« AGD/TAC:IAR/81/9 
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THE CONSULTATIVE GROUP ON INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 
* TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Twenty-Fifth Meeting, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24 February - 3 March 1981
DRAFT
REPORT OF THE
TAC QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF THE 
INTERNATIONAL LABORATORY FOR RESEARCH ON ANIMAL. DISEASES
(ILRAD)
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT
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(Agenda Item 12)
Proposed objectives of the discussion
i) Is the TAC satis fried with the way the Quinquennial Review 
Panel has dealt with its terms of reference and the special 
list of questions prepared for the Quinquennial Review of 
! ILRAD activities?
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ii) Does TAC agree with the observations and recommendations 
made by the Panel? Does it wish to clarify some points 
with the Panel Chairman and/or the ILRAD representatives 
who will be present during the relevant discussions at the 
25th TAC Meeting?
Hi) Uhat would be the provisional comments to be made on the 
draft report which will be presented in its final form to 
TAC at its 26th meeting?
N. B. The comments made by the Executive Committee on the draft 
report of the Panel are attached herewith (see letter from 
Sir A. Robertson to Mr. S.A. Risopoulos. This letter was 
considered by the Editorial Committee of the Panel which 
met in Paris on 16-17 December 1980 to edit the draft 
report).
TAC SECRETARIAT
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
January 1981
4
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INTERNATIONAL LABORATORY 
ILRAD FOR RESEARCH ON ANIMAL DISEASES
P. O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
Cable: Ilead/Naibobi/Kenya Telephone: Naieobi 
Telex: 22040 592311
Mr 3.A. Bisopoulos,
Deputy Executive Secretary, 
TAC/CGIAB, i
FAQ,
Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 
00100 Borne, !
Italy
jar Mr Bisopoulos,
I enclose some brief comments by HEAD'S Executive Committee on the draft
Quinquenni al Bevi e v Beport. I trust this will be in time to be considered by
the Bevi e v Panel.
i
Yours sincerely,
'
(2.
Chairman
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COMMENTS BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF ILRAD ON THE 
DRAFT REPORT OF THE TAC QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF ILRAD
As you know the Executive Committee of ILRAD gained the 
impression from the oral presentation by the Chairman of the Review 
Panel on 17th October that the draft Report was an excellent document 
whose findings would be largely acceptable to the Board. A perusal 
of the text confirms that reaction and we are particularly impressed 
by the excellent work done by the Panel in a relatively short time 
and under conditions which were by no means ideal for their task.
Th^re are, however, some aspects on which we feel we should
comment. We were rather surprised to read on page 7 para 6 iJ of the
Introduction that the Panel had extensive discussions with the Executive
Committee. Apart from the final meeting, the only occasion I can 
recall on which formal discussion took place was during a brief 
meeting with some members of the Panel; and we would certainly have 
welcomed an opportunity for extensive discussion, particularly of 
management problems but realised that the pressure on the Panel was 
such as to render that impossible.
Ch. IV Research Management
While we agree that a clear delineation between policy setting 
by the Board and management by the Director is essential, we feel we 
must emphasise the Board’s right and indeed duty to take action should 
it consider that management is jeopardising the work of the institute, 
the harmony of the staff or relations with the host country.
Ch. IV Administration and Structure
It is true that some of ILRAD's troubles stem from a lack of 
mutual confidence, communication and trust between the Board and the 
Director; for although his appointment was greeted with real enthusiasm
and support by the staff and the Board, within little more than a year 
of his appointment he had effectively isolated himself from a large 
section of the Board as well as from a considerable proportion of the 
senior staff. The implication throughout much of this section of the
Report is that the Board failed to give the Director full authority 
and support for the management and conduct of the institute's affairs. 
It is unfortunate, therefore, that the Executive Committee was not 
given an opportunity to comment on the information on which this was
based.
1/ Now para 26, page 12; the comment of the Executive 
Committee was taken into account in the present version 
(note from TAC Secretariat).
2
: The other item on which we would wish to comment is in 
■ Chapter IV, para 45 JV recommending a system of research management by 
: projects. Some of us are not convinced that this is necessarily as 
effective as the Panel appears to suggest. Project financing has 
two main disadvantages viz. that it can only be successful if backed 
by a highly trained accounting staff; and, since only those 
activities which are part of ah existing programme can be readily 
financed, it makes it difficult to achieve the flexibility which is 
essential for scientific innovation.
/ r
1/ Now para 85 et sqq, page 27 (note from TAC Secretariat).
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DRAFT
REPORT OF THE
TAC QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF THE
INTERNATIONAL LABORATORY FOR RESEARCH ON ANIMAL DISEASES
(ILRAD)
\
DRAFT
Dear Dr. Cummings,
• • • I have pleasure in sending you herewith the report of the 
Quinquennial Review Panel of the International Laboratory for Research 
on Animal Diseases (ILRAD).
ILRAD is an unusual Centre in the CGIAR system in that it 
is entirely devoted to basic mission-oriented research. It is appropriate 
to state here first that the Panel is convinced that this approach
continues to be fully justified for the solution of two of the most
difficult problems which veterinary sciences have to face; the Panel
is unanimously satisfied with the very rapid progress achieved by ILRAD 
in building up a first class research tool, with the remarkable advances 
made in the scientific knowledge of trypanosomiasis and theileriasis 
and with the high quality of the scientific leadership.
To answer the first group of questions addressed to the 
Panel by TAC, the Panel is of the opinion that the mandate of ILRAD 
should remain as it is, basically focussed on trypanosomiasis and East 
Coast Fever until significant success has been achieved in at least one 
of the two mandated diseases. The Panel, in the last chapter of the 
report, indicates some well defined avenues which ILRAD could use to 
enlarge somewhat its investigations in the framework of the above diseases.
•
As regards the implementation of the mandate and programmes, 
the Panel is well satisfied with the high scientific standard of ILRAD's 
work: it would recommend increased horizontal integration of the
different laboratories by the use of research management by projects, 
a method which would assist also in reappraising regularly internal 
priorities and resources allocation, In addition to the ongoing pro-
gramme which the Panel generally supports, the Panel would strongly, 
recommend the inclusion in ILRAD's operations of a well defined project 
on trypanotolerance with outposted staff in West or Central Africa.
The collaborative links with ILCA, already good and functional as 
regards administration and communication, would here be extended to 
cover scientific investigations in a field, trypanotolerance, which 
development assistance and recipient countries agree to consider of high 
priority for the future of livestock production in the humid and sub- 
humid areas of Africa. Some advice on staffing has been expressed 
on this and other matters by the Panel at the end of Chapter VII.
The training and technology transfer role of ILRAD has taken 
second place so far, major attention being devoted first by the Centre
Dr. R.W. Cummings 
Chairman
Technical Advisory Committee
2
to the formidable task of establishing the physical facilities and 
the major research thrusts; however, training has made a good start 
which the Panel would strongly recommend ILRAD to continue and develop 
at all levels; in doing so, African universities and institutions 
should be closely associated in the selection of trainees, The limited
involvement of ILRAD in the field in Kenya would assist the Centre in 
putting to test several hypotheses regarding the identification of 
the strains of the parasites under study and vaccination strategies; 
the Panel would wish to endorse the collaborative links which ILRAD 
has established with Kenyan veterinary research institutions, ILCA 
and ICIPE and which will be further integrated in a particular study 
area of Kenya.
ILRAD's administration has had some problems, and in spite 
of which the high quality of scientific activities has been preserved. 
The Panel has been satisfied by its visit to the proposed site of 
ILRAD's cattle production ranch and by the criteria which have been 
used for its selection.
Good and significant contributions have been made by the 
Director and staff of ILRAD to the understanding of the two mandated 
diseases: the control of these diseases presents unusually difficult
problems which require for their solution a highly qualified and 
integrated team. It is with satisfaction that the Panel has ascertained 
that ILRAD has the competence, enthusiasm and wherewithal to fulfill its 
mandate; this will require time, but the pay-off will likely have an
application far beyond the two diseases under study, and benefit man 
as well as his animals.
I would conclude by reiterating my thanks to my colleagues of 
the Panel tfio have spared no efforts to produce a report which I hope 
will be useful to ILRAD, TAC and the CGIAR.
Yours sincerely,
Guy Camus 
Chairman
ILRAD Quinquennial Review Panel
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
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I. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1
(a) Past Achievements and Guidelines for the Future 1
(b) Research Management 3
(c) Research Priorities 5
(d) Administration and Structure 6
• (e) Training, Communication and Technology Transfer 7
II. INTRODUCTION 8 '
III. REVIEW OF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND MANDATE 13
IV. ADMINISTRATION AND STRUCTURE 19
(a) Administrative Organization 20
(b) Research Management 22
(c) Facilities for Recombinant DNA Research 29
(d) Support Units 29
(e) Supply of Animals for Research 30
V. RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND ACHIEVEMENTS 36
(a) General Introduction 36
(b) Trypanosomiasis 37
(c) Theileriasis 46
VI. TRAINING, COMMUNICATION & TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 52
(a) Training 52
(b) Documentation 56
(c) Communications and Information 56
(d) Recommendations 57
VII. FUTURE PLANS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH 58
(a) Trypano s omia sis 59
(b) East Coast Fever 60
(c) New Ventures and the Mandate 62
(d) Recommendations regarding Staffing 64
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 65
ANNEX I. A. PROGRAMME OF THE REVIEW PANEL
B. LIST OF DOCUMENTS MADE AVAILABLE TO PANEL
ANNEX II. GLOSSARY
DRAFT
REPORT OF THE
TAC QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF ILRAD 
5-18 October 1980
1. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
(a) Past Achievements and Guidelines for the Future
1. Although ILRAD was established in 1974 with the mandate of 
"controlling the disease of trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever by 
immunological or related means" it is only within the past two years 
that facilities became available for work with domesticated animals and the 
vectors of these two diseases. Progress has been hampered by changes 
in the Directorship and by the inevitable difficulties attendant on the 
installation, maintenance and repair of sophisticated scientific 
equipment on a new site in a developing country.
2. Despite all these difficulties, ILRAD is now an outstanding 
laboratory complex of considerable architectural beauty and with 
facilities, possibly unique in Africa, for the study of almost every 
aspect of the two diseases selected for attention. The scientific staff, 
currently comprising approximately 50 scientists have, in this short 
time, established an impressive range of technology embracing parasitology, 
pathology, immunology, biochemistry and molecular and cell biology.
3. The immunology of trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever is very 
complex, possibly more so than other parasitic diseases and, despite the 
best efforts of scientists in the past, has so far defied practical 
solution. The eventual success of the studies currently under way at 
LLRAD hopefully will provide an immunological solution to one, or both, 
of these diseases. In the case of East Coast Fever there is a possibility 
that within the next five years it will be possible to combat the disease 
by an immunological method and the Panel approves the increased • - -
emphasis that has been given during the last two years by ILRAD to the 
study of this disease.
4. With trypanosomiasis the outlook is less certain because of the 
great complexity of the phenomenon of antigenic variation which enables 
the parasite to evade the immune response of the host. However, there 
are some promising leads. There is evidence that the repertoire of 
antigens expressed by the infective form of the trypanosome may be quite 
limited and that only a small number of these antigens may be necessary 
for an effective vaccine. In this connection, the previously insoluble 
problem of producing massive quantities of antigen for vaccine preparation 
has been solved in principle by the potential of the recombinant DNA 
technique. Furthermore the staff has already made significant 
contributions to our understanding of such important problems as
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the mechanism of antigenic variation in trypanosomiasis and the defence 
mechanisms of hosts infected with either disease. For instance new 
knowledge on the metabolism of trypanosomes is being produced by bio­
chemical research which may lead to important possibilities for both the 
immunological and the chemotherapeutic approaches. These and other 
achievements open new prospects and possibilities which are very 
encouraging.
5. The Panel, comprising a range of disciplines from veterinary 
medicine to molecular biology, was unanimously impressed with the quality 
of the research at ILRAD, with the general orientation of the work and 
the progress made in the brief period during which the full facilities
have been available. It must be stressed again that an immunological 
solution to these two diseases has no easy answers and demands a wide 
ranging approach, at least in the early stages of looking for profitable 
leads.
6. However, even before ILRAD succeeds in developing control methods 
for one or both diseases it may be that with hindsight, the most important 
role of ILRAD will have been to act as a catalyst for the development of 
veterinary science in Africa and beyond. Collaborative projects with the 
veterinary institutes in Kenya are being started to the mutual benefit of 
both. On a wider front, joint experiments and investigations are planned, 
or are already in progress, with organizations such as ICIPE, ILCA, FAO 
and Universities in Europe and America. An ambitious training, programme 
is in progress. This includes technician training, predoctoral studies, 
short-term courses on the transfer of technology and a programme of seminars, 
conferences and scientific meetings. For this to develop it is imperative 
that ILRAD continue to function as an international laboratory.
7. The agreed involvement of ILRAD on a limited scale, in the field, 
in Kenya in association with the national veterinary institutions should 
not only be of practical assistance to the latter but should provide a 
fertile feedback of new ideas and information for ILRAD staff. Furthermore, 
a prior understanding of epidemiology and experience of natural disease 
is essential for a realistic approach to control techniques.
8. One particular aspect which must be considered is the development 
of a further programme on the value of trypanotolerant cattle and on the 
mechanisms underlying their apparently unique resistence to trypanosomes. 
ILRAD was associated with trypanotolerance in its early days, a consequence 
of its take-over of the Gambian project sponsored by the Rockefeller 
Foundation. Although trypanotolerance was already known in West and 
Central Africa for a long time, and its practical implications understood, 
its scientific mechanisms had been insufficiently studied in cattle and 
small ruminants. The systematic approach by a highly-qualified scientific 
team to this patho-physiological problem was able to confirm the existence 
of trypanotolerance and to highlight several previously unknown biological 
features. The emphasis put into this exercise by ILRAD and the results
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achieved have encouraged interested scientists, experts in veterinary 
science and animal husbandry, particularly in West and Central African 
countries, and national and international donor agencies to regard a 
better understanding of trypanotolerance and the development of such 
livestock as a high priority. These results, if fully published, 
disseminated and followed up, would give new hope to immense parts of 
Afric-a, particularly to those situated in the humid savannah areas of 
West Africa, that livestock productivity and human welfare may both be 
improved.
9. A final and important point is that FAO has been involved in many 
parts of Africa in the research and control of trypanosomiasis and tick- 
borne disease for many years. The Panel unanimously recommends, now that 
ILRAD is functional, that the Board of Trustees should invite, as it is
already the case with other IARCs, an FAO observer to attend its 
deliberations.
10. Part of this report is devoted to various types of management 
questions both in the administrative and the research areas. The Panel 
recommends a strengthening of the administration and that the introduction 
of research management by projects be studied. In this latter case it 
would be a departure from the classic laboratory structure but this 
approach to the organization of research would provide the flexibility 
required to make the best use of human and financial resources in rapidly 
developing fields of science. These proposals aim at still further 
increasing the efficiency of the Institute without in anyway being 
critical of what has been achieved. On the contrary, the Panel reiterates 
its commendation of the excellence of the research programme and 
achievements.
11. As far as the future of the Institute is concerned, at least for 
the next quinquennium, the work at ILRAD should continue to be concentrated 
on trypanosomiasis of animals and theileriasis, in the latter case, 
specifically East Coast Fever. The Panel feels therefore, that whatever 
strong case might be made, the present activities conducted under the 
mandate should not be extended or modified until significant success has 
been achieved concerning at least one of the two mandated sieases.
(b) Research Management
12. As mentioned above, the Panel is impressed by the high quality of 
the scientific work at ILRAD. It believes that through increased co­
ordination and continued reassessment of priorities this high standard 
can be further enhanced. The Panel therefore recommends:
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i) that a clear definition of responsibilities for the 
Board of Trustees, the Programme Committee, the Scientific 
Advisory Committee and the Director is agreed, understood 
and implemented based on the Board's primary identification 
with general policy and the Director's identification with 
manag ement;
ii) that the Director be given by the Board of Trustees 
authority and full support for the management and the 
conducting of the approved research programmes;
iii) that the next Director be an internationally recognized 
scientist with proven research leadership and ability;
iv) that the scientific staff be brought up as far as possible 
to its full complement based on the availability of funds, 
as soon as the new Director has had the opportunity to 
review the programmes and the achievements;
v) that the present two-year contracts procedure be reviewed 
by the Board to determine whether contracts of a longer 
period could be initiated after the first two years, so 
as to give more security and permanence to the staff;
Vi) that the stimulus provided by the policy of encouraging 
outside scientists to join ILRAD group be continued but 
with the*funding of the visiting scientists coming under 
a separate budget heading when they do not have their own 
financial support;
vii) that the system of research management by project be 
studied for its possible introduction; this would give a 
clear delegation of responsibility for research and 
financial control to a selected leader of a group of 
scientists collaborating on a project basis;
viii ) that more elaborate procedures be established for the 
selection of priorities accompanied by the appropriate 
allocation of resources; that priorities be reviewed at 
regular intervals concurrently with research progress 
and in relation to the preparation of each biennial budget.
13. Supply of animals for research. The prerequisite for research on
animal diseases is the availability of a supply of suitable animals, In
view of the increasing cattle needs of ILRAD for its research programmes 
and the escalating cost of specific disease-free cattle, the Panel 
recommends :
i) that the negotiations for the purchase of the leasehold 
and the fixed and movable assets of the Rapiti Plains 
Estate be completed as soon as possible;
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ii) that the Board of Trustees take note that this large 
investment with such a potentially favourable cost/ 
benefit ratio could prove to be a financial embarassment 
unless the very highest standards of estate management 
and animal production precepts are observed.
(c) Research Priorities
14. The projects on trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever which the 
Panel considers should have a high priority for the future are listed in 
more detail in Chapter 6. The priority of individual projects should be
re-evaluated annually.
15. Trypanosomiasis, The Panel recommends five priority projects on
trypanosomiasis, which are:
i) the proposed immuno—epidemiological project at Kilifi 
which is necessary for a pilot study of the potential 
number of antigenic strains of tsetse-transmitted 
trypanosomes (metacyclic trypanosomes), This information
is essential for an appraisal of the feasibility of 
vaccination using such antigens;
ii) that in view of recent studies at ILRAD which indicate 
that recombinant DNA technology may provide a fast and 
accurate method of typing the basic antigenicity of 
trypanosomes (serodemes), the use of this technique be 
. accelerated and its potential compared with traditional 
' immunological techniques;
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iii) that in view of preliminary indication that the metacyclic 
forms of one trypanosome (T. vivax) may not possess a 
protective coat, that attempts be made at vaccination 
against this species, using membrane antigens of vivax;
iv) that the ongoing immunological and biochemical studies 
on trypanosomes be continued since these may uncover
pathways peculiar to the parasite which can be used to 
interfer with its survival;
v) that a large-scale project on trypanotolerance in West 
and Central Africa be launched in collaboration with
other interested organizations, in view of its potential 
importance to livestock production and human welfare in 
that area; two ILRAD scientists should be assigned to
this project and extra core funds sought to support the 
proj ect.
