterized by electrical conductivity (ECe) greater than 4 dS/m and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) exceeding 15, typically maintain good soil structure and permit adequate water movement through the soil profile. As long as soluble salts are present in excess, the physical properties of these soils remain favorable. Although high sodium levels can cause clay particles to swell, the presence of calcium and magnesium helps keep soil pores open, ensuring proper soil structure is maintained. 3.2 Water Salinity Classification Table 2 provides guidelines for water salinity classification based on electrical conductivity (EC, in ds/m) and corresponding parts per million (ppm) (FAO, 1999; Ayer and Westcot, 1985). The FAO guidelines classify water quality for irrigation according to salinity restrictions into three classes: Class 1: EC<0.7 dS/m "No Problem", Class 2: EC 0.7 - 3.0 dS/m “Slight to Moderate" and Class 3: EC > 3.0 dS/m "Severe Problems." Scaling for Impact CGIAR5 | Table 2. Water salinity classification based on soil salinity Water Salinity Classification EC (dS/m) ppm Type of water Non-saline < 0.7 500 Drinking water Slightly saline 0.7 – 2.0 500 - 1500 Irrigation Water Moderately saline 2..0 – 10.0 1500 - 7000 Primary drainage water and groundwater Highly saline 10.0 – 25.0 7000 - 15000 Secondary drainage water and groundwater Very highly saline 25.0 – 45.0 15000 - 35000 Very saline groundwater Brine > 45.0 > 35000 Sea water Source: FAO, 1999 3.3 Crop Tolerance to Salinity Crops can maintain 100% yield potential when salinity levels are at or below a specific concentration (ECe) known as the "threshold value." Each crop has its own threshold value, based on its tolerance to salinity. When salinity rises above this threshold, crop yields decline linearly at varying rates for different crops (Figure 2). As soil salinity levels increase beyond the threshold, both the growth rate and final size of plants progressively diminish. However, not all plants respond to salinity in the same way; some can achieve acceptable yields at much higher salinity levels than others. The FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 (Rev.) provides lists of threshold salinity values for various crops (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). Figure 2. Salinity–crop yield relationship Source: Ayers and Westcot, 1985 Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 6 Table 3 presents a general classification of crops based on their salinity tolerance levels (Brown et al. 1954). Based on this table, the yields of many crops are expected to decline or suffer varying degrees of loss when salinity levels go beyond 4 dS/m. Table 3. Agronomic classification of soil salinity based on EC Soil salinity class EC (in ds/m) Effect on crop yield Non-saline soils 0-2 Salinity effects are negligible Slightly saline soils 2-4 sensitive crops Moderately saline soils 4-8 mildly sensitive crops Strongly saline soils 8-16 mildly resistant crops Extremely saline soils >16 resistant crops Source: Brown et al. 1954 In practical field conditions, the salinity levels that restrict crop yield can be influenced by interactions between salinity and various soil, water and climatic factors. For example, soils with poor structure or impermeable layers can restrict root growth and affect water and salt distribution in the soil. Surface crusting acts as a physical barrier for emerging seedlings. Climatic conditions have a significant influence on plant response to salinity. Most crops can tolerate higher salt-related stress in cool, humid weather compared to hot, dry conditions. The combined effects of salinity and high evaporative demand—caused by high temperatures, low humidity, wind or drought—are more stressful than salinity alone. Figure 3 illustrates the soil characteristics in the Nile Delta that could influence these conditions. Figure 3. Nile Delta surface soil classification Source: Alfiky et al. 2012 Additionally, factors such as water availability, ultraviolet radiation and the use of pesticides and fertilizers can adversely affect crop growth (Suchánková and Bezděkovská, 2012). Climate change also poses a significant threat to crop production and food security by affecting monthly rainfall, irrigation water availability, temperature and other climatic variables which can greatly influence yield. Scaling for Impact CGIAR7 | 4. Mapping Water and Soil Salinity in Egypt 4.1 Mapping Agricultural Water Salinity Due to its highly arid climate, Egypt's agriculture relies entirely on irrigation. The country receives an annual allocation of 55.5 billion cubic meters (BCM) from the Nile River, accounting for about 98% of its freshwater resources. Additional water sources include seasonal rainfall along the North Coast (1.3 BCM), deep non- renewable groundwater (2.4 BCM) and desalination (0.4 BCM), bringing the total available freshwater to 59.5 BCM per year. However, the total annual water demand is 80.5 BCM, resulting in a significant deficit. To address this shortfall, Egypt relies on reusing drainage water and extracting groundwater from the shallow Nile aquifer, both of which involve the use of Nile water. As water travels from Aswan to the Mediterranean Sea, drainage water is reused multiple times for irrigation. Each of these water sources has different salinity levels: Nile Water The salinity of the Nile River varies significantly, measuring approximately 150 ppm around Aswan, 200 ppm at the Delta Barrage and around 350 ppm at the tail end of the two Nile branches. Agricultural Drainage Water Salinity Agricultural drainage water is becoming increasingly vital in bridging the gap between water resource supply and demand. In Upper Egypt, agricultural drainage water is typically discharged into the main stem of the Nile, with the exception of the El-Rahawy drain, which directs its effluent into the upstream reach of the Rosetta Branch. In the Delta region, drainage effluent is discharged into the Northern Lakes or the Mediterranean Sea. The quantity and quality of drainage water from the Delta drains are monitored continuously throughout the year. The salinity of drainage water used for irrigation varies based on its location and the nature of its reuse, whether official or unofficial (random). Official reuse follows government policies and standards, which require direct reuse or mixing with fresh canal water, to maintain salinity levels below 1200 ppm or at approximately 1.0 - 2.0 dS/m. Over the past 40 years, the volume of officially reused drainage water has gradually increased due to rising water demands, while available resources have remained relatively constant (Figure 4). Figure 4. Evolution of official drainage water reuse in the Nile Delta from 1984 to 2014 Source: DRI Database Unofficial reuse occurs when farmers pump drainage water, regardless of its salinity, directly from drains onto their fields, especially during shortages of fresh canal water. While the exact annual volume of unofficially reused drainage water is not precisely determined, it is estimated to be between 3 and 5 BCM. