International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 1
Review
A review of cassava semolina (gari and eba) end-user preferences
and implications for varietal trait evaluation
Wasiu Awoyale,1,2 Emmanuel Oladeji Alamu,1,3 Ugo Chijioke,4 Thierry Tran,5,6 Hubert Noel Takam
Tchuente,7,8 Robert Ndjouenkeu,7 Ngoualem Kegah7 & Busie Maziya-Dixon1*
1 Food and Nutrition Sciences Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, PMB 5320 Oyo Road, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
2 Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwara State University Malete, PMB 1530, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
3 Food and Nutrition Sciences Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Southern Africa Hub, PO Box 310142,
Chelstone, Lusaka, Zambia
4 National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, PMB 7006, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria
5 Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), CGIAR Research Program on Roots
Tubers and Bananas (RTB), Apartado A
ereo 6713, Cali, Colombia
6 Qualisud, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, University of Avignon, University of La R
eunion, University of Montpellier, 73 rue JF Breton,
Montpellier 34398, France
7 Department of Rural Socio-Economics and Agricultural Extension, Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences, University of Dschang,
PO Box 222, Dschang, Cameroon
8 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, PO Box 2008, Messa, Yaound
e, Cameroon
(Received 14 July 2020; Accepted in revised form 22 October 2020)
Summary The purpose of this review is to support breeders and food scientists by examining research carried out
on end-user preferences for gari and its derived dough product, eba, in Africa. The review focused on gari
regarding the physical and chemical composition of raw cassava roots, methods of storage, the composi-
tion of gari with or without enrichment, and the sensory evaluation of gari and eba. The primary sensory
attributes identified to describe gari are colour, taste, texture, aroma and flavour. Texture attribute of
importance is crispiness for uncooked gari, and hand feel before consumption for eba. There was a signif-
icant correlation between the sensory characteristics of gari and the starch and cyanogenic potential
(CNP) contents of the raw roots. Hence, the correlation of the end-user preferences with the chemical
composition of the cassava roots could be helpful to breeders in refining selection criteria and developing
high-throughput screening methods.
Keywords Cassava root composition, gari and eba composition, sensory evaluation, texture and physicochemical analysis.
lafun, fufu, starch and attieke. All these products differ
Introduction
in their functional, pasting and sensory characteristics,
Because of their inherent high moisture content (60– which are mostly influenced by the processing methods
70% wet basis), cassava roots are subject to rapid used (Sanni et al., 2003; Onitilo et al., 2007). Process-
microbial and physiological deterioration after harvest, ing cassava roots confers a range of specific functional
leading to undesirable biochemical changes (Onyen- properties to each of the end-products. Which are
woke & Simonyan, 2014). As a result, value is added determined by various biophysical processes, for
to the roots through processing to improve the palata- instance, starch gelatinisation (S
anchez et al., 2010),
bility, increase shelf-life, facilitate transportation, as degradation of cell wall components such as pectin
well as detoxify the roots by removing cyanogenic (Eggleston and Asiedu, 1994) and formation of semo-
compounds (Westby, 2002; Nyirenda et al., 2011). In lina-like particles or thick paste depending on the type
African countries in general and Nigeria, Ghana, of product.
Benin, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire, cassava roots are used Gari is a dry, crispy, creamy-white or yellow, granu-
in a wide range of food products such as gari, tapioca, lar flour (semolina) obtained from cassava roots by
peeling, washing, grating, pressing, fermenting (op-
*Correspondent: Fax: +44 208 7113786; e-mail: b.maziya- tional), sieving and roasting (Escobar et al., 2018). It
dixon@cgiar.org is the most consumed and traded of all cassava food
doi:10.1111/ijfs.14867
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use,
distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
products in Nigeria (FOS, 1970; Westby & Twiddy, Table 1 Major Gari consuming countries in Africa
1992; Okafor et al., 1998), and in many other countries
in West Africa (Oduro et al., 2000). The extensive con- S/no. Countries Local names Consumption forms
sumption of gari has been attributed to its relatively 1 Nigeria Gari/Garri Eaten raw and cooked (eba)
long shelf-life compared to other food products from 2 Liberia Gari/farina Eaten as snacks
cassava and its ease of preparation before consump- 3 Republic of Benin Gari Eaten raw and cooked (eba)
tion (Omueti et al., 1993; Sanni et al., 2005). 4 Togo Gari Eaten raw and cooked (eba)
Gari is usually consumed in the uncooked form, or 5 Burkina Faso Gari Eaten as snacks
added with water, sugar, groundnuts and/or cashew 6 Ghana Gari Eaten raw and cooked (eba)
nuts, or cooked into a dough called eba—the most 7 Mozambique Rale Eaten as snacks
8 Cameroon Gari Eaten as snacks
widely eaten form or sprinkled on cooked cowpea
9 Ivory Coast Gari Eaten raw and cooked (eba)
beans in some Africa countries like Nigeria, Togo and
Benin Republic (Adinsi et al., 2019). Eba is made by Sources: Abass et al.(2012); Coulibaly et al.(2014); Awoyale et al.(2019);
sprinkling gari into a bowl or pot of boiled water and Africabiz online (2020).
continue stirring until dough is formed. Eba is served
with vegetable soup and fish or meat. Most households for the production of gari in Republic of Benin, Togo
widely purchase gari because of its quick ability to and Ghana as at 2003 is 3, 160, 2385 and 9309 metric
make eba without going through any form of stress tons respectively. The total quantity of gari consumed
(Ogundipe et al., 2013). by these countries as at 2003 is Republic of Benin
In many developing countries of the world, gari has 210.73 metric tons, Togo 159.06 metric tons and
become an outstanding staple food for many house- Ghana 620.66 metric tons (Africabiz online, 2020).
holds. The main consumption areas of gari in Africa Considering the readiness of gari to be used as diet’s
are Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana. The other mar- complement for a variety of African sauces and cook-
ginal Africa’s consumption markets are Niger, Burkina ing and, the long shelf-life under normal atmospheric
Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Chad, Gabon, Congo and conditions, it is possible to expand the consumption
Cameroon (Africabiz online, 2020). In Nigeria, gari area of gari to covering Central, Eastern and Southern
processing firms occupy a substantial portion of small African countries. Table 1 showed some of the gari
and medium enterprises (SMEs) that has contributed consuming countries.
significantly to national economic growth (Ogundipe Differences in cassava varieties have been reported
et al., 2013). Gari production in Nigeria accounts for to play important roles in the production of diversified
about two-thirds of fresh (unpeeled) cassava roots food products and have significantly affected the
(Adeoti et al., 2009). An average household of eight physicochemical, functional, sensory and other quality
persons consumed 25 kg of gari at the cost of N2, 500 characteristics of gari (Montagnac et al., 2009). The
representing 5% of monthly household income in knowledge of the suitability of different cassava vari-
Ohaozara, Ebonyi State, Southeast Nigeria (Onye- eties for gari could contribute to reducing the chal-
mauwa, 2010). Nigerian gari supplies Niger Republic, lenge of how to balance the requirements of farmers
Chad and Cameroon (Coulibaly et al., 2014). Though, with those of processors and end-users, particularly
the annual gari production in Cameroon is around where there may be a compromise in productivity for
49 000 tons, representing about 43 300 million USD varieties with the highest expression of the processor-
(AGROPME, 2010; FAO, 2018). In terms of market and consumer-preferred qualities (Egesi et al., 2012).
volume and value, gari represents 45% of the Thus, this review describes gari end-user preferences in
Cameroonian national market of cassava products, the form of uncooked or cooked gari (eba), implica-
and up to 53% in urban areas, where the demand is tions for cassava trait evaluation, and research needed
significant, with almost 74% of households consuming to meet the demands of gari consumers.
gari (PNDRT, 2006; Tolly Lolo, 2013). Gari consump-
tion in Cameroon is most strongly associated with
Processing of cassava roots into gari
people originating from the South-West and North-
West Regions (Njukwe et al., 2013). It may be related The details of the processing of cassava roots into gari
both to the geographical proximity of these two differ from one location to another, depending on
regions with Nigeria, which is the largest gari producer regional preferences, resulting in a large family of dif-
and consumer and to common colonial heritage. The ferent types of gari. Producers/consumers may prefer
extensive consumption of gari has been attributed to gari with a sour, sweet or bland taste; a fine or coarse
its relatively long shelf-life compared to other food particle size; with or without palm oil added; or even
products from cassava and its ease of preparation gari enriched/fortified with different legumes or protein
before consumption (Omueti et al., 1993; Sanni et al., sources (Abass et al., 2012; Awoyale, 2018; Olaleye
2005). The total quantity of fresh cassava roots used et al., 2018).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 3
Gari processing involves various steps that include sand. The gari is then allowed to cool for some hours,
the peeling of fresh cassava roots, washing, grating, graded (sieved) depending on the particle sizes to meet
fermenting (optional), dewatering/pressing, pulverising, the preferences of different categories of the consumers
sifting, roasting, sieving or grading and packaging and packaged according to the distribution outlet,
(Abass et al., 2012). Manual peeling of freshly har- from wholesale to retail. Most rural communities
vested roots with a knife is most common, but package in 50 kg bags for transport and distribution.
mechanical peelers are now available in countries such The sensory and functional properties of gari always
as Nigeria and Ghana (Abass et al., 2012). The brown result from the combination of raw materials (fresh
peel, if not removed or partly removed, might cassava roots) quality and processing operations. The
adversely affect the gari colour and increase its fibre diversity of processing technologies and the resulting
content. Washing of the peeled roots is done to diversity of gari have been documented in the scientific
remove all extraneous materials, which could contami- literature. On the other hand, the relative influence of
nate the gari. Grating of the washed cassava roots is cassava roots characteristics and processing on the
generally done using a motorised cassava grater. How- quality and consumers acceptability of the end-product
ever, hand graters, made by fastening a perforated remains to be investigated in details.
