SPECIAL
ROGMPROGRAM
} SFoOR AFRICAN 11 8 1 0
______ AGRICULTURAL May 1987
SF'uAR RESEARCH
Guidelinesf or
StrengtheningN ational
AgriculturalR esearch
Systems
in Sub-SaharanA frica
Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

Special Program for African Agricultural Research
SPAAR
Guidelines for
Strengthening National Agricultural Research Systems
in Sub-Saharan Africa
International Service for National
Agricultural Research
(ISNAR)
and
SPAAR Working Group for Preparation of Guidelines
for National Agricultural Research Strategies
in Sub-Saharan Africa
The World Bank
Washington, D.C.
Copyright (D 1970
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433
International Service for National
Agricultural ReseaTch (ISNAR)
P. 0. Box 93375
2509 AJ The Hague
Netherlands
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing May 1987
The plenary meeting of the Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR), held
in Washington in October 1985, identified a number of areas where donors could take a
concerted initiative to help African states in their efforts to strengthen their national
agricultural research systems. One of these areas of activity was the preparation of guidelines
for national agricultural research strategies in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank agreed
to convene a working group to carry out this task. The International Service for National
Agricultural Research (ISNAR) was asked and agreed to be the principal author of these
guidelines.
The judgments expressed herein are those of the author(s). They do not necessarily reflect
the views of the World Bank, of affiliated organizations, including the SPAAR Secretariat,
or of the members of the SPAAR, or of any individual acting on their behalf.
This paper has been prepared and published informally in order to share the information with
the least possible delay.
Library of Congress Cataloglng-in-Publication Data
Guidelines for strengthening national agricultural
research systems in sub-Saharan Africa.
At head of title: Special Program for African
Agricultural Research, SPAAR.
1. Agriculture--Research--Africa, Sub-Saharan.
I. International Service for National Agricultural
Research. II. SPAAR Working Group for Preparation
of Guidelines for National Agricultural Research
Strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa. III. Special
Program for African Agricultural Research
(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
IV. Title: National agricultural research systems in
sub-Saharan Africa.
S542.A426.G85 1987 630'.72067 87-14717
ISBN 0-8213-0920-X
PREFACE held in Washington on November 7, 1986. At
this meeting, the paper was approved with
The plenary meeting of the Special Pro- some suggested changes and additions. The
gram for African Agricultural Research same version was also presented at two World
(SPAAR), held in Washington in October 1985, Bank-sponsored Regional Workshops, one on
identified a number of areas in which donors Agricultural Research in Eastern and South-
could take a concerted initiative to help ern Africa (Nairobi, December 11-16, 1986),
African states in their efforts to strengthen the other on West African Agricultural Re-
their national agricultural research systems. search (Cotonou, December 10-17, 1986).
One of these areas of activity was the prepa- Comments received at the last three meetings
ration of guidelines for national agricultural were taken into account by ISNAR and the
research strategies in sub-Saharan Africa. working group in preparing the present text
The World Bank agreed to convene a working for publication. This document, published
group to carry out this task. The International jointly by ISNAR and SPAAR, is intended for
Service for National Agricultural Research wide distribution to government planners,
(ISNAR) was asked and accepted to be the administrators and research leaders in Africa,
principal author of this guidelines paper. as well as to donors, in the expectation that it
will stimulate discussion and action on im-
The first draft, prepared by ISNAR, provement of national agricultural research
broadened the objectives of the paper to deal systems.
with research systems generally rather than
limiting it to strategies, and the title was John K. Coulter
amended accordingly. This draft was re-
viewed by the working group, which at Chairman
ISNAR's invitation met at its headquarters in SPAAR Working Group for Preparation of
The Hague, from June 9 to 13, 1986. The Guidelines for Agricultural Research
working group was chaired by the World Bank Strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa
and was further composed of representatives
of FAO, IFPRI, ISNAR, and UNDP, as well as
two directors of African agricultural research
institutes (from Cameroon and Malawi) serv-
ing in a personal capacity.
The text, amended at the June 1986 work-
ing group meeting, was then discussed by
directors of national agricultural research
institutions and senior planning officials of
the member states of the Southern African
Development Coordination Conference
(SADCC), together with the working group
and the Executive Secretary of SPAAR, at a
seminar held in Lusaka on September 27,1986.
This seminar, held under the joint auspices of
the Southern African Centre for Cooperation
in Agricultural Research (SACCAR) and
ISNAR, was financed in part by the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA),
which was also represented.
The document, modified at Lusaka, was
then presented at the SPAAR plenary meeting

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii - xi
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. MAJOR CHALLENGES FACING AFRICAN AGRICULTURE 2
The Food Production-Population Race 2
Food Security 3
Rural Income and Employment Generation 3
Environmental Protection and Development of
Sustainable Production Systems 4
Generating and Saving Foreign Exchange 4
Strengthening the Institutional Base of African
Agriculture 5
Conclusions Pertinent to Agricultural Research 5
III. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN AFRICA:
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 5
Evolution in Relation to Changing Objectives 5
Agricultural Research a Profitable Investment 6
- Impact of Technology Generated in Africa 6
- Transfer and Adaptation of Technology 7
Need to Reassess Technology "On the Shelf" 7
Recent History: Limited Output 8
Lessons Learned 8
IV. ROLE OF NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS 9
What Constitutes a National Agricultural Research
System 9
Objectives of National Agricultural Research 10
Major Activities of an Agricultural Research System 10
V. STRUCTURE OF A NATIONAL RESEARCH SYSTEM 11
VI. BUILDING AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM 12
Effective Use of National Scientists 13
Integrated Development of Research, Education and
Extension 13
Regional and International Research Linkages 13
- Inter-Governmental Institutions 13
- Networks 14
- Linkages with Senior Scientists Abroad 15
Management of Donor-Funded Projects 15
Time Frame 15
Page v
VII. FUNDING OF RESEARCH 15
How Much to Invest in Research 15
Allocations of Funds for Operations, Infrastructure
and Staff 16
VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL RESEARCH STRATEGY 16
Research Response to Multiple National Development
Goals 16
Need for Balance between Various Kinds of Research 17
Priority-Setting and Resource Allocation at the
Macro Level 18
IX. STRENGTHENING THE MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH SYSTEMS 20
Long-Term Research Planning 20
Research Programming and Budgeting 21
Monitoring and Research Evaluation 21
- Monitoring 21
- Research Evaluation 22
Human Resource Development and Personnel Policy 22
- Research Entrepreneurship 23
- Recruitment 23
- Training 23
- Incentives, Promotion and Retention 24
- Administration of Personnel Policy 25
Financial Management 25
Management of Physical Resources 25
Information Management 26
- Scientific and Technical Information:
Library and Documentation 26
- Internal Information 26
- Information Flow between Research and Its Clients 26
Research/Policy 26
Research/Extension 27
Research/Farmer 27
X. SOME ISSUES FOR DONORS 27
Program Support 27
Training 27
Support for Strategic Research 28
Foreign Exchange 28
Case Studies 28
XI. CONCLUSIONS 28
Page vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY * generating technologies which can
The dramatic impact of recent droughts provide productive employment in rural ar-
and the equally dramatic effect of good rains eas; and
on agricultural production have once again * contributing to food security for the
focused attention on the dominant role of nation and the family.
agriculture in Africa. This role involves not
only feeding the burgeoning population but This paper "Guidelines for Strengthening
also providing more employment in the rural National Agricultural Research Systems in
sector, and increasing exports for foreign sub-Saharan Africa" is a discussion of the
exchange. Most countries in sub-Saharan critical components of a research system, its
Africa are still self-sufficient in staple foods funding, its management, the setting of re-
whenever there is favorable weather. But search prioritics from both the national and
with rapid population increase such years of the farmers' point of view, the development of
self -sufficiency are becoming rarer, as the human capital, and the role of donors. It
opportunities f or expansion of cultivated discusses some of the lessons that have been
areas disappear. With stagnating yields, an learned from the past, and uses these as a
increasing number of countries 
f can 
 therefore
expeecxt pschhtgoo  rrtfa alllrssu ignho lobydaa ssiec food supplies even in 
th background 
ment to the guidelines for 
of the develop-
national research systems. The 
years paper
of good rainfall. In drought years, the is directed specifically at national policy
downward trend of per capita agricultural makers in agriculture, planning, and 
prodution finance,
is emphasized, envlronmental at research leaders in sub-Saharan Africa, and
degradation increases, and the vulnerablilty at donors. It emphasizes the crucial role that
of many parts of the continent to this natural each of these play, and is 
phenomenon intended to 
dramatized facilitate
.. . the necessary interaction between them. 
Clearly With
then, increased productivity, in the help of these guidelines, national planners
the good years and the bad, is absolutely essen- the hchese shoulne ato ploP
tial for the future well-being of agriculture and research leaders should be able to develop
and all those who depend on it. However, it their own capacity 
isand to 
only review their agricultural
is mwahtotef
ot d r n epencring 
only prodtve, Iresearch 
a matter systems, and to 
of design 
increasing improved
productiv- systems with less reliance on external assis-
ity per se. Irrigation, fertilizers and improved tance.
seeds can certainly improve productivity, but
they must do so within a system that is envi- The paper highlights areas requiring the
ronmentally sustainable and economically combined attention of planners, research
viable for the country and the farmers. Ieaders, and donors. These include:
Agricultural research provides the tech- Funding of Research
nology to do this. Without it, sustained in-
creases in productivity are impossible. Re- Country comparisons suggest that alloca-
search plays a crucial role in: tions to agricultural research of less than 0.5%
generating and adapting technologies of agricultural gross domestic product
whicwhh ichan eincrease agriculturalptiuc t ; (AGDP) are too low to 
can serve a country's
increase agricultural productivity; longer-term interests, and that at least 1.0 % of
* sustainable AGDP is desirable. However, year-to-year
developlng 
systems furthe 
particularly productiln 
for the more stability, 
fragile timely 
of disbursement, 
adequate provisions the inclusion
for operation and
areas; maintenance, and a minimum allocation of
* pprroovviiddiinngg  eeffff iicciieenntt  mmeetthhooddss  of proc- 
of foreign exchange are as critical 
proc- as the level of
seprt itself. New investments in staff,
essing, marketing and utilization of both food %sR'l"' itself ane invesmentms in saff,
and non-food products; and equipment must be accom-
Page vii
panied by appropriate increases in operational cultural sector goals. It involves national
budgets. policy makers and planners, and research
managers. This process should take into ac-
System-Building count rural institutions and services, invest-
ments in infrastructure, pricing policies and
More attention must be paid to the inte- forecasts, marketing structures, and natural
grated development of research services, insti- resource potentials. Analysis is likely to be
tutions of higher education in agriculture and handicapped by the absence of adequate data.
related disciplines, and extension services. Pending the development of analytical capac-
Regional and international linkages are also ity in planning ministries and national re-
important, particularly for small countries. search and academic institutions, the research
Twinning, research networks, and formal system must define its priorities with the
regional cooperation can contribute to the imperfect information and policy guidelines
goal of increasing the productivity, morale, available; subsequently, it should inform the
and professionalism of agricultural scientists relevant ministries of the underlying assump-
in Africa. tions used, and seek government reaction.
