Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research @CGIAR Study Paper Number 15 Philippines and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Arturo A. Gomez Philippines and the CGIAR Centers CGIAR Study Papers No.1 No. 2 No. 3 Technological Innovation in Agriculture: The Political Economy of Its Rate and Bias Modem Varieties, InternationalAgricultural Research, and the Poor Plant Genetic Resources: The Impact of the InternationalAgriculturalResearch Centers Costa Rica and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Guatemala and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Zimbabwe and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Nepal and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Bangladesh and the CGIAR Centers:A Study of Their Collaboration in AgriculturalResearch Brazil and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Indonesia and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Ecuador and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Peru and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Syria and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Cuba and the CGIAR Centers: A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research No.4 No. 5 No.6 No.7 No.8 No.9 No.10 No.11 No. 12 No.13 No.14 Consultative Group on International Agridtural Research CGIAR Study Paper Number 15 Philippines and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Arturo A. Gomez The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright 01986 The International Bank for Reconstruction and DeveIopment/THE WORLD BANK I818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433,U.S.A. First printing September 1986 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America At its annual meeting in November 1983 the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) commissioned a wide-ranging impact study of the results of the activities of the international agricultural research oganizations under its sponsorship. An Advisory Committee was appointed to oversee the study and to present the principal findings at the annual meeetings of the CGIAR in October 1985. The impact study director was given responsibility for preparing the main report and commissioning a series of papers on particular research issues and on the work of the centers in selected countries. This paper is one of that series. The judgments expressed herein are those of the author(s).They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, of affiliated organizations, including the CGIAR Secretariat, of the international agricultural research centers supported by the CGIAR, of the donors to the CGIAR, or of any individual acting on their behalf. Staff of many national and international organizations provided valued information, but neither they nor their institutions are responsible for the views expressed in this paper. Neither are the views necessarily consistent with those expressed in the main and summary reports, and they should not be attributed to the Advisory Committee or the study director. This paper has been prepared and published informally in order to share the information with the least possible delay. Arturo A. Gomez is professor of agronomy at the University of the Philippines, Los Bailos, and national coordinator of the National Multiple Cropping Production Project. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData GOmez, Arturo A. Philippines and the CGIAR centers. (Study paper / Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, ISSN 0257-3148 ; no. 15) At head of title: CGIAR. Bibliography: p. 1. Agriculture--Research--Philippines. 2. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. 3. Agriculture--Research--International cooperation. I. Title. 11. Consultative Croup on International Agricultural Research. 111. Series: Study paper (Consultative Croup on International Agricultural Research ; no. 15) S542.P6G66 1986 630'.720599 86-18974 ISBN 0-8213-0824-6 ' V Summary The m a i n p u r p o s e of t h i s p a p e r i s t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e ness o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n between t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h Centers ( I A R C s ) and t h e P h i l i p p i n e N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research S y s t e m (NARS) w i t h r e s p e c t t o i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e NARS and i t s i m p a c t on p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . Two p r i m a r y s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n were used: ( 1 ) s e c o n d a r y d a t a on t h e s t a t u s of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r a n d ( 2 ) i n t e r v i e w s o f l e a d i n g r e s e a r c h e r s and r e s e a r c h administrators. P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r e h a s grown s t e a d i l y i n t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s , d e s p i t e t h e m i n i m a l amount o f h e l p and s u b s i d y p r o v i d e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t . R i c e , t h e m a j o r s t a p l e , h a s been t h e s t a r . 5 performer. S i n c e 1 9 7 2 , p r o d u c t i o n h a s grown a n n u a l l y by 4 p e r c e n t , o u t s t r i p p i n g p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h by more t h a n 1.5 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s . By t h e l a t e 19709, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s became a n e t exporter of r i c e , although t h i s s t a t u s is f l u c t u a t i n g because o f t h e c u r r e n t a d v e r s e price structure. Corn, t h e n e x t m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r o p w i t h a b o u t t h e s a m e h a r v e s t a r e a a s r i c e , h a s been g r o w i n g at, a s l o w e r r a t e , w i t h much o f i t s g r o w t h f u e l e d by t h e e x p a n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t e d a r e a . W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new h y b r i d s t h a t h a v e much h i g h e r y i e l d p o t e n t i a l , c o r n c a n b e expected t o b e t h e s t a r p e r f o r m e r i n t h e 1980s . The r e s e a r c h and e x t e n s i o n system o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s is f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . The NARS h a s more t h a n 3,000 p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s , 1 9 percent o f whom h a v e MS and 8 p e r c e n t o f whom h a v e PhD d e g r e e s . A g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h i n a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s i s approved and m o n i t o r e d by a c e n t r a l c o o r d i n a t i n g c o u n c i l t h a t also s u m m a r i z e s a n d d o c u m e n t s r e s e a r c h results. The e x t e n s i o n vi s y s t e m h a s enough p e r s o n n e l t o c o v e r e a c h o f t h e 34,000 r u r a l communities i n t h e c o u n t r y . I t h a s been s t r e n g t h e n e d by i t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a s e r i e s of n a t i o n a l f o o d p r o d u c t i o n programs. o f -on D i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m p r o v e d g e r m p l a s m , t r a i n i n g o f research s t a f f a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n of new r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a r e t h e t h r e e s e r v i c e s o f t h e I A R C s t h a t a r e p e r c e i v e d t o b e t h e most u s e f u l t o t h e NARS. E l i t e g e r m p l a s m p r o d u c e d by t h e I A R C s h a s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e genetic d i v e r s i t y o f b r e e d i n g m a t e r i a l s i n t h e NARS and h a s c o n t r i b u t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o t h e progress i n v a r i e t a l improvement. New r i c e v a r i e t i e s developed a t I R R I h a v e been d i r e c t l y recommended by t h e NARS f o r c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t i o n . V a r i e t i e s i n c o r n , s o r g h u m a n d p o t a t o e s d e v e l o p e d by CIMMYT, ICRISAT a n d C I P , r e s p e c t i v e l y , h a v e been t e s t e d e x t e n s i v e l y , w i t h very promising r e s u l t s . T r a i n i n g o f NARS s t a f f by I A R C s h a s b e e n g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d because o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e p r o g r a m a n d t h e e x p e r t i s e o f t h e training staff. R e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t h a v e been a p p l i e d by t h e N A R S i n s o l v i n g l o c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s are: ( 1 ) p r o p e r t i e s o f s u b m e r g e d paddy s o i l s , (2) r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s f o r o n - f a r m t r i a l s , ( 3 ) c r o p i n t e r a c t i o n i n i n t e n s i v e c r o p p i n g a n d (4) b r e e d i n g methods. While there i s n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f IARCsto t h e NARS, s i m i l a r s e r v i c e s a r e also a v a i l a b l e f r o m o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . It is not clear, t h e r e f o r e , i f s i m i l a r p r o g r e s s i n t h e NARS c o u l d h a v e been o b t a i n e d i f t h e I A R C s d i d n o t exist. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e N A R S o f f i c i a l s h a v e expressed d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r t h e I A R C model i s c o s t e f f e c t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e NARS. vi i I R R I c l e a r l y d o m i n a t e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of I A R C s t o increased a g r i c u l t u r a l production i n t h e Philippines. Rice, t h e most i m p o r t a n t food c r o p , i s t h e r e c i p i e n t of a massive product i o n p r o g r a m t h a t i s based m a i n l y on t e c h n o l o g i e s d e v e l o p e d a t IRRI. The o t h e r I A R C s m e n t i o n e d t h a t h a v e some i m p a c t o n P h i l i p p i n e programs a r e CIMMYT, C I P , C I A T , I C R I S A T a n d IBPGR. R e l a t i v e t o t h e i m p a c t of I R R I , h o w e v e r , t h e i m p a c t of t h e s e o t h e r I A R C s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i s more d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e . Many of t h e i n n o v a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d by t h e s e c e n t e r s h a v e t o go t h r o u g h t h e N A R S b e f o r e a c t u a l a d o p t i o n by farmers. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e I A R C t e c h n o l o g y i s o f t e n u n c l e a r , a n d i n many i n s t a n c e s t h e i n n o v a t i o n may b e c l a i m e d by t h e NARS. f e c ~ u m of t h e C M o m F o r t h e commodity-mandated c e n t e r s , p e r c e p t i o n of t h e i r f u t u r e u s e f u l n e s s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i s n o t so o p t i m i s t i c . The p r e v a i l i n g a s s e s s m e n t of I R R I , f o r example, is: ( 1 ) t h a t I R R I h a s b e e n i m m e n s e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n i n c r e a s i n g rice production, (2) t h a t I R R I w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a g r i c u l t u r a l development b u t its f u t u r e i m p a c t i s e x p e c t e d t o be much l e s s a n d ( 3 ) t h a t I R R I h a s h a d a more m o d e s t i m p a c t o n t h e N A R S a n d , a s t h e N A R S m a t u r e s , f u t u r e i m p a c t w i l l become e v e n less. The commodity-mandated c e n t e r s , a n d I R R I i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e seen t o be m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n s o l v i n g w e l l - d e f i n e d p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e common t o a l a r g e number of c o u n t r i e s . As a major problem i s s o l v e d , many s m a l l p r o b l e m s t a k e i t s p l a c e . T h e s e s e c o n d a r y p r o b l e m s , w h i c h a r e more d i v e r s e a n d much more l o c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c , a r e n o t e a s i l y s o l v e d by I A R C research. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e I A R C model becomes l e s s e f f e c t i v e viii a n d o t h e r models may have t o take i t s p l a c e . P e r h a p s t h e m a n d a t e of I A R C s can b e modified from one o f d i r e c t l y conducting research t o one of determining research p r i o r i t i e s and channeling f i n a n c i a l support t o the NARS for implementing high-priority research a c t i v i t i e s . ix Contents 1 Background 1.1 The country 1.1.1 Natural and political setting 1.1.2 Population 1.1.3 The economy 1.2 The agricultural sector 1 . 2 . 1 Structure 1.2.2 Infrastructure and institutional support 1.2.3 Pricing 1.2.4 Past a n d present performance 1.2.5 Policy issues 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 6 7 10 12 15 15 15 15 17 17 20 23 25 25 26 26 29 29 30 2 The National Agricultural Research System 2 . 1 Definition 2.2 Structure 2.2.1 The NARS before 1972 The NARS after 1972 2.2.2 2.3 Resources for research 2.4 Research staff 2.5 External influences 2.5.1 Lending agencies 2.5.2 Fund-granting agencies 2.5.3 Research institutions 2.6 Effectiveness and problems Impact of the IARC on the NARS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biological materials Improving research capability 3.2.1 3.2.2 Improving research output 3.3 Staff development 3.4 Research results 3.4.1 Breeding methods 3.4.2 Farm trials Other information 3.4.3 3.5 Important issues 3.5.1 Effectiveness of the IARC model 3.5.2 Mechanics of channeling service to the NARS Complementarity and competition of 3.5.3 research activities Personal relationships 3.5.4 3,505 Essentiality of the IARCs Research Impact on Agricultural Production 4 . 1 Important innovations Improved genotypes 4 . 1 . 1 4.1.2 Improved management Intensification of land use 4.1.3 4.2 Adoption of innovation 4.3 Production effects 4 . 4 Gender issue 3 30 32 33 34 34 35 37 37 37 38 39 40 41 43 43 43 44 45 46 48 51 4 X 4.5 4.6 4.7 Effects on income distribution Promising innovations 4.6.1 Varietal improvements 4.6.2 Intensification of land use 4.6.3 Culture and management The contribution of the IARCs 51 52 52 53 54 55 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 57 Conclusions The Philippine research and extension system 57 57 The Philippine agricultural sector Impact of the IARCs on the Philippine NARS 58 58 Impact on agricultural productivity 59 Impact of individual IARCs 59 Effectiveness of the IARC model Appendix A : Appendix B: Appendix C: References The Member Institutions of the Research Network in the Philippines Rice Varieties Recommended by the Philippine Seed Board Persons Interviewed and Places Visited 61 63 65 69 . xi Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB AIT AVRDC BAEcon BAI BIOTROP BPI CLSU DANR FA0 GDP GNP ha IARC MAF MNR MV NARS NEDA NEP NFA NSDB P PCA PCARRD PSI PTA SEAFDEC SEARCA SMU UPLB Asian Development Bank Asian Institute o f Technology Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center Bureau o f Agricultural Economics Bureau o f Animal Science Regional Center for Tropical Biology Bureau of Plant Industry Central Luzon State University Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Food and Agriculture Organization Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product hectare International Agricultural Research Center Ministry o f Agriculture and Food Ministry of Natural Resources Modern Variety National Agricultural Research System National Economic and Development Authority National Extension Program National Food Authority National Science Development Board Philippine peso Philippine Coconut Authority Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development Philippine Sugar Institute Philippine Tobacco Administration South East Asia Fisheries Development Center South East Asia Regional Centre for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture Southern Mindanao University University of the Philippines at Los Baflos xi i USAID U n i t e d S t a t e s Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development VISCA Visayas S t a t e College of A g r i c u l t u r e CGIAR-supported c e n t e r s CIAT CIMMYT CIP .IBPGR ICARDA ICRISAT IFPRI IITA ILCA ILRAD IRRI ISNAR WARDA Centro I n t e r n a c i o n a l de A g r i c u l t u r a T r o p i c a l Centro I n t e r n a c i o n a l de Mejoramiento de Maiz y T r i g o Centro I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e l a Papa I n t e r n a t i o n a l Board for P l a n t Genetic Resources I n t e r n a t i o n a l Center f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l Research i n t h e Dry Areas I n t e r n a t i o n a l Crops Research I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e SemiA r i d Tropics I n t e r n a t i o n a l Food P o l i c y Research I n s t i t u t e International I n s t i t u t e of Tropical Agriculture I n t e r n a t i o n a l Livestock Center f o r A f r i c a I n t e r n a t i o n a l Laboratory f o r Research on Animal Diseases I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rice Research I n s t i t u t e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e r v i c e f o r National A g r i c u l t u r a l Research West A f r i c a Rice Development A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 1 1.1 1.1.1 Background The c o u n t r y N a t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l s e t t i n g The P h i l i p p i n e s i s a n i s l a n d c o u n t r y c o v e r i n g a l a n d a r e a of 300,000 s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s . O f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7,100 i s l a n d s t h e two l a r g e s t , Luzon and Mindanao, a c c o u n t f o r 66 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a . T h e c l i m a t e i s m a i n l y humid t r o p i c a l , r a i n f a l l exceeds 2,000 m m i n most p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n d veget a t i o n i s l u s h and g r e e n almost a l l y e a r l o n g . The c o u n t r y h a s t h r e e d i s t i n c t l e v e l s of g o v e r n m e n t : n a t i o n a l , p r o v i n c i a l a n d m u n i c i p a l . An e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l e g i s l a t i v e body i s e l e c t e d a t each l e v e l . T h i s s y s t e m had b e e n f a i r l y s t a b l e u n t i l 1972 when m a r t i a l l a w was declared and t h e P r e s i d e n t a s s u m e d l e g i s l a t i v e powers. S i n c e t h e n , s e v e r a l a m e n d m e n t s t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n h a v e a d d e d more powers t o a n a l r e a d y s t r o n g p r e s i d e n t who, e v e n a f t e r m a r t i a l l a w was l i f t e d , r e t a i n e d t h e power t o l e g i s l a t e . Population The e s t i m a t e d p o p u l a t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y f o r 1985 i s 53.6 m i l l i o n a t a p r o j e c t e d g r o w t h r a t e of 2.2 p e r c e n t a n n u a l l y . Luzon h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n t h e most d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d i s l a n d b u t n e t m i g r a t i o n t o V i s a y a s and Mindanao h a s r e s u l t e d i n a h i g h er r a t e o f g r o w t h i n t h e s e r e g i o n s . T h e a r e a and p o p u l a t i o n l e v e l s i n t h e 12 r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y f o r 1980 and 1985 a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 1.1. 