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16. East Coast Fever. The Panel recommends five projects on 
this disease, which are:
i) the determination of the number of antigenic types of 
Theileria parva prevalent in one area such as the Kilifi 
district; immunization trials with these strains should 
then be undertaken in the same area and results extended 
to other parts of Kenya and countries in which theileriasis 
‘is prevalent; in this context, the continuation of a 
recently developed i^i vitro technique for antigenic 
typing should be given high priority as this could lead 
to the replacement of the expensive and time consuming 
method of eross-immunization using large numbers of 
cattle;
ii) the continuation of the studies on the comparable 
immunogenicity of live, attenuated or killed antigens from 
sporozoites or macroschizonts;
iii) the examination of the strains of parva lawrencei for 
the possible production of monoclonal antibodies and the 
study of antigenic variation within the sub-species of 
T. parva;
iv) the use of genetically related cattle in the study of 
cell mediated immunity;
V) the continuation of the electron microscope studies on 
the interaction of Theileria and Trypanosoma with their 
mammalian and arthropod hosts.
17. Staffing. The Panel recommends that eight present vacant positions
should be used to:
i) add one Research Associate or Scientist each to the tsetse 
and tick units;
ii) supervise the field activities at Kilifi, to reinforce
the Molecular Biology, Biochemistry and Immunology Laboratories, 
and to start the new trypanotolerance programme.
(d) Administration and Structure
18. In view of the present administrative difficulties at ILRAD, the 
Panel strongly recommends:
i) that steps be urgently taken to ensure that the highest 
level of competence is available at Associate Director 
of Administration level;
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ii) that the presently vacant positions of Financial 
Controller and Chief of Personnel be filled immediately, 
even through temporary recruitment procedures, by highly 
experienced and qualified specialists in order to 
strengthen the present administrative set-up;
iii) that in view of the highly specialized equipment required 
for the research programme, competent staff be appointed 
to provide regular maintenance ..and repair of the equipment;
iv) that vehicle and farm equipment be regularly and adequately 
maintained.
(e) Training, Communication and Technology Transfer'
19. The Panel notes that training is an important component of ILRAD's 
mandate in view of the need to strengthen African institutions and 
facilitate technology transfer.
20. The Panel recommends:
i) that the Technicians Training Programme be extended to 
include, wherever possible, technicians from outside the 
East African sub-region;
.ii) that ILRAD's training programme receive high priority in 
resource allocation in order that the institute can better 
fulfill its Africa-wide mandate of technology transfer;
iii) that collaborative arrangements in training both at the 
technician and postgraduates levels, being negotiated by 
ILRAD with Universities, national and international 
organizations and institutions, be continued with 
increased vigour;
iv) that African Universities and institutions be closely 
involved in the selection of suitable postgraduate 
students;
V) that selected postgraduate students be sent to co-operating 
Universities to undertake relevant course work before 
returning to ILRAD to pursue their research thesis;
Vi) that ILRAD continue to organize either jointly with other 
organizations or singly, workshops, seminars and conferences 
as a means of training, informing scientists of the work 
of ILRAD and of facilitating beneficial interaction of 
research workers;
vii) that short-term courses, either on individual basis for 
the acquisition of specialized techniques or on group
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basis as a means of additional training and contribution 
to technology transfer, be introduced;
viii) that ILRAD strengthen its communication and information 
section, produce non-technical Newsletter or Research 
Highlights in English and in French, that will be widely 
distributed and ensure that its annual reports reach as 
many institutes and individuals as possible especially 
within Afiica to avoid the criticisms of many African 
countries of their ignorance of ILRAD's excellent work.
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II. INTRODUCTION
21. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) 
is an international consortium composed of 35 members. On 1 September 1980 
these were made out of nineteen governments, eleven international funding 
organizations and five foundations. The three co-sponsors of the system 
are the Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N. (FAO), the United 
Nations Development Programme (UNDP}and the World Bank. The CGIAR has an 
independent, Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) to which is entrusted, 
inter alia, the periodical assessment of the achievements made by the 
thirteen international agricultural centres and programmes on which the 
system rests, and to make recommendations for their future. This assessment 
is carried out by TAC at intervals of no less than five years.
22. ILRAD having been created in 1974, the preparation for its 
quinquennial review started in early 1979 and, after consultation between 
the Board of Trustees and Director of the Centre and TAC it was agreed 
that TAC would field a Review Panel in October 1980. The same consultation 
took place for the establishment of the Panel; the Panel was chaired by 
Prof. G. Camus, Director General of the Office de la Recherche Scientifique 
et Technique Outre-Mer (Paris, France). The members were: Prof. J. David, 
Harvard Medical School (Boston, U.S.A.), Prof. K.T. Friedhoff, School of 
Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology (Hannover, F.R.G.),
Sir William Henderson, former Secretary to the Agricultural Research 
Council (London, U.K.), Dr. A.A. Ilemobade, Ahmadu Bello University (Zaria, 
Nigeria), Prof. J. Mortelmans, Institut de Medecine Tropicale (Anvers, 
Belgium), Prof. G. McDonald Urquhart, Department of Parasitology,
University of Glasgow (U.K.). Mr. S. Risopoulos, TAC Deputy Executive 
Secretary, acted as Secretary to the Panel and Dr. D. Plucknett (CGIAR 
Scientific Advisor) was observer on behalf of the CGIAR Secretariat.
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23. Terms of reference. The terms of reference of the Panel follow:
"On behalf of the Consultative Group, to assess the content, quality, 
impact and value of the overall programme of ILRAD and to examine whether 
the operations being funded are being carried out in line with declared 
policies and to acceptable standards of excellence.
It is hoped that the review will inter alia assist ILRAD itself 
in planning its programmes and ensuring the validity of the research 
priorities recognized by the Board of the Centre.
In pursuance of the main objectives, defined above, the Mission is 
requested to give particular attention to the following aspects:
i) The mandate of the Centre, its appropriateness and the interpretation 
thereof with respect to:
I
(a) the immediate and long-term needs for improved food supply 
and human welfare in developing countries;
(b) present and possible future areas of work.
ii) The relevance, scope and objectives of the present programme of work 
and budget of the Centre and of its forward plans for the next 
five years in relation to:
(a) its mandate and the criteria for the allocation of resources 
as defined by TAC;
lb) the ongoing activities of other international institutes and 
organizations, and of relevant national institutes in co­
operating countries and in others where the work of the 
institutes has bearing;
(c) the policy, strategy and procedures adopted by the Centre 
in carrying out its mandate, and the mechanisms for their 
formulation;
(d) the Centre's rationale for its present allocation of resources, 
its present and future overall size, and the composition and 
balance of the programme in the fields of research, training, 
documentation, information exchange and related cooperative 
activities.
Hi) The content and quality of the scientific and related work of the 
Centre with particular reference to:
(a) the results of past research;
(b) the current and planned research and the role of the scientific 
disciplines therein;
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(c) the information exchange and training programmes, their 
methodologies and the participation of the research staff 
therein;
(d) the adequacy of the research support and other facilities ;
(e) the management of the scientific and financial resources 
of the Centre and the coordination of its activities.
iv) The impact and usefulness of the Centre's activities in relation
to:
(a) the present and potential impact of the research conducted 
by the Centre;
(b) its information exchange and training programmes;
(c) cooperation with national research and development pro­
grammes;
(d) cooperation with other international institutes and 
organizations.
v) Constraints on the Centre 's activities which may be hindering 
the achievement of its objectives and the implementation of its 
programmes, and possible means of reducing or eliminating such 
constraints.
vi) Any specific questions which concerned members of the CGIAR, co­
operating institutions, the Centre 's Director or its Board of 
Trustees, may request TAC to examine.
On the basis of its review, the Mission will report to the Chairman 
of TAC its views on the need for any changes in the basic objectives or 
orientation of the Centre 's programme elements, and on means of improving 
the efficiency of operations3 and will make proposals for overcoming any 
constraints identified under item (v).
While the Mission should feel free to make any observations or 
recommendations it wishes3 it must be clearly understood that the Mission 
cannot commit the sponsoring organization3 viz. the CGIAR/TAC. "
24. To these terms of reference, TAC after consultation with CGIAR 
members and the Board of Trustees of ILRAD added the following questions:
i) Mandate, long-term plans and priorities
ILRAD has been established initially to concentrate research on the 
immunological and related aspects of controlling trypanosomiasis 
and theileriasis. The original mandate left open the eventual
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extension of its research, to "other serious animal disease 
problems for which its facilities and expertise are appropriate3 
provided such extension is approved by its governing body and 
the Government of Kenya does not object from a disease safety 
standpoint
During the first quinquennium3 ILRAD limited its activities to 
the initial part of its mandate3 i.e. the immunological aspects 
of theileriasis and trypanosomiasis,
(a) What will be the principal features of the Centre 's forward 
plans for the next five years?
(b) What could be the possible alternatives: status quo (with
the same two mandate diseases) 3 restriction (limitation of 
resources to one disease)3 expansion which could concern:
- other major diseases hampering animal production in
Africa;
other aspects than the immunological one3 sdy the 
improvement of chemotherapy or the identification of 
field diagnosis techniques which would be suitable for 
training and transfer to African countries ; 
activities in support to medical research.
(c) What would be the implications of the breadth of the mandate 
in terms of resource allocation? (see also question(xiv) 
regarding the number of small and large animals).
ii) Programme implementation
(a) Is trypanotolerance the object of a continuing study, apart 
from the study made in Gambia during the early stage of 
ILRAD?
(b) Considering the restriction to the importation of trypano- 
tolerant West African breeds by Kenya3 would it be advisable 
that part of the trypanosomiasis programme go to the 
strengthening of some suitable animal health laboratories
in West Africa?
(c) What are the present plans to test or replicate in the field 
and in other countries than Kenya3 the present results or 
assumptions already made by ILRAD; what should be the
guidelines for the choice of small and large-scale field 
tests?
(d) Which parts of the programme are or could be implemented 
through cooperative agreements with other research 
institutions; what are the policies and criteria used by 
ILRAD in this respect?
12
Hi) Role of ILRAD in Africa and technology transfer
(a) To what extent is the present programme of ILRAD responsive 
to the needs of African Governments?
(b) From the onset ILRAD was supposed to have a catalytic role: 
how best has it been fulfilled; what are the relationships 
with existing African laboratories; similar laboratories in 
other parts of the world?
(c) How is technology transfer supposed to be effected; what is 
the relationship with ICTPE, with ILCA, with FAO; are precise 
collaborative programmes in existence, being planned? What 
would be the relationship with the FAO-supported African 
trypanosomiasis programme ?
(d) What has been done so far in training and information 
exchange; what are the gaps and possible plans for the 
future? How is it possible to respond to the needs of 
African countries3 English y French and Portuguese speaking?
(e) Would it be possible for ILRAD to participate in {joint 
activities such as the FAO/WHO/OAU Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis 
Information and News Servicey as well as FAO/WHO/OAU training 
activities?
iv) Management
(a) What are the adequacy and present use of existing facilities 
and equipment; what are the maintenance problems; what are 
the future capital requirements and their rationale in terms 
of cost effectiveness?
(b) What are the present personnel policies and future requirements; 
which use is made of visiting scientists and postdoctorals?
(c) What are the present and future requirements of ILRAD for 
small and large animals; what are the alternatives for 
orderly and cost effective supply?
25. Operations of the Panel. The Panel was provided with extensive 
documentation by ILRAD and the TAC Secretariat before starting its business 
and was able to consult additional internal papers prepared by ILRAD's 
Director and staff as well as relevant FAO documents during its stay in 
Kenya.
26. The Panel assembled in Nairobi on 5 October 1980 and departed 
18 October 1980. During its stay in Kenya, the Panel was received by 
H.E. the Minister of Livestock Development, Mr. J.N. Osogo; it also visited 
the prospective cattle production farm of ILRAD at Kapiti Plains, and had 
extensive discussions with the ILRAD Director and staff; opportunity was 
taken of a meeting of the ILRAD Executive Committee informally to exchange 
views on various matters with the Chairman of the Board and some of its 
members.
13
On 17 October the Panel, through its Chairman, presented its collective 
findings and recommendations to the Director and the Executive Committee 
of the Board of Trustees of ILRAD. Details on the Panel programme and 
documentation perused are mentioned in Annex I of the present report 
and a glossary of some technical terms figures in Annex II.
III. REVIEW OF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND MANDATE
27. The establishment of a specialized centre to conduct research on 
tropical animal diseases was considered at the end of the sixties by the 
Rockefeller Foundation, in the wake of the establishment of the Rice 
Research Institute in the Philippines (IRRI), of the International Maize 
and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) in Mexico, of the International 
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria, of the International 
Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. In October 1969 the 
Rockefeller Foundation called a meeting of scientists and administrators 
at Bellagio (Italy) to discuss the need of such a laboratory and the means 
by which it could be established. The following year (April 1970), a 
donor agencies meeting, again at Bellagio, supported the idea and 
recommended to the Rockefeller Foundation to proceed with a draft proposal; 
at that time the need for such a laboratory and the suitability of Kenya ‘ 
as a potential site were recognized by the group assembled at Bellagio.
28. Drs. J. McKelvey Jr. and J. Pino, both from the Rockefeller 
! Foundation, recommended the establishment of an international laboratory 
for animal diseases research in Africa and their report recommended 
that a block of 400 acres of land be made available to a laboratory in 
Kenya. It also proposed a budget for capital investment and operations, 
made recommendations on financing, legal status, management, relationship 
with Kenyan and other institutions conducting research on animal 
diseases and universities, etc.
29. When the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research 
(CGIAR) was created, its Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) discussed, at 
its first meeting (July 1971) the above proposal of the Rockefeller 
Foundation. TAC was on the whole sympathetic to the priorities identified 
by the report, although doubts were expressed whether one centre, however 
well equipped, could cater adequately to all major animal health problems 
of Africa. At the end TAC endorsed the establishment of the Task Force
1/ "An International Laboratory for Animal Disease Research in 
Africa", by J. McKelvey, Jr. and J.A. Pino, November 1970.
14
commissioned by the Rockefeller Foundation to survey the animal industry 
in Africa and to outline general and specific objectives of a proposed 
Animal Production Research and Training Centre for Africa. Although open 
to the views expressed by the McKelvey and Pino report, TAC debated the 
concept of a single centre versus support to existing institutions with 
a coordinating mechanism: it stressed the need to consider the relationship 
of the health problem to the overall problem of livestock improvement 
and to make an assessment of all existing facilities.
30. At its second meeting (October 1971) TAC examined the report of 
the above Task Force and recognized as separate the two issues dealt with 
by the report, i.e. a laboratory for animal diseases and a centre for 
animal production in Africa; the report had proposed the establishment 
of the laboratory at Nairobi, to deal primarily with immunological studies 
on East Coast Fever and Trypanosomiasis while a small team of specialists 
would deal with livestock production. The Task Force had also recognized 
three major ecological zones for the whole of tropical Africa for which 
an international research structure was needed to improve livestock 
production. TAC found that the proposal related to the animal disease 
laboratory was advanced enough to allow for a firm recommendation for 
acceptance to be made to the CGIAR; in the case of animal production TAC 
required further information, whilst agreeing on the real need for inter­
national research on the subject; by this course of action, the way was 
paved for two international agricultural research centres (ILRAD and what 
was to become ILCA) V to be added to the CGIAR system.
31. At its second meeting (December 1971), the CGIAR: i
"... endorsed -in principle the recommendation for establishment 
of an animal disease laboratory, but concluded that it should he viewed 
as an aspect of the overall improvement of African livestock systems. It 
was agreed that the Chairman should appoint a subcommittee of the 
Consultative Group3 composed of members intending to provide major 
financial support for livestock improvement in Africa or having large 
current investments in African livestock research. It would be the
responsibility of the subcommittee to arrange for negotiations looking 
toward establishment of an animal disease laboratory which might ultimately 
be integrated into an African livestock centre. The subcommittee would 
also select a task force to undertake the studies recommended by the TAC3 
including a review of past and current research3 with a view to 
determining the feasibility of establishing an African livestock centre; 
proposed terms of reference for the task force would be formulated by
the Chairman of the TAC in consultation with the TAC. • • • >t 2/
1/ International Livestock Centre for Africa.
21 Summary of proceedings CGIAR Second Meeting, December 1971, p.4.
15
32. At its third meeting (July/August 1972), the CGIAR noted the
conclusions reached by the executive team, nominated by the CGIAR African 
livestock subcommittee to respond to the comments made by the CGIAR at 
its second meeting and review the present research status of
Trypanosomiasis and Theileriasis; the executive team was led by
Dr. W. Pritchard (USA) and composed, besides the leader, of Sir Alexander
Robertson (UK) and Dr. Rildiger Sacks of Germany; the executive team
report underlined that "there was a need to augment the research that
had been carried out in the past on the two diseases ; the team confirmed
the earlier recommendation that ILRAD be established and focus on the 
control of both trypanosomiasis and theileriasis as their main research 
effort, not only because of the importance of the diseases but also 
because research on these two diseases is highly related ...". The
team " • • • recommended also that the major emphasis of the research be on
highly fundamental immunological studies that are vitally needed and that
are not presently being done. ..." 1/
33. At its following meeting in November 1972, the CGIAR endorsed the 
recommendation made by the African Livestock Subcommittee that the 
Government of Kenya should be approached to establish ILRAD in this 
country, as the idea to have the Centre sited at the East African Community
Research Centre at Muguga, Kenya, was not possible, The Group reaffirmed
its position that the centre should be considered as a potential subunit 
of an integrated African Livestock Research Organization, if and when
established.
34. At its fifth meeting (January/February 1973) TAC discussed mostly 
the establishment of ILCA; it was mentioned i.a. that
"... regarding liaison with ILRADTAC noted that these two 
centres have very different objectives and suggested that, at least 
initially3 they should be developed separately, The TAC did not however
discount the possibility of a later fusion into a single body3 although of 
the opinion that if this were done from the outset it might unnecessarily 
complicate the development of investment work." 2J
35. The Memorandum of Agreement for the establishment of ILRAD as an 
autonomous, non-profit organization, international in character, was
signed between the Government of Kenya and the Rockefeller Foundation, 
acting as executive agent of the CGIAR, on 13 September 1973. The document
states as purpose of the laboratory:
1/ Informal summary of proceedings, CGIAR Meeting, July-August 1972, 
presentation of Dr. W. Pritchard.
2/ Report of the 5th TAC Meeting, Jan.-Feb. 1973, Annex V, p.3.