There is no single model for an optimal Research strategies should cover com-
structure of a national agricultural research modities, factors of the natural resource base,
system. However, any model chosen must and geographic regions. When developing
facilitate: these strategies, there are at least five general
considerations:
* dialogue between research leaders and
decision-makers in agriculture,planning, and the economic, social, and political
finance; importance of the commodities, factors and
regions;
* acquisition and disbursement of funds;
current market demand for the com-
* flexible management of personnel; modities in question, and future projections;
* communication with the clients of re- * the chances of a successful outcome of
search, notably farmers, extension services the research, taking into account the results,
and rural development organizations; and positive or negative, of previous attempts to
develop this technology;
* collaboration with academic institu-
tions. * the influence of factors which may
affect adoption of results; and
Better integration of donor-assisted re-
search projects into the national program is the probable distribution of benefits.
essential to ensure their continuation, and to
promote institution-building. For donors to Strengthening the Management of Research
agree to such integration, host institutions Systems
must have well-defined research programs
and demonstrate reliable resource manage- Once the major national research priori-
ment. ties have been determined and broad resource
allocations made, managers of the research
Determining Research Strategy and Priorities institutions can plan concrete research pro-
grams based on realistic projections of man-
The development of research priorities is power, station facilities, and probable fund-
a complicated process, which must be driven ing. The core management processes are long-
by national development objectives and agri- term planning, short-term programming and
Page viii
budgeting, monitoring and evaluation, human technology. Impact on national production
resource development and management, fi- involves additional factors and is therefore
nancial management and administration, not the prime consideration in evaluating
management of physical resources, informa- research.
tion management, and maintaining linkages
with national and international institutions. Human resource development and manqge-
ment. Human resource development strategies
Long-Term Research Planning. After pri- for African research must take into account
orities have been set at the macro level and the shortage and rapid turnover of well-
resources allocated, a long-term research plan trained staff in the continent. The long time
for, say, 10-15 years, must be designed within span and the large investments needed to
each institution. This process includes making redress this should be fully recognized. Over-
projections for manpower, infrastructure, and seas training clearly is not the long-term
operating funds. answer. Attention must be given to strength-
ening the African faculties of agriculture and
Research Programming and Budgeting. To related academic departments, and planning
select from among the wide choice of possible should be coordinated among universities so
experiments, researchers must understand the that jointly they can provide the adequate mix
conditions of farmers and rural support serv- of skills that agricultural research in Africa
ices. They must then take into account, requires.
through a program-budgeting (PB) exercise,
the human, physical and financial resources Research systems need a long-term train-
required to conduct these experiments. All PB ing plan which is based on a detailed defini-
procedures are ineffective as long as national tion of projected agricultural research thrusts.
budget allocations fluctuate from year to It requires prior agreement from government
year, are disbursed late, or are subject to on the evolution of staffing levels. The plan
sudden cuts during the year. Even a very should include provision for management
simple PB system confers many benefits. It training, and for training and updating of
forces the research organizations to describe skills of technicians and other support staff.
programs in specific terms, and with budgets Scientists also need opportunities for short in-
which can be justified to policy makers. It service courses, attendance at workshops,and
permits analysis of resource allocations to contacts with visiting senior scientists.
commodities, factors, and regions. And it
provides a basis for monitoring expenditures Selection and retention of the right per-
and the progress of research programs. sonnel are critical to the effectiveness of a
scientific organization, and a degree of auton-
Monitoring and Evaluation. A monitoring omy from standard civil service procedures is
process should provide managers with current usually required.
information on money spent, people em-
ployed, materials used,and on progress in each Promotion, salary increases, and various
of the research activities; but it should not forms of scientific recognition should be the
become more time-consuming than the bene- reward for professional performance and the
fits justify. Monitoring also forms a basis for main incentives for continued productivity.
periodic evaluation of the research program's Productivity rather than length of service
technical and scientific quality, and its rele- should be the dominant criterion for advance-
vance. This evaluation should examine prog- ment, and promotion to the highest ranks
ress against set targets; check the continuing should be possible without going to adminis-
relevance of targets and programs; and recom- trative and managerial positions, so that the
mend the termination of old programs and the most senior scientists remain available for
introduction of new ones. The product of a research and scientific supervision. Staff at
research system is new knowledge or new remote stations must have at least the same
Page ix
access to promotion opportunities and other Information Management. Greater efforts
incentives as those at headquarters. are needed to provide:
Financial Management. Good financial * scientific and technical information for
management includes timely acquisition and scientists to do their
disbursement of funds, and sound accounting. research;
It is a critical factor in maintaining confi- * up-to-date information on the human,
dence in the organization, not least among ph up-to-dat inancial ource an,
donors. Delegation of authority for disburse- physical and financial resources and the
ment to station heads and program coordina- programs of the institution, enabling it to
tors is needed for flexibility in the use of manage these effectively;
funds. Attention should be given to possibili- two-way information flow between
ties of block-funding, carry-over of funds to ts infolicy flow cxten
the next year, and the release of funds to meet research and its clients: policy makers, exten-
peak requirements. Many research institu- sion services, farmers and others.
tions report to a variety of donors, each with
its particular accounting and reporting re- It is particularly important to improve
quirements, which can overstretch the circulation of documentation, especially to
institution's capacity. Donors, ministries of staff at distant stations. Staff training in
finance and planning, and research managers library science is required. Stable library
should endeavor to harmonize these require- budgets, with a foreign exchange component,
ments. are extremely important. The escalating costs
of maintaining traditional libraries point to a
need to consider systems based on advanced
Management of Physical Resources. Na- technology.
tional authorities must carefully consider: the
number, location, and design of research sta- Databases and computerized information
tions and support facilities, including library systems are becoming increasingly important
and computer facilities; the selection of labo- in personnel management, program-budget-
ratory and farm equipment, and vehicles; the ing, monitoring, and evaluation. The intro-
maintenance of all these, including procure- duction, use, and maintenance of microcom-
ment of supplies and spare parts; and provi- puters require a commitment to keep them
sion for their replacement. Aid tied to the operational, and to use them to their fullest
acquisition of equipment and vehicles from potential.
the donor country leads to many complica-
tions. Some Issues for Donors
The efficient servicing, maintenance, and Improved national research systems and
utilization of buildings, equipment, and ve- clearly defined agricultural research strate-
hicles require well-trained staff and efficient gies will provide the framework within which
procedures. Systematic training of personnel donors will be able to improve the effective-
in these management functions is needed. ness of their contributions to research. Con-
Sufficient local and foreign currency is also sequently, donors, in cooperation with na-
required for maintenance, but is usually the tional governments, should make every effort
first to suffer in budget shortfalls. Whenever to improve such systems and support compre-
investments are made in physical infrastruc- hensive strategies.
ture and equipment, there must be concomi-
tant provision for operations and mainte- A critical area for donor attention is the
nance, which should be in the order of 20% of need to move from project to longer-term
the capital outlay. program support. Such a shift requires joint
commitment by national governments and
Page x
donors to institutional development. Assign-
ment of expatriate staff for longer than the
current average three-year period would
greatly improve the quality of technical assis-
tance. Harmonization of project accounting
procedures with those of the recipient institu-
tions would avoid much duplication and inef-
ficient expenditure of time.
In the area of training, problems will
continue as long as African agriculture and
science faculties are unable to offer high-
quality postgraduate programs. Some facul-
ties have benefited from large investments in
the past but now suffer from the same staffing
and funding problems as the national research
programs. Not only does this prevent them
from participating in useful research, it also
leads to poorly trained graduates. Donor-
supported programs for selective strengthen-
ing of faculties, and of linkages between
them, are therefore essential.
Donors could make a major contribution
by sponsoring studies to define priority pro-
grams of strategic research needed to backstop
African applied and adaptive research pro-
grams, and making arrangements for their
long-term funding.
Lack of foreign exchange is likely to
remain one of the major bottlenecks in im-
proving national research systems. Generally,
the amounts needed are not large. Donors
might work together to develop a consortium
approach to this problem.
Finally, donor-supported case studies on
the economic returns to agricultural research
investments in sub-Saharan Africa could
further demonstrate the importance of re-
search to attaining national development
goals.
Page xi

I. INTRODUCTION 2. Africa's food production-population
race requires a redirection of both food and
In the early 1970s, parts of sub-Saharan population policies.
Africa were overcome by drought and forced
to import food on a large scale. Although far 3. Poverty is a central cause of hunger in
from being a passing phenomenon, the both industrial nations and the Third World.
drought was only one of several elements of a Increasing total food production will not by
long-term decline in Africa's capacity to feed itself end hunger. Hence, raising real per
itself. Other major contributing factors are: capita incomes of the urban and rural poor
must be a central part of the attack on hunger,
1. population growth outpacing the rate malnutrition and food insecurity.
of production increase, poverty, lack of pro-
ductive employment, and environmental deg- 4. The industrial and urban service sectors
radation; cannot be relied on to absorb the surplus
population of the rural areas. Rural employ-
2. policy weaknesses leading to misdi- ment generation must therefore be a funda-
rected development efforts; and mental part of agricultural development
strategies of African states.
3. uncoordinated donor inputs.
There is an emerging understanding that
The problems were debated at the 1985 comprehensive agriculture-led development
OAU meeting of heads of state and govern- policies are essential to turn African econo-
ment in Addis Ababa. The meeting recognized mies around. But although policy reform is
the low priority that most African states as- currently stressed by donors, and is receiving
sign to the agricultural sector. While agricul- increasing attention from African govern-
ture is the dominant sector in most African ments themselves, a favorable economic policy
countries, only 5 to 15 percent of all public environment will not, by itself, bring about
funds are allocated to it. An important ele- the changes needed to mobilize the energy of
ment of the recovery program adopted at the tens of millions of farmers and herders in
meeting was agreement that African states Africa. Other important components of an
would attempt to increase public expenditure agricultural development strategy are:
on agriculture to between 20 and 25 percent by
1989. This was reconfirmed at the United * human resource development, including
Nations General Assembly meeting in New the strengthening of agricultural education
York in May 1986, where it was recognized institutions;
that Africa's economic crisis is a manifesta-
tion of a number of long-term problems that * investment in rural infrastructure;
require long-term solutions, first and foremost
by African states themselves. developing agricultural support serv-
ices: credit, agricultural chemicals, extension,
A number of important lessons about the marketing, etc.;
nature of the development process have been
learned over the past decades. These include improved accumulation and utilization
the following: of rural capital;
1. Agricultural stagnation is at the core * improved management of the natural
of the crisis. Since seventy percent of Africa's resource base; and
population live in rural areas, increasing the
productivity of farming is a sine qua non for e the strengthening of research institu-
improving the standard of living of the aver- tions for the generation of new technology.
age African.
Page 1
This paper focuses on the agricultural mulation and budgeting, monitoring and
research component of an agricultural devel- evaluation, and research-user linkages.
opment strategy. Faced with poverty, relent-
less population growth and a pressing need for With these guidelines and future manuals
income generation through rural job creation, national planners and research leaders should
productivity increases based on technical be able to develop their own capacity to re-
change will have to play a much greater role view their agricultural research systems, and
in Africa's future than it has in the past. This to design improved systems with less reliance
will require strong leadership, and sustained on external assistance. Each country must
public and private investment in priority decide for itself on an appropriate form of
research by both African states and donors. follow-up, coordinated within the country
and, it is hoped, with other countries in the
This paper offers guidelines for develop- region. The SPAAR Secretariat will welcome
ing more effective national agricultural re- requests from African governments for fur-
search systems in sub-Saharan Africa. It is ther information and assistance. It will chan-
directed specifically at national policy makers nel such requests to appropriate organizations
in agriculture, planning, and finance, at re- such as ISNAR and FAO, solicit the necessary
search leaders and at donors, and is intended support, and attempt to coordinate activites
to facilitate the necessary interaction between for the greatest multiplier effect.
these.