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 8 The salinity of drainage water in the Delta increases as it moves northward for several reasons. First, the drainage water is reused multiple times along its route to the outlet. Second, soil salinity in the agricultural lands rises towards the north of the Delta and will be further detailed in the section on soil salinity mapping. Lastly, drainage water in the north is affected by seawater intrusion. Figure 5 illustrates the volume, salinity and salt load of drainage water flowing to the sea from 1984 to 2014. The average salinity of this drainage water is less than 5 dS/m or 3200 ppm. Figure 5. Drainage water flowing to the sea from 1984 to 2014 Source: DRI Database In the northern part of the Delta, the salinity of drainage water varies spatially. In the eastern part of the North Delta, salinity can reach up to 3.9 dS/m (2,500 ppm). This increases to between 5.5 and 8.6 dS/m (3,500 to 5,500 ppm) in the central and western parts of the North Delta (Abd Elgawad et al. 2013). In the middle and southern sections of the Delta, the salinity of drainage water increases from south to north due to repeated reuse, reaching levels between 1,500 and 2,000 ppm (DRI, 1989). Although this project's discussion focuses on salt concentration, it is important to recognize that agricultural drainage water contains other pollutants. Agricultural drains frequently receive domestic and industrial wastewater, and those with high levels of pollution have been excluded from the official reuse program. The government is working on several national initiatives, including the "Hayat Karima", to enhance the collection and treatment of sanitary and industrial wastewater. Two large treatment plants have been completed in the East Delta (Al-Mahsama and Bahr El-Baqar) for the tertiary treatment of polluted drainage water before redirecting it for irrigation in new lands in Sinai. Another large treatment plant (El-Hammam) is currently under construction to support irrigation for new lands west of the Delta. When completed, these three plants will provide approximately 5 BCM per year of additional irrigation water that was previously wasted and flowed into the sea. Groundwater Salinity: The shallow groundwater aquifer in the Nile Delta is hydraulically connected to surface water from the Nile River’s branches, irrigation canals and the drainage network. This connection allows the aquifer to be continuously replenished by percolating water, which leaches soluble salts from the topsoil. Groundwater salinity in the Nile Delta varies from 0.35 to 24.0 dS/m (227 to 15,264 ppm) as one moves from the south to the north (Atta, 1979). Additionally, salinity levels increase with groundwater depth (Figure 6). In the northern part of the Delta, groundwater is highly saline due to seawater intrusion, with salinity levels reaching up to 70 dS/m (45,000 ppm) (Farid, 1985; Farid and Tuinhof, 1991). Scaling for Impact CGIAR9 | Farmers in the Delta drill and maintain private or community wells for irrigation purposes. These wells are usually between 50 and 90 meters deep, with the water table located 4 to 15 meters below the surface (El- Agha et al. 2015). The salinity of the groundwater used for irrigation varies significantly, ranging from 0.93 dS/m to 3.7 dS/m (596 to 2,351 ppm). Figure 6. Groundwater salinity at depths: (a) <100m, (b) 200m, (c) 400m and (d) 600m below ground surface Source: Research Institute for Groundwater (RIGW) 4.2 Historical Soil Salinity Mapping in Egypt Given the detrimental effects of soil salinity on agricultural productivity, mapping soil salinity levels is essential for addressing this environmental challenge and improving agricultural output and food security in Egypt (Fadl et al. 2023). The history of soil salinity mapping in Egypt dates back to the early 1960s during the construction of the Aswan High Dam, which included a semi-detailed soil survey of the Nile Delta. This focus on Nile Delta's soils arose from the shift to year-round irrigation and concerns about rising water tables, which could result in salt accumulation in the topsoil. Two important soil salinity maps for the Nile Delta region were developed at different times. The first map, shown in Figure 7, was published by the DRI in 1989. The second map, displayed in Figure 8, was created by NARSS in 1998, a decade later. Furthermore, specific area salinity maps have been generated through various research projects using remote sensing techniques (Mohamed et al. 2011; Ali and Mahmoud, 2020; Hammam and Mohamed, 2018). Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 10 Figure 7. Soil salinity map of the Nile Delta Source: MWRI-DRI, 1989 Figure 8. Soil salinity map of the Nile Delta Source: NARSS, 1998 The two maps in Figures 7 and 8 show an identical distribution pattern of salt-affected soils in Egypt's Nile Delta, indicating an increase in soil salinity from south to north. These maps delineate three distinct salinity zones: the northern zone, characterized by very high to moderate soil salinity; the central zone, exhibiting moderately saline soil; and the southern zone of the Delta, which predominantly features non-saline soil. 4.3 Recent Mapping of the National Saline Landscapes Component 1 of this project conducted a comprehensive assessment of soil salinity across approximately 4.03 million hectares of agricultural land in Egypt, utilizing satellite data collected from January 2022 to May 2023. The study employed satellite platforms like Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Scaling for Impact CGIAR11 | Landsat, which offer differing spatial resolutions for various assessment scales. Landsat 8 and 9data delivered detailed soil salinity mapping at the governorate level, allowing for land cover classification, agricultural analysis and environmental monitoring (Mohamed et al. 2011; Singh, 2023; Zeineddine et al. 2023). Meanwhile, MODIS data was used for a more extensive national-level assessment, providing higher-resolution information. To ground-truth the remote sensing estimates, 584 soil samples were collected from field surveys. To evaluate the accuracy of these remote sensing measurements, statistical analyses, including the calculation of root mean square error (RMSE), were performed. To develop the national-level salinity map (Figure 9), a methodology incorporating several key indices was employed. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to evaluate land cover and assess vegetation health, while the Land Surface Temperature (LST) helped analyze thermal characteristics. The Normalized Difference Salinity Index (NDSI) was specifically designed to determine salinity levels. Additionally, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was utilized to identify areas where surface slope contributes to water retention, which in turn influences salinity levels. The regional salinity classes shown in Figure 8 should not be viewed as uniform salinity values across the entire area. Instead, smaller localized zones with varying soil salinity levels frequently overlap within these marked classes. Factors contributing to salinity differences within the same region include geographical location, soil geomorphology, surface and groundwater quality, climatic conditions, irrigation and drainage practices, and land improvement efforts. Additionally, the individual practices of farmers to manage soil salinity play a crucial role and these factors can change over time. Figure 9. The developed national remote sensing soil salinity map of Egypt Source: Author’s creation The 2023 national assessment salinity map (Figure 8) covers all cultivated areas within and outside the Nile Valley and Delta, including the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula and the Fayoum Depression. Each geographic region has unique soil physical characteristics, climatic conditions and prevailing levels of soil salinity. Soil salinity typically develops over time under various natural and management conditions and is often site-specific. Below is a brief description of these regions' soil and salinity conditions. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 12 The Nile Delta The 2023 map depicts soil salinity, which is consistent with the distribution observed in the 1989 and 1998 salinity maps. It is divided into three distinct salinity level zones, ranging from the North to the South (Figure 10). • In the North Delta, higher salinity levels prevail due to the influence of shallow saline groundwater, the proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and low land elevations. The soils in this region are predominantly dark brown heavy clay, classified as saline-sodic soils. The northernmost areas, particularly around the coastal regions and northern lakes, consist of marine river sediment deposits that contain natural salt deposits (primary salinity) from evaporated seawater (Figure 3). The soil in this zone is characterized by low permeability and infiltration rates due to sodicity. Furthermore, because the northern region is situated at the end of the irrigation system, frequent shortages of canal freshwater force farmers to rely more on the relatively saline drainage water for irrigation, which results in secondary salinization. Additionally, the North Delta area faces a significant threat from sea levels associated with climate change, which could substantially impact the soils by 2050 (Mohamed, 2016). Figure 10. Nile Delta soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 Source: Author’s creation • The Middle Delta region is 100-150 km from the coast and serves as a transition zone between the high salinity and sodicity of the North Delta and the low soil salinity of the Southern Delta region. In this area, moderate saline soils are predominant. The water table in the Middle Delta is not as shallow as it is in the northern part and the soil texture is primarily silt-clay, with a high active capillary rise that can lead to secondary salinization if leaching and drainage are insufficient. Additionally, separate, non-continuous saline-sodic patches can be found on the soil surface, particularly towards the northern part of this zone. In the Middle Delta, Nile water, groundwater and drainage water are all reused for irrigation. • The South Delta is known for having the most fertile and light-textured alluvial soils and a deeper water table than other areas of the Nile Delta. It is located on the upstream side of the irrigation canal system and benefits from higher-quality water. This region is predominantly characterized by non-saline soils and is renowned for producing high-value cash crops, such as vegetables and fruits, which supply the greater Cairo area. Saline soils in the South Delta account for no more than 24% of the total area (Mohamed, 2016). Scaling for Impact CGIAR13 | Most of the Nile Delta's agricultural land has a subsurface drainage system (Abdel-Dayem et al. 2007). The Eastern Desert The Eastern Desert has limited cultivated land due to its arid climate, scarce water resources, geological formations and low population density. The sedimentary rocks and sandstone formations in this region restrict the accumulation of salt deposits. However, localized saline conditions can arise in wadis with seasonal shallow groundwater tables or in coastal areas affected by seawater intrusion. The Western Desert The soils of the Western Desert are predominantly non-saline due to the arid conditions and the lack of water necessary to mobilize salts to the surface. However, soils can become saline or saline-sodic in oasis where groundwater is used for irrigation, particularly when the groundwater has a high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). This