1.1.2 1.1.3 The economy Some i n d i c a t o r s of e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e shown i n T a b l e 1.2. W h i l e t h e GNP h a s b e e n g r o w i n g s t e a d i l y , 2 t h e terms o f t r a d e have b e e n d e t e r i o r a t i n g a n d p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e s have e x p a n d e d r a p i d l y . Most o f t h e d e f i c i t h a s been f u n d e d by f o r e i g n l o a n s , e s t i m a t e d a t a b o u t $25 b i l l i o n by 1983. A t p r e s e n t we a r e i n a severe d e f l a t i o n , w i t h t h e g r o w t h r a t e e x p e c t e d t o h i t -6 p e r c e n t f o r 1984. T a b l e 1.1 A r e a and P o p u l a t i o n by R e g i o n I I1 I11 IV V VI VI I VI11 IX X XI XI1 21,568.4 36,403 1 18,230.8 47,560.l 17,632.5 20,22302 14,951.5 21,431.5 18,685 38,670.1 31,692.9 23,293 2 0 0.1 3,541 2,215 4,803 12,045 3,479 4,526 3,787 2,799 2,528 2,759 3 8 347 2,271 3 877 2 ,432 5,526 13,312 3,806 4,663 4,069 2,931 2,906 3,329 4,036 2,739 -I-- Total ~ 53,626 _ _ _ _ _ ~~~-~~~ 1 A c t u a l f o r 1980 a n d e s t i m a t e d f o r 1985. 3 T a b l e 1.2 Some I n d i c a t o r s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e Economy Year 1975 1977 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Per Capi a GNP~ Income ( m i l l i o n P I ( P a t 1972 Price) f. B a l a n c s of Trade ( m i l l i o n PI -8t425.5 -5 t 645 8 Annual Budget3 ( i n b i l l i o n PI 20.17 23.76 34 30 37.89 50.32 57.09 61.84 -------------C.----____C------------------- 114,265 151t958 220t957 265,008 303t160 334,635 377t371 1,308 1,418 1,523 1,534 1 t552 -1 ,339.9 -1 4 ,506 e6 -17 t 443.5 -22,422 4 -27 9 4 1 8.8 . 1,555 1 ,530 Sources: I ' NEDAt N a t i o n a l Income S e r i e s . NEDAt P h i l i p p i n e S t a t i s t i c a l Yearbook. N E D A t F o r e i g n Trade S t a t i s t i c s . OBMt G e n e r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Act. 4 D r a s t i c a d j u s t m e n t s a r e now b e i n g i n s t i t u t e d t o b r i n g t h e c o u n t r y ' s economy t o h e a l t h a g a i n . The p e s o v a l u e was r e d u c e d from 1/8 t o 1/20 of t h e U.S. d o l l a r w i t h i n a 2-year p e r i o d ; l e n d i n g r a t e s h a v e s o a r e d beyond 4 0 percent; i m p o r t s have b e e n g r e a t l y discouraged; and , f o r e i g n d e b t s r e s t r u c t u r e d t o allow f o r l o n g e r repayment periods. It i s expected t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s w i l l be i n s e v e r e economic d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e n e x t 3 y e a r s . 1.2 The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r Structure A g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o r e s t r y a c c o u n t f o r 2 9 p e r c e n t of t h e g r o s s domestic p r o d u c t (GDP) a n d e m p l o y 51 percent of t h e l a b o r force. A g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s a r e t h e most d o m i n a n t c o m p o n e n t of a g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o r e s t r y . The g r o w t h r a t e f o r c r o p s h a s b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y higher than t h a t o f t h e o t h e r components, with its s h a r e o f t h e GDP f o r a g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o r e s t r y i n c r e a s i n g from 50 percent i n t h e mid-50s t o 6 5 p e r c e n t i n 1980. Rice a n d c o r n a r e t h e t w o most i m p o r t a n t c r o p s , a c c o u n t i n g f o r a h a r v e s t a r e a t h a t exceeds 70 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d a r e a ( T a b l e 1.3). I n t h e i n d u s t r i a l a n d e x p o r t crops, c o c o n u t a n d s u g a r c a n e c o v e r a b o u t 29 p e r c e n t o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a and p r o v i d e m o r e t h a n 50 p e r c e n t of a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p o r t s . 1.2.1 P r o d u c t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h a n d s of many s m a l l farmers. I n 1960 t h e a v e r a g e farm s i z e was 3.5 h a , w i t h 80 p e r c e n t a n d 40 p e r c e n t of a l l farm u n i t s h a v i n g a n . a r e a o f l e s s t h a n 5 a n d 2 . 2 ha, r e s p e c t i v e l y . W i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n and t r a d i t i o n a l i n h e r i t a n c e c u s t o m s , t h e present a v e r a g e i s estimated a t 2 . 7 ha (World Bank, 1 9 8 4 ) . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e i n t e n s i t y of l a n d u s e i s i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d l y . Two c r o p s p e r y e a r a r e now h a r v e s t e d o n a b o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t of t h e a r e a on r i c e and c o r n farms. 5 Table 1.3 Harvest Area f o r t h e Important A g r i c u l t u r a l Crops o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ’ Crop Harvest Area ( m i l l i o n ha) 3.5 Percent of Total C u l t i v a t e d Area 39.3 38.2 Rice Corn and Other C e r e a l s Coconut Sugarcane ~-_.------I-----_I_------------_I--C------. 3.4 2 . 1 0.5 23.6 5.6 1 Represent a c t u a l a r e a p l a n t e d f o r coconut and sugarcane. For r i c e and c o r n r some a r e a s a r e p l a n t e d more than once a year and a c t u a l a r e a u s e d i s s m a l l e r . Consequently, t h e sum of a l l p e r c e n t a g e f i g u r e s exceeds 100. FA0 Yearbook (1978 and 1979). Source: 6 T r a d i t i o n a l l y , b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s h a v e b e e n i n t h e h a n d s of p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s . Since t h e mid-70sr h o w e v e r , t h e p u b l i c sector h a s i n c r e a s e d i t s p r e s e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e m a r k e t i n g side. The rice t r a d e h a s b e e n d o m i n a t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l Food A u t h o r i t y (NFA) w h i c h h a s b o u g h t u p t o 10 p e r c e n t of t h e r i c e h a r v e s t d u r i n g y e a r s . o f excess p r o d u c t i o n a n d h a s a monopoly of r i c e i m p o r t a n d export. C o c o n u t h a s b e e n h e a v i l y t a x e d t o f u n d a r e p l a n t i n g program. T h r o u g h a p r e s i d e n t i a l decree, t h e s u g a r t r a d e became a monopoly of t h e N a t i o n a l Sugar T r a d i n g Corporation. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l h a s had m i x e d r e s u l t s a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities w i t h major g o v e r n m e n t i n v o l v e m e n t a r e p r e s e n t l y experiencing severe difficulties. S i n c e e a r l y t h i s year, t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a s s t a r t e d t o d i s m a n t l e i t s monopoly a n d c o n t r o l in t h e t r a d e of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . I n f r a s t r u c t u r e and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p p o r t The i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sector h a v e g r a d u a l l y e v o l v e d t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . Some examples of these p r o g r a m s are: ( 1 ) t h e Masagana 99 f o r r i c e , i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1972 r i c e c r i s i s , w h i c h p r o v i d e d r i c e farmers w i t h more t h a n 500 m i l l i o n pesos of l i b e r a l i z e d c r e d i t p e r c r o p s e a s o n a n d added more t h a n 1,000 new e x t e n s i o n t e c h n i c i a n s ; (2) t h e Masagana program f o r c o r n , m o d e l e d a f t e r Masagana 99, w h i c h a d d e d a b o u t 400 a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i c i a n s a n d a modest a m o u n t of c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s f o r corn p r o d u c t i o n ; ( 3 ) t h e R a i n f e d A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m f o r I l o i l o , a World Bank-funded program d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e l a n d u s e i n t e n s i t y from 1.3 t o 1.8 c r o p s per year i n t h e r a i n f e d paddy r i c e of t h e p r o v i n c e s ; (4) t h e N a t i o n a l E x t e n s i o n Program (NEP) a n d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S u p p o r t S e r v i c e s Program (ASSPI, b o t h f u n d e d by t h e World Bank, d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e t h e research a n d e x t e n s i o n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e M i n i s t r y of Agriculture. 1.2.2 7 There a r e s e v e r a l p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t a r e m a n d a t e d t o serve t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sector. Some of t h e most i m p o r t a n t are: ( 1 ) t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e s e r v i n g a g r i c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l ; (2) t h e P h i l i p p i n e S u g a r I n s t i t u t e and P h i l i p p i n e S u g a r Commission s e r v i n g t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y ; ( 3 ) t h e P h i l i p p i n e Coconut A u t h o r i t y s e r v i n g t h e c o c o n u t i n d u s t r y ; (4) t h e N a t i o n a l Food A u t h o r i t y f o r p u r c h a s i n g r i c e , c o r n a n d o t h e r food c r o p s i n o r d e r t o s u p p o r t a f l o o r p r i c e ; ( 5 ) t h e M i n i s t r y of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s s e r v i n g t h e f o r e s t r y sector; a n d (6) t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r a r i a n Reform w h i c h o v e r s e e s a n d promotes t h e t r a n s f e r of l a n d owners h i p t o t e n a n t farmers. Based on q u a n t i t y a l o n e , i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t l o o k s a d e q u a t e . There a r e r o u g h l y two k i l o m e t e r s o f road f o r e v e r y s q u a r e kilometer of c u l t i v a t e d l a n d , a storage c a p a c i t y t h a t c a n accommodate 12 percent of t h e g r a i n h a r v e s t , a r u r a l b a n k i n g n e t w o r k t h a t i s p r e s e n t i n almost a l l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , a n d market o u t l e t s f o r e v e r y f a i r - s i z e d community. The s e r v i c e s o p e r a t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , h o w e v e r , may n o t come r e g u l a r l y b u t r a t h e r t e n d t o come i n i n t e r m i t t e n t c y c l e s , d e p e n d i n g upon a v a i l a b i l i t y of f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t . Pricing S i n c e t h e e a r l y 70s. t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e t r a d e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a s well a s i n p u t s s u c h a s f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s h a s i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y . NFA b u y s from t h e farmers u p t o 10 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l food g r a i n s ( m a i n l y rice and c o r n ) produced i n order t o m a i n t a i n a f l o o r price p r e s c r i b e d by t h e government. When t h e p r i c e s a r e t o o h i g h . NFA r e l e a s e s from i t s s t o c k s enough o f t h e c o m m o d i t y t o d e f e n d a p r e s c r i b e d c e i l i n g price. When l o c a l s t o c k s a r e s h o r t , NFA i s a u t h o r i z e d t o import. 1.2.3 I n e x p o r t c r o p s , t h e s u g a r t r a d e was l e g i s l a t e d t o be monopo l i z e d by a g o v e r n m e n t - o p e r a t e d t r a d i n g c o r p o r a t i o n , w h i l e coconut p r o d u c t s have b e e n t a x e d h e a v i l y a t a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f border prices. I n t h e e a r l y 7Osa t h e g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d i z e d t h e p r i c e o f f e r t i l i z e r i n o r d e r t o e n c o u r a g e i t s u s e . A s shown i n T a b l e 1.4, t h e p r i c e o f n i t r o g e n r e l a t i v e t o r i c e was k e p t f a i r l y l o w u p t o S i n c e t h e n , t h e s u b s i d y h a s b e e n g r a d u a l l y r e d u c e d , so t h a t t h e d o m e s t i c p r i c e i s now s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e border p r i c e . 1973/74. I Government i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e p r i c i n g of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s h a s f a v o r e d t h e c o n s u m e r s more t h a n t h e p r o d u c e r s . I n r i c e , f o r example, many o f t h e b e n e f i t s f r o m i m p r o v e d p r o d u c t i v i t y h a v e g o n e t o t h e c o n s u m e r s . T h i s i s shown by t h e d e c l i n i n g r e a l p r i c e o f r i c e s i n c e 1972, t h e 1982 p r i c e o f w h i c h was o n l y 53 p e r c e n t of t h a t i n 1973 ( T a b l e 1.4). I n s p i t e of t h i s d e c l i n e i n r e a l p r i c e , however, h a r v e s t a r e a f o r r i c e cont i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e u p t o 1982. One r e a s o n c o u l d be t h a t i n c r e a s i n g r i c e y i e l d s was more t h a n e n o u g h t o o f f s e t t h e i l l e f f e c t s of d e c l i n i n g r i c e p r i c e s . A n o t h e r r e a s o n c o u l d be t h e i n c r e a s e i n a r e a s under i r r i g a t i o n which enables two crops o f r i c e t o b e h a r v e s t e d i n o n e y e a r . The f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s i n 1982, however, r e s u l t e d i n m a j o r changes i n t h e p r i c e s o f f a r m i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s . F e r t i l i z e r became more e x p e n s i v e , i n v e s t m e n t i n i r r i g a t i o n d e c l i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , and t h e h a r v e s t a r e a f o r r i c e d e c l i n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a severe d r o u g h t h i t t h e c o u n t r y i n 1983 and a v e r a g e y i e l d p e r hectare a l s o decreased. Although y i e l d s r e c o v e r e d s o m e w h a t i n 1984, i t i s expected t h a t t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be l e s s t h a n c o n s u m p t i o n and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s w i l l a g a i n b e a n e t r i c e i m p o r t e r ( A l i x , 1984). F o r a g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o r e s t r y i n g e n e r a l , D a v i d (1983) h a s shown t h a t : ( 1 ) w h i l e p r o t e c t i o n r a t e s were f a v o r a b l e i n t h e 6 0 s , t h e reverse i s t r u e i n t h e 80s; ( 2 ) except f o r p o r k a n d c h i c k e n , a l m o s t all a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a r e n e t c o n t r i b u t o r s t o r a t h e r t h a n r e c i p i e n t s of g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d y ; a n d ( 3 ) c o n s i d e r i n g 9 that agriculture employs t h e largest number of low-income families, it s e e m s illogical that t h i s sector should be a net contributor t o government subsidies. Table 1.4 Comparative Prices of Rice and Nitrogen Year Real Price o f Palay (P/kg) 2.72 3.61 3.64 4.14 3.49 3.38 3.28 3.17 2.94 2.50 Real Price of Nitrogen (P/kg) 9.38 7.62 7.70 Nitrogen:Palay Price Ratio 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 19841 3.44 2.1 1 2.11 1.95 3.11 4.32 3.64 3.28 3.28 3.66 3.72 3.81 3.88 4.10 --I_.-----. 8.06 10.56 14.60 11.93 10.38 9.66 9.16 8.45 8.70 8.46 8.38 2.27 2.28 2.18 2.04 _ I I . . - ----------- --- Source: Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Economics. * Author's estimate as of October, 1984. 10 P a s t and p r e s e n t performance The a g r i c u l t u r a l sector h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y grown t h r o u g h t h e R e l a t i v e t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l and s e r v i c e y e a r s ( T a b l e 1.5). s e c t o r s , i t s g r o w t h i s lower b u t more c o n s t a n t . 1.2.4 Among t h e v a r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities, r i c e is t h e s t a r p e r f o r m e r . S i n c e 1972, t h e y e a r of extreme r i c e s h o r t a g e b o t h l o c a l l y and worldwide, rice p r o d u c t i o n has been growing a t a b o u t 4 . 5 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r , e x c e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h by a b o u t 1.5 percentage points. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s reached s e l f s u f f i c i e n c y i n 1 9 7 8 a n d e x p o r t e d t h e c o m m o d i t y from 1 9 7 9 t o 1982. A t p r e s e n t , t h e adverse p r i c e s t r u c t u r e (i.e., low p r i c e of g r a i n s t o g e t h e r w i t h h i g h p r i c e of i n p u t s ) h a s r e s u l t e d i n a r e d u c t i o n of a c t u a l h a r v e s t a r e a of t h e crop. Thus, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s a g a i n become a r i c e - d e f i c i t c o u n t r y i n 1 9 8 3 a n d 1984. White c o r n i s t h e s t a p l e of a b o u t 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e F i l i p i n o s , w h i l e y e l l o w c o r n i s t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e of e n e r g y i n a n i m a l feeds. The y e l l o w c o r n r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e c o u n t r y h a s a l w a y s exceeded p r o d u c t i o n b u t , u n l i k e r i c e , c o r n h a s n o t had a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d per u n i t area. Much of i t s g a i n i n t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n has been d u e t o a n expansion i n area u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n . Recent d e v e l o p m e n t s i n research, however, h a v e p r o d u c e d v e r y p r o m i s i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s i n terms o f h i g h - y i e l d i n g h y b r i d s a n d e f f e c t i v e c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l of downy m i l d e w , a d e v a s t a t i n g d i s e a s e of c o r n . Thus, c o r n c o u l d v e r y w e l l be t h e c r o p t h a t c o u l d l i f t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h i s decade. The most s u i t a b l e c r o p l a n d i n t h e c o u n t r y i s a l r e a d y u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n . F u r t h e r a r e a e x p a n s i o n w o u l d mean t h e u s e of t h e u p l a n d s o r s l o p i n g a r e a s w h i c h a r e p r o n e t o e r o s i o n . I t would seem, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t f u t u r e i n c r e a s e s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y w i l l h a v e t o come from i n c r e a s i n g e f f i c i e n c y of l a n d use. The P h i l i p p i n e s is s t r o n g l y p u r s u i n g t h i s a v e n u e t h r o u g h t h e u s e of s h o r t e r - m a t u r i n g v a r i e t i e s . 