Correct citation: 
Costa A., Thanarajoo S.S., Sivapragasam A. 2018. Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change (A Manual for Rice and 
Other Crops). Wageningen, the Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available 
online at: www.ccafs.cgiar.org
This document is published by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is a strategic 
partnership of the CGIAR and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP). CCAFS is supported by the CGIAR Fund, the Danish International 
Development Agency (DANIDA), the Government of Australia (ACIAR), Irish Aid, Environment Canada, Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the 
Netherlands, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical (IICT), UK Aid, and the 
European Union (EU). The Program is carried out with technical support from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
Contact:
CCAFS Program Management Unit, Wageningen University & Research, Lumen building, Droevendaalsesteeg 3a, 6708 PB Wageningen, The 
Netherlands. Email: ccafs@cgiar.org
Authors:
Creative Commons License
This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial–NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
Articles appearing in this publication may be freely quoted and reproduced provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication 
may be made for resale or other commercial purposes.
©2018 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
Photographs on the cover by: Leocadio Sebastian
DISCLAIMER:
This publication has been prepared under the CCAFS program and has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the 
author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of CCAFS, donor agencies, or partners.
All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source.
Arnaud Costa
is an entomologist and 
agricultural engineer. 
He is Integrated Crop 
Management advisor 
at CABI-SEA and is the 
project leader of Pest-
Smart.
Sathis Sri Thanarajoo
is a plant pathologist and 
scientist at CABI-SEA. She 
is experienced in plant 
diseases characterization 
through molecular biology 
approaches.
Sivapragasam Annamalai
is an entomologist 
with experience  in 
various aspects of pest 
management. 
He is also the Regional 
Director at CABI-SEA.
 Pest-Smart Practices and
Early Warning System
under Climate Change
A Manual for Rice and Other Crops
Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International - Southeast Asia
CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security - Southeast Asia
i     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Foreword
Climate change is triggering existing and new combinations/complexes of pests and diseases (P&D) to spread, and 
its impacts (drought, flood, salinity intrusion, among others) make P&D management more difficult. These make 
a great portion of Southeast Asian farmers’ rice production at risk because of possible P&D outbreaks.  The risk is 
further aggravated by the inadequate knowledge of farmers to cope with P&D as affected by climate change. 
To help Southeast Asian farmers cope with P&D problems, the Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International 
(CABI) Southeast Asia with support from the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food 
Security in Southeast Asia (CCAFS SEA), conducted “pest-smart” interventions. This project was piloted in three 
Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) under CCAFS SEA, such as Tra Hat CSV in Vietnam, Rohal Suong CSV in Cambodia, 
and Ekxang CSV in Laos.
The Pest-Smart program has enabled farmers, particularly women and marginalized groups, to become resilient 
against potential P&D outbreaks due to climate change. It has served as a platform in promoting climate-smart 
agriculture technologies and practices and in building the capacity of farmers to deal with problems concerning P&D.
This simplified manual “Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change” is part of the program’s 
vision to develop pest-smart farmers in the region. The manual brings together the relevant information to control 
and manage various P&D in rice in the context of climate change. This publication has been translated into local 
languages for wider use by extension workers and farmers. 
Lastly, congratulations to the team of experts, led by Dr. Sivapragasam Annamalai, for coming up with this publication.
Dr. Leocadio Sebastian
Regional Program Leader
CCAFS Southeast Asia
A Manual for Rice and Other Crops     ii
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all colleagues who participated and contributed to the completion 
of this manual: Dr. Leocadio Sebastian for his support (CCAFS SEA); Mr. Eisen Bernardo for the 
illustrations and book design (CCAFS SEA); our external reviewers - Dr. Ravindra Chandra Joshi 
(University of South Pacific, Fiji), Dr. Paul Pavelic (IWMI), Dr. Jothiganesh (RIMES, Thailand), Dr. 
Yumiko Kura and Mr. Eam Dyna (WorldFish, Cambodia); our international partners - Dr. Ho Van 
Chien, Mr. Bora Soeung, and Mr. Vu Thy Chin (Aphivat Strey), Mrs. Siea Kimnay, Mr. Chhun Hy 
Heng, and Mrs. Ly Yan (PDA Cambodia), Dr. Hanh Tran and Mr. Loc (SOFRI, Vietnam), Mr. Duong 
Le Minh (DARD Bac Lieu, Vietnam), Mr. Tiangkham Vongsabouth and Mrs. Pinkham (PPC, Laos); 
and to all those who help in making this publication possible. 