problem is exacerbated by ineffective groundwater management and poor drainage conditions, especially in the Siwa oasis (Figure 11), which features a complex geological formation and saline groundwater (ranging from 2.28 to 5.45 dS/m). In Siwa, saline agricultural areas have expanded from 28 km² in 1992 to 88 km² in 2015. Additionally, salt-affected soils grew from 17 km² to 64 km² and waterlogged areas increased from 19 km² to 51 km² during the same period (Elnaggar et al. 2017). Figure 11. Siwa soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 Source: Author’s creation Fayoum Governorate The Fayoum Governorate is another significant area with considerable salt-affected soil (Figure 12). Located in a depression in the northern part of Upper Egypt, Fayoum features a land surface that slopes steeply from south to north towards Lake Qarun, with an average gradient of 2 m/km. Most of the governorate's land (93%) is irrigated by gravity-fed water from the Bahr-Youssef Canal. As a closed basin, all drainage water remains within the region, ultimately flowing into either Lake Qarun or Wadi Al Rayan Lakes (Ali and Mahmoud, 2020). Salt-affected soils in Fayoum are concentrated in the low-lying areas south of Lake Qarun. This prevalence is attributed to a combination of primary salinity from land previously inundated by lake water and secondary salinization resulting from a shallow water table and irrigation with saline drainage water. Strongly to extremely saline soils are prevalent in this area (Abd-Elgawad et al. 2013). Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 14 Figure 12. Fayoum Governorate soil salinity map – enlarged part of map 9 Source: Author’s creation 4.4 Current Shares of Soil Salinity Classes Based on data collected in 2023 through the remote sensing assessment, as shown in Table 4 the percentage of different soil salinity classes within the total agricultural area covered by the study. According to Table 4, 54% of the farming lands are either non-saline or slightly saline, which means that almost all crops can grow safely in these areas. Moderately saline soils account for 18% of Egypt's total agricultural land and are primarily located in the central part of the Delta and some newly reclaimed lands along its fringes. A wide range of crops can be cultivated in these areas with proper water management and smart agricultural practices. Only salt-tolerant crops can thrive in strong saline soils. However, the salinity range of 8 dS/m to 16 dS/m is broad enough to support a variety of crops, depending on their sensitivity to salinity. With proper soil and water management practices, these crops can be highly productive. Extremely salt-affected soils comprise about 3% of the total cultivated land, equivalent to 288,000 feddans. These soils, including saline and saline-sodic types, require reclamation and soil improvement. Scaling for Impact CGIAR15 | Table 4. Distribution of soil salinity classes in Egypt in 2023 Type of soil salinity Salinity % of Notes threshold area dS/m Non-saline soils <2 32 Most areas of the Nile Valley and South Delta Slightly saline soils 2-4 22 Nile Valley and the southern part of Middle Delta Moderately saline soils 4-8 18 Northern part of Middle Delta and reclaimed areas along the fringes of the old lands. Strongly saline soils 8-16 25 Mainly in North and East Delta, Fayoum Governorate, Siwa and newly reclaimed areas along the fringes of the old lands. Extremely saline soils >16 3 Mainly in the far North Delta, Fayoum Governorate, Siwa and newly reclaimed areas along the fringes of the old lands and in North Sinai. Source: Author’s creation 4.5 Temporal and Spatial Changes of Salinity The figures presented in Table 4 highlight the extent of the salinity challenge in 2023, reflecting the health of cultivated land in Egypt from a soil salinity perspective. A critical question is how current soil salinity levels compare to those from previous years. By comparing the 2023 soil map of the Nile Delta (Figure 10) with the salinity maps from 1989 (Figure 7) and 1998 (Figure 8), we can gain insights into changes over the past 24 years. Notably, the geographical distribution of soil salinity zones has remained consistent, with low salinity found in the south, moderate salinity in the middle and high salinity in the north. However, detectable changes in the extent of each salinity class have occurred over time. For comparison purposes, the five soil salinity classes have been consolidated into two categories: soils with salinity equal to or below 4 dS/m and soils with salinity above 4 dS/m. It is assumed that at salinity levels below 4 dS/m, most crops remain unaffected, aside from those particularly sensitive to salinity. Figure 13 illustrates the temporal changes in soil salinity in the south, middle and north Delta based on the available salinity maps from 1989, 1998, and 2023, respectively. Figure 13. Temporal changes of salt-affected areas in south, middle and north Delta Source: Author’s creation Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 16 Overall, there has been an increase in high-saline areas at the expense of low-saline areas. Low-saline areas have gradually declined in the South Delta from 1998 to 2023. In the Middle Delta, there was a significant increase in high-saline areas by 1998, which remained stable through 2023. The year 1989 also marked an increase in the reuse of drainage water for irrigation (see Fig. 3). A study by (DRI) in 1997 showed a correlation between average soil salinity and the salinity of irrigation water, indicating that salt accumulation occurs in areas where drainage water is used as the primary irrigation source. Consequently, soil salinity in the South and Middle Delta reached a near-equilibrium state between 1998 and 2023. The North Delta has the highest concentration of high-salinity areas, steadily increasing from 60% in 1989 to 86% in 2023. As previously mentioned, this region experiences challenging water and soil conditions due to a shallow saline water table, seawater intrusion, a shortage of fresh irrigation water and a reliance on drainage water for irrigation with relatively high salinity content. As a result, the North Delta is recognized as a high-risk salinity area within the Nile