grating sheet onto a wood slab, are still used in some The challenge with the consistent consumption of
countries. The resulting product is a wet mash. Grat- gari is its poor nutritional value, which is also com-
ing increases the surface area of the root pieces so that mon with all cassava products. Gari is known for its
dewatering of the mash can be done more quickly. high carbohydrate (starch) content, but with low pro-
The grated cassava mash is bagged using a polypropy- tein, fat and micronutrients contents. The regular con-
lene/polyethylene woven permeable bag or basket sumption of low protein gari can predispose
(lined with polypropylene sack) and left for between consumers to protein-energy malnutrition (Alozie &
one and five days to ferment. Fermentation time is Ekerette, 2017). Consequently, the enrichment of gari
based on location: for example, consumers in South- with protein-rich plant foods (soy beans, groundnut,
west Nigeria do prefer sour gari, unlike those in the seasame seed and melon seed) has been reported to
South-south and South-east. Apart from the taste, fer- improve the nutritional quality and sensory acceptabil-
mentation helps to reduce the cyanogenic potential of ity (Arisa et al., 2011; Oluwamukomi & Jolayemi,
the product (Abass et al., 2012). The fermented mash 2012; Oluwamukomi, 2015a,b; Alozie & Ekerette,
is dewatered by pressing with a manual screw or 2017). Gari enriched with palm oil and/or soybean
hydraulic press (often car jacks are used) or even wood was developed in Benin Republic, but the gari are not
pieces tied at both ends with rope, which is still preva- available on the Beninese markets, whereas they are
lent in most rural communities. Pressing is done to readily available in Nigeria and their processes (Aki-
reduce the moisture content of the grated mash before noso & Olatunde, 2014), physicochemical characteris-
roasting. The cake formed after dewatering is pul- tics (Edem et al., 2001; Karim et al., 2016) and
verised by a pulveriser/cake breaker or by hand and sensory properties (Sanni & Sobamiwa, 1994; Osho,
sieved with a standard woven sieve or rotary sieve, to 2003) are documented. In most Nigerian enriched gari,
remove the fibre and lumps, and to create a grit of the ingredients (palm oil and/or soybean) are usually
similar particles size. However, in some locations, after added to the fermented mash prior to roasting,
the pulverisation, generally with the grating machine, whereas in Benin Republic, the palm oil/or soybean
the grit is not sieved before roasting. are added in the mash before fermentation (Adinsi
The sieved grit is then roasted. An earthenware et al., 2019). Awoyale et al. (2019) also reported that
stove and a roasting pan made of moulded aluminium the practice of adding moringa leaf powder, groundnut
or stainless steel are used for roasting on a wood fire paste, roasted coconut chips and milk powder to gari
(Abass et al., 2012). In some communities, the roasting in Liberia caused the increase of fat and protein con-
pan is smeared with a small amount of palm oil before tents of the product compared to the unenriched white
roasting, to produce butter-coloured or yellow gari. gari.
Mechanical roasters are also now available in Nigeria Apart from the artificial enrichment of gari, bioforti-
and Ghana. The roasting process further develops the fied cassava varieties that contain significant levels of
gari flavour, gelatinises the starch, and improves pro-vitamin A carotenoids have been developed by
digestibility. The extent of drying determines the conventional plant breeding methods and released for
crispiness and storability of the product. Because use by the local populations for gari production
starch in the grit is gelatinised during roasting, gari is among other cassava value added products. Gari pro-
a pre-cooked instant food product. In some communi- duced from the biofortified varieties may help solve
ties, the grit is partially toasted and finally dried under the issue of the additional cost of adding palm oil and
the sun. Sun drying, while economical, adds risk that the occurrence of rancidity in the use palm oil while
the product might be contaminated with dust and contributing to the reduction of vitamin A deficiency
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
4 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
(Bechoff et al., 2018). However, understanding how roots into gari is done traditionally at the farm-gate,
the pro-vitamin A carotenoids in the biofortified vari- community and processor levels in Sierra-Leone (Couli-
eties degrade during storage of vitamin A-containing baly et al., 2014). It is the alcohol and gari production
gari is critical because it will affect its nutritional which provide the most important economic benefit in
impact (Bechoff et al., 2018). Onadipe (2011) studied Sierra-Leone (Coulibaly et al., 2014). Gari production,
the degradation of total carotenoids in gari from dif- which serves to address the problem of postharvest
ferent biofortified cassava varieties and found out that losses and generating income, is an important source of
50% on average of total carotenoids were lost after 3- livelihood for many women between the age of 30 and
month storage at 30 
 2 °C. Eyinla et al. (2019) on 75 years in the informal sector in Ghana (Nimoh et al.,
their own part reported that processing biofortified 2020). Nimoh et al. (2020) also reported that gari pro-
cassava into gari and to eba could hinder the retention duction in Kumasi Ghana is financially profitable, with
of b-carotene, though some varieties have retention all the profitability indicators showing positive returns
advantage over others irrespective of the initial con- on inputs employed in production. However, the con-
centration in the fresh roots. straints identified in the gari production business in
Ghana are seasonality and high cost of cassava roots,
which may be addressed by cost-effective management
Gender implications for variety development for
strategies and release of all year round cassava varieties
gari/eba quality
(Nimoh et al., 2020). The involvements of women in
Women play a central role in cassava production in the production of gari in other African countries like
most African countries. In Nigeria, harvesting, process- Benin, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire among others need
ing and marketing, are contributing about 58% of the proper documentation.
total agricultural labour in the Southwest, 67% in the
Southeast and 58% in the central zones (FAO, 2004;
Sensory analysis and consumer preference of
Onyemauwa, 2012). After gari processing in Nigeria,
gari
women sell a kongo (Nigeria government-approved
measurement of 1.2 kg) at the rate of N100 and a plas- Sensory criteria constitute a significant determinant of
tic bowl of gari (8–9 Kongo) at the rate of N600. The acceptability of any cassava variety, along with agro-
women also give out gari to relations in urban areas nomic characteristics, and have a significant impact on
for free (Butterworth et al., 2008). Some processing the subsequent adoption and use of a variety for gari
groups also employ women, and some youth to help production (Idowu & Akindele, 1994; Oyeyinka et al.,
fetch water. The wages for the activities range from 2019). Both varietal effects and differences in the pro-
N300 to N600 per day, excluding meals (Butterworth cessing of gari contribute to variants in the sensory attri-
et al., 2008). Women rely mostly on traditional tech- butes of the final product to meet local preferences and
niques to produce gari in Cameroon. Cassava transfor- traditions (Bechoff et al., 2018). Noticeable variability is
mation to gari through the use of modern technology observed among traditional gari types, depending on
could spur rural development, and hence, raise incomes processes used, which can confer different sensory prop-
for producers, processors and traders, and conse- erties (colour, particle size, dryness and sourness). This
quently contribute to national food security in Camer- inconsistency in gari quality, documented in Nigeria
oon (Lengha, 2017). About 84% of those involved in and Ghana (Oduro et al., 2000; Makanjuola et al.,
gari production in Bamunkumbit, Northwest Camer- 2012), is partly because the fermentation process is now
oon are women (Lengha, 2017). In Liberia, the process- often reduced from the traditional four days to just one
ing of cassava roots into gari is mainly traditional and day to save time and ensure quick returns. Lesser time
largely dominated by women. Industrialisation of gari of fermentation results typically in a less sour gari and
processing is limited and would require investments in the degree of sourness desired depends on location.
hardware, training and promotion. Women of rela- Speeding up fermentation can be achieved by additives
tively young age direct about 60% of the gari process- or increased temperature. However, the vast bulk of gari
ing enterprises in Liberia. These women have short is processed by smallholders who rarely use such tech-
experience in gari production. About 60% of the nology. We identified several studies that inventoried
women involved in gari production belong to an organ- and described the most relevant sensory attributes to
isation. The main advantages of belonging to this describe consumers’ perceptions of gari, eba and
organisation are access to credit, input and information enriched gari.
among others (Coulibaly et al., 2014). In Sierra-Leone,
a significant number of farmers who are women pro-
Sensory acceptability of dry (uncooked) gari
cess cassava roots into gari and other minor products
such as fufu and kondogbala, using locally made grat- Gari is consumed in the uncooked form by either
ing and the pressing machines. Processing of cassava soaking in water with the addition of milk, sugar,
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 5
groundnuts and/or cashew nuts in Nigeria, Ghana, consumed cassava product in Nigeria and some other
Benin and Togo (Udofia et al., 2011) or mixed with West Africa countries. Eba is made by sprinkling raw
groundnut paste or moringa leaf powder and con- gari into a bowl or pot of boiled water and continue
sumed as snacks in Liberia (Awoyale et al., 2019). stirring until dough is formed. It is served with a veg-
The sensory attributes of the gari are affected by etable or preferred soup (Ogundipe et al., 2013). The
many factors. Processing-related factors include the primary sensory attributes of eba are appearance, col-
level of fermentation, roasting temperature, the quan- our, texture, taste, aroma, mouldability and stretcha-
tity of palm oil added, postharvest storage of cassava bility as shown in Table 2 (Udoro et al., 2014; Eje
roots before processing, method of grating, and rate et al., 2015; 2015a,b; Olaleye et al., 2018). The factors
of dewatering of cassava mash during fermentation, that affect the sensory acceptability of uncooked gari
and storage condition of gari before consumption. also affect that of eba, in addition to the quantity of
Agronomic-related factors include soil quality, boiled water used for reconstitution and the uniformity
weather conditions, age of the cassava plant at har- in the stirring process. For instance, Eje et al. (2015)
vest, cassava variety (Collard & Levi, 1959; Okafor & studied the sensory acceptability of gari and eba pro-
Uzuegbu, 1987; Oduro et al., 2000; Udofia et al., duced from different improved varieties of fresh cas-
2011). For instance, Adinsi et al. (2019a) reported sava roots, either stored in layers in moist sawdust of
that a positive correlation exists between roasting time 80% moisture content (wb), or unstored. They
and the sensory texture of the raw gari during chew- observed that there were no significant differences
ing (r = 0.99), as well as between sour taste and fer- (P > 0.05) in the stretchability of the eba from any of
mented odour (0.96). In Nigeria, gari quality varies the varieties either stored or unstored. The result was
along traditional/cultural lines. Yellow (addition of attributed to un-degraded starch in the cassava root
palm oil) and sweet (short fermentation time) gari is stored in the moist sawdust. Also, gari produced from
generally preferred in the East. the unstored cassava varieties were most acceptable in
Nonetheless, Owuamanam et al. (2011) reported terms of colour (r = 0.85), taste (0.71) and aroma
that those consumers generally accepted gari fermented (r = 0.87; Table 3).