Photo credits:
Annamalai Sivapragasam, CABI Southeast Asia 
Arnaud Costa, CABI Southeast Asia
Badrul Hadza, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute
Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI)
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Leocadio Sebastian, CCAFS Southeast Asia 
Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (NOMAFSI)
Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice)
iii     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change P
ho
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About this manual
Climate change affects large areas in our planet due to 
temperature changes, sea level rise, and increased risk 
of prolonged droughts or severe flooding. In this regard, 
this manual was produced to tackle major questions 
pertaining to climate change and its effects on pests 
and diseases outbreaks in Southeast Asia.
The present manual is intended to be user-friendly and 
to provide simple and helpful information to farmers 
and extension agents; yet it can be read by a larger 
audience interested in solving pests and diseases issues 
in the context of climate change.
In the first chapter, we introduce the effects of climate 
change on agriculture, then second chapter, we detail 
the effects of climatic factors on the development of 
pests and diseases. Chapter 3 highlights the importance 
of an Early Warning System and its use followed by pest-
smart interventions and recommendations to alleviate 
problems due to pests and diseases in the context of 
climate change.
A Manual for Rice and Other Crops     iv
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v     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
How to use this manual?
Understand the consequences of 
climate change to Pests and Diseases.
Assess the pest population and 
decide whether to take action or not.
Follow Pest-Smart solutions against Pests and Diseases.
1. Assess the climatic conditions
2. Implement an Early Warning System
3. Decide interventions against Pests and Diseases
Ex: continuous rain
Pests and 
Diseases
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A Manual for Rice and Other Crops     vi
Table of Contents
Foreword……..…………….…………..……………………………..…………………..……..……..……..……..……..……...…....i
About  this manual…………….………………………..……..……..……..…………....………………..……………….….....v
How to use this manual?……..…………….………………………………………..………..……..……..…………….…....vi
1. Introduction……..…………….………………………………………..………..….………..…..……..……..…………….…....1
1.1. Agriculture and climate change…………………….…………..…..……..……..……..……..……….….….…2
1.2. Abiotic factors affected by climate change……………………..……..……..……..……..……………….4
1.3. Farmers practices, climate change, and pests and diseases.….………...…………..……..……....5
1.4. About Pest-Smart………………………..…..…………………………..……..……..……………………..….…….7
1.5. Managing pests and diseases under climate change…………..……..……..……..…………….….10
2. The effects of Climate Change on Pests and Diseases…………………….…..………..……..……..……..11
2.1. The effects of climatic factors on rice main pests and diseases……………..……..……..….…12
3. An Early Warning System and Pest-Smart Practices…………..……..……..……..…………………….15
3.1. An Early Warning System……………………………………………..……..……...…………………………..16
3.2. E-WARS: Developing an online support…….……………………..……..……..……….………….……..18
3.3. Early detection through insect trapping…….……………………..……..……..…….……………..…19
vii     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
3.4. Invasive Apple Snail: effect of temperature, increased rainfall………..……..…..…….……..20
3.5. Temperature: Main effects on pests and diseases……………………..……..……...…………....22
 3.5.1. Insect pests and the effect of temperature ……..…………..……...…..……..….…….…22
 3.5.2. Rodent pests and the effect of temperature ………….……..……...…………...…..…..24
 3.5.3. Rice diseases and the effect of temperature………………..………...…..……….……….25
3.6. Humidity and rainfall: Main effects on pests and diseases…………..…….……...….........…26
 3.6.1. Insect pests and the effect of humidity/rainfall ……..……….....……..……..….…..26
 3.6.2. Rodent pests and the effect of humidity/rainfall..……………..…..……..……..…….28
 3.6.3. Rice diseases and the effect of humidity/rainfall………………...…..……..……..…29
3.7. Drought: Main effects on grasshoppers and leafhoppers...………………..……..……..……31
3.8. Crop rotations……..…………………………………………………………….……..……..……..……..…………32
3.9. Sanitation and cultural methods……..………………………………..……..…….……...…...….……….33
3.10. Resistant varieties…………………………..……….….……………………..……..……..……..……..……….34
3.11. Safe alternatives to pesticides……..…………………….………..……..……..………………….……….35
3.12. Managing pests and diseases at the landscape level…………..……..……..……….…...……..39
Conclusions………….………………………………..……..……..……..……..…………………….……………………….……42 
References………….………………………………..……..……..……..……..…………………….……………………….….....43
Introduction     1
1. Introduction
2     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
1.1 Agriculture and climate change
Modern agriculture has helped farmers 
to increase their yield, but future farming 
systems need to integrate the concept of 
sustainability.