Delta. Unfortunately, no similar analysis has been conducted for Fayoum, the second-highest salinity risk area. However, a study in the Sinnuris District assessed and monitored salinity changes before and after the construction of a subsurface drainage system covering 20,650 ha (Ali and Mahmoud, 2020). The Sinnuris District, bordering the southern and eastern shores of Lake Qarun, is among the areas most affected by soil salinization in Fayoum. The results indicated significant improvements in soil salinity levels: the area of non- saline soils (< 2 dS/m) increased from 1.3 ha in 2009 to 9,119 ha in 2018, while the area of high-saline soils (>16 dS/m) decreased from 3,031.36 ha in 2009 to 7.7 ha in 2018. These impressive results are attributed to the construction of subsurface drainage systems which began in 2007. The discussion above illustrates that while certain areas experience significant and growing deterioration, others within the same region may improve due to local reclamation and remediation efforts. This was evident in a remote sensing (RS) study on soil degradation in the North Delta between 1983 and 2003, which assessed the increase, decrease, and stability of waterlogged and salt-affected areas during this period (El Nahry et al. 2015). The study revealed that waterlogged areas increased by 52% of the study area, decreased by 10.1%, and stayed the same by 37.7%. For salt-affected areas, 31.4% increased, while 43% decreased and 25.2% showed no change. These findings suggest that when evaluating soil salinity on a regional scale, it is important to consider both the causes of deterioration and the remedial actions taken, as these factors can result in increases, decreases or stability in salinity levels. 4.6 Projection of Future Salinity Changes Monitoring and assessing soil salinity reveals its complex and dynamic nature, highlighting the influence of both natural and human factors that can increase, decrease or maintain salinity levels over time. Inefficient water management and poor farming practices are the primary human contributors to soil salinization. In parallel, rising temperatures and saline water intrusion are key issues that emphasize the intricate relationship between climate change and soil salinity in the Nile Delta. These factors can adversely affect crop productivity, soil quality and biodiversity, thereby posing a significant threat to the livelihoods of rural communities. Component 1 of the project attempted to predict future salinity changes in the Nile Delta through linear modeling based on annual temperature data. The results revealed a significant correlation between rising temperatures and increasing soil salinity. Elevated temperatures lead to higher evaporation rates, which reduce soil moisture levels and accelerate salinization processes. The outcomes of this simulation indicate that the region is particularly vulnerable to temperature increases. However, the study also acknowledges the inherent limitations of predicting future scenarios, especially in complex systems like the Nile Delta. Changes in crop water requirements, irrigation water quantity and quality, crop patterns, land use and water management practices may all occur due to climate change adaptation. Despite these uncertainties, the study emphasizes the urgency of implementing immediate and adaptive measures to safeguard the agricultural and ecological systems of the Nile Delta as climate change continues to evolve. The study did not investigate potential future increases in soil salinity resulting from sea level rise; however, it recommended continuous monitoring changes to assess changes in soil and water salinity under ever changing natural conditions and management practices. Updated salinity maps could be instrumental in formulating Scaling for Impact CGIAR17 | mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the soil salinity's impact on ecosystems and agricultural production. Additionally, ongoing research and innovations can enhance predictive models by incorporating new factors and improving overall accuracy. Two man-made developments under consideration could significantly impact future soil salinity changes. First, the government plans to implement pressurized drip and sprinkler irrigation systems in Egypt's old agricultural lands. Some farmers have already adopted these methods to enhance crop yields; however, these irrigation techniques also pose risks regarding soil and crop salinity. Second, there is a proposal to divert large quantities of drainage water from the East and West Delta to irrigate newly reclaimed lands in Sinai and the new North- West Delta. The salt load carried by this drainage water could have long-term effects on soil salinity. Similarly, the use of brackish groundwater for irrigation may also influence soil salinity levels. These potential issues highlight the need for further monitoring and research. 5. Field-Level Analyses of Water and Soil Salinity Component 2 of the project focused on detailed analyses, to map soil and water salinity and assess their impact on crop productivity at selected key sites across the northern, southern, eastern and western regions of the Nile Delta. The study was conducted in four benchmark governorates in Egypt: Qalyoubia, characterized by low levels of water and soil salinity; Ismailia, representing the eastern fringes of the Nile Delta; Fayoum, known for its unique topography that contributes to salt accumulation; and Kafr El-Sheikh, located in the North Nile Delta, where high levels of water and soil salinity are prevalent. The primary objective was to analyze and evaluate soil and water salinity in these benchmark areas and investigate their boundary conditions. Sampling locations were marked on a Google Earth map using different color codes: red for soil samples, light blue for surface water samples and green for well water samples (Figure 14). Figure 14. Location of soil and water sampling sites in the four benchmark governorates Source: Author’s creation Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 18 5.1 Water Salinity Analysis A total of 180 water samples were collected from the four governorates during two seasons (summer and winter), representing the upstream, middle and downstream sections of canals and