for 48 h in the Eastern part of Nigeria who prefers a
fermented gari. In the West, creamy to slightly golden
Enriching gari to improve sensory acceptability
coloured and sour gari, imparted by a more extended
period of fermentation, is preferred (Udofia et al., The enrichment of gari with defatted and full-fat
2011). This difference may be related to the better sesame seed flour at different ratios showed that 10%
storability of white gari, which does not contain oil, defatted sesame seed flour-enriched gari cooked into
and is thus less susceptible to oxidation. On the con- eba compared favourably with the control sample (no
trary, yellow gari can readily oxidise during storage. enrichment; Oluwamukomi, 2015a,b). The acceptabil-
The primary sensory attributes of dry gari are ity of this type of eba sample may be attributed to
appearance, colour, taste, acidity, sweetness, flavour/ the colour, texture, taste and flavour. There was a
aroma and crispiness (Table 2; Owuamanam et al., significant positive correlation (r = 0.90, P < 0.05)
2011; Apea-Bah et al., 2011; Makanjuola et al., 2012; exists between consumer acceptability and the sensory
Udoro et al., 2014; Laya et al., 2018). Consumer attributes (Table 3). Adinsi et al. (2019) observed that
acceptability of gari samples collected from different the addition of soybean and/or palm oil did not
processing centres across South-west Nigeria showed affect the appearance, odour, texture and taste of the
that preferences were generally based on colour traditional raw gari. Sanni et al. (2010) reported no
(r = 0.98), taste (r = 0.96) and flavour (r = 0.99; significant difference (P > 0.05) in the taste, texture
P < 0.01; Makanjuola et al., 2012; Table 3). and odour of iron-fortified vs unfortified gari. Karim
One study (Laya et al., 2018) found that consumer et al. (2016) reported that gari produced from the
acceptability of uncooked gari after soaking in sugary grating of 90% fresh cassava roots and 10% fresh
water (10% sucrose) was correlated mainly with colour sweet potato roots were most preferred in the overall
and odour (r = 0.83, P < 0.01) (Table 3). Additionally, acceptability compared to 100% fresh cassava gari.
the age of the roots appeared to play a role, as con- Also, the mouldability and overall acceptability of
sumers preferred gari from cassava roots harvested at eba made from gari samples of 90% fresh cassava
12 months after planting to that from roots harvested root and 10% sweet potato roots were higher com-
at 15 months. pared to that of the 100% fresh cassava root gari
(Karim et al., 2016). Roasted soy gari was reported
by Ogunlakin et al. (2015) to be more preferred for
Sensory acceptability of cooked gari (eba)
both the raw (uncooked) and cooked form (eba)
Gari can be rehydrated by adding boiling water and compared to raw gari and eba from 100% cassava
made into dough called eba. Eba is the most roots.
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
6 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Table 2 Sensory attributes of different types of gari and cooked paste (eba).
Flavor/ Crispiness/
Samples Appearance Colour Texture Taste Acidity Sweetness aroma Mouldability Stretchability mouthfeel Acceptance References
Gari evaluated in dry form
Nwanyi bekee local 5.80 – – 5.70 – – – – – – 5.70 Owuamanam
variety (0 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Nwanyi bekee local 5.70 – – 5.70 – – – – – – 5.60 Owuamanam
variety (12 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Nwanyi bekee local 6.30 – – 6.20 – – – – – – 5.50 Owuamanam
variety (24 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Nwanyi bekee local 6.00 – – 6.00 – – – – – – 5.50 Owuamanam
variety (36 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Nwanyi bekee local 5.60 – – 5.60 – – – – – – 5.70 Owuamanam
variety (48 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Nwanyi bekee local 5.20 – – 5.00 – – – – – – 5.10 Owuamanam
variety (72 h fermented) et al. (2011)†
Processing centre 1 – 5.43 – 4.57 – – 5.17 – – – 5.40 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)†
Processing centre 2 – 6.50 – 5.83 – – 5.67 – – – 5.93 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)†
Processing centre 3 – 4.90 – 5.03 – – 4.83 – – – 4.80 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)†
Processing centre 4 – 6.45 – 6.37 – – 6.27 – – – 6.23 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)†
Processing centre 5 – 5.37 – 5.08 – – 5.17 – – – 5.07 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)†
Processing centre 6 – 7.13 – 7.13 – – 7.18 – – – 7.38 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)‡
Processing centre 7 – 6.00 – 5.72 – – 5.50 – – – 5.92 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)‡
Processing centre 8 – 8.00 – 7.93 – – 7.70 – – – 8.10 Makanjuola
et al. (2012)‡
Bitter cassava – 6.85 – 6.45 – – 6.60 – – 6.50 6.70 Udoro et al.
(2014)†
TMS92/0326 (12 months) – 3.45 – – 2.80 2.55 3.40 – – 2.55 3.75 Laya et al.
(2018)*
TMS96/1414 (12 months) – 2.85 – – 2.65 2.65 3.20 – – 2.95 3.80 Laya et al.
(2018)*
IRAD4115 (12 months) – 2.75 – – 2.20 2.50 3.05 – – 3.30 2.75 Laya et al.
(2018)*
EN local variety – 4.50 – – 1.60 2.60 3.50 – – 2.75 4.30 Laya et al.
(12 months) (2018)*
AD local variety – 3.55 – – 1.65 2.30 2.95 – – 1.90 3.10 Laya et al.
(12 months) (2018)*
TMS92/0326 (15 months) – 2.50 – – 1.90 2.30 1.80 – – 4.30 2.55 Laya et al.
(2018)*
TMS96/1414 (15 months) – 2.15 – – 2.00 2.25 2.50 – – 3.25 2.75
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 7
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Table 2 (Continued)
Flavor/ Crispiness/
Samples Appearance Colour Texture Taste Acidity Sweetness aroma Mouldability Stretchability mouthfeel Acceptance References
Laya et al.
(2018)*
IRAD4115 (15 months) – 2.40 – – 1.85 3.00 2.35 – – 3.15 2.40 Laya et al.
(2018)*
EN local variety – 2.20 – – 1.95 3.35 2.55 – – 3.60 2.50 Laya et al.
(15 months) (2018)*
AD local variety – 3.40 – – 1.65 2.05 2.95 – – 1.85 3.00 Laya et al.
(15 months) (2018)*
Commercial gari dry – 3.90 – 2.50 2.50 2.95 3.15 – – 2.85 3.55 Laya et al.
form (2018)*
Gari evaluated in uncooked and cooked form (eba)
Bitter cassava – 6.80 6.50 6.55 – – 6.55 6.60 – – 6.60 Udoro et al.
(2014)†
TMS 30572 (0 week – 5.09 – 4.73 – – 5.27 – 5.27 – 5.18 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (0 week – 5.27 – 5.37 – – 4.82 – 5.09 – 5.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (0 week – 5.18 – 5.73 – – 5.27 – 4.91 – 5.18 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 91934 (0 week – 5.00 – 4.64 – – 5.00 – 5.00 – 5.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 30572 (3 week – 5.18 – 4.27 – – 4.55 – 4.73 – 4.09 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (3 week – 4.45 – 4.55 – – 4.18 – 4.18 – 4.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (3 week – 5.09 – 5.64 – – 6.00 – 4.36 – 4.55 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 91934 (3 week – 4.27 – 4.45 – – 4.73 – 4.64 – 4.64 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 30572 (6 week – 5.36 – 4.27 – – 5.18 – 4.27 – 5.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (6 week – 5.09 – 5.00 – – 5.09 – 4.73 – 5.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (6 week – 4.82 – 4.64 – – 5.64 – 4.18 – 4.55 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 91934 (6 week – 5.18 – 4.55 – – 4.73 – 5.00 – 5.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 30572 (9 week – 4.64 – 4.00 – – 4.36 – 4.18 – 4.73 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (9 week – 5.00 – 4.36 – – 4.00 – 4.45 – 4.00 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (9 week – 5.00 – 5.27 – – 5.27 – 4.00 – 4.82 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
– 4.55 – 4.45 – – 4.00 – 4.82 – 4.36
8 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Table 2 (Continued)
Flavor/ Crispiness/
Samples Appearance Colour Texture Taste Acidity Sweetness aroma Mouldability Stretchability mouthfeel Acceptance References
TMS 91934 (9 week Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 30572 (12 week – 4.91 – 3.86 – – 5.00 – 5.00 – 4.70 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (12 week – 4.64 – 4.55 – – 4.55 – 5.36 – 3.96 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (12 week – 4.80 – 3.55 – – 4.18 – 3.27 – 3.96 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 91934 (12 week – 4.70 – 3.82 – – 2.73 – 5.40 – 2.45 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 30572 (15 week – 1.91 – 3.85 – – 3.18 – 4.00 – 1.18 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 50395 (15 week – 3.55 – 3.80 – – 3.95 – 5.18 – 3.45 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 4(2)1425 (15 week – 1.27 – 2.18 – – 2.45 – 3.27 – 2.09 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
TMS 91934 (15 week – 2.18 – 2.73 – – 2.55 – 5.36 – 2.36 Eje et al.
storage) (2015)†
100% cassava – 7.23 6.56 7.13 – – 7.02 – – – 7.43 Oluwamukomi
(2015a,b)‡
5% Full fat sesame – 4.30 3.55 3.00 – – 4.05 – – – 4.30 Oluwamukomi
(2015a,b)‡
10% Full fat sesame – 3.00 3.80 3.50 – – 4.40 – – – 3.60 Oluwamukomi
(2015a,b)‡
5% defatted sesame – 3.90 4.95 3.90 – – 5.05 – – – 4.70 Oluwamukomi
(2015a,b)‡
10% defatted sesame – 5.30 5.10 5.35 – – 5.80 – – – 5.35 Oluwamukomi
(2015a,b)‡
Bitter cassava 5.73 6.00 6.20 5.73 – – 5.53 – – – 6.20 Olaleye et al.