11 Table 1.5 D i s t r i b u t i o n and Annual Growth Rates ( i n parentheses) o f Gross Domestic Product by S e c t o r ( i n percent) - -___ ____ 1970 _ - - - - ~ _ _ _ _ -~~~~ 28.9 28.9 28.6 27.9 27.3 26.6 26.8 26.5 26.1 25.9 (2.2) (4.9) (3.8) (6.1) (2.6) (3.7) (8.0) (8.0) (4.1) (5.3) 29.5 30.3 31.1 32.1 32.3 33.2 33.8 35.3 35.7 36.0 (6.6) (7.8) (7.5) (12.3) (5.3) (9.7) (9.6) (7.7) (7.0) (6.6) 41.6 40.8 40.3 39.9 40.4 40.2 39.4 38.2 38.2 38.1 (4.8) (2.9) (3.4) (7.6) (6.1) (6.0) (5.5) (5.5) (6.0) (5.4) 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Source: NEDA, P h i l i p p i n e National Income, s e r i e s 1967-72, 197 1-7 5 197 5-77 ; 1977-7 9 . 12 Policy i s s u e s The f a r m e r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e n o t o r g a n i z e d enough t o Consequently, c o n s t i t u t e a s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l l o b b y group. e x i s t i n g government p o l i c y h a s not been v e r y f a v o r a b l e t o t h e s e c t o r . Some of t h e p o l i c y i s s u e s t h a t could encourage g r o w t h i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r a r e a s follows: 1.2.5 (1) P r i c i n g of food crops. As mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h e c o n t r o l l e d p r i c e s of f o o d c r o p s , mainly r i c e and corn, have been designed t o reduce t h e c o s t t o consumers. T h i s seems u n f a i r t o t h e r i c e and corn farmers who, i n f a c t , c o n s t i t u t e one o f t h e p o o r e s t s e c t o r s of t h e economy. Should n o t t h e producer have t h e major s h a r e of t h e b e n e f i t s from i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n ? S h o u l d t h e r e be p r i c e c o n t r o l of food c r o p s ? Would i t b e b e t t e r i f t h i s p r i c i n g were l e f t t o t h e f r e e market? (2) Taxation of a g r i c u l t u r a l products. T a x a t i o n laws have r e c e n t l y moved a g a i n s t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . From a s t a t e of s u b s i d y , a g r i c u l t u r e i s now c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e s u b s i d y of o t h e r s e c t o r s . Is t h i s a l o g i c a l t r e n d cons i d e r i n g t h a t t h e p o o r e s t s e c t o r o f t h e economy works i n agriculture? (3) A l i e n a b l e land. P h i l i p p i n e l a w s c l e a r l y p r o h i b i t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r p r i v a t e ownership of land exceeding a given s l o p e . However, p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e has f o r c e d many of t h e l a n d l e s s t o i l l e g a l l y c u l t i v a t e t h e s l o p i n g a r e a s . S i n c e t h e s e f a r m e r s a r e i n p r o h i b i t e d a r e a s , government s e r v i c e s a r e n o t provided t o them. Consequently, t h e i r p r a c t i c e s a r e p r i m i t i v e and very d e s t r u c t i v e t o t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . Should n o t h i l l y land farming be l e g a l i z e d ? Can government p r o v i d e t h e necessary s e r v i c e s a n d technology t o make t h i s s e c t o r more p r o d u c t i v e and more c o n s e r v i n g of natural resources? 13 (4) Subsidy of agricultural inputs. For many countries, inputs are heavily subsidized t o encourage their use and consequently increase production per unit area of land. I n t h e Philippines such a subsidy has been declining, and has in fact been negative in t h e last few years, so that input prices are t h e highest in Asia. Is this a correct direction? Is not our land getting scarce and population rapidly increasing, so that t h e use of inputs should b e encouraged even more? 15 2 The N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research System 2.1 Definition The N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research S y s t e m ( N A R S ) c a n b e I broadly defined t o include a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s conducting agricult u r a l research i n a c o u n t r y . T h e r e a r e t h r e e d i s t i n c t g r o u p s of i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t c o n d u c t research i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : ( 1 ) p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h a r e o r g a n i c p a r t s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a r e s u p p o r t e d p r i m a r i l y by p u b l i c f u n d s ; ( 2 ) p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g f o u n d a t i o n s ) t h a t c o n d u c t research p r i m a r i l y t o a n s w e r t h e n e e d s of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s , a n d ( 3 ) i n t e r n a t i o n a l c e n t e r s whose c o n c e r n t r a n s c e n d s c o u n t r y b o u n d a r i e s a n d whose f u n d s come from i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o n o r s . In t h i s p a p e r we l i m i t t h e c o v e r a g e o f t h e N A R S t o i n c l u d e o n l y t h e public institutions. W e d o t h i s f o r two reasons: f i r s t , t h i s paper i s concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e I A R C s a n d t h e NARS, so i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o . r e s t r i c t t h e i d e n t i t y t o t h e s e two c o m p o n e n t s ; s e c o n d , t h e p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n o t l a r g e , a n d t h e i r f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s a n d research r e s u l t s a r e u s u a l l y n o t open t o p u b l i c s c r u t i n y . 2.2 Structure The N A R S o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s had s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e s i n s t r u c t u r e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of f u n d s s i n c e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o u n c i l f o r A g r i c u l t u r e a n d R e s o u r c e s Research a n d D e v e l o p m e n t (PCARRD) i n 1972. C o n s e q u e n t l y , we s h a l l f i r s t d e s c r i b e t h e N A R S i n t h e pre-PCARRD p e r i o d a n d t h e n o u t l i n e t h e major c h a n g e s i n i t i a t e d by PCARRD i n t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e NARS. The N A R S before 1972 The o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l research p r i o r t o 1972 was q u i t e loose, a n d research i n s t i t u t i o n s had p r o l i f e r a t e d i n t o i n d i v i d u a l c o m p a r t m e n t s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( L a n t i c a n , 1971). 2.2.1 16 There were t h r e e g r o u p s o f p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n d u c t i n g m o s t of a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h , namely: ( 1 ) t h e D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s ( D A N R ) ; (2) t h e N a t i o n a l Science Developm e n t Board (NSDB); a n d ( 3 ) a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e D A N R b e l o n g s t o t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h of t h e n a t i o n a l government and i s mandated t o c o n d u c t research i n a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r e s t r y . I t s p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h u n i t s a r e : t h e B u r e a u of P l a n t I n d u s t r y ( B P I ) f o r c r o p s , t h e B u r e a u o f A n i m a l Science ( B A I ) f o r l i v e s t o c k a n d s m a l l a n i m a l s , t h e B u r e a u of S o i l s , t h e B u r e a u o f A g r i c u l t u r a l E c o n o m i c s (BAEcon), t h e P h i l i p p i n e S u g a r I n s t i t u t e ( P S I ) , t h e P h i l i p p i n e T o b a c c o A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (PTA), t h e Abaca a n d o t h e r F i b e r s Board, and t h e P h i l i p p i n e Coconut A u t h o r i t y ( P C A ) . The NSDB i s a n a t i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i n g body f o r r e s e a r c h w h i c h a l s o o p e r a t e s i t s own r e s e a r c h u n i t s . These r e s e a r c h u n i t s are: ( 1 ) t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of Science a n d T e c h n o l o g y , u n d e r w h i c h a r e t h e Food a n d N u t r i t i o n Research C o u n c i l a n d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Research C e n t e r ; (2) t h e P h i l i p p i n e Atomic E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n , which h a s an a g r i c u l t u r a l section; ( 3 ) t h e P h i l i p p i n e Coconut Research I n s t i t u t e ; a n d (4) t h e F o r e s t P r o d u c t s I n d u s t r y Developm e n t Commission. I n terms o f r e s e a r c h c o o r d i n a t i o n , NSDB h a s b e e n i n e f f e c t i v e s i n c e i t h a s n o t been g i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e a c t i v i t i e s of o t h e r r e s e a r c h a g e n c i e s a n d h a s h a d a t e n d e n c y t o f a v o r i t s own r e s e a r c h u n i t s o v e r o t h e r a g e n c i e s when d i s t r i b u t i n g g r a n t s - i n - a i d money. The a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s were e s t a b l i s h e d a s i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r h i g h e r l e a r n i n g and t h e i r p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o o f f e r degree programs i n a g r i c u l t u r e a n d r e l a t e d f i e l d s . However, w i t h t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h i g h l y t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l and t h e need f o r research t o s u p p o r t t e a c h i n g , these i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a g r i c u l t u r a l research. A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e more t h a n f i f t y a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a t L o s Baffos (UPLB) is dominant. By t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ~more ~ t h a n 50 p e r c e n t of t h e 246 PhD d e g r e e - h o l d e r s ( T a b l e 2.4) were o n t h e s t a f f o f UPLB 17 a n d more t h a n 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e completed r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s came from t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n . 2.2.2 The NARS a f t e r 1972 Due t o t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f NSDB a s a r e s e a r c h c o o r d i n a t i n g body, PCARRD was c r e a t e d i n 1972 and v e s t e d w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y t o withhold f u n d s from any p u b l i c r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t d i d n o t h e e d i t s mandate. S i n c e i t s c r e a t i o n , PCARRD h a s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e N A R S i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ways: ( 1 ) reorgani z e d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e N A R S s u c h t h a t member i n s t i t u t i o n s have w e l l - d e f i n e d functions w i t h i n t h e following four categories: multi-commodity n a t i o n a l centers, s i n g l e commodity centers, r e g i o n a l centers and c o o p e r a t i n g f i e l d s t a t i o n s ( s e e A p p e n d i x A f o r more d e t a i l s ) ; ( 2 ) developed a l i s t i n g o f r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s backed by a system o f a l l o c a t i n g f u n d s t h a t g r e a t l y f a v o r s t h e h i g h p r i o r i t y areas; ( 3 ) increased t h e resources f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h from 41.1 m i l l i o n p e s o s i n 1971 t o 161.8 m i l l i o n p e s o s i n 1981; (4) f u n d e d t h e t r a i n i n g o f 130 r e s e a r c h e r s f o r a d v a n c e d degrees and 787 f o r non-degree c o u r s e s and i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g ; a n d ( 5 ) f u n d e d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s o f f o u r multi-commodity r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s (Valmayor and Valera, 1983). By t h e e a r l y 80s, o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d c o l l e g e s had g r e a t l y improved t h e i r r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t i e s , and t h e dominance of UPLB had somewhat d i m i n i s h e d . The i n s t i t u t i o n s most b e n e f i t e d have been t h e l e a d a g e n c i e s o f t h e t h r e e m u l t i commodity r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s ( T a b l e 2.11, namely: C e n t r a l Luzon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (CLSU), Visayas S t a t e College o f A g r i c u l t u r e (VISCA), and Southern Mindanao U n i v e r s i t y (SMU). 2.3 Resources f o r r e s e a r c h T h e r e a r e t h r e e major f u n d i n g s o u r c e s f o r r e s e a r c h i n t h e p u b l i c sector. These are: (1) t a x e s t o f u n d s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h 18 Table 2 . 1 R e s e a r c h Budget of Four A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t i e s That a r e t h e Lead I n s t i t u t i o n s o f N a t i o n a l Commodity C e n t e r s ( i n t h o u s a n d pesos) ---1977 1979 1982 1984 ~~ I _ - 8t541 9 t 924 14,161 17 t 843 404 1 t492 1,761 2 t 478 644 2,918 4 t 864 8,038 122 270 308 lt711 Source: G e n e r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Acts for 1977 and 1979 d a t a and PCARRD R e s e a r c h I n v e n t o r y f o r 1982 and 1984 d a t a . 19 a c t i v i t i e s , (2) b u d g e t a l l o c a t i o n s , a n d ( 3 ) l o a n s a n d g r a n t s from international sources. T a x e s on t r a d e of some a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities a r e u s e d f o r t h e research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s o f t h a t s p e c i f i c commodity. T a x e s on t h e e x p o r t o f . s u g a r , c o c o n u t , tobacco a n d f o r e s t p r o d u c t s a r e u s e d t o f u n d t h e r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e S u g a r I n s t i t u t e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e Coconut A u t h o r i t y , t h e P h i l i p p i n e Tobacco A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d t h e F o r e s t P r o d u c t I n d u s t r y D e v e l o p m e n t Commission, r e s p e c t i v e l y . A n o t h e r t a x t h a t p r o v i d e s a s u b s t a n t i a l s o u r c e o f research f u n d s is t h e s p e c i a l s c i e n c e f u n d w h i c h i s g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n of motor v e h i c l e s . T h i s f u n d i s a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e NSDB a n d d i s t r i b u t e d t o v a r i o u s research i n s t i t u t i o n s a s g r a n t s - i n - a i d . T h e b u l k of research f u n d s , h o w e v e r , a r e f r o m b u d g e t a r y a p p r o p r i a t i o n s . Much of t h e research f u n d i n g o f l i n e a g e n c i e s of g o v e r n m e n t s u c h a s t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d Food (MAF) a n d t h e M i n i s t r y of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s ( M N R ) comes f r o m t h i s s o u r c e . I n t h e l a s t 10 y e a r s l o a n s a n d g r a n t s from i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e become a s u b s t a n t i a l s o u r c e o f r e s e a r c h f u n d s . F o r e x a m p l e t h e f u n d s f o r s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e of t h e N A R S i n t h e l a t e 70s c a m e from t h e p r o c e e d s of a U. S . Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( U S A I D ) l o a n t o PCARRD. Other l o a n f u n d s u s e d f o r r e s e a r c h a r e d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n s e c t i o n 2.5. The a c t u a l amount o f r e s o u r c e s u s e d f o r research i s n o t e a s y t o q u a n t i f y . F i r s t , t h e r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g and e x t e n s i o n f u n c t i o n s i n many r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o each o t h e r s u c h t h a t r e s e a r c h e x p e n d i t u r e i s n o t e a s y t o s e p a rate. Second, proceeds of t a x e s f o r r e s e a r c h a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y l a b e l e d a s r e s e a r c h money even i f t h e y a r e s p e n t f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s . F i n a l l y , proceeds from f o r e i g n - a s s i s t e d p r o j e c t s i n c l u d i n g t h e government's c o u n t e r p a r t s a r e budgeted separately n o t e a s i l y s e p a r a b l e . Nevert h e l e s s , we h a v e s e c u r e d w h a t we f e e l a r e t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e s of r e s e a r c h e x p e n d i t u r e s from 1960 t o 1982 ( T a b l e 2.2). These d a t a so t h a t r e s e a r c h e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e indicate: A low p r i o r i t y i s g i v e n t o r e s e a r c h . Research appropria t i o n s have c o n s i s t e n t l y been l e s s t h a n h a l f a p e r c e n t o f GNP . T h e r e was a c o n t i n u i n g i n c r e a s e i n r e s e a r c h a p p r o p r i a t i o n s u p . t o 1981, w i t h a b u d g e t i n t h a t y e a r o f f o u r times t h a t i n 1971. . A p p r o p r i a t i o n of f u n d s t o c o m m o d i t i e s d o n o t match t h e i r r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r a l products (Table 2.3). I n g e n e r a l , c r o p s t h a t have lower h a r v e s t a r e a are a l l o c a t e d research f u n d s t h a t a r e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y h i g h e r . T h i s i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f a b u o y a n t a t t i t u d e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l research t h a t a t t a c h e s g r e a t o p t i m i s m t o new c r o p s a s p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sector. I n terms o f d i s t r i b u t i o n of f u n d s t o t h e v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s , there i s a t e n d e n c y t o a l l o c a t e more f u n d s t o s m a l l e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n t h e e a r l y 7 0 s r e s e a r c h f u n d s were c o n c e n t r a t e d a t Los Baflos i n t h e U.P. C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e a t M a n i l a where t h e main o f f i c e s o f t h e Ministries a r e . By 1984, h o w e v e r , w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f P C A R R D , research f u n d s were s p r e a d o u t more e v e n l y t o o u t l y i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . The m o s t n o t a b l e g a i n e r s a r e t h e n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s s u c h a s CLSU, V I S C A and U S M ( T a b l e 2.1). The r e s e a r c h f u n d s o f these i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e m u l t f p l i e d by 6, 12 a n d 15 times, r e s p e c t i v e l y , compared t o o n l y 2 times f o r UPLB. 2.4 Research s t a f f The P h i l i p p i n e s NARS h a s a f a i r l y s t r o n g r e s e a r c h s t a f f . 