II. MAJOR CHALLENGES FACING
By helping African governments to de- AFRICAN AGRICULTURE
velop stronger national agricultural research
institutions and well-conceived strategies, African agricultural development is faced
donors will be able to plan their assistance to with numerous challenges, which include:
agricultural research within a more compre-
hensive and coherent framework, and with 1. the food production-population race;
greater confidence in the management of their
contributions. This in turn should permit 2. food security;
better cooperation and harmonization of their
efforts. 3. rural income and employment genera-
tion;
This paper outlines the major principles
for strengthening national agricultural re- 4. environmental protection and develop-
search systems. Emphasis is on research sys- ment of sustainable production systems;
tem structure, national research strategies,
long-term planning and management of the 5. generating and saving foreign ex-
annual research program, human resource change;
development, management of the physical and
financial resources, and linkages of research 6. strengthening the institutional base of
with policy makers and farmers. The paper is African agriculture.
a working document. It should be used and
tested, and improved over time. The Food Production-Population Race
It is expected that a series of specific Food production in Africa grew at half the
manuals will be produced by ISNAR and rate of population growth from 1970 to 1984.
other organizations, as companion texts to this The rate of population growth -- not the
paper, setting out detailed procedures for current population density or the total size of
implementation of major elements of the a nation's population -- is at the heart of the
research management process, such as priority food production-population race. Current
setting and resource allocation, program for- population growth rates in African countries
Page 2
-- 2.5 to over 4 percent, with an averagc of 3.2 Poverty is a major cause of family food
percent -- are extremely high by world histori- insecurity because it prevents people from
cal standards and imply a doubling of popu- producing or purchasing an adequate diet.
lation within 15 to 25 years. This growth rate The majority of the poor in Africa are subsis-
is roughly triple that of most industrial coun- tence farmers and herders who are producing
tries during a comparable stage in their food for their families at very low levels of
economic history. The demand for food in labor productivity. Furthermore, many fam-
many African countries is increasing at 3-5 ily farms are managed by women, who apart
percent per year, requiring corresponding in- from bearing children have major additional
creases in domestic production and/or im- burdens, such as carrying water and gathering
ports. Rates of production increase of this fuelwood from increasingly distant areas.
magnitude have been achieved by only a few One of the most effective ways of improving
countries over the last three decades, none in household food security in the rural areas is
Africa. Furthermore, this has been achieved to increase the productivity of their main
and sustained only where there has been a subsistence enterprise: staple crop or animal
plentiful supply of good quality idle land that production. This may also produce surplus
could be brought under cultivation, or where food for sale, and release labor which can be
irrigation and improved varieties have al- used to grow cash crops or for other income-
lowed double and triple cropping. producing activities. The generation of food
crop and livestock technologies and the im-
Population growth is also putting pressure provement of production systems are there-
on fuelwood supplies and the maintenance of fore major elements for increasing food
natural resources such as grazing land, forest security in food-deficit countries.
reserves, water catchments, and national
parks. To reduce these pressures, sub-Saharan Rural Income and Employment Generation
Africa will have to increasingly focus atten-
tion on both food and population policies. Income and employment generation are
important components of the strategy to
combat poverty and household food insecu-
Food Security rity. The inability of the industrial/urban
sectors to provide enough jobs for the growing
Until recently it was widely assumed that rural labor force is a major social, political,
increasing food production was the key to and economic problem throughout Africa.
solving the problems of malnutrition and food Simple arithmetic tells the story. It is esti-
insecurity, but recent evidence has proven mated that between 1980 and the year 2000,
that the problem is much more complex. For Kenya's labor force will double from 7.2 to
example, India is self-sufficient in food pro- 14.1 million, and that around 85 percent of the
duction, but there are many millions of people increase will have to find jobs in farming and
who are hungry and malnourished. Food rural non-farm activities. Zimbabwe's 1986-
security should be defined, therefore, as the 91 Development Plan assigns high priority to
ability of a country to ensure that its total rural employment generation because only a
population has access to an adequate diet small fraction, fewer than 10 percent, of the
throughout the year. newcomers to the labor force will be able to
find employment in the industrial, urban and
Hunger can have different causes includ- service sectors. Therefore, agricultural devel-
ing a lack of income to purchase food, lack of opment policies must incorporate employment
access toland forfamily food production, low generation as an explicit objective because
productivity of family labor, and instability more labor will have to be absorbed in farming
of food production due to drought and envi- and rural non-farm jobs for a long time in the
ronmental degradation. future. In this light, new technology is needed,
not only for increased production, but also to
Poge 3
provide income and employment opportuni- under severe competition from synthetic
ties. products and from exports from Asia and
Latin America. The decline of research on
Environmental Protection and Development these crops is eroding their competitiveness,
of Sustainable Production Systems and in some cases quality deterioration has led
to marketing problems. Investments in re-
In view of increased pressure on natural search, possibly supported by cesses on the
resources -- land, water, and vegetation -- commodities, need to be sustained and in many
caused by higher populations of humans and cases increased, to maintain competitiveness
animals, a major challenge is to develop agri- in quality and production cost.
cultural systems which will accommodate
increased population pressures while at the Because of competition in traditional
same time maintaining or improving the re- exports, and to develop cash income in certain
source base. Improving productivity in the regions, many countries are seeking to diver-
better areas can help limit the population sify their export commodities. However,
pressure on the more fragile areas. Where many of these "new" commodities have small
possible, protection and rehabilitation of the and volatile markets. Before embarking on
more fragile areas through natural resource costly research and development of such new
management should be organized. Solutions potential exports -- including study of produc-
for improving these areas will have to be both tion potential and market opportunities --
social and biological. From the social point of governments and research institutions should
view it will be necessary to work with local carefully assess whether investments made on
farmers to develop systems for better manage- traditional export crops might not provide a
ment of the resources, e.g., pasture manage- better return. When considering diversifica-
ment, controlled woodland exploitation, and tion, governments should ask whether the
improved water utilization. On the biological country has any marked comparative advan-
side, emphasis should be on multipurpose tree tage, and whether quality standards, which
species, including species for fuel, fodder, and are usually the dominant constraint in devel-
shelter-belts, and improvement of soil fertil- oping a market, could be met.
ity; and on soil-plant-water relations, and
conservation of water and soils. Special Several countries are spending substantial
attention should be given to possibilities for amounts on importing food, particularly
small-scale irrigation. Research on utilization wheat and rice (but also sugar, barley, malt...),
and conservation of natural resources should and wish to save foreign exchange by produc-
include the collection, maintenance, and use ing these locally. Most of these are consumed
of local genetic materials. Future breeding in the urban areas, so the demand is likely to
may depend critically on diverse genetic increase rapidly with urbanization. At pres-
material, the maintenance and use of which ent, there is little comparative advantage in
-- both nationally and internationally -- is of growing some of these crops domestically, but
great strategic importance. it is government policy in a number of coun-
tries to promote them for import substitution,
Generating and Saving Foreign Exchange hence the demand for research on these crops.
In many cases the economic and ecological
All of the African countries are deeply conditions make it highly unlikely that re-
concerned about the generation of foreign search can lead to local production that is
exchange through the export of agricultural cost-competitive with imports.
commodities, and with saving foreign ex-
change through import substitution. Export Where this is the case, research should be
commodities provide the revenue base for directed toward local products which could
taxation in most countries. The traditional substitute for imported foodstuffs. More
export commodities of sub-Saharan Africa are generally, perhaps the most promising possi-
Page 4
bility of capturing additional economic bene- gies which can provide productive em-
fits and foreign exchange from locally pro- ployment and greater returns to labor
duced commodities lies in the development of in rural areas; and (e) contributing to
local processing industries. Research must be food security for the nation and the
accompanied by measures to develop indus- family. Research thus constitutes an
trial know-how and quality control. essential component for both short-
and long-term strategies for agricul-
Strengthening the Institutional Base tural development and poverty allevia-
of African Agriculture tion. To fulfill this role, institutional
and human capital development is of
In most countries of Africa there has been paramount importance.
a rapid expansion of personnel in higher
education, research and the extension services. - The development of agricultural tech-
In many cases this has occurred at the expense nology is a long-term and uncertain
of quality, so that the effectiveness of the process. Equally, the rate of adoption
institutions has not risen correspondingly. of technology by farmers is dependent
upon many factors, including prices,
There is plenty of evidence to indicate that input availability, and marketing
the pay-off to investment in any one of these structures. Consequently, policy mak-
components -- higher education, research, ers and agricultural research planners,
extension -- will be low unless it is linked with while dealing with the current prob-
the other components in an interactive man- lems, should also be looking ahead to
ner. Therefore, although this paper is mainly problems and challenges that will exist
concerned with research, it is recognized that ten to twenty years in the future.
efforts directed solely at research institutions
will not have the desired impact. In particu- - There is a need for both African gov-
lar, an improved university system is a crucial ernments and donors to give increasing
factor in strengthening both the research and attention to the simultaneous and inte-
extension systems. grated development of agricultural re-
search institutions, institutions of
In addition, a general improvement of the higher education, and extension serv-
agricultural sector will require the strength- ices.
ening of institutions concerned with input
supply, credit, transport, marketing, and agro- III. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN
industries. AFRICA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Conclusions Pertinent to Agricultural Guidelines for strengthening national
Research agricultural research systems in African must
be based on an understanding of the history of
- Agricultural research has a crucial role agricultural research on the continent, with its
in: (a) generating and adapting tech- enormous diversity. Also, the history of agri-
nologies which can increase agricul- cultural development in Africa provides valu-
tural productivity, including intensive able clues, notably on how farmers have
production of food and cash commodi- developed new cropping systems based on
ties in land-scarce areas; (b) providing introduction of crops from other continents
efficient methods of processing, mar- -- cassava, maize, groundnuts and bananas
keting and utilization of food com- being a few examples.
modities and non-food cash crops; (c) Evolution In Relation to Changing Objectives
developing sustainable production
systems, particularly for the more Before the food production-population
fragile areas; (d) generating technolo- race began, the objective of agriculture in
Poge 5
most of sub-Saharan Africa was to increase in the complex farming systems of predomi-
the revenue base. The accent was therefore on nantly subsistence producers.
cash crops, and the research services re-
sponded to the challenge. Over time the Agricultural Research a Profitable
developed technologies -- borrowed, adapted, Investment
and created -- gave rise to highly profitable
production of a range of export crops: coffee, Accumulated evidence in Asia and Latin
cocoa, cotton, groundnuts, oil palm, sisal, tea, America shows that research is a highly prof-
etc. Advisory, input supply, and marketing itable form of public and private investment
services were developed to support commodity that confers benefits to both producers and
production, and research was closely allied to consumers. Of 50 rate-of-return studies
these services. The international scale of the completed, most have shown rates of return
commercial interests made communication exceeding 20 percent, and several approach 50
among researchers on these crops world-wide. percent. Although no empirical information
Only limited resources were devoted to food is available on the economics of research in
crops research, although sustained work on Africa, a strong case for agricultural research
several major staples (maize in Zimbabwe and investments can be made on the basis of in-
Kenya; cassava in Tanzania; rice, cassava and sights from Africa's history, which includes
many other food crops in Zaire) dates back to many examples of the successful application
the 1930s and 1940s. of new and imported technology.
Twenty years ago, food production prob- Impact of Technology Generated in Africa
lems were beginning to gain prominence, but
the development strategies of the time were
generally giving high priority to industrial Many examples can be cited of the contri-
and urban development, and the rapid expan- bution of locally generated technology to
sion of education and social services. Political agricultural production in Africa. These
support for research was declining precisely include crop improvement and agronomic
when there was a rising need to address the research on a range of savanna crops in
more complex research problems of improving Northern Nigeria; coconut in C6te d'Ivoire;
food productivity and incomes in diverse hybrid maize in Zimbabwe and Kenya; maize
farming systems with weak institutional serv- streak virus in Tanzania; oil palm and cassava
ices. in Zaire; sorghum in Uganda; groundnut in
Senegal and the Sudan; cotton in Mali, the
Sudan and Uganda; coffee in Kenya, Zaire
During the past two decades these urban- and Cote d'Ivoire; cocoa in Ghana and Nige-
biased national development strategies were ria; pyrethrum and sisal in Kenya and Tanza-
accompanied by donor investments in short- nniiaa;;  paynimal breeding in Kenya and Zaire.
term infrastructure and rural development Major advances have also been made in crop
projects rather than long-term institutional physiology, botany, soil physics, hydrology,
development and program support. Notable forestry, marine fisheries, and other areas. In
exceptions were the consistent support given the early years, most research attention went
by some foundations and donors to the devel- to revenue-earning crops, mostly for export.
opment of international agricultural research Since the early 1970s, food crop research has
centers and national universities. received more prominence in response to
population pressures.