(2018)‡
Sweet cassava 6.47 6.07 6.53 7.00 – – 6.53 – – – 7.20 Olaleye et al.
(2018)‡
Texture: the texture of the dried gari is the crispiness, while that of the eba is the hand feel before consumption.
Taste: This is the combination of sweetness or sourness of the gari.
*5-point hedonic scale.
†7-point hedonic scale.
‡9-point hedonic scale.
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 9
Table 3 Pearson correlation of sensory attributes and consumers acceptability
Sensory Flavour/ Crispiness/
evaluations Colour Taste Acidity Sweetness odour Texture Appearance mouthfeel Stretchability Acceptability
Effect of length of fermentation on sensory acceptability of gari (Olaoye et al., 2015)
Appearance – 0.98** – – – – 1.00 – – 0.47
Taste – 1.00 – – – – 0.98** – – 0.57
Acceptance – 0.57 – – – – 0.47 – – 1.00
Effect of varieties and period of harvest on sensory acceptability of soaked gari (Laya et al., 2018)
Colour 1.00 – –0.19 –0.31 0.74* – – –0.63* – 0.84**
Acidity –0.9 – 1.00 0.15 0.30 – – 0.14 – 0.27
Sweetness –0.31 – 0.15 1.00 –0.06 – – 0.38 – –0.21
Odour 0.74* – 0.30 –0.07 1.00 – – –0.66* – 0.84**
Acceptance 0.81** – 0.27 –0.16 0.83** – – –0.44 – 1.00
Effect of different processing centres on the sensory acceptability of gari (Makanjuola et al., 2012)
Colour 1.00 0.96** – – 0.97** – – – – 0.98**
Taste 0.96** 1.00 – – 0.97** – – – – 0.96**
Flavor 0.97** 0.97** – – 1.00 – – – – 0.99**
Acceptance 0.98** 0.96** – – 0.99** – – – – 1.00
Effect of cassava varieties and storage on sensory acceptability of eba (Eje et al., 2015)
Colour 1.00 0.75** – – 0.77** – – – 0.27 0.85**
Taste 0.75** 1.00 – – 0.82** – – – 0.25 0.71**
Aroma 0.77** 0.82** – – 1.00 – – – 0.07 0.87**
Stretchability 0.27 0.25 – – 0.07 – – – 1.00 0.19
Acceptance 0.85** 0.71** – – 0.87** – – – 0.19 1.00
Effect of sesame enrichment on the sensory acceptability of eba (Oluwamukomi, 2015a,b)
Colour 1.00 0.92* – – 0.90* 0.87 – – – 0.98**
Texture 0.87 0.95* – – 0.98** 1.00 – – – 0.94*
Taste 0.92* 1.00 – – 0.99** 0.95* – – – 0.95*
Flavor 0.90* 0.99** – – 1.00 0.98** – – – 0.95*
Acceptance 0.98** 0.95* – – 0.95* 0.94* – – – 1.00
–, not evaluated.
The sample size used for the Pearson correlation is the mean of each parameters presented by the authors.
*P < 0.05.
**P < 0.01.
several other nutrients and micronutrients. Nutrient
Processing methods, product characterisation
losses may vary depending on the type of technology
and relationship with sensory evaluation
used, from completely traditional and manual to semi-
mechanised. Aloys & Zhou (2005) indicated that
Root composition and processing methods related to
longer fermentation of raw cassava is associated with
product quality
several traits of the processed gari: higher yield, higher
While the characteristics of the raw material (cassava density, higher dispersibility, higher crude fibre, and
roots) are essential, processing also plays a crucial role higher pasting temperature, but lower pH, starch, cya-
in determining the quality of gari and its sensorial per- nide content, peak viscosity, paste viscosity and water
ception by consumers. In particular, the grating and retention of the gari. About 80% of the dry matter in
roasting operations determine particle size and hence cassava root consists of carbohydrates, including
the structure and texture of the final product. In con- starch in the majority, fibre and sugars (Kim et al.,
trast, the fermentation operation changes the pH and 1995; Huang et al., 2007; Goddard et al., 2015). The
composition in organic acids and therefore the taste of starch itself consists of amylose (a linear-chain poly-
the final product. The scientific literature reports the mer of glucose units) and amylopectin (branched-chain
following key findings on how processing influences of glucose units).
gari quality. In native starch, amylose and amylopectin are
Gari processing leads to high nutrient losses due to arranged in semi-crystalline granules. The role of
leaching out with water, and roasting due to thermal starch in determining the texture of cassava-based
degradation. Favier et al. (1969) estimated these losses products is debated in the scientific literature and
at around 22% for carbohydrates and above 50% for appears to depend on the product considered. For
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
10 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
starch suspensions in excess water, the increase in vis- glucose, adhesives, fuel, alcohol and other industrial
cosity during cooking and subsequent cooling is corre- materials, but not primary cassava product like gari.
lated with the shape and size of starch granules, Gouado et al. (2008) showed that increasing frying
swelling power and the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio time above 10 min, reduces the acceptability of gari.
(S
anchez et al., 2010). For semi-solid systems com- Frying temperature, the quantity of palm oil added,
posed of pure starch, that is starch gels, the texture storage conditions of cassava roots, grating method
and rheological properties were influenced by the and dewatering conditions of cassava mash are other
branched structure of amylopectin (Charles et al., technological factors influencing the acceptability of
2005). On the contrary, in more complex systems such gari (Oduro et al., 2000; Udofia et al., 2011).
as boiled roots, the molecular structure of starch was Another set of publications on gari processing in the
not related to textural properties (Charoenkul et al., scientific literature deal with the nutritional enrichment
2006), which suggested that other components (fibres, (fortification) of gari, and how to minimise losses in
cell wall materials, etc.) may play a more critical role nutritional value during processing. National and
(Favaro et al., 2008). international research centres such as the International
In the case of gari, starch appears to play a signifi- Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the
cant role in determining the texture of the end-product National Root Crop Research Institute (NRCRI) in
(gari as well as eba). During the roasting operation, Nigeria have developed biofortification programmes
starch gelatinisation results in swelling and eventual (e.g. HarvestPlus) to increase vitamin A, iron and zinc
break down of starch granules upon absorption of in basic food crops such as cassava, maize, beans and
water to form an amorphous matrix. Starch properties potatoes to reduce micronutrient deficiency in Sub-
such as water absorption capacity after gelatinisation Sahara Africa (IITA, 2011). The consumer acceptabil-
and the amylose: amylopectin ratio underpin the rheo- ity of some traditional food products from biofortified
logical and textural behaviour of the starch matrix, crops as affected by different processing methods, espe-
and hence contribute to explain the textural character- cially cassava (e.g. gari and fufu) have been assessed
istics of gari, as well as the pasting properties of eba (Omodamiro et al., 2012; IITA, 2011; Aniedu & Omo-
(Akingbala et al., 2005; Goddard et al., 2015). Besides, damiro, 2012). Increasing the carotenoids content of
Maieves et al. (2012) reported that cassava varieties cassava through conventional breeding has resulted in
whose starch granules are more bound with parench- yellow-fleshed varieties with up to 10 µg g1 (wb) total
yma tissues, pectin and cellulose tend to be harder in carotenoids, that is two to five times higher than tradi-
texture, both in raw and in cooked cassava roots, tional varieties. During postharvest processing, part of
which may also affect the quality of the gari and eba. the carotenoids is lost due to leaching and molecular
Thus quantification of starch and fibre could help to degradation. In the case of gari processing, the reten-
predict the suitability of cassava roots for production tion rate was relatively high when evaluated on a wet
of gari, especially when considering that the age of the basis. According to Omodamiro et al. (2012), grating
plants can influence the starch and fibre contents of yellow-fleshed cassava root retained 97.7–98.5% of the
the product. Thus, cassava of not more than original total carotenoid content of between 6.3 and
12 months should be used for the production of gari 7.8 lg g1. Subsequent fermentation of this mash
because of the high starch content and low fibre con- leads to 94.7–96.7% retention of carotenoids. In
tent varies between cassava varieties and with the age another study of improved varieties TMS 01/1371,
of the plants. The viscosity of cassava-based products TMS 01/1235 and TMS 94/0006 into gari, fermenta-
has been correlated with starch granule shape and tion significantly increased the average carotenoid con-
sizes, swelling power and the amylose and amylopectin tent from 4.9 to 8.6 lg g1 (wb; Maziya-Dixon et al.,
ratios (Sa
nchez et al., 2010). 2015). The increase in the proportion of carotenoids
On the contrary, Charoenkul et al. (2006) stated content was explained by a reduction in moisture as
that textural properties were not related to the molecu- well as hydrolysis of carbohydrates and fibre by
lar structure of starch. This was also supported by the hydrolysis during fermentation. However, Ortiz et al.