16
"The purpose of the Laboratory wilt he to serve as a world centre 
for research on ways and means of conquering3 as quickly as possible3 
major animal diseases which seriously limit livestock industries in 
Africa and in many other parts of the world. The Laboratory will 
concentrate initially on intensive research concerning the immunological 
and related aspects of controlling Trypanosomiasis and Theileriasis 
(mainly East Coast Fever). It may3 however3 eventually extend its research 
to other seri.cn.4g animat disenee problems for which its facilities and 
expertise are appropriate3 provided such extension is approved by its 
Board of Trustees and the Government of Kenya does not object from a 
disease safety standpoint. In carrying forward its programme3 the 
Laboratory will develop close linkages with governmental and regional 
organizations undertaking research on the same or related disease 
problems." 1/
36. The activities foreseen for the Centre were as follows:
"The Laboratory will engage in the following types of activities:
1. Basic research3 applied research3 experimentation and field 
testing of results. These activities may be undertaken by the 
Laboratory on its own premises or in association with appropriate 
national or regional organizations3 but field testing shall in 
all cases be carried out in accordance with appropriate disease 
safety regulations of the'Government in whose territory it is 
conducted;
2. Publication and dissemination of research results;
_ i
3. Strengthening and creating appropriate links with national and 
regional institutions dealing with the control of animal diseases 
and related problems of animal production3 particularly in Africa;
4. Organization of discussion groups3 seminars3 workshops and 
conferences on topics related to the work of the Laboratory ;
5. In cooperation with universities and other research institutes3 
provision of opportunities for advanced professional training 
and experience in animal disease research within the scope of 
the Laboratory ;
6. Training of scientists who will be involved in research, education 
and action programmes in cooperating countries in which the 
Laboratory's programme wilt be applicable;
7. Assistance to cooperating countries in using and applying the 
research results of the Laboratory; and
8. Such other activities as may be found necessary or desirable to 
further the objectives of the Laboratory. " 2J
1/ Memorandum of Agreement, pp. 3-4. 
2/ Ibid, pp. 4-5.
17
37. A special paragraph of the Memorandum of Agreement deals with 
the cooperation with ILCA and states that:
"In realizing its purpose and carrying out its activities, the 
Laboratory shall closely cooperate with ILCA. If and when the CGIAR 
determines that it would be appropriate to modify the cooperation between 
the Laboratory and ILCA under a formal relationship3 the CGIAR will 
determine the terms and conditions under which that relationship shall
be entered into'. The Board of Trustees of the Laboratory shall take all
such action as shall be necessary to conclude, and realize the purpose 
of, such formal relationship in accordance with the directives of the
CGIAR." 1/
38. Several privileges are nominally granted to ILRAD in the Memorandum 
and as regards land, the memorandum specifies:
"The Government of Kenya will make available to the Laboratory 
on a long-term (example -SO years) lease at a nominal rental a tract of 
land of approximately 100 acres act or near Kabete which is suitable for 
the purposes of the Laboratory, including land for office and service 
buildings and for other appropriate facilities. The Government of Kenya 
will also make available, without cost, from time to time and for such 
periods as may be necessary, such additional land as the Laboratory may 
need for its field tests." 2/
39. At its 6th meeting (July-August 1973), a proposal from the French
Government was submitted to TAC: it concerned research to be carried out
in Upper Volta by the Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire 
[ Tropicale (IEMVT) on the vector of trypanosomiasis (tsetse fly), through 
the sterile male technique, pupal parasites and eventual chemical
eradication; besides, studies on trypanotolerance of native breeds would
be conducted; whilst welcoming the initiative taken by the Government 
of Upper Volta and IEMVT, TAC felt that further exploration of the 
effectiveness of the research lines proposed was required; it recommended
therefore the proposal for support by individual donors rather than by 
the CGIAR, and recognized that it would complement research on 
immunization against trypanosomiasis conducted by ILRAD.
40. During the year 1974, ILRAD was formally established; unfortunately 
the first director designated, Dr. E.H. Sadun passed away before taking 
up his functions. He was succeeded by Dr. J. Henson.
41. At the 10th Meeting of TAC (July 1975), the new Director made a 
full presentation of the progress made by the Centre; TAC discussed the 
possible use of existing facilities at ICIPE (insect rearing, electron
1/ Memorandum of Agreement, p. 9.
2/ - Ibid - pp. 11-12.
18
microscope); it noted that ILRAD and ICIPE "had research problems which 
overlap, and the Corrmittee hoped that their association would continue 
to the benefit of both"; V TAC recorded its satisfaction in the progress 
made by the Centre.
42. At its 13th meeting (May 1976) TAC noted the growing amount of 
cooperation between ILRAD and other institutions and strongly supported 
the immediate establishment at ILRAD of tsetse and tick breeding facilities 
as these insects could not be obtained in sufficient numbers and of the 
right type and quality elsewhere.
43. At its 16th meeting (June 1977) TAC noted its satisfaction at the 
early scientific advances made by the Centre (in vitro culture of TL brucei) 
and at its 19th meeting (June 1978) TAC "recognized the difficulties
faced by ILRAD in obtaining adequate animals for its research and 
approved the interim measures proposed by the Board for 1979 in this
respect. However the Committee would wish ILRAD to develop a long term
strategy for covering their livestock needs, including the balance to 
be kept between different categories of animals and the way to meet their 
forage requirements. TAC also requested that the possibility of importing 
trypanotolerant livestock from West Africa be further considerea. 2/
44. At its 22nd meeting (July 1979) TAC met the new ILRAD Director, 
Dr.' Allison. TAC "recognized the need for ILRAD to have an adequate 
number of disease-free .large animals for. its experimentation but drew the 
attention of the Board to the large number being requested by the manage- 
ment. The Committee recommended that all alternatives leading to the use 
of a farm by ILRAD be explored and that separate accounts be kept of future 
farm operations." 3/ At its 24th meeting (June/July 1980), TAC reiterated 
its previous recommendations that the expenditures related to farm 
operations be accounted separately and monitored carefully.
45. Implementation of the mandate. Over the years the Board did not
attempt any modification of the mandate and seemed to have been satisfied
with it. At its 1977 Meeting, the Board instructed the management to
increase efforts on theileriasis and to reflect this in the Programme
and Budget document, despite the fact that some members of the Board
underlined the importance of'trypanosomiasis in Central and West Africa.
46. At its meeting in 1978, the Board suggested that more scientists
from the Prench speaking African countries should be engaged by ILRAD and
that field work on epidemiology should be increased; it was remarked that
1/ Report of the 10th TAC Meeting, Washington, July 1975, p. 102.
2/ Report of the 19th TAC Meeting, Nairobi, June 1978, p. 60. 
3/ Report of the 22nd TAC Meeting, Hyderabad, July 1979, p. 66.
19
there had been little response from West African countries when positions 
had been advertised.
47. At a joint meeting of the Programme and Scientific Advisory 
Committee in February 1979 the possibility for ILRAD to initiate a pro­
gramme on African Swine Fever was considered with interest but it was 
stressed that it should be separately funded so as not to interfere with 
the two mandated diseases; the subsequent Meeting of the Board of 
Trustees decided however that ILRAD should not engage into any new 
research venture.
48. Observations. It can be said that since the very beginning, when 
the idea of a laboratory for research on livestock diseases in Africa was 
first mooted, the concept and subsequent mandate of ILCA have remained 
very stable and have not undergone any significant changes; the siting, 
the research approach, the scope of the mandate, have remained the same; 
the simplicity of the mandate and objectives has made possible an unusual,- 
concentration of efforts. As said below in Chapter VII (page 62, para 233) 
the Panel feels that ILRAD should continue to concentrate its efforts on 
trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever.
i
t
IV. ADMINISTRATION AND STRUCTURE
49. ILRAD has been initially set up, like most IARCs, with a governance
represented by a Board of Trustees made up in this case of no more than 
twelve members; two members are designated by the Government of Kenya, 
three by CGIAR and they are complemented by six members at large out of 
which three are intended to represent African countries. The Director
of ILRAD is an ex-officio member of the Board.
50. Over the years the Board has established several committees to 
help itself in its task - namely the Executive Committee, and the Programme, 
Finance, Training and Nominating Committees. Only Board members fill these
committees and no scientific personalities from outside are members of the 
Programme Committee, as is sometimes the case in other IARCs: however, in 
view of the highly specialized nature of ILRAD*s research there is a 
Scientific Advisory Committee whose members are chosen on an ad hoc basis 
according to the problem upon which the Scientific Advisory Committee has 
Ì to give advice.
20
51. Besides the Board Committee's ILRAD has tried to meet the challenge 
of its unusual nature and mandate by developing a series of administrative 
mechanisms, some of which are particular to ILRAD. The present chapter, 
therefore, is divided between Administrative Organization and Research 
Management; some paragraphs will also be devoted to the facilities for 
recombinant DNA research, the support units and the supply of farm animals 
to research units.
(a) Administrative Organization
52. ILRAD is administered and managed by a Director appointed by the 
Board of Trustees. There is no Associate Director for Research although 
the matter was mooted some years ago, and the second in command is an 
Associate Director for Administration, who deputizes for the Director 
during his absences. His responsibilities are extensive and encompass 
the following services: finance and accounting, personnel, library, 
supplies and stores, graphic arts, food and housing, general services, 
animal production and maintenance, engineering and transport. Non-scientific 
personnel are responsible to him.
53. The management of ILRAD, i.e. the reconciliation of the scientific
objectives and requirements and administrative practices have necessitated 
a growing number'of internal committees, the premier of which is the 
Director's Advisory Committee (DAC). It was composed in the past by three 
scientists who have acted in lieu of an Assistant Director for Research
and as such, cooperated with the Assistant Director for Administration 
in running the Centre in the interim period between the departure of 
Dr. Henson and the arrival of Dr. Allison.
54. The present Director felt, after taking over, that internal policy 
decisions should be best ensured by an enlarged DAC and that each 
laboratory should be represented by a coordinator; the present membership 
of DAC is thus made of six laboratory coordinators, the Chiefs of the four 
special units (Tsetse Unit, Tick Unit, Clinical Medicine/Animal Production 
and Electron Microscope), the Assistant Director for Administration and 
the Chief Engineer; The DAC meets about once a month and covers a wide 
range of scientific and administrative subjects. The other internal 
committees (animal, library, publications, technical staff, equipment, 
general staff, safety, research associates and training) meet less 
frequently, sometimes once a year at the time of budget preparation.
55. In general it can be said that administration at ILRAD has had more 
that its share of problems, due primarily to lack of precision regarding 
the respective areas of responsibilities of the governance and top level 
of management aggravated by a lack of competent and responsible administrative 
personnel. Much of ILRAD's trouble lies in lack of mutual confidence, 
communication and trust between the Board and the Director. As a
21
consequence of the above ILRAD's governance is now looking for a new
incumbent to the post of Director, The Panel feels that these problems
must be clarified and settled before the appointment of a successor to
the present Director.
56. Personnel. Since August 1978, there is no Personnel Officer at 
ILRAD and some dissatisfaction has been voiced in several quarters 
regarding terms- and timing of contracts, terms of employment, etc. and 
it has had considerable bearing on the concern of some categories of 
support staff. This unsatisfactory situation may spread since ILRAD has
nearly 400 staff members and the wide range of grades and categories of 
staff requires a full time professional officer.
57. Finane e. There have been difficulties in the issuance of monthly 
reports of expenditures which has meant that laboratory coordinators have 
not been made aware for some time of the financial situation of their
respective units. This has caused discontent. A new finance comptroller
is to be hired to replace the present one, whose contract has recently
been terminated by the Board; this is an urgent matter which has to be
dealt with in order to implement the finance and purchasing guidelines 
established by the present Director to overcome long lasting deficiencies; 
besides, the financial situation of the Institute has to be constantly
monitored. Finally, it should be noted that the 1980-81 budget has been
established on a very sound basis by the present Director and it is strongly 
felt by the Panel that any delay in hiring the necessary competent personnel 
might have a negative effect on the preparation of the next budget.
i
58. Maintenance, Housing and Catering. After several unfortunate
experiences ILRAD has now a new chief engineer; maintenance of vehicles
is the first area for improvement and a chief mechanic is to be recruited; 
for many laboratory items there is no servicing organization in Kenya and 
laboratories have tried to overcome the problem by redundancy of certain
items but this approach is expensive, One or more electrical engineers are
needed, who are trained to maintain specific items of the sophisticated
scientific apparatus of ILRAD.
59. With hindsight it could be regretted that ILRAD was not allowed to 
build more houses during its formative years — the shortage of housing in 
Nairobi, the escalating costs of rents in town as well as security 
problems make it necessary for ILRAD to build more housing on site, which, 
however, has now to meet increased building prices; recently it has been
decided that personnel residing on site would pay a rent, as well as
paying for the use of water and electricity.
60. The Food and Housing Service has been functioning excellently from 
the start and this is an attractive facet of the Hostel, which can 
accommodate twenty short-term residents.
22
61. Recommendations. The Panel recommends:
i) a clear delineation between policy setting by the Board 
and the management of the Institute for which the Director 
should be fully responsible;
ii) in view of the current administrative difficulties, that 
steps be urgently taken to ensure that the highest level 
•of competence is available at Associate Director of 
Administration level;
iii) the immediate filling of Financial Comptroller and Chief 
of Personnel positions, even through temporary secondment 
procedures, by highly experienced and qualified 
specialists in order to strengthen the present administrative 
set up;
iv) that competent staff be approached to provide regular 
maintenance of the highly specialized equipment required 
for the research programme, combined with the capability 
for repair; regular vehicle and farm equipment maintenance 
is also a requirement which should be adequately met.
i 62. The Panel commends the administrative support so far provided by 
ILRAD to CIP, CIMMYT and ILCA and supports its continuation.
(b) Research Management
63. General. The mandate of ILRAD has been established by TAC, the 
CGIAR and the ILRAD Board of Trustees. It is to develop effective control 
methods for trypanosomiasis and theileriasis, two diseases that are 
important in an estimated 50 developing countries. The responsibility for 
the specific research carried out at ILRAD is that of the Director, within 
the limits decided by the Board of Trustees at its annual meeting in March. 
To aid it in its decision, the Board has a Programme Committee which meets 
in January and again in March with the whole Board. A Scièntific Advisory 
Committee usually consisting of four persons with expertise in parasitology, 
immunology and animal diseases, selected by the Director, meets at the same 
time as the Programme Committee in January. The membership may change from 
year to year depending on the scientific problems at the time. It goes 
over the work of each laboratory and scientific support facilities and its 
report goes both to the Director and to the Programme Committee.
64. The research facilities under the Director include six 
laboratories in parasitology, biochemistry and molecular biology, cellular 
biology, immunobiology, immunology, pathology and four support units, 
including a tsetse unit, a tick unit, an electron microscopy facility and 
the ILRAD farm including its clinical diagnostic section for serology and 
microbiology.
)
:
23
65. Each of the six laboratories has a coordinator who is responsible
for its programme and budget, As said above, the coordinators are members
of the Directors Advisory Committee (DAC) which meets approximately once
a month, at which overall policies of ILRAD are discussed. The two pro­
grammes, that on trypanosomiasis and that on theileriasis, have each a 
moderator. In addition to the DAC there are an additional nine committees 
of which the committee for animals, library, publication, equipment, and 
safety are relevant to the subject of scientific management. The library 
and animal committees are dealt with elsewhere. The equipment committee 
meets once a year to determine the equipment needed for the programmes and 
a publication committee reviews all manuscripts before they are sent out 
for publication.
66. Staffing pattern. The ILRAD staff is represented by approximately
20 nationalities and consists of different categories of senior staff 
involved in the execution of the two programmes at ILRAD. These researchers 
include core scientists, visiting scientists, post-doctorals, research 
associates and postgraduate students. The distribution of the staff 
according to the existing laboratory structure is given below (Table 1).
Table 1
Staff Disposition by Categories (excluding support units)
Lab 1 Lab 2 Lab 3 Lab 4 Lab 5 Lab 6 Total
tryps ECF
Core
Scientists 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 14
Visiting
Scientists 1 3 3 2 9
Post-doctorals 1 3 1 4 2 13
Research
Associates 1 3 2 2 3 11
3 6 8 7 9 4 8 47
67. Apart from postgraduate students, all senior staff are on a two- 
year contract renewable by mutual agreement for periods of two years. 
Only 70% of the approved staff positions have been filled, but this has 
been compensated for by non-ILRAD supported staff.
68. The core scientists are recruited specifically for their expertise 
and for their ability to provide leadership in research and training. 
Several distinguished scientists visit ILRAD yearly and carry out useful 
collaborative projects with ILRAD staff, generally for short periods of 
time (approximately three months) or carry out specific assignments.
24
Some of them are also involved in training and providing useful contacts 
for the scientists. Visiting scientists are supported by non-ILRAD funds 
but make use of ILRAD's facilities.
69. A total of 13 postdoctorals are presently working in ILRAD, six of 
whom are supported from outside sources. Postdoctorals are selected on the 
basis of calibre of training and ability to carry out independent research; 
they are expected to assist in training programmes. Over the years, several 
postgraduates have, based on their performance been appointed Scientists.
It is fair to say that recruitment into the postdoctoral cadre has helped 
in the selection of suitable candidates to fill posts of scientists on 
ILRAD staff.
70. The Research Associates are highly-trained technicians who provide
technical support for the different projects being carried out. This
cadre of workers is attached to the different laboratories in which their
speciality is required. The post graduate group is considered under the 
chapter on training and technology transfer.
71. Selection of priorities. During the preceding Directorship there
were relatively few senior members of the staff and the policy was to 
permit a wide degree of freedom to the individual scientist in the pursuit 
of his interests. During this period, there was also generous funding of
the research programme, Under these circumstances the selection of .
priorities is not related to the pressure of the allocation of financial 
resources. In these earlier'years certain limitations, especially of
certain equipment and of animals and vectors for experiment, restricted 
the possibilities for the expansion of programmes in a number of directions.
72. Under the present Directorship there was a larger staff and there 
had to be a greater sharing of resources. As described above, a moderator 
was appointed for each of the two programmes, i.e. trypanosomiasis and
theileriasis. Twice a year each Moderator convenes a meeting of all staff
involved in any way with the programme in question, These meetings are
chaired by the Director. By a process of discussion a consensus is reached 
on the priorities for each programme, This exercise, however, is not taken
far enough to be meaningful as the agreed priorities are not, apparently, 
related to any identifiable cost. The basis for this statement is that 
each laboratory is allocated an annual financial provision for consumables 
which does not include one of the most expensive items, namely cattle.
73. Directing of research. The directing of research refers to the
taking of decisions for the continuing functioning of the programme, 
especially the choice of options when resources are limiting, There are
various levels at which these decisions must be taken with the Director
acting as the final arbitrator, The Panel noted a number of examples
where this responsibility was not exercised but it was not always able to 
determine the reasons. One possibility in such situations is that the 
information about the problem may not be sufficiently well communicated. 