drains. This collection aimed to assess location-based and seasonal variations in water salinity and validate historical remote sensing maps. Water quality, including its salinity in canals and drains, is influenced by agricultural, domestic, and industrial activities along their courses from upstream to downstream. A monitoring plan was established to collect water samples at specific points where the boundaries of the governorates intersect with canals and drains. The classification of water salinity used in the following analysis follows FAO guidelines, as outlined in Section 3 and summarized in Table 3. In the Qalyoubia Governorate (Figure 15, top left), canal water is classified as non-saline (< 0.7 dS/m), while the salinity of groundwater wells ranges from non-saline to slightly saline (0.7-2.0 dS/m). An increase in groundwater salinity is observed in wells located near industrial zones, particularly around Tokh. Generally, drainage water is classified as non-saline to slightly saline, except for the Belbas Drain, which receives domestic wastewater from residential areas. Overall, the salinity of water sources is higher in winter than in summer, mainly due to reduced irrigation activity and the absence of high-water-demand crops like rice and sugarcane, which in summer contribute to diluting salt concentrations in canals and drainage water. Notably, canal water remains consistently non-saline throughout both seasons. In contrast, groundwater and drainage water transition from non-saline to slightly saline, in various locations during winter. In the Belbas Drain, water salinity reaches moderately saline levels (2.47 dS/m) near residential areas in winter, but it returns to slightly saline downstream, due to dilution from additional drainage water from adjoining branch drains. Figure 15. Salinity of canals water, groundwater, wells and drains in four governorates: Qalyoubia (top left); Ismailia (top right); Fayoum (bottom left) and Kafr el-sheikh (bottom right) Source: Author’s creation In the Ismailia Governorate (Figure 15, top right), the primary irrigation artery is the Ismailia Canal, which branches off into the Suez and Port Said Canals. The irrigation system also includes several branch canals, mesqas and numerous wells. The main drainage channel is the Mahsama Drain, supplemented by several branch drains - including Balaah, Malaria, Toson, Ferdan, Sarapiom and Shohada. During summer and winter, water salinity at the intake and outlet points of the canals remains non-saline. Most shallow groundwater wells are classified as non-saline in winter, except those in north Ismailia and Qantra, which have slightly saline water. Fayoum Kafr El-Sheikh Qalyoubia Ismailia Summer EC (dS/m Winter EC (dS/m) Scaling for Impact CGIAR19 | The salinity of drainage water in the Ismailia Governorate is particularly relevant, as it supplies the newly constructed El Mahsama treatment plant with drainage water for irrigating newly reclaimed arable lands in Sinai. At the beginning of the Elwadi Drain, the drainage water is moderately saline during summer and winter (2.11 and 2.517 dS/m, respectively). However, the drainage water at its outlet becomes slightly saline in summer (1.12 dS/m) and moderately saline in winter (2.6 dS/m) as it flows into the Mahsama Drain. The water in the Mahsama Drain is slightly saline in summer (1.3 dS/m) and moderately saline in winter (2.07 dS/m) at its outlet. Toson and Ferdan Drains show a similar pattern at their outlets, being non-saline in summer and moderately saline in winter. In contrast, water in Balaah Drain remains moderately saline year-round, with higher salinity levels compared to the other drains (3.15 dS/m in summer and 7.41 dS/m in winter). The water in the Malaria Drain retains slightly saline characteristics throughout the year. In the Fayoum Governorate, the Bahr Yousef Canal serves as the primary irrigation source, supplying water to major canals such as Bahr Hassan Wasif, Bahr El Gharaq and Bahr El Nazla. Various small, medium and large drains collect drainage water from Fayoum and direct it to Qaroun and Wadi El Rayan Lakes. Essential drains in the governorate include Moshtarak, Bats, Wadi and Tersa, among others. Nile water of good quality is the sole resource for all agricultural and domestic uses. Water salinity in the primary and branch canals (Figure 15, bottom left) ranges between 0.23 to 0.73 dS/m, indicating non-saline water. With a few exceptions, the salinity of canal water remains consistent between summer and winter. In the Fayoum Governorate, drainage water salinity varies from 2.0 dS/m at the starting points of the drains to 6.82 dS/m (moderately saline) near Lake Qaroun. This increase is influenced by drainage from the salt- affected soils around the lake. Due to Fayoum's unique topography, Lake Qaroun has historically served as the final destination for all drainage water in the governorate. The expansion of cultivated areas and low irrigation efficiency have occasionally caused the lake's water level to rise, flooding adjacent agricultural lands. Typically, drainage water salinity is significantly higher in winter than in summer. However, the Bats Drain is an exception, with drainage water salinity at 3.34 dS/m in summer and dropping to 2.55 dS/m in winter, remaining moderately saline throughout the year. In the Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, canal water is predominantly fresh; however, some canals, such as the Shalma and Sidi Salem canals, are supplemented by legal and illegal drainage water which affects salinity levels. During the summer, these canals exhibit slightly saline water (1.61 dS/m and 0.98 dS/m, respectively) and moderate salinity during the winter (1.81 dS/m and 1.32 dS/m, respectively). Despite the MWRI imposing restrictions on drilling groundwater wells in Kafr El-Sheikh, several wells have been identified near Sidi Salem, El-Reiad, El-Hamool, Dosouk and Biala. The groundwater in this region is susceptible to salt intrusion from the sea, regardless of proximity to the Mediterranean. Salinity levels in the groundwater range from 0.49 dS/m to 2.19 dS/m during the summer and from 0.63 dS/m to 2.43 dS/m in the winter. Notably, wells closer to the sea display higher salinity due to the encroachment of saline