observation of Charles et al. (2005), based on a visual (2011) indicated that dry basis measurements of the
assessment of texture rather than on instrumental carotenoid content would give a more accurate trend
methods. Also, a positive correlation between particle of what transpired during fermentation of the cassava
size and moisture content of gari was reported by mash. Regarding other micronutrients, Maziya-Dixon
Makanjuola et al. (2012). This implied that gari with et al. (2015) also noted that fermentation significantly
large particle sizes would be associated with higher reduced the iron content from 7.47 to 7.13 mg kg1,
moisture content and thus, with a problem of storage and the zinc content from 8.95 to 5.58 mg kg1 (wb).
stability. Aryee et al. (2006) stated that cassava vari- This can be interpreted as the leaching of minerals due
eties of poor cooking quality and high cyanogenic to the acidic nature of the fermentate, and oxidative
potential could be used for the production of starch, activities of microbes that use the micronutrients for
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 11
development and growth (Ayetigbo et al., 2018). Pro- 2006; Anggraini et al., 2009; Sa
nchez et al., 2010; Oye-
duction of gari from yellow-fleshed cassava varieties wole & Afolami, 2001; Franck et al., 2011; Makan-
has been reported to retain the least b-carotene viz: juola et al., 2012; Perez et al., 1998).
oven-dried chips (71.9% retention) > shade-dried chips
(59.2%) > boiled roots (55.7%) > sun dried chips
Relationship between composition and sensory evaluation
(37.9%) > gari production (34.1%; Chavez et al.,
2007). The functional properties indicate how the food mate-
rials under examination interact with other food com-
ponents directly or indirectly affecting the processing
Texture assessment and relationship with sensory
applications, food quality, and ultimate acceptance by
evaluation
the consumers (Adeleke & Odedeji, 2010). From the
Understanding the textural properties of foods allows work of Awoyale et al. (2020), it was observed that a
for better control of food operations such as cooking, significant positive correlation (P < 0.01; r = 0.56)
heating, roasting and drying, attaining the desired exist between the water absorption capacity (WAC) of
quality attributes of the product (Chen & Opara, polypropylene woven sack stored gari samples and the
2013). For gari and eba, several parameters such as overall acceptability of the eba. Also, the mouldability
particle size, water absorption capacity and starch (P < 0.05; r = 0.51) and mouthfeel (P < 0.01;
properties contribute to texture, resulting in wide vari- r = 0.46) of the eba were positively correlated with the
ations between gari-producing regions. The scientific WAC. The solubility index of gari packaged in
literature provides some information on texture evalu- polypropylene woven sack had a significant positive
ations of gari; however, further work may be useful in correlation (P < 0.05, r = 0.61) with the overall
order to elucidate the underlying molecular mecha- acceptability of the eba, and a negative (P < 0.05) cor-
nisms. The texture is an essential quality parameter relation with the peak time (r = 0.62) and pasting
when it comes to the reconstitution of the gari to eba. temperature (r = 0.63; Awoyale et al., 2020). The
The most crucial factor influencing cassava product bulk density of the gari packaged in polypropylene
texture is the quantity and quality of starch (Charles woven sack was positively correlated (P < 0.05,
et al., 2005; Charoenkul et al., 2006). Texture assess- r = 0.58) with the mouldability of the eba. The set-
ment of food can be done using either human senses back viscosity of the gari packaged in polyvinyl chlo-
(sensory texture profile analysis--STPA) or instruments ride container was negatively correlated (P < 0.05,
(instrumental texture profile analysis--ITPA). For the r = 0.58) with the texture of the eba (Awoyale et al.,
STPA, consumers are asked to rate the textural attri- 2020). Furthermore, a study on the effect of varieties
butes resulting from different varieties and of different and period of harvesting (Laya et al., 2018) on the
planting periods, allowing the researcher to identify functional properties and sensory attributes of gari
consumer-preferred textural attributes and to select revealed that a significant positive correlation
varieties with consumer-preferred characteristics (Tom- (P < 0.01) exist between overall acceptability and the
lins et al., 2013), while the ITPA uses equipment bulk density (r = 0.86), water absorption capacity
designed to imitate the chewing process, providing (r = 0.83), and swelling power (r = 0.77; Table 4).
standardised data through which a wide range of food Also, the correlation between the bulk density
texture properties can be analysed, including hardness, (r = 0.82), water absorption capacity (r = 0.67) and
springiness, adhesiveness, resiliency, fracturability, the colour of the gari was positive and significant
wateriness, gumminess, sliminess and chewiness (Chen (P < 0.05). But, the least gelation concentration of the
& Opara, 2013; Goddard et al., 2015). This implies gari had a negative and significant (P < 0.05) correla-
that the ITPA can significantly expedite the testing tion with the colour (r = 0.66) and the odour
process and allow for repeat testing of the same sam- (r = 0.64; Table 4).
ple over time, and this seems to be the best method In addition to the functional properties, biochemical
for rapid and repeatable assessment of texture. composition contributes to the sensory perception and
Maieves et al. (2012) observed that the use of a textur- acceptability of gari and eba. Key biochemical factors
ometer to determine the hardness of cooked cassava include the production of lactic acid and other organic
roots could significantly facilitate the decision on acids during fermentation that gives the end-product
which varieties are softer for industrial processes its sour taste and the presence of sugars and proteins
involving heat treatment of raw materials. There is a that contribute to browning during roasting. The
paucity of research on the ITPA of gari produced acceptability of gari by consumers varies with regional
from different cassava varieties reconstituted to eba, preferences; nevertheless, some correlations can be
though work has been done on the texture analysis of observed between chemical composition and the
different cassava products (Asaoka et al., 1992; acceptability of sensory attributes of gari (Table 5).
Defloor et al., 1998; Tomlins et al., 2007; Aryee et al., Laya et al. (2018) studied the effect of varieties and
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
12 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
Table 4 Pearson correlation of functional properties and sensory evaluation of gari from Laya et al. (2018) data
Parameters BD WAC SWP LGC Colour Odour Mouthfeel Acidity Sweetness Acceptance
BD 1.00
WAC 0.73* 1.00
SWP 0.68* 0.95** 1.00
LGC 0.74* 0.54 0.64* 1.00
Colour 0.82** 0.67* 0.62 0.66* 1.00
Odour 0.85** 0.59 0.59 0.64* 0.74* 1.00
Mouthfeel 0.51 0.25 0.14 0.34 0.63* 0.66* 1.00
Acidity 0.03 0.31 0.31 0.05 0.19 0.30 0.14 1.00
Sweetness 0.05 0.18 0.13 0.22 0.31 0.06 0.38 0.15 1.00
Acceptance 0.86** 0.83** 0.77** 0.54 0.81** 0.83** 0.44 0.27 0.16 1.00
BD, bulk density; LGC, least gelation concentration; SWP, swelling power; WAC, water absorption capacity.
*P < 0.05.
**P < 0.01.
Table 5 Pearson correlation of chemical composition and sensory evaluation of gari
Moisture Ash Protein Lipid Crude fibre CHO Sugar CNP pH
Effect of varieties and period of harvest on sensory acceptability of gari (Laya et al., 2018)
Colour 0.26 – 0.58 0.10 0.06 0.56 0.24 0.07 0.56
Odour 0.47 0.65* 0.44 0.34 0.69* 0.40 0.37 0.76*
Acidity 0.38 – 0.04 0.60 0.26 0.34 0.71* 0.82** 0.54
Sweetness 0.13 – 0.21 0.24 0.08 0.22 0.11 0.37 0.16
Mouthfeel 0.01 – 0.43 0.22 0.28 0.05 0.29 0.06 0.50
Acceptance 0.47 – 0.54 0.40 0.01 0.67* 0.38 0.50 0.67*
Effect of different processing centres on the sensory acceptability of gari (Makanjuola et al., 2012)
Colour 0.28 0.13 NA 0.67 0.37 NA NA NA
Taste 0.06 0.24 NA 0.51 0.19 NA NA NA
Aroma 0.12 0.05 NA 0.54 0.40 NA NA NA
Acceptance 0.19 0.04 NA 0.61 0.40 NA NA NA
Effect of Sesame enrichment on the sensory acceptability of eba (Oluwamukomi, 2015a,b)
Colour 0.57 0.31 0.47 0.86 0.80 0.81 0.78 0.52
Texture 0.47 0.00 0.34 0.89* 0.81 0.67 0.98** 0.73
Taste 0.40 0.18 0.35 0.79 0.92* 0.69 0.92* 0.54
Aroma 0.40 0.08 0.31 0.83 0.88* 0.66 0.96** 0.60
Acceptance 0.61 0.23 0.50 0.91* 0.83 0.83 0.87 0.66
Effect of varieties and length of fermentation on sensory acceptability of gari (Olaoye et al., 2015)
Appearance 0.93** 0.91** 0.60* 0.76** 0.83** 0.91** 0.54 NA
Texture 0.93** 0.93** 0.58 0.77** 0.79** 0.93** 0.55 NA
Taste 0.94** 0.93** 0.55 0.77** 0.79** 0.95** 0.56 NA
Aroma 0.91** 0.95** 0.45 0.69* 0.78** 0.95** 0.71** NA
Acceptance 0.67* 0.59* 0.33 0.46 0.59* 0.69* 0.58 NA
CHO, carbohydrate; CNP, cyanogenic potential; NA, not available.