Another possibility is that measures for effective action may not exist.
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74. _O__b_s_e_r_v_a__ti_o_n_s. The top structure consisting of the Board of Trustees,
the Programme Committee, the Scientific Advisory Committee and the Director 
is orthodox and, with the correct observation of respective responsibilities,
need not be changed, It would appear, however, as pointed out earlier,
that a clearer definition or a better recognition of responsibilities is
required.
75. The membership of the Programme Committee of the Board requires 
careful selection. The Panel is pleased to note the relevance of a recent
appointment; a further move in this direction could be the appointment of 
an appropriate biochemist.
76. The Scientific Advisory Committee can play a very useful and 
stimulating role but sufficient time should be allocated to permit them 
not only to hear formal presentations by the staff but to discuss, and
comment upon, the work with the scientists before advising the Director. 
The efficiency of the Committee would also be improved if its composition
was broadened to ensure that it comprises all the necessary competence.
77. The Director has the responsibility for the conducting of the
research programmes, It must be ensured that, in performing this task,
he is given the authority and the full support of the Board of Trustees. 
In view of the administrative problems that have beset ILRAD in recent
years it might be considered'that the Director could, more appropriately,
be an administrator than a scientist. The Panel is unanimous in stating
that the Director must be knowledgeable in today’s science derived from 
recent active participation, and with an established reputation for 
research leadership, With this background, he can attract the best
scientists to work at ILRAD; he will receive invitations to participate
in scientific meetings internationally and thus spread knowledge about 
ILRAD’s achievements and add to its prestige. Another advantage of these 
activities is that from the relatively isolated location of ILRAD contact 
with the scientific community would yet be strengthened.
78. The Director’s Advisory Committee has fulfilled a very necessary 
function by providing an opportunity for participation of staff in manage- 
ment. Although the agenda of the meetings include many diverse subjects,
this is merely a reflection of the complexity of the operation of an
international institute.
79. The Panel considers that the choice of business for the Director's 
Advisory Committee is that of the Director, combined with the opportunity 
of the members of the Committee to propose items of concern to them. It 
is important that a regular schedule of meetings is adhered to.
80. The present system of the supervision and management of the 
research programmes at ILRAD lacks an adequate procedure for the selection 
of priorities and the subsequent allocation of resources. The selected
26
priorities must be reviewed based on the results of the evaluation of the 
research progress. In this exercise it is suggested that the Scientific 
Advisory Committee plays a key role in support of the discussions of the
Programme Committee.
81. The staffing rate is only about 70% and in 1980 the unexpected
salary balance was used for unanticipated increased building costs; this 
is an instantaneous situation and vacant posts should be filled in 1981 as
soon as the next Director has an opportunity to assess the situation.
82. The Panel noted a certain unbalance in the staffing pattern in
that the number of core scientists is unusually low. The current
distribution of staff based on the six laboratories with this minority of 
core staff suggests that a certain fragility might exist. On the other 
hand, an analysis indicates that, based on scientific disciplines, the 
total staffing situation at ILRAD is reasonably balanced as illustrated 
by the following table. .
Table 2
Staff Disposition by Scientific Disciplines*
Scientific Discipline No. of staff
Parasitology 7*
Cell Biology 6
Immunology 9
Molecular Biology 2
Biochemistry 7
Pathology 7
* Research associates not included
The Panel is not against retaining a certain degree of flexibility, but
is of the opinion that a more solid basis of core staff must be provided.
83. As an aid to recruitment of core staff, consideration should be
given to providing further security by modifying the contracts of employment, 
For example, there could be an initial contract for two years which is a 
period of probation, In the case of renewal the next period could be
extended to say, three or four years.
84. The present system based on six laboratories, each with a coordinator, 
and a moderator for each of the two programmes, is an attempt to introduce
a framework within which there could be adequate collaboration and mter-
action. The disadvantage is that it is bereft of authority in that no
identification of responsibilities exists.
27
84. It has been frequently stated to the Panel that the design of the 
research accommodation into adjoining laboratory spurs hampers free 
communication. This might be for some staff members an excuse to avoid
close collaboration. Anyone accustomed to be a member of an institute 
or a University scattered over a very much larger area or housed in 
multistorey buildings might comment favourably on the design of this 
laboratory complex.
85. The Panel urges that the new Director with the help of the Board 
and the staff gives serious consideration to a system of research manage-
ment by projects under project leaders, which has proved to be a most
effective form of research management in rapidly developing fields of
science.
86. A project is built up of the relevant components within a
scientific community which in this case is ILRAD. At a later date, however,
an ILRAD system could well incorporate a component from a neighbouring 
organization such as the Kenyan Institutes at Kabete and Muguga or with 
ICIPE, which would enhance the already existing collaboration.
87. For this system to be viable, a Project Leader has to be designated
with delegation of authority over all the included staff, Each project 
must have its budget to cover all its activities, The Project Leader
should be one of the scientists most actively involved in the project and
his rank or grade need not be taken into account. The selection of the
Project Leader should be on the criteria of involvement, potential
leadership, and scientific competence, It is usual, under such a system,
that each senior scientist might be a member of two or, perhaps, three 
projects. In one, he might be the Leader and in another, play a
relatively minor role because of his contribution being relatively small or
of a service nature.
88. The organization of such projects in ILRAD should be horizontal
across the laboratories, The research progress of each project must be
frequently assessed so that flexibility can be exercised to take advantage 
of advances in one that might influence the planning and resource
allocation in another, The Panel in studying the requirements for the
management of research at ILRAD was very conscious of the complexity of 
the programmes. There is a difference in pattern, for example between
the characteristic long-term programmes of, say plant breeding. There
i are short-term and long-term components within each of the programmes at 
ILRAD. Also the research progress provides the expectation of increased
field activities, which are in the long-term category as opposed to short­
term fundamental research in, say, molecular biology. There must be an
acceptance of the necessity to create new projects and to terminate existing 
projects. Changes of this nature can conveniently be related to biennial
budgeting which indicates the frequency of major review that is appropriate.
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89. Recommendations. The Review Panel recommends :
i) that a clear definition of responsibilities for the Board 
of Trustees, the Programme Committee, the Scientific 
Advisory Committee and the Director is agreed, understood 
and implemented based on the Board's primary identification 
with general policy and the Director's identification 
with management;
ii) that the Director be given by the Board of Trustees the 
authority and full support for the management and the 
conducting of the approved research programme;
iii) that the next Director be an internationally recognized 
scientist. Proven research leadership and administrative 
ability are required;
iv) that the scientific staff be brought up as far as possible 
. to its full complement within the availability of funds 
as soon as the next Director has had the opportunity to 
review the programmes and the achievements;
v) that the present system of two year contracts for scientific 
staff be reviewed by the Board to determine whether a 
system which allows contracts of a longer period could 
be initiated after the first two year period, so as to 
give more security to the staff and more permanence to 
the scientific group;
Vi) that the stimulus that can be provided by the policy of 
encouraging outside scientists to join ILRAD group should 
be continued but with these scientists coming with their 
own financial support, or, if not, under a budget heading 
separate from core staff;
vii) that the system of research management be studied for its 
possible introduction by which there is a clear 
delegation of responsibility for research and financial 
control given to a selected leader of a group of scientists 
collaborating on a project basis;
viii) that procedures be established for the selection of 
priorities accompanied by the appropriate allocation of 
resources; that these priorities be reviewed at regular
intervals with a frequency appropriate to research
progress and certainly in relation to the preparation of 
each biennial budget. The review of priorities must be 
made and discussed at several levels starting with the 
project leaders and progressing through discussion 
involving the Director, the Scientific Advisory Committee 
and the Programme Committee to the Board of Trustees for 
final endorsement.
29
(c) Facilities for Recombinant DNA Research
90. Work is in progress on the isolation of the genetic material (DNA) 
responsible for the antigen determinants of Trypanosoma brucei. Since
1974 the United States of America and the United Kingdom have seen fit to 
impose controls on the use of this new technology to alter the nucleic 
acid structure of the lower organisms such as bacteria by introducing 
into them genetic material from the higher organisms, such as animals and 
plants. Such guidelines have been followed in several industrialized 
countries. The visiting Panel was pleased to find that ILRAD had informed
the Recombinant Advisory Committee of the National Institutes of Health 
of the USA that it proposed to conduct these experiments with brucei 
and that according to the NIH guidelines, had installed a laboratory of 
the then recommended standard of safety.
91. Sir William Henderson, a member of the visiting Panel, is currently 
the Chairman of the Genetic Manipulation Advisory Group of the United 
Kingdom. This is the controlling authority in the UK for this type of 
work. He and Professor John David visited the designated laboratory for 
this work and found it to be more than adequate for the containment of 
the potential hazards for the project in question.
92. The Laboratory has been installed to conform to the US "P3" category 
of containment which, today, is regarded as being unnecessarily restrictive. 
The category of containment recommended since 1979 for the work in question 
is "PI". Professor David and Sir William Henderson affirm that the 
present programme presents no hazard by using the selected biological 
system in the accommodation provided.
93. The Review Panel is pleased to note that an ILRAD Biohazards 
Safety Committee ensures that the correct procedures are followed and 
that two representatives from appropriate Kenyan Government Departments 
have been invited to join this Committee.
(d) Support Units —1/
94. Electron Microscopy Unit. The unit planned and equipped during 
1978-79 was activated in January 1980, and is since then directed by a 
senior scientist who is supported by a research associate. The unit has
1/ The four main support units are the tick unit, the tsetse unit, 
electron microscopy and clinical medicine/diagnostic laboratory/ 
farm unit; the first two have been treated under their relevant 
general programme (trypanosomiasis and theileriasis) in Chapter 
•V; due to budgetary implications for the present and future, the 
questions of the supply of animals for research and their health 
conditions have received a fuller treatment in the following 
paragraph. The support units paragraphs deal therefore with 
electron microscopy and the work of the central core unit.
30
a dual mission:
i) To provide ultrastructural information relevant to 
problems under investigation by scientists in other 
laboratories, and
ii) To conduct independent research on the ultrastructure 
of Theileria and Trypanosoma, their location in the 
-tissues of their arthropod vectors, and their inter­
actions with the cells of the mammalian hosts.
95. The unit is well equipped with a "Zeiss" transmission Electron 
Microscope and is highly efficient. It provides excellent service to 
ILRAD scientists.
96. Central Core. This unit has the responsibility for glassware washing
and sterilization and media preparation for all of the laboratories and 
research units. The standard required is much higher than in a routine
bacteriology or microbiology laboratory, and the unit is organized 
accordingly. It has its own budget.
(e) Supply of Animals for Research
97. Introduction. A prerequisite for research on animal disease is the 
availability of a supply of suitable animals for experiment. Such animals 
of whatever species, must be of one breed per usage, healthy, in a state 
of good nutrition, susceptible to the disease which is the object of the 
experiment, uniform in size and age and there may be specific requirements
of sex and genetic background, A further requirement in countries in which
the diseases being studied are endemic is that previous exposure to 
infection must be avoided. A well organized and efficiently run system 
is required to meet these criteria. There must also be a support service 
for the screening of the animals for specific pathogens and for the 
determination of serum antibody levels. This is part of the procedure for 
the selection of suitable animals and for the monitoring of their health
status during the period prior to their use in an experiment.
98. Animal disease research has a significant advantage over human 
disease research in that the scientists can conduct experiments using the 
species of animal which suffers from the disease in question, Much initial
work and many basic studies can be done using laboratory animals or 
cultures of certain cells. Sooner or later, however, most research of 
this type has to be conducted in farm livestock. In the case of the ILRAD 
mandate this necessity applies both to the trypanosomiasis and to the 
East Coast Fever programmes and both demand the use of cattle.
99. The high cost of cattle makes it necessary to plan experiments 
with care to ensure that the results obtained are to be of significance.
31
Unfortunately, the statistical requirement of experimentation makes it 
necessary for certain work to use cattle in groups of at least eight 
animals. For the above reasons the ILRAD research requirement is for
some hundreds of cattle, The numbers of all animals used in 1979 is
shown in Table 3. It must be expected and indeed, hoped that the demand 
for cattle will be increased. This will be a consequence of successful
progress. For this reason the present level of about five hundred
animals has been increased to some six hundred in preparing proposals 
for supply from an ILRAD ranch and the investment analysis for this
proposal has been based on an increase to eight hundred head per annum.
100. The visiting Panel is in full agreement for the justification of
the current use of cattle and for anticipating subsequent increases.
Apart from the success factor which has been mentioned it must be noted 
that the full staff complement has not been achieved. A very important 
item on the immediate forward planning of the ILRAD facilities is that 
of accommodation for animals under experiment. Unless this is considerably 
increased, the present bottleneck in the provision of cattle for experiment 
will be exacerbated to an unacceptable extent.
Table 3
Animals Used for Research in 1979
Cattle 452*
Sheep and Goats 404
Rats 12,000
Mice 20,000
Rabbits 400
* 117 of these cattle were used for more than one purpose, 
thus the total number of cattle units in 1979 was 569.
101. Clinical- medicine/diagnostic laboratory and farm. The rapid 
expansion of ILRAD's requirements for farm animals has made the services 
of a diagnostic laboratory particularly needed and important, especially 
as animals are maintained on ILRAD premises under intensive management 
conditions for a period of time. The diagnostic laboratory was established 
to develop serological screening tests for adult field cattle; to provide 
on site serological screening for monitoring experimental animals; to 
provide a diagnostic capability in microbiology, hematology and helminthology; 
and to provide assistance to other laboratories for their current activities. 
The unit has thus the responsibility to ensure that animals purchased by 
ILRAD are in good health and stay in good health; all ILRAD-reared cattle 
are serologically screened every eight weeks; in addition for each group 
of bought-in calves, one animal is splenectomized and blood slides are 
examined twice a week; all non-research animals are screened every twelve
32
weeks. The unit is composed of a core scientist, an associate expert, a
postgraduate fellow and a research associate and has also the responsibility 
for the ILRAD farm.
102. The Farm Animal Production Unit comprises 92 acres of land on the
Institute site. It consists primarily of open experimental pens, enclosed 
buildings for housing animals under experiment and calf rearing facilities, 
both enclosed and open. There are a number of paddocks but, in general, 
the topography of the site on the sloping side of a valley hinders
maximum utilization of the limited acreage.
103. Two systems are used for cattle production: (1) the rearing of 
calves purchased when three days old and (2) the purchase of weaned cattle 
about six months old. Prior to initiating both systems, several thousand 
sera from adult cattle from six large, well managed ranches in Kenya's 
non-tsetse fly areas were screened for evidence of previous infection with: 
Theileria parva (East Coast Fever); Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax; T. 
brucei (Trypanosomiasis); Anaplasma marginale (Anaplasmosis); and Babesia 
bigemina (Babesiosis).
104. Calf rearing. Contracts for calf rearing are made one year in
advance with ranchers selected according to the acceptability of the 
animals from the result of serological testing. The newborn calves are 
collected in groups (25 to 35) following further on-ranch testing and 
brought to the ILRAD calf-rearing unit. They are fed with milk from 
nipple-bottles and weaned on to a concentrate feed at about 10 to 12 weeks 
of age. At that time they are moved to roofed pens where they can remain 
until ready for use in experiment. Depending upon the manner of costing, 
the financial expenditure to produce one calf by this method is not less 
than $700 nor more than $1,000. The present facilities permit the rearing 
of 270 to 290 calves per year.
105. The success of this system can be judged by, at least, three
criteria: calf mortality in 1979 was 0.9%; condition of the animals: 
without exception, the members of the Panel were very impressed with the 
excellent condition of the animals; acceptance by users: the scientists 
using cattle were unanimous in the appreciation of their quality although 
not necessarily so receptive of the results of allocation decisions.
106. Careful consideration must be necessary to increase the calf­
rearing facilities. The possibility is that the increased use of cattle 
described earlier may not require many more of these specially reared 
animals. If expansion does become necessary, it may be tempting to 
provide the accommodation at Kapiti Plains (see paras 110 to 117) because 
of the restricted nature of the ILRAD site. The Review Panel is of the 
opinion that this should not be contemplated nor should any facility be 
provided on the ranch for laboratory work. One minor exception is that
a small room may be required for the work of the Clinical Medicine/ 
Diagnostic Laboratory Unit which will, no doubt, require to collect blood 
samples from the ranch cattle from time to time.
33
107. _W_e_a_n_e_d_ __c_a__tt_le. These animals are purchased around six months of
age and are used in experiments with less exacting requirements than are
met by the animals reared at ILRAD from birth, The same difficulties
arise over their allocation as with reared calves, The numbers required
at the current rate of usage are about 250 to 300 per year.
108. Allocation of cattle. The allocation of cattle is primarily the 
responsibility of the ILRAD Animal Committee. The implementation of the
Committee's decisions is the responsibility of the officer-in-charge of 
the ILRAD Farm Animal Production Unit. Because of limited accommodation 
for rearing, and holding, any delay during any phase of this sequence 
decreases the throughput, Consequently, delays may occur in the scientist
receiving the animals which it had been decided he or she should have. 
This would appear to be a serious cause of frustration but projects are 
in hand to increase the holding and experimental accommodation.
109. Other laboratory animals. Sheep and goats are purchased as required. 
The small animal unit produces large numbers of rats and mice which 
satisfy 80% of the demand for rats and 100% of the demand for mice 
with the exception of small numbers of strains of a specific genetic 
specification; accommodation for the supply of rabbits seems to be limited.
110. An ILRAD cattle production ranch. The original system of
purchasing cattle for experiment had difficulties from the 
beginning. The problem was to identify large enough farms possessing
good records and with a good health history, It was anticipated that
the number of such farms would tend to decrease. The alternative of
ILRAD having its own farm or ranch for animal production began to be 
considered some two years ago and financial provision was requested in 
the budget submission for 1980. This proposal received the approval of
TAC and a total sum of US$1.2 million was allocated for the purchase of
land and livestock.
111. A search for a suitable property was commenced in mid-1979. Two
farms were selected for further study:
1) Marula Estates Limited, Naivasha, and
2) Rapiti Plains Estates Limited, Ronza.
These two farms were examples of what might be possible within the 
financial limit, namely, a relatively small farm on good land (Marula) or 
a large ranch in an arid area (Rapiti Plains). A firm of agricultural 
consultants (Capricorn Consultants Limited, Rilifi) was engaged to conduct 
a study of both properties. As a result of this study it was decided 
that Rapiti Plains Estate provided the better option. The visiting Panel 
visited Rapiti Plains Estated on the 12th of October 1980 and met the 
owner, Mr. F. Howden, who had established the ranch some 40 years ago, 
and Mr. J. Howard, the Estate Manager. The following is a summary of 
the salient points.