water. The dynamics of drainage water salinity experience significant changes throughout the year, influenced mainly by the high soil salinity and the presence of a saline shallow water table in the North Delta. During summer, the volume of drainage water increases considerably due to rice cultivation, which helps dilute salt concentration. In contrast, winter sees an increase in salt attributable to soil leaching and limited water flow in the drains. Most drains contain slightly saline water in summer, with salinity levels ranging from 0.75 dS/m and 1.77 dS/m, while in winter, the water typically ranges from slightly to moderately saline 5.2 Soil Salinity Analysis A total of 564 soil samples were collected at various depths (0-30, 30-60, and 60-90 cm) from 51 locations in the four benchmark governorates across four seasons: summer, post-summer, post-Nili and winter. Some samples were intentionally gathered near lakes, the sea, shallow groundwater wells, as well as irrigation and drainage canals. The soil salinity classification used in the subsequent analyses follows the guidelines outlined in Table 4, based on electrical conductivity (EC) (Brown et al. 1954). In Qalyoubia Governorate, soil samples were collected from eight irrigation districts, including areas that utilize shallow groundwater wells for irrigation, such as Shoubra, Qalyoub and Tokh. Here, water quality ranges from slightly saline to moderately saline. Figure 16 illustrates the soil extract (EC) salinity for the samples, measured in dS/m, across the three soil layers during the four crop seasons at various locations. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 20 Figure 16. Soil salinity at various locations in Qalyoubia Governorate Source: Author’s creation In the Qalyoubia Governorate, most soil samples are classified as non-saline (0-2 dS/m), consistent with the national assessment. However, slightly saline soil samples (2-4 dS/m) were found near the Qalyoubia and Belbas drains, as well as in areas irrigated with shallow groundwater wells. Furthermore, areas near industrial zones showed minimal salinity (4-8 dS/m). The irrigation water sources in the region include canal water from Qalyoub, Benha, Belbis and Kafr Shokr, groundwater from wells in Tokh and around the Qalyoubia Main Drain, and a combination of canal and groundwater in Shobra, Mashtoul, and near the tail end of Belbis Drain. Salt movement through the soil profile is limited, typically occurring where there are small differences in salinity between the soil layers. However, there is a tendency for salt to accumulate in the topsoil during the summer season, which is then leached away during the following winter. In Shebin El Qanater, farmers plant Nili crops immediately after the summer season without any land preparation, leading to ongoing salt accumulation during the Nili season. Subsequent leaching and land preparation activities help reduce salinity levels to non- saline conditions. Therefore, land preparation and post-season leaching are crucial for preserving soil quality. Six irrigation districts in the Ismailia Governorate feature diverse soil types and varying water quality used for irrigation. Soil samples were collected from these districts—Eltal El-Kabir, ElQassasin, Abou Sewar, Ismailia, Fayed and Qantara—as well as from areas near drains with high salt levels. Additionally, samples were taken from locations that rely on well water for irrigation or a combination of well and canal water. Two additional soil samples were collected from areas near the Malaria and Qantara Drains. Soil salinity in the Ismailia Governorate ranges from non-saline (0-2 dS/m) to slightly saline (2-4 dS/m) across most locations (Figure 17). However, near the start of the Wadi Drain, close to residential areas, soil salinity approaches the upper limit of slightly saline (4 dS/m) in both the surface and subsurface layers following the Nili season. In Qantra Gharb, salinity increases with depth during and after the summer but significantly decreases after the Nili and winter seasons. Soil samples near the Qantra Drain reveal notably saline conditions at the surface layer (4-8 dS/m) following the summer and Nili seasons at 0-30 cm depth, indicating salt accumulation in the topsoil. Scaling for Impact CGIAR21 | Figure 17. Soil salinity at various locations in Ismailia Governorate Source: Author’s creation During winter, the combination of sandy soils and rainfall enhances leaching, substantially reducing soil salinity. In some areas near the Qantara Drain, farmers replace the top 0.5 meters of soil with fresh sand after the Nili and summer seasons, leading to a significant decrease in salinity from 8.7 to 0.23 dS/m. Irrigation water sources in the monitored locations include groundwater in El Qassasen, areas near the Qantra Drain, North Ismailia and West Qantra. In Abo Sower and upstream Wadi Drain, both canal and well water are utilized for irrigation, while the remaining locations predominantly use canal water. The Fayoum Governorate consists of six irrigation districts, each characterized by diverse soil types and water quality. Soil samples were collected during various cropping seasons for soil salinity analyses. These samples were taken from the six irrigation districts as well as from areas near Lake Qaroun and other locations with elevated salt concentrations. Figure 18. Soil salinity at various locations in Fayoum Governorate Source: Author’s creation Soil analysis was conducted four times throughout the year (summer, post-summer, after Nili and winter) as shown in Figure 18. Saline soils (4-8 dS/m) dominate most districts in Fayoum, with salinity levels increasing to highly saline (>8 dS/m) near Lake Qaroun. Geographical location and irrigation water quality play crucial roles in soil salinity. Drainage water is the primary irrigation source in Sennours, Tamia and Youssef El-Sedik. The remaining districts and other monitored locations are irrigated with canal water. Scaling for ImpactCGIAR | 22 Lahoun and Fayoum districts exhibit the lowest soil salinity, likely due to their proximity to the fresh waters of Bahr Youssef and Hassan Wasef. In contrast, Sennoures records the highest salinity, attributable to its location near Lake Qaroun and its dependence on the Bats Drain