The Pearson correlation was done using the primary data from the authors by means of SPSS version 21.
*P < 0.05.
**P < 0.01.
the period of the harvest of cassava roots on the sen- (r = 0.67, P < 0.05) contents (Table 5). In addition,
sory evaluation of gari. They found that the accept- the moisture content of the gari had a negative corre-
ability of gari produced from different varieties had a lation with the colour (r = 0.26, P > 0.05), odour
negative but not significant relationship with moisture (r = 0.47, P > 0.01),) and mouthfeel (r = 0.01,
content (r = 0.47), and positive relationship with the P > 0.01), but a positive correlation with sweetness
lipid (r = 0.40, P > 0.05) and the carbohydrate (r = 0.13, P > 0.01). The protein content was
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 13
significant and positive only with the odour (r = 0.65, By and large, the primary sensory attributes that
P < 0.05; Table 5). describe good gari are colour, taste, texture and
The carbohydrate content of gari has significant posi- aroma/flavour. Texture attributes of importance is
tive correlations with the odour (r = 0.69, P < 0.05) crispiness in the case of dried gari, and hand feel
and the overall acceptability (r = 0.69, P < 0.05). The before consumption in the case of eba. Taste attributes
cyanogenic potential was negatively correlated with the of importance are sweetness and sourness, and the
acidity (= 0.82, P < 0.01). However, all the sensory combination thereof of the gari and eba. As a result of
attributes have negative but not significant (P > 0.05) the relationship between the sensory attributes of gari
correlation with the CNP. The odour (r = 0.76, and the carbohydrate (starch) and cyanogenic poten-
P < 0.05) and the overall acceptability (r = 0.67, tial (CNP) contents of the raw roots, breeders should
P < 0.05) of the gari have a significant negative correla- work more on increasing the starch and decreasing the
tion with the pH (Table 5). Also, the correlation of the CNP contents of the roots. Also, the gab in the texture
sugar content of the gari was positive and significant of the gari/eba could be attributed to the differences in
with the acidity (r = 0.71, P < 0.05; Table 5). The effect the production of gari from one location to another
of different processing centres on the sensory evaluation (Laya et al., 2018), thus, there is a need for further
of gari as reported by Makanjuola et al. (2012) showed study to establish the different textural attributes of
that the ash, lipid and fibre contents of gari have a nega- gari/eba based on locations.
tive correlation with all the sensory attributes evaluated
(Table 5). The correlation of the data generated by
Conclusions
Olaoye et al. (2015), on the effect of varieties and length
of fermentation on the sensory evaluation of gari Substantial work has been published on the biochemi-
showed that the acceptability of the gari had a signifi- cal composition of fresh cassava roots and gari, on
cant (P < 0.05) positive correlation with ash and fibre the postharvest processing to produce gari, including
(r = 0.59), and the carbohydrate (r = 0.69) contents, enrichment with additional ingredients (palm oil, soy
but a negative correlation with moisture (r = 0.67, flour, etc.) and on their effect on the sensory proper-
P < 0.05; Table 5). Also, the ash, fibre and carbohy- ties and perception by consumers of gari itself and
drate contents of the gari have significant positive corre- gari reconstituted into eba. It is possible to correlate
lations with all the sensory attributes, and that of some biochemical or functional properties with speci-
moisture content was negative for all the attributes. The fic sensory attributes, such as particle size with the
protein content had a significant positive correlation perception of texture, or lactic acid content with the
with the gari appearance (r = 0.60, P < 0.05), and the perception of sourness. These correlations make possi-
cyanogenic potential content had a significant negative ble the evaluation of gari by instrumental means, to
correlation with the aroma (r = 0.71, P < 0.05; identify and select improved cassava varieties most
Table 5). Oluwole et al. (2004) on their own part suitable for transformation into gari, or inclusion as
reported that the breakdown of starch in fresh cassava progenitors in breeding programmes. For further
root by Corynebacterium manihot into simple sugars research on the interactions between consumer prefer-
and the subsequent fermentation to produce lactic and ences assessments and the development of improved
formic acids resulting in pH drop could be linked to the cassava varieties, the following areas currently have
production of the characteristics taste of gari. This cor- little or no information published and would benefit
relation implies that breeders may use the relationship from more investigations: (i) comparison of the physi-
between the chemical composition of the cassava roots cal, functional and biochemical properties of gari pro-
and the sensory acceptability of gari during the breeding duced from traditional and mechanised methods, with
process to improve on the varieties. consideration of unit operation in order to identify
Apart from the relationship between the composi- critical control points and clarify the effect of the pro-
tion of the gari and its sensory attributes, the chemical cess on gari quality; (ii) the sensory attributes and
composition of the cassava roots may affect the con- consumer acceptability of gari produced from tradi-
sumer preference of the gari/eba. This is because Akely tional and mechanised methods, and the sensory and
et al. (2020) reported that the sweet taste of gari could instrumental texture profile analyses of eba from the
be attributed to the relative high reducing sugar and same two methods; (iii) effect of postharvest preserva-
low hydrogen cyanide contents of the cassava roots. tion techniques of cassava roots such as ratooning
Sanoussi et al. (2015) on their part observed that the and pruning on the processing ability, quality and
dirty white colour of gari may be due to the high sol- sensory properties of gari and eba; (iv) effect of caro-
uble sugars of the cassava root, which tends to cara- tenoids biofortification on the quality and acceptabil-
melise during roasting. The texture of gari was also ity of eba, by comparing the properties and sensory
reported by Sanoussi et al. (2015) to be associated with attributes of eba made from white and yellow-fleshed
the low fibres content of the cassava roots. varieties.
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
14 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
Acknowledgements References
This work was supported by the RTBfoods project Abass, A.B., Dziedzoave, N.T., Alenkhe, B.E. & James, B.D. (2012).
https://rtbfoods.cirad.fr through a grant OPP1178942: Quality Management Manual for the Production of Gari. Pp. 48.
Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Breeding RTB products for end-user preferences Adeleke, R. O. & Odedeji, J. O. (2010) Functional properties of
(RTBfoods), to the French Agricultural Research wheat and sweet potato flour blends.. Pakistan Journal of Nutri-
Centre for International Development (CIRAD), tion, 9 (6), 535–538.
Montpellier, France, by the Bill & Melinda Gates Adeoti, O., Ayelegun, T.A. & Oyewole, B.A. (2009). A review on the

 impact of gari consumption on the water resource of Nigeria. Afri-Foundation (BMGF). Special thanks to Bela Teeken,
can Journal of Biotechnology, 8, 7283–7289.
Tessy Madu, Benjamin Okoye, Bello Abolore, Ola- Adinsi, L., Akisso
e, N., Escobar, A. et al. (2019). Sensory and
mide Olaosebikan, Durodola Owoade, Michael Ades- physicochemical profiling of traditional and enriched gari in Benin.
okan, Maria Justin, Catherine Ebah, N’Nan Diby, Food Science and Nutrition, 7, 3338–3348.
Christelle Kouakou, Ernest Depieu and Alban Africabiz online (2020). Tropical Roots and Tubers: (VII)-B-Gari
market. Accessed from http://businessafrica.net/africabiz/arcvol1/
Kanon, for their contributions to this work. Thanks is61front.php on Friday 25/09/2020 at 12.50 pm.
to Clair Hershey for reviewing and editing the manu- AGROPME (2010). E
tude de march
e de gari et de fufu dans les
script. villes de Douala & Yaound
e. PNDRT et IRTCM – Cameroun.
Akely, P.M.T., Gnagne, E.H., To Lou, G.M.L.T. & Amani, G.N.G.
(2020). Varietal influence of cassava on chemical composition and
Author contributions consumer acceptability of gari. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14610.
Wasiu Awoyale: Conceptualization (equal); Formal Akingbala, J.O., Oyewole, O.B., Uzo-Peters, P.I., Karim, R.O. &
analysis (equal); Software (equal); Writing-original Bacuss-Taylor, G.S.H. (2005). Evaluating stored cassava quality in
draft (equal). Emmanuel Oladeji Alamu: Conceptual- gari production. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 3,
75–80.
ization (equal); Methodology (equal); Validation Akinoso, R. & Olatunde, S.J. (2014) Effect of mash quantity and
(equal); Visualization (equal); Writing-review & edit- roasting duration on some physical and pasting properties of gari.
ing (equal). Ugo Chijioke: Validation (equal); Visual- International Food Research Journal, 21, 77–82.
ization (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Aloys, N. & Zhou, H.M. (2005). Functional and chemical properties
of Ikivunde Burundian cassava flours. Journal of Food Biochem-
Thierry Tran: Validation (equal); Visualization
istry, 30, 429–443.
(equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Noel Alozie, Y.E. & Ekerette, N.N. (2017). Proximate compositions,
Hubert Takam-Tchuente: Validation (equal); Visual- physicochemical and sensory properties of gari fortified with soy-
ization (equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). bean, melon seed and moringa seed flours. International Journal of
Robert Ndjouenkeu: Validation (equal); Visualization Nutrition and Food Sciences, 6, 105–110.
Anggraini, V., Sudarmonowati, E., Hartati, N.S., Suurs, L. & Visser,
(equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Franklin R.G. (2009). Characterization of cassava starch attributes of differ-
Ngoualem Kegah: Validation (equal); Visualization ent genotypes. Starch-Sta€rke, 61, 472–481.
(equal); Writing-review & editing (equal). Bussie Aniedu, C. & Omodamiro, R.M. (2012). Use of newly bred b-caro-
Maziya-Dixon: Conceptualization (equal); Funding tene cassava in the production of value-added products. The impli-
cation for food security in Nigeria. Global Journal of Science
acquisition (equal); Resources (equal); Writing-review
Frontier Research, 12, 11–16.
