Nutrition, feeds and feeding for pig production in Vietnam: Current status and future research – A review La Van Kinh, Tran Quoc Viet, Vuong Nam Trung, Dinh Van Cai, Nguyen Thanh Van National Institute of Animal Sciences, Vietnam www.livestockfish.cgiar.org April 2014 CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together four CGIAR centres: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; WorldFish with a mandate on aquaculture; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; and the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants. http://livestockfish.cgiar.org © 2014 This publication is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence. To view this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/. Unless otherwise noted, you are free to copy, duplicate, or reproduce and distribute, display, or transmit any part of this publication or portions thereof without permission, and to make translations, adaptations, or other derivative works under the following conditions: ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by the publisher or the author(s). NON-COMMERCIAL. This work may not be used for commercial purposes. SHARE ALIKE. If this work is altered, transformed, or built upon, the resulting work must be distributed only under the same or similar license to this one. Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................ 3 Chemical composition and nutritive value of feedstuffs .................................................................................................... 3 2. Study on digestibility for pigs .......................................................................................................................................... 6 3. Nutrient requirements for pigs ....................................................................................................................................... 7 3.1. Suckling piglets ......................................................................................................................................................... 7 3.2. Weaned piglets ......................................................................................................................................................... 7 3.3. Growing pigs ............................................................................................................................................................. 7 3.4. Pregnant sows .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 3.5. Lactating sows .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 3.6. Other related studies ................................................................................................................................................ 8 3.7. Nutrient requirements for pigs: Recommendation .................................................................................................. 9 4. Better use of local and available feedstuffs .................................................................................................................. 11 5. Feed and feeding methods ........................................................................................................................................... 17 6. Future research in nutrition, feed and feeding for pigs ................................................................................................ 20 References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21 Tables ................................................................................................................................................................................ 31 Part 1. Chemical composition and energy ..................................................................................................................... 31 Part 2. Amino acid composition .................................................................................................................................... 44 Part 3. Total tract and ileal digestibility ......................................................................................................................... 49 Part 4. Nutrient requirements ....................................................................................................................................... 69 Part 5. Local and available feed resources for pigs ....................................................................................................... 93 Part 6. Feeding methdos ............................................................................................................................................. 164 Executive Summary This review paper was done by the Natinonal Institute for Animal Science (NIAS) and the Institute for Animal Science for Southern Vietnam (IASSV). The paper has been reviewed the previous research results on the chemical composition and nutritive value, and digestibilities of nutrients and amino acids of Vietnam feedstuffs; Nutrient requirements for sucking piglets, weaned piglets, growing pigs, and pregnant and lactating sows; The use of unconventional feed resources; Feeding methods for pigs; and suggestion on the future research on nutrietion, feed and feeding for pigs in Vietnam. The paper consists of fine main parts: (1) chemical compostion and nutritive value of feedstuffs; (2) Study on digestibility; (3) Nutrient requirements, (4) The use of local and available feedstuffs; and (5) Future research in nutrition, feed and feding for pigs; and 143 tables. Chemical composition and nutritive value of feedstuffs For the last 20 years, approximately 1,000 feeds colleted throughout the whole country have been chemically analysed. This work has been undertaken by the National Institute for Animal Husbandy (NIAH) in Hanoi and the Institute of Animal Sciences for Southern (formerly, Institute of Agricultural Sience in Sourthern Vietnam - IAS), and some laboratories in Agricultural Universities. At the beginning stage, a proximate composition, Ca and P were analysed. The first publication on chemical composition and nutritive value of animal feeds was completed in 1962 and updated in 1983, followed by a major update and revision in 1992 and again in 2001 by NIAH supported by SINAO (Soviet Union) and others such as INRA (France), Quensland University, Ajinomoto Company, and the Vietnam Government. The IAS had calculated the correlation equation estimated value of the amino acids, based on the crude protein content of the main raw material such as fish meal, corn, rice broken, rice bran, and cassava bran. This helps farmers formulate balanced amino acid pig diets without analysing the amino acids in the raw material. During 2002-2012, the IAS analyzed approximately 16,500 feed samples from seven agro-ecological zones in the country for DM, CP, CF, ADF, NDF, EE, total ash, NaCl, Ca, P, trace mineral (Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Hg, Cd, Pb), sugar, starch, DE, ME. In which, about 1,600s samples were analyzed for amino acids prior to formulating the correlation equations for the amino acid composition estimates. In total, 450 samples were analyzed for trace minerals, vitamins, toxins, and antinutrients. The second book on the composition of amino acids and energy values of livestock feeds in Vietnam, including proximate and amino acid compositions was published in 2003 with the effort of IAS. In the publication, more than 1,000 feedstuffs from different agro-ecological zones were clearly defined, sensorily described, and chemically and nutrionally characterised. This analysis is summarized as: Leaves, tubers and fruits: had low nutritive values and are a good source of vitamins, usually used in fresh form and available in rural areas of Vietnam. They are mainly used by smallholders in order to reduce feed costs, especially for pig production. Data are shown in Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 2.1. High energy feedstuffs: had a low protein content but are rich in energy (Tables 1.5, 1.6, 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3) and of course, the main energy sources for livestock. They areavailable in rural areas and produced by farmers. Plant protein feedstuffs: included legume seeds and their byproducts, and leaves; have high protein content (Tables 1,7, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4) and therefore, are locally available and cheap protein sources, particularly in rural areas. Cakes from oil seed extraction are the dominant feedstuffs. They contain a high crude protein content, and of course, high ANFs that may cause toxicity. Their protein contains normally imbalanced amino acid composition that may induce nutritive values and their utilisation. Animal protein feedstuffs: are mainly fishmeals and soybean cakes (Tables 1.8, 1.9, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4). They have a high protein content but are costly. Traditionally, these feedstuffs are used in combination with the plant protein and energy sources to balance nutritive values, expecially amino acids in diets. Based on proximate composition, correlation equations were made for estimating DE and ME for pigs and poultry as the following: For pigs: DE (kcal/kg) = 52,8 CP + 69,7 EE – 11,5 CF + 34,7 NFE + K; R sq = 87,8% (1) ME (kcal/kg) = 46,6 CP + 65,9 EE – 12,4 CF + 34,6 NFE + K; R sq = 86,6% (2) For poultry: ME (kcal/kg) = 38,6 CP + 66,2 EE – 14,1 CF + 36,4 NFE + K; R sq = 85,9% (3) In which, K is a correction factor that depends on the type of feed (Table 1.12). In general, the chemical composition and nutritive value of Vietnam feedstuffs were varied and are dependent on the original sources and their processing methods. The variation in nutritive value causesdifficulty for the database users. Nutritive values of grains and their byproducts are more stable. In late 1990’s, amino acid compositions of many feedstuffs also were reported by different studies (La Van Kinh et al., 2003; Ninh Thi Len et al., 2010). Data on amino acid compositions of feedstuffs reported by different authors are presented in Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4. The database of these came from individual studies and it is hard to compare with each other because of different analysis methods and/or variations in sample collection methods. Generally, lysine and methionine are the two limiting amino acids in almost all feedstuffs for pigs. Amino acid compositions of feeds are varied and largely depend on their processing methods, and perhaps the analysis methods. Besides energy, the equations for estimation of amino acids in feeds were also built based on a study by La Van Kinh et al (2003). Table 2.5 shows all equations. General comments on this section For over 20 years, almost all of Vietnam’s feedstuffs were chemically analysed, mainly for proximate composition, some macro-minerials and essential amino acids, and energy value estimations. These databases are useful not only for scientiests but also for animal raisers, who use this information for diet formulation. However, data on micro- elements, vitamins and nonstarch polisaccharides (NSP) were missed. Moreover, data on mycotoxins and antinutritional factors (ANF) are limited. Data on aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1 , G2) are restricted in some feedstuffs, but not other mycotoxins such as Ochratoxin A (OTA); Zearaledone (Zon); Trichothecenes (T2 toxin DON) and Fumonisins (FUM). In tropical climate conditions, availability of micotoxins data in feeds are very important. These points may require further consideration in the near future. It is important to note that almost all feedstuffs were collected in the North, Central and Southeast but not much in the Central Highlands and Mekong Delta, where pig production plays an important role in terms of pig population and income for the country. Discussion on the use of existing essential amino acid profile The balance of a mixture of AA in the diet is very unlikely to exactly meet the requirements of each of the animal’s tissues. A deficiency of an AA is likely to cause a reduction in performance and excesses of AA can also be deleterious (Buttery and D’Mello, 1994). It has therefore been suggested that the most important single factor affecting the efficiency of protein utilisation for meat production is the dietary balance of AA (Cole and Van Lunen, 1994). In order to compare the pattern of AA in diets for pigs in particular, the ideal protein provides a simple and effective approach. The development of an ideal protein in pigs has received considerable attention in recent years. The ideal protein is conceived as providing the essential amino acids in the proportion required by the pig and of having the correct balance between EAA and NEAA. In the ideal protein each EAA is equally limiting for growth in the actual feeding situation and there is a minimal surplus of N (Boisen, 1997). The basis for ideal protein has been discussed by several authors, including the ARC (1981), Baker and Chung (1992), and Cole and Van Lunen (1994). It has been suggested that the ideal protein pattern changes during growth, and three different amino acid patterns for pigs at live weight 5 – 20 kg, 20 – 50 kg and 50 – 100 kg, respectively, were recommended (Chung and Baker, 1992; Baker et al., 1993). However, there seems not to be sufficient experimental evidence for a change in the ideal protein pattern during the live weight period from 20 to 100 kg, and therefore, the composition of ideal protein for growing pigs is assumed to be constant (Boisen, 1997). In Vietnam, the ideal protein concept has not been paid much attention in many previous studies. Therefore, the use of existing EAA profiles has not been efficient in feed evaluation and as well in pig diet formulation, leading to a probable increase in the level of crude protein in the diet. 2. Study on digestibility for pigs In the 1980’s, under Soviet Union-supported programs, studies on total tract digestibility of DM, CP, EE, and CF of common feedstuffs were carried out by NIAH (Nguyen Van Thuong et al., 1992). Of course, the number of experiments is limited due to a lack of research facilities such as cages, chemical analyses, and funds. Available data on digestibility were effectively utilized for estimation of energy value by using Bo Gohl (1982) recommendation equations. These energy values were presented in the book on chemical composition and nutritive value of Vietnam feedstuffs in 1991. Total tract apparent digestibilities of common feedstuffs have been determined by using traditional total collection methods (Thuy and Ly, 2002; Vuong Nam Trung and La Van Kinh, 2010; Ninh Thi Len and et al., 2010). Total tract apparent digestibility of a number of common feedstuffs were reported by Thuy and Ly (2002) on rubber seeds; Vuong Nam Trung and La Van Kinh (2010) on maize meal, broken rice, rice bran, cassava bran, soybean cake, soybean seed meal and fish meal; Ninh Thi Len et al. (2010) on maizes, rice brans, soybean meal and fishmeal; and Dao Thi Phuong et al. (2013) on maizes, rice brans, cassava and its byproducts among others. All information on total tract digestibility of common feedstuffs are presented in Tables 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6. In 1999, the post-valve T-caecum cannula technique (PVTC) method developed by Van Lueewen et al. (19991) was introduced to Vietnam by Prof. Lindberg and his group. Since then, the PVTC technique has been widely applied in many digestibility studies on pigs (Le Van Tho, 2000; Phuc, 2000; Ngoan, 2000; Len et al. 2010). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc and Lindberg (2001) and Ngoan and Lindberg (2001) reported that values of ileal digestibility of amino acids could be accurately used in the pig diet formulation. Therefore, the determination of ileal protein and amino acid digestibilities of a number of feedstuffs were formulated by this method. Ileal digestibility of amino acids of a number of feedstuffs were reported by Le Van Tho (2000) on soybean meal and soybean cake (Tables 3.6 and 3.7); Phuc and Lindberg (2001) on protein leaves (Table 3.8); Ngoan and Lindberg (2001) on shrimp byproducts (Table 3.9); Ngoan et al. (2001) on common protein sources in the Central region (Table 3.10); Phuc (2003) on protein leaves (Table 311); An et al. (2004) on sweet potato vines; and Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2007) on cassava leaves and sweet potato vines in silage and in dry form (Table 3.17). Further, ileal digestibility of amino acids of feedstuffs were also reported by Ninh Thi Len et al. (2010) on maize meal, brocken rice, cassava root meal, rice bran, fish meal and soybean meal (Tables 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14); and Dao Thi Phuong et al. (2013) on maizes, rice brans, cassava and its byproducts (Tables 3.15 and 3.16). Besides in vivo methods for digestibility, the enzyme method has been used (Nguyen Cong Oanh et al., 2013). The authors have used pepsin and pancreatin enzymes (following Dierick, 1985; Lowgren, 1989) to determine digestibility of DM, CP, NDF and GE of banana flower and fruit. This method is recently been tested. General comments In last 10 years, studies on the digestibility of nutrients and amino acids have been very much encouraged. Different methods have been applied. Some thousand samples of more than 100 feedstuffs have been collected and had their nutrient digestibility in growing pigs determined. This means that aapproximately 100 common feedstuffs have been nutrively evaluated and had their DE and ME calculated accordingly. These values can be utilised in pig formulation. However, the work is still in its infancy as the number of analyzed feedstuffs are still limited (about 100 feedstuffs vs potential 1,000). On the other hand, the almost all studies have mainly been using the total tract collection method for the determination of the digestibility of crude protein and amino acids, while the advantages of ileal digestibility methods are obviously recorgnised. A number of different types of studies have been undertaken to determine the usefulness of ileal digestibility values. Comparisons have been made between ileal and total tract values (Van Barneveld et al., 1991). Just et al. (1985) reported that digestible crude protein and AA determined from ileal digesta were better correlated to protein deposited in the carcass than digestible protein and AA determined from faecal analyses. Buraczewska et al. (1997) observed higher nitrogen retention and higher daily gain in pigs fed diets balanced according to pig requirements for ileal digestible, rather than total AA during the first fattening period. Furthermore, a higher correlation has been demonstrated between daily gain in pigs and ileal rather than total tract digestibility (r = 0,76 vs 0,34), particularly with unconventional protein sources (McDonald et al., 2002). Currently, we still rely on overseas results to formulate diets for all pig types. 3. Nutrient requirements for pigs In Vietnam, so far, the nutrient requirements for pigs have been applied by NRC or ARC, or modified from these sources. The feeding method has been used in most studies. 3.1. Suckling piglets La Van Kinh and Vương Nam Trung (2000) reported that, requirements of ME and lysine for a suckling piglet are 3,300 kcal ME kg-1 feed (ranging 3,200 – 3,400) and 5 mg lysine kcalME-1 (ranging 4.5 - 5.5). Data are presented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. On the other hand, the authors also reported replacing up to 40% whey powder by lactose improved a feed expenditure but not growth performance. Ton That Sơn et al. (2010) reported that, optimum CP and lysine requirements for a suckling piglet are 23% and 1.5%, respectively (Table 4.3). 3.2. Weaned piglets For weaned piglets, La Van Kinh and Vương Nam Trung (2001) indicated the requirements of CP and lysine at 28-42 and 42-56 days old are 22% and 1.5%, and 20% and 1.35%, respectively (Table 4.4). Similarly, Tran Quoc Viet and Le Minh Lich (2001) reported the DE and lysine requirements for weaned piglets (Yorkshire x (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) are 14 MJDE kg-1 feed and 0.9 g lysine MJDE-1, respectively (Table 4.5). Also, Nguyen Thi Luong Hong and Bui Quang Tuan (2001) have found the optimal levels of ME and lysine for weaned piglets (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) of 7-14 kg LW are 3,200 kcal ME kg-1 feed and 1.3% (as DM) lysine (Table 4.6). In another study, the authors reported optimal levels of ME and lysine for weaned piglet of 5 – 10 kg LW as 3,100 kcal ME kg-1 feed and 1.1% (as DM) lysine (Table 4.7). Tran Quoc Viet et al. (2003) indicated the DE and lysine requirements for F1 weaned piglets are 14 MJDE kg-1 feed and 0.9 g lysine MJDE-1 (Table 4.8). Meanwile, Hoang Toan Thang et al. (2005) reported that optimum lysine and ME ratio for weaned piglet (Landrace x Yorkshire) was 3.88g per1,000 kcal ME. Dang The Nhung et al. (2006) determined the optimal DE and lysine requirements for Mong Cai weaned piglet of 5 – 17 kg LW are 13.5 MJDE kg-1 and 1.1% digestible lysine (Table 4.10). Ta Van Dung et al. (2008) found that the optimal crude protein and ME ratio in Landrace weaned piglet was 59.5 g CP per 1,000 kcal ME. Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2004) have found that the optimal protein level in a weaned piglet diet was 18% CP (Table 4.9). In addition, Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2004) reported that the essential amino acid profile for weaned Landrace piglets fed an 18%CP diet is Thr: 65; Met + Cys: 55, Trp: 19, Arg: 42, Iso: 50, Leu: 100, His: 33, Phe + Tyr: 100 and Val: 70% as lysine concentration. Also, Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2007) reported that the use of a balanced amino acid diet for weaned piglets can reduce the CP requirement from 20 to 18%. 