34
112. The area of the estate is 13,000 hectares at an altitude of around
1,800 m. The region is arid with an average rainfall of about 500 mm per 
annum. Communications by tarmac road and by rail are good, the distance 
from ILRAD being about 60 km. Although the N.E. boundary is formed by the 
main Mombasa/Nairobi road there is no public road or track crossing the
estate. The sole entrance is from the main road and the internal roads 
are well constructed and well maintained giving access to all parts of the 
estate in all weather. A minor road to Konza runs parallel to the S.E. 
boundary. The Mombasa/Nairobi railway runs parallel to the S.W. boundary 
at a distance of 2.5 to 3 km with the intervening ground in Government 
ownership but undeveloped. The boundary fencing and the internal fencing 
which divides the property into one mile squares is well constructed and 
maintained. The boundary fence on the S.W. boundary is .incomplete but an 
inner perimeter fence is provided by the line of the first of the one mile 
square fences within the boundary. The herd has been built up and 
maintained on a policy of maximum self-containment. All these factors 
account for its excellent health status and its high calving rate.
113. The aridness of the ranch has been overcome by a system of widely
spread boreholes and dams supported by a pipe distribution system and 
catchment furrows providing an adequate water supply. The railway line, 
because of transport of cattle from the coast, presents a slight risk of 
the introduction of infected tsetse flies being brought from the fly 
belts in the coastal area. The undeveloped Government land between the 
railway and the S.W. boundary of the ranch provides a most effective 
barrier which must be preserved. Measures should be taken to ensure that 
if any development of this land is ever contemplated, its use be restricted
to the growing of crops.
114. The conclusion of the consultants was "It is an outstandingly well 
run going concern which any purchaser could take over with minimal 
problems". The Panel was impressed with the excellent condition of the 
cattle, the meticulous way in which the owner had developed an adequate 
supply of water in this arid zone. The owner is sympathetic towards
game, large numbers of which were seen (hartebeeste, Impala, Thomson's
Gazelle and Grant's Gazelle) and which might have to be discouraged or 
other steps taken to limit the problem of contact with the cattle.
115. The principal assets possessed by the property from the point of
view of the ILRAD requirements is its isolation and very limited access 
yet being within easy distance; the self-contained animal population 
which is not exposed in any way to other domesticated stock; the excellent 
condition and health status of the stock; and the stock-carrying capacity 
of the estate which would be sufficient for ILRAD's requirements except,
perhaps, if there were more than two consecutive years of drought, The
rearing of three day old calves at ILRAD would still continue on about 
the same scale as at present but with the calves being supplied from the
!
35
ranch. This procedure is required for the supply of as "clean cattle 
as possible for specific experiments for which such a specification for 
the animals is critical. The Panel believes that special measures will
have to be taken on the Kapiti Plains Estates in view of the large 
numbers of game and in view of the extensive nature of the ranching.
116. An appropriate system would be to erect a game fence around one
portion of the estate within which a herd was maintained for the production 
of the calves for rearing at ILRAD. Special efforts within this enclosed
area would be taken to keep the tick population to a minimum, In addition
I the possibility of introducing game control measures as an exceptional 
procedure should be discussed with the Kenyan authorities, The management
of the estate for many years has been solely for beef production from Boran 
cattle by first-calving heifers calving at about three years of age and 
the produce as steers or surplus heifers, being sold at three years of 
age on a twice yearly basis when their condition was optimum after each
of the two seasons of rains. Culled cows are of course, another product.
117. The ILRAD use of the ranch would make some fundamental changes.
For example, some 250 head previously kept for three years or longer would 
be removed at three days. Some 400 head previously kept for three years 
or longer would be removed at six to nine months. This would have a 
potential advantage in that the carrying capacity for breeding females 
could be increased. This would provide a considerable potential for 
increasing the numbers of animals which could be used for experiment.
The production of a surplus is no problem as they can readily be sold.
Once the ILRAD operation becomes established at Kapiti Plains, consideration 
should be given to the.possibility of using land below a suitable dam 
for the growing of grasses or lucerne for the making of hay. This, of 
course, would require irrigation and a careful assessment would have to 
be made for the consequences of using the scarce resource of water for 
a product which can be purchased from areas of the country with a higher 
rainfall. This suggestion would probably not have been made by the Panel 
had it not noted that the purchase of hay in the past had engendered
problems of various kinds.
118. There are several points which could not be readily assessed by 
the Panel especially the arrangements and their cost that would be necessary 
during the intermediary period of change from the current system to the 
new system. The principal point to be made is that it should not be 
assumed that the ILRAD programme can immediately be substituted for the 
ranch's present programme without the risk of unanticipated problems.
The solving of such problems would undoubtedly incur additional financial 
expenditure. The Panel therefore strongly endorsed the ILRAD proposal to 
employ the present owner as a consultant and to continue to employ the 
present manager as an insurance against any precipitate changes in 
management jeopardising the success of the venture by which the savings 
on calf and cattle purchase would cover the running costs of the Kapiti 
Plains Estate..
36
119. Recommendations. The Review Panel recommends:
i) That the negotiations for the purchase of the leasehold 
and the fixed and movable assets of the Rapiti Plains 
Estate be completed as soon as possible;
ii) That the self-contained characteristics of the herd be 
rigidly maintained;
iii) 'That particular consideration be given to ensuring that 
the calves for rearing at ILRAD are from dams kept as 
free as possible from ticks;
iv) That in view of the much more frequent traffic that will 
be produced by the ILRAD use of the ranch, strict 
discipline be maintained with regard to disinfection of 
cattle trucks and restriction of visitors to those with 
legitimate business;
v) That the Board of Trustees take note that this large 
investment with such a potentially favourable cost/benefit 
ratio could prove to be a financial embarassment unless 
the very highest standards of estate management and 
animal production precepts are observed;
Vi) That the ranch accounts be kept separately and be very 
carefully 'monitored ;
vii) That every effort be made to ensure the preservation of 
the tsetse fly barrier between the railway and the ranch;
viii ) That the possibility of obtaining authorization for 
control of game be discussed with the Kenyan authorities;
ix) That the facilities for housing additional experimental 
animals on ILRAD premises be completed as quickly as 
possible.
V. RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND ACHIEVEMENTS
(a) General Introduction
120. The historical background of ILRAD outlined in Chapter III indicates 
why trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever were initially selected for study 
but it is appropriate here to give more information on the selection of an 
immunological approach to their control.
121. In the case of East Coast Fever, there would be general agreement
among interested scientists that this approach was justified. At that 
time no drugs were available to treat the disease, once clinically 
diagnosed and infected animals almost inevitably died. Even today there 
are no drugs as yet on the market although several promising leads have
37
been established. Even if available the problems of diagnosis and the 
economics of nursing convalescent animals for weeks remain serious drawbacks 
to a chemotherapeutic approach. Finally, (see Introduction to East Coast 
Fever) there was clear evidence that artificial immunization, with some 
important reservations, could be used successfully.
122. The situation was perhaps rather different with trypanosomiasis.
The problems associated with antigenic variation in three species of
parasite seemed to many observers probably insurmountable, On the other
hand, there was no hard data on the actual number of metacyclic antigens
(i.e. from the tsetse fly) and the possibility of "common" antigens was 
unexplored (see Introduction to Trypanosomiasis). There was also clear 
evidence that some West African breeds of cattle are naturally resistant 
to the disease and that East African cattle, with the aid of judicious 
chemotherapy, could develop immunity. If the mechanisms underlying these 
phenomena .could be understood the possibility of vaccination might be 
realized.
123. As far as ILRAD is concerned, it should be pointed out that
research on large animals only became possible with the establishment of 
cattle—rearing facilities two years ago. Prior to that, work was confined 
to trypanosomiasis in small laboratory animals. Only since then have the 
contemporaneous creation of a Tick Unit and a Tsetse Unit made possible 
studies on East Coast Fever (a disease confined to cattle) and metacyclic
trypanosomes. In spite of these limitations the achievements are
considerable.
124. These are still early days, and the "spin off" in terms of antigenic
variation, biochemistry, pathogenesis and immunology in these, perhaps the 
remaining outstanding veterinary problems in the world, is of great interest 
and real value to many aspects of basic and applied science which support 
veterinary and medical research.
125. In this difficult task ILRAD is not isolated. Already a network
of collaboration has been established with centres of excellence in many
countries. Relevant work is in progress in a number of institutes in both 
developing and developed countries. At the local level this includes the 
Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute, Muguga, the Kenyan Veterinary 
Research Institute, Kabete and the International Centre of Insect Physiology 
and Ecology. The Panel is hopeful that collaboration between ILRAD and 
the scientists at these laboratories will become more intensive. The 
signing of a recent agreement between ICIPE and ILRAD is a constructive 
move in this direction which the Panel commends.
(b) Trypanosomiasis
126. _In__t_r_o_d_u__c_t_i_o_n. Trypanosomiasis is a disease complex which affects
both man and his livestock in Africa, Asia and South America. Especially
38
in Africa it is one of the major constraints of rural development and is a 
serious disease of man. The disease in cattle is caused by three species 
of trypanosomes: Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma 
Congolense. The transmission of these three trypanosomes is mainly done 
by the tsetse flies. Trypanosoma evansi may be important in camels; the 
transmission of this species is mainly achieved by bites of bloodsucking 
flies other than tsetse flies. T. gambiense (West Africa) and T. rhodesiense 
(East Africa) are well known human pathogens, transmitted by tsetse as well.
127. Most of the countries south of the Sahara are affected and large
areas potentially capable of raising large and small domestic ruminants 
are not used or only sparingly used for animal production. It is known 
that Africa harbours about 160 million head of cattle and even more sheep
and goats; specialists estimate that these figures, especially those
concerning cattle may be doubled and in some cases even tripled providing
trypanosomiasis can' be kept under permanent control or eradicated.
128. Cattle, sheep and goats as well as other domesticated and wild 
animals may be infected by one, two or three trypanosome species. The animals 
develop an acute or chronic disease showing anemia and weakness and death 
occurs very frequently. In any case productivity is seriously affected and 
the economic losses are very heavy. This correspondingly influences human 
welfare and health.
129. •Some effective methods for control of both animal and human
trypanosomiasis and their vectors are available and it is known that in 
some areas chemotherapy and insecticides have been successfully implemented. 
Nevertheless except in rare areas where success has been obtained after 
great and expensive efforts, trypanosomiasis still constitutes a major 
hazard for man and his livestock; neither chemotherapy nor prophylaxis,
nor the use of short-acting or residual insecticides can be considered as 
yet economic and effective methods against the disease or its vector. The 
use of sterile male technique with tsetse flies is still uncertain and costly.
130. For some years both national and international authorities have
become conscious of the potential importance of the phenomenon of trypano- 
tolerance which is known to be prevalent in some breeds of cattle and small 
ruminants and in many species of wild herbivores as well. Moreover, some 
trypanosolerant animals and maybe man, are capable of self-curing a 
trypanosome infection.
131. Despite the fact that trypanotolerance has been known for nearly 
80 years, very little is known of its mechanism; only recently have modern 
techniques provided some hope for the study of this phenomenon. Its 
understanding could provide an opportunity for the development of many 
areas of Africa. This is quite apart from the opportunity to expand the 
indigenous trypanotolerant breeds of cattle, sheep and goats which survive 
at a very low cost under unfavourable conditions and tsetse pressure. Also 
East Africa may hopefully look to taking advantage of the potential of its 
trypanotolerant wildlife.
39
132. A practical vaccine for animal trypanosomiasis would be of inmense 
value. However, until now, the major constraints which have prevented the
development of a suitable vaccine are:
i) the trypanosomes may escape the host defense mechanism
through their ability to undergo antigenic variation;
ii) there are many different species of trypanosomes and in
the same species one may have different serodemes 
. capable of producing different repertoires of variable
antigens ;
iii) trypanosomes may induce immunosuppression in their hosts 
up to a certain degree depending on the mammalian species.
Recently, however, new knowledge has been acquired in
the fields of biochemistry genetic engineering and
immunology which allows better understanding of the 
intimate physiopathological mechanisms in both mammalian
hosts and flies.
133. Obj ectives. The primary objective is to develop a vaccine for 
trypano somia sis. The major obstacles in achieving this is the ability of
trypanosomes to vary their antigen, the presence of different strains of
T. brucei, T. congolense and T. vivax, (the exact number being unknown) 
and the difficulty in culturing and maintaining in small animals the last
two parasite species, For these reasons efforts are directed at
determining the number of different strains, detecting and enumerating 
the different variant antigens, determining if there is a smaller number 
of metacyclic antigens and searching for common antigens which might 
produce immunity, perhaps combined with inmune manipulation.
134. It is also important to study the mechanism of antigenic variation 
at the gene and cell level in order to develop tools which might interfere
with this process. Methods are being pursued to culture the trypanosomes
in vitro and to produce relevant antigens by recombinant DNA as the latter 
method allows the production of large amounts of antigen not possible by 
isolating these directly from organisms especially T^_ congolense and
T. vivax.
135. Studies on the immune response of the bovine to the various stages
of trypanosomes are important in order to discover mechanisms which may 
be enhanced to produce a vaccine, In addition, the mechanism of killing
of trypanosomes in vitro by different means is being analysed.
136._S_i_n_m_n_a_r_y_ _o_f_ _m__a_j_o_r_ _a_c_h_i_e_v__ements. Some major achievements have been 
made at ILRAD on the study of African trypanosomiasis. These include:
i) The culture of T. brucei in vitro for the first time.
ii) The discovery of a universally cross-reacting antigen 
consisting of carbohydrate-polypeptide.
iii) The demonstration of the rearrangement of gene coding 
for the variant antigen in T_^ brucei and the expression 
of variant antigen in bacteria using recombinant DNA 
technology.
40
iv) The discovery of a unique pathway of glycosylation of the 
carbohydrate base in trypanosomes, not sensitive to 
tunicamycin and which could be the basis for new chemo­
therapy.
V) The definitive demonstration of a restricted number of 
T. gambiense metacyclic antigens using monoclonal anti­
bodies.
Vi) The study of the significance of immunosuppression by 
‘trypanosomes in bovines.
vii) Studies suggesting that stimuli which increase the 
transformation of slender to stumpy forms of 1\_ brucei 
may lead to organisms which can be better handled by 
the host.
viii) Basic studies on antigen variation demonstrating that 
new variants arise as early as six days before the antibody 
response to the initial antigen is present.
ix) The demonstration that the metacylic form of T\_ vivax 
has no coat; in this connection T. vivax membrane antigens 
might be effective in producing immunity to this species.
x) A study of the chancre in cattle and wildlife which may 
be a valuable marker to detect different trypanosome 
strains (serodemes).
xi) Basic studies of the pathology of trypanosomiasis.
xii) The development of a multidisciplinary group! of experts 
with special facilities unique for the study of 
trypanosomiasis and ideal for the transfer of basic 
knowledge to field conditions.
Comments on major achievements
i) Biology
137. The ability to culture Trypanosoma brucei in vitro, at ILRAD, was
a major advance in trypanosomiasis research. This has greatly advanced the 
ability to understand the biology and immunology of the parasite. Since 
the initial studies which achieved international recognition, the complete 
life cycle of T. brucei has been reproduced in culture. Tissue culture
techniques have been improved using bovine epithelial cells which allow 
increase in recovery of the parasite. There still remains a problem in 
obtaining a large number of metacyclic forms. In addition, 42 clones of 
T. brucei have been cloned in vitro. These cloned organisms however, have 
not yet been able to be cultured throughout their cycle.
138. More recently attention has been directed to T. congolense. Tissue
culture would be especially .useful since much smaller numbers of these 
organisms can be recovered from experimental animals for study compared 
to T^ brucei. By the use of endothelial cells as a feeder layer, it has 
been possible to grow T. congolense blood stream forms for about 35 days.
41
Further improved methods for isolating these trypanosomes using Percol 
gradients have been achieved. In contrast to the difficulties in growing
blood stream forms of T. congolense, the developing forms found in the 
insect and which have no coat grow very well.
139. The ability to grow trypanosomes vitro has made possible some 
important studies. It has been possible to show that antigenic variation
will occur in vitro in the complete absence of antibody demonstrating that 
antibody plays a selective role rather than an inductive role in antigenic 
variation. This had been suggested before by other experiments using
x-irradiated animals, The in vitro culture system has been used
successfully to screen trypanocidal drugs and may prove useful in
studying the pharmacodynamics of these drugs.
140. Interesting studies on immune evasion have been carried out. 
Trypanosomes without their antigenic coat are able to activate the 
alternative complement pathway and are lysed whereas blood stream forms 
with their antigenic coat are not; those studies further suggest that 
the coat may have evolved to protect to protozoa from this powerful 
primitive blood lytic system. It further suggests that, were it possible 
to prevent coat formation, the resulting organisms would be rapidly lysed 
in the host.
141. Recent interest has centred on the killing of parasites by toxic
products which result from the oxidation of polyamines by polyamine oxidases. 
African trypanosomes are known to contain the polyamine spermidine. It 
is of interest that six ruminant sera containing polyamine oxidase killed
the trypanosomes in the presence of spermidine; six non-ruminant sera 
lacking this enzyme did not. Studies in the future will be directed to 
see if this killing mechanism can be exploited in host resistance to
trypanosomes.
ii) Immunology
142. Studies have been carried out which carefully analyse the 
phenomenon of antigenic variation. Using cloned ^ brucei organisms it
was confirmed that the progression of antigens A—>B---->C—>D was not
invariable - i.e. that A could progress to a number of other antigens, 
but B was the most common. Of interest was the finding, using the 
fluorescent activation cell sorter, that new variants occurred as early 
as six days after the injection of a clone: long before antibody was 
induced to diminish the number of the earlier variant.
143. Basic studies on the host response to T. brucei may have uncovered
a most interesting finding, namely that slender forms of T^ brucei are 
not recognized by the host at all: and antibodies are only produced when 
the slender trypanosomes change into pleomorphic stumpy forms. Other
42
strains of mice in which the change from slender to stumpy forms is faster 
resist the infection better. When a slender form is injected into the
bovine it becomes pleomorphic and evokes an antibody response, The
proteins of slender and stumpy forms are being analyzed by two dimensional 
gels a most sensitive assay to determine the specific proteins involved
in this transformation, Once detected, the techniques of monoclonal
antibodies, recombinant DNA, and biochemistry will be applied to determine 
how this switch-can be facilitated.
144. Studies on the metacyclic form of cloned T. brucei show that the
number of metacyclic antigens may be limited, Using monoclonal antibodies,
four antigens have been identified, of which two make up over 90% of the 
organisms. When all four monoclonals are used, all the metacyclics are
stained using immunofluorescence, Monoclonals to one strain however do
not stain metacyclics of another strain. Studies on T. congolense are
planned.