& editing (equal). Apea-Bah, F.B., Oduro, I., Ellis, W.O. & Safo-Kantanka, O. (2011).
Multivariate analysis and age at harvest effect on sensory prefer-
ence of Gari from four cassava varieties. American-Eurasian Jour-
Conflict of interest nal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, 11, 326–333.
Arisa, N.U., Omosaiye, O.B., Adelekan, A.O. & Alabi-Mac Foy, A.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in this (2011). Chemical and Sensory qualities of gari fortified with
work. groundnut flour. African Journal of Food Science and Technology,
2, 116–119.
Aryee, F.N.A., Oduro, I., Ellis, W.O. & Afuakwa, J.J. (2006). The
Ethical approval physicochemical properties of flour samples from the roots of 31
varieties of cassava. Food Control, 17, 916–922.
Ethics approval was not required for this research. Asaoka, M., Blanshard, M.V. & Rickard, J.E. (1992). Effects of cul-
tivar and growth season on the gelatinization properties of cassava
(Manihot esculenta) starch. Journal of the Science of Food and Agri-
Peer Review culture, 59, 53–58.
Awoyale, W. (2018). Training Manual for the Production of Cassava
The peer review history for this article is available at Products in Liberia, Pp. 44. Ibadan, Nigeria: International Institute
https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.14867. of Tropical Agriculture (IITA).
Awoyale, W., Kawalawu, W.K.C., Asiedu, R., Maziya-Dixon, B.,
Abass, A. & Edet, M. (2019). Evaluation of the chemical composi-
Data availability statement tion and functional properties of gari from Liberia. Croatian Jour-
nal of Food Science and Technology, 11, 157–167.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new ** Awoyale, W., Oyedele, H. & Maziya-Dixon, B. (2020). Func-
data were created or analysed in this study. tional and pasting properties of gari produced from white-fleshed
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 15
cassava roots as affected by packaging materials and storage peri- synthese: Cameroun. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organiza-
ods, and sensory attributes of the cooked gari dough (eba). Inter- tion of United Nations.
national Journal of Food Studies. (Accepted for publication with Favaro, S. P., Beleia, A., da Silva Fonseca Junior, N. & Waldron,
manuscript number-875-5858-1-CE.docx). Available https://www. K. W. (2008) The roles of cell wall polymers and intracellular com-
iseki-food-ejournal.com/ojs/index.php/e-journal/author/submis ponents in the thermal softening of cassava roots.. Food Chemistry,
sionEditing/875. https://10.7455/ijfs/10.1.2021.a9.. 108 (1), 220–227.
Ayetigbo, O., Latif, S., Abass, A. & Mu€ller, J. (2018). Comparing Favier, J.-C., Chevassus-Agnes, S. & Gallon, G. (1969). Les amy-
characteristics of root, flour and starch of biofortified yellow-flesh laces du Cameroun. Centre ORSTOM de Yaounde.
and white-flesh cassava variants, and sustainability considerations: FOS. (1970). Nigeria Federal Office of Statistics (FOS). Lagos:
a review. Sustainability, 10, 3089. National Consumer Survey.
Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K.I., Chijioke, U., Ilona, P., Westby, A. & Franck, H., Christian, M., Noel, A. et al. (2011). Effects of cultivar
Boy, E. (2018). Physical losses could partially explain modest caro- and harvesting conditions (age, season) on the texture and taste of
tenoid retention in dried food products from biofortified cassava. boiled cassava roots. Food Chemistry, 126, 127–133.
PLoS One, 13, e0194402. Goddard, J., Harris, K.P., Kelly, A. et al. (2015). Root, tuber, and
Butterworth, R., Abdulsalam-Saghir, P. & Martin, A. (2008). Gender banana textural traits: a review of the available food science and
and Diversity Report –Nigeria, Pp. 42. Cassava: Adding Value for consumer preferences literature. Evans School Policy Analysis and
Africa Project. Research (EPAR), 295, 1–52.
Charles, A.L., Chang, Y.H., Ko, W.C., Sriroth, K. & Huang, T.C. Gouado, I., Mawamba, D.A., Ouambo, M.R.S., Some, T.I. &
(2005). Influence of amylopectin structure and amylose content on Tchouanguep, M.F. (2008). Provitamin A carotenoid content of
the gelling properties of five cultivars of cassava starches. Journal dried fermented cassava flour: the effect of palm oil addition dur-
of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 53, 2717–2725. ing processing. International Journal of Food Engineering, 4, 1556–
Charoenkul, N., Uttapap, D., Pathipanawat, W. & Takeda, Y. 3758.
(2006). Molecular structure of starches from cassava varieties hav- Huang, C.C., Chiang, P.Y., Chen, Y.Y. & Wang, C.R. (2007).
ing different cooked root textures. Starch-Sta€rke, 58, 443–452. Chemical compositions and enzyme activity changes occurring in
Chavez, A.L., Sanchez, T., Ceballos, H. et al. (2007). Retention of yam (Dioscorea alata L.) tubers during growth. Food Science and
carotenoids in cassava roots submitted to different processing Technology, 40, 1498–1506.
methods. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 87, 388– Idowu, M.A. & Akindele, S.A. (1994). Effect of storage of cassava
393. roots on the chemical composition and sensory qualities of ’gari’
Chen, L. & Opara, U.L. (2013). Approaches to analysis and mod- and ’fufu’. Food Chemistry, 51, 421–424.
elling texture in fresh and processed foods – a review. Journal of IITA (2011). New vitamin A-fortified cassava released in Nigeria, set
Food Engineering, 119, 497–507. to improve the health of millions. Bulletin issue No. 2098, 5–9
Collard, P.V. & Levi, S. (1959). A two-stage fermentation of cassava. December. Pp. 1–2.
Nature, 183, 620–621. Karim, O.R., Balogun, M.A., Akintayo, O.A. & Awoyale, W.
Coulibaly, O., Arinloye, A.D., Faye, M. & Abdoulaye, T. (2014). (2016). Physical, chemical and sensory properties of cassava (Mani-
Regional cassava value chains analysis in West Africa. Technical hot esculenta) – sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) gari. Ukrainian
report, pp 49. Journal of Food Science, 4, 276–289.
Defloor, I., Dehing, I. & Delcour, J.A. (1998). Physico-chemical Kim, Y.S., Wiesenborn, D.P., Orr, P.H. & Grant, L.A. (1995).
properties of cassava starch. Starch-Sta€rke, 50, 58–64. Screening potato starch for novel properties. Journal of Food
Edem, D. O., Ayatse, J. O. I. & Itam, E. H. (2001) Effect of soy pro- Science, 60, 1060–1065.
tein supplementation on the nutritive value of ‘gari’ (farina) from ** Laya, A., Koubala, B.B., Kouninki, H. & Nukenine, E.N. (2018).
Manihot esculenta. Food Chemistry, 75, 57–62. https://doi.org/10. Effect of harvest period on the proximate composition and func-
1016/S0308-8146(01)00183-2. tional and sensory properties of gari produced from local and
Egesi, C.N., Olasanmi, B., Ekwe, K.C. et al. (2012). Participatory improved Cassava (Manihot esculenta) varieties. International Jour-
breeding for-vitamin A enriched cassava in Nigeria. In R.U. Oke- nal of Food Science, 6241035, 1–15.
chukwu & P. Ntawuruhunga (Eds), Tropical Roots and Tuber Lengha, T.N. (2017). The use of technology by women gari produc-
Crops and the Challenges of Globalization and Climate Changes. ers in Bamunkumbit village, Northwest Region of Cameroon.
Proceedings of 11 ISTRC-AB symposiums, Kinshasa, Democratic IJRDO-Journal of Agriculture and Research, 3, 37–52.
Republic of Congo, 4–8 October 2010.Nigeria: 236–240. Maieves, H.A., De Oliveira, D.C., Bernardo, C., Mu€ller, C.M.D.O.
Eggleston, G. & Asiedu, R. (1994) Effects of boiling on the texture & Amante, E.R. (2012). Microscopy and texture of raw and
of cassava clones: A comparison of compressive strength, intercel- cooked cassava (Manihot Esculenta Crantz) roots. Journal of Tex-
lular adhesion and physico-chemical composition of the tuberous ture Studies, 43, 164–173.
roots. Tropical Science, 34, 259–273. ** Makanjuola, O.M., Ogunmodede, A.S., Makanjuola, J.O. &
Eje, B.E., Ugwu, K.C. & Okafor, E.C. (2015). Physiochemical and Awonorin, S.O. (2012). Comparative study on quality attributes of
organoleptic properties of gari from cassava roots stored in moist gari obtained from some processing centres in South-west, Nigeria.
medium for fifteen weeks. International Journal of Engineering Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 4, 135–140.
Science and Innovative Technology, 4, 1–6. Maziya-Dixon, B., Awoyale, W. & Dixon, A. (2015). Effect of pro-
Escobar, A., Dahdouh, L., Rondet, E. et al. (2018). Development of cessing on the retention of total carotenoid, iron and zinc contents
a novel integrated approach to monitor the processing of cassava of yellow-fleshed cassava roots. Journal of Food and Nutrition
roots into gari: macroscopic and microscopic scales. Food Biopro- Research, 3, 483–488.
cess Technology, 11, 1370–1380. Montagnac, J.A., Davis, C.R. & Tanumihardjo, S.A. (2009). Nutri-
Eyinla, T.E., Maziya-Dixon, B., Alamu, O.E. & Sanusi, R.A. (2019). tional value of cassava for use as a staple food and recent advances
Retention of pro-vitamin a content in products from new bioforti- for improvement. Comprehensive Review in Food Science and Food
fied cassava varieties. Foods, 8, 177. Safety, 8, 181–188.