3.3. Growing pigs Do Van Quang (2001) reported the optimal lysine and DE ratio in diets for (Yorkshire x Landrace x Duroc) growing pigs of 20-95 kg LW was 13.5 MJDE kg-1 feed and 0.65 g lysine MJDE-1(Table 4.11). Tran Quoc Viet (2003) found the ME and lysine requirements for (Yorkshire x (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) pigs of 15-30; 30-60; and 60- 100 kg LW were 3,100; 3,000 and 2,900 kcal kg-1, and 0.95; 0.75 and 0.55% (as DM) lysine (Table 4.12). Meanwhile, Hoang Nghia Duyet (2003) reported that ME and lysine requirements for (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) pigs of 15-30; 30-60; and 60-90 kg LW were 3,250; 3,000 and 3,000 kcal ME kg-1 feed, and 1.1; 0.95; and 0.70% (as DM) lysine (Table 413). Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2008) reported that in a balanced (Lys; Me + Cys; Thr and Try) amino acid diet, the CP content of 17% was optimal for Landrace growing pigs of 20-50 kg LW. And, Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2004) reported the Met + Cys requirement for maintainence for (Landrace x Large White) growing pigs was 46.1 mg/ W0,75. Tran Hue Vien et al. (2004) reported the histidine requirement for maintainence for (Hampshire x (LD x LW) growing pigs was 13.5 mg/ W0,75. Pham Thi Hien Luong et al. (2006) reported that the optimal lysine and DE ratios in diets of pigs at 10-30; 30-60 and 60 kg LW to slaughter were 0.82; 0.59; 0.52g MJDE-1, respectively. Bui Thi Thom et al. (2008) reported the optimal protein level for (Landrace x Yourshire) pigs diet with balanced (Lys; Me + Cys; Thre and Try) amino acid was 17% CP (Table 4.14). Tran Van Phung et al. (2008) determined the optimal lysine and ME ratio in growing (LW x LD) pigs was 3.437 g lysine Mcal ME-1. Bui Thi Thom et al. (2010) reported the optimal crude protein and lysine levels in diets for pigs of 18-50 and 50-90 kg LW were 170 g CP and 11 g lysine kg-1, and 150 g CP and 9 g lysine kg-1, rspectively. Ninh Thi Len et al. (2011) have observed the effects of energy density, protein and lysine concentrations, and seasons on growth performance of growing crossbred pigs with different blood levels. The authors reported that the optimal ME and CP levels in diets of 4-bloody crossbred pigs of growing and finishing phases were 3,050 kcal and 160 g kg-1, and 2,950 kcal and 130 g kg-1, respectively; while the optimal digestible lysine levels were 3.2 and 2.8 g Mcal-1 in summer, and 2.9 and 2.5 g Mcal-1 in winter season. For 2-blood crossbred pigs, the optimal ME and CP levels were similar to those for 4-bloody crossbred, but lower digestible lysine levels; The optimal digestible lysine level in summer were 2.9 and 2.5 g Mcal-1, and 2.6 and 2.2 g Mcal-1 in winter for growing and finishing phases, respectively (Tables 4.16 and 4.17). 3.4. Pregnant sows La Van Kinh and Nguyen Van Phu (2002) reported the optimal ME density energy and lysine concentrations in diets for of crossed pregnant (Yorkshire x Landrace) sows were 3,100 kcal ME kg-1 feed, 13% crude protein and 0.65% lysine (Table 4.18). La Van Kinh and Nguyen Van Phu (2002) also found that a thin pregnant sow required 260 g CP and 6,300 kcal ME per day for the first pregnan period, and 390 g CP and 9,450 kcal ME per day for the 2nd period. Whereas, a fat pregnant sow required 234 g CP and 5,670 kcal ME per day for the first period; and 351 g CP and 8,505 kcal ME per day for the second period (Table 4.19). Tran Quoc Viet and Ninh Thi Len (2003) reported the optimal ME, CP and lysine levels for local-breed pregnant sows were 2,900 kcal ME kg-1 feed, 12% CP and 0.6% lysine. Feed allowance was 1.4 and 1.5 kg/sow/day in the 1st period and the 2nd period for 1st and 2nd parity sows and 1.1 and 1.2 kg/sow/day in the 1st period and the 2nd period for 3rd and over parity sows (Table 4.20). Nguyen Thi Kim Loan et al. (2008) determined the effect of fiber levels in pregnant sow diets and found that increasing crude fibre levels from 10 to 12% in the pregnant sow diet did not effect the sow’s productivity but improved the ADG of piglets (Table 4.21). 3.5. Lactating sows La Van Kinh and Pham Tat Thang (2003) determined the optimal ME density, CP and lysine levels in diets of lactating crossed (Yorkshire x Landrace) sows were 3,100 kcal ME kg-1 feed, 18% CP and 0.95% lysine (Table 4.22). Tran Quoc Viet and Ninh Thi Len (2003) reported the optimal ME density, and CP and lysine levels in diets of local Mong Cai lactating sows were 3,000 kcal ME kg-1 feed, 14% CP and 0.85% lysine with a daily feed intake of 3.0 - 3.5 kg (Table 4.23). 3.6. Other related studies Bùi Huy Nhu Phuc (1996) determined the optimal ME density and CP level in diets of crossed growing pigs. The results showed that the optimal ME density and CP level were 2,965 kcal kg-1 feed and 14-16%, respectively. Nguyen Nghi (1995) reported that (LW x LD x DR) pigs at growing and finishing phases fed a diet balanced in amino acids with 16 and 14% CP,had similar growth performance to those fed high CP diets with unbalanced amino acids (16 and 18% CP). For pregnant sows, Nguyen Nghi (1994, 1995) suggested that crossed (Y x L) sows in southern Vietnam, with a mating weight of 140 kg should have 5,500 kcal ME and 247g protein intake and 6,550 kcal ME and 299g protein intake per day in the 1st and 2nd pregnant periods respectively (diet contained 13 % protein and 2900 kcal ME / kg feed ). They also suggested that sows in northern Vietnam, with a mating LW of 160-180 kg should have daily intakes of 6900 kcal ME and 299 g CP, and 7500 kcal ME and 325g CP in period 1 and 2, respectively (diet contained 13% CP and 3000 kcal ME kg-1 feed ). According to Nguyen Thien (1996), F2(Yx(YxMC) pregnant sows fed 1.7 to 2.3 kg feed day-1 in phase 1 (4760-6440 kcal ME; 243-328 g protein) in 5 firts parity without affecting the number of piglet/litter. Increasing the feed amount by 0.3-0.4kg in period 2 would increase the birth weight by approximately 50g/piglet. Nguyen Nhu Pho (2001) suggested that pregnant sows required 6,000 kcal ME per day in the 1st period and 7,500-9,000 kcal ME per day in the 2nd period, depending on the sow’s body condition score. Similarly to lactating sows, the studies focused on exotic and crossbred pigs. Nguyen Nghi (1994) suggested that optimal diets for F1 crossbred (Landrace x Mong Cai) sows were 3,049 kcal ME/kg feed, 16.12% CP and 0.75% lysine. Pham Nhat Le (1994) suggested that 3,131 kcal ME kg-1 and 16.14% CP were suitable for exotic sows. Meanwhile, studies on nutrient requirements for adult boars were very limited. According to Vu Duy Giang (1997) a level of 445g protein day-1 was suitable for boars in Vietnam conditions. Nguyen Nghi (1995) concluded that a boar required 18-19% CP, 0.90- 1.0% lysine and 0.51-0.56% Met + Cys in diets, and a daily feed intake estimated at 400-450 g CP. According to Pham Nhat Le (1994), increasing CP in boar diets from 17.1 to 20.9% (equivalant 458 and 560 g CP day-1) improves reproductive performance. 3.7. Nutrient requirements for pigs: Recommendation Nutrient requirements for pigs can be summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of nutrient requirements for pigs Type ME (kcal kg-1) CP (%) Lys (%) Met (%) Met+ Cys Thr (%) Trp (%) (%) Sulkling piglets 3,300 22.5 1.65 0.44 0.94 0.99 Weaned piglets Exotic breeds Southern - 28-42 days old 3450 22 1.50 0.84 0.92 0.26 - 42-56 days old 3300 20 1.35 0.74 0.82 0.24 Crossed F2 3200 19 1.26 0.75 0.81 0.22 Crossed F1 3200 20 1.3 Local MC breed 3100 18 1.1 Exotic growing pigs - < 60 kg 3100 0.88 0.48 0.59 0.15 - > 60 kg 2900 0.69 0.38 0.46 0.12 Growing F2 pigs - < 30 kg 3100 16 0.95 0.57 0.62 0.17 - < 60 kg 3000 14 0.75 0.49 0.50 0.13 - > 60 kg 2900 12 0.55 0.38 0.38 0.11 GrowingF1(YxBX) pigs - < 60 kg 2900 14 0.75 0.47 - > 60 kg 2900 12 0.60 0.45 Growing F1 (YxMC) pigs - < 30 kg 3000 16 1.10 - < 60 3000 14 0.90 - > 60 kg 3000 12 0.70 Pregnant sows Exotic 3100 13 0.65 0.23 0.46 0.53 0.12 Local 2900 12 0.6 0.38 0.46 0.11 Farrowing sows Exotic 3100 18 0.95 0.53 0.61 0.15 Local 3000 14 0.85 0.32 0.56 0.15 Source: La Van Kinh et al. (2003) General Discussion Results on nutrient requirement studies In recent years, we have undertaken several trials to determine the optimal nutrient requirements for pigs including exotic breeds, crossbred pigs between exotic and local breeds as well as local breeds in the different production stages. These trial results have contributed greatly to building the optimal diet for pigs, the efficient use of feed resources, improving productivity and lowering production costs. However, we have only determined the basic nutrient requirements such as protein, total amino acids, macro minerals, and calculated DE and calculated ME. There are almost no studies on the apparent amino acids digestibility requirement, the ideal amino acid digestibility requirement, the trace minerals and vitamins requirement, and the optimal ratio between digestible amino acids and DE or ME. These weak points limit the optimization of diets and the genetic potential of production. Recently, the productivity of pigs in Vietnam have been 10-15% and 20-25% lower compared to regional Southeast Asian countries and other developed countries respectively. This leads to increasing production costs and reduced competitiveness. Determining EAA requirement using “ideal protein” concept – Method of determination of nutrient requirements As mentioned above, the ideal protein concept has been used not only in protein evaluation but also in amino acid requirement determination. In the ideal protein profile, lysine is of particular interest because it is the EAA found in the highest concentration in the muscle, egg and the carcass of many fish species (ARC, 1981, Wilson & Cowey 1985; Wilson & Poe 1985; NRC 1993). Moreover, lysine is the first limiting AA in most cereal grains and grain by-products, and plant protein sources used to manufacture commercial feeds (Akiyama, Oohara & Yamamoto 1997; Montes-Girao & Fracalossi 2006). However, lysine can be used as the reference AA for estimating the requirements of other EAA, using the ideal protein concept (Baker & Han 1994). In previous studies in Vietnam, determination of nutrient requirements has usually been done in dose-response studies, which are costly and time consuming, especially when determining the requirement for all EAA. Therefore, the use of ideal protein concept to estimate the requirements for EAA for pigs in particular and monogastrics in general, should be emphasised in future studies in the country. 4. Better use of local and available feedstuffs In the last 10 years, several studies have been undertaken to utilize and evaluate the nutritive values of local and available feedstuffs for livestock herd in which pigs are dominant. Ngo Huu Toan and Preston (2007) evaluated uncultivated vegetables for pigs and reported that a variation of accepted uncultivated vegetables, according to wealth ranking of pig raisers, and the use of local feedstuffs could reduce feed costs and therefore increase net income from pig production (Table 1.2). Bui Hong Van et al. (1997) indicated that Duckweed (Lemna spp) can be used as protein supplement in an ensiled cassava root diet for (Yorkshire x Landrace x Baxuyen) fattening pigs (Table 5.1). Le Thi Men et al. (1997) investigated the effect of dietary protein level and duckweed (Lemna spp) on reproductive performance of Ba Xuyen sows fed a diet of ensiled cassava root or cassava root meal. They concluded that a diet of ensiled cassava root or cassava root meal, with 75 g CP per day in pregnancy and 200 g per day during lactation, plus fresh duckweed ad libitum, can completely replace a conventional cereal-based diet for sows(Table 5.2). Nguyen Thi Loc et al. (1997) indicated the importance of protein supplements in traditional diets for crossbred pigs under village conditions in Central Vietnam. Growth performance significantly improved with supplements of fishmeal and grounut cakes in diets of (LW x MC) growing pigs (Table 5.3). Le Thi Men et al. (2000) used water spinach (WS) as a protein source for BaXuyen and Large White sows and concluded that fresh chopped WS can replace 30% of the DM of concentrate diets for gestating sows and 15% of the diet of lactating sows of both local and exotic breeds, resulting in the improvement of reproductive performance and welfare (Table 5.4). Vo Thi Kim Thanh et al. (2000) studied the use of ensiled groundnut vines for growing pigs and conclused that the feed cost was improved by 22% (Table 5.5). Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung (2005) nutritionally evaluated duck weed, para grass and water spinach in growing (Yorkshire x Ba Xuyen) pigs, and found that using locally available vegetables in diets could improve nutritive values and get more profit in village pig production (Table 5.6). Nguyen Ba Trung (2006) determined the effect of using cooked fresh leaves and stems of water hyacinth (WH) as a supplement in commercial concentrate diets of growing Yorkshire pigs. The results showed that the use of WH could improve daily weight gain as compared to the concentrate diet and processing methods had no effect on daily gain and feed intake (Table 5.7). According to Le Thi Men (2006), for medium and small household production, water hyacinth supplementation in LY growing pigs from 30 to 90 kg attained profits and backfat thickness also improved as compared to the traditional diet (16.8 mm for pigs fed WH vs 19.4mm in traditional diet) (Table 5.8). Hoang Nghia Duyet (2003) has studied the effects of fresh sweet potato vines (SPV) levels in sow Mong Cai diets on reproductive performance and concluded that the optimal levels of SPV in pregnant and lactating sow diets were 20% and 50%, respectively (Table 5.9). Du Thanh Hang et al. (2009) evaluated sweet potato vine (SPV), duckweed (DW), cassava leaves (CL) and Stylo foliage (SV) on F1 (Large White x Mong Cai) and found total tract apparent digestibility of CF did not differ among the diets (Table 3.6). Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2005) reported on the processing methods to reduce the calcium oxalate content in Alocasia macrorrhiza roots fed to growing crosbred pigs in mountainous household conditions. It was determined that after processing, the Alocasia macrorrhiza root meal can be included at levels of up to 50% in the diets of growing pigs (Table 5.10). Ngo Huu Toan and Preston (2007) tested processing methods (cook and silage vs fresh) and found that for F1(Yorkshire x Mong Cai) (FL), ensiled taro leaves was the appropriate method (Table 5.11). Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2007) studied the use and processing methods of Alocasia macrorrhiza (Giant taro) leaves in diets for Mong Cai sows and growing F1 (LW x MC) pigs under mountainous conditions, and found no negative effects on pig performance but benefits were improved (Table 5.13). Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2007) studied the effect of proceesing methods of taro leaves in growing (MC x LW) pigs and found higher N retention in ensiled taro leaf diet. In conclusion, taro leaves need to be ensiled before feed to pigs (Table 3.6). Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2010) studied the use of taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) and cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) leaves as silage additives; and evaluated digestibility and N retention in local Van Pa pigs. In conculsion, the mixture of taro and cassava leaves ensiled with molasses was the appropriate method and N retention in the ensiled Taro-cassava diet was low due to the reduced feed intake (Table 5.15). Similarly, Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2010) evaluated the use and processing of giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza) for raising pigs in northern mountainous households of Vietnam. In conclusion, ensiling taro leaves with 7% rice bran and 2% molasses reduced 78.8% oxalate calcium content, and could replace 10% FM in the diet for growing (LW x MC) pigs. Hoang Nghia Duyet (2010) reported that replacing soyabean meal by ensiled taro leaves slightly reduced reproductive performance of Mong Cai sows but improved economic benefits (Table 5.17). Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2010) noted that oxalate content ranged from 1326-3567mg/100g DM for taro stem and 770-2531 mg/100g DM taro leaf. Processing methods such as air-drying, soaking, cooking or ensiling could reduce oxalate content, by as much as 50% by cooking and ensiling. Hoang Nghia Duyet (2010) evaluated taro biomass in the coastal region of central Vietnam and the effect of taro protein on reproductive performance of MC sows. It was concluded that the boiled leaves of the Giant taro can be a complete replacement for soybean meal in the diets of MC sows with only a slight increase in time to re-mating (from 7.2 to 12.7 days) and a reduction of 3.5% in litter weight at weaning. Nguyen Tuyet Giang and Preston (2011) compared a basal diet with a diet supplemented with 34.5% taro silage, 34.5% water spinach or a mix of taro silage 17% and water spinach 17.5%. There were no significant differences in terms of feed intake, protein and dry matter digestibility and nitrogen retention among the diets. Tran Thanh Hai (2012) studied the effect of replacing FM by a mixture of ensiled taro leaves and sweet potato vines on reproductive performance of local Van Pa sows in Central Vietnam. It was concluded that there were no significant dietary effects, meaning that mixing ensiled TL and ESPV can applied in sow diets (Table 5.19). Similarly, Hoang Nghia Duyet (2013) studied the effect of replacing rice bran with a mixture of ETL and banana pseudo-stem on reproductive performance of MC sows. The study concluded that areplacemet level of up to 50% has no effects on the reproductive performance of MC sows (Table 5.20). Du Thanh Hang and Nguyen Trung Kien (2012) reported the effects of taro varieties on chemical composition and oxalate content, and digestibility of inclusion of ETL level in diets in F1 (MCai x LW) pigs. Apparent digestibility of OM was lower, but that of crude fibre was higher when ensiled Taro foliage replaced 50% of the maize-rice bran. Nitrogen retention and biological value of the dietary protein increased with the inclusion of ETL in the diet, and by the addition of a rice wine by-product (Table 5.21). Du thanh Hang et al. (1997) studied N retention in Mong Cai pigs fed sugar cane juice with different foliage (ensiled cassava leaves, fresh foliage of cowpea, fresh duckweed, and silage mixture of cassava and trichantera (Trichantera gigantea) leaves) supplements as protein sources. N retention increased linearly as the proportion of leaves in the diet increased and was highest for ensiled cassava leaves. Du Thanh Hang (1998) carried out a study on digestibility and nitrogen retention in fattening pigs fed different levels of ensiled cassava leaves as a protein source and ensiled cassava root as energy source. DM and CP digestibilities and N retention decreased with increasing level of ECL in growing pig diets. There were no indications of cyanide toxicity on any of the diets (Table 5.22). Lam Quang Nga et al. (2000) studied the effect ofcassava leaf meal (CLM) and water spinach (WS) on reproductive performance of local MC and F1 (MongCai x Yorkshire) sows. The total litter weight at weaning (65.2 and 67.2 kg) was slightly lower for the sows given the cassava leaf meal/water spinach diet. The weight loss during lactation was higher (P=0.03) and time from weaning to oestrous was longer (P=0.02) for the cassava leaf meal/water spinach diet compared with the control (13.7 vs 11.7 kg and 21.7 vs 12.7 days, respectively) (Table 5.23). Nguyen Thi Loc et al. (2000) evaluated the effects of cassava leaf silage on Mong Cai sows in Central Vietnam. Inclusion of up to 15% ECL in gestation and lactation diets for Mong Cai sows had no effects on litter size, but piglet weaning weights were significantly higher (Tables 5.24 and 5.25). Nguyen Duy Quynh Tram and Preston (2004) determined the effect of cassava leaves processing method on intake, digestibility and N retention by Ba Xuyen pigs. The actual intake of cassava leaves and total DM were similar between the two treatments (P>0.05). Average values for DM, OM and N digestibility did not differ between treatments (P>0.05), and there was also no treatment effect (P>0.05) on N retention (1.93 and 2.16g/day for fresh and wilted cassava leaves). It was concluded that fresh cassava leaves can safely be fed to growing pigs at levels up to approximately 25% of the diet (Table 5.26). Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2005) carried out two experiments to determine the effects of simple processing methods of cassava leaves on HCN content and intake by growing pigs. The fresh cassava leaves were readily consumed, providing 38% of the dietary DM and over 70% of the dietary protein with no effect of processing method on total DM intake. Levels of HCN were reduced slightly (16%) by washing and substantially (82%) by wilting, resulting in intakes of HCN between 6.0 and 15 mg/kg live weight. There were no apparent symptoms of HCN toxicity. The results indicate that fresh cassava leaves, chopped and washed before feeding, can be included in ensiled cassava root / rice bran diets for growing pigs at levels of up to 40% of the diet DM, and as the sole source of supplementary protein (Tables 5.27 and 5.28). Nguyen Thi Loc and Le Khac Huy (2003) studied DL-methionine supplementation in ensiled cassava root-based diets on the performance and economic efficiency of F1(LW x MC) growing pigs. The level of DL-methionine (0.3%) slightly reduced daily gain when compared with the 0.2% level. Feed costs for growth were reduced by 9% by 0.2% DL-methionine supplementation. Supplementation with DL-methionine at 0.2% in ensiled cassava root-based diets gave the best results on performance and economic efficiency (Tables 5.29 and 5.30). Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2006) reported the effects of cassava leaf processing methods on HCN, and DL-met supplementation in ECL-baed diets in growing F1(MC x L) pigs. The HCN level in cassava leaves from a high-yielding variety was reduced by 19% by washing, 74% by wilting for 24 hours and 76% by ensiling for 21 days. Adding 0.2% DL-methionine to a diet with 50% cassava leaves improved the live weight gain and feed conversion ratio (Tables 5.31 and 5.32). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc and Brian Ogle (2005) evaluated the effects of cassava-leaf meal levels in sow diets on reproductive performance. It was concluded that up to 30 % of cassava leaf meal can be included in the diet of pregnant sows without any detrimental effects on reproduction (Table 5.33). Du Thanh Hang (2009) carried out a feeding trial to evaluate the effect of different levels of DL-methionine supplementation on growth performance of pigs given diets with cassava leaves and cassava roots. The results indicated that daily weight gain of pigs fed fresh cassava was higher than that of pigs fed cassava-leaf silage (0.657 vs 0.578 kg/day). Increasing DL-methionine supplementation in the basal diet decreased backfat thickness while daily weight gain increased. Therefore, using cassava leaves with 0.2% DL-methionine to replace part of the fishmeal and rice bran component of the basal diet generating a greater profit for the household producer (Table 5.34). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (2005) studied levels of cassava leaf meal supplementation in sow diet on reproductive performance. It was concluded that up to 30% of cassava leaf meal can be included in the diet of pregnant sows without any detrimental effects on reproduction (Table 5.35). Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly and Le Duc Ngoan (2005) determined the effects of DL-met and Lys supplementation on growth performance of growing (LW x MC) pigs. The results showed that daily weight gain gradually increased with increasing amino acid levels. Supplements of 0.2 % L-lysine of and 0.1 % DL-methionine for 20-50 kg growing pigs’ diet and 0.1 % L-lysine and 0.05 % DL- methionine for 50-90 kg growing pigs’ diet gave the highest economic efficiency (Table 5.36). Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly (2006) studied the effect of ECL on growth performance of growing (LW x MC) pigs. It was found that the inclusion of up to 20% (of DM) of ECL in the diet did not affect the animals' health or performance but reduced feed costs by 13.8% (Table 5.37). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc and Brian Ogle (2005) studied the effect of the inclusion of cassava leaf meal (CLM) in diets on performance of growing (Yorkshire x Duroc x Landrace) pigs. With increasing CLM levels (up to 15% CLM) in diets, the DWG declined, FCR increased, the backfat thickness decreased and the loin eye area increased, although not with stastical significance. In Experiment 2, the live weight gains were slightly improved with increasing CLM inclusion level (up to 12% CLM), backfat thickness decreased and loin eye muscle increased with increasing CLM in pig diets. It was concluded that cassava-leaf meal could be included to a level of up to 12% for growing-finishing pigs (Tables 5.38 and 5.39). Nguyen Thi Loc (2007) determined the effects on performance and economic return of ECL in a sweet potato vines-based diet, and of Trichanthera gigantea foliage in a SPV-based diet of F1(LW x MC). There were no effects of ECL and foliage on growth performance but feed costs were reduced (Tables 5.40 and 5.41). Tran Thi Thu Hong (2013) studied the improvement of CP content of cassava root meal, rice bran and tofu byproducts by Aspegillus oryzae (AS) or Aspegillus oryzae in combination with Saccharomyces cerevicae (AS + SC) or Aspegillus oryzae in combination with Saccharomyces cerevicae and Lactobacillus fermentum (AS + SC + LB). At day 21 of the incubation process, the CP content of cassava meal, rice bran and tofu byproducts were 12.2%, 17.9% and 33.8% compared with day 1 levels of 3.52%, 13.9% and 11.3% respectively. The results showed that the additions of yeast have a significant effect on cassava residue, followed by tofu byproducts and finally rice bran (Table 5.42). Nguyen Van Phong (2013) studied the effects of protein enriched cassava byproduct Aspergillus niger on the growth rate of F1(LW x MC) pigs and found that the enriched cassva byproduct improved growth performance (Table 5.43). Le Van Lien et al. (2000) studied the ensiling technique for fish by-products and the use of EFB for growing (LD x LW) pigs. It was concluded that further studies are needed to improve the palatability of the silage and determine the optimum level of replacement. High-protein fish byproducts can be ensiled by using molasses as an additive; and EFM can replace 50% FM in diets (Table 5.44). Le Thi Men (2010) studied the effect of replacing catfish byproduct meal with coconut cake on the performance of growing F1(Yorkshire x Ba Xuyen) pigs and concluded that coconut cake could replace up to 50% CP from catfish byproduct meal (Table 5.45). Nguyen Thi Thuy and Preston (2012) studied the effects of oil-extracted fish products on the quality of sow milk and found that increasing oil-extracted fish byproducts by up to 9% in diets results in increased fatty acids (C18:2 and C18:3) in the sow’s milk (Table 5.46). Le Thi Men (2005) studied the effect of replacing fishmeal with catfish by-product meal on pig growth and concluded that catfish meal could replace up to 100% of FM in diets of growing pigs (Table 5.47). Tran Thi Thu Hong et al (2003) studied the effect of replacing FM with tofu byproduct on digestibility and N retention in growing pigs and found that the increasing tofu byproduct levels slightly increased N digestiblity but had no effect on BV (Table 5.48). Le Thi Men (2012) studied the effect of replacing FM with a mixture of catfish byproduct meal and coconut cake on growth performance and fat quality in F1(LW x Ba Xuyen) pigs, and concluded that the mixture of catfish meal and coconut cake could replace up to 100% of FM in diets (Table 5.49). Nguyen Thi Thuy (2010) found no effect on digestibility and N retention in growing pigs of replacing 100% FM with catfish byproduct and ensiled catfish (Table 5.50). Nguyen Thi Thuy and Ly (2002) found there was an effect of genotype on DWG and FCR but not on digestibility in growing MC or LW pigs fed rubber seed meal in diets (Table 5.51). Le Duc Ngoan et al (2000) developed the silage process for shrimp by-products using molasses, cassava root meal (CRM) as additives, and ensiled shrimp byproduct (ESB) for feeding growing pigs. In conclusion, shrimp byproducts could successfully ensile with molasses or CRM at 20% W; and ESB can replace up to 10% FM in diets (Table 5.52). Luu Huu Manh et al. (2000) reported the nutritive value of rice distillers’ by-product (hem) where CP contents ranged from 17 to 33% (mean of 23%) in dry matter. Also, Luu Huu Manh (2003) studied the effect of replacing fishmeal with hem on growing Yorkshire pig performance. It was concluded that for growing-finishing pigs, a diet based on broken rice and rice bran, the rice distillers' waste can be the sole protein supplement supporting performance levels comparable with the use of fish meal (Table 5.53). Luu Huu Manh (2003) reported the effect of the inclusion of grain brewers (byproducts from beer processing) in diets on performance. Daily gains tended to decrease and FCR increased when brewers increased in diets, although a level of up to 30% brewers did not affect growth performance but improved economic return (Table 5.54). Dao Thi Phuong (2010) studied the effect of wort on growth and intestinal microbial characters. Results showed that weight gain of piglets was not greatly effected when the level of grain brewers was up to 30%, but FCR was lower in diets which contained grain brewers as well as the number of intestinal bacteria E. coli. The height of the villi in ileum was 237, 423 and 334 mm for the control diet, diets with 15 and 30% grain brewers (Table 5.55). Summary of other relevant studies Bui Hong Van and Le Thi Men (1990) studied on the use of "A" molasses in diets for growing F1(LD x LW x DR) pigs. Average daily liveweight gains were slightly lower for the molasses fed pigs, but as total daily dry matter feed intakes were lower than for the control pigs, feed conversion efficiency was better for the molasses fed group (Table 5.56). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (1993) used sugar cane juice and molasses in the diet of growing F1(LW x LD) pigs. There were no differences in daily gains and FCR (Table 5.57). Hoang Nghia Duyet and Nguyen Thi Loc (2000) determined the effect of dietary protein level on the reproductive performance of Mong Cai sows. It was concluded that the optimum levels of CP are 12% in gilt rearing diets, 10% in gestation, and 14% in lactation diets (Table 5.58). Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung (2005) reported the inclusion of up to 5-7.5% corn cob silage in diets of growing pigs improved growth rate. Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (2003) found no effect of using wheat bran, soya hush or cassava leaves in diets for 21-day-pregnant sows on reproductive performance. Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2003) deteremined the effect of dietary protein content supplied by fish meal and sweet potato leaf meal on the performance of growing pigs under village conditions in Central Vietnam. There were no treatment effects on final live weight, daily live weight gain and feed conversion ratio, but the cost of feed per kg live weight gain was significantly higher for the very high protein level, because of the high cost of fish meal. Dietary protein levels of 14% CP for pigs of 20-50 kg and 12% CP for pigs of 50-90 kg (as DM) with the protein supplied by fishmeal and sweet potato leaf meal, can be recommended as they resulted in reasonably good growth performance and gave the best economic efficiency (Table 5.59). Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung (2010) sated that we could mix diets including syrup from 4-6% daily weight, decrease the feed conversion ratio without affecting backfat thickness. According to Tran Thi Dan (2002), the diets of final stage pregnant sows with the addition of 5% fish oil or coconut oil led to improved weight gain, piglets’ health and economic efficiency. The atrophy of lactating sows was significantly reduced when fat was added to the diets. The addition of coconut oil or fish oil to the diet for lactating sows increased the milk fat content. Le Duc Ngoan and Thai Thi Thuy (2006) studied the effect of mulberry leaves in diets of growing pigs on digestibility and N retention. N retention was slightly higher in mulberry leaf meal than in ensiled leaves and higher than that in FM diet. Therefore, ensiled mulberry leaves and meal could be used to completely replace fishmeal. Hoang Nghia Duyet (2005) evaluated the effect of cassava leaves, spinach leaves and sweet potato vines in diets of pregnant sows and lactating sows on reproductive performance. The results indicated that the use of up to 50% protein from a mixture of forage in the diet for pregnant and lactating MC and Y did not affect piglets’ weight, and the mother reproductive performance, therefore feed costs were reduced feed costs. Le Thi Men (2003) studied the effect of fish oil supplement in cassava byproduct-based or cassava meal-based diets on growth performance of growing pigs. The results showed that the inclusion of up to 5% fish oil in cassava byproducts could improve backfat thickness and loin area (Table 5.61). Hoang Huong Giang et al. (2010) evaluated the effects of microbial enzymes and a complex of lactic acid bacteria and Saccharomyces boulardii on growth performance and total tract digestibility in weaned pigs. There were no differences in performance or digestibility between diet LY and LYE (P>0.05) (Table 5.62). Pham Hong Son et al. (2003) tested a local medicinal herb (Achyranthes aspera) as dietary supplement to sows to prevent diarrhea in piglets. The analysis of the data indicated that “co xuoc” supplementation to sows decreased diarrhea prevalence in piglets and increased their growth rate but decreased the litter size. There was no apparent effect on the immune response of piglets and on their gut microbial flora (Table 5.63). Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2010) determined the effects of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and garlic on growth performance, feed conversion and blood fat components of growing–finishing pigs. The studies indicated that fresh or dried garlic and garlic with turmeric might be used as a feed additive in the diet and have great potential in reducing the blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (Tables 5.64 and 5.65). Long et al. (2010) determined the influence of phytase (PHY) supplementation in rice bran-based diets on the digestibility and phosphorus excretion in growing pigs. The results show that the diets had no impact on the feed intake (P>0.05). There were significant differences in the digestibility of DM, OM, CF, NDF and P among diets (P<0.05), with the exception of CP digestibility (P>0.05). The diets with supplemented phytase had higher P retention and lower total P excretion than the diets without phytase supplementation (P>0.05). In conclusion, enzyme supplementation improved the digestibility of dietary components and P and N retention (Table 5.66). Tran Thi Bich Ngoc et al. (2010) determined the effect of dietary fiber level on gut environment and bacteria development of Mong Cai and F1(Landrace x Yorkshire) pigs of different ages. The results showed that the high fiber level resulted in decreased pH and increased content of total organic acids in all segments of the intestine (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the high fiber level resulted in an increased (p <0.05) molar proportion of lactic acids (of total OA) in the ileum, cecum and colon and a decreased molar proportion of acetic acids (of SCFA) in the ileum and ceacum. MC pigs had a higher molar proportion of lactic acids in the ileum and lower molar proportion of lactic acids in the ceacum and colon than LY pigs (p < 0.05), whereas the reverse was true for molar proportion of short chain fatty acids (SCFA) at these sites. In conclusion, diets containing different fiber levels resulted in differences in the development of lactic and cellulolytic bacteria, and pH, lactic acid and short chain fatty acids in the intestinal segments of MC and LY pigs. Le Thi Men (2006) determined the effect of replacing coconut meal with fishmeal on growth performance. It was determined that up to 50% protein of coconut meal being replacing by fish meal had a negative effect on growing and finishing pigs (Table 5.67). Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (2010 ) evaluated the chemical composition of cashewnut cake (CC) and its usage in swine rations. The chemical composition of CC is 86.7% DM, 29.7 - 31.0% CP, 12.7 - 16.4% EE, 2.5 - 2.82% CF and 4:40 - 4.61% ash. Essential amino acids accounted for 28.7% with levels of Thr, Met + Cys, Lys, Try were 1.05, 1.08, 1:29, 0:38% respectively. The results were that daily weight gain increased and metabolic coefficients decreased with increasing levels of CC in diets. The use of CC didn’t affect the quality of pig meat. Experiments using CC for pigs after weaning: 240 pigs (weighing 9.5 kg/each) were arranged in randomized rations containing 0, 5.6 , 11.0 and 16.8% CC. The results showed that CC could replace dried soybean meal in diets of weaned pigs at an optimum level of 11%. Experiments using CC for lactating sows: 44 LY sows at 15 days before laying were randomly arranged into 4 diets that contained level of CC 0, 11.65, 23.3 and 35%. Results show that CC with up to 67% protein can be used to replace dried soybean. Nguyen Thi Tuyet Le et al. (2010) studied using Gac byproduct after oil extraction (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng) in pig diets. Gac byproducts were treated with 2% molasses or 3% and 5% cassava byproducts or 3% and 5% maize meal or 10% taro leaves. Fresh Gac byproducts have a low dry matter content (10,59 % ±0,93) and solube sugar (0,35% in DM). It was concluded that good quality silage was obtained by ensiling the Gac byproducts with 5% maize or 10% taro leaves. Doan Thi Hoang Mai et al. (2010) studied the use of ensiled cabbage by-products in pig diets. The conclusion stated that cabbage by-products successfully ensiled with rice bran, cassava meal, or molasses and can be preserved for at least 56 days, and molasses seems to be a better additive than others. Inclusion of up to 10% (as DM) of ECBP had no significant effect on nutrient digestibilities and N-retention for growing pigs. Nguyen Thị Hong Nhan et al. (2011) studied the characteristics of Tithonia diversifolia and Colocacia esculenta silage and the effects of silage mixture on growing pigs. Lactic acid decreased with increased levels of Tithonia and increased with ensiling time, the relative increase being less marked as Tithonia levels were raised. In all cases the lactic acid concentration was higher with the addition of molasses. There were only slight decreases in digestibility of DM, CP and NDF (range of 4-5%) as the ensiled Tithonia: Taro was increased from 0 to 20% of the diet. It is concluded that ensiled Tithonia:Taro is of relatively high nutritive value, in terms of digestibility of the DM, NDF and crude protein for pigs (Tables 5.68 and 5.69). Nguyen Thi Tinh et al (2002) studied the effect of ensiled sweet potato vines (ESP) in diets on growing pigs performance. The inclusion of up to 30% ESP for pigs of 15-30 kg LW, 20% ESPU for 30-50 kg LW and 10% for 50 -90 kg LW resulted in the best performance (Table 5.70). Nguyen Ba Mui et al (2007) used pineapple pulps for piglets. Using pineapple pulp to feed pigs, there was a 30-42% reduction in urea excretion in the urine, compared with the diets of rice bran and cassava meal. The loss of nitrogen from the pineapple pulp diets is 36-68% lower compared with the cassava root meal and rice bran diets after 1 month storage (Table 5.71). Bui Quang Tuan et al (2007) reported the use of cassava meal and the green bean for pigs. LW gain of pigs fed cassava meal and beans was significantly improved and feed costs were reduced. Pham Sy Tiep et al (2010) used soybean oil in the diets of exotic lactating sows in summer. With the addition of up to 7% soybean oil into the diets of sows in summer, DWG survival rate of piglets was improved (Table 5.72). General discussion Studies on the use of available local feed resources as well as by-products to replace common feeds as well as imported ingredients has contributed greatly to improve the available feed efficiency resources, reduce feed costs, increase economic efficiency and gradually reduce the pressure on raw material imports. However, recent research determined only a suitable rate in the diet rather than enhancing efficiency of these resources. We need to promote the study of engineering materials to preserve feed and ingredients to extended usage time and minimize mold growth to reduce the loss of nutritional value and minimize the production of harmful toxins. We need to research processing techniques to reduce anti-nutritional factors in feed and increase digestibility of nutrients as well as absorption. 5. Feed and feeding methods Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2007) evaluated the effect of different techniques for fermenting liquid feed on performance and Enterobacteria counts of grower and finisher pigs. The live weight gains of pigs fed FLFBR24h were significantly higher than for the BS diet (P=0.04) and those of the other diets were slightly improved (NS). Enterobacteria counts in the feeds and faeces for diets FLFBR12h, FLFBR24h, FLFBS12h and FLFBS24h were significantly lower than those in diets BS and NFLF. Coliforms were totally absent in FLFBR12h, FLFBR24h, FLFBS12h and FLFBS24h. Feed cost of the treated diets was lower than that of the BS diet. The study showed that non-fermented feed or fermented liquid feed improved live weight gain, and significantly reduced the numbers of Enterobacteria and coliforms in feeds and faeces (Table 6.1). Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2007b) found the effects of fermented liquid feeds (FLF) and Lactobacillus subtilis and phytase supplementation (BS) on pig performance. Live weight gain, feed conversion ratio of pigs fed FLF and BS were slightly improved as compared to the BS diet. Total phosphorus excretion was significantly reduced in FLF, BSLAC and BSPHY as compared to the BS diet. Fermented liquid feed and the diets supplemented with Lactobacillus and phytase tended to improve weight gain and feed efficiency of pigs, and reduced Enterobacteria and phosphorus excretion into the environment (Table 6.2). Vuong Nam Trung (2010) studied feeding regimes and conducted an experiment with a free feeding regime in stage 1 (20-50 kg) and limited feeding in stage 2 (51-100 kg) for gilt Yorshire saved 12.5% of consumptive feed, improved 7.8% back fat density and had no influence on genital hormone via growth stage as well as reproduction productivity in topswarm in swine (Table 6.3). Nguyen Thi Kim Loan (2006) investigated the effects of time and form of feeding on sows performance. LW loss and daily feed intake of lactating sows and weaning-mating interval, and daily weight gain of piglets were improved in groups of sows fed 5 times per day, and in groups of sows supplied wet feeds. Regarding economic efficiency, when the group fed 3 times per day was rated 100%, and the groups fed 4 or 5 times per day were rated as 116.28% and 139.04% efficiency respectively. When the group supplied dry feed was rated 100%, the group supplied wet feed was rated as 110.95% efficiency. Nguyen Nghi (1993) showed that lactating sows fed free feed account for 2.8 – 3 kg DM for paternal sow and 4 kg for breeding sow with 16% crude protein. Phung Thi Van et al. (2000) studied on restricted feeding regimes in gilts such as Landrace, Yorkshire, and breeding female YL, LY to reproductive yield of themselves via 3 litters. The authors stated that pigs of 30 – 65 kg were fed Ad libitum with diets contained 3000 kcal ME and 15% CP; and up to 65 days before mating, pigs were fed the diet contained 2900 kcal ME/kg and 14% protein. However, results showed that exchange energy needed as well as the nutritional density of the diet is lower than the recommendations of NRC (1998). Pham Duy Pham et al (2008) added ultracid lacdry and adimix butyrate into the diets for weaned piglets of 60 days old and found that Butyrate Adimix added at 0.1% was best for performance, FCR decreased by 11.4%, DWG increased by 8.3%, and economic return was increased by 13.2%. Pham Duy Pham et al (2010) used Adimix butyrate and All-zym to replace antibiotics in feeding pigs. Using Adimix butyrate and All- zym did not affect feeding efficiency and growth rate. Nguyen Hung Quang et al (2010) used Amoxy-comby and SELKO-pH in weaned pigs’ diets. Using Selko-pH increased growth rate and reduced FCR and the incidence of diarrhea. Bach Quoc Thang et al (2006) used Orgacid prophylactic preparations to prevent white pig feces disease. The addition of organic acids in diets for pregnant and nursing sows reduced the incidence of diarrhea in pigs and increased the growth of piglets compared to the control experiment. Nguyen Thi Tiet et al (2002) compared the ability of Pancreatin digestive enzymes preparations (CPP) with DPS enzyme preparations on pigs. The addition of CPP preparations markedly increased digestibility. Dang Minh Phuoc et al (2006) used the preparations of organic acids in the diet of pigs after weaning. Addition of organic acid preparations into lactic, formic and phosphoric acids with 0.3-0.5% in weaned piglets’ diets improved growth rate and FCR, and reduced diarrhea rates. Nguyen Thi Kim Loan et al (2007) used the preparations of garlic and ginger in diets for weaned piglets. The addition of 0.15 to 0.2% ginger and garlic preparations improved growth rate, FCR and reduced the incidence of diarrhea. Dang Thi Hoe et al (2009) used Bio Elemon preparations - alternative antibiotic for piglets. The addition of BIO Elemon preparations for piglets 1-21 days old reduced the incidence of respiratory, gastrointestinal; stimulated growth rate, and can be used to replace antibiotics. Pham Sy Tiep et al (2008) used herbal products for growing pigs. The addition of organic acid preparations into lactic, formic and phosphoric acid with the rate of 0.3-0.5% improved growth rate and FCR, and reduced diarrhea rates. Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2011) added glucose of 2, 4 and 6% to piglets’ diets. The addition of 6% glucose in diets improved LW of weaned pigs and LW of piglets 60 days old. Tran Quoc Viet et al. (2006) studied Zeolite (trace minerals) in growing pig diets. Zeolite supplementation in diets without inorganic mineral premix at the levels of 3-5% did not affect daily intake, growth rate and FCR, and also reduced the residue of heavy metals in some lean meat. Using at the level of 3% resulted in the greatest economic efficiency. Tran Quoc Viet et al. (2010) added Bentonite in diets for growing pigs, and pregnant and lactating sows. Using 3% Bentonite improved growth and reproductive performances and resulted in better economic return. Tran Quoc Viet et al. (2010) added Zeolite into diets for growing pigs, and pregnant and lactating sows. The addition of 3% Zeolite improved economic return but not performance. Vu Thi Khanh Nguyen et al. (2012) evaluated the effect of CP and CF levels in diets on N and P excretion from weaned (Duroc x (Landrace x Yorkshire) pigs. N and P excretions were not effected by CP and CF levels in pigs of 15 to 35kg LW. However, N content (% as DM) in pig wastes was different among CP levels. Vu Thi Khanh Nguyen et al. (2012) studied the effect of CP and CF levels in diets of (Duroc x (Landrace x Yorkshire) pigs of 15-35 kg on NH3, H2S and other greenhouse gas emissions. NH3 and H2S emissions were not effected by CP and CF levels. While CP level in diets did not affect CH4 and CO2 emissions, however, increasing CF levels in diets resulted in a increase in CO2 emissions. Nguyen Thi Kim Lan et al. (2004) studied early weaning at 7 and 21 days of age. Early weaning at 7 days old resulted in better performance than at 21 days of age. Nguyen Ngoc Phuc et al. (2011) evaluated the effect of feeding style (liquid and dry) and the types of pen (closed and open) on growth performance. Feeding liquid feeds resulted in higher LW gain and FCR improvement. Pigs in closed pens grew faster than those in open pens. Seasons affected growth but did not affect the efficiency of food after weaning stage. Nguyen Ngoc Phuc et al. (2011) evaluated the effect of feeding style (liquid and dry) and the type of housing (closed and open) on growth and meat quality of growing pigs. Pigs in closed pens had reduced fat percentage. Housing type did not affect carcass and meat quality. Carcass percentage of pigs fed liquid feeds was reduced. Seasons affected lean and fat percentages. Lean meat was higher in autumn than in summer, fat percentage was lower in spring than in autumn, and backfat thickness in summer was higher than in winter (Tables 6.7 and 6.8). Truong Huu Dung et al. (2004) evaluated the effect of Ad lib and restricted feeding on growth performance and carcass composition of crossbred (D x (LR x Y), (D x (Y x LR) pigs with two feeding models in indoor conditions. In village conditions , pigs can grow 664. 5g/, FCR of 3,27kg feed/kg weight gain and rate of lean meat /carcass of 56,5%. With dietary restrictions of 20% in comparison with free feeding in Phase 2, growth reached 3.42% and was prolonged by 5 days, but the feed costs reduced by 5.8%, carcass dressing increased 1.1% (Table 6.9). Tran Thi Bich Ngoc et al. (2013) added enzymes, organic acids and Bentonite in diets for growing pigs. The addition of enzymes, organic acids and their mixture reduced NH3 and H2S emissions from 23.1 to 69.3% compared to the control (Table 6.10). General discussion In this area, our studies were relatively limited and discrete and the efficacy of the feeding method as well as feed allowance on pig productivity was unclear and with conflicting results. In the future, it is necessary to research the technology of using liquid feed and fermented feed technology before feeding. It is necessary to have thorough research on feed effectiveness, digestibility and economic efficiency when applying different methods of feeding. Conclusion In Vietnam, pig production plays an important role and pigs are dominant livestocks. With breedings, studies on nutrition, feeds and feeding pigs are paied much attention. More than 1,000 feedstuffs are nutritively characterised and chemically analysed mainly for proximate composition, some macro-minerials (ie. Ca and P) and their DE and ME are estimated. Less than 100 common feedstuffs are analysed essential amino acids and some micro-elements (ie. Fe, Cu, Co, Mn). These databases are useful not only for scientiests but also for animal raisers, who use this information for diet formulation. However, only few feedstuffs are analysed aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) and many others such as Ochratoxin A (OTA); Zearaledone (Zon); Trichothecenes (T2 toxin DON) and Fumonisins (FUM) are not known. The research onthis kind had been started by Institute of animal sciences for southern Vietnam but not much and still unpublished (the Institute had equipments to analyze these toxcin such as HPLC, GC-MSMS, LC-MSMS. Besides chemical analyses, studies on the digestibility of nutrients and amino acids have been very much encouraged. Different methods have been applyied such as total tract collection, the PVTC technique and in vitro using enzyme. More than 100 feedstuffs have been collected and determined their nutrient digestibility and DE and ME value accordingly. However, the work is still in its infancy as the number of analyzed feedstuffs are still limited (about 100 feedstuffs vs potential 1,000). In recent years, number of trials was carried out with using dose-response method to determine nutrient requirements of energy (DE and ME), protein (CP) and lysine (total and digestible) for suckling and weaned piglets, growing pigs, and pregnant and lactating sows. However, the requirements of essential amino acids in total or in digestible as well as essential fatty acids, trace minerals and vitamins for pigs are not determined yet. This may lead to increase feed efficiency and to reduce the animal perfomance. Studies on better use of available local feed resources including feed evaluation, processing methods and feeding trials have significantly contributed to improve feed efficiency and to reduce feed costs, particularly for small scale farmers. However, anti- nutritional factors and toxicity in unconventional feeds in particular as well as feed processing technology have not been determined. In feeding methods, the studies are relatively limited and results are unclear message. In tropics, however, feeding strategy is important to improve animal performance by restriction of effects of environmental conditions. 6. Future research in nutrition, feed and feeding for pigs Based on previous achievements, some thoughts about future studies on nutrition, feeds and feeding for pigs in Vietnam conditions are following: 1. Study on sustainable feed supply - looking local and available feed resources In Vietnam, pig production is still play an important role and is increasing annually about 8% since 2003, and an estimated 80% pigs kept in householders at medium and small scale. In 2013, pig’s population reached 28 million that require about 30 mill tons of feeds. According to Department of Animal Husbandry of MARD (2012), maize, wheat and soybean meal productions have been used as animal feeds were 8,600; 1,500 and 2,420 thousand tons in 2011; in which, 80% of maize were produced in the country, and wheat and soybean meals were totally imported. In 2011, revenue from rice exports was 3.7 million USD, while feed imports costed 3 million USD (Vu Duy Giang, 2012). Therefore, looking sustainable feed supply is necessary. Discussion is now underway in central government circles on encouraging a shift from food to animal feed production as feed security for livestock (and reduction of feed import costs) may be just as important as food production in the livelihood and food security of a rural population looking for new ways to diversity. A consideration is also being given to encourage the use of poor quality rice and agro-byproducts for feeding animals as well as shifting less productive rice areas to maize production for fodder and seed meal. Therefore, study on better use of local and available feed resources including unconventional feedstuffs, paddy rice and rice byproducts are emphasized. By doing so, (1) an evaluation of nutritive values including proximate composition, non-starch polysaccharides, amino acids, micro-nutrients and essential nutrients as well as anti-nutritional factors and toxicity (aflatoxins) will be concentrated. Chemical compositions, and faecal and ileal digestibility of nutrients will be carried out to improve the existing database on Vietnam feedstuffs. The PVTC methods should be widely applied to study on ileal true and apparent digestibility of protein and essential amino acids. (2) Improving nutritionally and optimizing available and local feed resources particularly industrial and/or agro-byproducts such as cassava byproducts, low-value paddy rice, fishery byproducts as shrimp and catfish, etc. 2. Study on nutrient requirements in Vietnam climate conditions As known, number of previous studies on nutrient requirements for pigs has been done, especially for exotic and crossbred pigs, with using dose-response studies, which are costly and time consuming, especially when determining the requirement for all EAA. Therefore, the use of ideal protein concept to estimate the requirements for EAA for pigs in general and in local or local crossed with exotic breeds in particular should be emphasized in near future study. As above mentioned, pigs are mainly raised by householders in their own conditions, particularly natural conditions. Therefore, animal performance will be affected by many environmental factors, in which temperature and humidity are an important. Many studies have been done in other countries (Srikandakuman et al., 2003; Bhatta et al., 2005; Herig et al., 2006; Marai et al., 2010) but few in Vietnam (Le Van Phuoc et al, 2005; Đoàn Đức Vũ et al., 2008; Nguyễn Thạc Hòa et al., 2009). Study on effect of temperature and humidity (THI) on nutrient requirements for pigs should be paid much attention. Study on exploiting and using locally available feedstuffs to decrease pressure on the importation of ingredients. 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Journal of Animal Science and Technology - Livestock Association, 2010. No. 5/2010. Page 13-18. Tran Quoc Viet, Ninh Thi Len, Le Van Huyen and Bach Manh Dieu. 2010. The effect of adding zeolit to feedstuffs on performance of both meat pigs and pregnant, lactating sows. Journal of Animal Science and Technology - Livestock Association, 2010. No. 6/2010. Page 2-6. Tran Quoc Viet, Trinh Vinh Hien, Ninh Thi Len, Hoang Huong Giang. 2006. Study the effect of zeolite in feedstuffs for meat pigs. Journal of Animal Science and Technology in 2006. Special Issue, 1/2006. Page 18 – 23. Tran Quoc Viet. 2003. Determination of energy and lysine requirement for crossed b F2 weanling piglet ( ¾ exotic breed) of 7-18 kg. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development. Vol 1, 2013, pages 46-48. Tran Thi Bich Ngoc, Le Dinh Phung, Tran Thi Thanh Thao, Pham Hung Cuong, Vu Chi Cuong, Nguyen Huu Minh, Vu Thi Khanh Van. 2013. The effect of enzyme, organic acids and bentonite supplements to the diet on emissions of nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia from pigs’ waste 20-50kg. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development. In 2013. No. 9/2013. Page77-85. Tran Thi Bich Ngoc, Ninh Thi Len and Lai Thi Nhai 2010. The effect of dietary fiber level on gut environment and bacteria development of Mong Cai and exotic (Landrace x Yorkshire) pigs of different ages. MEKARN Conference 2010, Live stock production, climate change and resource depletion Tran Thi Dan. 2002. Effect of supplementation fish fat or coconut oil on post pregnant sow diet and temperature maintenance at piglet birth place. Animal husbandry anh Technology Journal Issue 4 /2002. Pp. 8-9 Tran Thi Thu Hong and Le Thanh Ca 2013. The protein content of cassava residue, soybean waste and rice bran is increased through fermentation withAspergillus oryzae. Livestock Research for Rural Development 25 (7) Tran Thi Thu Hong and Le Thanh Ca. 2013. 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The chemical composition (%) and energy values (kcal kg-1) of the typical leaves, tubers and fruits for pigs (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Items N DM CP EE CF Ash Ca P Total GE DE ME starch 1 8 12.08 1.92 0.36 1.97 1.71 0.12 0.06 4.87 480 289 259 2 18 19.77 4.89 1.18 3.50 1.34 0.18 0.07 7.82 896 573 530 3 2 5.19 1.10 0.20 0.69 0.86 0.07 0.02 2.34 209 150 140 4 9 8.93 2.48 0.31 1.27 1.25 0.06 0.06 3.17 369 241 226 5 4 6.77 1.14 0.23 1.53 1.29 0.10 0.04 3.36 267 149 137 6 5 6.44 2.07 0.24 0.68 1.56 0.22 0.07 1.71 254 185 168 7 6 9.05 1.43 0.39 1.62 1.44 0.12 0.02 3.77 362 241 224 8 6 7.81 1.35 0.14 1.03 2.20 0.11 0.04 2.39 284 168 158 9 7 10.85 1.28 0.59 1.02 0.73 0.03 0.04 6.38 463 385 367 10 6 5.05 0.53 0.11 0.49 0.25 0.02 0.01 2.78 208 172 162 11 4 21.20 0.98 0.56 0.72 0.94 0.03 0.03 18.24 868 747 732 12 4 26.88 0.97 0.57 0.54 1.08 0.04 0.04 2214 1110 952 937 13 5 7.64 0.76 0.23 0.74 0.50 0.53 0.52 5.62 3.17 259 248 14 4 35.05 1.34 0.36 1.11 1.09 0.05 0.04 28.33 1433 1230 1209 15 13 30.54 1.54 0.33 0.88 0.75 0.03 0.07 23.72 1366 1144 1123 1. Sweet potato leaves; 2: Cassava leaves; 3: Cabbage leaves; 4: water spinach; 5: water hyacinth; 6: Duckweed; 7: water-taro; 8: Pistia; 9: Pumpkin squash; 10: Calabash; 11: Banana stem; 12: Ripped banana; 13: Papaya;14: Fresh bitter cassava; 15: Freshsweet potato vines. Table 1.2. Chemical ingredients of uncultivated vegetables used in dry season DM As % of DM % CP EE CF Ash Idigofera galegrides DC 33.6 13.4 3.9 23.8 4.5 Musa balbesiana Colla 5.40 5.6 1.5 16.9 9.8 Hibiscus rosa siencis 18.2 16.5 1.5 10.6 10.3 Boehmeria nivea (L) Gaud 12.2 26.1 2.9 12.2 13.1 Leucaena leucocephala 25.0 24.6 3.2 10.2 4.8 Ipomoea batatas (L) Lamk 13.2 7.6 3.9 11.2 9.3 Piper lolot DC 13.1 31.1 0.9 25.4 9.2 Abelmoschus mochatus Med 14.3 23.9 2.8 25.9 8.0 Commelina communis L. 10.0 13.9 1.4 14.5 13.9 Amaranthus tricolor L. 17.7 25.0 0.7 10.9 16.5 Amaranthus spinosus L. 15.4 24.8 3.9 9.2 17.8 Colocasia esculenta L Schott 13.9 14.1 3.8 8.3 11.9 Portulaca oleracea L. 13.9 14.7 4.4 8.6 13.0 Gyrura crepidioides Benth 9.12 27.5 2.7 14.0 10.3 Source: Ngo Huu Toan and Preston (2007) Table1.3.Chemical composition (%) and oxalate content of processed taro leaves Ingredients DM CP CF Ash Oxalate, mg/100g Fresh leaves 13.7 25.3 11.4 10.5 760d Drying by sunlight 88.4 25.6 11.3 13.3 600c Soaking 17.2 25.6 11.5 10.5 570b Cooked 9.6 25.6 11.3 10.4 360a Ensiling 17 25.3 11 10.5 350a SEM 0.13 0.1 0.14 0.091 0.006 P 0.001 0.12 0.3 0.43 0.001 Source: Du Thanh Hang and T R Preston, 2010 Table 1.4. Chemical composition of leaves and petioles of different Taro varieties (%) Ao Trang Chia Voi Quang Tim SEM P DM, % Leaves 15.6a 15.5a 14.4b 15.5a 0.218 0.002 Petioles 6.8a 6.8a 5.9b 6.9a 0.104 <0.001 Crude protein, % in DM Leaves 26.0a 20.8b 24.7a 15.9b 0.201 <0.001 Petioles 8.7a 7.3b 10.7a 6.2b 0.074 <0.001 Oxalate, % in DM Leaves 2.0a 1.8a 2.3b 1.8a 0.002 <0.001 Petioles 2.9a 3.1a 3.5b 4.4c 0.103 <0.001 ab Means without common letter differ at P<0.05 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Nguyen Trung Kien (2012) Table 1.5. The chemical composition (%) and energy values (kcal kg-1) of rich energy feedstuff for pigs (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Items N DM CP EE CF Ash Ca P Total GE DE ME starch 1 23 88.18 3.00 0.63 2.25 1.81 0.15 0.12 81.25 3740 3198 3152 2 71 88.57 8.54 4.07 2.31 1.43 0.12 0.31 72.99 3967 3364 3298 3 67 87.64 8.80 1.70 0.93 1.02 0.18 0.21 75.44 3863 3417 3337 4 10 88.9 7.50 1.62 11.19 4.19 0.26 0.30 63.09 3767 2741 2655 5 44 89.11 12.52 13.79 7.14 7.89 0.32 1.15 47.47 4132 2799 2671 6 10 88.70 11.28 10.07 11.57 8.72 0.26 1.30 48.22 4224 2280 2233 7 8 89.09 7.87 5.66 20.76 9.70 0.36 0.59 - 3639 1524 1446 8 17 88.44 12.54 10.02 3.79 7.26 0.13 1.56 54.34 4159 2727 2621 9 30 88.17 14.16 3.79 7.02 3.73 0.16 0.75 59.52 3961 2713 2617 1.Cassava root meal; 2: Maize; 3: Broken rice; 4: Rice; 5: Rice bran 1; 6: Rice bran 2; 7: Rice bran 3; 8: Rice bran with husks; 9: Cassava byproducts Table1.6. Chemical composition of common high energy feedstuffs in the North (Dao Thi Phuong et al., 2013) DM Chemical composition (g kg-1 DM) (g kg-1) CP EE CF Ash NFE OM NDF Tay Bac maize1 877 97.3 48.1 32.0 13.2 686.4 863.8 238.3 Red River Delta maize2 896 112 53.0 35.0 10.6 685.4 885.4 228.0 Thanh Hoa maize3 844 86.9 59.5 31.9 30.3 635.4 813.7 230.5 Rice bran 8%CP 902 99.2 98.7 173.5 115.1 415.5 786.9 355.8 Rice bran 10%CP 875 141.2 141 157.3 72.1 363.4 802.9 254.0 Rice bran 13%CP 908 166.1 240.2 123.2 89.1 289.4 818.9 223.7 Molar paddy 885 77.1 2.4 126 61.0 618.5 824 246.8 Broken rice 877 80.6 9.9 6.6 4.6 775.3 872.4 75.0 Wheat bran 873 166.9 43.9 117.5 5.9 538.8 867.1 449.9 Cassava meal in factory 873 33.0 16.0 38.0 26.0 760 847 85.0 Handmade cassava meal 882 28.0 4.8 27.9 23.8 797.5 858.2 66.9 Cassava byproduct 857 15.0 28.2 64.6 29.3 719.9 827.7 392.2 Table 1.7. The chemical composition (%) and energy values (kcal kg-1) of plant protein feedstuffs for pigs (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Items n DM CP EE CF Ash Ca P Total GE DE ME starch 1 41 90.11 36.32 17.40 7.52 5.29 0.43 0.52 24.46 5078 4196 3852 2 16 87.99 20.81 2.16 5.96 4.00 0.35 0.41 49.72 3987 3390 3219 3 5 89.14 22.12 2.23 4.66 3.64 0.18 0.46 50.31 3955 3480 3308 4 4 89.82 34.94 14.43 8.46 7.27 0.44 0.48 32.19 4984 4084 3756 5 4 95.46 29.44 43.42 2.83 2.75 0.17 0.31 14.45 6500 5542 5164 6 28 88.98 43.24 2.51 5.05 6.96 0.50 