145. Of special interest is the finding that the metacyclic form of
T. vivax may have no coat but only a membrane, A common membrane antigen 
has been identified and is being characterized, It is possible that
membrane antigens of these organisms might produce immunity, and this 
deserves further investigation as a possible vaccine.
146'. Studies in the bovine have shown that much of the antibodies IgM
•and IgG in the serum is directed against the trypanosome, This is different
from studies in the mouse which showed that trypanosomes induced a lot of 
IgM and IgG which was not specific for the trypanosome, a phenomenon 
known as polyclonal activation.
iii) Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
147. A universally cross—reacting antigen present in all variant antigens 
so far studied (greater than 20) consists of a protein carbohydrate complex. 
This complex may play a role in building up the variant antigen on the
surface of the blood stream form of the trypanosome. Of interest is the
finding that the build up of carbohydrate on this common antigen, a process 
known as glycosylation, is by a unique metabolic pathway not known to 
exist in mammals, and not inhibited by tunicamycin, an inhibitor of
glycosylation in mammalian systems, Isolation of this enzyme and the
delineation of its mode of action could lead to the search for specific
inhibitors which might lead to a new chemotherapeutic approach to the 
treatment of trypanosomiasis.
148. Studies of synthesis of variant antigen have shown that a protein 
without sugars can be translated by messenger RNA (m RNA) iai vitro.
Sugars are then added inside the trypanosome, in the Golgi endothermic 
reticular system of the cell by glycosylation enzymes, These are inhibited
by tunicamycin. On the other hand the carbohydrate formation of another
chain, which appears to be important for stacking the variant antigen on
43
the surface, is not inhibited by tunicamycin. A number of membrane-
bound enzymes which glycosylate the variant antigen have been identified.
149. Recent studies using a new drug, Sinefungin, which inhibits
methylation show much promise, This drug will inhibit new mRNA synthesis:
it might thus inhibit the appearance of new variant antigens.
150. The first cloning of a parasite gene and the expression of
V»
parasite antigen by recombinant DNA technology was carried out at ILRAD. 
Further studies are contributing to the understanding of the mechanism 
of antigenic variation at the gene level. Recombinant DNA technology is 
a powerful tool which has the possibility for example, of producing large 
quantities of T. vivax and T^_ congolense metacyclic or other antigens.
iv) Pathology
151. The ongoing studies in this field are: the susceptibility of the
host to infection and the factors involved; the kinetics of the parasite
populations in the hosts; the pathogenesis; the mechanism of the immune 
reaction in the host at the time of infection and through its course; the 
methods to detect the parasite and the host reactions particularly the
immune response.
152. The appearance of a swelling, the so-called chancre, in human
beings after the bite of an infected tsetse fly is a phenomenon known for 
a long time. It is the place of the first contact between the parasite 
and the host; it is important to have valuable and exact information 
about the immune reaction which takes place on this site.
153. Studies have been carried out with T. congolense, T. brucei and
T. vivax in cattle and goats. Microscopical changes could be found at 
the bite site; the trypanosomes seem to multiply in the skin itself and 
this is associated with a marked lymphoid cellular reaction. Another
interesting immune phenomenon was the different reaction against homologous 
and heterolous challenges which reflected the difference in serodemes 
and could be used as a biological marker; this could be a first step in 
the study of a feasible metacyclic vaccine, provided the number of 
serodemes is low. Further experience in this field is urgently needed.
154- In view of the practical application of immunization procedures,
studies have been carried out to assess the use of adjuvants in 
potentiating different types of immune responses in cattle; the antigen 
used was variant specific surface antigen, biochemically well characterized; 
marked differences were observed depending on the kind of adjuvants used 
and some promising protective reactions were observed.
44
155. As the phenomenon of immunosuppression in laboratory animals has 
been known for a few years, it was interesting to study the reaction in 
cattle as well, in order to determine the susceptibility to infection
with trypanosomes and other pathogenic agents, Preliminary studies in
cattle have already given evidence that there are different reactions
in mice and in cattle; in the latter species there seems to be no
significant degree of depression.
156. The reason why animals die from trypanosomiasis is mainly anaemia;
studies in this field will be continued since many pathogenic mechanisms
remain obscure, It should be noted that the laboratory of pathology
plays a service role for the other laboratories of ILRAD.
157. Trypanotolerance. It is recognized that the exploitation of 
trypanotolerant breeds of cattle offers one of the most important 
additional methods for the control of animal African trypanosomiasis, 
particularly in the humid savanna areas of West Africa.
158. Recent scientific advances at ILRAD in the understanding of the
immune response to trypanosomes in cattle, have provided the ILRAD 
scientists with the opportunity to investigate the basic mechanisms of
trypanotolerance. At the same time important field studies have been 
carried out in the Gambia; the objectives were to study the mechanism 
of the trypanotolerant phenomenon in N'Dama cattle in its natural environ­
ment and to compare it with the reactions of trypano-sensitive zebu cattle.
159. For the first time a large-scale comparative study of zebu and 
N'Dama cattle has unequivocally demonstrated the advantage of the
N'Dama cattle in terms of parasitaemia, morbidity, mortality and self
cure. Several papers on this study were issued and the Panel expects that 
a comprehensive report for wider circulation be published, possibly 
as a joint venture between ILRAD, FAO and ILCA.
160. More information is required about several aspects of trypanotolerance
which include:
i) the mechanism underlying trypanotolerance and the 
environmental factors which might affect trypano­
tolerance;
ii) the genetics of trypanotolerance; this information
is essential for future breeding programmes;
iii) the identification of a genetic marker for trypano­
tolerance;
iv) the evaluation of the productivity of trypanotolerant 
breeds living under different levels of challenge and 
kept under different management systems.
45
161. This work should be linked to the FAO African Trypanosomiasis
Control-Programme and the ILCA network in West Africa established to 
evaluate the productivity of trypanotolerant livestock (point (iv) above). 
Potential sites include the Gambia, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Togo and
Zaire. This ambitious but highly valuable five year project will need
on ILRAD's side the participation of two scientists; the related costs
are likely to be obtained through special funding in view of the interest 
of recipient and donor' countries in this area.
162. The Tsetse Unit. Soon after starting studies in trypanosomiasis
it became evident to ILRAD scientists that the establishment of a tsetse
fly breeding unit on the premises itself was needed, An isolated 1
independent building was built providing room for breeding different
species of Glossina under natural and artificial feeding procedures as 
well. The following tsetse flies are already reared or will be in the 
near future: Glossina morsitans morsitans, £.m. centralis, £. pallidipes, 
G. fuscipes fuscipes, £. austeni and £. brevipalpis. The Glossina 
morsitans morsitans breeding unit is the most important one, harbouring 
about 9,000 breeding females; the other species will be maintained at 
1,200 breeding females each. Natural bloodsucking feeding is carried 
out on rabbits. Besides this classical system an _in vitro system 
utilizing silicone membranes has been developed successfully.
163. The main function of the tsetse unit is to provide the different
ILRAD scientists with both infected and non-infected flies. £. congolensq, 
T. vivax and £. brucei are used to infect the tsetse-. In the tsetse unit 
1 itself or in collaboration with other ILRAD scientists the following 
research projects are undertaken or will start in the near future:
i) Comparative studies on the vectorial capacity of 
G.m. morsitans and G.m. centralis for £. brucei,
T. congolense and vivax;
ii) Studies to discover if the establishment of trypanosomes 
is genetically determined;
iii) The development of the trypanosomes in tsetse flies 
in terms of transmission to hosts. This will include 
studies on the infection rate and transmission index;
iv) Feeding behaviour in relation to epidemiology;
v) Artificial membrane feeding on wildlife blood in 
terms of epidemiology;
vi) The "chancre" in different host species including 
wildlife.
46
;
164. The well equipped and maintained fly-rooms allow a meticulous 
monitoring of the colonies, which is the first step to a comprehensive
genetic approach. Emphasis is put on two main points: epidemiology
and the preliminary phase of the immune process in the host, These
studies are conducted with high accuracy and deserve great interest and
support.
(c) Theileriasis
165. Introduction. East Coast Fever (ECF) caused by Theileria parva
is the most important tick-borne disease of cattle in East and parts of 
Central Africa. Annual mortality has been estimated in the region of
half a million cattle each year, This loss represents an enormous
drain on the agricultural resources of the countries affected, where 
cattle play an important role in the economy of rural communities as
well as the countries as a whole, In addition, the improvement of breeds
by using exotic stock is prevented, because of the complete susceptibility 
of exotic breeds to ECF. Advances have been made in the understanding
of ECF during the last decade, particularly at the former East African 
Veterinary Research Organization (EAVRO) now KARI (Kenyan Agricultural 
Research Institute) at Muguga in Kenya. Immunization of cattle was 
achieved by concurrent injection of a normally lethal dose of sporozoites 
with tetracycline drugs. However, immunity was confined to homologous 
challenge and immunized animals were not necessarily protected against 
challenge with heterologous strains of T^ parva and T^_ mutans. This problem 
was partly overcome by using a "cocktail" consisting of sporozoites of 
several T. parva strains, but it has been more difficult to protect cattle 
against the various strains of T^_ parva lawrencei carried by the African 
buffalo which serves as a reservoir host of this T. parva sub-species.
166. Another immunization method has been developed against T. annulata
by the Kmron Veterinary Institute in Beit Dagan, Israel, T. annulata
causes a disease in cattle similar to that caused by T. parva. This
disease is of great importance for a large number of countries; virtually all 
countries between 10° and 40°N from Morocco to Bangladesh are affected.
Lymphoblastoid cell-lines infected with macroschizonts of T^ annulata 
were passaged 100 to 300 times until attenuation of the parasites was
achieved. Attenuation does not impair immunogenicity of live schizonts.
Cattle are vaccinated with such schizonts. Recently the inoculum has
been made available in the frozen state and more than 10,000 animals
have been vaccinated up to now. The vaccine does not produce carriers
since the attenuated macroschizonts have lost their ability to transform
into microschizonts. Hence parasitaemia is not induced by vaccination
and the vaccine strain cannot be transmitted by ticks. The protection
induced by attenuated macroschizonts is usually sufficient except in 
pregnant cows or after very severe exposure to infected ticks. Although
47
killed antigen from macroschizonts induces immunity against the 
macroschizonts it does not protect against sporozoite challenge.
167. Thus it has been shown in principle that cattle can successfully 
be immuni zed against both 1\_ parva and T^_ annulata; these results 
suggest that it may well be possible to develop a practical immunization 
method against parva and that other stages than the sporozoite stage 
may be potent immunogens. It would be desirable to develop a vaccine 
containing only killed antigen, or, at least, stages which will not 
develop further to the tick-infective forms in the red blood cells.
168. Objectives. The primary objective is the development of a vaccine 
against ECF; the major problem encountered in the field is the existence
of antigenically different strains that do not induce cross-protection. 
Such strains, especially those showing major antigenic differences, should
•I
be identified.
169. Successful research on 1\_ parva can be carried out on a large 
scale only if a steady supply of sporozoites, macroschizont-infected
cells and other material is available. To this end it should be possible 
to select highly susceptible tick strains which will produce large 
numbers of sporozoites. In addition, _in vitro techniques for the 
production of sporozoites or sporozoite antigens should be developed if 
possible.
170. Macroschizont production in lymphoblastoid cell cultures should
be improved since large scale production would probably be necessary. 
Besides sporozoites and macroschizonts, the culture of other stages 
(sexual stages, kinetes, erythrocytic stages) would be extremely 
helpful for further research, e.g. cloning of parasite strains and 
isolation of stage-specific antigens. A major objective is the cloning 
and purification of developmental stages of parva, especially of 
sporozoites and macroschizonts.
171. The development of T. parva in its bovine and its tick host is 
insufficiently known and requires further research. The target cells 
of the sporozoites in the bovine host should be identified, as well as 
possible secondary host cells of macroschizonts. It would also be 
desirable to identify the haploid and diploid stages in the tick vector.
172. Another objective of the programme would be the appreciation of
the mechanisms underlying acquired immunity to theilerial parasites i
using the bovid/T. parva model. In theory these could depend on a humoral 
response against the sporozoites inoculated by the tick or on a cell- 
mediated reaction against the schizont-infected cells. Generally speaking 
most workers have favoured the latter explanation since protective anti­
body has never been adequately demonstrated in the past and since 
immuni zed cattle usually show only a mild schizont reaction after 
challenge.
!
48
173. Before the inception of ILRAD information on these mechanisms was 
limited ; this was due partly to the difficulties associated with working
with the disease outside East Africa; also within East Africa the
previous remit was to develop practical techniques of immunization.
174. The pathology of East Coast Fever has not been extensively 
st^’d ied. It is. important to know how the parasite becomes established 
and operates in the host and the mechanisms by which clinical disease 
is produced. In particular it is important to study quantified infections
since the hope of a successful vaccine may depend on the events subsequent 
to minimal infective doses and whether or not these can induce a 
protective response.
175. A study of adjuvants to potentiate the immune response is desired 
since little is known about this in the bovid; since adjuvants may be 
necessary in both candidate trypanosomiasis and theilerial vaccines, a
study of these in relation to humoral and cell-mediated responses is a
sensible objective.
176. Summary of major achievements. These include:
i) An isolated area for epidemiological studies and 
vaccination trials has been selected and evaluated;
ii) Sufficient supply with infected ticks has been achieved 
by establishing a tick unit;
iii) Three T.£. parva and one T._p. lawrencei strains have 
been cloned in lymphoblastoid cell lines (total:
32 clones);
iv) A start has been made to analyse DNA in Theileria 
parasites. Recombinant DNA technology could 
conceivably be used for antigen production;
v) Analysis structures and functions of the salivary 
glands of the tick vector are making excellent 
progress;
vi) The development of vitro techniques which 
indicate that cell-mediated immune responses 
; are highly relevant in the acquisition of resistance 
in designing vaccination methods and in typing 
Theileria strains;
vii) A preliminary study has been made which indicates 
that anti-sporozoite antibody may also be highly 
important in the immune response;
49
vii i ) A study of the sequential pathogenesis of the disease 
and the kinetics of the infection in the lymphoid 
system is largely completed.
Comments on major achievements
i) Epidemiology
177. The area chosen for epidemiological study is the Coast Province of
Kenya where ECF is endemic but limited in distribution by ecological 
boundaries which determine the survival of the vector. This study will
be conducted in the Kilifi District in close collaboration with the Kenyan 
Veterinary Services. One strain Thjp. parva (Kilifi) has already been 
investigated and typed. It appeared to be identical with another strain 
of T. parva (Muguga) on both _in vivo cross immunity trials and ju vitro 
monoclonal and cell cytotoxicity tests. The fact that these two strains 
from distant areas are antigenically identical gives hope that the number 
of different strains is limited in the study area.
ii) Parasitology
178. The supply of the research units of ILRAD with infected ticks or
with sporozoites and their stabilates has been much improved during the 
last two years by the tick unit, A significant increase in infection rates
of ticks was achieved by selection of certain tick strains.
179. Cell lines (lymphoblastoid cells infected with macroschizonts) from
four isolates of T\_ parva (T\_p. Muguga, lh£. Kiambu 5, ^T._p. lawrencei 
Serengeti, l\_p. Kilifi) have been cloned. The clones were partly identified 
on the basis of host cell karyotypes and iso-enzyme patterns.
180. Recombinant DNA technology has been introduced and the first 
results have been obtained with variant-antigen genes of trypanosomes. 
Since this new technology is available important studies can be carried 
out with Theileria genes.
181. The structure and function of the acini and cell types of salivary
glands of unfed and fed adults of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus have been 
described. The cell types-in which Theileria sporozoites
develop can now be identified with certainty. Preliminary results were 
achieved on the structure of T. parva sporozoites and on the transformation
of their host cell.
iii) Immunology
182. Detailed studies on the immune reaction against the schizont have 
utilized the fact that schizonts may be grown _iu vitro in cultures of 
lymphoid cells which become "transformed" after infection with sporozoites. 
It has been shown that the transformed cell bears the phenotype of a
50
mature T-cell. Current research is attempting to show whether this implies 
that only T-cells or perhaps only sub-sets of T-cells are infected by 
sporozoites or whether other cell types may become infected and after 
transformation express a T-cell phenotype.
183. It has also been shown that the lymphocytes of donor calves mount
in vitro responses against their own transformed cell lines: a mixed
lymphocyte reaction (MLR), an index of cell mediated immunity is mounted 
by the cells of donor calves against their own transformed cell line.
This was first demonstrated in collaborative work with the Kenya: Agriculture 
Research Institute (KARI). One interesting observation is that while 
lymphocytes from cattle undergoing infection or immunization provoke KLR 
reactions, those from •immune cattle which resist challenge, as demonstrated 
by the absence of schizonts, do not. This perhaps suggests that" in these 
cattle a very early immune response is elicited.
184. A highly significant advance in this area of immunology has been
the demonstration that lymphoid cells from immune animals show cytotoxic 
reactions against Theileria-transformed cell lines (cell-mediated 
lympholysis- CML). Further, the reaction is MHC restricted (i.e. the 
cells of immune animals are only effective against their own infected 
cells and not those from other bovines).
185. This observation is important in three ways: it demonstrates a 
mechanism of resistance; it shows that immune T lymphocytes must recognize 
both parasite antigens and MHC antigens on the surface of the infected 
cell. This is of great relevance in vaccination techniques; it hopefully 
provides a simple, cheap and rapid technique for typing Theileria strains 
from any area without the need to undertake long, cumbersome and 
expensive cross immunization experiments.
186. Other aspects currently under study include a categorization of the
cell types involved in cell mediated reactions in the bovine, a rather 
neglected subject, using the MLR and CML reactions.
187. An interesting observation has been that sporozoites incubated with
antibody raised in rabbits and subsequently inoculated into cattle failed 
to produce infection. This suggests that a sporozoite antibody may also 
be useful for strain typing and is possibly encouraging for vaccine develop­
ment, perhaps ultimately with recombinant DNA technique.
iv) Pathology
188. In the field of pathogenesis one of the main accomplishments has
been a study of the interaction of sporozoites with host cells; it has confirmed 
that the addition of infective tick salivary gland material to bovine 
lymphocytes _in vitro and the subsequent inoculation of the washed cells 
into syngeneic or allogeneic cattle will establish infection in the
51
former (as few as 103 cells) but not in the latter (up to 106 cells); an
important point as regards a potential live sporozoite vaccine is that 
there seems to be a narrow margin between the establishment of a lethal 
infection and failure to establish any infection; this work is continuing.
189. The study of the establishment of infection with schizont-
infected cell lines has highlighted that the situation is rather similar 
in that infection may be induced with 103 infected cells in syngeneic 
hosts whereas more than 106 cells are required in allogeneic cattle.