Current farmers’ practices can have 
profound effects on our environment 
due to excessive use of pesticides and 
fertilizers. 
Such practices increase the 
emissions of greenhouse gases. 
These gases are known to cause 
and aggravate climate change. 
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Introduction     3
1.1 Agriculture and climate change
Excessive use of synthetic 
pesticides and fertilizers
CLIMATE CHANGE
Greenhouse Gases
Extensive 
flooding
Prolonged 
droughts
Stronger 
storms
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4     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
1.2 Abiotic factors affected by Climate Change
Higher temperatures or colder temperatures, 
extreme and unpredictable variations.
More rain, stronger winds. 
Higher humidity, repeated /heavy rains
Higher salinity with sea water intrusion.
Lower humidity, lack of rain.
Change in 
temperatures
Stronger storms
Extensive flooding
Prolonged 
droughts
Climate change effects Abiotic factors
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1.3 Farmer practices, climate change, and Pests and Diseases
Unpredictable temperatures on Earth due to climate change can reduce 
crop yields and will increase the risk of pests and diseases.
6     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
1.3 Farmer practices, climate change, and Pests and Diseases
Overuse of pesticides 
and fertilizers
Increase in Greenhouse 
Gases emissions
Reduced income
Reduced yield
Increase in outbreaks
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1.4 About Pest-Smart
Why Pest-SMART?
Pest-SMART aims to mitigate the risk of Pests and Diseases in 
the context of climate change. 
Pest-SMART aims to reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers 
by adopting alternative and safer methods.
Pest-SMART is the smart 
way of dealing with pests 
and diseases; it is a part 
of the CCAFS programme 
on climate change.
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1.4 About Pest-Smart
Messages from farmers and advisors
Farmers 
will benefit 
from pest- 
smart 
practices.
We are 
enthusiastic 
to develop 
ways to grow 
rice with less 
pesticides.
I am interested to learn 
how to prevent Pests 
and Diseases in my region 
with greener technologies, 
and to pass my knowledge 
to farmers.
I hope that new 
techniques that 
request less toxic 
products to grow rice 
can be developed. 
Introduction     9
1.4 About Pest-Smart
Why Pest-SMART?
BEFORE AFTER
High pesticides use Reduced pesticides use
Before (1) and after (2) Pest-Smart: increased and more sustainable yield.
10     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
1.5 Managing Pests and Diseases under Climate Change
PEST-SMART PRACTICES
R.A.I.S.e for Rice!
The Effects of Climate Change on Rice Pests and Diseases     11
2. The Effects of Climate Change
on Rice Pests and Diseases
12     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
2.1 The effects of climatic factors on the main pests and diseases on rice
Climate Change increases the 
risk of pests and diseases, which 
could reduce farmers’ yield.
Rice Pests and Diseases
RICE YIELD REDUCED
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The Effects of Climate Change on Rice Pests and Diseases     13
2.1 The effects of climatic factors on the main pests and diseases on rice
Brown Plant Hopper
Reproduction and 
development linked to 
temperature, highest at 
34-38°C
MAIN PESTS MAIN DISEASES
Rice blast
Most of the severe infection  
occurs between 22-24 °C 
and more than 80% of 
infection severity is reported 
at 19-28 °C.
Invasive Apple Snail
Optimal temperature range 
between (20-25°C). After 
drought, can remain buried 
for up to 10 months
Sheath blight
Occurs at high temperature 
(28−32°C),  high levels of 
nitrogen, and high humidity 
(>85%)
Rodents
Different rice planting 
times can trigger major 
outbreaks
Bacterial blight
Commonly observed at 
25−34°C, during heavy rain 
seasons with winds
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14     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
2.1 The effects of climatic factors on the main pests and diseases on rice
Grasshoppers
Abundant during drought 
outbreaks at high 
temperatures
MAIN PESTS MAIN DISEASES
Leaf folders and 
Stem borers
At 25-30°C, hatching and 
development are improved. 
Higher temperatures slow 
the growth rate.