0.63 35.24 4256 3648 3362 7 20 89.52 39.74 7.96 10.10 5.70 0.52 0.56 29.49 4555 3428 3129 8 14 91.32 36.72 9.21 16.40 10.07 1.53 0.64 17.31 4222 3363 3103 9 3 92.75 13.99 6.14 39.52 2.91 0.12 0.19 31.99 4291 2276 2104 10 23 92.32 17.86 9.15 13.92 7.17 0.35 0.56 42.33 4334 2945 2758 11 3 92.80 24.65 9.08 28.31 4.88 0.20 0.93 25.09 46.76 2684 2536 12 3 90.45 60.49 1.08 1.15 2.73 0.29 0.52 25.51 4775 4197 3770 1. Soybean seed; 2: Green bean seed; 3: black bean seed; 4: winged bean seed; 5: peanut seed; 6: soybean cake; 7: Peanut cake; 8: Sesame cake; 9: Rubber cake; 10: Coconut cake; 11: Cotton cake; 12:Maize gluten. Table 1.8. The chemical composition (%) and energy values (kcal kg-1) of animal protein feedstuffs for pigs (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Items N DM CP EE CF Ash Ca P NaCl GE DE ME 1 18 90.76 56.58 5.67 1.49 23.25 5.15 2.84 1.95 3821 3468 3090 2 7 89.76 50.84 4.48 0.69 30.17 5.32 2.65 5.70 3478 3055 2752 3 6 90.16 55.45 2.92 0.49 26.26 3.71 2.32 3.05 3628 3189 2848 4 4 93.42 60.05 6.32 0.84 25.22 4.31 2.79 6.98 3922 3717 3306 5 19 90.89 49.09 4.34 1.21 31.45 5.72 2.43 7.77 3393 2916 2641 6 44 90.23 57.89 6.77 1.49 20.47 5.10 2.31 1.57 3996 3622 3219 7 6 91.23 48.95 6.51 2.17 28.47 4.93 2.87 4.64 3529 3057 2771 8 13 92.41 41.78 4.72 1.33 40.85 4.05 1.93 26.17 2893 2470 2254 9 3 88.28 38.54 3.23 0.80 42.43 4.91 3.16 3.92 3120 2202 1987 10 13 89.00 31.61 2.44 6.92 36.37 9.31 1.15 - 2659 1661 1476 11 7 89.13 47.92 2.23 2.49 33.53 2.96 1.16 4.38 3024 2610 2278 12 4 95.36 55.18 10.05 1.53 25.85 9.60 4.65 - 3967 3436 3040 13 2 92.34 58.82 12.90 3.70 3.53 0.24 0.64 - 5111 4008 3565 14 1 91.13 82.34 1.64 1.08 2.45 0.49 0.11 - 4783 - - 1.Bo fish, 2 Bo lo fish, 3 Com fish, 4 Liet fish, 5 mixed fish, 6 fish meal, 7 fish meal, 8 salty fish meal, 9 fish head meal, 10 shrimp head meal, 11, 12 meat and bone meal, 13, silkworm chrysalis, 14, feather meal Table1.9. Chemical composition of common high protein feedstuffs in the North (Dao Thi Phuong et al., 2013) DM Chemical composition (g kg-1DM) (g kg-1) CP EE CF Ash NFE OM NDF Roasted soybean 937 421 202.2 58.2 60.4 195.2 876.6 121.0 Whole hulled soybean cake 899 490.2 15.2 88.9 82 222.7 817.0 247.3 De-hulled soybean cake 895 531.4 11.2 45.8 65.8 240.8 829.2 236.9 Coconut cake 904 189 32 144 62 477 842.0 321 Palm oil cake 908 160.9 91.7 197.5 51 406.9 857.0 708.3 Fish meal 55% CP 883 626 133 * 177 * 706.0 * Fish meal 60% CP 928 659.2 58.8 * 263.1 * 664.9 182.2 Fish meal 65% CP 883 693.5 74 * 241.8 * 641.2 64 Meat & bone meal 45% CP 923 491 37 * 356 * 567.0 * Meat & bone meal 50% CP 913 600 103 * 384 * 529.0 * Table 1.10.Chemical composition and energy value of feedstuffs for pigs in the North (Ninh Thi Len et al., 2010) Feedstuffs Thanh Son La Cass. Indian Fish Hoa maize Brocken Rice bran, Rice bran, root soya meal rice type 1 type 2 maize meal meal Chemical composition (g kg-1 DM) DM 877 884 887 877 902 901 899 905 CP 97.3 86.9 18.7 80.6 99.2 74.9 490.2 664.0 EE 48.1 59.5 9.1 9.9 98.7 66.4 15.2 72.0 CF 32.0 31.9 43.2 6.6 173.5 241.8 88.9 * NDF 238.3 230.5 69.0 75.0 355.8 422.9 247.3 * Ash 13.2 30.3 21.3 4.6 115.1 124.9 82.0 268.6 OM 987 967 979 995 885 875 918 731 NFE 809 791 908 898 514 492 324 * Energy value (kcal kg-1 DM) GE 4366 4376 4076 4092 4415 4296 4482 4438 DE 3882 - 3630 3965 2383 1811 3887 3694 ME 3779 - 3561 3870 2294 1733 3681 3483 Table1.11. Energy values of common feedstuffs for pigs in the North Values (kcal kg-1) Gross energy (GE) Digestible energy (DE) Metabolizable energy (ME) Mean ± SEM Mean ± SEM Mean ± SEM Rich energy feeds Tay Bac maize 4366 69.8 3887 52.1 3827 22.5 Red River Delta maize 4450 56.5 4027 80.2 3939 36.4 TB Bac maize 4376 43.2 3882 20.3 3779 43.1 Maize (Average) 4397 29.7 3932 33.5 3848 20.8 Rice bran 8% CP 4296 22.4 1811 47.4 1733 33.7 Rice bran 10% CP 4415 33.8 2383 26.6 2294 27.9 Rice bran 13% CP 3926 26.5 2980 63,2 2890 41.6 Rice bran (Average) 4212 31.5 2391 22,4 2306 55.2 Broken rice 8%CP 4092 37.8 3965 18.8 3870 60.7 Wheat bran 3887 47.7 2345 51.3 2221 32.9 Whole cassava root 4076 66.2 3630 65.1 3561 40.3 Cassava root 3944 69.4 3688 77.3 3620 72.5 Cassava byproducts 4918 70.4 2285 35.7 2277 51.3 Rich protein feeds Roasted soybean 5032 44.2 4217 43.2 4164 32.8 India soyabean with hull 4482 35.7 3887 34.9 3681 46.5 De-hulled soybean cake 4526 68.4 4046 48.3 3840 57.4 Coconut cake 3913 71.3 3905 29.2 3005 66.1 Palm kernel cake 4295 55.4 2350 35.1 2185 70.8 Fish meal 55%CP 4531 72.6 3195 123.0 2961 36.3 Slight fish meal 60%CP 3982 66.9 3674 120.1 3463 42.6 Peru fish meal 65%CP 4442 48.3 3738 112.2 3540 53.7 Meat and bone meal 45%CP 4322 39.5 2781 70.4 2555 36.9 Meat and bone meal 50%CP 3954 56.7 2520 80.2 2604 42.3 Blood meal 4955 62.3 2912 63.4 2591 44.8 Table 1.12. Correction factor K for estimate the energy values (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Feedstuffs DE (pig) ME (pig) ME (poultry) Sweet potato, cassava -30 -37 -61 Vegetableon land +6 +6 -20 Water spinach -23 -20 -38 Water -ferns +37 +35 -21 Fresh roots +30 +25 +16 Roots feed: sweet potato, fresh cassava +101 +94 -13 Carrot +44 +42 +19 Potato +44 +42 -12 Cassava meal +228 +213 +181 Ngang powder -229 -305 -304 Fresh cassava byproduct -182 -186 -41 Dry cassava byproduct -583 -592 -150 Beer, alcoholbrewers -108 -104 -53 Cotton seed -350 -269 -687 Sesame seed 750 748 728 Dry shelled rubber cake -378 -347 -530 Dry cotton cake +177 +244 +54 Dry sesame cake +366 +380 +326 Dry shelled rubber cake +409 +385 +511 Dry coconut cake -81 -98 -77 Maize meal +150 +161 +212 Rice broken +221 +210 +162 Rice bran -456 -433 -395 Cassava root meal -282 -263 -197 Maize gluten +73 +29 +416 Soybean seed +349 +305 +225 Green bean +257 +241 +10 Black bean +250 +234 +163 Winged bean +370 +323 -106 Peanut +403 +377 416 Red bean +269 +250 176 White bean +223 +212 -278 DDGS +164 +169 -355 Dry peanut cake -44 -52 +91 Fresh soybean residue -50 -52 +28 Unsalted cattle fish -47 -42 +47 Com fish -74 -54 +9 Illness fish +71 +57 +43 Mix fish -109 -63 -58 Unsalted fish meal -25 -33 +54 Salty fish meal, fish head -243 -208 -124 Shrimp head meal, finger-crab -373 -359 -93 Meat and bone meal -256 -270 -123 Part 2. Amino acid composition Table2.1. The content of crude protein and amino acids composition of main feedstuffs in Vietnam (% as DM) (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Feedstuffs CP Lys Met Cys Thr Trp Leu Iso Val Arg Sweet potato 23.73 0.725 0.483 0.204 0.654 0.274 1.166 0.608 0.782 0.950 leaves Cassava leaves 27.26 1.179 0.450 0.324 1.028 0.466 1.936 1.020 1.276 1.490 Water spinach 25.68 0.913 0.357 0.193 0.902 0.302 1.503 0.840 1.016 1.232 Algae meal 64.19 2.760 1.273 0.578 2.960 - 5.305 3.130 4.213 4.185 Cassava root meal 2.71 0.09 0.031 0.035 0.079 0.022 0.118 0.073 0.096 0.280 Yellow maize 9.68 0.270 0.200 0.212 0.323 0.074 1.097 0.317 0.432 0.478 Glutinous maize 11.18 0.270 0.206 0.184 0.344 0.06 1.236 0.330 0.452 0.524 Rice broken 10.22 0.342 0.275 0.244 0.341 0.111 0.779 0.373 0.530 0.787 Pure rice bran 15.13 0.618 0.300 0.330 0.511 0.156 0.982 0.491 0.729 1.047 Polished rice bran 13.81 0.471 0.348 0.384 0.440 0.169 0.902 0.483 0.659 0.952 Cassava 15.18 0.603 0.239 0.330 0.479 0.203 0.932 0.473 0.687 0.977 byproducts Maize gluten 67.78 1.173 1.650 1.173 2.328 0.339 11.35 2.972 3.266 2.190 Soybean seed 41.89 2.405 0.596 0.657 1.501 0.553 2.956 1.606 1.648 2.684 Soybean cake 50.67 2.897 0.701 0.779 1.897 0.745 3.786 2.077 2.189 3.374 Peanut cake 48.53 1.502 0.538 0.670 1.225 0.429 2.811 1.386 1.813 4.538 Bo fish 57.62 3.391 1.143 0.449 2.110 0.521 3.339 1.997 2.407 2.708 Unsalted fish 61.79 4.147 1.529 0.622 2.278 0.632 4.136 2.155 2.605 3.231 meal Salted fish meal 44.03 2.706 0.816 0.378 1.690 0.394 2.877 1.642 1.930 2.358 Shrimp head meal 36.38 1.537 0.476 0.269 1.136 0.295 1.991 1.641 1.351 2.271 Meat & bone 53.76 2.628 0.630 0.630 1.748 0.217 3.194 1.542 2.454 3.725 meal Table 2.2. Contents of dry matter, crude protein and amino acid composition (g kg-1) (Ninh Thi Len et al., 2010) Maize Broken rice CR meal Rice bran Fish meal Soy meal Dry matter 874.0 872.0 893.0 905.0 872.0 895.0 Crude protein 117.0 74.0 33.0 102.0 666.0 511.0 Arginine 5.1 5.6 1.3 9.9 43.2 35.7 Cysteine 2.5 2.1 0.7 1.8 7.9 9.2 Histidine 3.1 1.7 1.1 2.9 14.2 12.3 Isoleucine 4.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 29.5 19.9 Leucine 16.7 5.6 2.4 8.1 53.4 34.8 Lysine 2.5 3.3 1.5 6.3 54.7 29.5 Methionine 2.1 1.9 0.7 2.8 21.8 6.8 Phenylalanine 6.2 3.5 2.2 6.4 28.6 24.8 Threonine 3.2 3.0 1.1 3.4 29.6 19.5 Tryptophan 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.7 7.3 6.8 Tyrosine 4.3 3.6 0.7 6.5 27.7 17.5 Valine 6.3 4.2 2.1 5.9 29.5 21.9 Table2.3. Crude protein content and amino acid compositions of rich energy feedstuffs in the North (g kg-1) Tay Bac Red RD Rice bran Rice bran Rice bran Broken Wheat Whole maize maize 8% CP 10%CP 13%CP rice bran cassava root DM 877 896 902 875 908 877 873 887 CP 97.3 112 99.2 142.0 166 80.6 166.9 18.7 Arg 4.66 5.1 6.9 9.4 11.6 5.6 12.3 1.3 Cys 2.05 2.5 1.08 1.7 4.7 2.1 3.46 0.7 His 1.77 3.1 2.9 3.7 3.3 1.7 3.36 1.1 Iso 1.93 4.0 3.0 4.4 4.16 2.5 3.41 2.0 Leu 6.15 16.7 8.1 9.5 8.9 5.6 7.32 2.4 Lys 2.39 2.5 3.3 4.7 6.7 3.3 5.32 1.5 Met 2.05 2.1 1.8 3.1 3.1 1.9 2.38 0.3 Phe 2.63 6.2 3.4 6.2 6.6 3.5 5.06 2.2 Thr 1.88 3.2 3.4 5.4 3.4 3.0 3.99 1.1 Try 0.67 0.9 1.07 1.16 2.04 1.2 2.06 0.04 Tyr 2.24 4.3 6.5 7.3 7.3 3.6 4.19 0.7 Val 3.22 6.3 5.9 7.8 7.4 4.2 6.94 2.1 Table 2.4. Crude protein content and amino acid compositions of high protein feedstuffs (g kg-1) Roasted Whole De-hulled Coconut FM FM FM Meat & Meat soybean soybean soybean byproduct 55%CP 60%CP 65%CP bone meal &bone meal cake 45%CP meal cake 50%CP DM 878 899 895 904 893 923 883 926 952 CP 417 490.2 531.4 189 626 659 693.5 492 554 Arg 30.3 35.7 37.2 12.6 29.0 39.4 43.2 34.4 37.7 Cys 6.49 7.2 8.18 3.85 6.7 8.52 8.78 5.4 6.6 His 6.81 12.3 14.15 4.22 13.4 16.14 19.5 9.8 11.1 Iso 19.24 18.9 23.28 6.39 22.9 23.33 27.7 14.3 16.6 Leu 30.57 30.8 34.63 11.08 41.9 45.99 55.9 29.5 34.3 Lys 23.98 29.5 32.57 7.25 39.1 48.43 56.40 24.6 28.3 Met 7.96 6.8 8.20 4.89 14.5 19.03 24.4 6.4 7.2 Phe 20.11 22.11 24.8 8.97 22.3 24.48 25.7 16.7 19.4 Thr 16.19 19.5 20.13 7.67 24.3 25.17 27.5 16.2 18.8 Try 7.13 6.8 7.45 1.36 6.31 7.21 8.9 3.0 3.9 Tyr 15.10 14.5 16.33 6.08 17.3 21.31 23.08 10.4 12.6 Val 23.17 21.9 23.23 11.08 29.0 34.35 36.32 21.6 24.9 Table 2.5. Correlation equations for essential amino acid estimation in common feeds (La Van Kinh et al., 2003) Feedstuffs CP(%) Lys* Met Cys Thr Try Leu Iso Val Arg Maize 8.85 1.02 0.119 0.731 0.472 0.433 -1.56 0.452 0.58 0.29 0.159 0.182 0.127 0.277 0.018 1.44 0.266 0.373 0.444 0.696 0.704 0.268 0.697 0.059 0.891 0.666 0.765 0.323 Rice broken 8.96 -0.489 -0.534 -0.733 -0.318 0.404 -0.489 -0.902 -0.880 0.52 0.386 0.334 0.322 0.368 0.068 0.807 0.463 0.612 0.714 0.701 0.606 0.79 0.86 0.347 0.766 0.734 0.738 0.461 Rice bran 12.68 -0.340 0.066 -0.215 0.220 0.671 0.448 0.342 0.323 -0.389 0.424 0.198 0.239 0.318 0.054 0.615 0.301 0.456 0.719 0.741 0.622 0.672 0.882 0.192 0.823 0.671 0.789 0.840 Cass. bran 13.58 0.44 1.40 1.41 0.479 -1.32 3.04 1.32 3.34 -0.60 0.359 0.055 0.114 0.280 0.238 0.378 0.210 0.198 0.687 0.645 0.127 0.293 0.772 0.926 0.621 0.678 0.585 0.70 Soybean 37.73 0.22 -6.55 3.50 -0.20 -0.24 -6.61 -1.13 -7.04 -15.3 0.574 0.314 0.07 0.363 0.139 0.88 0.410 0.581 1.05 0.363 0.705 0.112 0.27 0.492 0.378 0.462 0.662 0.511 Dry soya cake 45.58 -14.2 1.19 -0.146 -6.73 -1.39 -7.76 -3.12 -5.39 -15.4 0.89 0.111 0.158 0.523 0.182 0.913 0.476 0.548 1.00 0.887 0.632 0.609 0.827 0.415 0.80 0.572 0.64 0.606 Dry peanut 43.70 -3.03 0.524 -1.45 0.604 0.450 -2.58 1.44 0.60 -6.50 cake 0.382 0.096 0.163 0.235 0.0795 0.657 0.255 0.358 1.10 0.943 0.78 0.704 0.854 0.835 0.915 0.737 0.86 0.732 Dry sesame 39.25 -16.2 0.20 1.72 0.38 -9.78 4.94 -0.63 2.43 8.26 cake 0.646 0.251 0.134 0.314 0.326 0.464 0.305 0.317 0.788 0.736 0.642 0.447 0.904 0.235 0.799 0.819 0.765 0.644 Dry Coconut 18.12 -2.21 0.245 0.261 -1.48 -0.563 -1.34 -1.45 -1.98 -8.93 cake 0.399 0.124 0.126 0.381 0.112 0.667 0.402 0.570 1.50 0.931 0.883 0.589 0.923 0.880 0.877 0.823 0.848 0.964 Equation Y = ax + b; In table, row 1 is a; row 2 is b; and row 3 is R2. Part 3. Total tract and ileal digestibility Table 3.1. Effects of breeds on digestibility of nutrients of whole rubber seed contained-diet (Thuy and Ly, 2002) pHfeces Digestibility, % DM OM NDF CP Breed Mong Cai 6.09 71.7 72.8 77.6 82.9 Yorkshire 6.15 72.3 72.1 75.1 86.2 SE 0.41 3.5 3.8 3.5 2.4 Diets Control 6.09 70.7 70.6 79.1 84.8 27% rubber seed 6.14 73.2 73.3 73.6 84.3 SE 0.40 3.3 3.3 3.4 2.7 Table 3.2.Total tract apparent digestibilities (%) of crude protein and some essential amino acids in pigs (Vuong Nam Trung and La Van Kinh, 2010) Feedstuff Protein Lys Met+Cys Thr Try Met Rice bran 69.31b 71.17ab 72.52ab 63.29a 62.98a 77.24 Broken rice 69.03b 73.42ab 70.73 ab 67.75a 62.30 a 71.34 Maize 75.85ab 68.26a 67.77a 76.83ab 64.33 a 76.77 Cassava byproducts 68.56b 68.72a 68.23a 69.25ab 66.55 a 72.66 Soybean meal 80.30ab 83.57c 80.77 ab 86.21b 81.14 b 79.29 Soybean cake 81.29a 82.91bc 83.95b 84.66b 82.21b 78.67 Fish meal 85.03a 85.41c 81.16 ab 81.03ab 84.79b 80.22 Table 3.3.Total tract apparent digestibility of energy and proximate composition of common feeds in growing pigs (Ninh Thi Len et al., 2010) Feedstuffs Son La Indian Fish Thanh Hoa Cassava Brocken Rice bran, Rice bran, maize soyame meal maize root meal rice type 1 type 2 al GE 88.7 - 89.1 96.9 54.0 42.2 86.7 83.2 DM 87.2 - 88.9 97.2 56.0 40.4 87.6 89.1 CP 81.5 - 83.2 88.6 69.5 39.1 88.3 94.8 EE 85.3 - 57.2 81.4 64.0 40.6 72.9 83.6 CF 44.2 - 63.9 63.2 14.5 10.2 62.7 * NDF 77.3 - 68.2 75.4 22.1 11.3 75.0 * Ash 36.2 - 53.8 56.3 23.7 20.7 79.5 89.9 OM 88.8 - 89.7 97.3 60.2 43.2 88.3 88.7 NFE 91.7 - 91.4 98.6 73.1 60.3 96.0 * Table 3.4. Total tract apparent digestibility of major nutrients in growing pigs Apparent digestibility (%) DM OM CP CF EE Ash NFE Tay Bac maize 89.0 89.6 82.7 46.2 83.9 42.8 92.5 Red River Delta maize 90.4 90.9 84.4 46.7 83.7 41.1 94.3 Thanh Hoa maize 87.2 88.8 81.5 44.2 85.3 36.2 91.7 Maize (Average) 88.9 89.8 82.9 45.7 84.3 40.0 92.8 Rice bran 8% CP 40.4 43.2 39.1 10.2 40.6 20.7 60.3 Rice bran 10% CP 56.0 60.2 69.5 14.5 64.0 23.7 73.1 Rice bran 13% CP 68.3 72.7 74.7 32.5 84.2 24.3 77.6 Rice bran (Average) 54.9 58.7 61.1 19.1 62.9 22.9 70.3 Molar paddy 68.4 66.0 69.5 15.3 63.0 22.7 74.3 Broken rice 90.4 89.8 88.2 69.0 63.8 93.8 93.2 Wheat bran 70.4 62.8 76.3 28.5 76.2 63.8 64.2 Whole cassava root 84.5 83.2 60.6 49.1 70.3 78.4 85.8 De-shelled cassava root 90.3 91.3 87.4 61.3 62.2 50.7 92.5 Cassava byproduct 62.5 60.7 62.0 36.2 74.9 35.0 64.3 Table 3.5. Total tract apparent digestibility of proximate composition of some rich protein feeds in growing pigs Apparent digestibility ( %) DM OM CP CF EE Ash NFE Roasted soybean 85.3 83.9 86.3 58.6 82.1 84.7 90.3 Whole soybean cake 87.6 88.3 88.3 62.7 72.9 79.5 96.0 De-shelled soybean cake 89.9 90.1 89.8 72.2 77.1 85.4 97.0 Coconut cake 78.2 78.4 73.3 67.9 64.7 62.5 84.9 Palm kernel cake 77.8 76.42 70.6 66.2 60.4 52.9 80.3 Fish meal 55% CP 80.2 78.1 79.8 * 78.4 72.1 * Fish meal 60% CP 74.1 87.4 83.7 * 79.1 37.1 Fish meal 65% CP 89.4 87.5 92.8 * 86.4 91.7 * Meat & bone meal 45% CP 73.2 71.1 72.1 * 77.8 68.9 * Meat and bone meal 50% CP 73.4 73.2 73.8 * 79.8 67.2 * Blood meal 84.3 81.1 78.5 * * 62.4 * Table 3.6. Effect of processing methods of taro leaves on digestibility and nitrogen retention (% in DM) CTL FTL ETL SEM P DM Intake, g/d 1108 1120 1067 33.2 0.5 DM taroleaf intake, g/d 187 184 183 9.07 0.94 Digestibility, % DM 81.2 84.3 85.0 0.85 0.3 OM 85.6 86.7 87.2 0.69 0.3 CF 55.5a 48.2b 57.9a 2.69 0.03 CP 72.1a 69.7a 76.2b 1.66 0.02 N retention (g) 10.8a 8.4b 10.2a 0.55 0.004 N retention/ digested N, % 76.6a 63.2b 72.8a 2.63 0.004 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2007) Table 3.7. Mean values of feed intake, apparent digestibility and N balance in growing Van Pa pigs fed cassava root meal and rice bran and increasing proportions (0 to 100%) of dietary protein from a mixture of ensiled taro leaves and cassava leaves (MTC) replacing protein from fish meal (FM) FM MTC50 MTC100 SEM P DM intake, g/d 920a 860b 703c 12.6 0.001 Apparent digestibility, % DM 88 84 84 1.75 0.406 OM 89 87 87 1.32 0.483 CP 76 68 69 3.45 0.266 N retention, g/d 7.6a 5.8ab 4.8b 0.47 0.015 abc mean values within rows without common letter are different at P < 0.05 SEM: Standard error of mean; P: probability Source: Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2010) Table 3.8.Ileal apparent digestibility (%) of amino acidsof soybean and soybean meals in growing pigs (Le Van Tho, 2000) Amino acids Roasted soybean Extruded soybean Indian soybean Argentin soyabean cake cake Arginine 79.34±3.76 85.35±1.56 87.18±2.38 90.47±2.26 Histidine 77.54±3.20 81.00±1.34 74.27±4.89 81.88±6.13 Isoleucine 66.70±3.99 70.29±3.32 71.27±5.77 74.05±6.24 Leucine 75.41±0.98 74.06±1.45 73.36±5.70 76.08±3.87 Lysine 70.37±1.39 79.89±2.10 77.95±5.80 74.84±11.07 Methionine 64.29±2.93 66.44±1.99 63.68±10.51 64.45±7.42 Phenylalanine 72.20±2.04 75.03±3.48 75.74±4.02 79.42±2.67 Threonine 63.55±2.13 70.70±3.15 70.35±4.70 72.43±10.14 Valine 69.77±1.01 71.55±2.05 67.88±6.17 73.77±6.22 Table 3.9.Ileal true digestibility (%) of crude protein and amino acids of soybeans and its byproducts in growing pigs (Le Van Tho, 2000) Amino acid Roasted soybean Extruded soybean Indian soybean cake Argentin soybean cake Crude protein 64.25 64.00 70.84 73.22 Arginine 76.70 83.84 85.57 90.00 Isoleucine 65.17 66.89 67.92 72.25 Leucine 72.49 71.14 71.20 73.43 Lysine 70.14 79.69 72.41 79.66 Methionine 69.98 71.35 67.33 74.95 Threonine 59.97 64.10 64.23 66.60 Valine 67.71 67.86 64.75 69.89 Cysteine 56.56 61.32 67.20 58.08 Table 3.10. Apparent ileal digestibility (%) of amino acid of leaves and foliage in crosbred growing pigs (LD x LW)(Bui Huy Nhu Phuc and J E Lindberg, 2001) Amino acid Sun-dried cassava Ensiled cassava Groundnut vines Leucaena leaves leaves leaves Arginine 50 a 56b 77c 48a Histidine 61 a 68 b 73 c 67b Isoleucine 48 a 68 b 73 c 67 b Leucine 50 a 57 b 72 c 52 a Lysine 64 a 64 a 73 c 61 a Methionine 56 a 55 a 73b 57 a Phenylalanine 55 a 52 a 68 b 55 a Threonine 52 a 54 a 69 b 52 a Tyrosine 64 61 65 60 Valine 60 a 62 a 72 b 61 a Table 3.11.Ileal apparent digestibility (%) of amino acids of fishmeal (FM), fresh shrimp byproducts (FSB) and ensiled shrimp byproducts (ESB) in growing pigs (MC x LW) (Ngoan and Lindberg, 2001) Amino acid Diets Basal FM FSB ESB Arginine 75.7a 48.6b 78.2 b 77.1 b Histidine 72.9 a 75.6 b 74.6 b 74.4 b Isoleucine 72.7 a 74.4 b 73.7 ab 73.3 ab Leucine 73.2 a 75.9 b 75.3 b 74.8 b Lysine 73.6 a 76.7 b 75.8 b 75.8 b Methionine 69.2 a 74.9 b 72.5 b 73.3 b Phenylalanine 69.9 a 72.5 b 72.8 b 69.8 b Threonine 68.8 a 71.2 b 72.4 b 66.6 ab Tyrosine 70.8 a 75.8 a 75.3 b 74.4 b Valine 72.2 a 75.5 b 74.5 b 74.2 b Table3.12.Ileal apparent digestibility (%) of amino acids in groundnut cake (GNC), soyabean cake (SB), soyabean meal (SM), fishmeal (FM) and shrimp byproducts (SBP) in growing Mong Cai pigs (Ngoan et al., 2001) Amino acid Basic diet GNC SM SB FM SBP SEM P Arginine 74.35ab 71.60 b 72.30 b 77.16 a 76.75a 75.54ab 0.45 0.01 Histidine 87.63 a 82.01 b 78.76bc 81.41 b 75.13 c 81.41b 0.39 0.01 Isoleucine 77.39c 79.63c 85.57ab 88.07a 85.69ab 84.02ab 0.32 0.01 Leucine 73.53b 81.45 a 72.54 b 74.45b 79.67a 78.72ab 0.45 0.01 Lysine 88.44 a 82.13ab 72.95c 80.58 b 74.66 c 80.37b 0.63 0.01 Methionine 91.29 a 89.30ab 87.94bc 89.94ab 86.73 c 87.27bc 0.24 0.01 Phenylalanine 78.38 a 78.22 a 81.20 b 82.02b 83.29b 79.32a 0.46 0.01 Threonine 81.96 a 74.48ab 72.64 b 73.10 b 70.97 c 70.80c 0.46 0.01 Valine 79.78 a 74.84 b 79.41 79.22 a 78.93a 76.72ab 0.64 0.01 Table3.13. Ileal apparent digestibilities (%) of nutrients and amino acids of coconut, rubber, peanut and sesame cakes in growing pigs (LD x LW) (Bui Huy Nhu Phuc, 2003) Parameters Treatment SE P Coconut cake Rubber seed Peanut cake Sesame cake meal OM 64.1a 52.7b 84.05b 46.34d 3.6 0.01 CP 65.7a 66.4a 77.11b 68.01a 1.47 0.01 EE 75.4 78.2 83.7 75.8 2.82 0.78 CF 25.1a 9.38b 29.85b 13.58b 2.89 0.01 NDF 45.5a 30.1b 47.0a 15.9b 3.63 0.01 NFE 75.9a 63.1b 82.5a 43.0c 3.92 0.01 Essential amino acid Arginine 68.1b 77.1a 93.8c 93.2c 2.68 0.01 Histidine 55.2a 67.4a 86.5b 71.6a 3.96 0.02 Isoleucine 67.5 73.0 69.0 68.5 3.3 0.01 Leucine 68.6a 74.1a 90.2b 75.1a 2.97 0.01 Lysine 69.3a 64.7a 87.1b 85.9b 1.85 0.01 Methionine 79.4a 82.6a 90.1b 84.2ab 2.24 0.04 Cystine 59.0a 71.2a 88.2b 74.6a 4.36 0.01 Phenylalanine 67.3a 71.76ab 90.2c 83.0bc 3.21 0.01 Threonine 59.6a 68.7a 88.9b 85.8b 2.81 0.01 Tyrosine 71.9a 81.8ab 84.3b 59.1b 2.54 0.01 Valine 77.1a 84.1a 89.9b 87.59b 2.15 0.02 Table 3.14. Ileal apparent and true digestibility coefficients of crude protein and amino acids in growing pigs(Ninh Thi Len et al., 2010) Maize Broken rice CR meal Rice bran Fish meal Soybean meal AD TD AD TD AD TD AD TD AD TD AD TD CP 0.77 0.83 0.82 0.91 0.69 0.90 0.66 0.73 0.89 0.94 0.83 0.88 Arg 0.86 0.90 0.87 0.91 0.77 0.94 0.74 0.77 0.94 0.96 0.92 0.95 Cys 0.82 0.87 0.82 0.88 0.73 0.90 0.67 0.74 0.84 0.92 0.83 0.91 His 0.83 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.74 0.81 0.70 0.73 0.92 0.94 0.91 0.94 Iso 0.80 0.85 0.85 0.93 0.70 0.80 0.57 0.64 0.92 0.95 0.90 0.93 Leu 0.87 0.89 0.89 0.95 0.81 0.94 0.70 0.74 0.92 0.95 0.88 0.91 Lys 0.73 0.86 0.82 0.92 0.76 0.97 0.66 0.72 0.93 0.96 0.90 0.93 Met 0.85 0.92 0.85 0.93 0.67 0.88 0.70 0.76 0.91 0.94 0.87 0.90 Phe 0.85 0.90 0.84 0.92 0.75 0.87 0.67 0.72 0.91 0.96 0.91 0.96 Thre 0.71 0.80 0.83 0.93 0.64 0.89 0.53 0.62 0.91 0.96 0.85 0.90 Try 0.66 0.79 0.74 0.84 0.60 0.82 0.60 0.68 0.85 0.93 0.83 0.91 Tyr 0.83 0.86 0.91 0.94 0.74 0.91 0.71 0.73 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.94 Val 0.80 0.84 0.86 0.92 0.73 0.83 0.66 0.70 0.87 0.90 0.87 0.90 AD: Ileal apparent digestibility; TD: Ileal true digestibility Table 3.15. Ileal apparent digestibility coefficient of amino acid of common energy feedstuffs in growing pigs Tay Bac Red RD Rice bran Rice bran Rice bran Broken rice Wheat Whole maize maize 8% CP 10%CP 13%CP bran cassava root Protein 0.75 0.77 0.66 0.69 0.77 0.82 0.76 0.69 Arg 0.85 0.86 0.64 0.72 0.76 0.87 0.77 0.77 Cys 0.82 0.82 0.67 0.69 0.74 0.82 0.77 0.73 His 0.81 0.83 0.70 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.82 0.74 Iso 0.73 0.80 0.57 0.74 0.72 0.85 0.75 0.70 Leu 0.84 0.87 0.70 0.74 0.74 0.89 0.81 0.81 Lys 0.76 0.73 0.66 0.68 0.76 0.82 0.72 0.76 Met 0.85 0.85 0.70 0.74 0.71 0.85 0.68 0.67 Table. 