In addition, research organizations them-
selves have been slow to make the transition Agricultural research in Africa has also
from the traditional research programs geared made major contributions to agricultural
mainly to single commodities to those needed..  ddevelopment in tropical areas of 
to other conti-
cope with the great variety of commodities nents. Examples are the development of the oil
Page 6
palm, coconut, coffee, and cocoa industries in lished its Sahelian Center in Niger. By con-
the Far East, cowpea in Brazil and the Carib- trast, the new ICRISAT/ SADCC Center in
bean, grasses from East Africa in Australia, Zimbabwe has found that varieties of these
and millets in Northern Australia. Research same crops imported from West Africa and
in Sudan has contributed to the development India are performing well in initial adaptive
of irrigation in several parts of the world. trials.
Transfer and Adaptation of Technology While these examples are illustrative of
varietal improvement of crops, they all have
All countries in Africa, large and small, required research on cultural practices to
have benefited by importing technology and allow these varieties to express their poten-
adapting it to local conditions. For instance, tial, e.g., fertilizers for maize, chemical weed
a small country such as the Gambia, with a control and pesticides for cotton, planting
limited scientific staff, tripled its maize acre- dates for all. There has also been successful
age between 1982 and 1985 with a variety adaptation of technology in other areas, e.g.,
imported from Nigeria in 1974 and tested in the widespread adoption throughout the west-
local trials until 1981 in cooperation with ern Sahel of animal traction equipment devel-
SAFGRAD/IITA, FAO, CILSS, and USAID. oped in Senegal.
This success was due to the introduction of a
suitable variety combined with available Need to Reassess Technology "On the
fertilizers and an aggressive extension effort. Shelf"
This example also illustrates, however, that
even transfer and local testing can take a The foregoing illustrates the impact of
substantial number of years to reach the stage new and adapted technology produced by
of firm recommendations. Rwanda is another agricultural research in Africa. However,
example of a country which has relied primar- there is much research-derived information
ily on imported technology: the dominant which has not had any impact on African
varieties of many of its crops today are lines agriculture. The reasons are many: the re-
imported from other parts of Africa and other search was incomplete, or had not been tested
continents. on farmers' fields; or the technology did not
fit the economic and social conditions of the
The Nile Valley Faba Bean Project is an time; or the necessary inputs were not avail-
example of successful collaboration between able. Much of this information will therefore
African countries (Egypt and the Sudan, later require assembly, reappraisal by agricultural
joined by Ethiopia), with support from an scientists, and extensive on-farm testing for
international research center, ICARDA. In its usefulness under current climatic and
this project, exchange of germplasm and tech- economic conditions. In addition, a better
nical information has led to the release of understanding of the agricultural practices
higher yielding and disease-resistant bean generated by farmers themselves could pro-
varieties. Relying on transferred technology vide an important input into packages of
is a more complex process than commonly extendable technology which are being devel-
assumed, and careful judgement is required oped.
for each particular case. Nor can results in one
region be considered indicative of similar The reappraisal should include attention
results in another. For example, following the to negative results, which may have been
Sahelian drought ICRISAT introduced sor- ignored in regular publications and reported
ghum and millet varieties directly from India only in a form which is difficult to trace, so
to the Sahel, and found their performance to that lessons from them are lost. The effort of
be disappointing. ICRISAT therefore decided retrieving and assessing these could be well
to adopt a strategy of long-term applied worthwhile, as it would avoid unnecessary
research on sorghum and millet and estab- repetition.
Page 7
The reappraisal of existing information, - insufficient funds for operation and
which should be accorded high priority by maintenancc;
national research systems, could be of value
not only in the national context but also across
broad agro-ecological regions of sub-Saharan - weak research management, notably in
Africa, and beyond. the utilization of research resources;
Recent History: Limited Output
- poorly developed linkages with other
research organizations and with
Despite significant increases in agricul- clients of research.
tural research personnel, much support from
international research, and considerable in-
vestments in extension since the mid-1960s, Lessons Learned
the output from national research and its
impact on agricultural productivity in sub- A few important lessons flow from the past
Saharan Africa have been disappointing, and current performance of agricultural re-
Why? In addition to problems with prices, search in Africa:
input supply marketing, and other policy is-
sues discussed earlier, several factors have
proven to be prevalent weaknesses in national - Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa
agricultural research systems: have been successful in generating and
aidapting agricultural technology.
Such successes have arisen from a
- the difficult agro-ecological condi- combination of several factors: con-
tions in much of sub-Saharan Africa, centration of human and financial
which have received comparatively resources on a limited number of
little research attention in the past (in commodities; a firm problem-solving
contrast to the large and heavily re- orientation of research, linked to insti-
searched irrigated food production tutional and farmer capacity to imple-
areas of Asia); ment solutions; teamwork; continuity
of scientific leadership over a long
period; and stability in funding.
- shortage of experienced program lead-
ers, and the high proportion (up to 50
percent or more) of research personnel - Importing, screening, and adapting
with less than three years experience; technology has been widely practiced
throughout Africa, but it is a complex
process marked with many failures as
- inappropriate selection and training of well as many successes, and must be
many researchers; done judiciously. Emphasis on im-
ported technology is especially attrac-
tive for small national research serv-
- dispersion of research efforts and fre- ices. The time needed for adaptive
quent changes in research personnel, research to yield results in the f ield can
leading to slow completion of research vary from a few years to ten or more.
tasks and repetition of the same re-
search; - The development of an efficient na-
tional scientific capacity is a prerequi-
- insufficient and inadequately trained site even for the transfer and adapta-
technical support staff; tion of technology.
Poge 8
The need for stability and high moti- sub-Saharan Africa requires a national capac-
vation of staff, continuity funding, ity for agricultural research to introduce,
and concentration of effort, applies as screen, test and adapt technologies to its
much to adaptive research as it does to various micro-environments, and where fea-
the generation of new technology. sible to generate new technology. This chapter
briefly addresses the following questions on
Large differences in environmental the nature of this national capacity:
and economic factors between coun-
tries and regions in Africa make it 1. What constitutes a national agricultural
necessary to adopt differing strategies research system?
for technology introduction and devel-
opment for the same commodity in 2. What are the key objectives of national
different countries. Success in one agricultural research?
region is not a guarantee for success
elsewhere. 3. What are the major activities of an
agricultural research system?
Notwithstanding the successful ex-
amples of technology application in What Constitutes a National Agricultural
African agriculture, recent experi- Research System
ences in agricultural development
projects have shown that the lack of The elements of an integrated agricultural
well-proven technical packages is a research system comprise:
major factor in the failure of many of
these investments. - all organizations in the country, in-
cluding the universities, having the
The results of past agricultural re- capacity to conduct research relevant
search should be carefully reappraised to agricultural development;
for their possible relevance under
current social, economic and ecological - their human, physical, and financial
circumstances. resources, documentation and infor-
mation, specific policies, plans, and
Serious problems affecting the current research programs;
productivity of national agricultural
research systems must be addressed in - the linkages between the various or-
order to obtain the expected returns on ganizations involved in research and
investments in agricultural research teaching related to agriculture;
and extension. These problems lie in
many areas, including training, human - their relationships with the clients of
resource management, program plan- research: producers, extension serv-
ning, financing of operations and ices, policy makers and planners, de-
maintenance, and communications. velopment parastatals, and technical
Programs for strengthening agricul- assistance organizations.
tural research systems in countries of
sub-Saharan Africa must therefore The system's structure consists of the
deal with a highly complex situation. organizational framework within which re-
search is carried out. The system's component
IV. ROLE OF NATIONAL processes are: priority-setting and resource
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS allocation, long-term planning, programming,
budgeting, monitoring and evaluation, devel-
To be able to respond to the challenges of opment and management of human physical
agricultural development, each country in and financial resources, information manage-
Poge 9
ment and documentation, and advice to pro- source base: land, water, and vegeta-
ducers, government and other clients on the tion, including renewable energy
output of the research system. sources and biological diversity.
Objectives of National Agricultural Major Activities of an Agricultural
Research Research System
The key objectives of a national agricul- To meet the above objectives, a national
tural research system are: agricultural research system needs to develop
*to  make available to agricultural a range of activities in line with the country's
producers and support services: priorities and commensurate with its re-
sources. These include:
- appropriate, reliable, and detailed ag- searching world sources for informa-
ronomic information for increased
productivity, and for conservation of tion and materials which could be useful for
the resource base; national agricultural development;
- improved basic genetic material and * importing technology and adapting it
equipment prototypes on which to base if necessary to the needs of agricultural pro-
increased production of crops, farm ducers;
animals, trees, and fish; and
* carrying out strategic and applied
- technologies to deal effectively with research to improve knowledge of the
various biological hazards. country's natural resource base and its man-
agement, and to generate new technology
* to make available to various government when imported options are not available;
and private organizations and industrial
decision-makers technical and socio-economic * collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
information for policy-making and planning socio-economic and agricultural production
purposes. For example: data and research results with a view to pro-
viding producers, policymakers, and planners
- information on new agricultural pro- with insights on the feasibility of various
duction opportunities (crops, animals, development options;
trees) for different agro-ecological
zones, and assessment of technical, *maintaining permanent collections of
social and economic constraints; plant and animal germplasm;
- technical information on storage, proc-
essing, transport and handling of pro- * developing linkages with extension
duce to minimize post-harvest losses; services to jointly define farmers' problems
and and transmit appropriate solutions;
- estimates of land, labor, agronomic in- * executing collaborative programs with
puts, and capital needed to carry out other national research andacademic institu-
national plans. tions, including those of other developing
countries, and international agricultural re-
- information on conservation and man- search centers to take advantage of existing
agement of the country's natural re- information, methodologies, and materials;
Poge 10
* developing and maintaining a cadre of research,without close linkages to the national
well-trained, development-oriented scientists research service. However, a major advantage
and technicians in appropriate disciplines. of this structure is that linkages between
research and higher education are usually
V. STRUCTURE OF A NATIONAL good, and are facilitated by similar schemes of
RESEARCH SYSTEM service.
The structure of a national agricultural
research system is determined by the govern- c. Research services in two or more
ing structure of the country as a whole. This ministries: 
larger The research 
s tructure services 
is are 
influnced under the
by aditi. ons, control of the relevant ministries, with, e.g.,
plitical factors rsources ty tandlelof crops 
political f actors, research 
resources, in 
type the 
and level Ministry 
oflivsokadvtrnr of Agriculture,
eerhi h
development, etc. Any change in the structure livestock and veterinary research in the
of the research system must be within this Ministry of Lvestock, forestryresearch inthe
framework an conisen wit esalse Ministry of Natural Resources or Environ-
norams.ork and consistent with establishedment, etc. This model has some of the advan-
norms. tages of model 'a', in terms of linkages with the
national 
At present, plan 
in and 
sub-Saharan extension, 
Africa, na- but 
of the disadvantages. it shares all
Major additional disad-
tional agricultural research services -- apart vantages Major aniintegrated
from research in institutions of higher educa- vantages are that it hampers an integrated
tion and development projects -- can be approach to the farmer's problems and in-
rtoiouugghhlly  cchhaararnadcdteeverliozpemde dnts follows. -- creases the risk of duplication in 
as research and
follows, extension. Overall, the efficiency of the
national research effort is impaired.
a. Research service in the Ministry of
Agriculture or Rural Development: The ad-
vantages of such a system are that the research d. Parastatal research organization: The
programs can be directly linked to the needs research system is set up as a semi-autonomous
of the country's agricultural development or autonomous organization, with a board of
plan,which is prepared and implemented by trustees, and a scientific advisory committee
the same ministry. Linkages with the exten- which supervises its overall activity. Because
sion service should be excellent. On the other the organization is mainly financed by the
hand, the efficiency of the research system government, it reports to a ministry. The
can be impeded by the bureaucratic proce- board and the scientific advisory committee
dures and rules of the civil service. Linkages have representatives from the main interested
with higher education are generally non-exis- parties (ministries of agriculture, planning
tent. and finance, university, farmers' organiza-
tions, etc.). This structure should ensure that
b. Research service in the Ministry of the research programs are generally relevant
Scientific Research and/or Higher Education: to national development objectives and to
This structure has major disadvantages. producers' needs. Relations with the exten-
Agricultural research is separated from the sion services are good at the top but often poor
Ministry of Agriculture and from its agricul- at the field level. The autonomy allows favor-
tural development activities. It is also re- able schemes of service and relatively inde-
moved from the users of its results; linkages pendent decision-making in financial and
with extension are often poor. This lack Of administrative affairs. Opportunities for
contact with users often leads to insufficient inter-institutional coordination are good. The
attention to the adaptive aspects of research. relative freedom from bureaucratic con-
Consequently, there is a tendency for the straints provides the best opportunities to
Ministry of Agriculture or its parastatals to set develop an efficient system, provided it is
up their own programs of adaptive matched by good management.