However, in contrast to sporozoites, there seems to be a wider dose-
range within which animals recover from the infection. The pathogenesis
of East Coast Fever has been examined with particular emphasis on the
kinetics of the infection in the lymphoid system, This may be of great 
importance in the designing of a live vaccine, The results showed that
the increase in parasite numbers does not follow a simple exponential 
pattern but that 8-10 days after infection the level of parasitism was
still less £han 1%.
190. A long overdue study in the history of ECF, now largely completed,
has dealt with the dissemination of the disease in the host and the
resultant lesions. It describes the sequential pathogenesis of the
disease from the initial germinal centre response to the parasite in the 
drainage lymph node to the final lesions associated with lymphocytolysis.
191. As regards adjuvants, this work on cattle is quite recently
established.
192. _T_h_e_ _T__ick Unit. The tick unit was established in June 1978, and
is managed by one scientist who is supported by a technician, Colonies
of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus; R. evertsi; Amblyomma variegatum and 
Boophilus decoloratus were obtained from various sources. Sporozoite- 
stabilates were or will be made of: Theileria parva parva (Muguga) ;
parva (Kiambu 5); T. mutans and T. velifera.
193. The main function of the tick unit is the supply to ILRAD
scientists of sporozoite stabilates, infected and non-infected ticks and 
with material from infected and non-infected cattle. The tick unit itself 
and in collaboration with other institutions has undertaken to initiate
the following projects: studies on sporozoites of parva ; in vitro
culture of various stages of T.j). parva ; tick cell culture; preparation 
of transformed and autologous lymphoblastoid cell lines; development of 
more efficient techniques of infecting ticks with Theileria; cloning of 
T. parva kinetes (Babesia bigemina is used as a model); _in vitro 
production of ecdysteroids by tick tissues; production of large numbers 
of ticks for infestation of experimental paddocks.
194. The well managed unit is fulfilling a key service function for
ILRAD and cooperating institutions. Further expansion of the unit is
necessary.
52
VI. TRAINING, COMMUNICATION & TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
(a) Training
195. The mandate of ILRAD provides, among others, for the training of
different levels of man-power in furtherance of its objectives; according
to the Memorandum of Agreement it was envisaged that training could take 
different forms among which are;
organization of discussion groups, seminars, workshops and 
conferences on topics related to the work of the Laboratory;
provision of opportunities for advanced professional training 
and experience in animal disease research within the scope 
of the Laboratory in cooperation with Universities and other 
research institutes;
training of scientists who will be involved in research, 
education and action programmes in cooperating countries in 
which the Laboratory's programme will be applicable; and
assistance to cooperating countries in using and applying 
i tbe research results of the Laboratory.
:
196. _O_r_g_a__n_iz__a_t_io__n. The programme is under the direction of a Training
and Outreach Officer who has the responsibility for expanding an existing 
on-the-job technician's training programme, the coordination of training 
; for higher degrees and the organization of conferences, This officer was
, annointed in August 1979 and is supported in the technician s training 
programme by two other experienced senior officers (one a Research 
Associate and the other the ILRAD Services Officer), The policy of the
training programme is formulated by the ILRAD s Training Committee which 
is responsible to the Board of Trustees through the Board s Training
Committee.
197. _T_e__c_h_n_icians' training. Trainee technicians are given on-the-job
training in their respective laboratories and formal training on a day- 
release basis at the Kenya Polytechnic, Nairobi, Different courses are
offered and of different duration, varying from three months (pre-technician's 
course) to three years (Ordinary Diploma in Laboratory Technology). A 
total of 19 trainees are presently enrolled in different courses at the 
Polytechnic. In vie-w of shortage of trained manpower, ILRAD has taken
steps to strengthen the Kenya Polytechnic in order to ensure that 
technicians needed for its work can be adequately trained and also to
contribute to trained manpower supply in the area, In this respect, some
of ILRAD's staff are already involved in the teaching of certain courses 
at the Polytechnic which are relevant to its needs and also participate 
in joint training efforts with ICIPE, Kenya Veterinary Research Institute, 
Muguga, Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, Kabete and the Veterinary
t
53
Faculty of the University of Nairobi, Also because no suitable course
exists in the Polytechnic for animal attendants, ILRAD is planning to 
mount a suitable course for its staff on the production of laboratory
animals and laboratory animal medicine so that a diploma to be awarded 
will be recognized throughout Kenya.
198. Undergraduate training. During 1980, four undergraduates from the 
University of Nairobi were employed .at ILRAD during the summer vacation 
and were exposed to the activities of the different laboratories as part 
of training, for future participation in the centre's programme. The
Panel does not feel able to justify this programme because it is not 
particularly relevant, has limited productivity, and imposes additional 
burden on the Centre that may affect more relevant training programmes.
199._P_o__s_tg__ra__d_u_a_t_e_ __tr_a__ining. A significant part of ILRAD's training
programme is postgraduate training. Arrangements are being negotiated 
with the Universities of Guelph and Nairobi and with the New York and
Washington States Veterinary Colleges for suitable candidates to be 
registered at the Universities and carry out in ILRAD, research relevant 
to its programme. Such students will be supervised by ILRAD's scientists 
with support from postdoctoral fellows. At present, ILRAD has eight 
postgraduate students who are doing research leading to a Ph.D. degree. 
Three of the students are sponsored by ILRAD, two by the Kenya Government, 
two by the Government of the Sudan and one by WHO/Kenya Government. These 
graduates come from different countries including Uganda, Kenya, Australia, 
and Rwanda. It is projected that the number of postgraduate students 
registered at any (one time may reach as many as twenty, dependent on the 
number of core scientists.
200. There are at present no clearly defined procedures on how post- 
graduates are selected, it would therefore be desirable for ILRAD to
establish contacts with African institutions and universities in the
above fields and systematically identify promising individuals who could 
be incorporated into the training programme of ILRAD, and particularly 
:: into the postgraduate component, For Ph.D students in particular, it
would seem best to have arrangements whereby one to two years would be 
| spent at a university doing course work and the rest at ILRAD. The research 
projects, once defined by the ILRAD training committee, should be advertised 
and the best candidates sought. ILRAD should closely collaborate in this 
1 respect with IBAR/OAU, FAO and Association of African Universities. A 
meeting of interested African institutions and universities would also 
help ILRAD in this endeavour.
201. Postdoctoral training. Originally, postdoctorals were conceived 
primarily within the training structure of ILRAD. The oustanding calibre 
of those recruited over the years has, in fact, shown that this group should 
i not come primarily under training but be included within the scientist 
; staffing structure, a trend which ILRAD has followed. At present, 13
.-
■
!
,:
54
postdoctorals, six of whom are supported from outside sources, are in post, 
most of them are from the more developed countries of the world. There
are still eight ILRAD budgeted positions to be filled. The Panel is of
the strona opinion that postdoctorals should not be part of the training 
component of the institute but should be part of the staffing pattern.
202. International Training Courses
i) African Trypanosomiasis, ILRAD was involved in the leadership
training course on African trypanosomiasis jointly organized in 1977 with
OAU/FAO/WHO at ILRAD's facilities. Seventy-one participants from 31
African countries participated in the training which aimed at equipping 
individuals capable of training others with necessary technical skill so 
as to strengthen national institutions and form a basis upon which future
work of the cooperating bodies can be applied to field problems.
ii) UNESCO/ICRO*/ILRAD/DSE**/WHO Course. This course titled:
"Advanced Techniques in Immunological and Biochemical Approaches to 
Haemoparasitic Research" was held at ILRAD in September 1980 and provided 
participants opportunity to study modern parasitological, biochemical and 
immunological techniques used in the study of blood—borne parasites. 
Sixteen participants most of whom were from African countries took part
in the course.
203. Miscellaneous Training
i) Cooperative programme with GTZ. Under this programme,
research workers from Germany can come to ILRAD for research experience 
and training, Two German research workers have benefitted under this
scheme.
ii) Participation of staff in other training programmes.
ILRAD's staff have participated in the training courses organized by the 
International Atomic Energy Agency on the application of nuclear techniques 
in animal parasitology and the FA0/WH0/0AU training seminar on 
trypanosomiasis held at Bobo—Dioulasso, Upper Volta.
!
Conferenc
f 204.___________
e_s_ _and Workshops. Dissemination of information and
communication are also ensured by conferences and workshops, One conference
held in 1979 on the "Beneficial Application of in vitro techniques to 
Health and Economy of Developing Nations" was jointly sponsored with the 
United States Agency for International Development, FAO, the Rockefeller 
Foundation, WHO and the Wellcome Trust.
* ICRO = International Cell Research Organization. 
** DSE = Deutsche Stiftung ftir Entwicklungshilfe.
55
205. Two training conferences were also held in 1979, one on "Recent
Developments in Research on Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases in Kenya , and 
the other one "Immune System and Parasites". Also in 1979, a workshop 
was held at ILRAD, in collaboration with WHO on the "In vitro Cultivation 
of Major Tropical Disease Pathogens". In 1980 a conference on "The 
Impact of Research and Animal Disease Control on Livestock Production", 
was held with the collaboration of IBAR (OAU), ILCA and the Association
of Institutes for Tropical Veterinary Medicine.
206. _O__b_s_e_r_v_a__ti_o_n_s. Training represented in 1980 about 2.7% of the
operational budget of ILRAD and for 1981 it is envisaged that it would 
represent about 4.8% of the above total, the calculations having taken 
into account in addition to stipends and cost of reagents, the cost of 
animals used by the laboratories where the postgraduates have been training. 
The amount of resources devoted to training is somewhat misleading as the 
indirect costs, related to laboratory work, are particularly high, due 
for instance to the rather generous use of equipment and supplies. This 
does not imply, however, that an increase in postgraduates will necessarily 
be accompanied by a comparable increase in the demand for large animals
and thus increased cost.
207. Training and technology transfer have not, as yet, found their 
proper niche in the planning and strategy of ILRAD. The major cause of 
this situation has been the full concentration of ILRAD staff attention 
and efforts in the formulation and implementation of their respective 
research programmes. ILRAD has, therefore, selected institutes of 
advanced learning in Kenya for collaborative efforts in training (Kenya 
I
; Polytechnic and Nairobi University) and has established with institutions 
\: existing in Kenya joint research programmes (with the Kenya Veterinary 
Research Organization, Muguga, the Veterinary Laboratories, Kabete, and 
the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi).
208. While the efforts of ILRAD in training courses must be commended
in view of the short period of its existence, the above situation must 
be improved because ILRAD is an international institution and should devote 
the same attention and energy to fulfilling its Africa-wide mandate as
other Africa-based IARCs, i.e. WARDA, IITA and ILCA.
209. This would evidently entail the reappraisal of the resources to
be devoted to training and of the budgetary allocations, It should also
make imperative a better definition of training priorities and policies 
and the establishment of a functional training unit. Irrespective of 
ILRAD's achievements in attaining one or both of its major objectives, 
the scientific work at ILRAD is of such a high standard that its training
component could well be one of the major assets of the Centre.
210. Apart from these practical and essential considerations it is
also mandatory for the Centre to contribute significantly to the improve-
56
ment of the research capabilities of African states in the fields of 
parasitology, biology, pathology, immunology and biochemistry. A planned 
process of technology transfer should be instituted with less ad hoc 
arrangements in the choice of collaborative projects and more attention 
paid to linking training to subsequent transfer of ILRAD's technology and 
results. In other words ILRAD has so far confined itself to narrow 
territorial limits as regards technology transfer in the belief that the 
vaccines, once discovered, would then easily be transferred to interested 
countries. The first years' of ILRAD's activities have demonstrated 
that the work is even more complex than anticipated and it is therefore 
recommended that technology generation and transfer include a wider and 
more active participation of scientists and institutions in African and 
possibly other countries.
(b) Documentation
211. Library. The Panel is satisfied with the services provided by the 
library to ILRAD's scientific staff and trainees. During the last two 
years, it has increased its journal holdings from 62 to 233 titles which 
cater to most of the needs of the different research disciplines. The 
library also carries a substantial number (about 2,000) of relevant books 
and some documents. Journals or books not available in its holdings are 
usually obtained through the inter-library loan, a system which has 
worked satisfactorily. Back copies of journals are held as'microfiches 
or microforms. Photocopies of original documents are made .available to 
staff requiring them. The possibilities for ILRAD to be linked with a 
computerized retrieval .system should be explored.
212. Organization and future plans. The library has a professional
librarian who is in charge and is assisted by two graduate assistant 
librarians and a library assistant. The library committee of the institute 
is responsible for overseeing the library activities and decides, based 
on consultation with scientific staff which journals should be added, 
which should be continued and which should be discontinued. Although 
there was no indication of future plans, it is clear that with the develop­
i ment at ILRAD, the library will be involved in the extraction of abstracts 
■
of work relevant to ILRAD's activities for circulation amongst the 
scientific staff and also in preparing bibliography for the two major 
diseases of its concern, trypanosomiasis and theileriasis.
(c) Communications and Information
213. The communication and information section of ILRAD is more or
less in its embryonic stage and would need to develop fast in order to 
cope with anticipated activities of ILRAD. It is expected that this 
section will be responsible for collating materials for the annual reports, 
for the translation of printed materials and the distribution of information
57
on ILRAD to interested organizations and individuals, So far the annual
research and training report of ILRAD is the only communication which
aims at giving an overview of ILRAD's progress; it is highly technical
in nature and represents an assembly of scientific papers written by
groups of scientists; it is suggested that a newsletter, or a "research 
highlights", type of report be published so as to make ILRAD better 
known in the world at large, and particularly in Africa. ILRAD could 
also profitably participate in the FAO/WHO/OAU Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis 
Information and News Service.
214. At the present time, communication from ILRAD is unilingual; 
efforts must be made to reach those Francophone and possibly Portuguese 
speaking areas of Africa that will make use of developments at ILRAD.
The question of language is so important to the communitation process in 
Africa that ILRAD cannot afford to be unconcerned. Among the four 
Africa-based IARCs, ILRAD is the only one which is strictly unilingual; 
this is largely due to the absence of a well structured training policy 
and of any outreach programme; however as suggested in other parts of 
the report the situation is bound to change rapidly and ILRAD would need 
to devote resources to the translation of the proposed research Newsletter/ 
Highlights and to the language training of ILRAD staff and prospective 
postgraduates. With the modern audiovisual methods now available, the 
solution of this problem is no longer lengthy nor difficult.
(d) Recommendations
215. In general, the Panel is favourably impressed with the efforts
: made by ILRAD since its inception to develop its training programme in 
order to meet the challenge of strengthening its African input, and lay 
good basis for technology transfer. In particular, the Panel strongly 
commends ILRAD's efforts in the Technicians' training programme, endorses 
the collaborative arrangements in training both at the technician and 
postgraduate levels being negotiated with Universities, national and 
international organizations; and endorses the organization by ILRAD 
either jointly with other organizations or singly, of workshops, seminars 
and conferences as a means of training, informing scientists of the work 
of ILRAD and of facilitating beneficial interaction of research workers.
216. The Panel recommends:
i) that Technicians' training be extended to include 
whenever possible, technicians from countries other 
than the East African subregion;
ii) that ILRAD's training programme receive high priority 
in resource allocation in order that the institute 
can better fulfill its mandate for technology
transfer. In this respect, the Panel recommends that
58
ILRAD should not wait for a scientific breakthrough 
before a substantial training of African scientists 
is undertaken;
iii) that a better arrangement for identification and selection 
of potential postgraduate students and delineation of 
their research areas, than presently operates, be worked 
out. The Panel recommends that African Universities and
institutions be closely involved in the selection of 
Suitable postgraduate students;
iv) that selected postgraduate students be sent to cooperating 
Universities to undertake relevant course work before 
returning to ILRAD to pursue their research thesis.
This necessarily reduces the amount of workload imposed 
on scientific staff in terms of instruction and offers 
better chances that the target number of postgraduates 
can be attained;
v) that postdoctoral fellow’s should be part of the staffing 
pattern and not of the training programme;
Vi) the introduction of short-term courses, either on 
individual basis for the acquisition of specialized 
techniques or on group basis as a means of additional 
training and contribution to technology transfer;
vii) that ILRAD strengthens its communication and information 
section, produces a Newsletter or Research Highlights in 
English and French that will be widely distributed and 
ensure its annual reports reach as many institutes and 
individuals as possible especially within Africa to avoid 
the criticisms of many African countries of their 
ignorance of ILRAD's excellent work.
VII. FUTURE PLANS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
217. Starting from an assessment of the ongoing research on trypanosomiasis 
and theileriasis the Panel has examined the future plans and activities 
of the Institute as published in a document submitted to the Panel by the 
Director and entitled "The Next Five Years at ILRAD", dated February 1980.
The document, which has not been examined in detail by the Board of Trustees 
pending the reaction of the Quinquennial Review Panel, describes proposals 
for further study on trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever. It also makes 
suggestions for new ventures.
218. The Panel considers that some of the proposals are especially
productive and these are described below in two sections, one on 
trypanosomiasis and one on East Coast Fever. The exact sequential priority 
of these projects and thus the specific allocation of personnel and other
• .. *
59
funds should be determined by discussion between the Director, the co­
ordinators, with concrete inputs of the Scientific Advisory and Programme 
Committees.
219. By their nature, some of the projects are short-term, of two or
three years duration, whereas others - such as field work studies - are
long-term. Nevertheless the Panel recommends that each project be 
assessed annually and their internal priorities reappraised every two 
years in preparation of the biennial budget. The Panel's comments oc the 
proposals for new ventures follow under section (c).
(a) Trypanosomiasis
220. Immuno-epidemiology
1
 studies, including isolation of type serodemes 
from the Kilifi area and the determination of the frequency of infection 
by trypanosomes. This is a prerequisite for estimating the heterogeneity 
of the metacyclic challenge necessary to appraise the feasibility of a 
vaccination programme. It is important to develop methods to culture 
T. congolense and T. vivax in vitro and to facilitate their propagation 
in small animals. It is crucial to be able to handle these strains in 
order to evaluate and study the different strains (serodemes) in the field. 
Various methods should be applied to
identify the serodemes and delineate immune mechanismsi to produce 
monoclonal antibodies to variant and common antigens, bovine immunoglobulin 
classes, specific bovine lymphocyte markers and methods to detect cellular 
immunity _in vitro and jLn vivo to trypanosomes including the use of the 
chancre. Current studies on the "interference phenomenon" observed when 
trypanosomes infection of one species is superimposed on another species, 
should be continued.
221. Project on the characteristics and number of metacyclic antigens
of T. brucei, T. congolense and T. vivax. It appears that there are less 
variants of metacyclic antigens than variants of blood stream form 
antigens. Further, there are studies that suggest that animals immunized 
with metacyclic antigen by tsetse of one strain are immune to that strain, 
but not to others. It is thus necessary to pursue these findings by 
determining the number of metacyclic antigens present and whether they 
can induce immunity. These antigens may also be useful in developing 
reagents for research use in the field. An alternative approach to typing 
serodemes utilizing recombinant DNA technology should be explored.