Slender rice bugs
With the first rains, they 
threaten rice crops and feed 
at temperatures < 30°C.
Brown spot
Develops in relatively high 
humidity (>89%) at 27-30°C 
and infection is favoured by 
free water on leaf surface. 
Red stripe
High leaf wetness and high 
nitrogen supply favours the 
spread of disease. 
Bacterial leaf streak
Occurs with high 
temperature and high 
humidity
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An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     15
3. An Early Warning System and 
Pest-Smart Practices
16     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
3.1 An Early Warning System
Developing an Early Warning System can reduce
the effects of climate change on farmers’ yield.
This early warning system is a predictive tool for the farmers to be 
prepared prior to pest outbreaks.
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     17
3.1 An Early Warning System
Early Warning System
STEP 1: PREDICT AND DETECT 
to avoid a large or uncontrolled outbreak
STEP 2: SENSITISE AND PREPARE
for faster response
STEP 3: ACT TO PROTECT 
FARMERS’ YIELD
18     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
3.2 E-WARS: Developing an online support
The early warning system 
can inform the farmers 
through phone apps and 
messages. 
Farmers can 
receive messages 
that warn about 
threats or risks.
Farmers can use phone 
apps that can help in early 
detection (Pests or Diseases 
Identification).
“extended rain, 
increased risk of 
rice blast”
“upcoming outbreak 
of hoppers”
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     19
3.3 Early detection through insect trapping 
Monitor and detect pests with early detection tools such as light 
traps, pheromone traps, and sticky traps.
To prevent large pests outbreaks…
Light trap Pheromone traps for 
yellow stem borer
Sticky yellow/blue 
sheets 
Practice scouting and survey of pests
in rice fields at least twice a week
20     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
3.4 Invasive Apple Snail: effect of temperature, increased rainfall 
During the dry season, 
snail populations are 
lower but they can 
remain in the rice field 
by up to 10 months.
Following rain, snails can 
invade the flooded fields.
Invasive Apple snails lay their eggs on rice 
plants and other objects above the water line.
“Feeding, 
activity, 
growth, and 
reproduction 
increase 
with [higher] 
temperature”
(Carlsson in Joshi, 
et al., 2017)
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An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     21
3.4 Invasive Apple Snail: effect of Temperature, Increased rainfall 
INVASIVE APPLE SNAIL: THE PEST-SMART ADVICES
Conduct mass 
snail and egg 
collection 
campaigns, 
involving the 
whole community 
to reduce the 
snail population.
Prevent snails 
movement by 
setting various 
strainers (ex: woven 
bamboo screen) 
at irrigation inlets/ 
outlets to keep 
them from entering 
your field.
Ploughing 
during the off-
season kills the 
dormant snails in 
the soil.
Trap adult snails 
that are dormant 
in the soil using 
tapioca, cassava, 
and papaya 
leaves set at the 
edge of the rice 
field.
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3.5 Temperature: main effects on Pests and Diseases
3.5.1. Insect pests and the effect of temperature
Hot spots (hopper-burn) in a rice field 
This 
season, the 
conditions 
have been 
very warm.
And we have many rice 
fields infested by hoppers 
more and more often 
than last year.
We should trap them 
and monitor before 
they reach excessive 
numbers.
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An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     23
RICE HOPPERS: THE PEST-SMART ADVICES
3.5.1. Insect pests and the effect of temperature
Do not spray 
insecticides in the 
rice field during 
the first 40 days; 
they have no 
effects on hoppers 
but they kill 
beneficial insects. 
Reduce the use 
of insecticides 
that hoppers 
already show 
resistance 
against.
Attract farmers’ 
friends using 
rice bunds with 
flowers (see 
page 39).
Use pest-
resistant rice 
varieties against 
hoppers (see 
page 34).
24     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
3.5.2. Rodent pests and the effect of temperature 
The rice field rat Rattus argentiventer 
is one of the aggressive species of 
rats and is of major concern in the 
Southeast Asian region.
They can become uncontrollable 
at once because they can have a 
new generation at each rice crop. 
Rats can affect a whole area and management should be done 
at the community level.
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     25
3.5.3 Rice diseases and the effect of temperature 
Diseases develop faster at 
higher temperatures.
And with the wind, the spores 
disseminate more during wet 
and stormy weather.
We should use resistant 
varieties.