Poge 11
e. Commodity-financed and controlled within and among the different ministries
research groups: This approach has the advan- involved. Given the great long-term signifi-
tage of focusing a critical mass of scientists on cance of such cooperation, African govern-
a specific commodity. It has independent ments should overcome institutional barriers
financing and, consequently, control over its and begin making some budgetary provision
procedures and schemes of service. Such for cooperative activities (possibly helped by
research groups are often associated with an external funding) between the research insti-
extension and/or input supply service. They tutions and the universities. This should be
are highly responsive to users' needs and supplemented by the creation of effective
provide an excellent example of the integra- inter-institutional mechanisms for the plan-
tion of research and development in agricul- ning and programming of joint research ac-
tural production. On the other hand, such tivities and student apprenticeships at re-
organizations cater for only a specific part of search stations. And it might culminate in a
the whole agricultural production system and semi-autonomous combined agricultural re-
are obviously no substitute for a national re- search/education system under inter-ministe-
search system. They are highly dependent on rial control noted above.
revenue from exports and often do not re-
spond well to the need for crop diversifica- Governments need a mechanism for advis-
tion. ing them on scientific and technological pol-
icy. Some African countries have national
Some systems combine two or more ele- scientific and/or agricultural research coun-
ments, and there are wide variations in the cils. The major role of such councils is to
ways in which they operate and are controlled. influence the allocation of funds to different
In small countries geographical proximity research sectors: medical, industry, agricul-
permits a centralized system, composed of a ture, etc. In order to do this, they must have
central support unit and a number of field a competent and adequately funded profes-
units, to operate effectively. In larger coun- sional secretariat.
tries, most of the research must be decentral-
ized to deal adequately with both overall VI. BUILDING AN INTEGRATED
national problems and location-specific needs. SYSTEI
In both cases there is a need for appropriately
delegated management authority to create a
responsive research environment. Although a In sub-Saharan Africa, linkages between
centralized style of management may have the elements of a national research system,
some administrative advantages, bureaucracy vital to maximizing research scope and effi-
and distance from decision-making can re- ciency, are often insufficiently developed.
duce researcher motivation, especially in sub- Such associations include those among differ-
stations. ent research institutions, and between re-
search institutions and universities. The sys-
Potentially, a national research service tem must communicate with, and be respon-
that is linked to higher education,in which the sive to, policy makers, farmers, extension
combined system enjoys relative autonomy agents, parastatal development organizations,
ccuusttoomaarr y ffoo r uunnivveerssittiiess , wwooull d sseeee m ttoo  asynsdt epmr ivaalstoe  cfoosmteprasn iienst.e rAnant ieofnfaelc ticvoeo pneartaitoionna.l
offer substantial advantages, provided there
is some form of inter-ministerial governance Regional linkages are particularly important
which would ensure that the research program to smallcountries. The need for stronger
meets the nceds of farmers and extension professional interchange and collaboration is
servicese imperative to alleviate human resource and
services. funding constraints, and to reduce the intel-
lectual isolation of scientists in many African
However, to achieve this there would need countries.
to be coordination of funding and staffing
Page 12
Effective Use of National Scientists and social isolation, and lack of support serv-
ices and amenities. However, these few re-
National research talent is scattered over search stations must then provide their staff
various institutions, organizations, and minis- with sufficient mobility to conduct research
tries, and cooperation is usually deficient. off-station to cover regional needs.
Development of linkages between researchers
in dispersed institutions and locations in- Integrated Development of Research,
volves a process of mutual confidence build- Education and Extension
ing, backed by improved information systems
and explicitly supported by national authori- There is a need for both African govern-
ties. Governments, donors, and the scientific ments and donors to give increasing attention
community need to establish and finance to the simultaneous and integrated develop-
appropriate linkage mechanisms. Steps in- ment of research, higher education, and exten-
clude: (a) preparing a national inventory of sion services. Efforts directed solely at re-
researchers in agriculture and related disci- search institutions will not have the desired
plines, and their projects; (b) matching re- impact. The university system should make
search priorities with existing institutional critical contributions to research and exten-
and manpower capacities in the country, sion, by providing graduates adequately pre-
eliminating duplication, and identifying pared for both these careers, and by collabo'
critical gaps; (c) determining where additional rating in research. Similarly, effective re-
resources would go to fill gaps, making the search requires close relationships with farm-
fullest use of inter-institutional collaboration; ers and extension agents.
(d) establishing an agricultural science ulletin
or newsletter; (e) encouraging participation in Regional and International Research
national professional associations, both gen- Linkages
eral and disciplinary; and (f) removing bu-
reaucratic barriers to effective linkages be- Research efficiency can be enhanced by
tween individuals across institutions. research linkages across borders in sub-
Saharan Africa, and by making full use of
The term "critical mass" is frequently opportunities arising from the regional activi-
used to indicate the minimum number and ties of the international agricultural research
disciplines of scientists and technicians re- centers. Linkages between African research-
quired to effectively conduct a research pro- ers and their counterparts in other countries
gram or activity. The term can also be applied can also be of great help in research and
to entire stations, institutes, and the national training, especially if institutionalized by
system as a whole. The concept of critical mass twinning. African governments may also wish
is often violated by the dispersal of scientists to consider more fully the possible advantages
among many stations and programs, even of creating new institutional frameworks for
though this arises from the legitimate desire to regional collaboration: for example, in re-
serve each of the agro-ecological regions or search on certain commodities and factors of
administrative units. Continuing limitations the natural resource base.
in resources will impose hard choices between
efficiency of the research system through Inter-Governmental Institutions
concentration, thus inevitably ignoring many
important needs, and attempting to provide After several successful precedents in
uniform coverage leading to ineffective re- Central, West and East Africa, most of which
search. A few well-staffed and well-sup- disintegrated as a result of political forces, the
ported stations have a far better chance Of concept ofintergovernmental institutions is
producing useful technology than a widely attracting attention again. Lessons learned
dispersed system with all the attendant prob- from the East African Agriculture and For-
lems of difficult communication, intellectual estry Research Organization (EAAFRO) and
Page 13
similar regional organizations in West Africa tion in research and training among scientists
are relevant to promoting regional coopera- and institutions in the nine SADCC states
tion today. For instance, such organizations, through: seminars, workshops and meetings;
with the better facilities and schemes of serv- publications; small research grants; travel
ice which were necessary for their special grants for research workers to visit other
roles, attracted the better staff and received scientists in the region; and the commissioning
more regional and international attention of studies on problems of regional importance.
than the national research institutions; this SACCAR is also responsible for monitoring
aroused envy. There was also the perception three regional SADCC programs, on sorghum
that the host country benefited out of propor- and millet improvement, grain legume im-
tion to its financial inputs. While there is now provement, and soil and water management.
little support for the concept of regional re- These three programs are examples of net-
search institutes, there is growing attention to working, a form of cooperation which is
other forms of regional cooperation, which receiving increasing attention in Africa.
could avoid the problems inherent in the
former. Regional cooperation will require Networks
strong political commitment from the partici-
pating governments. This commitment must
find expression in the encouragement of staff Networks may be limited to information
and material exchange, and in reliable finan- exchange, or may encompass collaborative
cial contributions. External support must be planning, implementation and monitoring of
substantial and long-term (20 years). Central- research activities. Networks are comple-
ized investments under regional auspices, if ments to, not substitutes for, national research
any, should be on a modest scale to avoid systems. Without a strong national scientific
impairing each country's ability to ultimately capability, a country can neither contribute to
take over the financial and management re- a network nor effectively screen and import
sponsibilities. In planning programs of re- technology. The development and operation
gional cooperation, each participating coun- of networks will require a long-term planning
try must ensure that cooperative projects fit and funding horizon on the part of participat-
into and support national development plans ing governments.
and priorities, do not overload national scien-
tific and administrative manpower, do not In collaborative networking, each partici-
encourage brain-drain, and do not create pant assumes the responsibility for specific
serious imbalances in the utilization of scarce research tasks for the benefit of the whole.
resources. Accepting cooperative projects The funding of networks should be an integral
without an overall plan all too easily leads to part of the financing of the national research
a situation where, after meeting the commit- systems concerned. Networks with a limited
ments to a few regional commodity-specific scope, clearly defined in technical terms and
projects, there is no research capacity left for arising out of genuine local initiatives, have
other areas of national or regional importance. the best chance of success. Creation of re-
gional research networks is especially rele-
The establishment of the Southern African vant for countries with similar agro-ecologi-
Center for Cooperation in Agricultural Re- cal conditions and farming systems, possessing
search (SACCAR) in 1984 provides a positive limited acreages of major commodities, and
example. Started at the initiative of the nine having common resource-base problems re-
states of the Southern African Development quiring factor research for which specialized
Cooperation Conference (SADCC), SACCAR knowledge is scarce.
has a board of directors and a small secretariat
at its headquarters. Its objectives are to assist A SPAAR Working Group on Agricultural
in furthering mutual assistance and coopera- Research Networks is making a comprehen-
sive study of this topic.
Poge 14
Linkages with Senior Scientists Abroad Time Frame
Senior staff of scientific institutions in Most governments and donors underesti-
industrialized countries can play a crucial role mate the time required for national agricul-
in helping African scientists -- particularly tural research to generate and/or adapt tech-
the younger ones -- and in backstopping and nology. It usually takes at least three to five
complementing national research. Such link- years to import and adapt technology, and ten
ages also provide opportunities for better- years or more to generate technology. Also, the
focused short-term training. These advan- time needed for adoption of technology by
tages are similar to and complementary with producers is frequently underestimated, lead-
those arising from linkages with international ing to wildly over-optimistic assumptions
research centers. The full potential of such about the rates of productivity increase. Most
linkages with national institutions overseas important, the development of a stable re-
are realized by formal twinning agreements search institution with asustained capacity to
and assured medium-term financial backing deal with difficult technical problems re-
from a funding agency. The planning of such quires a far longer period of time than is
linkages should involve the researchers them- generally planned for.
selves to ensure their dynamic participation. VII. FUNDING OF RESEARCH
Management of Donor-Funded Projects How Much to Invest In Research
In many countries of sub-Saharan Africa The share of national resources to be allo-
much agricultural research is conducted by cated to agricultural research can be ration-
expatriates funded by donor agencies. These ally determined only when national political
agencies often insist on considerable struc- leaders have an appreciation of what research
tural and managerial autonomy for their can do for the identification and implementa-
projects, their staff, and sometimes the local tion of national development priorities. This
counterparts. They commonly cite the need to political allocation decision, therefore, will be
achieve project efficiency, and to comply with more rational when influenced by technical
accounting regulations of their own govern- information from the research system. There
ments. African research leaders are increas- are no firm indicators for the desirable level
ingly objecting to these demands, which of research investment, but rough guidelines
complicate research structure, interfere with may be drawn from country comparisons of
national programming and budgeting, and financial allocations expressed as percentages
may distort program balance. Furthermore, of agricultural gross domestic product
donor-funded research programs often disin- (AGDP). The national allocation to agricul-
tegrate when the project activities cease. tural research in sub-Saharan Africa ranges
Better integration of these projects into the from 0.1 percent to well over 2 percent of
national programs is much more likely to AGDP, with a decline in almost all countries
ensure their acceptance by the governmento since 1980. Although such figures must be
and their continued viability. Greater open- used with caution, an allocation of less than
ness by donors about the recurrent costs of 0-5 percent is almost certainly too low, and a
their projects will allow national authorities target figure of at least 1.0 percent of AGDP
a better understanding of future financial would be desirable. Each country must inter-
requirements. Rational research programs, pret these guidelines, taking into account the
efficient resource management, and satisfac- projected national budget and AGDP, the tax
tory financial control in the host institutions revenue from marketed produce, the pressures
will be needed for donors to agree to closer on the agricultural sector, the diversity of
integration. agriculture, and the natural resource endow-
ments.