21 T a b l e 2.2 A n n u a l I n v e s t m e n t i n A g r i c u l t u r e a n d N a t u r a l Resources Research ( i n r e a l terms u s i n g 1972 a s b a s e y e a r ) Year GNP Research A p p r o p r i a t i o n ’ P e r c e n t of GNP ( i n m i l l i o n pesos) ( i n thousand pesos) 31,367 32 959 35 853 38 508 38,252 40,523 42,624 45,038 48,759 53,048 55,080 53,679 55,526 61,415 63 ,946 68,463 72,799 76,986 82 ,822 88,206 90,010 81,581 90,203 101,172 ~ ~~~ 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 17,447 19,843 20,663 25,426 22,723 24,941 27,402 27,108 31,482 44,253 49,666 94,481 50,277 65,697 57 421 43,980 53,072 55,420 57,531 60,837 82 950 61,802 50,785 47,608 ____ _ _ _ _ _ ~ 056 .060 -058 .066 .059 .062 .064 .060 065 .083 0090 .083 091 -107 .090 -064 073 .072 069 .069 092 .076 .056 .047 . . . ~~ _____ ~ ~ ~ _ _ Data from 1960-74 t a k e n from Librero (19831, f o r 1975-83 from G e n e r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Act. Research a l l o t m e n t i n c l u d e s o n l y d i r e c t e x p e n d i t u r e s of t h e Government a n d does n o t i n c l u d e g r a n t s o r l o a n s from i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u r c e s . 22 Table 2.3 Area Planted to t h e Various Commodities and Their Relative Research Appropriations Commodities 1982 Research Appropriation (in million PI Area Planted (in million ha) 23 I t s d i s t r i b u t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o h i g h e s t d e g r e e o b t a i n e d r a g e n c y of employment and f i e l d o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i s shown i n T a b l e 2.4. T h e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of research s t a f f i s i n t h e col- l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s i n terms o f a g e n c y o f e m p l o y m e n t , and i n c r o p science i n terms of f i e l d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . Furthermorer 28 percent o f 3,047 r e s e a r c h s t a f f h a v e d e g r e e s beyond t h e BS level. Most o f t h e s t a f f l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2.4 d o n o t work p u r e l y on r e s e a r c h . O n l y 49 percent o f t h e time o f u n i v e r s i t y s t a f f i s devoted t o research, while those i n t h e M i n i s t r y of Agriculture s p e n d 77 p e r c e n t of t h e i r time i n r e s e a r c h . I n f a c t , PhD d e g r e e holders a r e u s u a l l y given o t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , mainly administ r a t i o n * s o t h a t t h e y s p e n d l e s s time o n r e s e a r c h t h a n t h o s e w i t h MS o r BS degrees. Reviewing t h i s s i t u a t i o n , L e o n o r e t a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) e s t i m a t e d t h a t 1 1 9 m o r e MSs a n d 5 9 m o r e P h D s w i l l h a v e t o b e a d d e d t o t h e r e s e a r c h s t a f f b e t w e e n 1975 a n d 1980. I n a m o r e r e c e n t s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d by PCARRD, a n a d d i t i o n 436 MSs a n d 1 2 2 PhDs a r e n e e d e d t o c o m p l i m e n t e x i s t i n g p e r s o n n e l ( V a l m a y o r a n d Valera, 1 9 8 3 ) . S i n c e 1972, P C A R R D h a s f u n d e d t h e t r a i n i n g o f 570 MSs and 96 PhDs. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , n o t a b l y t h e UPLB, g r a d u a t e a b o u t 200 MSs and 50 PhDs e v e r y y e a r . It does seem t h a t t h e r e i s a n a d e q u a t e p o o l o f p e r s o n n e l n o w t a n d i n t h e coming y e a r s , t h a t can s u p p o r t t h e n e e d s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e NARS. 2.5 External influences The i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s t h a t exert s u b s t a n t i a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e P h i l i p p i n e N A R S can b e g r o u p e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , namely: ( 1 ) t h e l e n d i n g a g e n c i e s , ( 2 ) t h e f u n d - g r a n t i n g agencies and ( 3 ) t h e r e s e a r c h a g e n c i e s . 24 Table 2.4 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Research S t a f f by Academic Degree, Agency a n d F i e l d of S p e c i a l i z a t i o n Category --BSc 81 1 484 346 113 27 7 165 11 Academic Dearee MSc PhD Total C o l l e g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e M i n i s t r y of N a t u r a l Resources N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Development Board O t h e r Government Agencies I n t e r n a t i o n a l Agencies P r i v a t e Agencies Total 428 39 21 20 18 64 3 192 4 1 4 4 40 1 1,431 5 27 368 137 299 269 15 3,046 Field of S D e w Crop P r o d u c t i o n Forestry A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics Fisheries Rural Sociology Animal S c i e n c e A g r i c u l t u r a l Engineering S o i l Science P l a n t Pathology Entomology Biology Physical Science Food S c i e n c e Others Total Source: 728 365 21 9 245 106 117 174 142 65 160 53 58 37 102 82 32 18 16 17 28 15 15 11 64 56 70 26 29 2,406 644 279 61 27 17 12 38 28 9 18 21 15 11 9 5 8 Adapted from L i b r e r o ( 1 9 8 3 ) . ---- , 3 329' 949 445 294 294 246 2 27 215 178 102 96 95 94 46 48 *Some r e s e a r c h e r s ( 3 1 5 ) a r e e n t e r e d i n more t h a n one d i s c i p l i n e . 25 2.5.1 Lending a g e n c i e s The l e n d i n g a g e n c i e s a r e t h o s e who l e n d money f o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n c l u d i n g r e s e a r c h . The W o r l d Bank, t h e A s i a n D e v e l o p m e n t Bank (ADB) and U S A I D a r e t h r e e of t h e m a j o r l e n d i n g a g e n c i e s f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Some examples o f t h e i r l o a n s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s e a r c h c o m p o n e n t s are: T h e R a i n f e d A g r i c u l t u r e P r o j e c t f o r t h e p r o v i n c e of I l o i l o , f u n d e d by t h e World Bank, d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f r a i n f e d r i c e p a d d i e s , i n c l u d i n g a r e s e a r c h component f o r adapting technologies developed for I l o i l o t o seven other provinces. The A g r i c u l t u r a l S u p p o r t S e r v i c e s P r o g r a m , f u n d e d by t h e World Bank, d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e r v i c e s t o a g r i c u l t u r e , w i t h a r e s e a r c h component f o r t e c h n o l o g y v e r i f i c a t i o n i n a l l 72 p r o v i n c e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . The R a i n f e d Research a n d D e v e l o p m e n t Program, f u n d e d by U S A I D , d e s i g n e d t o d e v e l o p r a i n f e d a r e a s i n t h r e e of t h e t w e l v e r e g i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h a research c o m p o n e n t f o r d e v e l o p i n g new p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r r a i n f e d a n d upland areas. T h e S e c o n d Laguna Development P r o j e c t , f u n d e d by ADB, d e s i g n e d t o d e v e l o p two a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s i n C a v i t e , w i t h a r e s e a r c h component f o r d e v e l o p i n g p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r upland annual crops, p r i m a r i l y vegetables. Fund-granting a g e n c i e s The f u n d - g r a n t i n g a g e n c i e s a r e g o v e r n m e n t o r p r i v a t e l y f u n d e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s whose p r i m a r y m a n d a t e i s t o g r a n t f u n d s t o t h e N A R S s of d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n o r d e r t o a c c e l e r a t e r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . They i n f l u e n c e r e s e a r c h i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s by i n d i c a t i n g t h e t y p e s o f r e s e a r c h t h e y a r e w i l l i n g t o fund. W i t h 2.5.2 26 s u c h an e x c e l l e n t p r o s p e c t o f f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t , F i l i p i n o researchers a r e m o t i v a t e d t o d e v e l o p p r o j e c t p r o p o s a l s geared t o w a r d s t h e s p e c i f i e d a r e a s of p r i o r i t y . Some e x a m p l e s of t h e fund-granting agencies t h a t are presently a c t i v e i n t h e country a r e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t R e s e a r c h Center, t h e German Fund f o r D e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s A g e n c i e s . 2.5.3 Research i n s t i t u t i o n s Research i n s t i t u t i o n s f u n d e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o n o r a g e n c i e s a r e m a n d a t e d t o s o l v e t h e p r o d u c t i o n problems of major c r o p s i n t h e developing countries. The I A R C s d o m i n a t e t h i s g r o u p . NonI A R C i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s t h e A s i a n V e g e t a b l e Research C e n t e r a n d t h e T r o p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h Center a r e a l s o a c t i v e i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n f l u e n c e t h e NARS t h r o u g h t h e i r research r e s u l t s , some of w h i c h a d d r e s s l o c a l p r o b l e m s ( s e e s e c t i o n 3 f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of I A R C s o n NARS). E f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d problems As c o m p a r e d t o t h e N A R S o f more d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , where 2.6 p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s become a n i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t o r o f research a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , research e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s is m e a s u r e d p r i m a r i l y i n terms o f i m p a c t on farm p r o d u c t i v i t y . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e number o f . t e c h n i c a 1 p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d a r e few, w h i l e e x t e n s i o n - o r i e n t e d b u l l e t i n s a r e more common. I n crop s c i e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , where t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r e s e a r c h e r s i s h i g h e s t , there are o n l y three j o u r n a l s w i t h n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n s t h a t come o u t r e g u l a r l y , c o m p a r e d t o f o u r t y p e s o f e x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n s p u b l i s h e d by PCARRD a l o n e . S i m i l a r l y , research f i n d i n g s t h a t s o l v e t h e most i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n c o n s t r a i n t s a r e t h e most l i k e l y t o g e t p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n . T h u s , r e c e n t research a w a r d s h a v e b e e n d o m i n a t e d by ( 1 ) breeders who h a v e d e v e l o p e d c r o p v a r i e t i e s t h a t a r e w i d e l y a d o p t e d by farmers, (2) t h o s e who h a v e d e v e l o p e d p r a c t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a l w a y s o f c o n t r o l l i n g o r m i n i m i z i n g p e s t damage, a n d 27 ( 3 ) t h o s e who have shown s u c c e s s f u l p r o t o t y p e s of r u r a l development. A m a j o r p r o b l e m o f t h e N A R S i s how t o a c h i e v e a b a l a n c e between c o o r d i n a t i o n and bureaucracy on t h e one hand and independence and c r e a t i v i t y on t h e o t h e r . T h e P h i l i p p i n e e x p e r i e n c e shows t h a t some degree of c o o r d i n a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y f o r young and i n e x p e r i e n c e d members of t h e NARS. A few t r a i n e d and experienced c o o r d i n a t o r s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l can p r o v i d e good d i r e c t i o n t o many developing i n s t i t u t i o n s . As t h e N A R S matures, however, and t h e s t a f f becomes more experienced, t h e n e e d f o r c o o r d i n a t i o n becomes l e s s and t h e ill e f f e c t s o f bureaucracy become more pervasive. After a l l , good r e s e a r c h e r s a r e expected t o b e independents c r e a t i v e and o f t e n nonconformist. They a r e most d i f f i c u l t t o coordinate. The N A R S i s g e t t i n g s t r o n g e r and t h e number o f h i g h l y t r a i n e d and capable s t a f f i s i n c r e a s i n g . As a r e s u l t , c o o r d i n a t i o n and c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y more difficult. How PCARRD should r e a c t t o t h i s r e a l i t y is a problem. How PCARRD can c o n t i n u e t o minimize d u p l i c a t i o n and e f f e c t i v e l y d i r e c t r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s w i t h o u t becoming a major bureaucracy i s a challenge. 29 3 3.1 I m p a c t o f t h e I A R C on t h e NARS Introduction I m p a c t c o n n o t e s two e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t s : (1) an e f f e c t t h a t i s m e a s u r e d a s a change o r i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e r e c i p i e n t u n i t ( i n o u r c a s e t h e NARS) a n d ( 2 ) a c a u s e t h a t i s i d e n t i f i e d , t h r o u g h a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e e f f e c t , a s d u e t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e donor u n i t ( i n o u r c a s e an IARC). I n t h e present study, t h e d e s c r i p t i o n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t , i.e., t h e c h a n g e and p r o g r e s s i n t h e NARS, i s n o t m u c h o f a problem. I m p r o v e m e n t s i n f a c i l i t i e s , s t a f f , o u t p u t and o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e NARS is n o t d i f f i c u l t t o document. The p r o b a b l e causes o f t h e s e e f f e c t s , h o w e v e r , a r e u s u a l l y many. Government p o l i c y , e c o n o m i c e n v i r o n m e n t , n a t i o n a l v a l u e s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e some possible causes. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s n o t easy t o trace a c a u s e t o a s p e c i f i c e f f e c t , and much l e s s t o q u a n t i f y t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n To c o p e w i t h t h i s o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a u s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r effect. d i f f i c u l t y , we h a v e relaxed somewhat t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f p r o v i n g c a u s a t i o n from a c l e a r a s s o c i a t i o n t o t h a t of e s t a b l i s h i n g a p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n . T h a t i s , any i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e N A R S t h a t c a n be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , o r c o u l d have b e e n a f f e c t e d by, a n y a c t i v i t y o f a n I A R C i s i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d a s p a r t of t h e i m p a c t of t h a t IARC on t h e NARS. Obviously, t h i s d e f i n i t i o n can grossly overemphasize t h e importance o f t h e IARC r e l a t i v e t o e r e c o g n i z e t h i s p o t e n t i a l f o r b i a s and t r y t o o t h e r causes. W m i n i m i z e i t by i n c l u d i n g , whenever p o s s i b l e , o t h e r c a u s e s t h a t c o u l d h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p r o d u c i n g a n i d e n t i f i e d impact. T h e i m p a c t o f t h e I A R C s o n t h e N A R S can b e g r o u p e d i n t o t h r e e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s , namely: (1) i m p r o v e m e n t s i n b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s t h r o u g h t h e germplasm t h a t t h e I A R C d i s s e m i n a t e s , ( 2 ) s t a f f development p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e IARCs' t r a i n i n g programs, a n d ( 3 ) r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s of t h e I A R C s t h a t become t h e b a s i s of a p p l i e d research by t h e NARS. 30 3.2 Biological materials V a r i e t a l improvement i s a major a r e a o f r e s e a r c h f o r most IARCs. F o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m a n d a t e c r o p s t h e y m a i n t a i n comprehensive sets o f genotypes t h a t r e p r e s e n t land r a c e s from a l l o v e r t h e world. Through v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f r e c o m b i n i n g g e n o t y p e s , t h e I A R C s g e n e r a t e l a r g e numbers of breeding m a t e r i a l s , which they continuously e v a l u a t e f o r o u t s t a n d i n g performance. Any n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h s y s t e m c a n request any g e n o t y p e a v a i l a b l e from any IARC. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e I A R C s d i s t r i b u t e , t h r o u g h s e l e c t e d n a t i o n a l centers, s e l e c t e d g e n o t y p e s w h i c h a r e m o s t l i k e l y t o be u s e f u l t o e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l breeding programs. The I A R C s t h a t r e g u l a r l y send breeding m a t e r i a l s t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e shown i n T a b l e 3.1. F o r m o s t r e s e a r c h e r s and r e s e a r c h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n t e r v i e w e d , t h e c o l l e c t i o n r g e n e r a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l s ( g e r m p l a s m ) i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t and u s e f u l s e r v i c e t h a t t h e I A R C s p r o v i d e t h e NARS. T h i s o p i n i o n i s m o s t p r o n o u n c e d a t UPLB, w i t h i t s f a i r l y s t r o n g r e s e a r c h s t a f f and r e l a t i v e l y good a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s . A t s m a l l e r c e n t e r s (i.e., S o u t h e r n Mindanao U n i v e r s i t y , M a l i g a y a R e s e a r c h and T r a i n i n g Center, and C a m a r i n e s S u r A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e ) s t a f f t r a i n i n g i s p e r c e i v e d t o b e more i m p o r t a n t ( s e e s e c t i o n 3.3). More a v a i l a b i l i t y of g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l s d o e s n o t by i t s e l f i m p r o v e t h e NARS. I t has, howeverr t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r i n i t i a t i n g a c h a i n o f e v e n t s t h a t could s u b s t a n t i a l l y improve r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t y and r e s e a r c h o u t p u t . Improving r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t y Working c o o p e r a t i v e l y w i t h t h e I A R C s i n e v a l u a t i n g germp l a s m , t w o i m p o r t a n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e opened f o r t h e N A R S scientists. F i r s t , r e g u l a r I A R C s t a f f visits can expose t h e 3.2.1 Table 3.1 Approximate Number of Genotypes p e r Year That Are Sent by I A R C t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e NARS IRRI CIMMYT ICRISAT CIAT CIP Rice Corn Sorghum Pigeonpea Cassava Potato 1,0001 50 30 not r e g u l a r not regular 20 BPI UPLB/SMARC UPLB UPLB UPLB/VISCA MSAC/BPI/UPLB ' I n c l u d e s genotypes e v a l u a t e d d i r e c t l y by I R R I s t a f f b u t t e s t e d on NARS experiment s t a t i o n s . 