3.16.Ileal true digestibility coefficient of amino acid of rich energy feedstuffs in growing pigs Tay Bac Red RD Rice bran Rice bran Rice bran Broken rice Wheat bran Whole maize maize 8% CP 10%CP 13%CP cassavaroot Protein 0.88 0.83 0.73 0.72 0.90 0.91 0.83 0.80 Arg 0.91 0.90 0.77 0.78 0,83 0.91 0.79 0.94 Cyst 0.88 0.87 0.74 0.73 0,84 0.88 0.80 0.90 His 0.87 0.85 0.73 0.83 0,87 0.95 0.83 0.81 Iso 0.86 0.85 0.64 0.77 0,75 0.93 0.79 0.80 Leu 0.91 0.89 0.74 0.77 0,87 0.95 0.84 0.94 Lys 0.92 0.86 0.72 0.74 0,90 0.92 0.80 0.97 Met 0.93 0.92 0.76 0.82 0,75 0.93 0.74 0.88 Phe 0.91 0.90 0.72 0.80 0,92 0.92 0.84 0.87 Thr 0.83 0.80 0.62 0.68 0,82 0.93 0.76 0.89 Try 0.76 0.79 0.68 0.74 0,83 0.84 0.78 0.82 Tyr 0.88 0.86 0.73 0.82 0.86 0.94 0.88 0.91 Val 0.84 0.84 0.70 0.78 0,83 0.92 0.78 0.83 Table 3.17. Ileal apparent ileal digestibility coefficient of amino acids of rich protein feedstuffs in growing pigs Roasted Whole soybean De-shelled Coconut M& B M& B soybean cake soybean cake kernel cake FM 55% FM 60% FM 65% meal meal 50% CP CP CP 45% CP CP CP 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.70 0.80 0.87 0.89 0.75 0.79 Arg 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.73 0.82 0.88 0.87 0.84 0.86 Cys 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.71 0.81 0.83 0.89 0.61 0.64 His 0.88 0.91 0.91 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.76 0.78 Iso 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.72 0.78 0.91 0.90 0.80 0.83 Leu 0.87 0.88 0.92 0.61 0.81 0.91 0.89 0.81 0.79 Lys 0.85 0.90 0.91 0.64 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.79 0.83 Met 0.87 0.87 0.81 0.79 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.66 0.75 Phe 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.64 0.79 0.91 0.90 0.81 0.81 Thr 0.89 0.85 0.91 0.72 0.80 0.90 0.91 0.77 0.79 Try 0.80 0.83 0.87 0.78 0.83 0.79 0.83 0.67 0.76 Tyr 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.67 0.82 0.90 0.89 0.82 0.84 Val 0.90 0.87 0.93 0.79 0.86 0.90 0.92 0.78 0.81 Table 3.18. Ileal true digestibility coefficient of amino acids ofrich protein feedstuffs in growing pigs Roasted Whole De-shelled Coconut M&B M&B soybean soybean soybean kernel cake meal meal FM 55% FM 60% FM 65% 50% CP cake cake 45% CP CP CP CP CP 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.77 0.84 0.93 0.90 0.86 0.86 Arg 0.89 0.95 0.90 0.78 0,88 0.90 0.91 0.88 0.90 Cys 0.88 0.91 0.92 0.75 0,85 0.89 0.93 0.72 0.73 His 0.90 0.94 0.93 0.73 0,84 0.94 0.90 0.88 0.89 Iso 0.90 0.93 0.93 0.76 0,87 0.94 0.92 0.95 0.96 Leu 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.64 0,89 0.91 0.91 0.89 0.86 Lys 0.89 0.93 0.94 0.70 0,92 0.91 0.93 0.87 0.90 Met 0.95 0.90 0.93 0.83 0,94 0.94 0.90 0.74 0.87 Phe 0.92 0.96 0.94 0.75 0,90 0.94 0.95 0.92 0.90 Thr 0.92 0.90 0.93 0.82 0,91 0.87 0.88 0.83 0.84 Try 0.85 0.91 0.92 0.81 0,87 0.93 0.92 0.94 0.87 Tyr 0.96 0.94 0.94 0.69 0.88 0.92 0.91 0.83 0.86 Val 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.81 0,94 0.93 0.95 0.84 0.88 Source: Dao Thi Phuong and et al. (2013) Table 3.19. Ileal apparent digestibility coefficients of amino acids in LW x MC growing pigs (Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. 2007) ECL DCL ESPV DSPV Mix-D Mix-E SEM P Ileal DM 0.70ab 0.69b 0.73ac 0.70ab 0.69b 0.72ab 0.01 0.026 OM 0.74 0.73 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.76 0.009 0.304 CP 0.47ab 0.44a 0.49b 0.45ab 0.46ab 0.49b 0.012 0.025 NDF 0.26ab 0.22a 0.28b 0.22a 0.28b 0.31b 0.014 0.001 EAA Arginine 0.53ab 0.52a 0.63b 0.57ab 0.57ab 0.57ab 0.022 0.033 Histidine 0.69ab 0.69a 0.70ab 0.68a 0.73ab 0.75b 0.013 0.008 Isoleucine 0.65a 0.65a 0.76b 0.76b 0.75ab 0.76b 0.024 0.004 Leucine 0.68a 0.65a 0.79b 0.76b 0.76b 0.76b 0.014 0.001 Lysine 0.70a 0.68a 0.72ab 0.67a 0.69a 0.79b 0.022 0.010 Methionine 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.70 0.72 0.72 0.010 0.171 Phenylalanine 0.58ac 0.61a 0.74b 0.65ab 0.67a 0.69ab 0.022 0.001 Threonine 0.66a 0.63a 0.75b 0.71b 0.72b 0.75b 0.017 0.001 Tyrosine 0.74a 0.76a 0.88b 0.65c 0.83b 0.84b 0.018 0.001 Valine 0.59a 0.59a 0.67ab 0.68b 0.64a 0.68b 0.022 0.022 Non-EAA Alanine 0.72ab 0.68a 0.81bc 0.76b 0.76b 0.78b 0.014 0.001 Aspartic acid 0.67a 0.7a 0.68a 0.79b 0.79b 0.77b 0.014 0.001 Glutamic acid 0.63 0.66 0.66 0.57 0.60 0.67 0.029 0.111 Glycine 0.55 0.51 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.61 0.030 0.062 Proline 0.54 0.53 0.60 0.54 0.54 0.63 0.022 0.031 Serine 0.64 0.63 0.68 0.69 0.74 0.67 0.028 0.119 abc Mean values within rows without a common letter are different at P< 0.05 DCL: dried cassava leaves, ECL: ensiled cassava leaves, DSPV: dried sweet potato vines and ESPV: ensiled sweet potato vines; 50: 50 (on DM basis) mixture of cassava leaves and sweet potato vines in dried (Mix – D) or ensiled form (Mix –E) Table 3.20. Mean values for feed intake and ileal apparent and total tract digestibility of duck weed (DW), cassava leaves (CL), sweet potato vines (SPV) and stylo DW CL SPV Stylo SEM Prob. Mean daily intake, g/d Dry matter 1373 1177 1583 1422 124 0.24 Crude protein 189 157 129 120 15.4 0.068 Crude fibre 87.3 85.2 103 132 10.3 0.057 Crude protein, g/kg DM 140a 133a 81.8b 84.2b 7.9 0.003 Ileal apparent digestibility, % Organic matter 81.7 80.9 81.2 79.6 0.52 0.08 Crude protein 73.2d 69c 65.7b 60.7a 1.13 0.004 Crude protein# 70.4 66.9 68.3 63 2.3 0.08 Crude fat 59.8c 55.9bc 52.5ab 49.5a 1.73 0.01 Crude fiber 21.1 18.3 18.1 17.1 1.2 0.16 Total tract apparent digestibility, % Organic matter 87.9b 88.4b 84.8a 83.8a 0.63 0.001 Crude protein 75.7c 72.8c 68.7b 63.6a 1.1 0.004 Crude protein# 73 70.8 71.1 65.8 2.4 0.12 Crude fat 65.1a 62.2a 58.7b 54.3b 1.78 0.01 Crude fiber 49.2a 50.76a 46.4b 43.9b 1.47 0.03 Proportion of total tract apparent digestibility that occurred post-ileum, % Organic matter 7.05 8.54 4.25 5.01 Crude protein 3.30 5.22 4.37 4.56 Crude fat 8.14 8.54 4.25 5.01 Crude fiber 57.1 63.9 61.0 61.0 # Corrected by covariance for differences in the crude protein content of the diets a bc Means with different superscripts within rows are different at P<0.05 Source: Part 4. Nutrient requirements Table 4.1. Effects of energy and lysine concentration on growth performance in suckling pigs Energy (kcal kg-1) 3200 3300 3400 Lysine (mg kcal-1) 4.5 5.0 5.5 4.5 5.0 5.5 4.5 5.0 5.5 Daily gain (g/day) 220c 243a 226bc 229bc 249a 235ab 213c 247a 233b Feed intake (g/day) 248 250 231 252 278 256 259 260 285 Feed expense (VND /kg 4784 4489 4779 4928 4872 4863 5363 5032 5557 WW) Source: La Van Kinh and Vương Nam Trung (2000) Table 4.2.Effect of replacing whey powder by lactose on growth performance of suckling pigs Whey replacement (%) Control 20 40 60 80 100 Daily gain (g/head/day) 215a 207ab 205ab 200ab 197b 193b Feed intake (g/head) 285 278 280 276 292 307 Feed expense (/VND/kg WW) 6255 6236 6090 6246 6846 6613 Source: La Van Kinh and Vương Nam Trung (2000) Table4.3.Effects of lysine and crude protein levels on growth performance of pigs from day 1 to 28 of age Crude Protein (%) 21 23 Lysine (%) 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 Weight at 28 days (kg) 7.23 7.52 7.61 7.97 ADG (g/d) 205 215.36 218.93 231.07 FCR 0-21 days 3.18 2.53 2.63 2.52 FCR 21-28 days 0.85 0.90 0.93 0.76 Source: Ton That Sơn et al. (2010) Table 4.4.Effect of protein anf lysine ratios on performance of weaned piglets Stage 1 (CP% - lysine%) 22-1.5 24-1.5 22-1.65 24-1.65 Stage 2 (CP% - lysine%) 20-1.35 20-1.5 22-1.35 22-1.35 Daily gain 28-56 days (g/d) 472 467 426 433 FCR 28-56 days 1.44 1.50 1.55 1.53 Feed costed (VND kg-1 LW) 7.512 7.947 8.111 8.100 Source: La Van Kinh and Vương Nam Trung (2001) Table 4.5.Effects of DE density and lysine concentration in diets on growth performance of weaned pigs MJ DE kg-1 15 14 13 Lysine (% as DM) 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 Daily gain (g/d) 539b 546b 503a 480a 522b 470a 481a 438a 440a Feed intake (g/d) 835 826 830 813 821 839 821 823 826 FCR 1.55 1.51 1.65 1.69 1.58 1.79 1.71 1.88 1.90 Feed expenditure (VND 5673 5370 5631 5732 5193 3631 5766 6095 5898 kg-1LW) Source: Tran Quoc Viet and Le Minh Lich (2001) Table 4.6.Effects of ME density and lysine concentration on growth performance of weaned pigs kcal ME kg-1 3100 3200 Lysine (% as DM) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.5 7-14 kg LW Feed intake (g/d) 619 649 639 618 668 681 Daily gain (g/d) 260a 276a 272a 270a 321b 325b FCR 2.38 2.35 2.35 2.29 2.08 2.05 Feed expendintrure (VND) 9,020 9,089 9,470 9,000 8,424 8,549 14-22 kg LW Feed intake (g/d) 778 791 789 778 790 797 Daily gain (g/d) 310a 327ab 323a 315a 363c 359bc FCR 2.51 2.42 2.44 2.47 2.18 2.22 Feed costed (VND) 9,513 9,462 9,833 9,707 8,829 9,257 Source: Nguyen Thi Luong Hong and Bui Quang Tuan (2001) Table 4.7.Effects of ME density and lysine concentration on growth performace of weaned pigs kcal ME kg-1 3000 3100 Lysine (% as DM) 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.1 1.3 5-10 kg LW Feed intake (g/d) 500 510 500 500 530 521 Daily gain (g/d) 152 159 154 153 191 183 FCR 3.29 3.20 3.28 3.27 2.77 2.85 Feed costed (VND) 10,561 10,656 11,316 10,726 9,418 10,032 14-22 kg LW Feed intake (g/d) 773 783 777 767 780 777 Daily gain (g/d) 210 222 218 212 248 242 FCR 3.67 3.53 3.56 3.61 3.15 3.20 Feed costed (VND) 11,781 11,755 12,282 11,841 10,710 11,264 Source: Nguyen Thi Luong Hong and Bui Quang Tuan (2001) Table 4.8. Effects of ME density, and lysine and ME ratio on weaned pigs performance ME (MJ/kg) Lysine :ME (g/MJME) 13 14 15 8 9 10 ADG 453.0 490.2 529.0 470.8 501.5 499.8 FCR 1.81 1.68 1.57 1.76 1.64 1.65 Source: Tran Quoc Viet et al. (2003) Table 4.9. Effects of protein levels on LW and FCR of weaned piglets Crude Protein level (%) 18 19 20 LW at 56 dayold (kg) 15.33 15.39 15.78 FCR 1.49 1.48 1.47 Source: Tran Dinh Phung et al. (2004) Table 4.10. Effects of DE density and lysine concentration on growth performance of piglets of 5-17 kg MJ DE kg-1 13 13.5 Lysine (% as DM) 0.90 1.10 1.30 0.90 1.10 1.30 ADG (5-10 kg) 152 159 154 153 191 183 ADG (10-17 kg) 210 222 218 212 248 242 FCR (5-10 kg) 3.29 3.20 3.28 3.27 2.77 2.85 FCR (5-17 kg) 3.67 3.53 3.56 3.61 3.15 3.20 Source: Dang The Nhung et al. (2006) Table 4.11.Effects of ME density and lysine concentration on growth performance of growingpigs Energy (MJME) 12.5 13.5 14.5 Lysine (%DM) 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.55 0.65 0.75 Feed intake (kg/d) 1.75b 1.78b 1.79b 1.86b 2.26a 1.76b 1.81b 2.12a 2.11a ADG (g/d) 524a 524a 569b 568ab 645c 635c 575ab 639c 684d FCR 3.35b 3.21b 3.18ab 3.28a 2.78a 2.77a 3.18ab 2.90a 2.75a Backfat thickness 13.41ab 12.56ab 12.09a 12.68ab 11.79b 12.87ab15.23c 14.56bc 13.79bc (mm) Source: Do Van Quang (2001) Table 4.12. Effects of ME density and lysine concentration on growth performance ofgrowing pigs kcal ME kg-1 3250 3100 Lysine (% as DM) 1.15 1.05 0.95 1.15 1.05 0.95 Daily gain (g/d) 582.6a 625.6a 614.9a 603.3a 624.8a 617.4a Feed intake (kg/d) 1.86 1.94 1.93 1.94 2.01 2.00 FCR 3.19 3.10 3.14 3.22 3.22 3.24 Feed expense (1,000VND) 8.62 7.92 7.77 8.75 7.91 7.63 Source: Tran Quoc Viet (2003) Table 4.13. Effects of ME density and lysine concentration on growth performance of growing pigs kcal ME kg-1 3250 3000 Lysine (% as DM) 1.1 0.95 0.75 1.1 0.95 0.75 ADG (g/d) 615.8 581.5 532.3 572.1 541.8 527.1 FCR 3.26 3.25 3.66 3.50 3.71 3.80 Profit (1,000 VND/head) 258 225 130 233 196 174 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet (2003) Table 4.14. Effects of protein levels and lysine levels in diets on FCR of growing pigs High protein Medium protein Low protein LC LT LC LT LC LT LW at 90 exp. days (kg) 90.3 88.8 85.1 88.1 86.5 81.9 FCR 2.35 2.40 2.51 2.40 2.45 2.60 LC: high lysine; LT = low lysine; Source: Bui Thi Thom et al. (2010) Table 4.15. Effect of energy levels and seasons on growth performances of two crosbredsof growing pigs 4 bloody crossed 2 bloody crossed High ME Low ME High ME Low ME Summer ADG (g/d) 820 832 767 769 Backfat thickness (cm) 0.91 0.93 1.08 0.97 FCR 2.17 2.04 2.34 2.19 Winter ADG (g/d) 913 906 830 826 Backfat thickness (cm) 1.01 b 0.97a 1.14 1.11 FCR 2.57 2.48 2.96 2.77 Source: Table 4.16. Effect of digestible lysine levels on growth performance and backfat thichness of 4-bloody crosbred pigs in summer and winter Digestible lysine and ME ratio (gMcal-1) 2.35 2.65 2.95 3.25 3.55 3.85 Summer ADG (g/d) 756a 799b 824bc 843cd 874e 860de Backfat thickness (cm) 1.01 0.98 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.86 FCR 2.75a 2.65ab 2.55bc 2.49c 2.42c 2.44c Winter ADG (g/d) 852a 870ab 915bc 942d 941d 938d Backfatthickness (cm) 1.11a 1.12a 0.98b 0.94b 0.90b 0.90b FCR 2.69a 2.65a 2.50b 2.43b 2.43b 2.42b Source: Ninh Thi Len et al. (2011) Table 4.17.Effect of digestible lysine level on growth performance and backfat thickness of 2- blood crosbred pigs in summer and winter seasons Digestiblelysine and ME ratio (gMcal-1) 2.35 2.65 2.95 3.25 3.55 3.85 Summer ADG (g/d) 709a 728a 773c 809b 790b 799bc Backfat thickness (cm) 1.12 1.08 1.00 1.06 0.99 0.90 FCR 3.17a 3.10a 2.97b 2.81c 2.82c 2.86c Winter ADG (g/d) 792a 802a 821ab 855b 852b 848b Backfat thickness (cm) 1.22a 1.21a 1.10b 1.12b 1.06c 1.04c FCR 2.98a 2.92a 2.84b 2.80b 2.82b 2.82b Source: Ninh Thi Len et al. (2011) Table 4.18.Effects of ME density and CP level on reproductive performance of pregnant sows ME density (kcal kg) 3000 3100 3200 CP (%) 11 12 13 11 12 13 11 12 13 BW gain (kg) 24.1c 25.6b 26.4b 28.6ab 28.7a 28.6a 30.2a 30.5a 30.4a Fetal W gain (kg) 24.4c 25.2bc 26.2bc 26.3bc 27.2b 28.9a 26.5bc 29.0ab 27.8ab N0 piglet /litter 10.0 10.2 10.2 10.0 10.4 11.2 10.2 11.0 10.4 LW of weaned piglet (kg) 1.38c 1.46bc 1.54ab 1.55ab 1.57ab 1.61ab 1.53ab 1.65a 1.63a Feed cost(VND/piglet) 51399 53981 53099 53936 51654 48466 55329 52662 56489 LW lost of sow(%) 9.91 9.43 10.27 10.48 10.76 10.81 11.36 11.73 11.53 Source: La Van Kinh and Nguyen Van Phu (2002) Table 4.19.Effects of daily feed intake (kg/d; DFI) and body score of pregnant sows on reproductive performance Body score Fat Thin DFIat period 1 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 DFIat period 2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 BW gainof sow (kg) 23.5 24.4 25.6 26.1 26.1 26.8 28.4 29.7 Fetal W gain (kg) 24.6 24.8 25.4 25.7 25.9 27.1 27.2 27.4 N0 piglet /litter 10.2 10.6 10.0 10.0 10.2 10.0 10.4 10.0 LW at born (kg/head) 1.56b 1.67a 1.58b 1.56b 1.55 1.58 1.66 1.58 Mortality (24h at birth) 0.8 - 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 - - Source: La Van Kinh and Nguyen Van Phu (2002) Table 4.20.Effects of daily ME (kcal) and CP (g) intake on reproductive performance of pregnant sows at different parities Sows at the 1st- 2nd litters ME intake at period 1 3540 4130 4720 3540 4130 4720 Protein intake at period 1 144 168 192 168 196 224 N0 piglet /litter 12.7 12.3 12.3 12.0 11.3 12.0 LW at born (kg/head) 0.60 0.63 0.71 0.68 0.67 0.73 FCR born to weaned 3.41a 3.82a 4.51b 3.74a 3.95a 4.43b Feed costs (VND /weaned piglet) 8.753 9.806 11.577 9.806 10.357 11.615 Sows at the 3rd to 6th litters ME intake at period 1 3245 3835 4425 3245 3835 4425 Protein intake at period 1 132 156 180 154 182 210 N0 piglet /litter 11.3 11.8 11.8 12.5 11.5 13.0 LW at born (kg/head) 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.70 0.68 0.70 FCR born to wean (kg) 3.46 3.81 4.35 3.29 3.77 3.96 Feed costs (VND /weaned piglet) 8.882 9.780 11.166 8.626 9.885 10.383 Source: Tran Quoc Viet and Ninh Thi Len (2003) Table 4.21.Effect of crude protein and crude fibre levels on performance of weaned piglets Level of CP Level of CF P value 18% 16% 14% 8% 6% CP CF CPx CF Daily gain (g) 490 474 438 468 467 0,17 0,96 0,94 Daily feed intake (kg) 1.04 1.03 1.08 1.04 1.07 0.52 0.44 0.56 FCR 2.15 2.21 2.52 2.27 2.31 0.17 0.81 0.72 Source: Vu Thi Khanh Nguyen et al.(2012) Table 4.22.Effects of CP and lysine levels in pregnant sow’s diets on reproductive performance CP (%) 15 16 17 18 19 Lysine (%) 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 N of piglet at born alive (head) 10.10 10.15 10.15 10.10 10.20 LW at born(kg/head) 1.47 1.48 1.46 1.46 1.46 No of weaned piglet 9.20 9.30 9.40 9.35 9.15 LW at weaning (kg) 6.60b 6.68b 6.83b 7.23a 7.24a Mortality (%) 8.33 7.59 6.69 6.84 9.21 BW lost of sow (%) 8.05 7.41 6.69 6.53 6.17 Feed costs (VND/kg LW piglet) 6.545a 6.402a 6.160ab 5.811c 6.018bc Source: La Van Kinh and Pham Tat Thang (2003) Table 4.23.Effects of CP level and daily feed intake of pregnant sows on reproductive performance ME (kcalkg-1) 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 Protein (%) 14 14 14 14 16 16 16 16 Daily feed intake (kg) 2.0 2.5 3.0 Ad-lib 2.0 2.5 3.0 Ad-lib N of piglet at born alive 11.3 11.7 11.8 11.0 11.4 11.4 11.5 11.8 (head) LW at born(kg/head) 0.56 0.61 0.65 0.58 0.63 0.59 0.59 0.55 No of weaned piglet 10.5 11.2 10.9 11.3 11.4 11.1 11.5 11.2 LW at weaning (kg) 5.8 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3 5.9 5.9 5.8 Feed costs (VND/ weaned 11009 10793 11632 12470 9953 11540 12694 14454 piglet) Source: Tran Quoc Viet and Ninh Thi Len (2003) Table 4.24.Effect of DE and digestible lysine on growth performance of growing pigs (90 – 180 days old) Parameters T1(*) T 2 T 3 SEM P (3400-0.75) (3060-0.68) (2720-0.60) Initial LW(kg) 37.7 36.6 37.2 1.2 0.83 Final LW (kg) 103.5a 97.1b 94.6b 1.4 0.01 Daily gain (g) 731a 672b 637b 16 0.01 Total feed consumed (kg/pig) 184 179 174 5 0.34 FCR 2.81 2.97 3.05 0.09 0.16 Backfat thickness at beginning (mm) 6.45 6.55 6.58 0.25 0.96 Backfat thickness at finishing (mm) 12.58a 11.54ab 11.00b 0.31 0.01 (*)3400-0,75: 3400 kcal DE /kg; 0,75 % digestible lysine Source: Vuong Nam Trung, 2011 Table 4.25.Effect of DE and digestible lysine ratio on sperm quality of boars Parameters T1(*) T2 T3 SEM P (3400-0.75) (3060-0.68) (2720-0.60) Volume V (ml) 142.76 139.78 136.65 7.16 0.83 Activity A (%) 0.75 0.76 0.74 0.01 0.58 Concentration C (million /ml) 267.42 259.54 242.69 7.38 0.07 VAC (billion) 30.57 29.02 26.72 1.59 0.24 K (%) 13.25b 14.08ab 15.70a 0.37 0.01 Source: Vuong Nam Trung, 2011 Part 5. Local and available feed resources for pigs Table 5.1. Mean values for weight gain, feed intake and conversion, for pigs fed a diet of rice by-products as compared with ensiled cassava root and protein supplement plus fresh duckweed (12 pigs per treatment) Control ECR SE/Probability Live weight (kg) Initial 26.3 25.3 Final 92.3 86.6 Daily gain 0.594 0.562 ±0.012/0.08 Feed intake (kg/d) ECR 0 2.65 Duckweed 0 1.77 Supplement 0 0.385 Concentrate 1.92 0 Total DM 1.67 1.54 Feed DM/ADG 2.78 2.76 ±0.05/0.83 Back fat depth (cm) 2.95 2.09 ±0.17/0.002 Source: Bui Hong Van et al. (1997) Table 5.2.Effect of water spinach levels in diets for Ba Xuyen x LW sows on reproductive performance Litter weight (kg) At birth 8.23 6.76 ±0.28/0.004 7.47 7.53 ±0.28/0.89 21 days 26 20.9 ±1.52/0.04 24.5 22.43 ±1.53/0.38 42 days 56.8 43.9 ±3.07/0.01 52.1 48.7 ±3.08/0.47 Mean per piglet (kg) At birth 0.936 0.938 ±0.02/0.96 0.942 0.932 ±0.02/0.73 21 days 3.46 3.54 ±0.17/0.76 3.54 3.46 ±0.17/0.53 42 days 7.55 7.58 ±0.29/0.94 7.66 7.48 ±0.29/0.68 Daily gain in weight (kg) 0-21 days 0.112 0.114 ±0.007/0.80 0.116 0.109 ±0.007/0.53 0-42 days 0.153 0.153 ±0.006/0.98 0.156 0.151 ±0.006/0.60 Total feed DM/kg piglet # At birth 17.1 20.2 ±0.72/0.01 18.5 18.7 ±0.72/0.80 21days 6.28 7.42 ±0.37/0.048 6.55 7.12 ±0.27/0.36 42 days 4.49 5.1 ±0.17/0.028 4.72 4.87 ±0.17/0.56 #Dry matter intake (and litter) up to birth, 21 or 42 days (weaning) of age of litter Source: Le Thi Men et al. (1997) Table 5.3. Effect of protein (groundnut cake and fish meal) supplementsin traditional diet and locations on growth of pigs Item Protein supplement P Village P SE No Yes XL BH Final LW, 45.9 68.2 0.001 57.9 56.2 0.49 1.75 kg ADG, g 204 375 0.001 292 290 0.84 9.5 Source: Nguyen Thi Loc et al. (1997) Table 5.4. Effect of including chopped water spinach (CWS) in the diet on the reproductive performance of BaXuyen and Large White sows Control 30% CWS SE P Litter size Total at birth 9.2 10.2 0.408 0.122 At 35 days 8.5 9.5 0.312 0.053 Live weight per piglet (kg) At birth 1.2 1.3 0.059 0.199 At 35 days 7.5 7.5 0.278 0.935 Litter weight (kg) At birth 10.6 12.9 0.674 0.037 At 35 days 68.4 76.1 1.873 0.020 Piglet mortality (%) 6.85 6.15 3.240 0.881 Sow weight changes Pregnancy gross gain (%) 19.3 21.9 0.672 0.025 Pregnancy net gain (%) 11.9 11.6 1.466 0.760 Weight loss in lactation (%) 10.3 12.0 0.536 0.056 Source: Le Thi Men et al. (2000) Table 5.5. Effect of replacing fermented fish with ensiled groundnut vines (EGV) on the growth performance of fattening pigs Traditional diet EGV50 SE No of pigs 20 20 Days in experiment 150 150 Initial LW (kg) 15.8 16.1 0.17 Final LW (kg) 77.0 79.1 0.78 Daily gain (g/day) 408 421 5.00 FCR, DM kg/kg LW 3.98 3.90 0.04 Feed cost/ kg gain (VND) 10138 7950 Source: Vo Thi Kim Thanh et al. (2000) Table 5.6. The effects of duck weed, Para grass and water spinach supplementation on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention in growing pigs Item Treatment P SE Control Duck weed Para grass Water spinach Digestibility,% DM 697 726 711 738 0,29 14,3 CP 766 768 774 780 0,96 23,3 EE 702 722 674 723 0,48 23,9 NDF 475 502 550 528 0,18 35,4 ADF 385 335 353 329 0,44 16,7 N balance, g /day N intake 53,3c 56,7b 54,3c 60,0a 0,01 0,46 N retention 32,8bc 37,5b 31,6c 43,3a 0,01 1,09 Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung (2005) Table 5.7. Effect of treatment on final live weight (LW), weight gain (WG) and daily gain (ADG) of the pigs Treatment WG, kg/pig ADG, g FCR, Back-fat thickness, kg/kg mm Concentrate 37.0 755 3.50 10.1 Conc. + WH cooked stems 40.5 826 3.64 10.6 Conc. + WH fresh stem 42.0 857 2.99 10.1 Conc. + WH cooked leaves 35.3 719 3.37 11.4 Conc. + WH fresh leaves 39.5 806 3.04 11.0 P-value >0.05 >0.05 >0.05 >0.05 WH: water hyacinth; Source: Nguyen Ba Trung (2006) Table 5.8. Nutrient digestibility (%) of the diets with whole water hyacinth stem and chopped water hyacinth Treatment Item Chopped water SE P Whole water hyacinth hyacinth DM 60.6 68.4 0.170 <0.01 OM 71.5 76.0 0.296 <0.01 CP 69.9 70.7 0.338 0.25 NFE 85.6 91.3 0.338 <0.01 CF 70.8 71.6 0.178 <0.01 Source: Le Thi Men (2006) Table 5.9. Effect of low (LSP) or high (HSP) dietary content of sweet potato leaves on intake of leaves, live weight change (means ±SE) and feed conversion of Mong Cai gilts LSP HSP P Weight gain in pregnancy, % 23.8±8.3 16.6±5.4 0.03 Litter size at birth 13.9± 2.2 13.1 ±1.50 0.35 Time for farrowing, minutes 74.6±21.1 80.2±25.7 0.60 Piglet birth weight, kg 0.67± 0.09 0.63 ± 0.06 0.32 Litter size at weaning 8.7±.95 8.7± 1.57 1.0 Piglet weight at weaning, kg 6.9± 0.83 6.5±0.54 0.17 Weight loss in lactation, % 14.1±3.0 17.6±2.02 0.007 Back fat at farrowing, mm 26.0±2.5 21.2 ± 0.92 0.001 Return to oestrus, days 7.9±1.5 10.5±2.12 0.005 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet (2003) Table 5.10. Effect of Alocasia macrorrhiza root meal processed by different methods on feed intake and growth performance of growing pigs (20 - 50 kg LW) DR RW NH AA CTRL Live weight (kg) Initial 20.7 20.1 20.2 20.5 20.3 Final 49.6 50.7 52.2 51.6 52.3 Feed DM intake (kg) Daily feed intake (g) 1053a 1114ab 1253b 1191b 1264b ADG (g) 413a 437ab 457b 441b 458b FCR (kg feed / kg gain) 4.2a 3.6ab 3.4b 3.5b 3.4b abcMean values within rows without common superscript are different at p<0.05 DR dried roots (not soaked); RW dried roots, after soaking in rice washing water; NH dried roots after soaking in sodium hydroxide; AA dried roots, after soaking in acetic acid. Source: Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2005) Table 5.11. Mean values for feed intake, live weight at slaughter, feed conversion rate and carcass lean percentage in pigs fed Taro leaves and stems in fresh form (FL), cooked (CL) or ensiled (SL) Treatments FL CL SL Probability Slaughter live weight, kg 65.3 c 72.2b 77.4a 0.01 Live weight gain, g/day 443c 498b 541a 0.01 DM intake, kg/day 1.52c 1.58b 1.66a 0.04 DM feed conversion 3.43a 3.18b 3.07c 0.03 Lean meat percentage (%) 46.5b 48.5a 46.1b 0.005 a,b,c, Means with different superscripts within rows are different at P<0.05 Source: Ngo Huu Toan and Preston (2007) Table 5.12. Mean values for content of crude protein (CP) and calcium oxalate in leaves of 3 varieties of Alocasia macrorrhizaensiled with molasses or rice bran (samples taken at days 0 and 21) 4% rice bran 4% molasses CP Calcium oxalate (mg/kg) CP Calcium oxalate (mg/kg) (% in DM) (% in DM) day 0 day 21 day 0 day 21 day 0 day 21 day 0 day 21 WiL 29.5 28.3 69.8 21.6 a 29.3 26.8 69.5 21.8a WaL 27.8 27.2 67.1 15.4 b 27.7 26.7 67.3 15.2b WhL 26.3 25.8 65.7 14.6 b 26.5 25.4 66.1 14.3b ab Values within columns with differing superscript letters are different at P<0.05 Source: Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2007) Table 5.13. Effect of Alocasia macrorrhiza leaves (WaL) on the reproductive performance of Mong Cai sows Control WaL Daily feed intake (kg DM) 2.15 2.23 Piglets born alive/litter 10.3 10.3 Piglets at weaning at 35 days/litter 9.61 9.53 Weight of piglets born alive/litter (kg) 8.37 8.31 Weight of piglets at 35 days weaning /litter (kg) 40.4 40.1 Loss in weight of sows (kg) 16.5 16.7 Feed costs for production of 1 kg piglets at 60 days (VND) 23276a 21143b ab Values within rows with different superscript letters are different at P<0.0 Source: Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2007) Table 5.14. Effect of ensiled Alocasia macrorrhiza leaves on the performance of growing pigs (trial lasted 65 days) EAL0 EAL10 EAL20 EAL30 Final weight, kg 47.8 a 46.1ab 45.7ab 43.3b Daily live weight gain, g 500a 472 ab 468 b 429 c Feed intake, kg/day 1.46 a 1.48a 1.45a 1.38b FCR, kg/kg gain 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Feed cost/kg gain, VND 6138 a 5786 ab 5188 b 5011 b abc Values within rows with different superscript letters differ at P<0.05 Source: Pham Sy Tiep et al. (2007) Table 5.15. Effect of molasses (M) and Hammer-milling (H), and ensiling time, on the crude protein (% in DM) of taro leaves (T) and taro leaves plus stems (TS) Ensiling time, days 0 7 14 30 60 SEM P T 27.84a 27.87a 26.96b 26.43bc 26.01c 0.170 0.001 HT 27.84a 27.66a 26.10b 26.39b 25.50b 0.189 0.001 TM 26.86a 26.86a 25.63b 25.12c 24.87d 0.035 0.001 TS 17.22a 17.18a 16.97a 16.54b 15.98c 0.106 0.001 HTS 17.07a 17.07a 16.65ab 16.27b 15.41c 0.112 0.001 TSM 16.48a 16.42ab 16.05b 15.74c 14.98d 0.084 0.001 SEM: standard error of mean; P: probability abcde: Mean values within rows without common letter are different at p<0.05 T: Taro leaves + 0.5 % NaCl, HT: Same as T but processed by hammer mill after chopping + 0.5 % NaCl, TM: Taro leaves + 4 % molasses + 0.5 % Nacl, TLS: Taro leaves + stem + 0.5 % NaCl, HTS: Same as TLS but processed by hammer mill after chopping + 0.5 % NaCl, TLSM: Taro leaves + stem +4 % molasses + 0.5 % NaCl Source: Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2010) Table 5.16. Mean values (± SE) for reproductive performance of MC sows fed diets with 50 or 100% of soybean meal replaced by Taro leaf and stem silage Item ELS 50 ELS 100 P At birth Litter size 12.60 ± 0.25 11.80 ± 0.58 0.24 Litter weight, kg 8.82 ± 0.14 8.53 ± 0.43 0.49 Average weight, kg 0.70 ± 0.006 0.72 ± 0.009 0.018 At 21 days Litter weight, kg 31.00 ± 1.27 36.76 ± 1.88 0.035 at weaning Litter size 11.00 ± 0.63 11.00 ± 0.45 1.0 Litter weight 79.44 ± 2.24 89.50 ± 2.92 0.026 Average weight 7.27 ± 0.17 8.15 ± 0.07 0.007 Percentage loss in lactation 18.7 ± 1.24 15.5 ± 0.42 0.036 Source: Table 5.17. Mean values for growing and harvesting three species of Giant Taro at household level Bac Cham(Alocasia Quang(Xanthosoma Items Unit Ha(Alocasia Prob. esculenta) violeceum ) odora) Households N 48 37 19 Area planted m2 88.3 63.1 81.9 0.05 First harvest after planting days 51.8a 48.2b 55.9c 0.01 Time for re-harvesting days 5.9 5.8 5.9 0.77 Harvest duration days 141 143 145 0.11 Leaves+stems cut per harvest number 1.58 1.78 1.63 0.15 Leaves+stems in 1 kg number 13 15 15 Stems+leaves harvested kg/plant 0.34 0.32 0.33 0.27 Root yield/ m2 kg 0.35a 0.28b 0.37a 0.01 Stem+leave yield / household kg 1577a 1434b 1292c 0.01 Root yield/ household kg 178a 103b 172a 0.01 a,b,c difference between treatments at P <0.05 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet (2010) Table 5.18. Mean values of lactation traits of Mong Cai sows fed protein supplements of soybean meal (SBM), boiled Giant taro leaves and stems (GT) or a mixture of both (SBM-GT) SBM SBM-GT GT P Litter weight at 21 days, kg 28.3a 29.8a 27.0b 0.02 Sow LW after farrowing, kg 98.2a 89.4b 89.4b 0.01 Sow weight after weaning, kg 91.0a 81.8b 75.0c 0.01 Weight lose in lactation, % 7.31a 10.9b 16.0c 0.01 Time to re-mating, days 7.2a 8.5a 12.7b 0.01 Cycle of reproduction, days 166a 168a 172b 0.01 No of litters/year 2.20a 2.18a 2.12b 0.01 abc Means without common superscript are different at P <0.05 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet (2010) Table 5.19.Effect of replacing fishmeal by a mixture of ensiled taro leaves and sweet potato vines in the gestation and lactation diets on piglet performance of Van Pa sows FM T50 T100 SEM P-value At birth Litter size 6.33 7.33 6.50 0.674 0.505 % Mortality 5.17 9.63 5.72 4.050 0.703 Total litter weight, kg 2.59 3.05 2.98 0.263 0.430 Mean live weight, kg 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.007 0.155 At 21 days Litter size 5.50 6.00 6.17 0.399 0.487 Litter weight, kg 12.74 13.09 12.26 0.706 0.708 % Mortality 2.08 6.25 6.25 3.688 0.661 Piglet live weight, kg 2.32a 2.18ab 2.06b 0.044 0.001 At weaning (45 days) Litter size at weaning 5.50 5.83 5.83 0.319 0.710 Ltter weight at weaning, kg 25.33 24.51 23.28 1.400 0.590 Piglet live weight, kg 4.61a 4.20b 3.98b 0.077 0.001 % mortality, birth to weaning 0.00 2.38 7.25 2.344 0.117 Source: Tran Thanh Hai et al. (2012) Table5.20. Mean values for reproductive performanceof Momg Cai sows fed ensiled mixed banana pseudo-stems and taro foliage replacing rice bran Ensiled banana stems/taro, % as DM replacing rice bran Item SEM P 100 75 50 25 0 LW gain in pregnancy, kg 10.3 15.0 17.0 18.3 18.5 0.38 <0.001 LW at farrowing, kg 60.0 67.3 66.8 70.5 71.8 1.41 <0.001 LW loss during lactation,kg 23.1 19.9 17.3 15.6 15.3 0.46 <0.001 Litter size at birth 11.3 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.8 0.42 0.36 Birth weight, kg 0.545 0.608 0.648 0.660 0.667 0.0074 <0.001 LW at weaning, kg 9.50 9.75 10.0 10.5 9.75 0.24 0.09 Litter size, weaning 6.50 7.45 8.38 8.80 8.98 0.15 <0.001 Days to re-mating 12.0 10.8 7.50 7.00 6.75 0.46 <0.001 Litters/year 2.12 2.15 2.18 2.18 2.18 0.0077 <0.001 Feed DM in lactation, kg/day 2.13 2.85 3.10 3.55 3.73 0.054 <0.001 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet (2013) Table 5.21. Apparent digestibility of organic matter, crude protein and crude fiber, and N retention, in growing pigs fed a combination of maize and rice bran alone (RM) or supplemented with ensiled Taro foliage (leaves + stems) (TS50) with addition of rice wine by-product (TS50WB) or synthetic methionine (TS50M) RM TS50 TS50WB TS50M SEM P Apparent digestibility, % OM 95.3a 88.6 b 88.6 b 88.6 b 0.048 <0.001 CP 73.8a 71.3 a 77.0 a 67.5b 1.90 0.014 CF 48.1 a 58.3ab 65.5 b 53.4 a 3.23 <0.001 Daily N Intake, g 24.0 24.7 24.8 24.6 0.407 0.53 N retention g/day 9.36a 12.8bc 15.4c 11.7ab 0.897 <0.001 % N intake 40.7a 51.9b 61.9c 48.5b 4.02 0.006 % N digested 53.4a 72.4b 80.6c 68.3b 4.62 0.017 ab Means without common letter differ at P<0.05 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Nguyen Trung Kien (2012) Table 5.22. Mean values for daily feed intake and protein, total tract apparent digestibility and N retention for different levels of substitution of fish meal by cassava leaf silage Treatment ECL0 ECL50 ECL75 ECL100 SE/Prob. Dry matter intake, g/day 1,264 1,226 1,251 1,191 42.0/0.62 Protein intake, g/day 156 148 151 127 Protein in DM, % 12.3 12.1 12.1 10.7 Digestibility, % Dry matter 90.1 89.5 87.4 89.6 0.73/0.08 Crude protein 86.6 84.9 80.1 79.6 1.30/0.001 N retention, g/day 14.2 13.8 12.0 9.91 0.74/0.001 Source: Du Thanh Hang (1998) Table 5.23. Effect of including cassava leaf meal and water spinach in the diet on the reproductive performance of sows Control CLM/ WS SE P Litter size At birth 8.9 9.8 0.79 0.43 At weaning (49 days) 7.9 8.2 0.83 0.80 Litter weight (kg) At Birth 6.0 5.8 0.53 0.76 21 days 26.5 27.3 2.49 0.82 Weaning (49 days) 67.6 65.2 5.86 0.77 Weight loss lactation (kg) 11.7 13.7 0.57 0.02 Source: Lam Quang Nga et al. (2000) Table 5.24. Effect of additives and ensiling time on crude protein (% in DM) of cassava leaf silages Time of ensiling, days 0 7 14 21 28 56 Control 29.7 29.5 29.2 29.5 27.4 23.3 M5 28.8 28.7 26.8 26.1 26.3 25.8 M10 25.9 23.9 23.5 23.9 23.3 24.1 CRM5 29.2 29.9 29.5 27.6 28.3 26.5 CRM10 26.8 24.9 24.9 24.5 24.9 24.2 RB5 29.8 29.4 28.2 27.9 27.2 27.2 RB10 27.9 26.7 26.0 25.5 25.8 25.1 Source: Nguyen Thi Loc et al. (2000) Table 5.25. Effects of including ensiled cassava leaves in the diets of growing Mong Cai gilts on reproductive performance Parameter Control ECL10* ECL20* SE/P Live weight, kg Initial 14.2 14.1 14.9 0.39/0.32 At insemination 39.9 40.2 43.8 0.65/0.01 Live weight gain, g/day 284 293 268 7.88/0.12 Litter size At birth 7.00 7.75 6.67 0.74/0.54 At weaning 6.67 7.50 6.67 0.63/0.53 Piglet live weight, kg At birth 0.72 0.72 0.67 0.16/0.04 At weaning 7.25 7.07 6.67 0.20/0.79 * 10 and 20% of ensiled cassava leaves, respectively (DM basis) Source: Nguyen Thi Loc et al. (2000) Table 5.26. Mean value for feed intake, digestibility and N retention of pigs fed cassava leaves and broken rice Fresh cassava Wilted cassava SEM Prob. Intake, g DM/day Cassava leaves 58.5 75.8 5.80 0.080 Total DM 240 259 9.57 0.229 Cassava as % of total DM 23.8 28 2.01 0.198 Digestibility, % DM 89.1 90.9 1.75 0.50 OM 89.7 91.7 1.52 0.40 N 73.9 76.6 5.00 0.72 N Intake, g/day 4.80 5.43 0.25 0.122 N Retention, g/d 1.93 2.16 0.59 0.789 Source: Nguyen Duy Quynh Tram and Preston (2004) Table 5.27. The chemical composition of cassava leaves analysed immediately after collection (fresh), or after washing (W), chopping and washing (CW) or chopping, washing and wilting 24 hours (CWW) Fresh W CW CWW SEM/P Dry matter (%) 26.3 19.4 20.1 40.2 0.20/0.001 HCN (mg/kg DM) 1427 1202 1124 252 110/0.001 % reduction 100 16 21 82 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2005) Table 5.28. Mean values for intake of fresh cassava leaves in growing pigs according to the processing of the leaves (Chopped washed, Washed and Chopped washed wilted) CW W CWW SEM/P Intake of cassava leaves, g/day Fresh 1277 1228 687 DM 248 247 277 13.6/0.22 Contribution of cassava leaves in the diet, % Of total DM 38.6 38.27 37.3 2.21/0.909 Of total protein 73.6 71.1 71.2 1.93/0.594 CP in diet DM, % 14.8 14.7 14.5 0.493/0.909 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2005) Table 5.29. pH, dry matter and HCN concentration in ensiled cassava roots Days ensiled DM (%) pH HCN (mg/kg fresh HCN (% of initial HCN content) silage) 0 37.5 5.6 112 100 30 37.8 4.1 77 69 60 37.4 3.8 59 53 90 37.7 3.8 51 46 120 37.3 3.8 44 41 150 37.4 3.8 39 35 Source: Nguyen Thi Loc and Le Khac Huy (2003) Table 5.30. Effect of DL-methionine (M) supplementation levels on live weight gain and feed conversion ratio Control 0.1%M 0.2%M 0.3%M SEM/Prob. Initial live weight, kg 20.0 19.9 19.6 20.0 0.153/0.15 Final live weight, kg 88.2 93.3 97.5 95.4 0.371/0.001 Daily gain, g/day 568d 611c 649a 628b 2.89/0.001 Feed intake (kg/day) 2.09 2.12 2.09 2.10 0.015/0.42 Feed /kg LWG (kg) 3.67d 3.47c 3.21a 3.34b 0.030/0.001 Feed /kg LWG (VND) 8,367 7,937 7,651 8,086 61.5/0.001 abcd Means without letter in common are different at P<0.05 Source: Nguyen Thi Loc and Le Khac Huy (2003) Table5.31. Effect of washing, wilting and ensiling on DM and HCN concentration Fresh leaves Washing Wilting Ensiling SEM P DM (%) 24.1 18.8 51.6 32.8 1.58 0.001 CP (% in DM) 27.8 27.7 27.5 25.7 0.56 0.033 HCN (mg/kg DM) 1491 1183 373 356 120 0.001 Reduction in HCN (%) 0 19 74 76 Source: Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2006) Table5.32. Effect of supplementary DL-methionine on live weight gain (LWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) Item Control FCL FCL+0.1 FCL+0.2 SEM P Dry matter intake (kg/day) 1.62 1.62 1.6 1.49 0.033 0.012 Crude protein intake (g/day) 26.9 27.3 28.3 27.3 1.13 0.8 Initial weight (kg) 85.1 71.3 77.4 86.7 1.495 0.001 Final weight (kg) 0.73 0.55 0.61 0.74 0.014 0.001 LWG (kg/day) FCR (kg) 2.81 3.83 3.38 2.66 0.138 0.001 Back fat (cm) 3.63 b 2.80 a 2.90 a 2.93 a 0.007 0.131 Loin eye area (cm2) 28.5 b 27.0 ab 28.5 b 28.5 b 0.014 0.288 Thyroid gland (g) 33.9 32.8 34.1 36.9 0.253 0.253 FCL: fresh cassava leaves Source Du Thanh Hang and Preston (2006). Table5.33.Effects of inclusion level of CLM on feed intake of sows and weight changes during the experiment Item CLM0 CLM10 CLM20 CLM30 SEM No of piglets born/litter 9.9 12.7 11.2 11.7 0.92 No of weaned pigs/litter 8.5a 10.1 b 9.2 a 9.4 a 0.35 Birth weight (kg/litter) 15.5 17.6 16.9 16.6 1.34 Birth weight (kg/piglet) 1.6 1.4 1.7 1.4 0.07 Weaning weight/litter (kg) 54.0 61.6 56.8 61.4 3.1 Weaning weight (kg/piglet) 6.2 6.1 6.2 6.6 0.22 Weight loss, kg 20.0 19.9 18.1 17.3 3.4 Source: Bui Huy Nhu Phuc và Brian Ogle (2005) Table 5.34. Mean values for main effects of ensiled versus fresh cassava leaves and levels of supplementary methionine (M) DL-methionine Item Cassava supplementation (%) Silage Fresh SEM P 0 0.1 0.2 SEM P Daily gain 0.578 0.657 0.010 0.001 0.540 0.599 0.712 0.012 0.001 DM intake, g/day 1.97 2.05 0.057 0.36 2.04 2.01 1.97 0.070 0.79 FCR 3.45 3.19 0.11 0.10 3.79 3.37 2.79 0.13 0.001 Liver, kg 1.39 1.61 0.025 0.006 1.59 1.46 1.46 0.035 0.060 Loin area, cm2 27.1 28.0 0.221 0.012 27.8 27.2 27.6 0.300 0.350 Back fat, cm 2.99 2.88 0.057 0.196 3.24 2.90 2.66 0.080 0.007 Thyroid, g 32.2 34.6 0.688 0.031 35.6 31.5 33.2 0.900 0.030 Source: Du Thanh Hang (2009) Table 5.35. Effects of inclusion of cassava leaf meal (CLM) on feed intake of sows and weight changes during the experiment Item CLM0 CLM10 CLM20 CLM30 SEM Feed intakes, kg/day Pregnancy 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 0.01 Lactation 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.1 0.04 Live weight, kg Gestation At 21-day gestation 194 193 191 200 7.7 At 107-day gestation 235 233 230 238 6.9 Daily gain 40.6 40.0 39.5 38.3 3.2 Lactation At farrowing 221 217 216 219 7.2 At weaning 201 197 198 201 6.3 Weight loss for lactation 20.0 19.9 18.1 17.3 3.4 % Weight loss 9.05 9.17 8.38 7.25 Source: Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (2005) Table5.36. Effect of L-lysine and DL - methionine supplementation level in the diet on the growth and economic performance of crossbred growing pigs Item LowAA MediumAA HighAA Very highAA SEM P-value Live weight, kg Initial 20.1 20.0 20.8 19.6 0.426 0.247 Final 68.8a 72.6a 80.3b 74.2a 1.522 0.000 Daily gain 0.537a 0.584a 0.660b 0.604b 0.017 0.001 DM intake (kg/day) 1.60a 1.59a 1.71b 1.64ab 0.018 0.001 FCR (kg DM/kg LWG) 2.99a 2.73b 2.59b 2.72b 0.058 0.001 Feed cost (VND/kg LWG) 6 482 6 269 6 193 6 692 145.4 0.099 Source: Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly và Le Duc Ngoan (2005) Table5.37. Effect of including ensiled cassava leaves in diet on the performance of growing pigs Control ECL10 ECL15 ECL20 SEM P Live weight, kg Initial 23.2 23.3 23.9 23.7 0.52 0.688 Final 75.1 73.5 72.0 71.1 2.37 0.655 Daily gain, g/day 577 557 534 517 22.7 0.287 Feed DM intake (kg/day) 1.57 1.57 1.56 1.57 0.04 1.000 FCR (kg DM/kg LWG) 2.73 2.86 2.99 3.06 0.189 0.632 Feed cost (VND*/kg LWG) 7852 7225 7121 6767 483.7 0.472 Source: Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly (2006) Table5.38. Effects of inclusion of CLM in the diets on the performance of growing pigs CLM0 CLM5 CLM10 CLM15 SEM DWG, g/day 846 804 801 770 20.5 FCR 2.58 2.72 2.73 2.95 0.09 Feed intake, kg/day 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.27 0.07 Carcass dressing % 76.0 76.4 75.4 76.0 2.39 Loin eye area (cm 2) 31.9 32.9 38.3 40.6 3.7 Back fat thickness (mm) 15.3 13.0 12.3 11.6 1.65 Source: Bui Huy Nhu Phuc và Brian Ogle (2005) Table5.39.Effect of CLM in the diets on the performance of growing pigs CLM0 CLM4 CLM8 CLM12 SEM Carcass dressing, % 77.6 79.1 78.6 79.4 2.7 Loin eye area (cm 2) 17.0 15.5 13.7 12.2 1.4 Backfat thickness (mm) 55.3 57.0 57.5 58.5 4.5 Weight gain, g/day 545 572 548 570 15.6 FCR 3.24 3.24 3.27 3.33 0.09 Feed intake, kg/day 1.76 1.85 1.80 1.90 0.09 Source: Bui Huy Nhu Phuc and Brian Ogle (2005) Table 5.40. Effect of using ensiled cassava leaves (ECL) on growth performance of pigs SP ECL SE P Days in experiment 90 90 Initial live weight, kg 18.2 20.2 0.744 0.086 Final live weight, kg 53.6 55.3 0.833 0.187 Daily gain, g 394 390 8.075 0.755 FCR, DM kg/kg gain 3.57 3.61 0.075 0.669 Feed costs/kg gain (VND) 8951 7550 % as control diet 100 84 (Sweet potatoes vines: 500 VND/kg; Fish meal: 7.500 VND/kg; Rice bran: 2000 VND/kg; Fresh cassava roots: 300 VND/kg, Ensiled cassava leaves: 200 VND/kg) Source: Nguyen Thi Loc (2007) Table 5.41. Effect of using Trichantera gigantea on growth performance of pigs SP TG SE P No. of pigs 9 9 Days in experiment 120 120 Initial live weight, kg 9.3 9.1 0.482 0.810 Final live weight, kg 56.2 57.5 0.832 0.293 Daily gain, g 391 403 5.577 0.141 FCR, DM kg/kg gain 3.39 3.38 0.047 0,934 Feed costs/kg gain (VND) 9854 8786 % of control diet 100 89 (Rice bran: 2000 VND/kg; Sweet potato vices: 1000 VND/kg; Trichantera gigantea: 500 VND/kg; Ensiled cassava roots: 500 VND/kg; Fish meal: 9000 VND/kg). Source: Nguyen Thi Loc (2007) Table5.42. Effect of ensiling process and addition of microorganism on nutritive value of cassva byproduct and rice bran Micro-organisms Fermentation days AS+SC SEM AS AS+SC P 0 7 14 21 p +LB Cassava byproduct CP 8.81 9.39 9.68 0.001 3.52 7.21b 8.45c 12.2d <0.001 0.106 NDF 45.5 44.7 43.5 0.058 61.0 50.0b 43.5c 40.2d <0.001 0.515 ADF 19.3 19.3 19.6 0.21 23.7 22.6 13.5 22.1 0.39 0.3 CF 14.1 14.0 14.3 0.2 17.3 15.2b 10.2c 17.0d <0.001 0.4 Rice bran CP 17.7 17.5 17.9 0.33 13.9 17.6 17.7 17.9 0.54 0.18 NDF 35.1 35.2 33.8 <0.001 39.3 37.1b 33.7c 33.3c <0.001 0.17 ADF 13.6 13.5 13.4 0.72 14.6 13.8 13.2 13.5 0.081 0.163 CF 9.89 10.1 10.6 0.078 10.9 9.57b 10.8c 10.2c 0.004 0.18 Cassava pulp?? CP 31.8 30.4 32.1 0.25 11.3 28.9b 31.5c 33.8c 0.003 0.72 NDF 29.3 30.7 29.3 0.045 24.9 32.5b 28.8c 28.0 <0.001 0.37 ADF 21.9 22.7 23.3 0.58 24.6 22.0 22.9 23.0 0.14 0.51 CF 15.4 14.8 15.4 0.91 21.2 16.7b 14.8c 14.0c <0.001 0.28 Source: Trần Thị Thu Hồng et al. (2013) Table5.43.Effect of ensiled cassava byproduct and cassava byproduct on growth performance of growing