3.6 Humidity and rainfall: main effects on Pests and Diseases
3.6.1. Insect pests and the effect of Humidity/Rainfall
26     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Insects need water to live 
and reproduce.
We must detect them at earliest 
by scouting the rice field and 
setting traps.
And the more water, the 
more food for them!
After the rain, insect 
populations increase 
and adults lay eggs on 
the rice leaves.
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Introduction     2
3.6.2 Rodent pests and the effect of humidity/rainfall 
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices  27
Rat numbers increase with more 
rainfall due to more food and 
water available for growth.
Rat nests and shelter can be 
affected by flood and excessive 
water levels among rice fields.
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3.6.2 Rodent pests and the effect of humidity/rainfall 
RODENTS: THE PEST-SMART ADVICES
Rats can 
reproduce 
quickly and once 
many rats settle, 
they can be 
devastating.
Trap adult rats to 
keep them from 
entering a whole 
area; organise 
campaigns to 
reduce rats 
populations. Use 
the Trap Barrier 
System (TBS).
Destroy rat 
burrows and 
nests in the field, 
such as straw 
heaps. 
Clean spilled 
grain at harvest.
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3.6.3 Rice diseases and the effect of humidity/rainfall 
Humidity and rainfall: main effects on Rice Diseases
Strong winds and rain cause the bacteria to easily spread 
through droplets on lesions of infected plants. 
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     29
Most diseases 
spread quicker 
with warmer 
temperatures, 
higher humidity, 
and repeated 
rainfalls.
Rice 
blast
Sheath 
blight
Bacterial 
blight
Fungal 
germination
Increased 
infection
Spores spread 
through water
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3.6.3 Rice diseases and the effect of humidity/rainfall 
RICE DISEASES: THE PEST-SMART ADVICES
Adjust 
crop density 
and spacing
30     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Destroy 
infested 
parts to limit 
sources of 
diseases
Ensure 
good 
drainage of 
the rice field
Observe 
the field to 
practice early 
sanitation 
by removing 
infected 
leaves
Let fallow 
fields dry 
up to reduce 
spores of 
diseases in 
the soil
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3.7 Drought: main effects on grasshoppers and leafhoppers
GRASSHOPPERS: THE PEST-SMART 
ADVICESGrasshoppers 
and leafhoppers 
are often major 
pests of rice. 
During drought, the stress 
increases rice susceptibility to 
grasshoppers’ feeding.
Grasshoppers and leafhoppers 
are likely to increase in numbers 
when drought persists for more 
than a week.  
Favour 
predators 
and 
parasites 
that naturally 
control 
grasshoppers 
and 
leafhoppers.
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     31
Avoid 
sowing 
alternate 
host 
plants 
near the 
rice crop.
Monitor 
for plant 
hoppers 
every week.
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3.8 Crop rotations
32     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Roots
Crop rotations reduce the 
occurrence of pests and 
diseases.
Crop rotations:
1. Improve the use of soil nutrients 
2. Increase soil fertility when using leguminous 
crop.
carrot, beet
radish, turnip,
potatoes, onion,
garlic
Grains/
Cereals
Corn, rice, 
wheat, 
sorghum
Legumes
Bean, pea, broad 
bean, soybean, 
lentils, clover, 
alfalfa, mustard
3.9 Sanitation and cultural methods
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     33
To prevent diseases…
Rice blast
• Adjust planting time
• Examine plants in 
several locations of 
the field to detect 
leaf lesions
Bacterial blight
• Adjust crop density 
and spacing
• Ensure good 
drainage of field
Sheath blight
• Weed control to 
remove alternate 
host plants
• Establish wider 
plant spacing
3.10 Resistant varieties 
Resistant varieties reduce the need 
of pesticide treatments and reduce 
farmers’ costs.
34     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Varieties have been developed 
by IRRI to resist several diseases, 
overcome excessive salinity, and 
adapt to drought or flooding.