32 l o c a l s t a f f t o new r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a n d o p e n u p o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t r a i n i n g o r a t t e n d a n c e a t c o n f e r e n c e s . These c o n t a c t s are s p e c i f i c a l l y u s e f u l t o s m a l l e r a n d more r e m o t e s t a t i o n s , where o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s t a f f improvement a r e l i m i t e d . S e c o n d , t h e s e t r i a l s a r e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e and a r e commonly u s e d by t h e l o c a l a g e n c y t o j u s t i f y r e q u e s t s f o r a d d i t i o n a l f u n d s a n d r e s e a r c h s t a f f . I n a l l f i v e research s t a t i o n s v i s i t e d where such i n t e r n a t i o n a l n u r s e r i e s are being tested, s p e c i a l f u n d s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l nurseries a n d a t l e a s t o n e research a s s i s t a n t considers t h i s a c t i v i t y a major responsibility. Three o f t h e f i v e s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l resources a r e n o t e n o u g h and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n h a s t o p u t u p i t s own c o u n t e r p a r t . None o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , h o w e v e r , a r e w i l l i n g t o g i v e u p t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l nurseries, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e benefits f a r outweight t h e disadvantages. Improving r e s e a r c h o u t p u t National research i n s t i t u t i o n s , especially t h e smaller ones i n r e m o t e a r e a s , have t h e t e n d e n c y t o o p e r a t e s m a l l b r e e d i n g p r o grams i n v o l v i n g l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e genotypes. The d i v e r s i t y o f these m a t e r i a l s i s u s u a l l y narrow and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o g r e s s i s small. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e l i t e germplasm f r o m t h e I A R C s r e s u l t s i n a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n genetic d i v e r s i t y and a d r a m a t i c improvement i n y i e l d p o t e n t i a l . Such c h a n g e s g r e a t l y b r o a d e n t h e researchers' o u t l o o k and i m p r o v e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f a c h i e v a b l e g o a l s . F o r e x a m p l e , c o r n a n d sorghum e l i t e l i n e s f r o m CIMMYT and I C R I S A T have h e l p e d i n c r e a s e t h e y i e l d e x p e c t a t i o n of breeders a t UPLB a n d SMU. I n c a s s a v a , y i e l d s exceeding 40 t o n s a r e s u d d e n l y perceived a s a c h i e v a b l e where 20 u s e d t o be c o n s i d e r e d excellent. S i m i l a r c h a n g e s h a v e happened w i t h sweet p o t a t o , w h i t e p o t a t o a n d even t h e g r a i n l e g u m e s . F o r r i c e , where b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s f i r s t s t a r t e d , t h e s e u p g r a d e d e x p e c t a t i o n s have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o b e t t e r farm y i e l d s ( s e e s e c t i o n 4 . 3 ) . 3.2.2 33 3.3 S t a f f development S t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t i s p e r c e i v e d by a l l research a d m i n i s t r a - t o r s a s a c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n . Due t o s t a f f t u r n o v e r r t r a i n i n g m u s t be i n s t i t u t e d j u s t t o m a i n t a i n p r e s e n t s t r e n g t h . F o r young r e s e a r c h e r s r a chance t o t r a i n e i t h e r l o c a l l y o r a b r o a d i s o n e of t h e m a j o r r e w a r d s of a j o b well done. T h u s , t r a i n i n g i s r a n k e d as either t h e most i m p o r t a n t , o r t h e second most i m p o r t a n t , s e r v i c e o f t h e I A R C s . I n f a c t more t h a n 80 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e i n t e r v i e w e d have e i t h e r t r a i n e d o r a t t e n d e d c o n f e r e n c e s i n a t l e a s t one IARC. There a r e s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s t h a t a r e d e s i r a b l e about t h e IARC t r a i n i n g . F i r s t , t r a i n i n g i s u s u a l l y g i v e n i n a r e a s where t h e I A R C s have t h e best p r a c t i c a l experience. Second, t h e s p o n s o r i n g center is f a m i l i a r w i t h r e s e a r c h work i n t h e r e c i p i e n t c o u n t r i e s and t r a i n i n g i s d e s i g n e d t o f i t l o c a l needs. T h i r d , t r a i n e e s are selected from people a l r e a d y working i n a r e a s r e l a t e d t o t h e t r a i n i n g program, so t h a t t h e i r newly a c q u i r e d knowledge i s r e a d i l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e i r c u r r e n t job. R e s e a r c h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s were e s p e c i a l l y a p p r e c i a t i v e o f t h e a b o v e f e a t u r e s and i n d i c a t e d t h a t IARC-trained s t a f f d i d n o t n e e d much r e a d j u s t m e n t on t h e i r return. T h e y were, i n f a c t , t r a i n e d t o go back t o t h e i r o l d j o b s . The same d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s , h o w e v e r , have c a u s e d d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c a s e s where t h e t r a i n e e s a r e n o t s e l e c t e d c a r e f u l l y . F o r e x a m p l e r when t r a i n e e s a r e t a k e n f r o m j o b s t h a t a r e n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e t o p i c o f t r a i n i n g , o r when r e t u r n i n g t r a i n e e s a r e a s s i g n e d t o new j o b s , t h e y f e e l l o s t and o u t o f p l a c e . The v e r y s p e c i f i c i t y o f t h e I A R C t r a i n i n g t h a t i s s o a d v a n t a g e o u s when o n e r e t u r n s t o t h e c o r r e c t j o b makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o a p p l y t o new s i t u a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , when t r a i n e e s a r e t a k e n f r o m jobs t h a t a r e n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e t o p i c o f t r a i n i n g , o r when r e t u r n i n g t r a i n e e s a r e a s s i g n e d t o new j o b s , t h e y f e e l l o s t 34 a n d o u t of place. C l e a r l y , it i s e s s e n t i a l t o select t h e t r a i n e e s a p p r o p r i a t e l y . Toward t h i s e n d , PCARRD s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e selection of t r a i n e e s s h o u l d p a s s t h r o u g h a n a t i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i n g body w h i c h can e n s u r e t h a t o n l y q u a l i f i e d persons who a r e now h o l d i n g r e l e v a n t p o s i t i o n s a r e s e n t f o r training. T r a i n i n g f o r a d v a n c e d degrees, most e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e PhD, i s n e e d e d from i n s t i t u t i o n s o u t s i d e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . It i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t o u r k e y r e s e a r c h e r s be t r a i n e d , n o t by a s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n b u t by s e v e r a l , p r e f e r a b l y w i t h d i v e r g e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s as w e l l . The g e n e r a l p r e f e r e n c e i s f o r a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e new PhDs t o come from non-IARC a n d n o n - P h i l i p p i n e i n s t i t u t i o n s . F o r BS, MS a n d o t h e r degrees t h e e x i s t i n g N A R S a n d I A R C s c o u l d s u p p l y most o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s . Shown i n T a b l e 3 . 2 a r e t h e t r a i n i n g n e e d s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a n d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t can p r o v i d e s u c h t r a i n i n g . O f t h e t o t a l o f 377 p e o p l e t o b e t r a i n e d , o n l y 28 p e r c e n t a r e expected t o be s a t i s f i e d by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c e n t e r s , C G I A R o r non-CGIAR. T h e m a j o r i t y ( 7 8 percent) w i l l b e t r a i n e d by l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y t h e c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s t h a t a r e members of t h e NARS. 3 . 4 Research r e s u l t s A s i d e from g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l s , r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e N A R S i n t h e f o r m of p u b l i s h e d o r u n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t s . Some o f t h e I A R C f i n d i n g s h a v e b e e n t h e b a s i s f o r a p p l i e d research t h a t i s d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e P h i l i p p i n e problems. Some r e s u l t s t h a t h a v e made s u b s t a n t i a l i m p a c t o n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e NARS are d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . 3.4.1 Breeding methods T h e s e a r e t e c h n i q u e s for h a n d l i n g b r e e d i n g m a t e r i a l s t h a t 35 a r e d e s i g n e d t o h a s t e n t h e r a t e of g e n e t i c i m p r o v e m e n t . e x a m p l e s are: (1) Some T e c h n i q u e s f o r r a p i d e v a l u a t i o n of ( a ) b r e e d i n g m a t e r i a l s ; ( b ) d i s e a s e r e s i s t a n c e i n sorghum d e s i g n e d a t ICRISAT; ( c ) l a b o r a t o r y c u l t u r e and m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of c o r n b o r e r d e s i g n e d by CIMMYT; a n d ( d ) h i g h l y s i n e i n c o r n d e s i g n e d by CIMMYT; (2) P o p u l a t i o n b r e e d i n g i n c o r n . P o p u l a t i o n i m p r o v e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s i n corn h a v e b e e n w i d e l y u s e d a n d t r i e d i n s e v e r a l u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s i n t h e U.S. They h a v e a l s o b e e n w i d e l y a p p l i e d t o maize a t CIMMYT a n d t o some e x t e n t t o sorghum a t I C R I S A T . B e c a u s e of t h e c l o s e c o n t a c t of t h e I A R C s t o b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s i n t h e P h i l i p pines, techniques used a t t h e I A R C s are a l s o used i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a n d t h e m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p e d by t h e I A R C s a r e o f t e n u s e d a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f m a t e r i a l s u s e d by t h e NARS. (3) Techniques for s i m p l i f y i n g c r o s s - p o l l i n a t i o n i n rice. After e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h many t e c h n i q u e s f o r s i m p l i f y i n g e m a s c u l a t i o n i n r i c e , I R R I and F i l i p i n o r i c e b r e e d e r s are p r i m a r i l y u s i n g t h e s p i k e l e t - c l i p p i n g technique. With t h i s t e c h n i q u e a p e r s o n c a n e a s i l y make 50 crosses i n one d a y . A l t h o u g h I R R I i s n o t t h e o r i g i n a t o r of t h i s t e c h n i q u e , i t h a s p e r f e c t e d i t a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d i t t o s o many l o c a l b r e e d e r s t h a t it i s c u r r e n t l y t h e s t a n d a r d e m a s c u l a t i o n method u s e d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Farm t r i a l s The use of a c t u a l f a r m s i n s t e a d of r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g e x p e r i m e n t s i s n o t new. T h e c e n t e r s , m o s t n o t a b l y I R R I , C I M M Y T a n d CIP, h o w e v e r , h a v e a d d e d a new d i m e n s i o n t o these t r i a l s p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e farmer. T h e s e trials are P r i m a r i l y d e s i g n e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of new 3.4.2 -- 36 Table 3 . 2 T r a i n i n g N e e d s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e NARS and the I n s t i t u t i o n s That C o u l d Provide t h e Training t A r e a of T r a i n i n g Number to be T r a i n e d IARC tutNon-IARC Crops 110 I R R I r CIMMYT IITA, ICRISAT C I P , ICARDA, CIAT ILCA, CIAT, ICARDA, ILRAD AVRDC I N T S O Y B I O T R O P , SEARCA A I T , PHRTC L i v e s t o c k and P o u l t r y 39 AIT Farming Systems/Soil 21 ICARDA, I R R I ICRISAT, I I T A , ILCA Fisheries 49 ICARDA, ILOA SEAFDEC, I C A BIOTROP BIOTROP AVRDC, S E A R C A , AIT SEARCA, SEAFDEC Forestry Socioeconomic 60 51 IRRI General 47 PCARRD ( 1 9 8 3 ) . IRRI Source: 37 t e c h n o l o g i e s i n a c t u a l farm environments. The P h i l i p p i n e s h a s , s i n c e 1982, e s t a b l i s h e d a n e t w o r k o f on-farm t r i a l s d e s i g n e d t o t e s t i n farmers' f i e l d s t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f n e w l y d e v e l o p e d t e c h n o l o g i e s b e f o r e t h e y a r e given w i d e s p r e a d d i s s e m i n a t i o n . 3.4.3 Other i n f o r m a t i o n Much o f t h e b a s i c r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d by t h e I A R C s h a s served a s a b a s i s f o r a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d by t h e NARS. Some e x a m p l e s a r e t h e b e h a v i o r o f s u b m e r g e d paddy s o i l s , t h e i n h e r i t a n c e of r e s i s t a n c e t o p e s t s and d i s e a s e s , n i t r o g e n l o s s e s , and b i o l o g i c a l s o u r c e s o f n i t r o g e n and p h o s p h o r u s . 3.5 3.5.1 Important issues E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e I A R C model I f t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e N A R S i s t a k e n a s t h e measure o f t h e I A R C s ' success, how c o s t - e f f e c t i v e i s t h e I A R C m o d e l ? Could t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f money u s e d by t h e I A R C s have p r o d u c e d more e f f e c t i f i t had been c h a n n e l e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e NARS o r t h r o u g h o t h e r t y p e s of i n t e r m e d i a r y d o n o r a g e n c i e s ? Many r e s e a r c h e r s a n d r e s e a r c h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s expressed t h e o p i n i o n t h a t w h i l e t h e I A R C s h a v e made s u b s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s i n s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e i r m a n d a t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a s , t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e NARS is f a r t o o s m a l l r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e s o u r c e s u s e d . Some o f t h e b a s e s f o r t h i s judgment are: Improving t h e NARS i s n o t t h e primary mandate o f t h e I A R C s , b u t i s only i n c i d e n t a l t o s o l v i n g food production b o t t l e n e c k s . Some r e s e a r c h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f e e l t h a t t h e b e n e f i t s t h e y g e t from t h e I A R C s come more a s a b y - p r o d u c t t h a n by design. T h e I A R C model i s n o t e f f i c i e n t i n s o l v i n g l o c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c problems. I A R C r e s e a r c h i s designed t o a d d r e s s problems commonly f a c e d by a l a r g e a r e a o r a l a r g e number o f countries. The N A R S , however, d e a l s w i t h more l o c a t i o n - 38 In t h e e a r l y y e a r s of an I A R C , when i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t i s j u s t i f i e d by a w e l l - d e f i n e d p r o b l e m , i t s s p e c i f i c problems. m a n d a t e a n d t h e l o c a l problems b e i n g a d d r e s s e d b y t h e N A R S a r e u s u a l l y s i m i l a r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , much b e n e f i t i s t h e n d e r i v e d by t h e N A R S from t h e I A R C a c t i v i t i e s . (3) A s t h e i n i t i a l problem g e t s s o l v e d , h o w e v e r , s e c o n d a r y problems t a k e i t s p l a c e . T h e s e s e c o n d a r y problems a r e u s u a l l y many a n d v a r y o v e r g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , d i f f e r e n t NARS h a v e d i f f e r e n t problems, and t h e I A R C f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o a d d r e s s many problems s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e I A R C i s n o t an e f f i c i e n t m o d e l a n d t h e b e n e f i t s d e r i v e d from i t by t h e N A R S a r e n o t s u b s t a n t i a l . Many research a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d some r e s e a r c h e r s a l l u d e t o t h e fact t h a t I R R I , after developing the short s t i f f - s t r a w e d r i c e v a r i e t i e s , may h a v e reached t h e s e c o n d a r y problem stage. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I R R I ' s i m p a c t on t h e N A R S i n t h e c o m i n g y e a r s c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o b e a s substantial. Mechanics of c h a n n e l i n g s e r v i c e t o t h e NARS I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s of t h e N A R S a r e coo r d i n a t e d , m o n i t o r e d a n d recorded by PCARRD. PCARRD s t r o n g l y a d v i s e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l research i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e I A R C s , t o u s e e x i s t i n g m e c h a n i s m s ( i n t h i s case P C A R R D ' s c o o r d i n a t i n g mandate) i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b e s t place f o r i t s f u n d s and services. PCARRD o b s e r v e s t h a t s e v e r a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l d o n o r s go d i r e c t l y t o t h e member i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e N A R S o r e v e n t o i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h o u t i n f o r m i n g PCARRD. S u c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e a l l e g e d t o h a v e c a u s e d d u p l i c a t i o n of e f f o r t a n d a t t i m e s some c o n f u s i o n i n t h e NARS. 3.5.2 I On t h e o t h e r h a n d , some r e s e a r c h e r s a n d r e s e a r c h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n t h e NARS consider direct n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e I A R C s a s beneficial. They f e e l t h a t s u c h d i r e c t c o n t a c t a v o i d s d e l a y a n d 39 bureaucracy t h a t can s t i f l e i n i t i a t i v e i n i n s t i t u t i o n s and individuals. D e s p i t e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s in opinion, i t seems l o g i c a l t h a t any I A R C working i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s should c o n s u l t w i t h PCARRD. Such c o n s u l t a t i o n could p r e v e n t d u p l i c a t i o n of e f f o r t o r avoid t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t r u n a g a i n s t t h e current a t t i t u d e s and p o l i c i e s of t h e NARS. Complementarity a n d c o r n p e t i t i t i o n of r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s W i t h t h e s i m i l a r i t y of o b j e c t i v e s between N A R S and IARCs, it i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l d e g r e e of o v e r l a p i n r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y should occur. How can t h i s o v e r l a p be managed t o minimize f r i c t i o n and maximize c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y ? S e v e r a l mechan i s m s h a v e been t r i e d a t LosBafSos, t h e c a m p u s w h e r e b o t h I R R I and t h e UPLB a r e l o c a t e d . Some of these a r e : 3.5.3 (1) I Phase o u t by t h e N A R S of r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s t h a t c l e a r l y d u p l i c a t e t h o s e of t h e I A R C s . With IRRI's s t r o n g lowland r i c e v a r i e t a l improvement program, UPLB f e l t t h a t it was n o t n e c e s s a r y t o d u p l i c a t e t h e r e s e a r c h b e i n g done r i g h t i n t h e same experiment s t a t i o n . I t was deemed more advantageous t o a l l o c a t e r e s o u r c e s t o o t h e r r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s . There were s t r o n g o b j e c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h i s d e c i s i o n then and even s t r o n g e r o b j e c t i o n s now. The o b j e c t o r s argue t h a t by weakening t h e n a t i o n a l program on r i c e b r e e d i n g , t h e c o u n t r y has become t o o dependent on I R R I , an i n s t i t u t i o n whose a c t i o n s a r e n o t w i t h i n t h e N A R S control. A l l o c a t i o n of r e s e a r c h r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A t about t h e time t h e UPLB phased o u t i t s lowland r i c e b r e e d i n g programs, it was a l s o decided t o f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f y r e s e a r c h on upland r i c e . UPLB and I R R I a c t u a l l y agreed t o d i v i d e t h e r i c e r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y i n t o l o w l a n d r i c e and upland r i c e w i t h each i n s t i t u t i o n t a k i n g one a s i t s main focus. T h i s (2) 40 a r r a n g e m e n t h a s i n f a c t h e l d r a t h e r well u n t i l r e c e n t l y when I R R I d e c i d e d t o p u t s u b s t a n t i a l l y more e m p h a s i s o n u p l a n d rice a s well. (3) P e r i o d i c c o n s u l t a t i o n . I R R I a n d t h e MAF have r e c e n t l y implemented a semi-annual t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r workshop w h e r e I R R I p r e s e n t s i t s most p r o m i s i n g r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t o t h e MAF. I n r e t u r n , MAF i n f o r m s I R R I of u r g e n t f i e l d problems t h a t c o u l d be a d d r e s s e d by I R R I research. T h e s e c o n s u l t a t i o n s h a v e g r e a t l y improved t h e t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y f r o m I R R I t o t h e NARS a n d a t t h e same time minimized t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r miscommunication between t h e two p a r t i e s . \ O f t h e t h r e e a r r a n g m e n t s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , t h e t h i r d seems t o be most s a t i s f a c t o r y , w h i l e s e r i o u s d o u b t s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d a b o u t t h e f i r s t two. The m a i n a p p r e h e n s i o n a b o u t t h e f i r s t t w o a r r a n g e m e n t s i s t h a t t h e y d o n o t e n h a n c e t h e s t r e n g t h o f ( a n d may even weaken) t h e N A R S i n researchareaswheretheIARCis competent. Furthermore, it reduces t h e p o t e n t i a l for cooperation a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y b e t w e e n N A R S a n d t h e I A R C , t h e mechanism t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e I A R C d e l i v e r s some of i t s s e r v i c e s t o t h e NARS. Personal relationships I d e a l l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e NARS and t h e I A R C ' s research s t a f f s h o u l d be c o r d i a l a n d c o n d u c i v e t o c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . For t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , such a r e l a t i o n s h i p has been e l u s i v e . There a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h i s . First, the IARC s t a f f h a v e much h i g h e r s a l a r i e s t h a n t h e N A R S s t a f f , a s i t u a t i o n t h a t h a s e n c o u r a g e d f e e l i n g s of j e a l o u s y a n d sometimes i n f e r i o r i t y o n t h e p a r t of t h e N A R S p e r s o n n e l , a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e n d e n c y t o f e e l s u p e r i o r a n d p a t r o n i z i n g on t h e p a r t of t h e I A R C s t a f f . S e c o n d , r e s e a r c h e r s a r e by n a t u r e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a n d s e c r e t i v e , a n d v o l u n t a r y c o n s u l t a t i o n d o e s n o t come e a s i l y . F o r I R R I a n d t h e NARS, t i m e h a s been a g r e a t m e d i a t o r and t h e r e a r e an i n c r e a s i n g number of c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . C l e a r l y , t h e 3.5.4 41 c h a l l e n g e i s how t o f o s t e r s u c h c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s i n a much s h o r t e r period. Essentiality of the IARCs To t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e I A R C s ' u s e f u l n e s s , F i l i p i n o s c i e n t i s t s h a v e no h e s i t a t i o n i n g i v i n g a n a f f i r m a t i v e a n s w e r . To t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s c a n o n l y come f r o m t h e I A R C s , t h e a n s w e r i s c l e a r l y i n t h e n e g a t i v e . Pressed even f u r t h e r a s t o w h e t h e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e N A R S would h a v e been j u s t a s f a s t w i t h o u t t h e I A R C s , t h e r e was n o c a t e g o r i c a l answer. My g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t i s t h a t t h e I A R C s have f a c i l i t a t e d a n d even h a s t e n e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e N A R S , a l t h o u g h t h e s a m e d e v e l o p m e n t would h a v e come anyway e v e n i f d e l a y e d somewhat. 3.5.5 43 4 4.1 Research Impact on A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c t i o n Important innovations An i n n o v a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t i f it h a s b e e n a d o p t e d b y a l a r g e n u m b e r o f f a r m e r s a n d h a s s t h e r e f o r e , made a s i g n i f i cant c o n t r i b u t i o n t o productivity. W e c l a s s i f y these i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o three groups: (1) i m p r o v e d g e n o t y p e s , (2) i m p r o v e d managem e n t , and ( 3 ) i n c r e a s e d l a n d - u s e i n t e n s i t y . 4.1.1 Improved g e n o t y p e s The use o f i m p r o v e d v a r i e t i e s h a s been a n d c o n t i n u e s t o b e o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n n o v a t i o n s f o r i n c r e a s i n g farm y i e l d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Rice i s t h e l e a d e r i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . The t r a d i t i o n a l v a r i e t i e s were t a l l a n d e a s i l y l o d g e d , o r f e l l f l a t on t h e wet g r o u n d s o o n a f t e r f l o w e r i n g , b e c a u s e t h e l o n g stems w e r e ' t o o weak t o s u p p o r t t h e r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g g r a i n . Thus, l o d g i n g e f f e c t i v e l y l i m i t e d t h e y i e l d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a r i e t i e s , s i n c e i t becomes more severe a s more g r a i n i s formed. The n e w l y d e v e l o p e d v a r i e t i e s c o r r e c t e d t h i s defect. With s h o r t and s t i f f straws, t h e y i e l d c e i l i n g due t o l o d g i n g i s e f f e c t i v e l y removed and h i g h e r l e v e l s o f management, s u c h a s f e r t i l i z a t i o n a n d p e s t c o n t r o l , can b e a p p l i e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e yield substantially. A l t h o u g h I R 8, t h e f i r s t s h o r t and s t i f f - s t r a w e d v a r i e t y r e l e a s e d by I R R I , i s n o t w i d e l y grown i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i t s p l a n t t y p e h a s been t h e trademark o f a l l modern v a r i e t i e s . A l i s t o f t h e p r e s e n t l y recommended v a r i e t i e s i s shown i n Appendix B. The o r i g i n of t h e s e v a r i e t i e s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r p e d i g r e e ( n a m e s ) w i t h I R , UP a n d B P I i n d i c a t i n g I R R I , UPLB a n d BPI, respectively. V a r i e t a l i m p r o v e m e n t s i n c o r n h a v e n o t been a s s u c c e s s f u l a s i n rice. V a r i e t i e s a n d h y b r i d s p r o d u c e d by UPLB i n t h e 1960s a n d 44 Farmer feedback i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e v a r i e t i e s a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o p e s t a t t a c k , most n o t a b l y downy m i l d e w and corn b o r e r ; have i n f e r i o r m i l l i n g recovery ( c o r n f o r food i s m i l l e d b e f o r e cooking); and have l o n g e r m a t u r i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a r i e t i e s . L a t e l y , however, s e v e r a l p r i v a t e m u l t i n a t i o n a l seed companies have i n t r o d u c e d new h y b r i d s t h a t produce s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r y i e l d s than t h e e x i s t i n g v a r i e t i e s . Farmers' adoption, a l t h o u g h s t i l l s m a l l , h a s been i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d l y . Mungbean, t h e most i m p o r t a n t g r a i n legume i n t h e c o u n t r y , h a s a l s o b e n e f i t e d from improved v a r i e t i e s . Pagasa 1 and Pagasa 2 a r e UPLB-bred v a r i e t i e s t h a t have gained a c c e p t a n c e i n farmers' f i e l d s . Improved management I n c r e a s e d f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n and improved p e s t management a r e companion t e c h n o l o g i e s t o t h e n e w v a r i e t i e s which a r e more r e s p o n s i v e t o b e t t e r management. The M i n i s t r y o f Agric u l t u r e h a s v i g o r o u s l y promoted f e r t i l i z e r u s e by s u b s i d i z i n g i t s c o s t and p r o v i d i n g f a r m e r s , t h r o u g h l i b e r a l c r e d i t , w i t h t h e r e s o u r c e s t o pay for t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n p u t s . I n r i c e , t h e a d o p t i o n o f improved management f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y t h a t of t h e a d o p t i o n of improved varieties. I n c o r n r t h e g a i n s a r e more modest. Adoption of new v a r i e t i e s which respond b e t t e r t o a d d i t i o n a l f e r t i l i z e r i s slow, and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n f e r t i l i z e r u s e i s not a s d r a m a t i c a s i n r i c e . 4.1.2 A s i m i l a r t r e n d h a s been shown f o r c h e m i c a l p e s t c o n t r o l . As t h e c r o p becomes p r o d u c t i v e , 1970s have had only s p o r a d i c adoption. f a r m e r s a r e more prone t o p r o t e c t i t from damage. However, w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o s t of c h e m i c a l s , and t h e development of more p e s t - t o l e r a n t v a r i e t i e s , f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e use of c h e m i c a l p e s t c o n t r o l i s n o t expected. I n f a c t , r e c e n t f i n d i n g s show t h a t pre-scheduled a p p l i c a t i o n s of c h e m i c a l s p r a y b o t h f o r r i c e and corn i s n o t p r o f i t a b l e anymore 45 a n d farmers a r e now a d v i s e d t o s p r a y o n l y when p e s t i n f e s t a t i o n i s p r e v a l e n t e n o u g h t o c a u s e s u b s t a n t i a l c r o p damage. I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of l a n d u s e Since t h e most s u i t a b l e l a n d i n t h e c o u n t r y i s a l r e a d y u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , government programs have recently emphasized t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of l a n d u s e . P r i m a r y e m p h a s i s i s g i v e n to: (a) t h e p l a n t i n g of a n a d d i t i o n a l c r o p i n t h e r i c e paddy, ( b ) i n t e r c r o p p i n g i n c o r n , and ( c ) i n t e r c r o p p i n g i n coconut. A d d i i 4.1.3 There a r e s e v e r a l new i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t a l l o w f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l crop: (1) (2) (3) d e v e l o p m e n t of s h o r t - m a t u r i n g r i c e v a r i e t i e s t h a t c a n be h a r v e s t e d i n l e s s t h a n 90 d a y s a f t e r t r a n s p l a n t i n g ; d i r e c t s e e d i n g , w h i c h a l l o w s t h e p l a n t i n g of r i c e s o o n a f t e r t h e f i r s t monsoon r a i n i n s t e a d of t h e u s u a l method of t r a n s p l a n t i n g i n p u d d l e d s o i l s t h a t r e q u i r e 30 t o 60 d a y s o f r a i n ; and d e v e l o p m e n t of v a r i e t i e s of a n n u a l c r o p s t h a t grow w e l l i n t h e r i c e paddy, t h u s a l l o w i n g these c r o p s t o be p l a n t e d a f t e r r i c e , even d u r i n g t h e d r y months o f t h e year. W i t h t h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s many r a i n f e d r i c e a r e a s a r e now g r o w i n g two c r o p s per y e a r ( T a b l e 4.1). The m o s t common c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n s a r e r i c e f o l l o w e d by a n o t h e r r i c e a n d r i c e f o l l o w e d by mungbean. I n f a c t , a World Bank-funded program i n I l o i l o h a s r e l i e d h e a v i l y on t h i s t e c h n o l o g y f o r i m p r o v i n g farm y i e l d s i n t h e r a i n f e d r i c e a r e a s of t h e p r o v i n c e . * Mungbean, p e a n u t a n d s o y b e a n have been shown b o t h a t I R R I a n d a t t h e NARS t o i n t e r c r o p w e l l w i t h corn. T h e s e i n t e r c r o p p i n g p r a c t i c e s h a v e been o b s e r v e d e v e n i n t h e e a r l y 60s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e n o r t h e r n P h i l i p p i n e s . With i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n , 46 h o w e v e r , t h e r e h a s been a n i n c r e a s e d r a t e o f a d o p t i o n o f t h i s p r a c t i c e . I n Mindanao, where c o r n i s grown e x t e n s i v e l y , s o y b e a n i s a common i n t e r c r o p . The P h i l i p p i n e s i s a c t i v e l y e n c o u r a g i n g corn farmers t o i n t e r c r o p w i t h s o y b e a n s o r o t h e r g r a i n legumes. IntercroDDinn i n coconut R e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s h a v e shown t h a t c o c o n u t y i e l d i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h c u l t i v a t i o n i n between rows. F u r t h e r m o r e , several c r o p species, such a s cacao, c o f f e e , lanzones, p i n e a p p l e , b a n a n a a n d some g r a i n c r o p s c a n be grown p r o f i t a b l y u n d e r c o c o n u t , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y a n d l a t e g r o w t h s t a g e s when v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r i s n o t so dense (Gomez a n d Gomez, 1983). I n t h e 70s and 80s t h e r e h a s been a c o n t i n u o u s i n c r e a s e o f c o c o n u t l a n d planted t o intercrops. Corn a n d g r a i n l e g u m e s a r e common c r o p s during the seedling stages, while t h e perennial f r u i t s such as b a n a n a , c o f f e e , c a c a o a n d l a n z o n e a r e commonly grown u n d e r m a t u r e trees. I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 2 0 t o 3 0 percent o f t h e c o c o n u t areas a r e intercropped. 4.2 Adoption o f i n n o v a t i o n A g r i c u l t u r a l production programs i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e T h a t i s , each p r o g r a m f o c u s e s on t r a d i t i o n a l l y commodity-based. one c r o p o r a n i m a l a t a t i m e a n d government services such a s e x t e n s i o n , c r e d i t a n d market a s s i s t a n c e a r e o r g a n i z a e d i n t o s p e c i f i c commodities. I n t h e 709, r i c e a n d corn were t h e p r i m a r y beneficiaries o f these a g r i c u l t u r a l programs. Masagana 99, t h e r i c e p r o g r a m , i s by f a r t h e b e s t f u n d e d a n d t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l . The t e c h n i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h i s p r o d u c t i o n p r o g r a m c o n s i s t s o f high-yielding v a r i e t i e s coupled with higher levels o f fertilizer and chemical p e s t c o n t r o l . The r a t e o f a d o p t i o n o f i m p r o v e d v a r i e t i e s ( T a b l e 4.2) w a s v e r y r a p i d , r e a c h i n g a h i g h l e v e l o f 8 4 percent l a s t y e a r . T h e a d o p t i o n r a t e is h i g h e s t i n i r r i g a t e d a r e a s a n d l o w e s t i n u p l a n d rice. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n c r e a s e d a p p l i c a t i o n of f e r t i l i z e r and i n s e c t i c i d e s c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d t h e i n c r e a s e i n a r e a s g r o w n t o h i g h - y i e l d i n g v a r i e t i e s . T h e r e is no 47 T a b l e 4.1 C o n t r i b u t i o n of Area and Y i e l d I n c r e a s i n g F a c t o r s t o Rice P r o d u c t i o n Growth i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1955-65 1965080~ Area Yield 68 32 MV Fertilizer Irrigation El 8 1 26 31 24 Source: World Rice S t a t i s t i c s , I R R I ( 1 9 8 2 ) . H e r d t , R. W. and C. C a p a l e ( 1 9 8 3 1 , A d a p t i o n , Spread a n d Production I m p a c t of Modern Rice V a r i e t i e s i n A s i a , I R R I . - T a b l e 4.2 P e r c e n t Area P l a n t e d t o Modern Rice Varieties, P h i l i p p i n e s , 1965 t o 1982 P e r c e n t Area P-MV Crop Year Total 1965 1970 1975 1980 1982 0 51 65 78 85 LQ&lD.$j Irrigated 0 61 81 88 93 Rain f e d Upland 39 64 na na 14 18 78 82 Source: Note: B u r e a u of A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics. Upland a r e a p l a n t e d t o M V a r e r e p o r t e d o n l y i n recent years. 4a d o u b t t h a t t h e new t e c h n o l o g y i n r i c e h a s been a d o p t e d by a l a r g e number o f farmers a n d h a s been a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y o f rice. W i t h r e s p e c t t o c o r n , g o v e r n m e n t i n v e s t m e n t i n new t e c h n i c i a n s a n d a d d i t i o n a l c r e d i t i s more m o d e s t . New v a r i e t i e s d e v e l o p e d were m a i n l y o p e n - p o l l i n a t e d , a l t h o u g h r e c e n t l y F1 h y b r i d s h a v e been a d d e d . I n c o n t r a s t t o r i c e , a d o p t i o n of new v a r i e t i e s h a s never exceeded 15 p e r c e n t o f h a r v e s t a r e a . Conseq u e n t l y , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e new t e c h n o l o g y i s much l e s s t h a n t h a t i n r i c e , a n d i m p r o v e m e n t i n c o r n p r o d u c t i v i t y is s u b s t a n t i a l l y lower. 4.3 Production effects Shown i n T a b l e 4.3 a r e t h e h a r v e s t a r e a a n d y i e l d s o f r i c e , c o r n , c o c o n u t a n d s u g a r c a n e f r o m t h e p e r i o d 1960-82. Although p r o d u c t i o n of a l l c r o p s i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m 1 9 6 0 t o 1 9 8 2 , much o f t h e i n c r e a s e w a s d u e t o a r e a e x p a n s i o n f o r c o r n , c o c o n u t and s u g a r c a n e . O n l y i n r i c e was i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d p e r u n i t a r e a a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o increased production. Furthermore, i r r i g a t e d r i c e had t h e l a r g e s t i m p r o v e m e n t (1.03 t / h a ) w h i l e c o r n h a d t h e l o w e s t (0.18 t / h a ) ( T a b l e 4.4). Note f u r t h e r t h a t t h e i m p r o v e m e n t i n r a i n f e d r i c e i s much l o w e r t h a n t h a t f o r i r r i g a t e d r i c e , g i v i n g s u b s t a n c e t o t h e f a c t t h a t m u c h o f t h e new r i c e t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t h e 70s were d e v e l o p e d f o r i r r i g a t e d r i c e culture. It should be c l e a r , however, t h a t technology i s n o t t h e o n l y f a c t o r t h a t h a s r e s u l t e d in r i c e y i e l d . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s a r e (1) t h e i n c r e a s i n g a r e a s w i t h i r r i g a t i o n ; (2) i n p u t - o u t p u t p r i c e s t r u c t u r e ; a n d ( 3 ) weather. A p p a r e n t l y , t h e f i r s t t w o f a c t o r s were f a i r l y f a v o r a b e f o r t h e r i c e farmers u p t o 1982. The f i n a n c i a l c r u n c h , h o w e v e r , r e s u l t e d i n s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n i n v e s t m e n t s i n i r r i g a t i o n a n d a r a p i d i n c r e a s e in t h e i n p u t c o s t . T o g e t h e r w i t h a severe d r o u g h t , b o t h r i c e h e c t a r e s and Table 4.3 Area ( i n thousand h e c t a r e s ) and Production ( i n thousand metric t o n s ) f o r Rice, Corn, Coconut and Sugarcane, 1960-1982 I - -Ju&s- I . -...-Area Corn I - -- Coconut -I_ , S _ u n a r c a n e Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 Area 3,306.5 3,19707 3,179 1 39161 .3 39087.4 3,19907 3 9 109 02 3,096.1 39303.7 39332.1 39112.4 38112.6 39246.4 3,111.8 39436.8 3.538.8 3,579.3 3,547.5 3,508.9 3.46809 3,636.8 3,459.1 39432.8 Production 3,739.5 3,704.8 39910.1 3,967.0 3,842.9 3,992.4 4,072.6 4,164.8 4,560.6 4,444.7 4,963.4 5,342.9 5,100.1 4,414.6 5,594.1 5,660.0 68159.5 6,456.1 69894.9 7,197.6 7,835.8 7,722.7 8,107.9 Production 1,165.3 1,20906 1,266.3 1,272.8 19292.7 1931 1.1 1,379.8 1,435.0 1,618.5 1,73207 2,008.2 2,005.0 2,012.6 1,831.1 2,288.7 29568.4 29766.8 3,84304 2,855.2 3,167.4 3,122.8 3,109.7 3,290.2 Area 1,059.4 1,19909 1,283.7 1,292.3 1,482.9 1 ,604.7 1 r610.9 1,840.2 1,800.4 1 r845.4 1,883.9 2,048.5 2,125.5 2,133.3 29206.0 29279.5 2,521.2 2,728.2 2,889.8 2,994.6 3,125.9 3,105.3 3,162.3 Production 1,117.3 1,130.3 1,418.9 1,555.7 1,55060 19535.4 1,561.3 1,206.6 1,592.8 1,562.2 1,726.2 1,678.0 1,813.4 1,708.3 1,964.6 2,723.1 39557.0 39844.9 4,194.8 4,295.4 4,570.2 4,312.1 3,785.5 Area 204.3 208.7 235.2 238.0 248.3 327.7 292.7 286.3 296.6 320.7 344.0 422.6 426.0 Production 1,439.4 1,353.6 19505.8 1,590.3 1,689.9 1,621 00 19460.1 1,621 e 7 1,658.4 1,592.7 2,118.8 1,910.1 1,870.3 1,84505 2,045.5 2,016.3 1,949.5 1,897.6 1,922.7 2,106.1 2,157.9 2,247.8 29256.0 2,41906 21392.2 2,431.7 2,325.4 29763.0 3,062.4 39257.0 3,320.6 39222.9 3,32609 3,101.1 3,238.7 3,360.7 -- -- 490.7 563.1 572.6 573.1 521.6 451.2 424.6 421.1 470.8 3,449.7 3,287.6 4,070.7 3,541 3,282.1 3,198.9 3,120.8 3,193.0 3,402.7 0 1 Source: P h i l i p p i n e Bureau of A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics. 50 Table 4 . 4 Grain Yield ( t / h a ) f o r Irrigated Rice, Rainfed Rice and Corn for Crop Years 1969-79 Year 2 p - Irrigated Rice p Rainfed Rice 1.10 1.51 1.59 1.40 1.20 Corn 0 -77 - 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1.72 2.05 1.99 1.96 0.83 0.84 0.83 0.79 0.83 0 -84 0.85 0.86 0.89 0.95 1.89 2.02 2.15 2.25 2.34 2.60 2.75 1.43 1.34 1.44 1.53 1.58 1.71 Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economics. 51 a v e r a g e y i e l d were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d i n 1983. A l t h o u g h average y i e l d improved a g a i n i n 1 9 8 4 , h a r v e s t a r e a remained low. 4.4 Gender i s s u e Very l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e on t h e e f f e c t o f t h e new i n n o v a t i o n s on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b e n e f i t s t o m a l e s a n d females. S e v e r a l p a p e r s have a l l u d e d t o t h e gender b i a s o f i m p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g y , c i t i n g evidence t h a t t h e n e w t e c h n o l o g y r e q u i r e s more w o r k i n g h o u r s f o r females. More work, h o w e v e r , i s n o t bad i f p r o p e r r e w a r d i s received. F o r t h e F i l i p i n o h o u s e h o l d , i t i s n o t c l e a r how t h e b e n e f i t s f r o m i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n a r e d i v i d e d between m a l e s and f e m a l e s . Whether much o f t h i s n e w income i s t u r n e d over t o t h e housewife, a s b e f o r e , o r i s r e t a i n e d by t h e h u s b a n d , i s n o t c l e a r . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t i n n o v a t i o n s have n o t g r e a t l y changed t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s o f t h e f a r m h o u s e h o l d a n d t h a t , a s b e f o r e , much o f t h e f a r m i n c o m e i s treated a s family property, mainly used t o s a t i s f y t h e basic needs o f t h e f a m i l y r a t h e r than being d i v i d e d s e p a r a t e l y t o t h e m a l e and f e m a l e members. 4.5 E f f e c t s on income d i s t r i b u t i o n A m a j o r c r i t i c i s m o f t h e n e w l y d e v e l o p e d p r o d u c t i o n techn o l o g i e s i s t h a t t h e y g r e a t l y f a v o r w e l l - t o - d o farmers. The main bases of t h i s criticism are: (1) The new t e c h n o l o g i e s , b a s e d m a i n l y on t h e use o f modern varieties t h a t respond better t o higher fertilizer a p p l i c a t i o n s , r e q u i r e l a r g e investments t h a t a r e n o t a f f o r d a b l e t o most s m a l l f a r m e r s . Thus, t h e e a r l i e s t a d a p t o r s o f t h e r i c e t e c h n o l o g y were m a i n l y farmers w i t h l a r g e r f a r m s t h a t h a v e more r e s o u r c e s t o s p a r e . (2) The new t e c h n o l o g i e s , d e v e l o p e d u n d e r i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s , were b e s t s u i t e d t o farms w i t h t h e 52 most f a v o r a b l e environment, i.e.t good i r r i g a t i o n , and f l a t a r e a s w i t h good s o i l s . S i n c e t h e s e farms u s u a l l y belong t o t h e r i c h e r f a r m e r s , t h e technology h a s a s u b s t a n t i a l b i a s i n f a v o r o f t h e well-to-farmers. (3) Production programs o f government, both i n r i c e and i n c o r n , have g i v e n h i g h p r i o r i t y t o a r e a s w i t h f a v o r a b l e environm e n t s , s i n c e t h e s e a r e a s a r e p e r c e i v e d t o have t h e h i g h e s t chance o f success. I n r i c e , f o r example, i r r i g a t e d a r e a s have r e c e i v e d t h e b u l k of i n v e s t m e n t i n c r e d i t , f e r t i l i z e r and t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t . Economists a t I R R I , however, a r g u e t h a t t h e new technology o f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e income o f t h e p o o r e s t s e c t o r o f t h e r u r a l communities. I t i s argued, f o r example, t h a t t h e new r i c e technology i s l a b o r i n t e n s i v e and h a s provided i n c r e a s e d employment and b e n e f i t s t o t h e l a n d l e s s r u r a l workers, t h e p o o r e s t s e c t o r o f t h e r u r a l community. T h e q u e s t i o n a s t o whether t h e r i c h e r f a r m e r s have b e n e f i t e d more from t h e new technology r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r l e s s endowed I t seems c l e a r , c o l l e a g u e s i s a v e r y d i f f i c u l t issue t o r e s o l v e . however, t h a t t h e r u r a l community a s a g r o u p , both landowners and l a n d l e s s l a b o r , have d e r i v e d s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t s from t h e new technology. T h e i r s h a r e o f t h e b e n e f i t s h a s i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e urban s e c t o r , t h u s reducing t h e l a r g e gap between urban and r u r a l incomes. 4.6 Promising i n n o v a t i o n s As i n s e c t i o n 4.1, we group i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : ( 1 1 v a r i e t a l improvements, (2) i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f l a n d use, a n d ( 3 ) c u l t u r e and management. 4.6.1 V a r i e t a l improvements V a r i e t i e s t h a t a r e s h o r t e r i n m a t u r i t y , more r e s i s t a n t t o 53 p e s t s a n d more t o l e r a n t t o s o i l d e f i c i e n c y a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e f u t u r e . S h o r t e r - m a t u r i n g v a r i e t i e s enhance higher land use intensity. I n rice, f o r example, v a r i e t i e s t h a t m a t u r e i n l e s s t h a n 90 d a y s w i l l e n c o u r a g e t h e p l a n t i n g o f t w o c r o p s o f rice per y e a r even i n areas w i t h o u t i r r i g a t i o n . Thus l a n d use i n t e n s i t y c o u l d v e r y w e l l i n c r e a s e f r o m 1.4 t o 1.8. The P h i l i p p i n e s is looking a t t h i s innovation a s t h e primary source o f a d d i t i o n a l r i c e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e s h o r t term. F o r c o r n , t h e e s t i m a t e d l a n d u s e i n t e n s i t y i s 1.3. If m a t u r i t y c a n be s h o r t e n e d t o 90 d a y s , l a n d use i n t e n s i t y c o u l d v e r y w e l l i n c r e a s e t o 1.6. Resistance t o pests is a major consideration i n accepting new v a r i e t i e s f o r c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t i o n . Up t o 25 percent o f a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n c a n be l o s t t o p e s t damage. W i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o s t o f c h e m i c a l p e s t c o n t r o l t h i s damage r a t e may increase f u r t h e r . W i t h r e s i s t a n t v a r i e t i e s , however, r e d u c t i o n i n y i e l d d u e t o l o w e r use o f chemicals c a n be m i n i m i z e d . T o l e r a n c e t o adverse s o i l c o n d i t i o n s h a s been a c o n s i s t e n t f e a t u r e o f b o t h I A R C and N A R S b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s . P r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o s a l i n i t y and low pH h a v e been o b t a i n e d . I t i s expected t h a t t h e s e new v a r i e t i e s , i f a p p r o v e d f o r c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t i o n , would e f f e c t i v e l y add u p t o 50,000 ha t o t h e cultivated area. 4.6.2 I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f l a n d use P r o m i s i n g i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t c o u l d be a d o p t e d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s are: (1) Use of 30 t o 45 d a y o l d s e e d l i n g s i n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r s h o r t e n t h e l e n g t h o f time t h a t r i c e o c c u p i e s t h e l a n d . W i t h t h i s i n n o v a t i o n , r i c e c a n be h a r v e s t e d w i t h i n 70 d a y s of t r a n s p l a n t i n g . S u c h a t e c h n o l o g y c o u l d i n c r e a s e l a n d - u s e i n t e n s i t y from 1 t o 2 i n r a i n f e d a r e a s and from 2 t o 3 i n irrigated areas. 54 (2) R a t o o n i n g . R i c e and sorghum a r e t h e a n n u a l g r a i n c r o p s t h a t h a v e good p o t e n t i a l f o r r a t o o n i n g . W i t h t h i s techn o l o g y , p l o w i n g i s e l i m i n a t e d and t h e t u r n - a r o u n d t i m e i s e f f e c t i v e l y reduced t o zero. With t h i s i n n o v a t i o n , it s h o u l d be e a s y t o grow t h r e e c r o p s of r i c e o r sorghum i n one year. (3) Rice g a r d e n . By s t a g g e r e d p l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g o f r i c e i n s m a l l p l o t s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o m a x i m i z e l a n d and l a b o r use w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e i n c r e a s i n g s t a b i l i t y of p r o d u c t i o n . E x p e r i m e n t s t a t i o n d a t a shows t h a t t h i s i n n o v a t i o n can i n c r e a s e y i e l d from 10 t o 1 8 t o n s p e r h e c t a r e p e r y e a r . 4.6.3 C u l t u r e and management Some o f t h e p r o m i s i n g i n n o v a t i o n s a r e : z e r o t i l l a g e , d e e p p l a c e m e n t o f n i t r o g e n , hedge-row p l a n t i n g and o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z a tion. (1) Z e r o t i l l a g e . If weeds c a n be a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l e d , y i e l d from c r o p s grown w i t h o u t t i l l a g e i s j u s t a s h i g h a s u n d e r n o r m a l c u l t u r e . W i t h z e r o t i l l a g e u p t o 1 / 4 o f t h e c o s t of p r o d u c t i o n c a n be s a v e d and t u r n - a r o u n d time c a n b e r e d u c e d b y 10 t o 15 d a y s . (2) Deep p l a c e m e n t of n i t r o g e n . Nitrogen is t h e most e a s i l y l o s t f e r t i l i z e r . With improper a p p l i c a t i o n , a c t u a l u t i l i z a t i o n by c r o p s c a n b e a s low a s 25 p e r c e n t . In the r i c e p a d d y , i t h a s been shown t h a t by b u r y i n g n i t r o g e n m below ground f e r t i l i z e r d e e p i n t o t h e mud ( i . e . , 4-5 c l e v e l ) l o s s e s o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r c a n be r e d u c e d t o a r o u n d 30 p e r c e n t . With t h e c u r r e n t h i g h p r i c e o f f e r t i l i z e r , t h e e x t r a e f f o r t f o r d e e p p l a c e m e n t may b e e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d and w i d e l y a d o p t e d b y f a r m e r s i n t h e near future. 55 (3) Hedgerow p l a n t i n g . T h e use o f hedgerows a c r o s s s l o p e s h a s b e e n shown t o g r e a t l y r e d u c e s o i l e r o s i o n i n s l o p i n g a r e a s . P e r e n n i a l l e g u m e s s u c h a s Leucaenp a r e e f f e c t i v e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . W i t h t h i s i n n o v a t i o n , a l a r g e p o r t i o n of s l o p i n g a r e a s c a n b e c u l t i v a t e d w i t h o u t f e a r of l o s i n g t h e s o i l t h r o u g h e r o s i o n . I t i s expected t h a t t h i s i n n o v a t i o n w i l l be u s e f u l i n c o n v e r t i n g s l o p i n g a r e a s t o a n n u a l c r o p s i n i t i a l l y a n d , f i n a l l y , i n t o f r u i t s and o t h e r p e r e n n i a l trees. (4) O r g a n i c f e r t i l i z a t i o n . I n t h e t r o p i c s , where v e g e t a t i o n i s v e r y l u s h , s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f n u t r i e n t s can be returned t o t h e soil through organic fertilization. T e c h n i q u e s f o r e c o n o m i c a l l y c o n v e r t i n g farm waste and b y - p r o d u c t s t o f e r t i l i z e r s a r e a f o c u s of much o n g o i n g research. I t i s expected t h a t t h i s e f f o r t w i l l p r o d u c e t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s v e r y s o o n , and t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e n u t r i e n t requirements of P h i l i p p i n e f a r m s w i l l come f r o m o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z a t i o n . (5) F i x a t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e . The n i t r o g e n f i x i n g b a c t e r i a , Mvofi isa a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s m s t h a t can f i x n u t r i e n t s f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e a r e t h e f o c u s of i n t e n s i v e research i n t h e Philippines. Current findings i n d i c a t e t h e existence o f i n d i g e n o u s s t r a i n s t h a t e x h i b i t a h i g h e r r a t e o f f i x a t i o n . If p e r f e c t e d , t h i s i n n o v a t i o n c a n v e r y well p r o v i d e F i l i p i n o f a r m e r s w i t h t h e c h e a p e s t s o u r c e o f fertilizer. The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e IARCs 4.7 The I A R C s have c o n t r i b u t e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y either d i r e c t l y , through t h e development o f production t e c h n i q u e s t h a t c a n be a p p l i e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i t u a t i o n , o r i n d i r e c t l y , t h r o u g h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f m a t e r i a l s and i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a r e u s e d a s a b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p i n g new t e c h n o l o g i e s a d a p t e d t o t h e 56 country. I R R I , w h i c h i s located i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and c o n d u c t s many e x p e r i m e n t s i n s i d e t h e c o u n t r y , h a s n a t u r a l l y been t h e leader i n developing technologies t h a t are d i r e c t l y applicable t o P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r e . Many of t h e recommended r i c e v a r i e t i e s a r e d i r e c t p r o d u c t s of t h e I R R I program. The a c c o m p a n y i n g management t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s f e r t i l i z e r l e v e l , t i m e of p l a n t i n g a n d p e s t management h a v e i n m a n y c a s e s b e e n l i f t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m I R R I research r e s u l t s . O t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s h a v e b e e n more o f t h e i n d i r e c t t y p e . C I M M Y T , CIP, ICRISAT a n d CIAT, a r e a l l i n t r o d u c i n g g e n o t y p e s of t h e i r mandated crops t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . These i n t r o d u c t i o n s a r e f u r t h e r tested and bred f o r a d a p t a b i l i t y t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . The same i s t r u e f o r new management p r a c t i c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e i s a l o n g e r time l a g between i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d farmer adoption. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i d e n t i t y a n d u n i q u e n e s s of t h e I A R C s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n i s n o t a s c l e a r a s t h a t f o r t h e c a s e of I R R I . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e g e n o t y p e s from t h e I A R C s a r e a c o n s i s t e n t c o m p o n e n t of l o c a l i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l e x p e c t a t i o n i s t h a t these genotypes w i l l c o n t r i b u t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o t h e development o f better production t e c h n o l o g i e s . 