pigs Index Control ECB CB SEM p Initial LW, kg 27.5 26.5 26.8 0.34 0.64 Final LW, kg 57.8a 55.3a 50.8b 0.27 0.041 Daily gain, g/day 423a 410a 343b 11 <0.001 Daily feed intake, kg DM 1.78a 1.73a 1.51b 0.021 <0.01 FCR 4.12a 4.20a 4.35b 0.027 <0.001 Source: Nguyen Van Phong (2013) Table 5.44. Effect of replacing fish meal by fish silage (EFB) on the daily feed intake, growth rates and feed conversion ratio of growing-fattening pigs Ctrl EFB50 EFB100 Number of pigs 8 8 8 Dry matter intake (kg/pig/day) 1.8 1.6 1.5 Daily weight gain (g/pig/day) 602a 509b 446c FCR 3.0 3.2 3.4 abc Means within rows with different superscripts differ (P<0.05) Source: Le Van Lien et al. (2000) Table5.45.Effect of cassava meal (CM) on performance and carcass characteristics Diets SE P CM0 CM25 CM50 Weight gain, g/day 575ª 637b 587ab 13.203 0.034 DM intake, kg/day 1.74 1.83 1.76 0.025 0.083 Crude protein, g/day 311 315 293 4.583 0.094 FCR 3.17a 3.01b 3.15ab 0.040 0.036 Feed cost/kg LW gain, VND 18,000 15,500 15,000 Backfat thickness (mm): 15.7 16.8 16.2 0.866 0.693 Iod index in back fat 53.7ª 51.5b 48.9c 0.494 0.001 C12:0 fat (%) 0.16ª 0.50b 0.78b 0.052 0.027 C14:0 fat (%) 1.38ª 2.09b 2.62b 0.080 0.016 Source: LeThi Men (2010) Table5.46. Effect of cassava byproduct on milk quality of sows Index CBO CBO3 CBO6 CBO9 SEM P Average milk yield (kg/day) 6.38 7.24 7.18 7.25 0.32 0.20 Milkcomposition (%) - DM 17.3 17.3 17.4 17.5 0.06 0.10 - CP 5.13 5.10 5.20 5.16 0.03 0.18 - EE 6.11a 6.35b 6.42b 6.73c 0.05 <0.001 - Lactose 5.25 5.32 5.38 5.33 0.03 0.06 - Milk engergy (MJ/kg) 5.04 5.05 5.12 5.09 0.02 0.05 Fatty acid composition (mg/g milk) C12:0 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.015 0.68 C14:0 4.10 4.20 4.30 4.28 0.06 0.15 C16:0 15.9 16.1 16.2 16.6 0.19 0.17 C16:1 8.91 8.48 8.73 7.60 0.45 0.20 C18:0 3.13a 3.20a 3.33b 3.39b 0.03 <0.001 C18:1 16.0a 15.5b 15.5b 15.3b 0.10 <0.001 C18:2 5.93a 6.40b 6.67c 6.89d 0.04 <0.001 C18:3 0.89a 1.07b 1.24c 1.40d 0.017 <0.001 C20:5, n-3 EPA 0.15a 1.18b 1.34c 1.68d 0.019 <0.001 C22:5, n-3 DPA 0.23a 0.32b 0.36c 0.39c 0.009 <0.001 C22:6, n-3 DHA 0.24a 1.70b 1.92c 2.09d 0.02 <0.001 Source: Nguyen Thi Thuy and Preston (2012) Table5.47. Effect of cassava root meal (CRM) on performance and backfat thickness of finishing pigs SEM P Monitoring Index 0CRM 33CRM 66CRM 100CRM Daily weight gain, g 681 691 730 736 31.1 0.518 Daily feed intake, kg 2.24 2.29 2.27 2.23 0.04 0.687 FCR 3.31 3.34 3.14 3.04 0.12 0.235 Backfat thickness, mm 15.2 16.0 15.6 16.2 0.472 0.553 Source: Le Thi Men (2005) Table5.48.Effect of replacing FM by tofu residues Percentage of soybean residues replacing FM (%) 0 33 66 99 SEM P N balance, g/day Intake 15.4 15.5 15.7 15.9 In faeces 1.7a 2.6b 3.2b 4.5c 0.3 0.001 In urine 7.7b 6.4b 4.5a 4.5a 0.5 0.002 Retention 6.0 6.6 8.0 6.9 0.6 0.120 Digestility of N 43.7a 50.8a 64.3b 60.2b 3.9 0.013 N retent and N digested, % 39.0 42.5 51.1 43.2 3.6 0.160 Source: Tran Thi Thu Hong, 2003 Table5.49.Effect of cassava meal (CM) and cassava byproduct (CB) proportions on DG, carcass characteristics and fatty acid compositions in fat of growing pigs Diets CRTL 25(CM+CB) 50(CM+CB 75(CM+CB) 100(CM+ SEM P ) CB) Daily gain, g/d 768 785 835 794 781 21.12 0.219 SlaughtedLW, kg 92.8 93.5 94.7 93.8 93.3 1.10 0.769 Carcass dressing, % 72.9 73.1 73.5 72.9 72.5 0.39 0.560 Backfat thickness (mm) 15.1a 14.2abc 13.6b 14.3abc 14.8ac 0.26 0.016 Loin area, cm2 53.0a 54.2ab 55.5b 53.8ab 53.1ab 0.54 0.045 Iodine in blood index 58.5a 57.6ab 56.6bc 55.8c 54.68d 0.26 0.047 C12:0 (%) 0.07a 0.16ab 0.23b 0.25b 0.33c 0.01 0.011 C14:0 (%) 1.32a 1.37a 1.68b 1.70b 1.89c 0.01 0.016 C16:0 (% 21.45a 21.53a 21.70b 21.74b 22.06c 0.01 0.027 Source: Le Thi Men, 2012 Table5.50.The effect of replacement of protein from fishmealby catfish’s by-products meal or/and ensiledcatfish by-products in diets for growing pigs Diets Parameters Fishmeal Catfish’s by-products Ensiledcatfish by-products Ileal digestibility OM 78,4 77,0 78,4 CP 73,2 73,1 74,9 EE 64,0 67,0 67,8 Daily feed intake, g 1.278 1.272 1.267 N retention, g/d 12,3 12,4 13,7 Source: Nguyen Thi Thuy (2010) Table 5.51. Effect of genotypes and diets on performance and digestibility of Mong Cai and Large White pigs Intake, LW gain, FCR Digestibility, % kg DM/day g/day DM OM NDF N Genotype Mong Cai 1.36 273 4.78 71.7 72.8 77.6 82.9 Large White 2.09 533 3.97 72.3 72.1 75.1 86.2 SE 0.28** 32** 0.23* 3.5 3.8 3.5 2.4 Diet Control 1.45 377 4.15 70.7 70.6 79.1 84.8 Rubber seed 2.01 429 4.60 73.2 73.3 73.6 84.3 SE 0.37+ 132 0.41 3.3 3.3 3.4 2.7 + P<0.10; * P<0.05; ** P<0.01 Source: Nguyen Thi Thuy and Ly (2002) Table 5.52. Effect of shrimp by-products to cassava root meal ratio on pH, dry matter (DM), crude protein (N*6.25) and ammonia N (NH3-N) in ensiled shrimp by-products Days Parameter Treatment 0 7 14 21 28 56 SE P pH SBSCA 3:1 8.4 7.6 8.2 - - - 0.07 0.001 SBSCA 2:1 8.4 7.5 8.1 - - - 0.12 0.004 SBSCA 1:1 8.2a 4.2b 4.1b 4.1b 4.2b 4.3b 0.08 0.001 DM,% SBSCA 3:1 29.6 26.3 25.3 - - - 0.14 0.001 SBSCA 2:1 31.5 27.0 25.6 - - - 0.26 0.001 SBSCA 1:1 36.6a 35.0b 33.9c 34.2c 37.9d 36.2d 0.54 0.001 N*6.25,% SBSCA 3:1 29.9 30.9 28.7 - - - 0.56 0.109 SBSCA 2:1 19.1 21.2 19.5 - - - 0.56 0.072 SBSCA 1:1 12.4a 12.0a 13.1b 14.0c 13.4b 12.1a 0.10 0.001 NH3-N, SBSCA 3:1 1.3 31.4 39.1 - - - 0.76 0.001 % of total N SBSCA 2:1 1.8 29.3 35.1 - - - 0.33 0.001 SBSCA 1:1 2.1a 10.9b 12.5c 11.9bc 11.0b 13.2c 0.25 .0001 SBSCA 3:1, etc.: Ratios of shrimp by-product to cassava root meal on a fresh weight and air-dry weight basis, respectively. a-d: Means without common superscript are different (P<0.05) Source: Le Duc Ngoan et al (2000) Table 5.53. Mean values for weigh gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio for growing and finishing pigs fed increasing levels of Rice distillers' waste as replacement for fish meal (% as CP) Item Treatment (% rice distillers as CP) Control R25 R50 R75 R100 Prob. Growing phase Daily gain, kg 0.536 0.542 0.558 0.569 0.558 0.58 Total DM, kg/day 1.57 1.59 1.64 1.59 1.65 FCR 2.93 2.94 2.95 2.80 2.97 0.83 Finishing phase Daily gain, kg 0.580 0.571 0.560 0.550 0.570 0.55 Total DM, kg/day 2.13 2.10 2.20 2.04 2.25 0.64 FCR 3.67 3.67 3.92 3.73 3.69 0.84 Carcass weight, kg 73.85 69.75 72.4 62.2 77.05 0.12 Loin eye area, cm2 42.3 40.6 40.3 42.6 47.5 0.21 Backfat thickness, cm 2.02 2.7 2.02 2.28 2.58 0.36 Source: Luu Huu Manh (2003) Table5.54. Effect of replacing FM by brewers (B30, B60 and B100) as a protein content on performance and Control B30 B60 B100 P Growing phase Initital LW, kg 20.3 20.0 20.3 20.3 Final LW, kg 52.3 52.5 49.7 48.1 Weight gain, g/d 0.533a 0.541ab 0.490bc 0.463bc 0.01 Daily intake, kg DM 1.67c 1.55b 1.46ab 1.33a 0.01 FCR (in DM) 3.13a 2.86b 2.98b 2.87b 0.01 Fattening phase Initial LW, kg 45.3 46.7 44.3 44.33 Final LW, kg 88.7 89.6 81.0 74.3 Weight gain, g/d 0.722a 0.716a 0.611b 0.500c 0.01 Daily intake, kg DM 2.26a 2.26a 2.13ab 1.93b 0.01 FCR 3.14a 3.18a 3.49ab 3.87b 0.01 Source: Luu Huu Manh (2003) Table5.55. Effect of brewers on growth performance and villi height and width of weaned piglets Treatments SEM P value Control 15% wort 30% wort LW, kg 7.13 7.25 7.16 0.11 0.739 Weight gain, g/d 527 546 519 8.43 0.141 FCR 2.61a 2.23b 2.33b 0.03 0.001 Villus height (mm) Duodenal 237a 423b 334c 9.86 0.000 Jejunal 294a 381b 241c 10.93 0.000 Ileum 263a 276a 224b 7.17 0.000 Villus width (mm) Duodenal 121a 151b 145b 5.26 0.000 Jejunal 156a 142b 125c 4.17 0.000 Ileum 92a 138b 134b 4.28 0.000 Source: Dao Thi Phuong (2010). Table 5.56. Effect of "A" molasses on the performance of growing pigs Control Molasses SEmean (Prob) Daily gain, kg 0.551 0.538 0.031 (0.79) Feed intake, kg/day Molasses - 1.18 Supplement 0.99 Total DM 2.06 1.84 Feed conversion, kg DM/kg gain 3.74 3.42 0.20 (0.36) Cost of feed, Dong/kg # 415 488 Cost of feed/kg gain 1651 1992 Source: Bui Hong Van and Le Thi Men (1990) Table 5.57. Mean values of growth and carcass parameters (3 replicates of 2 pigs/treatment; 126 day trial) Treatment Item SE/Prob Control Dehydrated cane juice "A" molasses Daily gain, kg 0.497 0.527 0.484 0.01/0.920 Intake (kg DM/d) 1.86 1.93 2.35 0.03/0.001 FCR 3.75 3.68 4.97 0.17/0.005 Carcass dressing (%) 72.4 74.0 72.2 1.30/0.59 Back fat (mm) 27.1 28.7 28.7 1.73/0.75 Iodine index 87.1 61.6 62.4 1.27/0.001 Source: Bui Huy Nhu Phuc (1993) Table 5.58. Effect of dietary protein levels(L, M and H) in gestation and lactation on reproductive performance of Mong Cai sows LP MP HP P (LP- P P MP) (LP-HP) (MP-HP) Piglets born 9.0 ±1.87 11.2± 2.17 10.6 ± 1.82 NS NS NS Piglet born alive 9.0 ± 1.87 10.0± 1.22 10.4 ± 1.52 NS NS NS Birth weight (g) 617± 30.0 695 ± 38.0 728±54.0 * * NS Litter size at weaning 7.8 ± 1.1 9.0 ± 1.0 9.2± 0.4 NS NS NS Piglet weaning weight, kg 6.4 ± 0.4 8.5± 0.9 8.2± 0.7 ** ** NS LW lost in lactation, % 31 18 16 * * NS Mortality, birth to weaning, % 13.3 10.0 11.5 Source: Hoang Nghia Duyet and Nguyen Thi Loc (2000) Table 5.59. Effect of protein level in the diet on the growth performance and economic return of crossbred growing pigs Low Medium High Very high SEM Prob. Protein Protein Protein Protein Final LW, kg 67.8 69.6 74.2 70.9 2.32 0.293 Daily gain, kg 0.535 0.560 0.608 0.576 0.024 0.217 Daily intake, kg DM 1.50 1.57 1.59 1.57 0.038 0.951 FCR 2.91 2.80 2.63 2.73 0.093 0.213 Feed cost * 6693a 6278b 6887a 7397a 243 0.030 *VND/ kg live weight gain; ab Means with different superscripts within rows are different at P<0.05 Source: Nguyen Thi Hoa Ly et al. (2003) Table 5.60. Effect of breed and foliage(L) on reproductive performance in MC and LW sows MC Y 0L 50L 100L 0L 50L 100L Size at birth 0.6 0.3 0.3 Weight at birth 0.15 0.29 0.22 0.3a 0.43a 0.7b Weight 21 days, kg b 0.8a 0.8a a a b No. Piglets weaned 0.27 0.00 0.33 0.58 0.0 LW at weaning, kg a a b 1.4a a b Total feedconsumed, kg 344 11.4 338 5.6 320 4.0 428 1.0 427 4.7 409 1.9 FCR 4.3 0.07a 4.4 0.08a 5.1 0.11b 4.6 0.06a 4.8 0.15a 5.5 0.12b Feeds costed, VND kg-1 13 628a 11 723b 10 804b 14 787a 12 908b 11 787b LW loss in lactation, % a a b a a 0.5b a,b Means within row and breed with different superscripts are different at P<0.05 Source: Table 5.61. Effect of oil supplementation on diets contained cassava root meal (CRM) and byproducts (CB) on performance of growing pigs CRM- OIL0 CB- OIL0 CRM- OIL5 CB- OIL10 Item Prob. SEM Initial LW, kg 57.8 57.3 57.6 57.3 0.986 1.102 Final LW, kg 92.4 85.5 94 89.3 0.128 2.672 Daily gain, g 685ab 598a 715b 634ab 0.032 29.448 FCR 2.9 3.1 2.85 3.04 0.24 0.087 Carcass dressing, % 77.7 77.7 77.3 77.4 0.98 0.88 Loin eye area, cm2 46.7 45.2 47.5 45.6 0.99 4.88 Backfat thickness, cm 2.2 2.17 1.93 2.37 0.09 0.18 ab Means in the same row without letter in common differ at P<0.05 Source: Le Thi Men (2003) Table 5.62. Effects of microbial enzymes, lactic acid bacteriaand Saccharomyces complexes on average daily feed intake (ADFI, g/pig/day), average daily weight gain (ADG, g/pig/day), feed conversion ratio (FCR, kg feed/kg gain) total tract digestibility (%) of weaned pigs Treatment Item SEM P value C E LY LYE ADFI 620 626 621 624 4.62 0.79 ADG 380a 401ab 420b 422b 8.09 0.001 FCR 1.63a 1.56ab 1.48b 1.48b 0.02 0.002 Total tract digestibility (%) Period 12 Crude protein 80.6a 84.8b 85.7b 85.9b 0.37 <0.001 Crude fibre 58.0a 61.8b 61.5b 62.0b 0.44 0.001 Organic matter 80.0a 83.0b 84.0b 84.2b 0.31 <0.001 Period 23 Crude protein 83.6a 85.0b 86.4c 86.6c 0.24 <0.001 Crude fibre 62.7 63.0 63.3 63.3 0.66 0.90 Organic matter 82.1a 83.7a 85.9b 85.8b 0.35 <0.001 * Piglets were weaned at 21-24 days of age. a, b Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). Control: Basal diet without antibiotics or probiotics. E: Basal diet + microbial enzymes (amylase, protease, cellulase, β-glucanase and xylanase). LY: Basal diet + mixture of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) complex and yeast (Enterococcus faecium 6H2, Lactobacillus acidophilus C3, Pediococcus pentosaceus D7, and Saccharomyces boulardii Sb). LYE: Basal diet + LAB-yeast complex + enzyme mixture. Source: Hoang Huong Giang et al. (2010) Table 5.63. Mean numbers (with SD) of aerobic microbes, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella+Shigella (as 106/g) in faeces of piglets from the different experimental groups Trials Microbes Age days of piglets 5 15 25 35 45 0g Total aerobes 4059 431 483 826 371 ±1167 ±124 ±154 ±201 ±61 E. coli 175.98 59.92 121.53 335.34 96.59 ±58.21 ±19.46 ±43.36 ±130.46 ±24.35 Sal.+ Shi 357.41 20.27 51.44 57.32 19.12 ±133.29 ±12.65 ±27.96 ±20.33 ±7.30 20g Total 463.06 3368.02 865.95 588.94 485.22 Aerobes ±121.16 ±408.95 ±127.28 ±88.44 ±148.5 E. coli 111.68 276.14 272.43 247.15 170.13 ±45.53 ±72.83 ±79.89 ±58.15 ±56.43 Sal.+ Shi 112.04 196.32 49.23 92.93 14.5 ±42.21 ±45.86 ±11.65 ±30.43 ±5.56 40g Total 184.51 360.14 375.28 114.77 389.76 Aerobes ±33.82 ±100.62 ±41.78 ±41.27 ±69.13 E. coli 22.37 139.92 90.82 52.99 203.42 ±4.88 ±65.26 ±18.09 ±28.94 ±50.28 Sal.+ Shi. 5.2 13.27 15.40 14.65 28.21 ±1.05 ±4.06 ±3.67 ±9.00 ±6.76 Source: Pham Hong Son et al. (2003) Table 5.64. Effect of fresh (FG) and dried garlic (DG) on performance of pigs Control DG FG SEM P Daily feed intake, kg 1.82 2.15 1.79 0.10 0.05 FCR 3.01 2.93 2.86 0.13 0.70 Average daily gain 0.60 0.74 0.63 0.05 0.17 Backfat thickness, mm 13.75 13.5 14.75 0.89 0.59 Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2010) Table 5.65. Effect of turmeric (T), and turmeric and garlic (TG) on performance of pigs Control T0.5 TG0.05 T0.1 TG0.1 SEM P Daily feed intake 1.92 2.18 2.11 1.89 1.94 0.08 0.11 FCR 3.06 3.10 2.76 3.13 3.01 0.44 0.97 ADG 0.63 0.73 0.76 0.64 0.72 0.07 0.53 Backfat thickness, mm 13.90 13.95 12.35 16.3 12.68 1.15 0.18 Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2010) Table 5.66. Effect of enzyme phytase supplementation on nutrient digestibility and N and P retention Items CTL PHY CAR PHY-CAR SEM Digestibility, % DM 73.5a 74.5a 76.3b 76.7b 0.31 CP 79.0 79.6 79.6 79.5 0.19 NDF 42.1a 43.8a 46.3b 46.7b 0.49 P 46.5a 61.6b 47.4a 64.1b 1.58 Retention (%) P 46.4a 61.6b 47.4a 64.1b 1.58 N 69. 8a 70.7ab 71.7bc 72.1c 0.37 a, b, c Values within the row without common superscript are different at P<0.05 Source: N T Long et al. (2010) Table 5.67. Mean values for weight gain, backfat thickness and Iodine value for growing and finishing pigs fed increasing levels of coconut cakemeal as replacement of fish meal (as protein basic) Treatment Item CMO CM25 CM50 P Daily gain, g 575a 637b 587ab 0.034 Backfat thickness, mm 15.7 16.8 16.2 0.693 Iodine value 53.7a 51.5b 48.9c 0.001 C12:0 of fat (%) 0.16a 0.5b 0.78b 0.027 C14:0 of fat (%) 1.38a 2.09b 2.62b 0.016 Source: Le Thi Men (2006) Table 5.68. Chemical composition of Tithonia diversifolia and Taro (TD) with or without molasses No additive Molasses P- value 25TD 50TD 75TD 25TD 50TD 75TD TD Additive TD*Additive DM, % 0 day 18.25 19.04 18.50 18.27 19.65 19.58 0.06 0.12 0.46 7 day 14.95 16.61 17.88 18.17 18.72 18.40 0.01 0.001 0.04 21 day 11.02 13.66 17.31 15.29 17.88 18.15 0.001 0.001 0.001 CP, % DM 0 day 19.87 19.84 19.93 19.58 19.87 19.87 0.90 0.740 0.90 7 day 19.48 20.21 19.96 20.64 21.00 20.80 0.39 0.001 0.58 21 day 18.92 19.34 19.80 20.51 21.13 21.26 0.03 0.001 0.82 Lactic acid, % in DM 0 day 0.76 0.45 0.27 2.86 2.55 2.37 0.001 0.001 1.00 7 day 1.80 1.27 0.94 3.62 3.30 2.81 0.001 0.001 0.60 21 day 4.31 1.43 0.75 6.41 3.68 3.16 0.001 0.001 0.34 Oxalate#, g/100g DM 0 day 2.50 1.87 1.50 2.40 1.87 1.56 0.001 0.71 0.19 7 day 1.63 1.59 1.32 1.25 1.46 1.40 0.001 0.001 0.001 21 day 1.43 1.23 0.96 1.14 1.12 1.00 0.001 0.001 0.001 #As (COO)2 Source: Nguyen Thị Hong Nhan et al. (2011) Table 5.69. Mean values for feed intake, apparent coefficients of digestibility and changes in live weight for pigs fed a conventional diet with substitution of up to 20% by silage of mixed Tithonia; Taro (TTS) 0TTS 10TTS 15TTS 20TTS SEM P Feed intake, kg/day DMI, kg/day 2.18a 2.16a 2.07ab 1.99b 0.03 0.013 CPI, kg/day 0.346a 0.343a 0.328ab 0.314b 0.004 0.01 Apparent digestibility, % DM 78.0a 77.6a 76.9a 75.1b 0.29 0.001 OM 79.0a 78.2ab 77.7b 76.4c 0.18 0.001 CP 70.0a 68.4ab 68.2ab 66.2b 0.52 0.013 NDF 57.4 56.9 54.3 55.1 0.7 0.061 Live weight, kg Initial 64.2 64.5 64.6 64.8 0.25 0.09 Final 74.6 74.5 74.2 73.9 0.18 0.86 Daily gain 0.697a 0.668ab 0.640ab 0.608b 0.01 0.02 abc Mean values within rows without common superscript are different at P<0.05 Source: Nguyen Thị Hong Nhan et al. (2011) Table5.70.Effect of ensiled sweet potato in diets on performance of growing pigs Ensiled sweet potato level (%) 26 22 19 Initial weight (kg) 17.86 17.47 16.97 Final weight (kg) 67.50 63.46 58.75 Weight gain (kg) 49.64 45.99 41.78 FCR 2.88 2.97 3.13 Feeds cost (đ/kg) 8182 8335 8693 Source: Nguyen Thi Tinh et al (2002) Table 5.71. Effect of ensiled pineapple pulp (EPP) in sow’s diet on piglet performance Control 10EPP 15EPP 20EPP LW after 60 days (whole litter) 151.7 156.2 148.6 147.5 FCR 5.91 5.58 5.45 5.31 Food cost (VND/kg piglet) 17730 17280 17030 17120 Source: Nguyen Ba Mui et al. (2007a) Table 5.72. Effect of oil supplementation in sow’s diets on piglet performance Control 3% oil 5% oil 7% oil ADG 196.43a 206.79ab 207.86ab 208.57b Daily feed intake (kg/sow) 4.17a 4.33a 4.72b 4.73b Diarrhea rate (%) 100 76.5 61.54 58.2 Source: Pham Sy Tiep et al (2010) Part 6. Feeding methdos Table 6.1. Effect of fermented liquid feeds (FLF) on performance of grower-finisher pigs CRTL NFLF FLFBR12h FLFBR24h FLFBS12h FLFBS24h P SE Daily gain, kg 0.589b 0.702ab 0.598ab 0.715a 0.628ab 0.643ab 0.04 0.03 FCR, kg/kg 3.17 2.66 3.02 2.65 2.93 2.89 0.22 0.16 Back fat, mm 18.3 17.8 18.4 18.4 16.9 15.9 0.79 1.48 Bateria, Log cfu/g faeces Enterobacteriacounts 4.03a 3.54ab 3.36ab 2.35b 3.10ab 3.21ab 0.004 0.25 E.coli 3.69a 3.44a 2.86ab 2.01b 2.83ab 2.97ab 0.001 0.23 Bacetria, Lg cfu/g Feeds Enterobacteriacounts 1.58a 2.07a 0.88b 0.89b 1.67a 1.54a 0.001 E.coli 1.6 1.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 a,b,c Mean in the same row without common superscripts are different at (P<0.05) Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2007) Table 6.2. Effect of fermented liquid feeds (FLF), phytase (BSphy) and L. subtilis (BSlac) supplementation treated feeds on pig performance and P excretion Growing phase BS FLF FLF2%Mo BSPHY BSLAC P/SE Total P excretion/P intake, % 79.1a 60.5b 83.9a 58.1b 59.8b <0.01/4.72 Organic P excretion/P intake, % 53.3a 34.9b 55.3a 41.4b 44.2b 0.05/6.92 DMI, kg/day 152 158 157 151 136 0.21/6.98 Daily gain 0.749 0.805 0.765 0.752 0.749 0.73/0.03 Feed conversion ratio 2.70 2.61 2.66 2.69 2.42 0.21/0.16 Back fat thickness, mm 14.37 15.96 14.53 14.41 15.93 0.77/1.16 a,b Data in a row with a different letters differ significantly (P < 0.05). Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al. (2007b) Table6.3.Effect of feeding regime(Ad lib – A and restricted - R) in different growth stage on growth performance of growing pigs T1 T2 T3 T4 Parameters A– A A - R R - A R – R SEM P Initial LW (kg) 26.54 26.56 26.64 26.77 0.57 0.79 Final LW (kg) 101.5a 95.1b 96.0ab 91.3b 1.92 0.02 Daily gain (g) 581a 531b 537ab 501b 14 0.01 Backfat thickness (mm) 12.00a 11.53ab 11.72ab 11.09b 0.14 0.03 Daily feed intake (kg) 234a 209b 216c 202d 1.25 0.04 FCR 3.12 3.05 3.11 3.13 0.27 0.51 Source: Vuong Nam Trung (2010) Table 6.4.Effect of feeding regime(Ad lib – A and restricted - R) in differentstage onreproductiveperformance of sows A - A A - R R - A R - R Parameters SEM P N0 of sows 15 14 14 12 - - Gestative 1st breeding rate (%) 86.66 85.71 84.71 83.83 - 0.32 Pregnant duration (day) 113.8 116.0 115.0 114.6 1.12 0.28 Sow’s LW increase (kg) 22.5 21.0 21.8 20.5 0.75 0.18 No. of piglet at born (piglet/litter) 10.54 10.41 10.30 9.81 0.36 0.45 No of piglets at weaning (piglet/litter) 10.00 10.00 9.84 9.36 0.44 0.28 Prenatal death fetus (fetus/litter) 0.26 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.06 0.77 Dry death fetus (fetus/litter) 0.33 0.36 0.86 0.25 0.35 0.35 LW at born (kg/piglet) 1.30 1.28 1.30 1.26 0.14 0.34 Source: Vuong Nam Trung (2010) Table 6.5.Effect of fermented liquid feeds and liquid feeds on digestibility and performance and backfat thickness of growing pigs CRTL NFLF FLF LAF P/SEM Digestibility, % DM 77.8 80.7 82.6 81.2 0.18/1.49 OM 81.7b 84.4ab 86.6a 84.3ab 0.05/1.09 CP 79.6b 82.2ab 85.9a 83.2ab 0.02/1.23 EE 81.4 83.1 86.7 80.8 0.78/2.45 PUN, mg/100ml 19.3ab 22.9b 15.1a 21.8ab 0.03/1.16 Overall Daily gain 0.552b 0.541b 0.598a 0.601a 0.01/0.01 FCR, kg/kg 3.79b 3.76b 3.09a 3.41ab 0.01/0.14 Backfat thickness, mm 13.9 13.8 14.7 14.7 0.62/0.69 Source: Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung (2005) Table 6.7. Effect of housing type (closed and open) on growth performance of piglets and growing pigs Closed pen Open pen SEM ADG – After weaning 386.22a 364.17b 3.44 ADG – Fattening 837.25a 787.69b 3.59 FCR – After weaning 1.50 1.51 0.04 FCR – Fattening 2.58a 2.73b 0.04 Source: Nguyen Ngoc Phuc et al, 2011. Table 6.8. Effect of dry and liquid feeds on performance of pigs Dry feed Liquid feed SEM ADG – After weaning 364.51a 385.87b 3.40 ADG – Fattening 804.76a 820.17b 3.56 FCR – After weaning 1.53 1.48 0.04 FCR – Fattening 2.72a 2.59b 0.04 Source: Nguyen Ngoc Phuc et al.(2011) Table 6.9. Effect of Ad libitum and restricted feeding Ad lib Restricted ADG 664.5 641.8 FCR 3.27 3.08 Source: Truong Huu Dung et al.(2004) Table 6.10. Effect of substituting enzymes, organic acids, Bentonite and their mixture on H2S and NH3 emission in pigs Treatment Control Enzymes Organic acids Bentonite Mixture ADG 539.8 592.6 588.0 575.0 559.3 FCR 2.33 2.12 2.13 2.19 2.25 H2S from pigs’ waste 0.13 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.10 NH3 from pigs’ waste 0.39 0.12 0.22 0.20 0.33 Note: Unit H2S and NH3 from waste: mg/hour/m2 Source: Tran Thi Bich Ngoc et al.(2013)