Poge 15
Regardless of the target figure for budg- often inadequate to maintain and operate
etary support, year-to-year stability, timely laboratory and experiment station facilities
disbursement, inclusion of adequate provi- and libraries. Donor support to specific
sions for operations and maintenance, and a projects usually fails to provide the financial
minimum allocation of foreign exchange for flexibility to cover foreign currency require-
documentation, spare parts, and staff travel, ments in other parts of the research system. A
are more important than the level of support more flexible and coordinated donor ap-
itself. proach could help African countries solve this
very important problem.
Allocations of Funds for Operations,
Infrastructure and Staff Finally, the development of infrastructure
for agricultural research must be analyzed on
One of the major problems in research an individual country basis. The rising costs
financing is the low proportion of the research of maintaining physical plant, library and
budget allocated to operations and mainte- documentation services, and equipment pose
nance (sometimes as little as 5 percent, com- serious problems to national research systems,
pared with a desirable figure of at least 30 especially as their budgets in real terms are
percent), making it difficult or impossible for generally declining. In some countries there
research personnel to function efficiently. has been over-investment in new buildings
Moreover, allocating funds for the additional and equipment relative to the long-term devel-
recurrent costs arising from investments in opment of human resources and institutions.
new infrastructure and equipment, particu- Nevertheless, there are many experiment sta-
larly the foreign exchange element, is fre- tions in Africa where relatively modest in-
quently neglected. The detrimental effects of vestments to modernize buildings and equip-
inadequate operating funds are exacerbated ment would greatly increase their effective-
by budget fluctuations. Since personnel costs ness.
are usually fixed obligations, most budget cuts
affect operations and maintenance. In some VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF A
countries political pressure for additional NATIONAL RESEARCH STRATEGY
recruitment of young graduates, without a
concomitant increase in funds for operations, Research Response to Multiple National
further aggravates the problem. Incremental Development Goals
funding should therefore go to operations.
The national research program must be
The cost to a nation of fluctuation in firmly in line with, and working at, the most
research funds is greater than in most other critical constraints to achieving the national
public functions. Although various proposals development goals. From 1970, all African
have been made to cushion the effect of these countries have espoused multiple and often
fluctuations and to allow for inflation (cesses conflicting goals for the agricultural sector:
on export commodities, stabilization funds...), higher output, food self-sufficiency, in-
there is no real substitute for government creased import substitution, higher agricul-
commitment to a stable budget. Only this can tural exports, improved nutrition, improved
ensure that funds are available for both staff employment and incomes, and upgrading of
salaries and operational expenditures at a marginal areas. In principle, agricultural
sufficient level to safeguard the high-priority research can contribute to each of these goals,
programs. Governments need accurate projec- but in the face of limited resources, at least
tions of the cost of running the research serv- three major questions arise. First, is improved
ices, on at least a three-year rolling basis. technology the most effective answer? Sec-
ond, are anticipated constraints to adoption of
Foreign currency allocations, a key com- the technology, once developed, likely to be
ponent of the financial requirements, are resolved? Third, what is the priority ranking
Page 16
ofthe specific commodities and research ar- expectations: nearly half of all countries in
eas? Unfortunately, these questions are sel- sub-Saharan Africa have fewer than 50 na-
dom adequately answered. It must also be tional scientists in agricultural research.
recognized that research cannot resolve con- Clearly, this limited resource is best utilized
flicts which may exist among multiple goals. by concentrating on adaptive and applied
research. While such research requires lower
The problems of defining a national re- investments in infrastructure and less reliance
search strategy are exacerbated by the fact on some highly specialized disciplines, it
that the responsibilities for agricultural de- provides at least as great a challenge to the
velopment and agricultural research are fre- imagination of the researcher, and often
quently scattered among several ministries. yields a quicker pay-off.
This makes it all the more imperative to have
a framework for linking research and eco- On the other hand, simple adaptive re-
nomic development planning: policy makers search, and even applied research, will not
must be aware of the long-term nature of provide answers to the complex problems
research, and researchers must understand encountered in farming systems of smallhold-
their role in elucidating some of the complex ers, nor to more fundamental problems associ-
technical and socio-economic problems of eartse dn wo itho tmher  couundtmryn'st lpnoaltmur al resource sboaise.
development. The development of suitable approaches to
solve some of the major technical problems
Need for Balance between Various Kinds requires long-term strategic research. There is
of Research an urgent need to determine with precision the
kinds of strategic research required, to iden-
tify the institutions able to provide this re-
Research follows a continuum and the search, and to establish the mechanisms to link
boundaries between different kinds of re- it with applied and adaptive research in
search are arbitrary. The categorization used Africa.
here is as follows:
Institutions in industrial countries can
O strategic research: designed to generate and do provide some of the strategic knowl-
new knowledge and new research methodolo- edge and material needed for agricultural
gies needed for the solution of specific re- research in developing countries. But to focus
search problems; more of their research on strategic issues
especially relevant to African conditions they
* applied research: designed to create need appropriate professional links with
new technology, and to study market opportu- African institutions, the latter receiving
nitiese supportfor this type of activity. The interna-
tional agricultural research centers will be
expected to play a catalytic role in this, and
* adaptive research: designed to adapt to carry out some of the needed commodity-
technology to the specific needs of a particu- linked strategic research, notably in method-
lar set of conditions. ology development.
All countries of sub-Saharan Africa con- Adaptive agricultural research work is
duct a mix of adaptive and applied agricul- often conducted in isolation from scientists
tural research. Strategic research is rare in having more fundamental knowledge in the
Africa, even though it may be of critical natural sciences and from specialists in socio-
importance to the solution of major problems. economic disciplines, who are generally asso-
African governments must be realistic in their ciated with national academic institutions.
Page 17
Closer collaboration between national agri- Priority-Setting and Resource Allocation at
cultural research institutes and universities the Macro Level
can make existing research programs much
more effective. The research system must develop a re-
search strategy which translates national
In view of the complexity of research, development goals into research objectiyes
national research policymakers must facili- and establishes research plans for the short,
tate collaboration and sharing of research medium and long term. At the macro level,
tasks between scientists in the national and national decision-makers must set priorities
international community. This collaboration and allocate resources through a five-step
will help national research scientists to articu- process involving:
late their strategic research needs and capital-
ize on the advances being made internation- 1. the articulation of national develop-
ally in the basic sciences. ment objectives and agricultural sector goals;
While strategic research is widely appli- 2. the design of development strategies to
cable across national boundaries, adaptive address these goals -- including farmer incen-
research must be location-specific, and must tives, land tenure policies, rural institutions
identify closely withthe wide variety of and services, and investments in infrastruc-
farmers' conditions and goals. Farming sys- ture, irrigation, input distribution systems,
tems research (FSR) is widely regarded as an extension, research, etc.;
appropriate approach for defining farmers'
constraints and thus for setting research pri- 3. the assessment of the potential contri-
orities. However, in taking up FSR, national bution of research to removing agricultural
research leaders and donors must address the constraints in the framework of the develop-
important question of balance between FSR ment strategies previously defined;
and commodity research, and their interde-
pendence. Many FSR projects across Africa 4. the preparation of an inventory of
have been over-funded relative to commodity current research resources and anassessment
research programs. Moreover, FSR practitio- of future needs, taking into account the stock
ners have taken diverse approaches to FSR, of under- or unutilized knowledge and tech-
which has overwhelmed African researchers. nology from national or international sources;
The challenge will be to retain the core con- and
cepts of FSR as an essential support for on-
station research programs. 5. the broad allocation of national re-
search resources to specific priority areas, in
Socio-economic research falls outside the relation to the inventory of needs, while
above three categories, but is needed in sup- ensuring that minimal resources (critical
port of agricultural research programs. This mass) are in place for effectively addressing
research includes policy and sector analysis, the priority areas selected.
study of resource management and environ-
mental sustainability issues, setting of re- Steps I and 2 involve decisions made by
search priorities, analysis ofconstraints and national planners and the political process,
potentials, and farm management. Choosing ideally having received information concern-
appropriate areas of technology development, ing teehnieal feasibility from the agricultural
and the right kinds of technology to develop, research system. In order to fully contribute
iscritically important to all countries, irre- to this process, the research system must
spectiveofsize. Moresocio-economicresearch strengthen its capacity for technical and
will help considerably to determine before- socio-economic analysis. Steps 3 through 5
hand whether a particular teehnology is likely involve to a greater degree the agricultural
to be adopted. research system itself. During the articulation
Page 18
of national development objectives and agri-
cultural sector goals (Step 1), governments Having answered the above broad ques-
face many difficult policy decisions, which tions (Steps I through 4), research priorities
they must often take without adequate data. need to be developed for commodities,, re-
These include the balance between: gions, and factors of the natural resource base
(Step 5). There are at least five general con-
- growth and equity, siderations which national planners and re-
search leaders must take into account in pri-
- import substitution and export promo- ority setting and resource allocation, always
tion, taking account of limited staff and budgets,
and the time necessary to produce results:
- cash crops and subsistence commodi-
ties, - The economic, social, and political im-
portance of a commodity orregion.
- increasing the productivity of existing Relevant data are: area involved, po-
farmland and the cultivation of new tential production, numbers ofbenefi-
land, ciaries and probable distribution of
benefits, employment projections, and
- high-potential areas and the more impact on foreign exchange earnings
difficult environments, and savings. This involves a careful
analysis of efficiency/equity, pro-
- dryland farming and development of ducer/consumer, and other interests.
irrigation,
- Current market demand for particular
- small-scale and large-scale farming, commodities, and future projections.
Indicative data for food crops include:
- existing commodities and potential population growth rate, changes in
new commodities. land use, price trends, trade projec-
tions, and changes in consumption
The necessary evaluation of alternative patterns. For industrial crops: chang-
agricultural development strategies (Step 2) ing demands for export and local trans-
requires an assessment of the potential contri- formation.
bution of each option to the national and
agricultural sector goals. This assessment - The chances of a successful outcome of
relies on information and data on a number of the research. This implies a subjective
parameters, as well as a national capacity to assessment of scientific probabilities,
analyze them and present the conclusions in a time scales, resources needed, and
form that can be used by policy makers. Many probable costs and benefits. Past expe-
countries of sub-Saharan Africa lack such a rience and current knowledge would
reliable database. Nevertheless, a dialogue be guiding factors.
between policy-makers and research leaders
would certainly lead to a more rational allo-
cation of resources: a combination of the 1 Commodities relate to the production
research manager's knowledge of the most of crop, animal, and tree species. They
important research problems and the planner's should be clearly distinguished from
insights into government policy would mark- the products derived from them. For
edly improve the quality of these decisions. example, cattle are a commodity; milk,
Even so, the constitution of a reliable agricul- meat, and leather are products. It is of
tural information system is important for utmost importance for research that
evolving and refining development policy in government policy specify the prod-
the longer term. ucts it wishes to promote, not just the
commodities.