57 5 Conclusions 5.1 The P h i l i p p i n e r e s e a r c h a n d e x t e n s i o n s y s t e m The P h i l i p p i n e s h a s a f a i r l y w e l l - o r g a n i z e d r esear ch and e x t e n s i o n s y s t e m w i t h t r a i n e d and experienced s t a f f . The N A R S h a s m o r e t h a n 3 , 0 0 0 r e s e a r c h e r s I 1 9 p e r c e n t o f w h i c h h a v e MS a n d 8 p e r c e n t o f w h i c h have PhD degrees. Research i n a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s i s c l e a r e d a n d m o n i t o r e d by a c e n t r a l c o o r d i n a t i n g c o u n c i l w h i c h a l s o s u m m a r i z e s and d o c u m e n t s r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s . A l t h o u g h t h e e x t e n s i o n s t a f f h a s fewer a d v a n c e d degree h o l d e r s , i t h a s a s e r i e s of s u c c e s s f u l experiences i n p r o d u c t i o n p r o g r a m s . There i s e n o u g h e x t e n s i o n p e r s o n n e l t o cover e a c h o f t h e 34,000 r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h u s f o r a n y new t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p e d by t h e I A R C s , t h e P h i l i p p i n e r e s e a r c h and e x t e n s i o n s y s t e m h a s t h e c a p a c i t y t o r a p i d l y t e s t and d i s s e m i n a t e it. 5.2 The P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r e h a s s t e a d i l y grown i n t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s d e s p i t e minimum h e l p and s u b s i d y from t h e g o v e r n m e n t . Rice, t h e m a j o r s t a p l e , h a s been t h e s t a r p e r f o r m e r . S i n c e 1972, p r o d u c t i o n h a s g r o w n a n n u a l l y b y 4.5 p e r c e n t , o u t s t r i p p i n g popul a t i o n g r o w t h by more t h a n 1.5 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s . By t h e l a t e 19709, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a d s h i f t e d f r o m i m p o r t i n g t o e x p o r t i n g rice. Corn, t h e n e x t most i m p o r t a n t crop, o c c u p y i n g a b o u t t h e same a r e a a s r i c e , h a s b e e n g r o w i n g a t a s l o w e r p a c e , w i t h much o f i t s g r o w t h f u e l e d by t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e c u l t i v a t e d area. W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new h y b r i d s t h a t h a v e much h i g h e r y i e l d p o t e n t i a l , c o r n c a n be expected t o b e t h e s t a r performer of t h e 1 9 8 0 s . 58 5.3 I m p a c t of t h e I A R C s on t h e P h i l i p p i n e N A R S D i s t r i b u t i o n of i m p r o v e d g e r m p l a s m , t r a i n i n g of r e s e a r c h s t a f f a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f new r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a r e t h e t h r e e s e r v i c e s o f t h e I A R C s t h a t a r e p e r c e i v e d t o b e t h e most u s e f u l t o t h e NARS. E l i t e germplasm p r o d u c e d by t h e I A R C s h a s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e g e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y of b r e e d i n g m a t e r i a l s i n t h e N A R S and has c o n t r i b u t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o t h e progress i n v a r i e t a l New rice v a r i e t i e s developed a t I R R I have been improvement. d i r e c t l y recommended by t h e N A R S f o r commercial p r o d u c t i o n . V a r i e t i e s i n c o r n t sorghum a n d p o t a t o e s d e v e l o p e d by C I M M Y T t I C R I S A T a n d CIP, r e s p e c t i v e l y , h a v e b e e n t e s t e d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h v e r y p r o m i s i n g p o t e n t i a l f o r progress. T r a i n i n g of N A R S s t a f f by t h e I A R C s h a s been g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d b e c a u s e of t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e program a n d t h e e x p e r t i s e of t h e t r a i n i n g s t a f f . R e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d by t h e N A R S i n s o l v i n g l o c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s a r e : ( 1 ) p r o p e r t i e s of s u b merged paddy s o i l s t (2) research methods f o r on-farm t r i a l s , ( 3 ) c r o p i n t e r a c t i o n i n i n t e n s i v e c r o p p i n g , a n d (4) b r e e d i n g methods. While t h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o n of t h e u s e f u l n e s s of t h e I A R C s t o 1 s i m i l a r s e r v i c e s a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e from o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . It i s not clear, t h e r e f o r e , i f s i m i l a r progress i n t h e NARS c o u l d have been o b t a i n e d i f t h e I A R C s d i d n o t exist. F u r t h e r m o r e t t h e P h i l i p p i n e N A R S h a s expressed d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r t h e I A R C model i s c o s t - e f f e c t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e NARS. t h e NARS, 5.4 Impact on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y I R R I c l e a r l y d o m i n a t e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e I A R C s t o increased a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Rice, t h e 59 4 most i m p o r t a n t f o o d c r o p , i s t h e r e c i p i e n t o f a m a s s i v e p r o d u c t i o n program t h a t i s based m a i n l y on t e c h n o l o g i e s d e v e l o p e d a t IRRI. T h e i m p a c t o f o t h e r I A R C s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i s more d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e . Many o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d by t h e s e c e n t e r s h a v e t o go t h r o u g h t h e N A R S before a c t u a l a d o p t i o n by farmers. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e I A R C t e c h n o l o g y i s n o t c l e a r , a n d i n may i n s t a n c e s t h e i n n o v a t i o n s may b e claimed by t h e NARS. 5.5 I m p a c t of i n d i v i d u a l I A R C s I A R C s w i t h c o m m o d i t y m a n d a t e s were t h e most u s e f u l i n i m p r o v i n g t h e N A R S and a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e P h i l i p pines. I R R I , with its headquarters i n the country, clearly d o m i n a t e s a l l o t h e r c e n t e r s . C I M M Y T , C I P , C I A T , ICRISAT a n d I B P G R ( i n t h a t o r d e r ) were t h e o n l y o t h e r c e n t e r s m e n t i o n e d t o h a v e been u s e f u l t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e p r o g r a m s . 5.6 E f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e I A R C model P e r c e p t i o n of t h e f u t u r e u s e f u l n e s s of t h e commoditym a n d a t e d c e n t e r s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l research and d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i s n o t so o p t i m i s t i c . The p r e v a i l i n g a s s e s s m e n t of I R R I , f o r example, is: ( 1 ) t h a t I R R I h a s b e e n i m m e n s e l y successf u l i n i n c r e a s i n g r i c e p r o d u c t i o n , (2) t h a t I R R I w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a g r i c u l t u r a l development, b u t i t s f u t u r e impact is expected t o be much l e s s , a n d ( 3 ) t h a t I R R I h a s h a d a m o r e modest i m p a c t on t h e N A R S , a n d a s t h e N A R S m a t u r e s , t h e f u t u r e impact w i l l become e v e n less. The commodity-mandated c e n t e r s , a n d I R R I i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e s e e n t o b e most e f f e c t i v e i n s o l v i n g welld e f i n e d p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e common t o a l a r g e number of c o u n t r i e s . A s t h e s e major p r o b l e m s a r e s o l v e d , many s m a l l p r o b l e m s t a k e t h e i r p l a c e . These s e c o n d a r y p r o b l e m s , w h i c h a r e more d i v e r s e a n d much m o r e l o c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c , a r e n o t e a s i l y s o l v e d b y I A R C research. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e I A R C model becomes l e s s e f f e c t i v e a n d o t h e r m o d e l s may h a v e t o t a k e i t s p l a c e . P e r h a p s t h e m a n d a t e 60 of t h e IARCs can b e modified from one o f d i r e c t l y conducting research t o one of determining research p r i o r i t i e s and channeling f i n a n c i a l support t o the NARS for implementing high-priority research a c t i v i t i e s . . 61 Appendix A T h e Member Institutions o f the Research Network in the Philippines . A. W t i National Research Centers --c 1. 2 . 3. 4. Central Luzon State University (CLSU), Muilozr Nueva Ecija. University of the Philippines at Los Brilos (UPLB) Collegep Laguna. Visayas State College of Agriculture ( V I S A ) Baybay, Leyte. University of Southern Mindanao (USMI Kabacan, fforth Cotabato. 1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Forest Research Institute (FORI) College, Laguna. Forest Production Research and Industry Development Commission (FORPRIDECOM) College, Laguna. Philippine Sugar Commission (PHILSUCOH), La Granja, La Carlota City. Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA), Bago Olehiro, Davao City. Philippine Tobacco Research and Training Center (PTRTC), MMSU, Batac, Ilocos Norte. Cotton Research and Development Institute ( C R D I ) , MMSU, Batac, Ilocos Norte. University of the Philippines in t h e Visayas (UPV) College of Fisheries, M a g - a o and Legaois floilo. B. Regional Research Centers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. C. Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU), Batac, Ilocos Norte. Isabela State University (ISU) Cabagan and Echague Campuses, Isabela. Mountain State Agricultural College (MSAC) La Trinidad, Benguet. Palawan National Agricultural College (PNAC), Aborlau, Palawan. Camarines Sur Agricultural College (CSAC), Pili, Camarines Sur. La Granja Experiment Station, Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI)@ La Granja, La Carlota City. Cooperating Field Stations 130 CFS have been identified. 62 As o f J u l y 1980 t h e r e were 1 0 Research C o n s o r t i a ( C e n t e r s ) . PCARRD i s a member agency t o a l l o f them. 1. B i c o l A g r i c u l t u r a l and Resources Research Consortium (BARRC) Lead agency: 2. 3. C S A C , 9 members. C e n t r a l Luzon A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Center ( C L A R C ) Lead Agency: CLSU, 5 member a g e n c i e s . Cagayan Valley I n t e g r a t e d A g r i c u l t u r a l Research S y s t e m (CVIARS) Lead agency: ISU, 5 member a g e n c i e s . Highland A g r i c u l t u r a l Center ( H A R C ) Lead Agency: MSAC, 2 member a g e n c i e s . I l o c o s A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Center ( I L A R C ) Lead agency: M M S U , 4 member a g e n c i e s . La Granja A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Center ( L G A R C ) Lead Agency: B P I , 4 member a g e n c i e s . Northern and C e n t r a l Mindanao Coordinated A g r i c u l t u r e Research and Resources Program (NOCEMCARRP) Lead Agency: C M U , 2 member a g e n c i e s . Palawan A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Center ( P A R C ) Lead agency: P N A C , 2 member a g e n c i e s . Southern Mindanao A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Center ( S M A R C ) Lead agency: U S M , 2 member a g e n c i e s . Visayas Coordinated A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Program (VICARPI 4. 5. 6. 7 . a. 9. 10. Lead agency: V I S C A , 5 member a g e n c i e s . c 63 Appendix B I Rice Varieties Recommended by the Philippine Seed Board Variety Pedigree -Year Approved IR 22 IR 26 BPI-3-2 P A R C 2-2 IR 28 IR 29 IR 30 IR 32 BPI R i 2 IR 34 IR 36 IR 38 RPKN-2 IR 40 IR 42 UPLRI-1 BPIRi-4 IR 44 IR 48 BPI Ri-1 IR 50 IR 54 BPIRI-3 IR 56 UPLRI-4 BPIRI-10 IR 579-160-2 IR 1541-102-7-491 BPI 3-2 PARC 2-2 IR 2061-714-3-8-2 IR 2061-464-4-14-1 IR 2153-159-1-4 IR 207’0-747-6-3-2 BPI Ri-2 IR 261-213-2-17 IR 207 1-625-1-1 -252 IR 2070-423-5-6 Kn-16-361-1-8-6 IR 2070-414-3-9 IR 2031-585-5-63 C 229-1 MRC 603-303 IR 2863-38-1-2 IR 4570-83-3-3-2 M R C 1502-751 IR 9224-117-3-3-2 IR 5853-162-1-2-3 M R C 1240 IR 1329-109-2-2-1 C 1000-4 MRC 2350-2327 1970 1973 1973 1973 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1976 1976 1976 1976 1977 1977 1977 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 1980 1981 1982 1902 1983 (continued) 64 A p p e n d i x B continued Variety IR 58 IR 60 Pedigree Year A p p r o v e d ~~ IR 9752-71-3-2 IR 13429-299-2-1-3-1 1983 1983 C 168 IR 46 UPLRi-2 IR 52 C 168-134 IR 2058-78-1-3-2-3 C 166-133 IR 5853-1 18-5 1973 1978 1978 1980 22 IR 43 IR 45 UPLRi-3 BPI Ri-6 UPL Ri-5 UPL Ri-7 c C 22-51 IR 1529-430-2 IR 2035-242-1 C 424-2 M R C 438 C 171-136 C 1060-5 1972 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 1981 65 Appendix C Persons Interviewed and P l a c e s V i s i t e d 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dr. B a s i l i o B. Mabbayad, Chairman, Department o f Agronomy, College of A g r i c u l t u r e . Dr. Ricardo M. L a n t i c a n , D i r e c t o r o f Research. Dr. Roger Cuyno, D i r e c t o r o f Extension. Dr. Fernando C. Sanchez, D i r e c t o r , National Crop P r o t e c t i o n Center. Dr. Ruben L. V i l l a r e a l , D i r e c t o r , I n s t i t u t e o f P l a n t Breeding. Dr. Narciso Deomampo, Chairman, Department o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics, College o f Development Economics and Management. Dr. Nicanor Fernandez, A s s o c i a t e Dean, College o f Agriculture. D r . Manual L a n t i n , Program Leader, Corn B r e e d i n g , I n s t i t u t e of P l a n t Breeding. 6. 7. 8. 9. Dr. Pedro Sandoval, Dean, College o f Development Economics and Management. Dr. Obdulia S i s o n , Extension. Breeding P r o f e s s o r and former D i r e c t o r o f 10. 11. D r , Danilo Baldos, Corn Breeder, I n s t i t u t e of P l a n t . 12. Dr. Eufemio T. Rasco, Vegetable and P o t a t o Breeder, I n s t i t u t e o f P l a n t Breeding, Chairman, H o r t i c u l t u r e Department, College of A g r i c u l t u r e . D r . E d w i n J a v i e r , Rice Breeder, College of A g r i c u l t u r e . 13, 14. 15. 16. Mr. Rode1 R e v i l l e z a , Research A s s i s t a n t , Sorghum B r e e d i n g S e c t i o n , I n s t i t u t e of P l a n t B r e e d i n g . Mr. Armando Aquino, Researcher, Corn Breeding S e c t i o n , I n s t i t u t e of P l a n t B r e e d i n g . D r . Azucena L. P l a n t Breeding. Carpena, Rootcrops Breeder, I n s t i t u t e of 17 . Dr. S a n t i a g o T i l o , P r o f e s s o r , College of A g r i c u l t u r e . 66 18. 19. 20. 21. Dr. Henry P. Samonte, P r o f e s s o r , C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e . D r . B e a t r i z Mercado, P r o f e s s o r , C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e . D r . Diosdado Carandang, P r o f e s s o r , C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e . D r . B e l e n Rejesus, P r o f e s s o r , C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e . D r . D e l f i n Lapiz, P r o f e s s o r , C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e . 22. J?u.EER 1. D r . Amado Maglinao, D i r e c t o r , Farming Systems D i v i s i o n . 2. 3. Dr. Ramon Valmayor, D i r e c t o r General. Dr. D e l y Gapasin, D i r e c t o r , Crops D i v i s i o n . 4. 5. 1. 2. Dr. Aida L i b r e r o , D i r e c t o r , Socioeconomics D i v i s i o n . D r . Thelma S. Cruz, D i r e c t o r , Communication D i v i s i o n . Mr. Antonio Mercado, J r . , Corn Breeder, P i o n e e r Seed Company, Makati. Mr. Jesus A l i x , D i r e c t o r , Bureau of A g r i c u l t u r a l Economics. Mr. Emiliano Gianzon, D i r e c t o r of Research, Bureau of P l a n t I n d u s t r y , Manila. 3. 4. 5. Mr. Manuel L i m , C o n s u l t a n t a n d former D e p u t y Minister, MAF. Dr. Edgardo C. Q u i s u m b i n g , D i r e c t o r , A g r i c u l t u r a l Research O f f i c e , MAF. 6. 7. M r . Doq,ingo F. Panganiban, D e p u t y Minister, MAF. Dr. Orlando Sacay, Deputy Minister, MAF. Mr. J o s e Martinez, Legume and Vegetable S e c t i o n , F i e l d T r i a l Services, BPI. 8. 9. 10. 11. Mr. Maximo A g l i b u t , C h i e f , C e r e a l S e c t i o n , F i e l d T r i a l Services, BPI. D r . A l f r e d o Palo, B P I . Mr. Damaso C a l l o , J r . , Rice T e s t i n g Program, NFAC. M r . Ronduen, BPI. M r . S e f e r i n o Banguid, Chief Root Crop D i v i s i o n , B P I . 12. 13. 67 14. Mr. Segundo S e r r a n o , D i r e c t o r , Bureau of A g r i c u l t u r a l Extension. Ec w, Nueva 1. 2. 3. Mr. L i b e r t i t o F e l i c i a n o , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Maligaya Rice Research and T r a i n i n g Center and RIARS Manager, Region 111. Mr. Rudy G a l l a r d o , Core s t a f f f o r c r o p s , RIARS, Region 111. Mr. Aguinaldo Bueno, Rice Breeder and Agronomist, Maligaya Rice Research and T r a i n i n g Center ( M R R T C ) , Region 111. Dr. Felomena Campos, D i r e c t o r of Research, C e n t r a l Luzon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (CLSU). 4. 5. Dr. Fermina Rivera, C h i e f , Rural S t u d i e s D i v i s i o n , CLSU. Dr. Josue Erabagon, P r o f e s s o r o f Agronomy, CLSU. Dr. Marcel0 Roquel, D i r e c t o r o f I n s t r u c t i o n and former Dean, CLSU. 6. 7. 8. 9. Mr. T e o f i l o Eugenio, MRRTC. Mr. I s a g a n i H e r r e r a , Research Coordinator, Region 111. C i t v and La G r a i a , Nemos O c c i d e n t u I l O U O 1. Mr. Romeo Aquino, Chairman Rainfed A g r i c u l t u r a l Development Program f o r I l o i l o ( R A D I P Coordinating Committee) and D i r e c t o r , MAF, Region 111. D r . Eugenio Sabalboro, R I A R S Manager, Region V M i n i s t r y of 2. A g r i c u l t u r e and Food. 3. M s . C h e r r y D i v i n a g r a c i a , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Camarines Sur A g r i c u l t u r a l College. Mr. Romeo Valderas, Dean, Graduate School, Camarines Sur A g r i c u l t u r a l College. Mr. Eddie Chu, P r o j e c t Manager, Rainfed A g r i c u l t u r e Development P r o j e c t , Region V. 4. 5. cloban and Bavbav Levta 1. 2. Dr. Emiliana Bernardo, Root c r o p s b r e e d e r , VISCA. D r . Fernando Bernardo, P r e s i d e n t , V I S C A . 3. Mr. Agapito Tauro, A s s i s t a n t Regional D i r e c t o r , Region X I I I . 68 4. Mr. D a n i l o Palang, RIARS Manager Region VIII, M i n i s t r y of Agriculture and Food. c l!ihmmQ 1. 2. 3, Dr. Kundo Pahm, RIARS Manager, Region XII. Dr. J i m Imlan, P r e s i d e n t , U n i v e r s i t y o f Southern Mindanao. Mr, Wioomedes Balanay, RIARS Manager, Region X . Mr. Bene Bustamante, Superintendent, Kidapawan Experiment S t a t ion. Mr. Cuiz Petrache, RIARS Manager, Region X I . 40 5. 69 References A l i x , J. 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(19831, "Agriculture and resources research manpower development program in t h e Philippines: Past, present and future," in 0 C 8 er D e S u end World Bank ( 1 9 7 6 1 , Itme P h NEDA, Manila, Philippines. World Bank ( 1 9 8 4 1 , PhiliDr>Fne W u l t u r e : iggyes in D , r u Unpublished. ISSN 0257-3148 ISBN 0-8213-0824-6