for water supply. Although Ebshway is also close to Lake Qaroun, it displays lower soil salinity levels because the Bahr El Zidia Canal irrigates it. Notably, the topsoil layer in Sennoures has the highest salinity due to ongoing salinization processes. In Ebshway, however, the lower soil layer exhibits higher salinity due to leaching. Salt accumulation peaks during the summer when elevated temperatures drive increased evaporation. Soil salinity is influenced not only by proximity to lakes and canals but also by the quality of irrigation water, climate factors and the types of soil and crops, as observed in Etsa, Tamia and Fayoum. In the Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, soil samples were collected from ten irrigation districts, including areas near the drain outlets leading to Lake Burulous and locations irrigated by groundwater. The sampling process considered variations in irrigation water sources—such as canals, drains, mixed water sources and wells— and differences in soil textures (light and heavy soils) and the types of crops cultivated in these areas. In Figure 19, approximately half of the samples are classified as non-saline or slightly saline. However, significant areas exhibit saline soil (4-8 dS/m), particularly in Zawia, Sidi Salem, parts of Hamool and Biala. Strongly saline soils (8-16 dS/m) are found in Village 71 and Demro, while extremely saline soils (>16 dS/m) are present in certain parts of Hamool. Following the winter season, the leaching process—driven by rainfall and water availability in canals—alters soil salinity, transforming it into non-saline, slightly saline or saline conditions based on the summer salinity levels. Districts irrigated with a mix of fresh and drainage water include Sidi Salem and Village 71, while those relying exclusively on drainage water include El-Hamool, Biala, Demro, Sidi Salem and El Zawia. Farmers in the region employ various techniques to combat soil salinity effectively, such as mole drains, open drains, subsurface drains with closely spaced laterals and the application of gypsum and organic fertilizers. Additionally, rice cultivation is common in Kafr El-Sheikh, serving as a reclamation crop to enhance soil leaching. Figure 19. Soil salinity at various locations in Kafr el-sheikh Governorate Source: Author’s creation Scaling for Impact CGIAR23 | 6. Socio-Economic Aspects of Saline Soil Crop Production Component 3 of the project focused on studying common practices and indigenous solutions for maintaining and enhancing saline landscapes' productivity, based on surveys conducted with farmers in the four benchmark governorates: Qalyoubia, Ismailia, Fayoum and Kafr El-Sheikh. These governorates were also considered in the farm-level soil and water salinity assessment (Component 2). The study analyzed the impacts of soil salinity on the social and economic livelihoods of farmers in these regions. Fieldwork was conducted during the winter crop season of 2022/2023 and the summer season of 2023. Component 3 of the study employed several indicators to analyze the impact of salinity on agricultural production in each area. The indicators included crop patterns influenced by soil salinity, production input costs, irrigation expenses and productivity per unit of land area. A comparative analysis of economic indicators was conducted between crop production in saline and non-saline lands. The study also factored in the relative location along the canal—whether upstream, middle or at the tail end—taking into account variations in water availability and quality for irrigation. Key economic indicators, such as average variable costs and net acre returns, were analyzed across various geographical locations (governorates). The objective was to identify the most significant challenges facing crop production in different saline landscapes and to pinpoint the key practices and techniques used by farmers to adapt to or mitigate the adverse impacts of salinity. The study used descriptive and quantitative research methods to identify patterns, trends and relationships between indicators. Analyses were conducted using arithmetic averages and simple regression methods to gain insight into farmers' perceptions, understandings, capabilities and indigenous solutions for addressing soil salinity. To achieve this, the study adopted a comprehensive approach that combined primary data collection with integrating published and unpublished secondary data from various sources, including relevant studies and research. The study also examined how farmers utilize saline lands in the selected governorates and assessed the relative importance of cultivated crop areas during the 2022-2023 productive season. Additionally, it evaluated the impact of soil salinity on crop yield, based on agronomic classifications, providing insights into how soil salinity affects crop growth. This information contributes to the development of sustainable agricultural practices in Egypt. The study involved two groups of farmers. The first group consisted of 200 farmers, with 50 selected from each of the four governorates. These farmers were chosen using a stratified sampling method based on their geographical distribution along the irrigation canal. The second group included farmers participating in a series of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) held in each governorate, with a total number of 139 farmers participating in FGDs (40 from Kafr El-Sheikh, 28 from Qalyubia, 40 from Ismailia and 31 from Fayoum). In both cases, the selection of farmers considered social and economic factors, including land tenure types (owner or renter) and gender. The FGDs aimed to validate the interview results, identify knowledge gaps and develop solutions. Other relevant stakeholders, including extension agents and experts, were consulted. 6.1 Influence of Soil Salinity on Crop Choices Understanding crop patterns—specifically, the types of crops grown in a season—and crop intensity, which refers to the percentage of each crop within the overall crop pattern is essential background information. This data offers valuable insight into farmers’ choices and preferences for crop production in saline landscapes. Table 5 presents the winter and summer crop patterns and intensities in the fo