Page 19
- The factors which may affect adoption in nature. This planning process includes
of results. This involves assessments of transmitting the long-term program directives
the needs and perceptions (risk, cost, to the research stations, team leaders and
etc.) of clients, the effectiveness of researchers, who are responsible for proposing
support services, the level of political specific experiments and studies which consti-
commitment, and the possibility of tute the short-term research program.
policy-imposed constraints, e.g., pric-
ing, import policies, and market quo- In the absence of a comprehensive agricul-
tas. tural sector policy and strategy for research
from policymakers (a condition that will
- The opportunities for collaboration continue to exist forsome time in many Afri-
with other national andinternational can countries), experienced research system
research organizations, in order to op- leaders can develop a rational medium-term
timize the use of scarce resources and research plan based on general knowledge of
make national research systems more technical and socio-economic conditions in
cost-effective. the sector. While this is obviously not ideal,
it is the best research managers can do to
IX. STRENGTHENING THE address priority concerns without having
MANAGEMENT OF RESEARCH received clear guidance from policy makers.
SYSTEMS However, there are some areas for which
research leaders must receive specific policy
For agricultural research to become more guidelines in order to orient research; e.g.,
cffective, research organizations must government fertilizer policy will dictate the
strengthen their ability to manage resources type of technology pursued in the research
aun programs. The following sections high- program.
light the major aspects of agricultural re-
search management. While seen as parts of a When agricultural development policies
continuous process, these steps involve differ- and strategies are ill-defined, the research
ent sets of people and occur at different times. services should draw up their own research
It mflist be stressed that in order to conduct plan and then:
effective and efficient research, all of these
steps must occur, and with some degree of - inform government of the assumptions
proficiency. Therefore, skilled managers are on which their priority choices were-
nceded at various levels in the system. based, thus giving national planners
the opportunity -- and the challenge
Long-Term Research Planning -- to verify, and confirm or modify, the
rationale;
After priorities have been set and re-
sources allocated at the macro level, a long- - explain why government policymakers
term research plan for, say, 10-15 years must must answer certain specific questions
be designed to address the major constraints if research is to be more supportive of
and opportunities within each of these priori- development priorities; such questions
ties. This is squarely the task of senior re- may help to provide a basis for better
search staff within the institutions. This plan policy formulation.
projects manpower requirements, including
the numbers and disciplines needed, and the Research Programming and Budgeting
recruitment and training necessary to provide
them. It also projects needed expansion and/ Within the long-term research directives
or modification of infrastructure and equip- there is a wide choice of possible experiments
ment. The group, under the leadership of the and studies. To select the most relevant and
institute director, should be interdisciplinary urgent among these, team leaders and re-
Page 20
U
searchers must have a good understanding of circumstances, and they absorb an inordinate
the capabilities and constraints of farmers amount of the time of scarce manpower.
and rural support services. An interdiscipli- Therefore the initial design of PB systems
nary group at the research station level, be- should be simple, keeping data collection and
cause of its proximity to both the farmer and analysis to the minimum necessary. Micro-
the extension agent, is best suited to make this computers can help as tools to store and proc-
selection. It must take into account, through ess the information. There are many benefits
a program-budgeting exercise, the human, to research organizations of using a PB system.
physical and financial resources required. The It forces them to describe programs in specific
approved work plans from researchers, teams, terms and with budgets thatcan be clearly
stations, and institutions are aggregated to justified to policymakers. It clarifies issues of
constitute the short-term or annual national resource allocation to particular commodities
researchprogram. This aggregated plan must and geographic areas. And it provides a basis
be checked at the national level for consis- for monitoring both the financial and sub-
tency with the national long-term objectives, stantive progress of research programs..
priorities, and broad resource allocations.
Finally, it should be recognized that while
Each component in the annual work plan the introduction of an effective PB system
should be described in enough detail to be should have a fairly immediate impact in
realistically costed in both staff time and improving the management within the institu-
operational costs. The least flexible and most tion, it will take several years for its useful-
critical resource is the time of research work- ness to be felt in the process of national
ers. It is particularly necessary to ensure that budgetary allocations, as the financial au-
the time each researcher willspend on differ- thorities and the research institutions develop
ent research projects, as well as on other ac- a mutual understanding and confidence.
tivities of the organization, is not unduly
scattered and is correctly estimated. It is also Monitoring and Research Evaluation
necessary to budget adequate operational
funds for researchers to work efficiently. A Monitoring
well-proven technique for realistic costing
treats the researcher, with an associated pro The monitoring process is a management
rata share of support services and operational tool which provides managers with current
funds, as the budgetary unit. Clearly, reliable information on money spent, people em-
unit costs are needed for all operations. ployed, materials used, and research results in
each of the research activities. This informa-
When budget requests are only partially tion is reported at all levels, from the individ-
met, the institute often applies pro rata cuts ual scientists to program leaders to the insti-
across every program. In some cases the tute directors.
ministry of financeitself decides on program
cuts. Research programs may further suffer In setting up a monitoring system, manag-
fromadditional cuts made in the course of the ers must ensure that it does not become more
year. In agricultural research, much of which time-consuming than the benefits justify, that
is based on cropping seasons, expenditures are no superfluous data are collected, that data
not evenly distributed throughout the year, analysis, interpretation, and feedback are
but have periodic peaks. Disbursement of timely, and that researchers perceive it as
funds on a quarterly or half-yearly basis useful.
therefore causes cash flow problems. It is
against this complicated background that Monitoring provides the basic information
programming and budgeting has to take place. for the programming and budgeting process,
which uses this year's actual resource utiliza-
Sophisticated procedures for program- tion to estimate next year's requirements, and
budgeting (PB) are of limited value in these
Page 21
should also use evidence of success or failure research organization anywhere. A further
in given areas as guidelines for budget in- element, closely related, is an appropriate
creases or reductions. An efficient monitoring scheme of service that will retain staff. All of
system, introduced at the start of a research these are necessary to encourage the most
project, also forms a valuable basis for any important, though least tangible, element in
subsequent evaluation, i.e. an assessment of the research system: research entrepre-
the research project's performance. neurship.
Research Evaluation There are four important considerations
There are two aspects to the evaluation of in eexxaammiinniinngg  hhuummaann  rreessoouurrcceh . development
research performance. The first concerns the strategies for African research.
quality of the experimental program at the
technical level. This depends on the experi- - The numbers of well-trained personnel
ence and integrity of the researcher. The in scientific fields in most countries of
second aspect is concerned with the relevance sub-Saharan Africa is grossly inade-
of the research to the overall objectives. quate. This problem can only be re-
Annual evaluation is needed in the context of solved over a 20- to 25-year period, and
the programming exercise; experience in some will require substantial investments by
African countries has shown that this can be African governments and donors.
conducted very effectively through peer re-
view. There should also be periodic evalu- - The shift to a science-based agricul-
ations of all research programs to: (a) examine ture requires professional researchers
their progress against set targets, and whether who have formal training in research
there is need for major adjustments; (b) check methodology, with a minimum of a
their continuing relevance to the overall ob- Master's degree, an Ingenieur
jectives; and (c) decide on the termination of Agronome degree with some research
old or failed programs and the beginning of specialization, or the equivalent. The
new ones. In addition, research institutions most expeditious way of achieving this
should undergo periodic management reviews. is by developing close cooperation with
It is beneficial to have external members on local universities, many of which need
such review teams. to be strengthened and linked in a
regional framework to allow for a
In carrying out evaluations it must be wider range of specializations.
borne in mind that the output of the research
system is new knowledge and new technology, - There is an international market for
and not impact in terms of increased national scientists, as well as a competetive local
production, where other factors intervene. market. Agricultural researchers are
Nevertheless, results of on-farm trials, impor- highly mobile, and unless agricultural
tant indicators of potential impact, must be research managers in Africa pay spe-
taken into account. Much weight must be cial attention to changing local, na-
given to the critical assessment and timely tional, regional and international
publication of the results in annual reports market conditions, many productive
and journals. scientists in the 40- to 50-year age
Human Resource Development and bracket 
tunities, will move on 
particularly to better oppor-
in externally
Personnel Policy funded programs.
Sound personnel selection, training, -and - Attrition rates in excess of 7 percent
promotion are the three hallmarks of human are the norm rather than the exception
resource development in a public or private in Africa, as compared with 3 to 4
Page 22
in Africa, as compared with 3 to 4 Special criteria of aptitude and attitude
percent in research services in indus- need to be applied also in the selection for top
trialized countries. These high rates management functions, and it is highly desir-
imply that the entire pool of research- able that the research organization partici-
ers and technicians in many national pate in this process also.
agricultural research systems has to be
replaced every 14 to 16 years. These Because of pressures by some governments
turnover rates obviously undermine to secure jobs for the growing numbers of
the productivity of research programs, university graduates, their research institu-
where continuity is required, and in- tions have be enforced to recruit staff in
crease the need for training, particu- numbers well beyond their capacity to train
larly overseas, with the consequent and usefully employ them. This is especially
heavy costs. true where operating funds have not kept pace
with the expansion of personnel. This has
Research Entrepreneurship serious consequences for research efficiency
and output. To be realistic, recruitment must
The outcome of research is subject to risk always be related to an agreed priority re-
and anudn coeurtnacinertyten,  tcaa  ndr erseesaeracrhc h sscciisebnentitsstt,s ,r isink search program and the funds to carry it out.
addition to professional competence, organ- Training
izational skills, and access to funds, need a
special human ability: research entrepre- Only a few research services in Africa
neurship. The ability to articulate research have a training plan, and even fewer have a
hypotheses and to choose research priorities comprehensive manpower development strat-
from among a multitude of possibilities, and egy. There is a shortage of postgraduate
then to put up with risk and uncertainty training opportunities in Africa. Some of the
inherent in all research, is an innate and hard- larger donors supporting agricultural research
to-define talent. This talent is rewarded have concentrated on financing long-term
haphazardly in public research worldwide, training overseas and short-term training in
and is increasingly impaired by bureaucrati- international research centers. A challenge
zation of research services. Research leaders for both African governments and donors is to
in Africa must devise institutional structures develop a coherent long-term strategy to shift
and mechanisms to select, encourage and the center of post-graduate training from
reward such research entrepreneurs. industrial countries to selected universities in
Africa, notably those which will be ready to
Recruitment assume responsibilities in a regional context.
In addition, training at international agricul-
tural research centers should be expanded and
Sound personnel selection is critical to the be responsive to the specific needs of African
quality of a scientific organization. Candi- scientists and senior technicians, taking into
dates for the research service, whether they be account that they will be working under quite
scientists, technicians, or financial and ad- different conditions in their home countries.
ministrative staff, must be selected carefully
for their qualifications, aptitude and attitude At present, much of the selection for train-
by the research organization itself to satisfy ing is passive, with the institution merely
its special requirements, rather than through responding to offers of scholarships or fellow-
centralized public service mechanisms, or ships for overseas training. This is especially
under political pressure. University selection so where training is part of individual donor-
systems may provide a useful model. In financed projects, and is inevitable in the
addition, it is desirable that young scientists absence of a master training plan. Such a
undergo a two-year probationary period. training plan should cover a ten-year period,
Page 23
with a detailed definition of medium- and years of service. In most cases, promotion is
long-term agricultural research program tied to the assumption of positions entailing
thrusts, and agreement from government on administrative and managerial responsibility,
the projected numbers of scientists. Plans for so that the most senior officers spend little
management training and support staff train- time on research, often cutting short the
ing are also imperative. natural development of their research pro-
ductivity and scientific career. Promotion
Overseas postgraduate training is very should not be tied to managerial posts only. A
expensive for both donors and national gov- separate promotion stream based on the recog-
ernments, and the costs are increasing. Over- nition of research performance should be
seas training in an industrialized country now created. Such a stream should have open
costs US$50,000 for a two-year M.Sc. and career scales (in which numbers of posts at
US$100,000 for a Ph.D. The development of specific grades are not limited), and promo-
more postgraduate schools in sub-Saharan tion within such a stream should not be based
Africa is urgently required to reduce the on seniority alone. Appropriate criteria for
dependency on overseas training and to make promotion should be developed, and these, as
thesis research more relevant to local prob- well as promotion opportunities, should be
lems. Improving the capacity of postgraduate made widely known to staff. Such criteria
schools is not only a matter of increasing should be balanced between the researcher's
enrollments and decreasing costs but, more commitment to working toward national
important, a question of raising the quality of development objectives, publications in local
the national scientific system. and foreign journals, production of material
for distribution to extension staff, and en-
Formal training for a higher degree pro- hanced scientific capacity through training.
vides only the foundation for a research
scientist's work. Throughout his career, he A desirable career structure, which would
will need to develop his scientific capacity facilitate interchange of staff, is to adopt such
and broaden his understanding of agricultural a career system jointly with the universities.
problems. A desire to do so must be one of the Higher salaries are not the only element of the
innate qualities of those identified for a re- total reward package, and in many systems
search career. However, this must be stimu- where there is a limited opportunity to de-
lated by opportunities for additional training, velop financial rewards, other incentives
through short in-service courses, visiting sen- assume even greater importance: various
ior scientists conducting seminars and coach- forms of professional recognition at the na-
ing young scientists, and attendance at work- tional level (membership of boards, evalu-
shops. ation missions, and planning committees),
merit research grants, editorial help and
Incentives, Promotion, and Retention channels for publication, sabbaticals, as well
as opportunities for participation in confer-
Promotion, salary increases and various ences and study tours.
forms of scientific recognition should be the
rewards for professional performance, and Special consideration needs to be given to
the main incentives for continued creativity the working and living conditions in outlying
and service. Presently, in most national agri- stations, in order to attract and retain compe-
cultural research services in sub-Saharan tent staff. Proximity to reasonable health and
Africa the salary reward system is based on schooling facilities, and the availability of
length of service rather than the productivity adequate housing, are essential. Where these
of the researchers. Many research officers cannot be assured, it is virtually impossible to
gain their maximum rank within a short time maintain a station with resident scientific
span of five to seven years, and then salaries staff. In some cases, special financial incen-
are increased only slowly according to the tives can help. Regardless of the quality of the
Page 24
need to be assured that they have access to managers admit that they have inadequate
promotion opportunities and other incentives professional support for financial manage-
at least equal to those at headquarters. ment, forcing them to spend much time on an
activity for which they are not qualified and
Finally, special attention needs to be given in which they are not deeply interested. As a
to the total package of incentives for support result, operational responsibility for the day-
staff. When well trained, such staff have to-day disbursement of funds and for the
many opportunities outside the research sys- maintenance of records tends to pass to clerks.
tem, and their rapid turnover seriously inter- And they in turn are in no position to intro-
feres with the effectiveness of the research duce flexibility to the government rules.
service. Multi-station research organizations require
delegation of authoritiy for disbursement of
Administration of Personnel Policy funds to station heads and national program
coordinators, so that they have adequate dis-
Good personnel administration requires cretion and flexibility in the use of these
the collection of adequate personnel data, in funds.
the form of easily analyzable individual rec-
ords. Every research organization needs to
have up-to-date and accurate information on The structure of the research organization
the number of people it has on the payroll, in dictates the most appropriate form of finan-
what grades, with what special qualifications, cial management. Those with a degree of
experience and skills, and in what age brack- autonomy should be able to operate with
ets. Therefore, high priority for many agricul- considerably greater financial flexibility,
tural research institutions in sub-Saharan including block-funding, carry-over of funds
Africa is to build a personnel database which from one year to the next, and the release of
can be used for recruitment, career planning, funds to meet peak requirements.
the planning of training, administration of
training programs, and routine personnel and
salary administration. The introduction of inexpensive micro-
computers can strengthen financial manage-
There are three ingredients in establishing ment within African agricultural research
and maintaining a personnel database: (a) a institutions, and release valuable time of the
commitment by the research organization to professionals.
make the database the central feature of its
ongoing records and planning system; (b) a
willingness to spend a modest amount of Accounting requirements imposed by
money and time over two to three years to get donors for the administration of their grants
the database set up; and (c) a microcomputer and loans vary widely. Many research insti-
for all except the smallest institutions. tutions have to report on a substantial number
of projects funded by different donor agen-
cies. This can stretch the institution's capacity
Financial Management beyond what is reasonable to expect. Donors,
ministries of finance and planning, and re-
Financial management involves the timely search managers should come together to har-
disbursement of funds for an efficient de- monize these requirements.
ployment of the research resources in relation
to the annual research program. A sound Management of Physical Resources
accounting system is an obvious prerequisite.
It is also a critical factor in maintaining Sound management enhances the efficient
confidence in the organization, not least servicing and utilization of buildings, equip-
among donors. But many African research ment and vehicles. It is necessary to have
Page 25
adequate workshops for service and repair, Scientific and Technical Information: Library
reliable power and water supplies, well and Documentation
trained mechanics and equipment operators,
reasonable procurement procedures, a com- Improved management of a library and
prehensive inventory control system for sup- documentation system includes more efforts
plies and spare parts, and sufficient local and to obtain specialized literature such as com-
foreign currency for the necessarypurchases. modity bulletins, more effective document
Systematic personnel training in these man- circulation, and any other measures that can
agement functions is very important. enhance staff appreciation of written profes-
sional information. Better training of library
and documentation staff will be a prerequisite
Funds for maintenance are usually the for the performance of these functions. A
first to suffer in budget short-falls, as can be special problem for most libraries is the lack
observed from the large number of non-func- of foreign exchange to continue subscriptions
tioning facilities at experiment stations across to scientific journals and up-to-date text-
Africa. Considerable investment has been books. The rapidly increasing cost of main-
made in plant and equipment supply, not least taining traditional documentation systems
by donors, without the concomitant provision points to a need for consideration of systems
for maintenance. As a matter of course, based on advanced technology.
capital investment should be accompanied by
an increase in the operational budget corre- Internal Information
sponding to some 20 percent of this invest-
ment. Maintenance requirements can and Databases and computerized information
should be programmed into a multi-year plan, systems are becoming increasingly important
with financial provision as a high-priority in personnel management, program-budget-
budget line item. ing, monitoring, and evaluation. The intro-
duction, use, and maintenance of microcom-
puters require a commitment to keep them
Administrative rules and procedures in operational, and to use them to their fullest
many African agricultural research institu- potential.
tions have not kept up with increasing com-
plexity and new technological possibilities. Information Flow between Research and its
Orders, reports, registers, and statistics are Clients
handled in a way which might once have been
appropriate, but which is now cumbersome. Research/Policy. Research/policy link-
Training in office management has much ages permit the research system to provide
potential, especially if it can include the use government with information useful in policy
of modern office equipment. formulation and the design of rural develop-
ment programs. These linkages can be im-
proved by the participation of senior re-
Information Management searchers in development planning commit-
tees, and of agricultural planning staff in
national 
Three committees 
broad categories on research 
of relevant priorities.
infor- While policy-making is not within the re-
mation can be distinguished: (a) scientific and searchers' domain, development planning can
technical information needed by scientists to be made more realistic if it benefits from
do their research; (b) information about the information and data derived from research,
institution itself, enabling it to function; and and on the economic benefits stemming from
(c) information flow between research and its it. Many research institutions need' to
clients: policymakers, extension services, strengthen their socio-economic capacity, to
farmers and others. More efforts should be enable them to provide information for pol-
made in all three areas.
Page 26
icy-making and at the same time to improve adaptive nature of most research in sub-
their institution's understanding of farmer Saharan Africa, links with farmers are gener-
conditions, market constraints and opportuni- ally weak. Local and regional research station
ties. advisory committees, including farmer repre-
sentatives, could improve the situation, as
Research/Extension. Research/extension could intensified on-farm research.
linkages are poor in most countries of sub-
Saharan Africa. Mutually supportive mecha- X. SOME ISSUES FOR DONORS
nisms to promote effective two-way communi-
cation include: Improved national research systems and
clearly defined agricultural research strate-
- creation, at a suitable place in the na- gies will provide the framework within which
tional agricultural research system, of donors will be able to improve the effective-
a central unit for production and dis- ness and efficiency of their contribu-tions to
semination of documentation for use research. Consequently, donors, in coopera-
in the extension services; tion with national governments, should make
every effort to improve such systems and
- collaboration in the preparation of support comprehensive strategies.
regular radio broadcasts, newspaper
and magazine articles, and field days; Program Support
- appointment of extension liaison offi- A critical area for donor attention is the
cers in research institutions; need to move from project to longer-term
program support. Such a shift requires joint
- posting of subject-matter specialists commitment by national governments and
from the extension service to research donors to institutional development. Assign-
stations to take part in pre-extension ment of expatriate staff for longer than the
work; current average three-year period would
greatly improve the quality of technical assis-
tance. Harmonization of project accounting
- joint on-farm verification trials and procedures with those of the recipient institu-
demonstrations; tions would avoid much duplication and inef-
ficient expenditure of time.
- joint conduct of farming systems re-
search, and associated training Training
courses, to improve the diagnosis of
f armers' problems; In the area of training, problems will
continue as long as African agriculture and
- encouragement of professional growth science faculties are unable to offer high-
of extension agents, by providing ca- quality postgraduate programs. Some facul-
reer grades in the extension system and ties have benefited from large investments in
training to qualify for promotion to the past but now suffer from the same staffing
higher grades. and funding problems as the national research
programs. Not only does this prevent them
Research/Farmer.D irect research/farmer from participating in useful research, it also
communication is critically important if re- leads to poorly trained graduates. Donor-
search is to correctly characterize the socio- supported programs for the selective strength-
economic conditions of farmers and address ening of faculties, and of linkages between
the right probiems. Despite the applied and them, are therefore essential.
Page 27
Support for Strategic Research
Donors could make a major contribution
by sponsoring studies to define priority pro-
grams of strategic research needed to backstop
African applied and adaptive research pro-
grams, assembling the capacity to carry out
this work in advanced-country institutions in
liaison with developing-country research sci-
entists, and making commitments to long-term
funding.
Foreign Exchange
Lack of foreign exchange is likely to,
remain one of the major bottlenecks in im-
proving national research systems. Generally,
the amounts needed arenot particularly large,
but ffioSt governments in sub-Saharan Africa
are unable to give foreign exchange for re-
search the priority it needs. Donors might
work together to develop a consortium ap-
proach. to this probiem.
Case Studies
Finally, donor-supported case studies on
the economic returns to agricultural research
investments in sub-Saharan Africa could
further demonstrate the importance of re-
search to attaining national development
goals.
XI. CONCLUSIONS
The strengthening of national agricultural
research systems requires the full involvement
of national policy makers, planners, research
leaders, and the donor community. Of utmost
importance is the development and support of
a feasible research strategy which responds to
national development objectives. Regional
and international cooperation can greatly
enhance research efficiency. For agricultural
research to have an impact on growth of the
agricultural sector, it will be essential to have
concomitant strengthening of agricultural
education, extension, and rural infrastructure
and services.
Page 28
S542 .A357 G84 1987
c.2
International Service
for National
LGuidelines for
-strengthening national
sari ultural research
3J / 1T _- 3
s-, /sn91ara
Secretariat
1818 H Street, N.W. P.O. Box 93375
Washington, D.C. 20433 2509 AJ The Hague
United States Netherlands
I-3
ISBN 0-8213-0920-X