222, T. vivax project. It is.important to confirm the preliminary
electron microscopy findings that the metacyclic form of T. vivax is 
coatless. This would suggest that it shouldbe possible to immunize cattle 
against the membrane antigens and the organism would be killed before it 
had time to develop a coat. The lack of natural immunity could be
60
explained by the small amount of membrane antigen encountered from the 
tsetse bite. This project would also involve production of T\ vivax by 
culture and production of antigen by recombinant DNA.
223. Project directed at preventing antigenic variation includes:
i) Studies on the isolation and mechanisms of the trypanosomal 
enzyme which glycosylates the universal protein-carbo- 
.hydrate antigen, and characterization of this antigen.
This enzyme which is tunicamycin-resistant involves a 
metabolic pathway not found so far in mammals, The basic
carbohydrate glycosylated by this enzyme may play a 
major part in placing the variant antigen on the outside of the 
membrane. Inhibitors of this enzyme - which because it 
is unique should not effect the host - could then prevent 
the expression of the variant antigen. It is a major 
finding which needs to be pursued actively.
ii) Studies on the role and mechanism of polyamine oxydase 
in killing trypanosomes. The finding that polyamine 
oxydase in the presence of polyamines (which trypanosomes 
contain) produces products which are toxic to trypanosomes, 
should be pursued, It could be one basis for trypano- 
tolerance. Further it allows the delineation in detail
of how trypanosomes cap be killed.
iii) Studies on the role of Sinefungin in preventing variant 
antigen synthesis. This drug which inhibits methylation
appears to prevent variant antigen synthesis, It may
thus prove useful either in chemotherapy alone or in 
developing a vaccine.
iv) Studies on the mechanism of transition of slender to
stumpy forms, Present studies suggest that the latter
form is better handled by the host. If ways were found
to accelerate this process, it might be possible to 
develop a more effective attack on trypanosomes.
224. A collaborative study with West African institutions on the mechanism
of trypanotolerance is encouraged, This is discussed in detail in an earlier
section. Further studies on the mechanism and practical value of trypano­
tolerance of sheep, goats, wildlife and perhaps cattle in East Africa
should be encouraged.
(b) East Coast Fever
225. Immuno-epidemiological project. More strains of T. parva should be
isolated from the Kilifi coastal area and typed. Cattle should be immunized against
these local strains using various methods (see oelow) and exposed to field
61
challenge at a number of preselected geographic sites, Subject to
successful results,the immunization programme should be extended and 
intensified with the ultimate aim of eliminating ECF in the study 
area. This is a long-term project.
226. The relationship between resistance to infection and the specificity
of the cell mediated cytotoxic reaction (CML) response should be given
a high priority because of its potential in the typing of strains and 
in the elucidation of the mechanism of immunity.
227. Project on antigen immunogenicity. Of interest are the studies
on the immunogenicity of various antigens of macroschizonts killed or 
attenuated in culture, the use of attenuated sporozoites; and the vise
of infection and treatment method.
!
228. Sporozoite research project. The production of sporozoites by 
infected ticks should be improved and the sporozoites concentrated, 
purified, quantitated and if possible also cloned. It is strongly 
recommended that sporozoites of 1\£. lawrencei should be obtained from 
KARI, Muguga, for preliminary parasitological studies. Immunological 
techniques and recombinant DNA technology should be applied to identify, 
purify, and produce sporozoite antigens. Irradiation or other means of 
attenuation of sporozoites should not be started before sporozoites can 
be quantitated.
229. In vitro culture project. Macroschizonts should be isolated from
cloned cell lines and characterized. At the same time cloned cell lines 
should be characterized and large-scale production of such cells should 
be initiated. It is strongly recommended that stages other than the 
macroschizonts are also propagated _in vitro, particularly sporozoites.
To this end tick cell cultures should be established. The in vitro 
cultivation of T. mutans and other Theileria species should be attempted.
230. Immunology project. Detailed analysis of the mixed lymphocyte
reaction and cell-mediated cytotoxicity responses should be continued. As 
regards the cloning of _T. parva lawrencei, the production of monoclonal anti­
bodies to its sporozoites requires particular attention. A study on the 
efficacy of adjuvants in cattle should be continued. The use of genetically 
closely related cattle should be encouraged. This may be achieved by line­
breeding from the same sire or more closely by superovulation and ovum 
transfer.
231. Electron microscopy. The interaction between various parasite
stages (kinetes, multiple fission bodies) and the salivary glands should 
be studied further. Other stages of the parasite and their host cells 
should be investigated subsequently.
62
(c) New Ventures and the Mandate
232. The mandate for the operation of ILRAD left open the question of
a possible extension of its research programmes to "other serious animal
diseases problems, for which its facilities ana expertise are appropriate, 
provided such extension is approved by its governing body and the Govern­
ment of Kenya does not object from a disease safety standpoint." The
research programmes at ILRAD on trypanosomiasis and theileriasis have 
necessitated bringing together a group of scientists of many different 
disciplines. Their work has had to be supported by much sophisticated
equipment in specially designed laboratories, The success of this has
been described elsewhere in this report and the critical mass of intellectual
force available at ILRAD could obviously be turned on to solving other 
intractable problems that still exist in medicine, both veterinary and
medical. In animals, for example, with the virus disease, African Swine
Fever, there are mysterious features about the response of the domesticated
pig and its failure to develop an adequate defensive response. There are 
other "new" virus diseases of animals and man that have not yet been 
adequately studied. In the field of. parasitology, however, and especially 
in trypanosomiasis the infections of man present the same problems as do 
the infections of animals. Furthermore there are a number of other 
parasitic diseases of animals and man such as schistosomiasis, or those 
caused b}1 the Fasciola, the Anaplasmodia and the Babesia. The ILRAD
group could make a significant attack on these problems.
233. The Review Panel has given careful consideration to the proposals
for additional research presented to them in the ILRAD presentation. The 
Panel feels strongly that in spite of the case that can be made for 
extending the activities currently conducted within the mandate, the work 
at ILRAD should continue to be concentrated on the trypanosomiasis of
animals and theileriasis - in the latter case specifically East Coast 
Fever. However, because of the incidence of a number of species of
Theileria in Kenya, the work on East Coast Fever must include studies of 
these other organisms, namely T. parva lawrencei, T. mutans and T. taurotragi. 
An example of the necessity of this is that the African buffalo is the 
host of Theileria parva lawrencei from which theileriasis may be transmitted
to cattle.
234. A summary.of the specific proposals of ILRAD and the comments of the 
Panel are given below. The comments of the Panel are given about each.
i) Parasitic diseases of man
235. The Board of Trustees has accepted the principle that research at 
ILRAD can be undertaken on parasitic diseases of humans, provided that the 
projects are separately funded and that the techniques used and results 
obtained are. relevant to the main programme of ILRAD.
63
236. The Panel believes that to establish specific projects on human 
parasitology is to go too far beyond the mandate. On the other hand, it 
cannot accept that special knowledge available at ILRAD should be denied 
for the progress of science in general. It is proposed, therefore, that 
scientists in the field of human parasitology should be permitted to 
work at ILRAD to acquire a technique or to discuss subjects of comparative 
interest. This can be arranged on a limited ad hoc basis with complete 
support being provided by external funding.
ii) Other Theileriasis
237. It is proposed that in addition to work in the context of East 
Coast Fever on the species of Theileria present in Kenya, there might 
also be work on T\_ annulata and 1\_ sergenti which occur.in Africa, North 
of the Sahara, and in Asia and Europe.
238. The Panel reiterates that work on the Theileria present in Kenya
is appropriate and necessary but solely within the context of the
research programme on East Coast Fever. It strongly opposes work on 
T. annulata and T\_ sergenti. Application of results obtained at ILRAD 
relevant to the two species could only be considered as cooperative
programmes.
iii) Heartwater
239. The Panel is against ILRAD embarking on a comprehensive programme 
on laboratory research, field studies and epidemiology of heartwater 
until more progress has been made in the trypanosomiasis and theileriasis 
programmes. It accepts, however, that occasions will arise when field
1 work is begun, when differential diagnosis will be required.
iv) African Swine Fever
240. Despite the interest evidenced by some countries actually affected
by African Swine Fever, the Panel considers that work on this disease 
cannot be justified at ILRAD because of the studies already in progress 
in the United States of America and Europe. It also notes that scientists
in other disciplines would be required, Besides the Government of Kenya
is presently against work with this virus.
v) Tick-borne viruses
241. It is proposed to work also on the Nairobi Sheep Disease and the
Congo Crimean Haemorrhagic Fever group of viruses. The Panel does again 
not recommend a diversion from the two ILRAD programmes. Work on these
viruses is proceeding in a number of other places and presently they are 
not of great economic importance.
64
(d) Recommendations regarding New Ventures
242. The Panel _re_c_ommends that of the additional research topics
proposed by ILRAD only the following should be endorsed by the Board:
i) Limited visits by parasitologists working on human 
disease to acquire techniques or exchange information 
on an ad hoc basis with complete external funding;
ii) Research in the context of East Coast Fever on species 
of Theileria present in Kenya;
iii) Differential diagnosis of heartwater as part of field 
work on theileriasis and trypanosomiasis.
243. It may appear that the Panel is being unduly restrictive in its
limited recommendations for new ventures but it believes that there should 
be no diversion from the two ILRAD programmes on trypanosomiasis and East
Coast Fever. It does, however, envisage a continuing progress towards 
success in conquering these diseases which would, consequently, permit 
undertaking research on new topics. Diversification could not be immediate 
as such success would require a change in emphasis towards training and co­
operative programmes for the dissemination of the new knowledge and 
\ technologies, changes which would be likely to absorb the available resources. 
The time for these developments must anyway be measured in quinquennia at 
which point a new assessment would have to be made of the priorities for 
research on animal disease. One reason for having to make new assessments 
would result from the greatly increased utilization of land for animal 
production by the conquering of either trypanosomiasis or East Coast Fever.
i
(e) Recommendations regarding Staffing
244. The Panel recommends:..
i) That the Tsetse Unit should have one additional scientist 
or research associate since the whole supply of tsetse and 
metacyclic trypanosomes depends on a single individual at 
present;
ii) That the Tick Unit be expanded to allow concurrent 
infestation of at least six further calves. One additional 
research associate should be recruited to help manage the 
unit for the same reasons as (i) above;
iii) That as soon as possible four scientists be recruited on 
the core budget on an initial two year contract. One of 
these should be a field immunologist based in Kilifi to co­
ordinate the ILRAD/Kenya Government project. A further 
two should be concerned with biochemistry/immunology and 
with molecular biology respectively for Theileria research; 
the last one should be affected to cell sorting in the 
Immunology Laboratory;
65
iv) that a programme of trypanotolerance in West Africa 
be instituted as soon as possible and linked to the 
ILCA network*, two ILRAD senior core scientists should 
: be associated with the project and ILRAD should attempt 
: to obtain extra core funds to support it.
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
245. The Panel wishes to thank ILRAD's Director, Dr. Allison, for the
careful preparations made for the Review, for making available his wide 
knowledge of. the research programmes of the Centre, for the excellent 
organization of the Panel timetable and for the hospitality which the 
Panel enjoyed during its stay in Kenya. The Panel is also grateful to the 
Board Chairman and Executive Committee of ILRAD for having shared the 
final stage of the Review; to the scientific staff of ILRAD, with which 
the Panel had numerous informative and interesting discussions. Finally
the Panel expresses its deep gratitude to Mrs H. Drummond and secretarial 
staff and to Mrs Susan McRae without whom the draft report would not have
been finished on time.
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«
ANNEX I
A. PROGRAMME OF THE REVIEW PANEL
Sunday 5 October Assembly of the Panel
Monday 6 cL • in • Meeting of Panel with Dr. Allison and senior staff 
(laboratory coordinators and heads of support units); 
exposi of Director about ILRAD programme: questions 
and answers.
p .m> Ministry of Livestock Development: meeting of Panel 
with H.E. Mr. J.N. Osogo, Minister for Livestock 
Development and Dr. I.E. Muriithi, Director, Livestock 
Development Department.
Tuesday 7 & ILRAD: Visit to the tsetse vector unit. Visits to 
Wednesday 8 laboratories and support units. Discussions and 
interviews regarding administrative and scientific 
management.
Thursday 9 à • IQ • Kabete: Visit to the Veterinary Research Laboratory
(Dr. S. Chema, Chief, Veterinary Research Officer,
Drs. E. Fink, D. Rtìttcher, M. Heising, GTZ, L. Roberts,
Walter Reed Hospital)
. P-m- Muguga: Visit to the Kenyan Agricultural Research 
Institute (Dr. W. Masiga, Director Veterinary Laboratories, 
KARI and Dr. A. Young and his ODA team)
Friday 10 sl .m. Chiromo: Visit to ICIPE laboratories (part of the Panel) 
ILRAD: Visit to clinical medicine and farm unit; visit 
to tick unit (part of the Panel)
P • IQ • ILRAD: Visit tó laboratories by individual Panel members.
Saturday 11 ILRAD 10:00-11:00 Meeting with internal Training Committee and
discussions on training policies
11:00-15:30 Individual interviews of Panel with laboratory 
coordinators and chiefs of support units
15:30-18:00 Discussions with Director and above staff 
regarding ILRAD's future plans
Sunday 12 a .m. Visit to prospective cattle production farm, F. Howden's 
ranch at Rapiti Plains (F. Howden, J. Howard, G. Davies)
p • IQ • ILRAD: preparation of draft report
Annex I - page 2
Monday 13 & ILRAD: Individual discussions of Panel members with
Tuesday 14 senior staff; Panel meetings for preparation of draft r
report
Wednesday 15 & 
Thursday 16 ILRAD: Drafting/typing of draft report 
Friday 17 ILRAD: Finalization of draft report.
Expose by Panel Chairman of Review findings and recommendations 
to Director, Executive Committee (Sir Alexander Robertson,
Board Chairman, Dr. K.F. Wells, Dr. D. Zwart, Dr. I.E.
t Muriithi) and senior staff.
B. ' LIST OF DOCUMENTS MADE AVAILABLE TO PANEL
1. Originated by ILRAD
Report on Research and Training Activities, 1979 
Summary Report of the Scientific Advisory Committee 
Report of the Meeting of the Programme Committee 
List of Publications
Five-Year Plan
1980-81 Programme and Budget with Mid-term Revision
Research' Summaries - several notes on individual laboratories 
and units
I 2. Originated by TAC Secretariat
Terms of Reference
Revised List of Questions
Notes on the Meeting between the Quinquennial Review Panel 
Chairman and ILRAD Board
Comments on the List of Questions by: USAID, UNDP, Australia,
WorId Bank
Tentative Programme for Panel 
Tentative Outline of Final Report
» Annex I - page 3
Note on the Meeting between FAO Animal Production and Health 
Division (AGA) and Quinquennial Review Panel Chairman and 
Secretary
Review of Historical Background and Mandate
i Tentative Observations on the above
CGIAR/TAC Guidelines for Quinquennial Reviews
TAG Report on ICIPE Application to become Membèr of the CGIAR 
System with Report of TAC Mission to ICIPE (September 1980)
Excerpts of TAC Meetings Reports related to ILRAD
3. Originated by FAO
Report of the Expert Consultation on Research on Trypanosomiasis 
(October 1979)
Report of the Second Consultation of the Programme for the 
Control of African Animal Trypanosomiasis (December 1978)
The African Trypanosomiasis (November 1976)
FAO Programme for the Control of African Animal Trypanosomiasis 
and Related Development (November 1979)
Trypanosomiasis Risk or Challenge (December 1979)
Second FAO Expert Consultation on Research on Tick-borne Diseases 
and their Vectors (December 1977)
Review of Recent Progress in the Control of Ticks and Tick-borne 
Diseases in East Africa (August 1976)
East Coast Fever Immunization in Malawi
Report of the Informal Discussion on Research Needs to Produce 
an African Swine Fever Vaccine
4. Miscellaneous
Informal Summary of Proceedings - CGIAR Meeting (Oct./Nov. 1979) 
Brochures on the CGIAR System
An International Laboratory for Animal Disease Research in Africa 
(by J.J. McKelvey Jr. and J. Pino - November 1970)
Memorandum of Agreement between the Government of Kenya and the 
Rockefeller Foundation (September 1973)
»
ANNEX II
*
- » SHORT GLOSSARY
1
In view of the technical nature of the report it has been found useful to 
list hereunder the definitions of some of the terms used, kindly provided 
by ILRAD and completed by FAO.
1. Acini - Group of cells in tick salivary glands which 
can be infected by theilerial parasites.
2. Allogeneic - Genetically different animals of the same species.
3. Ecdysteroid - Hormone controlling moulting.
4. Glycosylation - Process by which sugars are specifically attached 
by the action of enzymes (glycosyl transferases) 
to protein molecules so converting them to glyco­
proteins .
5. IgG - An antibody class arising later in infections, of 
single unit structure which has high specificity. 
Various classes of IgG have different biological 
functions, e.g. transfer of immunity from mother 
to newly born offspring, parasite killing, etc.
?
6. IgM - An antibody class arising early in infection which 
because of its structure (equivalent to five IgG 
molecules) is very efficient at initiating such 
biological processes as parasite killing, etc.
7. Kinete - Motile developmental stage of Theileria which
develops in tick gut cells and invades tick salivary 
gland cells.
8. Macroschizont - The stage of Theileria developing in the bovine 
lymphoid cells, which is largely responsible for 
the pathogenesis of theileriasis by destroying 
host lymphoid cells.
9. Metacylic - The stage of development of the parasite in the 
trypanosomes tsetse fly which is able to infect new mammalian 
hosts. They usually occur in the salivary glands 
and/or mouth parts.
;
.. I •
Annex II - page 2
10. Methylation - Addition of methyl groups to newly formed 
nucleic acids. ht
11. MHC - Major histocompatibility complex - a complex 
of genes responsible for recognition of nonself 
substances and the process which removes them 
from the body.
12. Percol - A medium by which cells can be separated 
according to their density.
13. Pleomorphism - The differentiation of Trypanosoma brucei
bloodstream forms into stages, which are capable 
of infecting the tsetse fly.
14. Seroderne - The range of different surface variable antigens
r expressed by the descendants of a single trypanosome.
15. Sporozoite - The infective form of Theileria transmitted from 
the tick to the mammalian host.
16. Stabilate - The form in which a live organism is stored at 
low temperature for use at a later stage.
17. Syngeneic - Genetically identical individuals (i.e. identical 
twins or cells).
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18. T. Cell - A lymphocyte (white cell) which has passed through 
the thymus and is fundamental to the activation of 
F defence mechanisms.
19. Tunicamycin - An antibiotic which specifically inhibits the 
first lipid intermediate step of glycosylation.
1