Rice blast
Variety: Makassane
Bacterial blight
Varieties: NSIC Rc142, 
NSIC Rc154, PSB Rc82  
BPH
Varieties: BG379-2, 
Bg 366, Bg 300, 
Bg 360, Ld 408
Sheath blight
Despite screening of 30,000 rice lines, 
not yet available
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3.11 Safe alternatives to pesticides 
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     35
Small water 
striders
Predators
Mirids
Damselflies and 
Dragonflies
Damselflies hunt 
leafhoppers, stem borers 
and leaf folders
Spiders
Consume various pests, 
1 Lynx spider can eat 2-3 
leaf folders/day
Ladybirds
Are generalist 
that eat larvae, 
nymphs of 
hoppers and 
eggs of pests
Ground and Rove beetles
Ground beetles eat leaf 
folders and planthoppers 
nymphs
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3.11 Safe alternatives to pesticides 
36     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Beneficial wasps
Trichogramma are wasps that are 
farmer’s friends: they lay eggs inside the 
pests, which kill them later.
                        
                         
                         Trichogramma wasp
A small parasitic wasp 
against moth eggs.
Botanical extracts
Plant extracts can treat several pests and 
diseases.
Neem oil (3%) against 
rice blast – pure 
against snails.
                                 Chili-Ginger-Garlic 
                                 extract, to treat 
                                 against hoppers.
Using botanical extracts instead of pesticides can help
destroy pests and reduce toxicity exposure of farmers.
Ph
ot
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 b
y:
 (a
) C
A
BI
; (
b)
 K
ev
in
so
or
yi
n 
W
ik
iC
om
m
on
s;
 a
nd
 (c
) F
re
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ik
.c
om
3.11 Safe alternatives to pesticides 
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     37
Biopesticides
Fungi
Beauvaria, Metarhizium 
to control rice hoppers, 
caterpillars, and beetles.
Bacteria
Bacillus thuringiensis to 
control leaf folders, stemborers, 
and fly worms.
Viruses
Viruses such as NPHV to 
control leaf folders, caterpillars, 
and worms.
These biopesticides 
are able to control 
rice pests naturally.
3.11 Safe alternatives to pesticides 
38     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
Against rice diseases…
Bacterial blight
Treatment of rice 
seeds with Bacillus 
spp. before sowing can 
control disease up to 
59%, and it increases 
plant height and grain 
yield.
Rice blast and 
Sheath blight
Can be treated 
using Pseudomonas 
fluorescens. It is also 
active against other 
diseases such as sheath 
rot.
Sheath blight
Trichoderma spp. can 
increase efficiency of 
plant growth and it can 
reduce rice diseases such 
as sheath blight by foliar 
spray or seed treatment.
Ph
ot
os
 b
y: 
IR
RI
3.12 Managing pests and diseases at the landscape level 
Favor habitats that protect 
farmers’ friends to reduce 
pest numbers.
• Plant hedges that can be sources 
of food and refuges for beneficial 
insects.
• Use crop rotations and within 
the same season, diversify your 
cropping system.
• Ecological Engineering can 
increase local biodiversity and 
attract beneficial insects in rice 
field.
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     39P
ho
to
s 
by
: (
a)
 N
O
M
A
FS
I; 
an
d 
(b
) I
RR
I
3.12 Managing pests and diseases at the landscape level 
Ecological Engineering
Ecological Engineering 
can increase local 
biodiversity and attract 
beneficial insects in rice 
field.
Why Ecological 
Engineering?
To protect the farmers’ 
crops with less 
pesticides
What benefits 
for the farmers?
To reduce the costs of 
cultivation
40     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change P
ho
to
s 
by
: (
a)
 A
. S
iv
ap
ra
ga
sa
m
; a
nd
 (b
) A
rn
au
d 
C
os
ta
3.12 Managing pests and diseases at the landscape level 
Reduction of pesticides 
costs 
(no insecticides during the first 40 
days of rice crop)
Attraction of 
beneficial insects 
(natural enemies and 
pollinators)
More beneficial insects can 
be found on fields with 
Cosmos and sunflower (EE).
An Early Warning System and Pest Smart Practices     41
Ecological Engineering
Ph
ot
os
 b
y: 
Ar
na
ud
 C
os
ta
Conclusions
Climate change will likely increase the risk of pests and 
diseases in the future.
To protect your rice crop and ensure a good yield:
• monitor the field to detect new threats;
• adopt ecologically-sound management using 
resistant varieties, early trapping, and controlled 
irrigation;
• organize mass trapping campaigns to reduce 
outbreaks at their earliest; and
• increase local natural enemies (ecological 
engineering, intercropping).
Using locally-adapted early warning system will help you 
achieve high productivity at the same time achieve pest- 
and disease-resilience. Be a Pest-Smart farmer now! 
42     Pest-Smart Practices and Early Warning System under Climate Change
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References     45