FAO (2004). Cassava industrial revolution in Nigeria. www.fao. Nimoh, F., Richmond, A.R., Asiamah, M.T. et al. (2020). Financial
org/docrep007/y5548e/y5548e07htm. performance and constraints in gari production in Kumasi, Ghana.
FAO (2018). Etude diagnostique de la reduction des pertes apres African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development,
recolte de trois cultures: manioc-tomate-pomme de terre. Rapport de 20, 16085–16098.
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
16 Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al.
Njukwe, E., Hanna, R., Kirscht, H. & Araki, S. (2013). Farmers per- South-east Nigeria. Journal of Economics of and Economics and
ception and criteria for cassava variety preference in Cameroon. Sustainable, 3, 81–90.
African Study Monographs, 34, 221–234. Onyenwoke, C.A. & Simonyan, K.J. (2014). Cassava postharvest
Nyirenda, D.B., Chiwona-Karltun, L., Chitundu, M., Haggblade, S. processing and storage in Nigeria: a review. African Journal of
& Brimer, L. (2011). Chemical safety of cassava products in Agricultural Research, 9, 3853–3863.
regions adopting cassava production and processing – experience Ortiz, D., S
anchez, T., Morante, N., Ceballos, H., Pacho
n, H. &
from Southern Africa. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 49, 607–612. Duque, M.C. (2011). Sampling strategies for proper quantification
Oduro, I., Ellis, W.O., Aryeetey, S.K., Ahenkora, K. & Otoo, J.A. of carotenoids content in cassava breeding. Journal of Plant Breed-
(2000). Pasting characteristics of starch from new sweet-potato. ing and Crop Science, 3, 14–23.
Tropical Science, 40, 25–28. Osho, S.M. (2003) Methods for the dissemination of food processing
Ogundipe, O.S., Oyelade, O.A. & Farounbi, A.J. (2013). Cassava technologies: the soybean example in Nigeria. International Society
processing in Nigeria: a case study of gari processing. Continental for Horticultural Science, 21, 1–2.
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 7, 10–16. Owuamanam, C.I., Oguke, C.C., Achinewhu, S.C. & Barimala, I.S.
Ogunlakin, G.O., Olanipekun, B.F., Okpor, J.M. & Ajayeoba, T.A. (2011). Quality characteristics of gari as affected by permanent
(2015). Effect of soybeans treatment on some quality parameters of liquor, temperature, and duration of fermentation. American Jour-
soy-gari. Donnish Journal of Food Science and Technology, 1, 0001– nal of Food Technology, 6, 374–384.
0005. Oyewole, O. & Afolami, O.A. (2001). Quality and preference of dif-
Okafor, N., Umeh, C. & Ibenegbu, C. (1998). Amelioration of gari, ferent cassava varieties for lafun production. Journal of Food Tech-
a cassava-based fermented food by the inoculation of microorgan- nology in Africa, 6, 27–29.
isms secreting amylase, lysine and linamarase into cassava mash. Oyeyinka, S.A., Ajayi, O.I., Gbadebo, C.T., Kayode, R.M.O.,
World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 14, 835–838. Karim, O.R. & Adeloye, A. (2019). Physiochemical properties of
Okafor, N. & Uzuegbu, J.O. (1987). Studies on the contribution of gari prepared from frozen cassava roots. LWT-Food Science and
micro-organism to the organoleptic properties of gari, a fermented Technology, 99, 594–599.
food derived from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Journal of Perez, E.E., Breene, W.M. & Bahnassey, Y.A. (1998). Variations in
the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2, 99–105. the gelatinization profiles of cassava, sagu and arrowroot native
Olaleye, O.O., Afolayan, S.S., Aondo, T.O. & Adeniyi, A.B. (2018). starches as measured with different thermal and mechanical meth-
Effect of storage methods on the physicochemical and sensory ods. Starch-Sta€rke, 50, 70–72.
attributes of gari processed from stored cassava roots varieties. PNDRT. (2006). Etude sur l’observatoire des racines et tubercules:
Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research International, 14, 1– rapport de premiere phase.
10. Quaye, W., Gayin, J., Yawson, I. & Plahar, W.A. (2009). Character-
** Olaoye, O.A., Lawrence, I.G., Cornelius, G.N. & Ihenetu, M.E. istics of various cassava processing methods and the adoption
(2015). Evaluation of quality attributes of cassava product (gari) requirements in Ghana. Journal of Root Crops, 35, 59–68.
produced at varying length of fermentation. American Journal of S
anchez, H., Ceballos, F., Calle, J.C. et al. (2010). Tolerance to
Agricultural Science, 2, 1–7. postharvest physiological deterioration in cassava roots. Crop
Oluwamukomi, M.O. (2015a). Chemical and sensory properties of Science, 50, 1333–1338.
gari enriched with sesame seed flour (Sesamum indicum L.). FUTA Sanni, L.O., Maziya-Dixo, B., Akanya, C.I. et al. (2005). Standards
Journal of Research in Sciences, 1, 123–131. for Cassava Products and Guidelines for Export. Pp. 11–39 Ibadan,
Oluwamukomi, M.O. (2015b). Chemical and sensory properties of Nigeria: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.
gari fortified with sesame seed flour (Sesamum Indicum L.). FUTA Sanni, S.A., Oguntona, C.R.B., Oguntona, E.B. & Maziya-Dixon, B.
Journal of Research in Sciences, 1, 123–131. (2010). Chemical composition, pasting and sensory properties of
Oluwamukomi, M.O. & Jolayemi, O.S. (2012). Physicothermal and iron-fortified cassava gari. Food, 4, 55–60.
pasting properties of soy-melon-enriched "gari" semolina from cas- Sanni, L.O., Oyewole, O.B., Adebowale, A.A. & Adebayo, K.
sava. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 14, (2003). Current trends in the utilization of roots and tubers for sus-
105–116. tainable development. Brouwer, I.D., Traore, A.S. & Treche, S.,
Oluwole, O.B., Olatunji, O.O. & Odunfa, S.A. (2004). A process Eds: In: Food Based Approaches for Healthy Nutrition. Oua-
technology for conversation of dried cassava chips into gari. Nige- gadougou: Presse Universitaire, Proceedings of the 2nd Interna-
rian Food Journal, 22, 65–73. tional workshop. Pp. 123–138.
Omodamiro, R., Oti, E., Etudaiye, H., Egesi, C., Olasanmi, B. & Sanni, M.O. & Sobamiwa, A.O. (1994) Processing and characteristics
Ukpabi, U. (2012). Production of fufu from yellow cassava roots of soybean-fortified gari. World Journal of Microbiology and
using the odourless flour technique and the traditional method: Biotechnology, 10, 206–270.
evaluation of carotenoids retention in the fufu. Advances in Applied Sanoussi, A.F., Loko, L.Y., Ahissou, H. et al. (2015). Diversity,
Science and Research, 3, 2566–2572. physicochemical and technological characterization of elite Cassava
Omueti, O., Amusan, J.A., Fayemi, T. & Ashaye, K. (1993). Evalua- (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Cultivars of Bante, a District of Central
tion of gari from markets and processing centres for cyanide and Benin. The Scientific World Journal, 8, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/
moisture content in some states in Nigeria. Nigerian Food Journal, 2015/674201.
11, 135–136. Tolly Lolo, E. (2013). Am
elioration de la commercialisation et de
Onadipe, O. (2011). Total carotenoid content, retention, bioavailabil- transformation du manioc au Cameroun: contraintes et perspec-
ity and consumer acceptability of gari from biofortified cassava tives de la châıne de valeur. Elbehri, A,(eds.), In: Reconstruire le
roots (PhD thesis). Abeokuta, Nigeria: University of Agriculture. potentiel alimentaire de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. Pp. 551–584. Rome:
Onitilo, M.O., Sanii, L.O., Daniel, I., Maziya-dixon, B. & Dixon, A. FAO/FIDA.
(2007). Physicochemical and functional properties of native Tomlins, K., Rwiza, E., Nyango, A. et al. (2004). The use of sensory
starches from cassava verities in southwest Nigeria. Journal of evaluation and consumer preference for the selection of sweet-
Food, Agriculture and Environment, 5, 108–114. potato cultivars in East Africa. Journal of the Science of Food and
Onyemauwa, C.S. (2010). Analysis of Household Consumption of Agriculture, 84, 791–799.
Cassava Products in Ohaozara, Ebonyi State, Southeast Nigeria. Tomlins, K., Sanni, L., Oyewole, O. et al. (2007). Consumer accept-
Researcher, 2, 1–6. ability and sensory evaluation of a fermented cassava product
Onyemauwa, C.S. (2012). Analysis of women participation in cas- (Nigerian fufu). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 87,
sava production cassava production and processing in Imo State, 1949–1956.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020 © 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley &
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)
Gari and eba end-user preferences W. Awoyale et al. 17
Udofia, P.G., Uduodo, P.J., Eyen, N.O. & Udoekong, N.S. (2011). Westby, A. (2002). Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale pro-
Optimizing gari quality attributes for different groups of consumers cessing. In: Cassava Biology, Production and Utilization (edited by
with response surface methodology. Journal of Agricultural R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh & A.C. Bellotti). Pp. 480. Oxfordshire,
Biotechnology and Sustainable Development, 3, 28–34. UK: CABI Publishing.
Udoro, E.O., Kehinde, A.T., Olasunkanmi, S.G. & Charles, T.A. Westby, A. & Twiddy, D. (1992). Characterization of gariand fufu
(2014). Studies on the physicochemical, functional and sensory preparation procedures in Nigeria. World Journal of Microbiology
properties of gari processed from dried cassava chips. Journal of and Biotechnology, 8, 175–182.
Food Processing and Technology, 5, 293.
© 2020 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science & Technology published by John Wiley & International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2020
Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF)