I Strategies for farming I systems development in sub-Saharan Africa .I i ! Editors E.A. Atayi and D.O. Ladipo International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria Food and Agricultural organidion of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy Strategies For Farming Systems Development In sub-Saharan Africa Proceedings of the Ecoregionol P r o p n for the Hutnid and SubHumid Tropics of sub-Saharan Africa (EPHA) Scierztific Workshop IITA; Ibadan 17-20 November 1998 International lnstimte of Tropical AgriculNre (IITA) PMB 5320. Ibadan, Nigeria Tel. (234 2) 241 2626, Fax (234 2) 241 2221 C/o L.W. Lambourn & CO. Carolyn House 26 Dingwall Road, Croydon CR9 3EE, UK Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Via delle Tenne di Cancalla 00100 Rome, Italy Q 2003 IITA Ecoregional Program for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of sub-Saharan Afria (EPHTA) AN rights reserved Printed in Nigeria Workshop on: Strategies for Fanning Systems Development held at the International Insti- tute of Tropical Agriculture (IiTA), Ibadan. 27-20 November 1998 ISBN 978-13 1-185-1 I E.A. Atayi I1 D.O. Ladipo Iniernational Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Ibadan. Nigeria Printed by Daybis Limited Plot I Oa Akinola Maja Avenue, Jericho HiNs Ibadan. 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Sahelian Guinea Savanna (44.4mha) %\y Northem Guinea Savanna (40.6mha) m Midallhde (14.lmha) Asid and Semiarid lands 400 0 400 800 km - Agroecological zones and benchmark areas of the Ecoregional Program for the Humid and subhumid Tropics of sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA) Foreword The Technical Adviso~y Committee (TAC), of the Consultative Group on International Agricultuml Research (CGIAR), after an in-depth review in 1993, concluded that the problems faced by h e r s and their solution are location-specific. That is, the solution for one place probably will not be the solution for another place. Research at specific sites is therefore an essential element in solving the problems of farmers with the aim of making their lives better. TAC expects that the ecoregional programs will bring new insights to current research activities. Within 5 to 10 years, the programs should lead to signscant progress in intro- ducing sustainable production systems to a substantial portion of the ecoregion. Promising new technologies must get down to the farmers' level. The current deregulation of the resource base must be reversed in the near future; otherwise, the ever-increasing needs of expanding popularions will not be met In 1994, while the ecoregional approach was still new and evolving, TAC asked the International Institute ofTropica1 Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria to convene an ecoregional program for the humid and subhumid tropics of sub-Saharan Africa. IITA responded by putting into place a comprehensive mechanism for consulting with potential partners, including an ecoregional program advisory task force and a full-time program coordina- tor. A series of meetings have taken place since then and the present one is part of that process. The scientific meeting that was held between 17 and 20 November 1998 is a testimony to the dedication of IITA and collaborating CG centers to the development of sustainable fanning syslems in sub-~&aran Africa, and lo the bettermenr of the lives of the rural farmers. The production of these proceeding will help us all, including the FAO, to recognize the areas that have been identified as vital in this initiative. It will be usehl if readers can gel back to the EPHTA Program wilh comments or crili- cisms that can make the presentations reported here useful to the cause of the project. Preface Many development initiatives have been put in place without adequate planning. These always tum to be a failure. The organizers of the EPHTA initiative do not want this project to be like one of these, so a series of consultations have been put in place. The EPHTA project is one that has been conceivedand is now being implementedbased on good think- ing andplming. The present scientific meeting, which has identified and commissioned well tested scientists to prepare and present papers, is a welcome development that can lead research interventions into great success. By characterizing farmers' circumstances and needs, appraising farmers' opportunities, and assessing policy and institutional con- stmints, it is bound to put on ihe gound adequate research and development that will result in actually helping the farmers in a way that will improve food production, its marketing and thus the socioeconomy of the farmers. We are pleased to be given the opportunity to record the presentations and decisions at this meeting. It has given us immense opportunities to be better informed on what the farmers' situations are and what needs to be done for them. I @r D.O. Ladipo), thank the Management ofIITAand EPHTAfor giving me the opportunity to workwith Dr Emmanuel Atayi on this assignment. Dr Hassan Adewusi was a most valuable contributor to the pro- duction of this document. He was involved in the text prepamtion and in general graphics. His effoa is highly appreciated. Ms Josephine Ohiiyan is achowledged for her ready supportalways. We say thank you also to all the scientists who have contrihutedpapers and discussion efforts at the meeting, and which have been recorded in this proceedings. Extensive discussions took place after each paper and at the end of the presentation, a review of potential interventions was carried out These results are not part of this proceeding. They will be available separately f%om IRA (EPHTA) if you wish to see the details of the discussions. EA. Atayi and D.O. Ladipo Preface Many development initiatives have been put in place without adequate planning. These always IUII to be a failure. The organizers of the EPHTA initiative do not want this project to be like one of these, so a series of consultations have been put in place. The EPHTA project is one that bas been conceived and is now being implemented based on good think- ing and planning. The present scientific meeting, which has identified and commissioned well tested scientists to prepare and present papers, is a welcome development that can lead research interventions into great success. By characterizing farmers' circumstances and needs, appraising farmers' opportunities, and assessing policy and institutional con- straints, it is hound to put on the ground adequate research and development that will result in actually helping the farmers in a way that will improve food production, its marketing and thus the socioeeonomy of the farmers. We are pleased to be given the opportunity to record the presentations and decisions at this meeting. It has given us immense opportunities to be better informed on what the farmers' situations are and what needs to be done for them. I @I D.O. Ladipo), thank the Management of IlTAand EPHTA for giving me the opporhmity to work with Dr Emmanuel Atayi on this assignment. Dr Hassan Adewusi was a most valuable contributor to the pro- duction of this document. He was involved in the text prepamtion and in general graphics. His effort is highly appreciated. Ms Josephine Ohiiyan is acknowledged for her ready support always. We say thank you also to all the scientists who have contrihutedpapers and discussion efforts at the meeting, and which have been recorded in this proceedings. Extensive discussions took place after each paper and at the end of the presentation, a review of potential interventions was carried out These results are not part of this proceeding. They will be available separately *om IITA (EPHTA) if you wish to see the details of the discussions. E.A. Atayi and D.O. Ladipo We acknowledie FA0 and IITA that provided the funds and logistics for the implementa- tion of the EPHTAscientSc meeting and the stimulus for the production of these proceed- ings. We thank Doyle Baker for his assistance and guidance. The successful completion of this document has been made possible by various people who were active at the workshop and whose records enhanced the successful capture of the various discussions taken. Our gratitude goes to all those who were at this meeting for their support. Finally, we thank the Director General of IITA, Dr. Lukas Brader, for his support for EPHTA's various activities and particularly for the success of this scientific meeting. Thank you. Session I Resource management and farmer typologies (Benchmark area reports) Welcome address E.A. Atayi EPHTA Coordinator IITA, PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria 1 welcome our dear participants on behalfofthe Director General of IITAandChairperson of the EPHTAProeram Manaeement Commitlee. Dr Lukas Brader. This is the third scien- tilic workshop to b;: held by EPHTA. he first w& the ~coregional ~esearch ~ e t h o d o l o ~ ~ held inCameroon, 12-16 May 1997 and the second was the Integrated Weed Management Workshop also held in Cameroon, 15-16 September 1997. This third scientific workshop was jointly organized and funded by FA0 and IITA. A Letter of Agreement (LoA) was signed in December 1997 by IITA and FA0 to recruit some regional scientists to prepare state-of-the-art papers based on EPHTAoutputs and to organize the workshop topresent and discuss these papers. It was hopedthat this workshop would lead to other workshops. For example, a workshop to harmonize EPHTA research merbodologies was being planned for early 1999.1 want to apologize for the short notice given to participants for this third scientific workshop and hope you will understand that EPHTA, being a new organization, has to consider various issues of activities and to move out aggressively to generate funding. The present meeting had to come now due to the fact that the editors were hying to meet FA0 deadlines. Because of the iinancial crisis affecling all institutioos including IITA, it was decided that to reduce costs of accommodation and food and to minimize payment of per diems, most of EPHTA meeting workshops would be held at IITA Headquarters in Ibadan. I apologize for any inconvenience this might have caused and wish the participants fiuitii~l deliberations. I will at this juncture present to you an introductory description of the origin of EPHTA and its collaborators. One-third of all the people in sub-Saharan Afiica--some 200 million people-live in the tropics. This forested region ofAfrica has the potential to be tmnsfomed, if not into a "Garden of Eden", at least into a cornucopia of food sufficient to give all of its inhabit- ants an adequate diet. Across much of sub-Saharan Africa, modest gains in agricultural production have been achieved, but the gains are not keeping with population growth and the migration of people from the rural areas to the cities. Scholars have estimated that even if annual population growth stabilizes at 2.5%, the demand for agricultural products in sub-Saharan Africa in 2025 would be three times greater than it was in 1990. Problems that limit the growth of food production in sub-Saharan m c a include: a) Low crop yields and limited adoption of new and improved technologies that have been developed by the research communities; b) Degradation of the natural environment because oE expansion of cultivated areas shorter fallow periods, which prevent the land from regenerating its fertility lack of appropriate land-conservation practices increased farming pressure on tiagile land extension of agicullure into mar&al lands not really suited Lo farming c) Inadequate marketing structures and unstable national agricultural policies; d) Inadequate manpower and financial resources for national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES); e) Inadequate and unsatisfactory rural welfare support, particularly for women and smallholder households. These concerns can be addressed only with a high level of cooperation and coordination among NARES and the international agricultural research centers (IARCs), among other partners. The worldwide network of 16 IARCs is coordinated through a voluntary group of donor nations, United Nations agencies, and philanthropic organizations called the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), with administrative headquarters in the World Bank. In 1993, the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the CGIAR conceived of an ecoregional approach to researching in sub-Saharan Africa, in which the continent was divided into discrete regions, each with a number of ecological characteristics in common. The common problems of each ecoregion were to be addressed by coordinated program. The CGIAR also recognized that the implementation of the ecoregional approach could best be achieved through a consortium form of organization, because this framework permits open partnership among various institutions ih the pianning and execution of activities m an ecoregional program. , ~ EPHTA The Ecwegional Program for the Humid and subHunid Tropics of sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA) is an ambitious attempt to tackle some ofthe region's agricuttural and resource management problems in a holistic way. The national agriculhualresearch systems of 11 countries participate in the program: Benin, Cameroon, Central African Republic, C6te d'ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, and Togo. The EPHTApartnership was consolidated in 1996 with the signing of a memorandum of agreement by the original I I countries. CGiARanter members of EPHTA include IiTA, WARDNADRAO, ILRI, ICRAF, and CIFOR. Other international organizations include the United Nations Food and Agri- cultural Organization<'AOf,Pmce's Centre de Coopiratien Intenistionale en Recherche Agronomique pour le ~ 6 v e l o p p ~ m e n t ( ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ) , thelncemational Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC), Togo. Wageningen Agricultural Umversi*; The Netherlands, the DLO- Winand Staring Center for integrated Land, Soil, and Water Research (SC-DLO), and the institute-for Natural Resources in Africa of the UN University. EPHTA objectives' The overall objective of EPHTA is to formalize and strengthen close collaboration among national research and extension systems (NARES), international agricultural research centers (IARCs), international and regional research and development organizations, and relevant stakeholders, for implementing holistic ecoregional research and development activities, encompassing benchmark areas, resource management domains, farmer par- ticipation in technology development, and innovative technology transfer mechanisms in order to: 1. develop and transfer more productive and sustainable agricultural system for the moist savanna zone 2. develop and protect humid forest zone environments and improve the livelihood of the people in the zone 3. develop the inland valley agroecosystems in an environmentally sound manner EPHTA aims to increase productivity and food security through the use of sustainable production and postharvest systems, while minimizing natural resource degradation. The ultimate aim is to improve the wellbeing of smallholder and medium-scale farmers, and alleviate their poverty. EPHTA integrates research on specific commodities and agricultural components with research on nahual resources, policies, and socioeconomic and institu- tional issues. The program relies on extensive consultation, drawing upon the opinions and expertise of numerous groups with a stake in the ecoregion's development. IITAserves as the lead institution for the program, which is executed by three consortia Two consortia, officially launched in April 1996, areeachresponsible foraspecificzone of the ecoregion: the humid forest and the moist savanna Athird consortium, formed in 1994. handles a special agroecological niche--the inland valleys, mostly along major rivers. Benchmarks A limited number of benchmark areas are being developed for the humid forest and the moist savanna, such as the one in southern Cameroon for the forest margins. At a historic meeting in April 1996, EPHTApartners agreed on six benchmark areas and host institutes for the region: Northern Guinea Savanna Location: Northwest Nigeria Host: Institute of Agricultural Resear~.h (IAR), Ahmadu Bello University Southern Guinea Savanna Location: Northwest of Bouakt, C6te d'lvoire Host: Institut des savanes (IDESSA) Derived/Coastal Savanna Location: North of Cotonou, Btnin Host: Instirut national des recherches agricoles du BCnin (INRAB) Forest Margins Location: Southern Cameroon Host: lnstitut de recherche agricole pour le dtveloppement (IRAD) Forest Pockets Location: Southern Ghana Host: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Degraded Forest Location: Southern Nigeria Host: National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) However, before wego into the workshop proper, it is proper that we take the presentation of the DG (IITA) on the ecoregional approach as this will lead us more clearly into why the EPHTA approach was taken by the CGIAR. IITAfs benchmark approach to natural resources management in West and Central Africa Lukas Brader Director General, llTA Abstract This paper discusses IITA's experience in the development and implementation of the benchmark approach in the moist savanna and humid forest zones of West and Cenml Africa. The benchmark approach was developed to facilitate research in heterogenous areas, to increase cooperation between various p m m , and to maximize the impact of technology on resource-poor farmm for the achievement of sustainable natural resource management An important feature of this approach is the concentration of rescarch activities in a limited number of benchmark areas. These are areas representing major features of ecnregions. Their selection is based - - on ecoregion, biophysical and scioeconomic criteria, and oppomnities for suc- cessful execution of research and extrapolation of results. Such research primarily addresses strateeic and transnational issues. althoueh it also leads to 1 0 4 benefiG - - through farmer participatory tesMg and instititional exchange. Benchmark areas are complemented by pilot sites, which are located outside the hechmark areas but fall within the same ecoregion. They serve to test and adapt technologies that werc develooed in the benchmark areas and to cover soecific environments that are not featureh there Six bcnchmark areas and six piloisites arc currently opcrational in the 1 I mcmbcr countries of the Ecore~ional h o m forthc Humid and Subhumid Tropics of sub-Saharan Africa (EPKTA). The-bechmark approach was initially centered on ~roblems of natural resource manazement: so far. activities have expanded to include research on cmp improvem&t andplant health The paper discusses the imolications of the benchmark auumach for research ~rioritization and highlights sdme challenges drawn fmm re& experience. Introduction Agricultural production in sub -Sahm Africa extends across a wide range of ecozones, resulting in a multitude of biophysical and socioeconomic circumstances and as a con- . ~ sequence, a variety of agricultural production systems. Hence, there is a need to identify and address the soecific circumstances and constraints of the individual ecozones and to develop improved technologies matching the prevailing circumstances. To facilitate this, EPHTA was plamed and is now being implemented with IITA as the convening center. This is being done in close collaboration with the national agricultural r e s e k h and extension services (NARES) of West and Central Africa, other international agricultural research centers (IARCs), and agricultural research organizations. EPHTA addresses the research and development needs of the humid and subhumid tropics, encompassing the moist savannas, the humid forests, and the inland valleys within the region. The benchmark approach is an integral methodological component of EPHTA. The benchmark areas serve as focal points for strategic and diagnostic research and are one of the most imoortant features of EPHTA. Therefore. benchmark develooment was of the highest priority. The benchmark area approach enables and enhances collaboration across disciplines and between partners, concentrates efforts and resources on well-dehed areas, avoids spatial dispersionand thematic fragmentation ofresearch, and thus enables creation of critical mass. Small pilot sites complement the benchmark areas. Theunderlying research paradigm is the understanding ofresource-use pattern, which is essential for developing resource management technologies that iit the strategies and needs of farmers. Asystems dynamic paradigm is being used as a basis for domain delin- eation. Resource management domains are areas with similar biophysical and socioeco- nomic circumstances, which are suitable for specific sustainable land-use systems. They encompass similar dominant patterns of resource use, similar development driving forces, and similar agroecological wnditions. The benchmark approach focuses its research on problems relevant to the entire ecoregion. Effectively targeting agricultural research in such a variable environment is a great challenge to the agricultural research system as a whole (Smith and Weber 1995). Choice and delineation of the benchmark areas are therefore crucial. This paper presents the experience gathered during the first two years of implementation in West and Centml Africa. Benchmark area selection Substantial effort has gone into developingan approach which (I) ensures partner partici- pation and (2) balances research priorities with farmers'needs in spec& agroecosystems. Extensive consultations were held to clarify and agree on concepts and gain the endorse- ment of all p r o p partners. Four ecozones in which the benchmark areas were to be located were defined on the basis of length of growing period (LGP) as follows: Northem Guinea savanna: 151-1 80 days Southern Guinea savanna: 181-210 days Derivedlwastal savanna: 211-270 days Humid forest: > 270 days The humid forest zone was further subdivided according to the stage of forest degm- dation: . Forest margins, portraying agradient from large intact forest areas to a forest-faim- land mosaic Forest pockets, with scattered intact forest patches Degraded forest, with no more forest left There was extensive consultation with many regional stakeholders of EPHTA, including NARES, nongovernmental organizations OIJGOs), YLRCs, development agencies (such as FAO), and other partners (such as Centre de coop&mtion internationale en lecherche agronomiquepourle d&veloppement or CIRAD). It was decided to develop one benchmark area in each of these zones and subzones (Fig. 1). The designation of a benchmark area is based on three major criteria (RTA 1996): The area is representative of major features of the agroecological zone It captures important biophysical and socioeconomic variability and gradi- ents It has appropriate circumstances (access, wmmuuications systems, physical infrastructure) for successful research and development The benchmark areas are meant to be focal points for research and are chosen to be large enough (15 000-20 000 km2) to capture the variation of farmers'circumstances and farmers' responses to these. They are a spatial representation of resource-use dynamics and are selected so as to contain gradients of resource-use intensity, population intensity, and market access as well as biophysical gradients so as to allow for the extrapolation of research results to the entire ecozone. Their infrastructure should make possible a full range of research and development activities. These activities are decided by a bench- mark area steering committee, consisting of representatives of all the stakeholders already mentioned. The composition of the benchmark area steering committee is however flex- ible to reflect the realities of each benchmark area (Table 1). Joint planning of activities and regular consultations among stakeholders are important prerequisite for successful benchmark approach. Pilot sites complement benchmark areas. The primary function is to test, evaluate, adapt, and transfer promising sustainable production and postharvest systems. Activities in pilot sites are critical to the delivery of practical results, and are a necessary comple- ment to benchmark area activities. The size of a pilot site is flexible, but they are much smaller than benchmark areas (50&3000 km2). While there is only one benchmark araea for each ecoregion to avoidduplication and dilution of resources, each country member of the program is free to choose at least one pilot site per agroecological zone. The number ofpilot sites is expected to increase over time, as technological options to testladapt from the benchmark areas become available. Currently five countries in West and Central Africa (Cate d'lvoire, Gabon, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Togo) have a total of six operational pilot sites. Midalt~tude (14.lmha) Arid ana Semiarid lands n EPHTABenchmarks Figure 1. Agroecological zones and benchmark areas in West and Central Africa. Table 1. Composition of the benchmark area steering committee in three benchmark areas. Benchmark area Northcrn Foresl Margin Degraded Forest Guinea Savanna NARS IARC ClRAD 1 University 4 Extension s e~ i cc s 2 3 5 NCO 2 1 Farmers' association 1 Private seed company 1 Total 8 10 11 Source: EPHTA (1998a. b, c), NARS: National Aericultural Research Svstem: IARC: International Aericultural Research Center: CIRAD: Centre de coopdrytion internationale eh recherche agronomique pGur le d6veloppement; N& Non- governmental organizalion Implementation of the benchmark approach Strafegic characferizafion A benchmark area is a heterogenous entity. However, the selection of sites for participa- tory research must be done thoroughly from well-defined homogenous domains within the benchmark area. Therefore, the first research activity is to conduct strategic char- acterization studies to determine systems dynamics, delineate domains that reflect the pauerns leading to the specific dynamics of the system, select research sites typical of each domain, and choose panicipaling farmers and fields for experimentation. Figure 2 shows the framework for benchmark area development. The procedure for site selection is as follows: 1. An area sampling approach is usedto identi@ potential research villages. The bench- mark area is divided into grid cells of 10 minutes by 10 minutes or 343.25 km2. Villages are chosen in or near the middle of the cell. The area sampling approach is preferred to other sampling methods as it is thought to capture better the spatial vari- ability of the biophysical and socioeconomic factors within the benchmark area. 2. A village group interview is then conducted at each potential site to collect data using a slmctured questionnaire. The questionnaire is developed from hypothesis on the causes of resource-use pressure and systems response, so that the systems dynamics are incorporated in h e process of domain definition and site selection. 3. A multivariate analysis is performed to classify the surveyed villages into homog- enous areas referred to as resource domains. A resource domain is made up of a group of fanning communities that are located in similar biophysical environments and experience similar development patterns; thus they face similar problems and require similar technological interventions. 4. One (or more) typical village of each resource domain is then selected. The selected villages become the research sites for the benchmark area and the entire ecoregion that area represents. An area of this strategic characterization can be given from the forest margins benchmark -1 Major faclms: lengulolgmwmg pdod and stage offorest Ecoregion degradelimn I O u p t . ExlmpIahn domainsdefined .6 bBnEhmeIXBIBeide"1;~e.l ~ajmranms: bimhysisl (soil, vegelation. .... )and ~ o d m n o m i c (market a=, populasm j denrw, land me inlensilism. .... NARS Odput . Resourn d0ma;nsdei;ne~led . R B s B ~ ~ ~ ~ i l a o e s ~ ~ l e d e d - Pa~opabng farmen releded .Field mil3 .Field htrtone ----I. Research input - - -- -- - - t Research output Figure 2. Framework for benchmark area development area. The area sampling approach resulted in 45 potential research sites. These were fur- ther grouped into three blocks, namely Yaounde, Mbalmayo, and Ebolowa. Amultivariate analysis on the data &om village group interviews resulted in the selection of six research villages, two in each block. The results from the multivariate analysis show a spatial gradient in socioeconomic factors kom the medium-populated Yaounde block close to Yaounde in the north of the benchmark area towards the remote, low populated Ebolowa block with poor infrastructure in the south (Table 2). For example, tbe length of fallow and intensity of hunting activities increase from theYaounde to the Ebolowa block, while off-farm revenue decreases. The spatial gradient is emphasized by the vegetative cover that changes from the predominant degraded secondary forest type in the north towards an evegreen primary forerst type in the south. This spatial gradient is typical of a region with poor infrastructure and where only one major center (Yaounde) is loeatedwithii the boundaries of the benchmark area. Yaounde is the major force driving the intensification in the use of natural resources, resulting in a decreasing pressure on the resource base as one moves away &om the city. The features of the forest margins benchmark area were also found elsewhere in the Congo basin (Manyong et a1 1996). In the northem Guinea savanna, 65 potential research villages were identitied during the first planning meeting of the benchmark area committee. The stakeholders delineated a large area of 25 000km2 for the benchmark area, so as to include the required variability on both biophysical and socioeconomic factors. However, only 65 villages were retained for the village group interviews since some of the grid cells fall in a game reserve where there are no villages. The multivariate analysis resulted in the definition of four resource domains, namely a low resource-use domain referred to as domain 1, a low to medium resource-use domain (domain 2), a medium to high resource-use domain (domain 3), and :~uamdolanap Wolouqaalo] aauenalai q!m payquap! aq uea sdnd ploqasnoq peoiq moj '8uqqnq~-ssoia pue suo!suaw!p pooq!lan!l ow asaqjo qaea 8uop sa8e[[!n qarnasai XIS aqljo sploqasnoq Zuuoas K8 '(9661 pue 7~~07309) saw play jo uo!le!marag!p laleas pue 'splay dola [enuue jo iaqumu ialeaB e jo uo!renqln3 aq 'sales dola pooj uo paseq Baleqs le!aiaunuoa e ql!m sploqasnoq ~uepunqe-ioqel Klan!~el= sa~e!aosse Ba~ws puo3as aqL .sa!Zolouqaal 8u!nes-ioqe~ pue 8u!sn-puel jo luamdolanap aql ot alqeuame aiom aq p~nom sploqasnoq mpunqe-puel asau .suogqueid eoaoa aroy sanuanai [w[na@e ZqerauaS al!qm (saamosar lsaiojjo 8uuaqeS pue '8u! -qsy '%u!~unq) sap!n!]ae pseq-aamosar [weu 01 aq =om Klaleuo!podord alonap Ieq puei IIIepUnqE q!m sp~oqasnoq Kq pagdde s! ~srg au .sa!%a]eqs pooq![an![ [edla~q~d om pay!luap! saZei[!h qaieasai x!s aq) 8u!sudmoa sploqasnoq ~ZS aqi uroy qep snsuaajo s!sKleue aleuen!)pm e 'eare qrnqauaq su@rew isaioj aq u1 .sa!%aiws pooq![an!l pagg -uap! pue saaue?sumana ploqasnoqjo Ias naq 0% Ztupioaae sleq uuej-uo a %u!~ed!a!wd k!ununuoa iauuej aql jo uo!leay!reqs aq roj smolle osle pue suoguahralm lea!Zolouqm la8ia iallaq 01 qareasar smolie uo!leuuojq sm 'p1oqasnoq aql JO lanai aq le sluam -MOpUa iolaej pue sa!8awis pooqqan!l u! uoqepn aqjo uopeq~am~eqa s! 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(su!8rnm isaroj aq ioj am3 aq sem se) srolaej apouoaao!aos aq u! luapd leqeds e aanpu! 01 ialuaa ioiew auo jo ~aedun aq 'aiojaraqL wa~uaa Kuem Kq papunoms s! lo sapnlau! pue 'armam~seyo! peor poo8 '(,unysuosrad (00z-09) k~suap uo!le1ndod @!q 01 mn!paw e seq eare au '(E '8~8) ]uarpB lepeds ou smoqs eare qreqauaq aq ssoix u!muop e 01 Suolaq leql saZe[l!njo peaids aq 'ianamo~ .(E alqea u!ewop 01 I u!ewop woy sla$aarered aqjo ISOW u! lua!pB e alea!pm eare qrnqauaqeuuehes eau!nD iuaipou aq u! su!ewop aamosai pogap aqjo sa!~sualae~eqa w 'st@mm lsaroj aq ioj pqeqs -nomap pue paz!saqlodLq sem se 'uopnq!qsp legeds e mo[loj sKem1e IOU saop 1uapeB e 3~ moqs earn qreuqauaqeuuenes eaum9 nrawou aql m srsKleue aq wog Qlnsar aqL .uoqmua~~e~eqa palyap raqo pue qarnasai Xloyed!a!wd uuej-uo ioj palsa28ns =am memop rad sa%ell!n aaq '(p memop) u!ewop asn-aamosai @!q e (9661) laqeg pue !qs~oq>o3 :axnos Z 0 L P L (,wy/suouad) (sazell!~ s1) Al!suaa .dad IEJIU 'u!~ SL LP 88 (iwy/suouad) (saZell!~ 5 1) X.l!suap ,dad le~n~ 'xew L EL EE (saaell!~ 40 %) anuanal loqel wlel-#o E5 LZ 0 (sa8ell!n 40 %) anuana~ %u!gun~ E6P EOS 565 (~333) iay~ew 03 $so> ~lodsue~l LZ OZ L L (uI~) M~U~S!P laq~ew ueaw EL EL 02 (%) speo~ pauq uo sazelln L LZ L9 (saZe1pn 40 %) 2u!An@u!llas puq S'L b's 6'f (~eaA) tpzual ~ollel a8elanv '1'014 Y"w '1“m emoloq3 oAewleqw x apunoeh .eae qlewqauaq su!Lew )saloj aq u! saSell!h ymeasar ay) 10 ags!~apereq3 .z alqel Table 3. Characteristics of the resource domains in the northern Cuinea savanna bench- mark area. Resource domain 1 2 3 4 (n = 91 (n = 32) (n = 15) (n = 91 Village size (no. of households) 62 292 737 750 Population density (personslkmz) 88 97 127 159 Distance to paved road (km) 15 7 6 5 Public services (0-1) 0.04 0.11 0.21 0.34 Fallow (years) 2.88 1.34 0.60 0.00 Cereals (0-1 0) 8 7.64 8.04 8.29 Grain legumes (0-10) 0.66 1.08 0.97 1.18 MCETC (&lo) 1.75 1.68 3.1 1 3.66 LVSTK ( G I 0) 4 3.84 3.66 2.88 DEPSF 1G10) 0 0.34 1.06 0.22 Fuel wood dependency (010) 0.66 2.78 3.93 6.44 Source: Manyong et al. 1199il n: number of research vi1lages:VECETC: index of vegetables (new enterprises) as a main source of cash; LVSKC: index of livestock (traditional enternrise) as a main sourceof cash: DEPSF: index of dependenr, on staple food. Figure 3. Resource domains in the northern Guinea savanna benchmark area, Nigeria (Manyong et al. 1997). land-scarce, labor-scarce households with little commercialization of their agricultural products. labor-scarce, land-abundant households, tending to pursue a cocoa commercialization strategy while undertaking a range of natural resource-based activities. land-scarce, labor-abundant households, relying on commercial food crop production for revenue generation. land- and labor-abundant households, undertaking both commercial food production and cocoa production revenue stmtegies. The last strategic characterization in the implementation of the benchmark approach is the choice of fields for experimentation. Detailed soil surveys and field histories are the major criteria for the selection of the fields. An example of the result from this activity is shown in Figure 4, which shows the distribution of on-farm trials on the major soil units of one research village in the derived savanna benchmark area. Subject studies Characterization studies are almost completed in the six benchmark areas. Field studies, both on processes and participatory technology testing with farmers, have been initiated on some well-identified transnational issues of natural resource management. Major themes include research on short fallow systems, iutegmred weed management, crop-livestock integration, multistrata systems, soil fertility management, and home gardens. However, the scope of research has expanded beyond natural resource management. Other activities include participatory breeding activities (for example, of soybean) and integmted pest management (such as the use of trap crops to control Striga hermonthica on maize). Both male and female farmers are actively involved in problem identiiication and techno!ogy testing and evaluation. For example, about 200 farmers from the derived savanna benchmark area and about 95 farmers from the northern Guinea savanna area are participating in various agronomic and croplivestock trials. A directory of 188 com- munity-based organizations and farmers' federations has been established for the forest margins benchmark area. An example of a successful introduction of a new technology through collaborative research with farmer involvement is the use of leguminous cover crops in short fallow systems to control weeds and restore soil fertility in the derived savanna benchmark area. Participatory technology testing with farmers was initiated with various technological options (alley cropping, mulch, green manure cover crops) to restore soil fertility in an area with high population and severe soil degradation in the Mono Province of the Benin Republic. The farmers soon noticed the ability of one leguminous cover crop, the velvet bean (Mucuna pniuienzs var utilis), to smother the noxious weed i~nperata cylindrica. Smothering this weed resulted in the saving of labor to tend the maize-cassava-groundnut mixed cropping from an average of four times weeding to about two times weeding for a cropping season that lasts 3 months. Additional advantages are the accumulation of up to 160 kg N h (Sanginga et al. 1996); erosion control; the maintenance or improvement of the soil physical, chemical and biological properties; and an increase in maize yield from about 1.3 to 3 tha (%sob et al. 1998). The analysis of the economic returns of systems with and without Mucuna indicated a benefit : cost ratio ofonly 0.62 for the farmers'system without Muczina. Others showed 1.24 for the new system with Mucuna fallow but without a market for Mucuna seed, and 3.56 for the new system with both Mucuna fallow and a Eglim4 village Mom province Benin Republic Soil units legend: LV = Luvisols RG = Regosols LP = Leptosol G = Glaysols C = Cambbols Don-farm nial 1 Figure 4. Dislribution of on-farm trials on major soil units, Eglime resear village, in the derived manna benchmark area, BQnin Republic market for Mueuna seed. NGOs and official extension services have taken the technology and widely disseminated it. The number of Mucuna users rose from about 20 farmers in 1988 to 10 000 in 1996 (Table 4). Adoption of the new iechnology throughout Mono Province would result in annual savings of about USS1.85 million wssoh ei al. 1998). Another success siory is the adoption and rapid expansion of soybean in Kaya vil- lage in resource domain 2 of the northem Guinea savanna benchmark area A study of the cropping systems in 1997 revealed that soybean occupied 25.2% of the farmland; in contrast the percentage was only 1.3 in Danayamaka village in resource domain 2 in the same benchmark area (Manyong ei al. in preparation). Table 4. Estimated number of farmen using Mucuna in BQnin Republic. Year Number of farmers 1988 20 1989 100 1991 500 1993 3000 1996 10000 Source:Vissoh et al. (1998). The difference reRects the different development patterns of the two villages. Farmers in Kaya village are market-oriented and quickly adopted the new, high-yielding soybean varieties, whichhave low pod shatte~gandirnprovedpest resistance. Danayamaka village has poor infrastructure that does not allow marketing to develop. Sorghum, the traditional crop in the Guinea savannas, dominates the cropping systems. The diversiiication in land use in Kaya village has resulted in high-yielding crops that have a comparative advantage in the c l i c conditions, while the traditional, low-yielding crops grown in the savannas have declined (Table 5). Research prioritization The benchmark approach facilitates research in a small, manageable, and strategically chosen area. The database generated allows for research priorities to be set within the eco~gion. Investment in developing the ecoregional and benchmark database is crucial for successful research prioritization. Addressing natuml resource management, crop improvement, and plant health problems using a dynamic approach along gradients in resource-use intensscation (through the definition of resource domains) helps to predict development trends as agraecosystems evolve over time. This allows the research systems to anticipate rather than to correct the incidence and severity of constraints in general and other natuml resource management oroblems in oarticular. - Many benefits are derived from this innovative approach in the definition of research and development strategies. Thii approach forces partners in West and Central Africa to shifi research planning from institute mandates to ecoregional priorities. For example, stakeholders in the forest margins benchmark area gave high priority to research on multistrata and short fallow systems. In the northem Guinea benchmark area, the stake- holders chose research on crop-livestock integmtion and cereal-legume cmp rotation as their focus. This approach also promotes farmer participatory research. As the database increases, it is expected that the ability of the stakeholders to deliver public goods will be accelerated. Challenges " Theapproach is still toonew formeaningful assessment ofits impact to be made. Aithough some positive results have beenachieved so far (definition of resource domains, selection of research sites; participating farmers; and fields to conduct experiments; participatory breeding activities; integratedpest control), recent work in the benchmarkareas has high- lighted some challenges to ecoregion-based development. For instance, the coherence, research planning, and data integration between stakeholders from various institutions need to he improved. Increasing the number ofmeetings among the stakeholders and con- ducting joint research activities are ways to improve eficiency in the partnership. While both the benchmark areas and pilot sites are weU characterized, the issues of delineation of the extrapolation domains withii each larger ecoregion still need to be addressed. A geographic information systems expert and the availability of geo-referenced secondary data are necessary to successfully fill this gap. Issues such as those related to policy and integrated pest management cut across benchmark and ecoregional boundaries, and they must be addressed inside and outside the benchmark area to fully @eve development results. - Table 5. Changes in the land-use systems in Kaya village, northern Guinea savanna bench- marks area (% of farmland). Crop 1990 1997 Change fn = 651 fn = 132) I1 990-1 997) Maize 50.7 43.3 -7.40 Sorghum 33 12.5 -20.50 Rice 5.9 7.8 + 1.9 Soybean 2 25.2 + 23.2 Groundnut 0.6 2.3 + 1.7 cowpea 1.1 1.9 + 0.8 Others 6.7 7 + 0.3 Total 100 loo o Source: Manyong et al. (in preparation). n: number of farmers. References EPHTA(Ecoregiona1 Program for the Humidand SubhurnidTropics of sub-Saharan Africa). 1998a. Northem Guinea savanna benchmark area annual report 199711998. Mimeo. institute of Agri- cultuial Rcscarch, Zaria, Nigcria EPHTA(Ecoregiona1 Program forthc Humid and SubhumidTropics ofsubSaharan Africa). 1998b. Deeraded forest benchmark area 1997 momss rcnort Mimeo. National Root Crons Rcscarcb . - ~nsihite, Umudike, Nigeria ' EPHTA(Ecoregional Program for the Humid and SnbhumidTropics of subSaharan Africa). 1998c. Zone de dfkenee pour les lisieres forestiPres, &mion conjointe I I T W de lencement du programme EPHTA. Mimeo. Instihit de recherche agricole pour le d&eloppement, Yaound6, Cameronn. Gockowski, I . andD. Baker. 1996.Targetingresource and crop management research for the humid forest ofcentral and WestAfrica Paperpresentedat 1996 Biennial Meeting of Rockefeller Social Science Research Fellows, 15 Angust 1996, Nairobi, Kenya. IITA (internaticmal institute of Tropical Agriculture). 1996. Ecoregional Program for the Humid and SubhumidTropics of sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA): Mechanism for sustainability and part- nmbip in agriculrure. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria Manyong, V.M., I. Smith, G.K. Weber, S.S. Jagtap, and B. Oyewole. 1996. Macroeharacterization ofagriculNra1 systemsinCentra1Africa:An overview. Resomeand CmpManagement Research Monograph. No. 22. UTA, Ibadan, Nigeria Manyong,V.M., D. Baker, and J.O. Olnkosi. 1997. Systemdynamics and pattem analysis ofresource domains in the benchmark area of the northen Guinea savama/Nigeria. M i e o . IITA, Ihadan, Nigeria. Sanginga, N., B. % e m , P. Hougoandan, B>Va&uwe, and J.A. Okogun. 1996. Evaluation of symbiotic properties andnitrogen contribution of Mucuna to maize growth in the derived savan- nas ofWest Africa. Plant and Soil 179: 119-129. Smith, J. and G.K. Weber. 1995. Strategic research in heterogeneous mandate areas: an example 6om the West A6ican savanna. Chapter 30 in ~griculturil technology: policy issues for ihe international community, edited by J.R Anderson. CAB IntemationallPlorId Bank, Wallimgford, Oxon, UK Vissob, P., V.M. Manyong, RJ. Carsky, P. Osei-Bonsu, and M. Galiba 1998. Experiences with M u m in West Africa. Pages 1-32 in Copver crops in West Africa: contribution to sustainable agriculture, edited by D. Buckles,A. Eteka, 0. Osiname, M. Galiba, and G. Galiano. IDRCmTA/ SG 2000, Ottawa, Canadallbada~ Nigeria/Cotonou, Benin Republic. Introduction to the workshop Doyle Baker FAO, Rome, Italy The paper delivered by the D i i t o r General of IITA, Dr Lukas Brader, gives aclear account of why EPHTA was established and also it says in clear terms the approach being taken to ensure viable results in this initiative. I will now give you more details on the present workshop, particularly on how we will approach this meeting on the long run. EPHTA backeround " Benchmark area teams have been conducting a baseline resource management survey, based on a standardized questionnaire administered through villagelevel interviews. The main purpose of the baseline resource management s G y is toidentify domains based on system dynamics. The domains are used for targeting and will eventually he a basis for extrapolating results to pilot sites. During the course of presentations, you will listen to the presentations by experts. The presentations will he state-of-the-art papers. After this, we will have the scientiiic plan- ning workshop. The purpose of this workshop is to formulate strategies for supporting farming systems development The specific objectives will be: 1. Characterize farmer circumstances and needs: resource use patterns, dynamics and domains, farmer typologies and s-gies 2. Appraise farmeropportunities: profitability ofsustainable production systems, market- oriented enterprises 3. Assess policy and institutional constraints: impact of shchlral adjuslment on policy and support services, innovative support through NGOs, private sector, farmer orga- nizations 4. Clarify intervention strategies and priorities: aevelopment of themes and issues, immediate action to help farmers To achieve the above objectives, we will have the following arrangements on our daily activities. Workshop sequence Session 1 Benchmark area reports Workshop 1 Resource management and farmer typologies Session 2 State-of-the-art papers (farmer oppormnities) Workshop 2 Farmer opportunities Session 3 State-of-the-art papers (policies and institutions) Workshop 3 Institutional and policy issues Workshop 4 Priorities for target domains Daily sequence (Days 7-3) Paper presentation session Discussant synthesis and remarks Topical workshop Top;ca/ workshops (Days 1 4 ) lniroduction of issues and questions Division into small discussion groups Plenary reports and discussion With all these, I believe we will be able to achieve a lot of success at this scientific meeting. Thank you Cameroon forest margins benchmark J. Ngeve Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD) BP 2 123 Yaound6, Cameroon The report concentrated on the iield activities implemented by the benchmark area @A). The main activities involved surveys to characterize the land-use systems and the post- harvest systems. The resuIts obtained are ' Rd below. Land-use systems Three land-use systems can be recognized in the humid forest region ofCameroon: (a) Co~ee~foodcropdcocoa system Practiced in the Southwest Province and Moungo division of the Littoral Province; in the low lying area characterized by highminfall (over 3000 mm per a~um); soils are highly fertile nikosols; principal cash a o p is coffee, followed by cocoa; food crops include cocoyam, cassava, and plantains. 0) Householdfarms ofplmtation workers Widely practiced in infertile xanthiic fer- mlsoIs in the high rainiall zone of the Littoral and parts ofthe Southwest Provinces; land pressure is high, and land rental and sharecropping are common; cassava is the principal food crop grown, alongside with some leafy vegetables. (c) CocoP/foodcropdcoffeesysIem Found throughout the southern plateau and extends throughout the humid lowlands of Cameroon, including the East, Center, Southand parts of the Littoral Provinces; soils are mostly orthic FemIsols; short cycle crops such as groundnuts and maize are intercropped with cassava, plantain and wcoyam: cocoa is the main cash crop. Three subsystems can be identified in this system: (i) Food crop production subsystem: Newly opened forest land is planted with Cucumismelo; six months afrerharvest, cassava, groundnut, cocoyam,maize, and plantain then foIlow. I (ii) Cocoa production subsystem: Cocoa is cultivated on newly cleared land or after food crops have been harvested; wried out by men; cocoa planting gives long-term land-use rights to farmers and their descendants, and sometimes l i i t s farm expansion by more able villages. (iii) Home gardenlsmall livestock subsystem: This system, managed around homesteads, includes fruit trees (such as c i m and mango), vegetables, and small livestock and poultry. Cmpping systems in the humid foiest region The main cropping systems so far identified in the forest zone are: groundnut-based maize fields in which cassava and sweetpotato are the important crops; maize field in which gmundnuts and leafy vegetable are intempped; home gardens made up mainly of horticultural crops (green leafy vegetables and plan O t h ? 2 k ananafields; egusi-basedfarms; . cocoa plantations, usually monoculture but sometimes intercropped with plan- tains; . coffee plantations (of the robusta type-coffee canephora var. mbzrstaj, mostly in the littoral; oil and m 5 a palm fields, rubber plantation fields. Fallow periods in the benchmark area of southern Cameroon Fallow lengths of more than 10 years were found to occur mostly in the Ebolowa and Mbalmayo blocks. It is in these blocks that you still find most of forestlands. Crops varieties and farmers' traditional cultural practices in many fields, mostly local varieties are grown. The situation has changed somewhat for maue and cassava because farmers now grow improved planting material of these crops. Fields close to urban centers grow commercialiied imported seeds of vegetables such as tomato, cabbage, and spinach. The challenge is now for speciftc varieties adapted to humid forest region conditions to be developed by the research. Farmers still prefer to use traditional cultural practices such as planting on the flat (because they claim the soil is much too hard for deep cultivation), and zig-zag planting. Farmers' practice mixed cropping, involving as many as eight crops. Very few farmers use fertilizers or chemicals on food crops. Four administrative divisions in the benchmark were surveyed to monitor total land area devoted to food and cash crops. It was found that a larger area is devoted to food crops in the Lekie and Mefou divisions than in the other division, reRecting the proximity of these divisions to Yaounde. the larcrest citv in the benchmark area. - Remote sensing estimates of land use and land cover in the three blocks of the bench- mark area show that the most primary forests are found in the Ebolowa block; there are hardly any primary forests l e i in the Yaounde block where logging activities started a long time ago and where there is the greatest land-use intensification. Cocoa cultivation is more dominant in Ebolowa and Mbalmayo, and accounts for more than 10% of the total area; chemicals and fertilizers are used only on cash crops (cocoa and coffee), and in some home gardens. Fan sizes of peasant farmers The size of individual peasant farm varies from 900 m2 (for home gardens) to 5000 m1 (for coffee or cocoa plantations). Farm size was conelated with family sue. A family with more children had larger farms and more fragmented farms per season than one with a small number of children. Farmers having other sources of income, such as a monthly naid iob. can afford to hue labor and therefore increase their field size. . * , A new category of fanners has arisen in recent years comprising retired ministers and directors and young university giaduates, unable to find employment in govenunent; they grow plantations of the rapid paying food clops such as &saw, maize, and plantains. These "enlightened farmers" usually have larger farms than the conventional subsistence growers and most of the time they practice monocropping. The mainconstraint to increased production is lack of planting material. qmpard~ A%gapmjo asoq q paw am Smssa3ard pm aSerolsjo smalqard '8u.yaf.agq '&pgmposd pm nogrrrpard pa-q q aqnq saw e se ams ne3 sg~ %zsman ? ~mpard manjo inamdola~ap aq @noq sasn dm30 n0gwgsran.p aq, 'pooj nmrmq se pasn an s3npord p.y pm sdon aq jo lsom imp pap~a Kams aq, .uop.z![.yn 'npn nogwsoomap pm Snlaieq @nom srasn pna aq pampq aq sa@o~ompa) asaq amp papnammom s! xoear aqjo sramreJ isomjo nogna~e aq q i@narq naaq iaK ton ahtq zm!nq is~a sa@o~ouqmi inapga arom pm panardm~ .X311apga pw &!3edm JO smm~ q qqg 'IahaMoq 'am sanbpqw asaqL .qmpard sno~n olq sdar:, poj aq jo is~.$upojsoeq roj sanbgm pogpw pxa aiawZyssamq c .smzBord 8~1q qrm nopsoqencm m anop aq isnm srqqg p18oiolojsKqd.q anp sass01 Suq~asucm no sapws .care aq q smalqosd aZerop awqdtq lsom aq anjwol padolanap aqppoqs qsadpm saseaspjo aSerqs~oj sanby -qm imm Kp~~~&~uaamq~q 'sa@o[ouqq on are aaqqagm ispBe sma~qard a%zo?s asoq M) no paw 3 OS@ ppoqs qmasar angdepe pue pmamepmy qog .qpn nogeq=omap pm 8- @now nomom srm 30 UogenImasslp 4 na~F aqp~oqs &!=ox -uo!Zai aqc~o sramj~o uo,sna~e aq q i@nosq naaq $a& lon 'saAamoq 'anzq q3gm soog -we qmasar pem Zrqz~oqqm a! pm (m?@ inamdola~aa soj qmsax @rrnF3Hv 30 a)rs~.-aq oq Kq padolanap sa@olompal aSws vop 3qqnd panodug an araq .y$ q01 mog aSm 01 pavodar an imp sass01 q83 so3 a[qpuodsas am Kaq, 'Zqg aq 01 pmoj araM sa3gmd pm sqws a8erqs 1nas.q) .aZu,~ol~ .awqd mr03!un pm qpuom se q3ns sa3q3erd @rmpo tq ~namahordq oi paiqa am Kaq asnmaq pawnpa Aware3 aq ~snm nogzqueqmm se q3ns sanbpqsa~ .no@a aq jo mgmd ~3 aqbl ma Knmq ? anbgm? %gsamq aq, .sq3gs pm 'saiaqm 'saoq se q~ns qool Zqsn Kpsom ino papa q 8wsamq dm3 ..?ugsam~ .%$dam aidg* no Kp paseq q mqsKs Suyq aq .am aag no Kw 's@nrlne sgsamop r~ar snmj lsom 'sdos3 q nog~ppe q meKosm pm 'me6 'sugqd 'apm 'rnupunoB %msm apn13~ sdom pooj solem aq, .sdm qse3 pm poojjo a8m aw = w6gp-o noFaaqjo SamreJ aq iq papna sq ?so&e!p arLI. .uo!imp%i :SMOIIO~ ses! VInsac a% jo Amwwn~ '8wq pm pm Sgmq 'wnpard saqmg-nonjo apzs aq pm '~~pm ~o mog amjo apzs pm Sqddq 'sapsad pm srwomjo 2- 'am)- am3 jo Zqm aq 'n@r3pueq apn13m asaql .amp3@e mog mde sag1ng38 SgerauaS-ammq raqo m paS&iua anzq quesead 'sean amos tq earn q~eury~uaq * u! sag!n-pe tuq-uo~ pml q3nsjo raumo aqj0 inasom aq qw anop aq Kpo um nog3nposd auy m@d soj sm@d ewjo nop~~oldxa aq =air3 ~ogq~o~dxajo mroj Km no rm no pazzaIlo na~@ naaq seq pq qms moqm q asoq so) spwl asaq Sqw~o srauuej Kpo .sag- ro spnpppq Kq pamo K1@~13e? 'rnamaho8 aqc q Sno1aq Kppg~o 03 pps @noqp? hooraw m pmpq arnua) puel are not handled, stored, or processed, subsequent marketing will be difficult As the farmers reported, marketing of food products should be better organized Transport facilities are either inappropriate or lacking. The poor infrastructure and poor marketing facilities all contribute to thepoormarketingof food products in the region. Researchand development issues that need to be addressed include cataloging markets, determination of volumes of each crop available for marketing, prices, market information system, common initiative group formation and dynamics, record keeping, and Snances. Recommended themes for actionhesearch based on the above dissemination of available improved postharvest technologies (storage, processing, marketing, and socioeconomic issues) through training and demonstration units - - applied and adaptive research on storage, processing, and marketing issues forwhich technologies are not yet available (all important crop and animal resomes) appropriate gmin storage struchues adapted to the humid forest region environmentally fiiendly techniques for controlling gmin storage pests and dis- eases appropriate mot and tuber storage structures techniques to cont~ol physiological spoilage of roots and tubers during storage in collaboration with breeders promising traditional food processes for both crop and animal products appropriate packaging systems for various products affordable labor-saving devices (manual and motorized) for food handling, process- ing, and packaging new products to include animal feeds and industrial products analytical data on raw materials and products for the purpose of characterization marketing studies to include in-depth inventory of resources, product volumes, prices, consumer tastes and preferences, market c h a ~ e l s , market information socioeconomic studies on all issues mentioned above Discussions Question: What main types of farmer have been identified in the Cameroon BA? Answer: Cash crop farmers, food crop farmers, mixed cash cropnivestock h e r s , and mixed food croplcash crop farmers. Question: What particular resources bave been identified as being most limiting to the farmers? Answer: The following have been identified: * lack of improved planting materials for cassava, maize, and other crops - declining soil fertility, improved fallow management being used to remedy the situ- ation inability to afford resources for intenssed agricdhlre Question: As a follow-up to the above question, what opportunities bave been lost to farmers because of these resource limitations? Answer: Increased production to meet the needs of processing industries. To ameliorate the situation, government has taken some measures. Loans are obtained h the govem- ment through the National Employment Fund (NEF) for agriculture. Funds are given by NEF for traininglreiraining of youths in agriculture. 'SlmNas mar pm sqmw .Qpahpn %unorC pado~dmaun q sue01 :.'a~suv ~1023as @rmps@~ aq qm aldoad paqoq-alqe pw 8mo.4 arom awmz 01 saAyne aq are I~M 'noy~pdod 81iy.m~ %ma28 ne 1nqno!lqndod %moK Kiany~la E~IM :noysanb "VLH~~JO q1omaareg am wirm rlmasar @rm~@e 4 passaw aq 01 Q~SIIO~JO noymggnap! IOJ va noorawe3 y pasn naaq at.9 mq aqL :ramsW islrodar Iagrea mog ssaso~d law naaq amp SEH iuoosam~ m Lams angaseq aq no apmn ssa1801d aq naaq seq 3% :noysanb Degraded forests benchmark 1.E.G. lkwrgu NRCRI, Umudike, PMB 7006, Umuahia, Abia Stare, Nigeria The report contained three components: 1. Baseline survey of southeas Nigeria agroecological zone 2. Resource management survey of the Degraded Forest Benchmark Area (BA) 3. EPHTA activities implemented to date by the BA Highlights of baseline survey results The southeast Nigeriaagroecological zone lies roughly between longitude 5'34' and 954' E andlatitude 4"15' and 750"N. It occupies a total area of 78 612 hn2 and is character- ized by the following: Based on the 1991 census figures, the total population of the zone is 18 821 872; . Important geographical features include plains and lowlands in the west, coastal landscape in the upper centml parts of the zone, and the Eastern Highlands, near the border with Cameroon. Many rivers, inciuding the Niger, Cross, Imo, andhambra! Manu dmin the zone. Five climatic regions are distinguishable from the zone: (i) Zone I (equatorial forest zone): The driest month has at least 60mm rainfall; average annual lainfall is always greater than amual potential evapotranspiration. (ii) Zone 11: Only oneor two months with less than 60 mmrainfall, maximum temperature being 35°C. (iii) Zone HI: Three dry months with less than 60 mm rainfall, the total annual rainfall being 1875-2500 mm; rainfall shows more seasonal rhythm and is modified by local environmental factors. (iv) Zone N: Four months in which rainfall is less than 60 mm and the driest month has less than 29 mm; total annual iainfaU ranges from 1600 mm to over 2000 mm. (v) Zone V: Four dry months with monthly rainfall less than 49 mm; amual rainfall ranges from 1500 to 1830 mm. Note: Based on the above, a good part of the zone lies outside the humid forest zone char- acterized by length of growing season with more number of days of less than 2700 mm minfall. The dominant vegetation of this zone consists of both fresh water and salt water swamps to the west, coastal grasses at the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, and lowland rainforest occupying most ofthezone, while to the far north is the rainforest-savanna transition zone. The soils feriiiity map of the zone shows areas with low, medium, and high N, P, or K. Major crops grown in the zone are yam, cassava, maize, rice, wcoyam, plantain, and to a less extent, sweetpotato. Major crop combinations indicate that the dominant crop mixture in the zone (88%) is yam/maize/cassavdvegetables intercrop. The major vegetables are egusi melon, telfairia, okra, and amaranth~rs. Some cassavdgroundnut intercrops with or without maize are popular in some parts of the zone. . Using the baseline survey information, the following three blocks of the degraded forest BA were delineated: Abakabki, Umuahia, and Port-Harcowt blocks. Preliminary results of the resources management survey Based on the information &om the baseline survey, a resource management survey of the BA was conducted between 3 and 11 September 1997 in 45 villages that constitute the BA villages. The data from this work have not been fully aoalyzed, but the following have been indicated: (i) Most of the BA is flat land or plateau. Only the Umuahia Block (20%) has sloping hiUside lands. (ii) The number of households in a village increases &om Block I (Abakaliki) to Block Dl (Port-Harcowt). The highest number of households in a village (5210) was observed in Port-Harcourt block. (iii) Most of the village dwellers (98%) use ~ e w o o d as a major source of fuel. Electricity is not available to 64% of the people of the BA which has virtually no pipe- borne water. Some EPHTA activities carried out so far Six BA villages (two per block) have been selected, based on the available data; Thirty contact farmers (five farmers per village) have been selected; each farmer was given four varieties of improved cassava and three varieties of yam hybrids. Conducting on-station work on short fallow stabilization. About 15 varieties of cover crops, using chromolaena spp. as a check, are being evaluated for potentials for regenerating soil fertility and suppressing weeds. Multiplying some more improved cassava and yam (2 ha) for distribution to contact farmers in 1999. (i) The resource management surveys conducted in 1997 as well as the houseboldresou~ce management survey have not been analyzed. The NARS lack the expertise for detailed data analysis. (i) Lack of vehicles, office iniiastructure, and operation funds hinder effective operation. Discussions Question (a) Is there evidence of cassava replacing yam as intensification pressure increases? @) If yes, what is being done to prevent the loss of valuable genetic resources in farmers' varieties? (c) What is the extent of fertilizer use? (d) What about croplivestock integration? Answer (a) Yes, cassava has gradually replaced and taken the position of yam in terms of area grown. The reason, of course, is declining soil fertility. Most varieties of yams per- form best under high soil fertility and, in fact, some varieties have been lost (extinct) because they could not be produced in poor soils. @) What is being done h1Is within our short fallowlsoil fertility regeneration studies. If we can regenerate soil fertility to a reasonable level, the trend may be reversed. (c) Fertilizer use was very low in the late 1970s due to poor extension and farmers' belief that fertilizers reduce the quality of mot crops. But by the mid-1980s to this day, fertilizer use rose to a point that every farmer needs fertilizer but it is no longer affordable by the resource-poor farmers. (d) Crop-livestock integration exists among farmers but is definitely not developed consciously. This is an important area for research and development. (e) Horticultural production systems have not really been fully studied but there is a promise that this activity could greatly impmve farmers' weU-being, if developed Question (a) As a follow-up to question 1 on fertilizer use, bow widespread is the use of fertilizer in your area? @) Do farmers use feflizers to counteract reduction of fallow period in yam produc- tion? Answer (a) Already answered @) Farmers use f e d k e r a lot, but not necessarily to counteract reduction of fallow period. The fact is that at present, fertilizers are too expensive for farmers. Question There is something not correct about the village characterization in the Abakaliki Bk, rice is the dominant crop in the area followed by yam. This is not reflected in the preliminary characterization presented. Why? Answer Youare correct, all thedata from o u r c ~ t e r i z a t i o n survey have not been analyzed. What I showed was secondary data for Enugu State and believe that if I bad data for Ebonyi State, rice would have been shown as ihe most important crop. Question Maize is the third most important crop in your area. Recognizing the fact that you are located in a root crop institute, how do you cater for the needs of farmers that grow maize? Answer We in the southeast zone are in the Zonal Research Institute, which houses a Zonal Farm- ing Systems Headquarters. The Farming Systems Team has the mandate to research into all the farming system of people in southeast Nigeria So what we do is go for improved technologies whereverthey are, bring them home, tailor them, and adapt them to theneeds - and capabilities of our farmers. ispuepam aql roj mid moL are ~eq~ 'nopngln3 a3u ioj Lpepqwd 'spwllam aqjo asn aqmn slamd .anoz isaioj pamap aqljo qaolq qmqvaqjo spuevam aql no sa!i!A!w apnpnr IOU ppvodar mob uo!panb Forest pockets benchmark Joyce A.S. Haleegoah Crops Research Institute (CRI) Kumasi, Ghana Summary of baseline information for benchmark area of Ghana (i) Study villages/towns The benchmark area (BA) was divided into three blocks: Kumasi (1 5 villages) Obuasi (1 7 villages) Asankragua (1 5 villages) (ii) Institutional, socioeconomic, and biophysical constraints to agriculturalproduc- tion The constraints identified included: Gradual shift towards a forestlsavanna transition zone. Road networks outside the major town are inadequate. Marketing and extension facilities are lacking for food crops, but available for cocoa, the main cash crop. Traders travel to the production villages to purchase farm produce at very low prices. No active agricultural credit program in operation, especially in Obuasi and Asankra- gua blocks. Poor soils and erratic rainfall. (iii) Land tenure system About 50% of farmers reported that they did not have sufficient land for agricultural production. Most land owned through inheritance. Sharecropping. Women and land ownership: apart from their husband's land, some women have rights to other land to grow crops for their own need. Women who did not have access to other lands are mostly spouses of settler farmers. (iv) Land-use cltanges Declining importance of traditional forest crops such as cocoa, plantain, and cocoyam. Cassava, maize, oil palm, and cowpea are replacing these. Farmers have forecast that if the present trend continues, crops such as plantain and cocoyam will be out ofthe system in the next decade or so, especially in Asankragua block. Major food crops grown and consumed: cassava, maize, cocoyam, plantain, and yam. Major tree crops grown: cocoa, citrus, oil palm, avocado, and kola. Mixed cropping patterns: the patterns for the mixed cropping are as follows: Cocoa + cassava + maize + plantain + cocoyam + yam + pepper + garden egg + okra Oil palm + cassava + maize + plantain + cocoyam + yam + pepper + garden egg + okra Citrus+inaizelwwpea Maize + cassava + plantain + cocoyam + yam +pepper + garden egg + okra The food crops in the cocoa, citrus, and oil palm plantations are only predominant during the first two to three years after establishment. They are phased out when the plantations start bearing fruits (i.e., between three and four years after establishment). Sole cropping: Crops that sometimes grow as sole crops include maize, rice, pepper, tomato, garden egg, and okra. Iv) Livestock ijk,edly, goats, sheep, and poultry are the major animals reared in the B k Obuasi and Asadwmgua blocks: livestock and poultry production is on a small scale, mostly on a free-range system. Kumasi block: livestock rearing is expanding and poulhy production is on a large scale. (vi) Soil fertility maintenance Soil fertility is maintained through the use of Mow. Where pressure on land is highest, the use of live mulch, especially M u m , is becoming increasingly popular. The use of festihers is limiting due to the high cost (vii) Postharvest and ulilization For long periods of storage and high selling price in the lean period, harvested palm fruits are generally processed into palm oil and palm kernel oil in all the three blocks. Dry "Rokonte" chips are processed from cassava tubers. Pepper is dried and stored in jute or fertilizer bags. Rice and maize are stored in haditional cribs and occasionally smoked to control insects. (viiu) Marketing channels and policies Generally, traditional cash crop produce such as cocoa and kola are sold directly to com- panies engaged in their procurement for export food w p produce are sold through the following channels: Farmer-eonsumer at the village Farmer-middleman at villageconsumer at urban markets Farmer-middleman at village-retailer at urban market-amsumer at urban market Farmer-middleman from urban center-consumer at urban center Farmer-middleman fiom urban center-retailer at urban market-consumer at urban center It was concluded with hope that the above results would guide the development of sustainable systems for the forest pockets of the subregion. Discussions Question What is the current status of resowe management survey in your BA? Answer The survey has been conducted in all the three blocks with 15 villages each. The data are yet to be entered into the computer for analysis. The problem is researchers' t&e to do the data entaing i d analysis. Question You completed the baseline survey in May. What is retarding the analysis of the data? And what assistance do you think llTA can give? Answer Researchers involved in the study have a problem finding the time. If we could get per- some1 to assist in the data entry, the analysis and report writing would not be a problem. IiTA could help us with a technician for such duties and also in providiig secretarial assistance to the Coordinator. Qnestion Farmers sell their produce at give-away prices, primarily because of inadequacy ofaccess roads to the farms. Are these roads continuously inaccessible or are they seasonally inac- cessible, i.e., are they accessible during the dry season? To help farmers get better prices, should you not be addressing the issue of postharvest handling and storage? Answer Roads are inaccessible after the rainy season when the produce is ready for sale. The pmgram would address postharvest and storage issues. The problem is that majority of our consumers make use of more of the fresh produce than the processed ones. Question How do commercialization strategies vary acmss the gradient of population densities? Answer Cocoa is the main commercial crop for all the blocks, but because of deforestation, the change is towards food crops such as cassava, plantain, and cocoyam, especially in the Kumasi and Obuasi blocks. Question How do blocks differ in terms of resource management? Are there different strategies that might be targeted to blocks? Answer The main difference among the blocks is the population density and the nature of agricul- tural intensification, as well as thecmp grown. The strategies should address the consmints that would be specilied in the main report, which would be written when the data have been appropriately analyzed / Northern Guinea savanna benchmark area A.O. Ogungbile Institute forAgricultura1 Research (IAR), Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria Results of baseline survey of northern Guinea savanna benchmark area of Nigeria Most of the report was on the results of the baseline survey, summarked below. Aeeess to agricultural land. Access to agricultural land is mainly by inheritance. Land is held in trust for the community by the community head, although individual families exercise considerable control over their farmlands. Unmanied females have access to land, but are expected to surrender such land to their fathers when they get married. The process of inheritance means that farmlands are increasingly fragmented into uneconomic sizes among future family members; the average farm size hardly exceeds 2 ha. Roads. The NGS BAis well l i e d with accessible roads that facilitate w o r t of goods and services in and out of the farm areas. Water bodies. General water bodies including Rivers Kaduna, Galma, Challawa, Tubo, Danmari, Getameya, Koriga, and M a ~ g a exist in the NGS-BA. The riverbanks and waIersheds are foci for inland vaUeylFadama agricultural activities. These rivers provide the irrigated agricultural production and iish farming opportunities in the area Low adoption of packages which include chemicals as components Factors that adversely iduence adoption of improved on-farm packages in the NGS include: Land frag~nentnlian. Land fragmentation would be blamed for the low adoption rates for improved on-farm packages. Farmers now focus their scarce inputs on those crops that demonstrate the highest potential consistent with declared goals of farm production. Incre&g use ond cost of agrocIte~nicaLF m d fertilizers. Crops such as cowpea require considerable protection against pests and diseases with applications of syn- thetic pesticides. These chemicals are imported and costly. The increasing cost of these agrochemicals discourages adoption of the improved on-farm packages for such crops. Socioeconomics. There have been vigorous extension activities to promote improved on-farm technologies by various organizations including the World Bank-assisted Agricultural Development Project (ADP). These efforts are widely believed to account for the widespread adoption of maize and maize-related technologies in the NGS-BA. Climale. W~thin the NGS-BA, short drought spells occur commonly in the rainfed- cropping season, and adversely constrain adoption of improved on-farm technolo- gies. For example, long season or late-maturing, high yielding crop varieties (e.g., maize) may not be adopted in theNGS-BA. W e d cropping season in theNGS-BA is between June and September. Drought spells occurring within this period would cause moisture s k s s and hamper optimum yield of crops. Soils. Soils in the NGS-BA have low organic carbon and total nitrogen, and have poor moisture retention capacity and shallow rooting depths. Crop production in the area, therefore, requires the use of organic matter. This is adversely influencing maize production, to the advantage of sorghum; increasing land area is presently being put to sorghum cultivation. Hired labor is now a major component of total labor requirement. Agricultural labor in the NGS-BAcomes from both family and hired sources. In the late 1970s and until the mid-1980s, the share of hired labor in the total labor input was low and fairly stable at 20-25%. Presently, hired labor is a major component of the total labor requirement. Farm credits. The NGS-BA is uniquely fortunate to host the headquarters of the Nigeria Agricultural and Cooperative Bank (NACB) and several branch offices. Several other commercial hanks having agricultural credit facilities operate within the BA. However, availability of credits at the smallholder level is still dismally low, mostly lacking in many locations, hut is becoming increasingly necessary because: . the l ibed i t ion of fertilizer pricing needs to be supported by institutional cash credit. animal-powered implements which are currently being promoted for on-farm labor saving may suffer slow adoption in the absence of a strong cash credit backup. lack of cash credits of institutional form can limit labor hiring among farmers who rely on hired labor for on-farm work. Marketing structure. Periodic and daily markets are found in the NGS-BA. The daily markets, mostly located in the urban areas, are well linked by good intmstate roads. intia- state andlor interstate roads link the periodic markets, mostly in the rural areas. The intrastate roads, which link the periodic markets, vary markedly in their motor- ability. The feeder mads between the village and markets have lateritic surfaces; together with sporadic fuel availability, high costs, and vehicle maintenance, cost of transportation is largely out of reach of many farm families. Produce processing is still largely by manual operation, and limits the volume of threshable grains to an average of two or three 100 kg bags of maize per day. The cost of a powered maize sheller (N45 000.00), for example, is beyond the reach of most small- holder farmers in the BA. Discussion The following questions and comments raised duringthe discussions as well as the answers provided by Prof. Ogungbile are presented below. Question How was the resource management survey data analyzed? Answer Multivariate principal component analysis. Question Cotton farming in fmncophone West Africa has opened up opportunities for the intensi- fication of food crop farming. Was cotton production used as a stratifying factor to see if it was associated with intensification of the food crop system, i.e., is there a Iypology of cotton-based farming systems? Answer No. Cotton is not a very important crop in the BA (NGS). However, this and other criteria can be used to stmtify producers or domains if the need arose. Question - Why is hired labor increasing? What are the implications of increasing hired labor to the iarmig systems, especially if intmhousehold changes; choice of crops, extm-agricultural activities? Answer Because cash crop farmers have money to pay for hired labor. There is ahigher availability of casual labor because of school dropouts. Question What is the present ro!e of trees in your BA? Answer Very little impo-! Question How do you ex, s u e of land fragmentation? Answer Fragmentation results from the practice of inheritance as the major method of land acqui- sition. A deceased man's land property is shared among his sons. It means a son's farm size would be smaller than thit of his father, if the latter has two or more sons. Thii is repeated over several generations. Question Why did you not mention the role of Fada~na in your report? Answer Although I did not indicate the importance of Fadama. there is the National Fa& Development Prograin being executed by the Agricultural Development Project Authority in Kaduna State. Farmers engage in dry season farming in the BA. Benin coastal/derived savanna benchmarks Moustapha Adomou INRAB, BP 884, Cotonou, B6nin The report was written and presented in French and there was not enough time to effect translation and synopsis in English. Consequently, the report is presented with little alteration. Basically, the report below describes the characteristics of the four different agroecological zones of the coastauderived savanna. Discussion Question: How important will techniques developed for the "depression de I'ama" be for areas outside the benchmark? Answer: The "depression de la lama" represents almost 10% of the total area of the benchmark. This will be taken into account in the benchmark study if it appears that it is important in the ecoregion. Synthesis and remarks Root crops dominated crops grown in the Humid Forest Zone, especially cassava. Fallow identilied as main system of replenishing soil fertility, although the effectiveness is being affected by land pressure. . Littleiliited use of fertilizers due to high costs or non-availability. Land tenure is by inheritance, resulting in land fragmentation with increase innumber of children and generations. . Small-scale farmers have problems with credit access. . Presentations gave little or no attention to the issue of transportation. Also not mentioned were: complementary use of inputs rate of adoption of technologies Some crops (e.g., yam) are being abandoned because of decreasing soil fdl i ty. . Problem of soil erosion not highlighted in all presentations as should have been done, given its importance. Changing nature of farm labor from mostly family labor to predominantly hired labor. . Problem of inadequacy of good road network to ensure evacuation of farm pro- duce. What can be done to address these issues? Provide agronomic solutions as appropriate (mentioned by presenters). Give adequate attention to credit access to farmers. More attention to soil demdation caused bv livestock. - = More attention should be given to fisheries/exploitation of water resources. Involve extension systems in identification of constraints and priority setting. 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'MOI s! surajsXs umq-pue-qse~s jo amxu.iopad &!~g3npordqSnoql1~'(~661 Xemuo3 '2661 0~3) aldoaduo!lI!ui OSZ lnoqe %u!lroddns a= smalsXs noge~er\!tp3 %q!qs rapm puel jo saqaaq uogp 055 pue uo~p O~E naamlaq ieq palmqsa s! $1 '(~661 Xemuo3) sma~ds umq-pue-qse~s 01 laarqns aq 01 anmino:, qqqm spas Xep i(l!r\yt3e mol Lpeaqz q! jo i(l!g!~ra~ %u!u!pap aql sy e3gv ner -m@~-qnsjo sauoz p!umqqns pue p!umq u! amlpa@e 8fflaej smalqwdiorem aqjjo an0 auawapqs walqord .pauaamua =am smw& laqojo uo!~dope aq 103 s~uleqsom pue sgauag palq9!lt@q sem mujv lsa~ ssolae wa~sk? aq JO Xl!l!qmyold aqL 'pa~~.scuo -map osle =an\ Xl!lwaj l!os pue uo!lynu lemtue %fflno~dm! loj uo!~do uua~Juol aieudo~dde =om e se srnasKs paseq-yu~q lappoj aqjo Xl!l!qeu!qms pue Xl!l!qe -1yold aw wjqjo silqnda~ 'aauinold ouo~ m yauuej paldrues jo %IS mop Lq paldope ulaq sq Woloqaal s!qL'Xl!l!uaj 110s sano~drn! pue'8urpaanr saanpal 'ss&mds sloouoa osle 11 plos aq plnoa spaas jt Xl!l!q!ssod gold mK luy q!m masKs mollej ortn2nyyjo am lq u! ueaK aanl, laye slanal ~auuej pue leuo!Z= qoq ~npa~xdxaamsum~a~ aimouoaa q81~ 'wa~sLspaseq-~z~~!uy [m!iuaqapue aum8al u!ei3 'pmAumj 'Lns~~ojo~Ze papnly mueuodm! jo ~ap~o %u!se%%p u! ~UIalskS 11JIilO .SW~IS((S MOllEJ 8~01 IPmlFU Jq1 qllm ~(~~UOAEJ pp~ledlu03 SUIJIS~S paseq-queq lappoj aq pue sdoia lanm ammw ua& jo am aq~ 'uraq~ Suoq .wasLs mollej jo sadh sonFA payrloap! ~daauos mollej aq 01 saqaeo~dde %aq -uaVnX se llam se leuo!l!pen aq~ 'eqv uerevpqnsjo sauozma plumqqns pue p~umqaq U!~lna~ejom~lqo~d~o[mesepa~nap! semXl!l~~aj~!os%m~~~lma suragshs ~ollej gaoys pazqrqegs jo uo~ldope aq y8noryg aseq saJ;nosar [ernleu $upueyua pue ~u~u~qu!eur . . jo s~!ruouo~z~ Classification of fallow systems If fallow is only defined in relation to the number of years or length of period when a piece of land is not carrying any edible or cash crop, the Ruthenberg index can be used to determine the land-use intensity and classify fallow systems into three major groups (Ruthenberg 1980). Shifting cultivation system was common among farmers and this was aimed mainly at soil fertility restoration. This has been associated with a low level of economic develop- ment and low population density. This system is therefore areflection of aspecific stage of agricultural development and would be seen as oneof the major constraints to the increase of agricultural development. The system is typical of areas where the years of fallow are at least twice the years when a piece of land is cultivated to edible or cash crops. In that case, the Ruthenberg index is assumed to be equal to or less than 33%. Unlike the shifting cultivation systems, bush fallow systems are characierized by long fallow periods, which are not long enough to establish the climax vegetation. These represent the early stage of the intensification phase described by Manyong et al. (1996). The years of fallow are as long as the years of cultivation, in which case the Ruthenberg index would be between 33 and 66%. Continuous cropping systems are found in areas where land is put into cultivation for anumber ofyears geater than the years of fallow. This system corresponds to a late stage of intensification in the use of land (Manyong et al. 1996). The corresponding Ruthenberg index is assumed to be equal to or greater than 66%. This traditional approach of classifying fallow systems is based solely on the duration of a cropping cycle (i.e., years of cultivation and years of fallow). it does not take into consideration the Functions a fallow is expected to perform on the natural resource base. The following benefits to agricultural production are expected from a piece of land left to lie naturally fallow for a long period: Build-up of siiiface soil organic matter Recycling of soil nutrients Improvement of soil fertility; Nifixing and fallow species Better habitat for soil fauna Weed suppression Suppression of soil-borne pests and diseases Pmvision of feed for livestock Provision of firewood and other economic benefits to humans Any syslem that fulfils part or all of the above functions would result in the stabiliza- tion of or improvement in agricultural production. Therefore, a stabilized short fallow system is one that satisfies these requirements. A lot of research effort has been invested in the development of more productive and sustainable short fallow systems that can accomplish most of the benefits expected of natural fallow system in a comparatively shorter time. Examples of such practices include the following forms of short fallow systems in West Africa: Chemical fertilizer-based systems (e.g., cotton-based systems) Farmyard manure-based systems (e.g., compound fields) Green-manure cover crop-based systems (e.g., Mticuna planted fallow) Fodder bank-based systems (especially for livestock in the Guinea savannas of West Africa). Agroforestry-based systems (e.g., alley cropping). Grain legume-based systems (e.g., groundnut-based systems in Senegal). Assuming the fallow fulfils all the functions, Table 1 shows how each of the identified short fallow systems compare with the natural long fallow system. Green manure cover crops and fodder bank-based systems are close to natural fallow, followed in a decreas- ing order of importance by agroforestry, farmyard manure, grain legume, and chemical fertilizer-based systems. None of the short fallow systems is as good as an ideal, natural long fallow system. Table 1. Matrix functionslshort fallow systems. Function Fallow Chemical CMCC Fodder Agro- Grain forestry legume SOM ++i ++ ++ ++ + Nutrient recycling +++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ Soil fertility +++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ Soil fauna +++ +++ +++ ++ + Weed control +++ + +++ +++ + + Pests control +++ + +++ ++ + + Feed +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ Fuelwood +++ + + +++ +Positive contribution -No contribution Types of stabilized short fallow systems Chemical fertilizer-based svstems Research to shorten the length of fallow period focused on chemical fertilizers, which become more available. Numerous fertilizer trials have been conducted to determine the type and rates of fertilizers required for different crops, crop varieties, soils, locations, and climates. (Balasubramanian et al. 1978.). This has resulted in recommendations for maize and other crous in some West African countries as shown in Table 2. In order to conserve foreign exchange and reduce heavy bills arising from the importation of fertilizers, some countries (Nigeria and BCnin) have extended their research into examining local raw materials suchas phosphate rocks as sources of cheaperphosphorus. Nigeria has ventured into the manufacturing of fertilizers by establishing many factories to produce urea, single superphosphate, and blend compound fertilizers (Carsky et al. 1997). Farmers' response to increased intensity on cultivated land is by applying inorganic fertilizer. Fertilizer use has increased drastically over time. In spite of the recommenda- tions, only very few farmers apply the recommended rates and the actual use of fertilizers by farmers in West Africa is very low (Norman el a1 1982). Nigerian farmers use more fertilizer than most other countries in West Africa as a result of the subsidy on fertilizers for many years. Over 70% of fertilizer used in Nigeria is applied in the savanna zones of the country. Table 2. Fertilizer recommendations for maize in several countries of West Africa. Recommendation (kgha) Country N P,O, 40 Benin 60 40 0 Cameroon 100 30 30 Mali 84 15 15 Nigeria (semiarid) 60 60 60 Fertilizer is the most widely adopted improvedpurchased input From the low adoption rate recorded by Norman in the 1970s, Smith et al. (1994) reported that approximately all farmers in Kaduna and Katsina States and about two-thirds of the farmers in Bauchi and Sokoto States were already using fertilizers by the mid-1980s. Manyong et al. (1996) reported similar results in a survey of the northern Guinea savanna Benchmark Area of Nigeria. They, however, added that only about two-thirds of the f m e m applied the recom- mended rates. Farmers select crops for which they apply fertilizer. Maize, sorghum, cotton, and vegetables get the highest priority. Fertilizers are considered to be a more efficient way of increasing yield than any other means. Many farmers regard it as a waste of iime and effort growing maize without fertilizer. Increased use of fertilizers has resulted in the reduction of the fallow period in the area (Table 3). Fertilizer availability has changed the status of maize from being a backyard crop in the 1970s, to a major profitable cash crop in 1980s. The use of fertilizers is highly profit- able in the market-oriented regions. In spite of the recommendations and subsidies on fertilizers, the actual use of fertilizer by farmers in West Africa is very low (Carsky and Iwuafor 1997). Manyong et al. (1998) reported that less than two-thirds of the farmers applied the recommended dose of inorganic fertilizers because of scarcity and high cost of the input in the northern Guinea Savanna Benchmark Area. High-level application of fertilizer has been associated with the problem ofsoil acidification which limits the amount of nitrogen that can be applied by the farmers (Jones 1976). These problems associated with the use of inorganic fertilizers suggest that we cannot wholly rely on inorganic fertil- izers for agricultural intensification. Table 3. Change in fallow periods: Northern Guinea savanna, Nigeria, group interviews, 1989. States Norihem Southern Bauchi Southeast All villages Kaduna Katsina Sokoto 1989 percentage of 27 10 5 9 3 villages No fallow 59 50 100 56 33 Fallow declining 26 50 0 22 0 No change 11 0 0 11 67 Mid-1970s percentage 4 0 0 11 0 of villages No fallow 30 40 20 33 0 Source: Smith et al. 1994. Farmyard manure-based systems Farmers have long recognized the importance of animal manure and compost in the main- tenance of soil fertility, especially in the drier savanna where animal rearing is practiced side by side with crop production. Farmers build up manure in the compounds from the dropping of animals mixed with crop residues. Cattle produce more manure than other animals, although farmers have claimed that manure produced by small ruminants takes a shorter time to process and is of better quality. Manure is transported to fields in bas- kets, on animal drawn carts, and on donkeys. Fulani pastoralists are sometimes invited to camp their animals in a particular field for a fee in exchange for animal droppings. In a survey of nine villages in the Sudan savanna zone of Nigeria, it was found that an aver- age household produces about 2000 kg of manure and it is applied at the rate of about 550 kg/ha. The removal of subsidies on fertilizers hi Nigeria has made farmers pay more attention to the processing and utilization of farmyard) manure. The quantity of manure produced by farmers in any given year is rarely adequate. The amount available is there- fore rotated in the fields with each field receiving manure every other two or three years. Carsky et at (1997) attributed the relative fertile soils described by Norman et aL (1982) in the "ring" cultivation system of northern Nigeria and in the compound fields reported by Rungo-Metzegar (1988) in Ghana and Pradencio (1993) in Burkina Faso to the deposit of household wastes and animal manure in the land area around villages. Jones and Wilde (1975) as a result of the use of animal manure have reported significant yield increases. Not only does animal manure supply nutrients, its use has been found to allow a build-up of soil organic matter and helps to neutralize the acidifying effect of chemical fertilizers (Jones and Wilde 1975). The large quantity of manure required to be effective and the high demand for labor input involved in transporting the manure have limited me area of land that can receive manure. More land would be required to grow livestock feeds if livestock population were to increase to supply more manure. Given the shortage of supply of manure, it appears that animal manure will continue to be used to complement inorganic fertilizers. Green manure cover crop-based systems Cover crops such as Stylosanthes guianensis, Pueraria phaseoloides. Myoma pruriens, Centrosemapubescens, Lablab purpureus (white and black), Aeschynomene htstrix have been used to minimize soil degradation in many Western and Central African countries. Mucuna is one of the most tested cover crops at the on-station and on-farm levels. Varieties tested found suitable, and subsequently disseminated in Benin Republic and elsewhere are M. pruriens vfilis and M. cochinchinensis. Mucuna is adapted to a broad range of rainfall, but grows better in areas with a bimodal rainfall regime in most western and central African countries. It thrives in semiarid zones with less biomass and it is possible that some varieties may not complete their productive cycle, thereby making seed multiplication difficult (Tarawali et al. 1998). Mucuna residues can be burnt, left as mulch, or incorporated into the soil. Because incorporation into the soil requires substantial labor input for seed preparation, direct seeding into mulch may be preferred since there has been no evidence to prove yield differences in adopting either of me two methods. Osei-Bonsu and Buckles (1993) observed effective weed control with direct seeding method. No weeding was required up to six weeks after planting. Adoption of the Mucuna fallow system was reported to have been enhanced by Mucund's 39 ability to control speargrass in the bimodal rainfall zone of Benin. Versteeg and Koudok- pon (1990) reported a drastic reduction of Impmata on farmers' fields by Mucuna and a sharp decline in the shoots of speargrass was observed by Dovonou (1994). Akobundu and Pokun (1984), and Akobundu and Udensi (1995) found Mucuna to be more efficient than any other method of controlling Imperata in a research-managed trial. Two effective management methods have been developed for i n t w t i n g Mucuna into the cropping system in B s n . They are (1) the Mucuna pure stands or the Mucuna improved fallow and (2) Mucuna in relay with maize. Sole Mucunacover crop fallow is recooimeidedto improve degraded soil and toreduce severe infestations of speargrass and other weeds, which are capable of causing farmers to abandon the field to fallow. The maize-Muma relay strategy was designed for fields with layer weed infestation and rehabilitation. Mucuna is also known to leave thick mulch fiee of weeds, making the land preparation for subsequent maize crop relatively easy. it is therefore suitable for minimum tillage practices. Because Mucuna is a climbing plant, planting it early can reduce maize yields. Yield increases have been reported for crops that follow an improved Mucuna fallow. According to Versteeg and Koudolcpon (1990), an increase of about 500 kgha was observed for a local maize variety and 800 kgha for an improved variety following one year of fallow with Mucuna. In Ghana, maize yield of about 3-4 tha was obtained on fields, which previously had Mucuna without nitrogen application. Mucuna fallow, either as an intercrop or as sole crop, is capable of supplying an equivalent of about 100 kg NAa to the following maize crop. Sangingaalso observed similar results in the bimodal-rainfall zone in southwestern Nigeria. Codjia (1996) reported about 98% higher yields of maize after a Mucuna short fallow without chemical application. According to Manyong et al. (1998) high economic returns are expected at both farmer and regional levels three years after Mucuna is adopted Fuahermore, they argued that the Mucuna fallow system could prove to be profitable even in the very 6rst year of introduc- tion if only the seeds could be sold. Indicating the profitability of the Mucuna system, a benefit cost ratio of 1.24 was obtained fiom an economic analysis over the 8-year period using the Mucuna fallow system and 0.6 without Mucuna. The ratio increased up to 3.56 if it were possible to seU M u m seeds (Table 4). Table 4. Average future cost and returns over 8 years of systems with and without Mucuna fallow in Mono Province, Benin. With Mucuna Scenario la Scenario 2b Without Mucuna Cross returns (USDha) 354 836 11 Variable cost (USDha) 9 9 4 Labor 276 276 172 Net revenue (USDha) 69 620 -66 Benefit-cost ratio 1.24 3.56 0.62 MRR(%) 124 629 - Source: Manyong et al. (in preparalion). Note: MRR = Marginal rate of return; USD = United States Dollar. (a) Only maize seeds are sold. (b) Both maize and Mucuna seeds are sold. 'q3arosd )namdoja~ap lnasagrp Lq pyy pm 'uooraq 'anoA1,p ale3 m ssa- raplops pm qsgerqsedoBe q papnaxa naaq ow aAq sqoeq sappoj =yzmsoi4s .aml~3@v~o wmlredaa @rapad aql m (ad?N) 13aroq lnamdola~aa q301sa~!l @noge~ aql Kq paw pm papnalxa =MI! pm so861 aql Zqmp qsa8y~jo anoz ppnqqns aq 03 pnnpoam sem ida3no3 qaeq rappoj aa 'euaZ!~jo auoz erme~es ea-9 aql q upumy .S so ~y~uuso~4~jo pasodm03 qaeq rappoj ma6 moj q orvusal~e@q splnoqejo an~e~~nama=~da~~aqya~ ne pazmsa (2661) a~ojopm nqZanmq~ .sramreJ dos3jo Jganaq aql ol do13 Ke1as pm dos31alm m se nogtqos do13 qm pa$&qm Knqssamns naaq ahq 03 pa~rodar sem saqzuoso[4~ 'qstpqsed soj pa&!sap sem 1! @noql~ (8661 'p la !@mm~) p~aj ps @m pm na8oqp xg 01 @qe 'aaw -?sar ~@norp 'spos aIgzgq 0) nogadepe 'saseasp q aSma1q apnpq saq~uosopfjsjo salnqge soram aql jo amos uogeposse ada1 pa~o~dtq ro sd mm lnamalddns 01 don a~os e se palmid Kpsn q sayluosoj4s .qmq~appoj qly~patzposse Kpsn say9 ads ada1 aql sy sayzuusoi4~ '(~661 '@la aKa1yfv)): noseas .Gp aql soj papahiasard aq 0% paaj ada1 pqnqnaano3 ap~ord 03 sapso m e3yij ~sa~jo anoz ppnqqns aql m .qqoysnqxa pm 's1atn.q 'ssaq3ieasar Znom papaan ? 13ano3 as013 'do13 qse3 ro pooj ZwoB 30 noseas aqua m Bmso1 m lpsar ppo~ uumnm do13 alos 8gqd asne3aq samol q sanoz saq aql m nogdopy .'lmre~es hp aql m pj qSqsaAg noseas iCrp so3 paan aq osp os $dope 0% angna3m ne aq 4 Kla~1 s! spaam og!seied pne snopron jo nogtqsam . 'Bo~orrqw aql ldop 01 Klaqn $on are spos apj no 8gerado ssauuq . .sa~ud IaMOI lE alqEp?AE Klpai are sapp!qraq pm razgyaj araqm wdop aq q Klam q Bolompa~ . :araqmaqa Bo~orrqw do13 raAo3jo nogdope aql page q palqnoads aq Km Bwonoj aql 'Kpms ase3 e se -?a tg oumnmjo Kpqs nogdope aql8qsn sdor~ ran03 JO uogdop Su!~uanpu! uopj .rCeq se nogdmnsno3 do13 sanm aqljo nogdope pm paas oumnm soj jaw aql aseanq Klalngap ppom qeL3 oumnm jo nogdmnsno3 aql Zppd0d .a~napy3~ aseaqjo &!~q!ssod aql pm 'sdor3 saqo qiw &qnama1dmm 'qeaxqno aq 'uumnpqjo q~npord alqpa-nouLamnal pm~ '&!m3s pmi apnpm nogdop q ~wsoo3 1aqo 'malqord 8pam Kpa m alnpjsno3 Kern noseas Ztzyonoj aql moB q azpm arojaq ampsaB feql sps pa3a1lmm aql pm pasam aq lorme3 pa3npord spaas pap$ mow3 mmw a3npow M woga sagsea araqm aqo~~,p 393 pm eua8y~ m saana~adxa 02 iseqnw m sy -?a tq MOP] pa~osdtq aql se oumnylijo noqdw 'Bo~orqw oumnm 8gdopjo )so3 &pq -soddo aql pne hogmarop? no!sna)xa 03 ssam 'amna pm~ amms 'saaq urpd 8moKjo aanasasd aram nogdop jo qmrp~alap satgo '&gyaj ~os a~osdtq 01 pm (m.qu~qrC3 u~~adu~) sseBseads 104~03 01 asam no!~dop roj soosear npn aqL '(9661 'p la ZnoK -new ssamj pa~dms aqljo %zs lnoqe Kq pasn naaq pq Wolompa~ mmnm malsKs MO~@J vogs uun3npq pa~osdtq aql jo nogdop jo aw @g e awlpm 3gqndax -?ajo aDFoq onoyy ~@66 1) '@)a 8noKmyy Kq papnpno3 Kpr~s uogdop mjo qpsar a= Economic evaluation Anumber of studies had shown that adoption of the fodder bank concept could be profit- able and sustainable as well as being a more appropriate long-term option for improving animal nutrition and soil fertility. Bationo et al. (1988) reported that cattle with access to faage legumes in the dry season produced more milk, lost less weight, and had shorter calving intervals, and better rate of calf survival. An average weight gain of 140 g/d for heifers grazed on improved fodder pasture while those grazed on unimproved pasture lost an average of 58 g/d The positive impact of fodder banks on crop production bas also been demonstrated. Higher crop yields on the fields that previously carried pastures were due to legumes' improvement of soil properties. It has also been shown that S@Zosanrhes can maintain crude protein neededduring the dry season. Von Kaufmann and Mohamed Salem (1989) showed that crude protein produced &om fodder banks was cheaper than that h m cotton seed cake which isanalternative fomof dry season supplementation(Tab1e 5).Also, using a model to appraise the economic retums of fodder banks over a period of 10 years, Von Kaufmann and Mohamed Salem showed that fodder banks can be aprofitable enterprise in the long run in Nigeria as shown in Table 6. In Cdte d'lvoire, farmers were able to e m average revenue of CFA 1.5 million per m u m after three years of installation of fodder banks in the eco-farms projecL The major pari of this income came from milk sales, followed by proceeds from beef and crops (Table 7). The potential profitability of d a j . production in peri-urban areas of Nigeria using fodder banks (Table 8) and the opportunity cost ofusing land for home grown fodder rather than cultivating a highly favored sorghum crop was much lower than the accrued benefits &om yields produced by cows supplemented with forage hays. Table 5. Cost of obtaining crude protein from a &ha fodder bank compared to cotton seed cake in subhumid Nigeria. Fodder bank (+ha) DM produced (kg) DM available (kg) CP content (kg)'" Capital cost (N) Cotton seed cake CP Required DM a: 30% (kg) Capital cost (N) Recurrent cosim' 2.27 Source.Von Kaufmann and Mohamed Saleern (1989). Note: CP = Crude protein, DM = Dry matter; Nigeria Naira (P1.1 (in 1989 N7.3 = $1 US Dollar; in 1989 N75.2 = USD). (a) Assumes 9% crude protein available in dry matter. (b) Calculated as N680fl1> of conon seed cake at 30% CP. TAIe 6. Economic returns on fodder banks in subhumid Nigeria over 10 years 1989. Net Internal present rate Without With 10th year value of return fodder fodder incremental (NY* (%) bank (N) bank (N) revenue 1 HP 1414 22.5 49.907 90833 4950 1 HP+reduced force sales 7538 34.1 43907 90833 7138 1 HP+increased crop yields 9395 36.3 49907 90833 8544 Source: Von Kauimann and Mohamed Saleem (1989). Note: 1 HP = Improved hard pmduaivity Nigeria naira (in 1989 =N73 = 1US Dollar in 1998 N75.2 = 1 US Dollar) calculated at 20% discount rate. Adopfion of fodder bank technology -. Experiences differ from country to country with regards to the dissemination and adop- tion of the fodder bank concept. In Nigeria, most pastomlists who have invested in fodder banks agreed that they are useful as supplemen& feed sources during the dry season and that animals grazing fodder banks performed better than those without access did Benefits derived include less "forced saleses'ofunderfed stock, wws grazing fodder banks have better conception rates and milk production, and better survival of calves. Fencing increased the security of land tenure and farmers save some cost in &ring labor for herd- ing. Crop farmers also take advantage of the nitrogen build-up in the fodder banks through rotational cropping (Ajileye et al. 1994). In Nigeria, between 1980 and 1986, only 25 banks were established. However, with the credit scheme & d u d by NLPD with a World Bank assistance loan, the adoption rate increased to over 400 fodder baaks in 1990 (Ajileye et al. 1994). Adoption rate has dropped since 1991. Biological and socioeconomic constraints include inadequate seed supply, expensive cost of fencing, land scarcity, and land tenure problems, lack of capi- tal, inappropriate ecological adaptation, ineffective on-farm and extension programs to promote the technology, and shortage of labor. Table 7. Contribution of various products and enterprises to the total income of six KO- farms (1994195). Farm income (10' x OF) I%) Milk Beef Crops F, 1.6(71.9) 0.32U4.3) 0.31(13.8) F3 1.15(72) 0.29(18.4) 0.1 5(9.4) F, 1.33(70.6) 0.45(23.8) O.lO(5.6) F6 1.08(66.7) 0.43(26.5) 0.1 I(6.8) F7 0.84(70.7) 0.22(18.2) 0.13(11.1) Fa 0.48(575) 0.1 a(22.3 0.1 7(20.2) AVg (68.2) (20.6) (11.1) Source: Adapted from ECO-iarm project (1985). Nore: Avg =Average; OF = CFA-Franc; (in 1998,610.8SxOF = US $1). Table 8. Indications of profitability of using grown fodder for dairy production 1993-94. Em kg milk E m kg milk Margin over yield per kg Value of milk feed off-take feed N per kg feed System a b a b (a) (b) Semi-intensive Experimens 1 & 2 (smallholder) Forage 0.332 0.830 4.98 12.45 2.54 10.01 legume hay Experiment 3 Zero-grazed system (on station) Green tree foliage 0.340 1.840 5.10 27.00 7.95 Agroforestry-based systems Alley farming was developed at IlTA as a soil management practice and as an alternative to fallow system in the 1980s. It is a concept in which field crops are grown between rows "hedgerows" of trees or shrubs, for the maintenance of soil fertility, or part of the hedgerows biomass is fed to animals as fodder. There are three stages: i. Establishment stage characterized as the h t period of tree planting and growth when outlays of resources are made, but there is no return. ii. Productive stage is aperiod during which hedgerow species provideuseful products or services. It is also characterized by resource requirements. ... 111. Maintenance stage is the intervening period between establishment and productive stages, resource outlays are minimal, and benefits would not have begun to arrive. iv. Species used in alley farming are: Leucaena leucoce~hala Gliricidia sepium are the commonest species in Nigeria Chmmolaena odorata introduced lately Senna siamea Leucaena diversifola in BBnin Republic Fiemingia nacmphylla Senna spectabilis, Senna Siamea, Albizia lebbeck, and Cojonus cc+m in Togo in addition to the above species. Benefifs of alley farming Many studies have shown that alley farming improves soil fertility. Studies at Ibadan, Nigeria showed a linear response between maize grain yield and levels of Leucaena leu- cocephala or Gliricidiasepium mulch fields with alley cropping having slower loss of soil nutrients and organic matter but levels of K and P declined faster. In the absence of feml- izer, alley faimiig can reduce, hut not eliminate the need for fallow. Similarly, it has been shown that Chramolaena odorata foliar application on the surface, significantly increased total N, organic carbon, available P, and exchangeable cation content in the soil. Gradual restoration of soil fertility with the inclusion of Senna siameo, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaexa leucocqhala, Flemingia macrophylln, Sennaspectabilis occurred in the terre de barre soils of Bhin Republic. In a similar vein, alley cropping increased maize yield, with or addition of between 91.0 to 176.2 kg5a N, 4.15 to 12.33 kgma P, and 26.84 to 57.0 kgma K to the soil annu- ally, in Togo Republic. In livestock production, theprunings are used as animal feed supplements. The ove* quality of feed is improved by a contribution of protein from leguminous trees, provided that there is a regular pruning. Trials in Ibadan, Nigeria, showed that Gliricidia is moderately palatable to sheep. Inclusion of lermme forage with Panicum maximum ration im~roved nutritive value. - - raised animal productivity, and increased survival rates of the offspring from b i i to weaning from 40 to 50 to 95% (Ikwegbu and Ofodile 1992). In dairy catrle, in early lacta- tion the response of milk production to supplementation of af! puvureum ration with Leucaena ration is high especially in the dry season. In mid-lactation, the response is muted A study in Nigeria showed that using 348 kg of foliage from Leucaena and GIiricidia as mulch on maize increased grain yield to between 22 and 28 kg and as alley cropping fodder increased the number of goats (herd productivity) from 7.8 to 11.3 and kids from 11.3 to 12.3. Rate and level of adoption The potential for the adoption of alley Earming cannot be judged by research results in spite of the impressive results obtained at the research farms. In Nigeria, studies by RTA showed that 11 farmers established 14 alley farms in Zakibiam (Benue State) between 1980 and 1985 and only three farmers were still participating in the k a l year fertilizer & in 1988. In 1989, after the research ended, only one farm was cropped. Most of the alley farms planted in 1989 in Ayepe (Oyo State) were abandoned in 1990. Similarly, 139 farmers in southeastem Nigeria had 175 plots in 1991, but fewer were available (109 fanners and 119 plots) by 1991. Individual farmers generally do not adopt alley farming easily, concluded ERI, and a community approach accompanied by extension efforts is most promising. Constraints to adoption Adoption rate is poor, due to the following constraints: Agronomic: Hedgerow biomass and grain yields on-farm are far below those reported for on-station farms. These have been attributed to poor soil and drought. Accidental uprooting during weeding, herbicide and termite damage, wrong timing, and method of planting are also problematic. Socioeconomic: Land tenure problem, labor changes when pruning and weeding operations may overlap, orientation of program to individuals, and no extension involve- ment. The conclusion was that high potential for adoption cannot be identiiied on the basis of research data. Grain legume-based systems The use of legumes in a rotation can reduce the length of fallow period and permit con- tinuous cropping through the supply of atmospherically k e d nitrogen, often utilized by the relay cereal crop component from the soil. In the savanna zone of West and Central Africa, sorghum, maize, and millet are the main cereal crops and the principal legume crops are groundnut, cowpea, and soybean. The crops are usually grown in mixture with other crops. Where farmers adopt some form of crop rotation, the sequence is often not systematized The yield-increasing effects of crop rotations especially where legumes are involved have been attributed to a number of factors including the improvement of soil fertility, enhancement ofbalanced nutrient removal from the soil (Singh 1974), and improvement of soil physical properties. Other benefits of crop rotation include soil conservation, organic matter restoration, and pests and disease control (Spurgeon and Grisson 1965). The value of crop rotation is measured by its effect on land productivity and its eco- nomic rerums. Jones (1974) showed that yields of maize graili after groundnut were sig- nificanily higher than maize yields following sorghum or cotton. Lombin and Abdullahi (1981) reported that where cotton, sorghum, and groundnut were grown in rotation, the best sequence appeared to be cotton followed by sorghum followed by groundnut. improved rotation of grain legumes is more likely to be adopted by the farmers than non-grain legumes. Apari fiom their use as protein supplement food, legumes such as cowpea, groundnut, and soybean are the major cash crops. Smith et al. (1994) observed that cereal crop rotation with legumes increased in half of the villages surveyed because of the profitability of legume crops. The northern Guinea savanna benchmark area has emphasized the need for increased grain legume rotation with cereal crops. The result of the h t year of a 4-year maizeilegume and so rghdegume rotation trial initiated in the benchmark area indicated that the highest profit was obtained fkom maizdgroundnut followed by maizdcowpea and sole cowpea enterprises. Sorghumlsoybean mixture gave the highest cost benefit ratio, followed by sole cowpea (Ogungbile et al. 1998). Rodriguez (1986) showed how cowpea in a4-yearmaize-cowpea rotation benefitted subsequent maize planted in Burkina Faso. Maize grain also benefitted fiom intercroppped cowpea. Although farmers preferred grain legumes to non-grain legumes, the potential contri- bution may be low because of the export of nutrients in the grain. In addition, the haulms of grain legumes are usually baivested for animal feed References Ajileye, E.O., D.V. Uza, and M.A. Faooqui. 1994. An assessment of farmers' adoption rate and potential impact on Srylo-based feed production systems. Pages 31 1-316 in S~losanihes a. a forage and fallow crop, edited by P.N. de Leauw, M.A. Mohamed-Saleem, and A.N. Nyamu. Pmceedings of a regional workshop on the use of SIylosanrhes in West Africa, 2G31 Oct 1992, Kaduna, Nigeria, International Livestock Center for Afiica, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Akobmdu, LO.and I.A. Pokun. 1984. Control of imperala cylindrica in IlTA annual report for 1983. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Akobundu, 1.0.. and U.E. Udensi 1995. Effect of Munmo species and feitilizer levels on the con- trol of speargiass (Imperato cylindrico L.) Abstact, 22nd Annual Conference Weed Science Society of Nigeria 6-10 Nov. 1995, ibadan, Nigeria. IITA, ibadan, Nigeria. Balasubramanian, V., L.A. Nnandi, and A.U. Mokwunye. 1978. Fertilizing maize for high yields. Samaru Miscellanious paper no. 76. WABU, Zaria, Nigeria. 14 pp. Bationo, A, S.K. Mughogho, and AU. M o h y e . 1986. Agmnomic evaluation of phosphate fertilizer in tmpical Africa Pages 238-318 in Management of nitmgen and phosphorus fertil- izers in sub-Saharan Africa, edited by U. M o h y e and P.L.G. Vlek. Carsky, RJ. and E.N.O. Iwuafor. 1997. Contribution of soil fertility researchlmaintenance to improved maize,pmduction and productivity of sub-Saharan Africa. A paper presented at the West and C e n d African Maize Network Workshop. Chude.V.0.. E.N.O. Iwuafor,andG. Lombiu 1984. Fieldevaluation ofNigeria-madegranular urea on maize production in the semiarid zone of Nigeria in Progress in food grain research and production in semiarid Africa, edited by V.M. Manyong. T. Benzuneh, 1.Y.Yayock. and I. Sou- mana. Proceedings ofa conferenceat N i e y , Niger,7-14 March 1991 .OAU/STRCSAFGRAD Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Conway, G. 1997. The doubly green revolution. Food for all in the 2Ist Century. Penguia Codjia, X.C. 1996. Etude de I 'action~isafe sur tern de bam du Mucuna noir (Munuropnuiens var. utilis) et du Mucunablanc (Mucu~pnuiens var. cochhchinensis) etde leur interaction avec les engrain. Universite Nationale du Benin. Cotonou, B b h . Agmnomy Engineering thesis. Dovonou, H. 1994. Intluence de laconvelure duMucunapnrriens var. utilis sur la densit6 du chieu- dent in Systimes agraFes et agriculture durable an Afrique sub-Saharieune, edited by 3. Wolf, Proceedings, Regional Conference, 7-1 1 February 1994, Cotonou, B6ain. International Founda- tion for Science. Ikwegbu, O A and S. Ofodile. 1992. Wet season supplementation of West African dwarf goats raised under traditional management in the subhumid zone of Nigeria Pages 195-201. In Goat production systems in the humid tropics, edited by O.A. Ayeni, arid H.G. Bosman. Proceedings ofan International Workshop. July 1992,Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Purdue Scientific Publishers. Wagenin- geq The Netherlands. FA0 1992. World food supplies arid prevalence of chmnic under-nutrition in developingregions as assessed in 1992, Rome. Italy. Food and Agriculture Organi7ation of the United Nations (Docu- ment ESS/MISC11992). Jones, M.J. 1974. Effects of previous crops on yield and nitmgen response of maize at Samaru. Nigeria Exp. Agric. 10:273-279. Jones, M.J. and AWilde. 1975. Soils of the West Aliican savauna. Commonwealth Agriculhual Bureau, Wallingford, U.K Jones, M.J. 1976. Effects of three nimgen fertilizers and lime on PH and exchangeable cation content at different depths in cropped soils at two sites in the Nigerian savauna. Tmpical Agri- culture. 53(3):243-254. Lombim, L.G. and A Abdullahi. 1981. Effects of cropping sequence in the yields of three major savanna crops at Samaru, Nigeria. S a m m Joumal of Agriculhual Research Vol. 1, no. 1 April 1981. Mauyong, V.M., 3. Smith, G.K. Weba. S.S. Jagtap, and B. Oyewole. 1996. Macro characterization of agricultural systems in West Africa: an o v e ~ e w . RCMD Research Monograph no..... IITY., badan, Nigeria Manyong, V.M., V. Houndekon, and A.C. Gogae 1998. Factors affecting the adoption of a short M o w improved technology: the case of M u m a in the southwest of Bbnin Republic. IITk badan, Nigeria (in prepmation). Norman, D.W.. E.B. Simons, and H.M. Hays. 1982. Farming systems in the Nigerian savanna: research and strategies for developmenL Ogungbiie, AO., R Tabo, N. Van Dueenbooden, and S X Debrah. 1998. Analysis of constraints to agricultural production in the Sudan savanna zone of Nigeria using multi-scale characteriza- tioa Netherlands Journal ofAgriculhual Science VoL 46.1998.27-38. Osei-Bonsu, P. and Buckles. 1993 Contmlling weeds and improving soil ferIility through the use of covercrops: experiencewithMumnaspp. in B& and Ghana. West African Farming Systems Resea~ch Network Bulletin 14:227. Prudencio, C.Y. 1993. Ring management of soils and crops in the West African semiarid tropics: the w e of the Mossi fanning systems in BwkinaFaso. Agriculture, Ecosystem, and Environment 47:237-264. Rodinguez, M. 1986. Agronomie du mais. Pages B-I to 8-45 in SAFGRAD Annual Report 1986. SAFGRADIIITA. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Rutherberg, H. 1980. Farming systems in the tropics. 3rd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Rungo-Meeegar, A 1988. Variabiliv in agronomic practices and allocative efficiency among fm households in northern Ghana Nyankpala Agricultural Special Research Report No. 2. Verleg Iosef Margraf Scientific Books, Weikersheim, Germany. Sanginga, N., B. Ibewiro, P. Hougnandan, B. Vanlauwe, and J.A. Okogun. 1996. Evaluation of symbiotic properties and nitrogen contribution of M u m a m maize gmwth in the derived savan- nas of West Africa Plant and Soil 179 11S129. Singh, KD. 1974. Effects of different crop rotations on the utilization of various forms of soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 44329-338. Smith, Christian. 1973. Planned shifting cultivation: a case study of shifting cultivationand Fegional development in northern Tanzania. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, Jahrgang 12, HR, 1. Smitb, J., A.D. B a w A. Goldman, and J.H. Mareck. 1994. The role of technology in agriculnual intensification. The evaluation of production systems in the northern Guinea savanna ofNigeria Economic Development and Culhual Change 42(3): 537-554. Spurgeon, W.I., and P.H. Grisson 1965. InEuence of cropping systems on soil properties and crop production. Mississippi Agric. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 710. Tarawali, G., E. Dembele, B. N'Goessan, and k Yauri. 1998. Smallholders'use of Sfylosanrhes for sustainable food production in subhumid West Africa. In Cover crops in West Africa: Contribu- tion to sustainable agriculhire, edited by Buckles et al. IDRCIIITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Vemeeg, M.M. and V. Koudokpon. 1990. Mumno helps control imperata in southem B&. West African Farming Systems Research Network Bulletin 7: 7-8. Von Kaufmann, RR and M.k Mohamed-Saleem. 1989. Interactions between agronomy and eco- nomics in forage legume research. ILCA Bulletin 35: 22-25. Vlek, P.L.G. 1990. The role of fertilizers in sustaining agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Fertilizer Research 26327-339. Benefits of grain legume-cereal rotation Cereals are the most important foodcrops in the savannamnes. Maize hasahigher vieldnotential than sorehumin the absence oftwomaior wnstraints-IowNsuonlv &id &iga hemnthici parasitism. Both of these &nstraints can be alleviai & some extent by grain legume mtation. Therefore, the benefits of gain legumes to cereal production will be examined in some detail. The N benefit is expressed as the N fertilizer renlacement value. the amount of N fertilizer that can be reolaced by legume mlsrion It depends on many factors rehtrd to thc cmppiog panern and the aemewloeid zone. The Strim hermonthica benefit derives h m h abiliw of s&e culti&s of soybean andkwpea to stimulate germination of S. hemton- ihico seeds without suppolting the parasite's growth, resulting in reduction in the seedbank The number of emerged S. hermonthica plants and the Striga damage swm are both decreased and the maize yield is increased. These cmpping system benefits, along with the fact that grain legumes serve to impmve pmtein intake of people. justify research efforts to maximize benefits of grain legumes to cereals. I m p o r ~ c e of and constraints to savanna cereal production Cereals (especially maize and sorghum) are highly suitable crops for the savanna zone of West Africa. Yield potential of maize is high in the subbumid zone compared to wetter and drier environments (Kassam et al. 1975) because of adequate moisture, relatively low disease pressure, high solar radiation, and low night temperatures. Conshints to pmduc- tion of both crops are similar, although more severe generally for maize than sorghum (Weber et al. 1995). A cost of high maize productivity is its high nutrient requirement compared to other cmps of similar growth duration. Maize grain generally contains 2% N so grain harvest exports 2 kg per 100 kg of grain yield. Total exports are 2.6 kg N, 100 kg of grain pro- duced if above-ground residues are removed (Cretenet et al. 1994). Sanchez (1976) in a review of literature found similar levels of nitrogen removal by maize. Table 1 includes grain and stover contents of major nutrients for grain yields of 1,4, and 7 tiha. It gives an idea how quickly soil N can be depleted by maize, especially when maize yields are high and stover is exported Of course, yields on farmers' fields are low, but even at these low yields, soil nutrients are being mined beyond the power of the soil to replenish them. Van der Pol (1991) estimated that average annual depletion of soil N by maize in southern Mali was approximately 25 kg N h Contrary to this, phosphorus inputs and outputs were estimatedto be more or less in balance (Van der Pol 1991). thereby justifying an emphasis on nitrogen supply for maize. The benefit that Afiican farmers forego by applying inad- equate amounts of N to cereals is enormous. Shga hennonthicapamsitism is the most serious and visible cause ofyield loss incere- als (especially sorghum and maize) in the West African savanna(Sall6 andRaynal-Roques 1989) after inadequate N supply. Damage from Striga spp. to all crops in sub-Saharan f i c a has been estimated to be USS7 billion. In the Nigerian northern Guinea savanna, O'ieh et al. (1996) estimated yield loss ranging from 0 to 46% and averaging 10% for 66 Table 1. Nutrient removal by maize (Sanchez 1976). Yield - Nunient (k&a) -- pari (*a) N P K Grain 1 .O 25 6 15 Stover 1.5 15 3 18 TOTAL 2.5 40 9 33 Grain 4.0 63 12 30 Stover 4.0 37 6 38 TOTAL 8.0 100 18 68 Grain 7.0 128 20 37 Stover 7.0 72 14 93 TOTAL 14.0 200 34 130 fields. Sauerbom (1991) estimated that yield loss from all Striga spp is 24% in six West African studies from which data were available. Cultivation of grain legumes in rotation with cereals may help to improve N nutrition and reduce Striga hermonthica parasitism. Each of these benefits will be studied below. Also, the role of legumes in human diets should not be ignored. Cereals lack amino acids methionine and cysteine. Legumes have those but lack lysine. Therefore, cereal-legume diets have complete protein, very necessary in the absence of meat. Potential benef& of grain legumes to cereals Nitrogen supply Graiin legumes tk nitrogen (N) from the atmosphere and leave a portion for the succeed- ing non-legume crop pable 2). Figure 1 depicts the flows of N that occur in a legume crop. Flows that are limited to the soil system (such as leaching ofnitrate and atmospheric deposition) are not shown. It shows that, with respect to the legume crop: INPUT = Uptake of SOILN + BNF-N OUTPUT = Export of GRAIN-N + Sloughing of ROOT-N (+ Export of STOVER-N). With respect to the soil: INPUT = Return of STOVER-N + Sloughing of ROOT-N OUTPUT = Uptake of SOIL-N Table 2. Estimates of N fertilizer replacement value for the savanna zone from trials and extrapolated from expert knowledge. Cowpea Soybean Rainfall and cropping pattern early late early late Monomodal (single crop) 15 20 5-10 10-15 Monomodal (double crop, 4 0 - 1 0 15 legume first) Bimodal (legume second) 2 0 25 15 2 0 Bimodal (legume first) 4 0 50 2 0 25 Sources: Carsky et al. (1997); Carsky et al. (1 999); Carsky et al. (2001); Carsky et al. (2002); Ogok et al. (2001); Singh et al. (2002). Note: See text and Figure 2 for concept of N fertilizer replacement value. Figure 1. Major fluxes of Nitrogen in the soiNegume system. BNF Of major importance is the amount of N fixed by the legume and the amount exported. For example, if the legume fixes 100 kg Niha and takes up 50 kg N h from the soil, but exports 125 kg N h in the grain, then the legume depletes the soil N pool by 25 kg N / h In this example, P, (the fmctionof IegumeN derived b m BNF) is 67% (100/150) and the N harvest index (NHI, the fraetion of legume N wntained in the gain) is 83% (1251150). A useful indicator of the effect of a legume on soil N is: If P, > NHI, then soil N accrual occurs If P, < NHI, then soil N depletion o ccurs. The benefit of legume rotation is often expressed as the N fertilizer equivalent value (NFRV). NFRV is estimated by comparison of legume-cereal with cereal-cereal (or fallow-cereal) and an N response curve as in Fig. 2. An important assumption of the response curve method is that N is the only limiting factor. If there is an additional benefit h m legume rotati09 then the NFRV will be over-estimated. Therefore, if possible, all N levels should be included for both systems. If yields converge at high N levels (as in Figure 2), then it is l i l y that N supply is the only benefit of legume rotation. The scenario in Figure 2 suggests that a NFRV of approximately 20 kgiba is achieved through legume rotation. If an economic analysis is attempted, then the benefit can be easily calculated as the NFRV multiplied by the wst of fertilizer. The cost of legume rotation system should include the additional cost of growing the legume (which may be less than the cereal wntrol) and the opportunity cost of growing the legume. Amanagement issues that influence the N benefit of gmin legumes, especially cowpea is the management of its residues. Wehave seen above the importance ofresidue manage- ment and the expected negative effect of exporting legume residues. Cowpea residues are, however, important sources of nutrients for ruminants. Feeding of cowpea residues to livestock may result in less N benefit to a subsequent cereal crop, but greater benefit to the farm household This needs to be studied with a view toward estimating the benefit to the soil and household economy, especially with the return of livestock manure. Insecticide treatment of wwpea usually increases gmin yields and may decrease the residue N available to the subsequent cereal crop. It may therefore change dmstically the N budget in a cowpea rotation system. The N benefit to subsequent cereal was greater when insect attack resulted in pwr grain yield in a study conducted in northern Nigeria (Table 3). grain-N A 4 root-N soil-N 1800 1600 1400 9 1200 - 5 1000 m $ 800 W 600 - 400 200 0 0 30 60 90 N applied (kglha) Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing N fertilizer replacement value of legume rotation that is estimated at approximately 20 kg Nlha. Table 3. comparison of effect of cowpea rotation on subsequent maize yield in two trials in which cowpea was managed differently. Kaduna Bauchi Dual-purpose cowpea cultivar local IT89KD-288 Insecticide treatment Yes no Cowpea grain yield moderate trace N content (kglha) of cowpea hay 21 58 Maize yield increase (70) over fallow 22 76 Strirra hermonthica ~arasitism - The possibility of using soybean as a trap crop for S. hennonthica has been mentioned by several authors (Andrews 1947; Parkinson et al. 1987; Doggett 1988; Salli and Raynal- Roques 1989). Soybean is a relatively new crop in West ~ k c a , whose productio~ has expanded rapidly in some areas (Smith et al. 1993). Therefore, its potential contributions to cereal-based cropping systems should be fully exploited. Recently, a laboratory screen- ing procedure was developed which permits identiiication of efficacious trap crops in vitro (Bemer et al. 1996). The method was used to screen 55 soybean cultivars and many cultivars did not stimulate substantially more germination than a distilled water control. However, several cultivars, including TGx 1740-T-highly adapted to the dry savanna zone-stimulated germination of more than 50% of S. hennonthica seed (Berner et al. 1996). Soybean rotation has resulted in 10 to 50% reduction in Sfi-igaparasitism in trials in the savannas at Bauchi (northern Guinea savanna of Nigeria), Badeggi (southemGuinea savanna of ~ i ~ e k a ) , nd Bohicon (derived savanna of Bhin). This reduction was associ- ated with an increase in maize yield of about 600 kgha at Bauchi (partly due to soil N supply and partly due to Striga hennonfhica reduction). Cowpea might also be used as a trap crop but has been less well siudied than soybean. Conclusion Gmin legume cereal rotation systems pmvide several opportunities for synergy between system components. Gmin legumes may benefit the subsequent cereals by improving N supply and by reducing Sfriga hermonfhica pamsitism. Several management issues influ- ence the benefits of grain legumes to cereals and therefore wanant research. Targeting improved gab legume cereal rotation systems should match the benefits h m the legumes to the constraints for cereal production. N supply is a constraint to cereal production throughout the savanna zone and Striga hermonthica is a problem in the dry savanna zone. Increased use of grain legumes can improve the cropping systems with very little risk to farmers. Advocating increased use of grain legumes may have limits. Smil(1997) reviewed the global situation and found that the market for legumes may be limited. World consumption of pulses has progressively declined since 1950, even in Africa. If markets are saturated, then increasing legume use will not be acceptable. References Andrews, F.W. 1947. The parasitsm of Slriga hermonthica Benth. on leguminous plants. Annals of Applied Biology 34: 267-275. Bemer. D.K. M.O. Alabi, U. Di-Umba, and F.O. lkie. 1996. Proposed integrated wnhol progmm for Striga hermonthica in M c a Pages 817-825 in Advances in parasitic plant research edited by M.T. Moreno, J.I. Cubero, D. Bemer, L.J. Musselman, and C. Parker. Proceedings of6th Parasitic Weeds Symposium, April 1618. 1996, Junta de Andalucia, Dueccion General de Investigation Agraria, Cordoba, Spain Carsky, RI., R Abaidoo, K Dashiell, and N. Sanginga 1997. Effect ofsoybean on subsequent maize grain yield in the Guinea savanna WE ofWest Africa African Crop Science Journal. 5: 31-38. Carsky, RJ, B. Oyewole, and G. Tian. 1999. Integrated soil management for the savanna wne of W. Africa: Legume rotation and fe l t i l i r N. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 55: 95-105. Carsky. RJ., B.B. Singh and B. Oyewole. 2001. Contribution ofearly season wwpea to late season maize in the savanna wne of West Africa Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. 18: 303-3 15. Carsky, RJ., B. Vanlawe, 0. Lyasse. 2002. Cowpea rotation as a resource management technology for cereal-based systems in the savannas of West Africa Pages 252-266 in Challenges and O p p o h t i e s for Enhancing Sustainable Cowpea Production edited by C.A. Fatokun, SA. Tarawali, B.B. Singh, P.M. Kormawa, and M. Tamir. Proceedings of the World Cowpea Confer- ence Ill held at the lntemational Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Ibadan, Nigeria, 4-8 September, 2000. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria Cretenet, M.. D. Dureau, B. Traore, and D. Bello. 1994. Fertilitb et fertilisation dans la kgion sud du Mali; du diagnostic au prognostic. Agriculture et D6veloppement 3: 4-12. Dogget& H. 1988. Sorghum. Second edition. Longmau, Essex, UK. Kassam,A.H., J. Kowal, M. Dagg, andM.N. Hanison. 1975. Maize in West AErica and its potential in the savanna area World Crops 27(1): 73-78. Ogoke, U.. RJ. Carsky, A.O. Togun, and K Dashiell. 2001. Maize yield following phosphorus- fertilized soybeao in the Nigeian Guinea savanna. Pages 20S213 in Impact, Challenges and Prospats of Maize Research and Development in West and Central Africa, edited by B. Badu- Ap~aku, M.A.B. Fakorede, M. Ouedraogo, and RJ. Carsky. Proceedings of a Regional Maize Workshop 4 7 May 1999, Cotonou, B6nin. IITA. Ibadan, Nigeria. Oikeh, S.O., G.Weber, S.T.O. Lagoke, andA.E. Awad 1996. Assessment of yield losses iiomSIriga hermonthica in farmers' fields in the northern Guineasavanna Nigerian Journal of Weed Science. 9: 1 4 . Parkinson, V., S.K. Kiin,Y. Ef~on, L. Bello, and K. Dashiell. 1987. Trap cmps as a e u l ~ l measure in Sniga control m Africa FA0 Plant Protection Bulletin No. 35: 51-54. FAO, Rome, Italy. Sanchez, P.k 1976. Propenies and management of soils of the tropics. John Wdey and Sons, New York, USA. Sail& G. and A. Raynal-Roques. 1989. Le Striga. La Recherche 20: 44-52. Sauerborn, 1. 1991. The economic importance of the phytoparasites Ombanche and Striga. Pages 137-143 in Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium of Parasite Weeds, edited by J.K. Ransom, L.J. Musselman, A.D. Worsham, and C. Parker. April 1991. CIMMYT, Nairobi, Kenya. Singh, A,, RJ. Carsky, E.O. Lncas, and K. Dashiell. 2001. Grain yield response of maize to pi'evi- ous soybean cmp and residue management in the Guinea savanna of Nigeria Pages 214-224 in Impact, Challenges and Prospects of Maize R e s w h and Development in West and Central Africa, edited by B. Badu-Apraku, M.kB. Fakorede, M. Ouedraogo, and RJ. Carsky. Pmceed- ings of a Regional Maize Workshop, 4-7 May 1999, Cotonou, Benin. IITA, Ibadm Nigeria Smil, V. 1997. Some unorthodox perspectives on agricultural biodiversity. The case of legume cultivation. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 62: 135-144. Smith, J., J.B. Woodswath, and K E. Dashiell. 1993. Government policy and tarm level technologies: The expansion of soyabean in Nigeria Agricultural Systems m A i c a 3(1): 20-32. Van der Pol, F. 1991. L'epuisement des terres, une source de revenus pour les paysans an Mali-Snd Pages 403-41 8 in Savancs d'Afrique, tcrres feniles? Proceedings of an International Meeting at Montpellicr, 10-14 Dcccmhzi 1990. Mininere de la Cooperanon et du Dfvcloppemcnt, Paris, France. Weber, G.K., K. Elemo, A. Awad, S.T.O. Lagoke, and S. Oieh. 1995. Striga hmanthica in crop ping systems of the northern Guinea savanna. Resource and Crop Management Research Mooogiaph No. 19, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria 69 pp. Economics of diversified food production on wetlands Labode Popoola Department of Forest Resources Management University of lbadan, Nigeria This papcr rakes a lookat wetlands as a production system in agriculture. It reviews the circumstances leading to the unending food crisis in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the potentials of the estimated total of 200 x 1 Oha of wetlands in the emregion inalleviating the food shortage problem thmughdivenificationof food production. Apart from rice and sugarca&other food Gps , such as cassava, ma&, cowpea, yam, sorghum, soybean, cocoyam, and plantain, can be cropped under various &mbiions pro6tably. The paper identkes diEferent crop cbmbinations for the different wetlands. Cost and retums amlysu: indicatc that all the combinations are profit2ble in various degrees. hthe forest zone, rak of reWm lo investment (RORI) is in the order: cassavalplanlain (I 10%) > cassavalmaize (90%) > yadplurtain (60%) > maizdcowyam (54%) > yamlmaize (50%) > sole rice 40%. Benefit Cost Ratlo (BCR) is in a similar order. In the derived savanna zone RORI is in the order cassava/&, cassavalsorghum (70%) > oniodsorghum; ooiodinillet; onion/ &; mkdwwpca; weetpotato(50%) > sole rice (30%) BCR is in similarorder. In the semiarid zone ROR~ is &the order s u ~ a n e (90%) > maizelmelon; sorghumlmelon; maizeicowpea > sorghum/cowpea (50%) > sole rice (30%). BCR is in the same order. Estimated RORI for various vegetables shows that o h (I63%) > amor~lhus (1 54%) > celosia (147%) > corchow (19%). BCR is the same order. Farmers'exwsure to risk. workine in wetlands. is a maior limitation to oroductiv- ity of this i&ortant ag&cosyst&m. Th~s can be surmbunted through i i g e of achvihes betweenaericultural workerson the one handand health and social work- - ers on the other. Other areas requiring fiuther research are pasture productivity on wetlands, agroforestry, studies on gender issnes, and ergonomics of wetlands agriculture. Introduction Sub-Sahamn Africa (SSA) is going through a seemingly unending food crisis. For some two decades now, the issues have been those of food shortages resulting from drought; desert encroachment increasing human population, faulty and unsustainable agricultural practices, leading to degradation ofproduction'iystems. According to Okigbo (1989) there is widespread concern about sustainability in agricultural production and development progmms. Hardly a day passes without an article, conference, seminar, radio or televi- sion progmm, or publication on agricultural research and development devoted to one or more aspects of sustainability in agriculture and development. Accounts from Nigeria, for instance, indicate that agricultural productivity and total annual food and 6berproduction are pitiably poor and much below expectation Okpi 1994). While population has been growing steadily at 2.83%, food production is a mere IS%, and k m an all-time high of 98% foodsufiiciency ratio at independence, the country is down to apaltry 45% local food production (Cenhal Bank of Nigeria 1992; FA0 (1992) and the Central Bank of Nigeria (1992) separately and independently shows that as at 1992, the Nigerian had less than 350 kg of grain equivalent of food available to him for the year if he could afford it. Six years afterwards, this situation rather than improving tends to be worsening. Accounts h m other countries in SSA are not any better. For example, while population growth rate in B b i Republic has been put at 3.1%, agricultural growth rate has rarely exceeded 1% as in Ghana, Niger Republic, and several others (World Bank 1994). Various forms of panacea have been proffered over the years. Among these is the mechanism for sus- tainahility and partnership in agriculture of the Ecoregional hogram for the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA) with priorities among others, to char- acterize humid forest production systems and agmecological subzones and development of sustainable land-use systems and technologies. Among these production systems are the vast wetlands of the tropics which potentials have been generally suboptimally tapped In this paper, economic analyses of the potentials of wetlands are based on experiences from B h Republic and Nigeria. The two countries have a lot of similarities in geology, climate, vegetation, agricultural practices, culture, and tmdition. Most of the parameters used in the analyses are, however, based on the Nigerian situation. Coverage and characterization of wetlands in Africa Juo and Lowe (1986) assert that tropical sub-Saharan Africa has a total of 200 x 10ha. of wetlands that exist in the form of small inland valleys, river flood plains, inland basins, and coastal wetlands. They identilied the potentials of wetlands for the cultivation of rice and other food crops in solving the food crisis that has resulted from the erratic rainfall in the last twenty years coupled with the badly degraded soils that have reduced yields of food crops in the uplands. Wetlands are formed when natural or man-made barriers impede the flow ofwater resulting in flood plains, peatlands, marshes, swamps, mangroves, lakes, reservoirs, ponds and canals (KIO and Ola-Adams 1986). This is illustrated by Raunet (1985). The wetlands of tropical sub-Saharan Africa with a growing period of 150 days also include deltas, estuaries, and tidal flats, inland basins comprising extensive draiiage depressions, river flood plains, consisting of recent alluvial deposits bordering rivers, and inland valleys, the flat-floored, relatively shallow valleys that are widespread in the undulating landscape (dambos,fadamos. bas-fon&, inland valley swamps) (FA0 1978). They are lands in which the wet conditions iduence the possibilities for land use. The excessive wetness may be caused by flooding or by high ground water tables and pond- ing (Andriesse 1986). There is also the predominance of coarse soil in the sedimentary formations and granitic rocks. Acid and potentially acid sulfate soils are widespread in the coastal wetlands. In the dry zones salinity and alkalinity are extensive. The only common characteristic of wetlands, particularly the small inland valleys is their great heterogeneity, both within the valleys and among them. Wetland soils may be mineral or organic. Some wetland areas, especially the sea- sonally dry ones, have mineral soils, with or without a thin peat cover. Other wetland areas, particularly the perennially wet ones, have deep peat soils in their centers, grading through shallow peat into a hand of seasonally dry mineral wetland soils adjacent to dry land (Brinkman and Blokhuis 1986). As yet, there is little or no empirical evidence s u p porting nonutilization of the vast area of wetlands in sub-Saharan Africa, yet, according to Moormaim and Juo (1986) most of the wetlands are underutilized Many of the large wetlands such as the deltas and floodplains in the humid, forested regions have never been cultivated, and the small wetlands, such as the inland valleys (or fadmus) in the subhumid regions, ofken have been used only for upland crops such as yam, sweetpotato, and vegetables that are grown either during the dry season or on large mounds or raised beds during the rainy season. In Nigeria, there exist large expanses of wetlands. These wetlands, though scattered and in pockets, would cover over 24 009 kmz (Kio and Ola-Adams 1986). According to Onofeghara (1986), Nigerian wetlands, which either throughout or for most parts of the year contain moisture at a level far in excess of that tolerated by most plants, include among others: the mangrove swamps, (NigerDelta area) the lake Chad Basin the Kainji Lake Basin the ground water of upland savanna sites the interdome depressions typified by the Hadeija-Nguru (Baturiya) wetlands) the valley bottoms of rivers the flood plains (typified by Ogun, Osun, Katsina-Ala, Gongola, 1 . 0 , andcross River flood plains, the flood plains of the Niger and Benue troughs and their tributaries are included in this category the heavily wet areas of some of our rainforest the most extensive of the wetland areas of Nigeria in the Niger-Delta area which covers over 9000km2 within the eight coastal states of Lagos, Ondo, Edo, Della, Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa Ibom, and Cross River. According to Umoh (1995) the Niger-Delta wetlands are among the world's largest. Table 1 shows the distribution and extent of Nigerian wetlands. Table 1. Distribution and extent of Nigerian weilands. Coastal saline wetlands Freshwater wetlands (mangrove swamps) (flood plains) Name Extent (ha) Name Extent (ha) Niger Delta 61 7 000 Niger River 1 177000 Cross River estuary 95 000 Benue River 242 000 Imo River and Qua Ibo River 36 000 Cross River 250 000 Estuaries (Others) 110 000 Imo River 26 000 Lake Chad 55 000 Ogun/Oshun Rivers 380 000 Total 858 000 2 130000 Source: (Adapted from Nigerian Environmental StudyIActionTeam (NEST 19'311. In Binin Republic, the area of wetlands has been put at 200 000 ha. This represents 17.8% of the total land area for the whole country. They are found across the country and along the flood plains of all the major rivers in the country. The need for diversified food production on wetlands Nigeria's current population is approximately 89 million. By 2010 it is projected to reach 152.5 million. The population of Binin Republic was 4.8 million as at the last census. It is currently put at 5 million people and it continues to rise. The implications of this need little emphasis. FORMECU (1996) observes that there had been a siflcant increase in the area of agricuiture (mainly in dryland) in Nigeria withii a period of 18 years (Table 2). The same is not true of wetland agriculture. The facts are that there is a shrinking land-man ratio upland Assigbe and Mama (1993) also observed that in the Republic of Binin, it is becoming clear moreandmore that the development of inlandvalleys is amust as fertile soils in the uplands are being depleted in the country. The consequence of this is continuous cropping. When land is croPped over and over, migration from degraded soils to more fertile soils becomes inevitable (Popoola 1990). Accordiig to Olayide (1982), the variables of migration which have economic implications are the capital msts of development with each migration, trekking requirements, "carrier" syt;ems, and physi- cal capital requirements. This form of migration is termed obligatory movement, which is determined basically by constraints of soil. Tbis movement can be objectively wsted. They include: (a) tohaveaccesstosoilswithadequate~liesofplantnu~ents,which~uldoth~se be attained at large costs, by applying chemical capital such as fertilizers, @) to have access to soils in acceptable pbysical conditions, with little or no damage by erosion and to l i t flooding and silt deposition on l~wer ground. These effects can be corrected or oBet only at very substantial costs. Arising from the pressures on agricuitiuai lands are food shortages. Symptoms of food crisis in sub-Saharan ABica emerged in the late 1960s. These were clearly evident from the increasing food supply shortfails and rising food prices. The 1970s witnessed a rapid deterioration in the region's food production situation. As from 1973, the decline in farming activities became more pronounced Not only were there widening food supply- demand gaps, there were also rising food import bills. Projections by the World Bank (1988) showed that between 1980 and 1990,17% of the entire population experienced food insecurity annually. This corroborates &dings by Ekpo (1984% b, and 1986). Land for agricuitiuai production, however, is inelastic, yet the annual population growth is put at 2.3-3.2% for most developing countries. To meet the growing demand for food and fiber, two options were proposed by Agboola (1989); extension of area under cultivation and intensive cultivation using improved technology. '(9661 e!nw n33w -803) s6lf66 I pue 8L6m6L uaarmaq euaS!~ u! saSueq3 uo!~ma?a~ pue puel lo wawsmsy :axnos .uo!~mgln> spuep 4 wqa~ sw! sam!put. LZ 29 L8 8LZ- 69P LPS L LOP- LP8 81s 9LS L L8 80Z L L9S L ELEL L LOP 8lPZ- l9EE £- 09Z L SS69 8895 L L- LLLS 99s- LE8EL- LLBL- LS9L- S6E8 L L9PLL L0669- 99LZE- 62 29 6E L 692 S8P SPS LLB 886 9SLL ELS L LP9 L ZE9Z 8882 ZLLE 6Z8P PSZS ms 6SL9 lS9L 686L 90Z6 LL66 8PZLL E86LL PLLZL 6699 L 8PZ6 LLSBL 8L60Z 99EL8 P69 18 0'0 z 0'0 eu 0'0 zs 0'0 L8P 1.0 9 1 1'0 P 1'0 Z98P 1'0 LP L 1'0 8Z9 z'0 L66 Z'O OER E'O PZP L E'O LZE L E'O 6EL L SO ZL8 9'0 ZOPL 9'0 E80Z L'O Z9L9 6'0 lS69 6'0 PEOL 0'1 8LSE 1'1 P666 Z'l LEL9 E'l 6PSZ L E'L LS6S L 8'1 9LE9L 0'1 6689 L 0' z zz L E' Z LSP6 0'6 E6Z LSl 0'6 088% L 1 - 0'0 eu 0.0 1.0 0 0 SO 0'0 L '0 L '0 L '0 Z'O Z'o Z'O 1'0 8'0 z'o L'O L'O 1.0 P'o L'L LO P'l 6'2 0'2 6'1 0'0 0'1 9'9 L S'z L euuenes layes am04 paq~nas!pun ,dwems ~-e~ysa~.j *dms qNYS uo!sata ,411113 .a~wln3!12e u!eldpoolj euuenes eau!n3 euumes uepns a~qlru!~ffe @u!ma aA!su%q a~wlna!~ae (day an!sualul aauey3 z"l $0 % z"l 40 % S6/E66 L 9L6L hoBaae3 asn puel In view of the resource-poverty of most smallholder fanners in the tropics, the second options appear unattainable, at least for now. The fust option, though fraught with some drawbacks, appears more attractive. This appears a justification for optimal use ofhithem unused lands, especially the expansive wetlands in the sub-Saharan region. Crop combinations in wetlands Rice is virtually synonymous with wetland agriculhue. However, empirical evidence shows that several other field crops solely or in combination can profitably thrive in this agroecosystem. In Nigeria, such possible combinations based on zones include: I . Kainji Lake basin flood plains Rice, cassava, sorghum, maize, sweetpotato, cowpea, onions, and beans. Possible combinations: i. rice (sole during wet season) .. u. cassavdmaize ... 111. cassavdsorghum iv. maize/cowpea v. sorghdcowpea vi. sweetpotatolmaize vii. onions1sorgh~aUey farming onionslmillet '6 onionslmaize '6 onionslvegetables " viii. beans (sole) 2. Hadejia-Nguru weflands Rice, melon, sorghum, maize, wwpea, sugarcane, and beans Possible combinations: i. rice (sole during wet season) ii. sugarcane (sole) iii. melodsorghum iv. maizetcowpea v. melordmaize vi. sorghumlcowpea vii. fodder (sole) viii. beans (sole) 3. Sokoto-Rima flood plains Rice, sugarcane, cowpea., sorghum, maize, fish, and beans Possible combinations: i. rice (sole) ii. sugarcane (sole) iii. fodder (sole) iv. melordsorghum v. melodmaize vi. maizelcowpea vii. sorghdcowpea vii. bean (sole) 4. Benue flood plains Rice, cassava, wcoyam, yam, sweetpotato, soybean, wwpea, plantain, and beans. Possible combiitions: i. rice (solel ii. soybean/$am/plantain (scattered in farmland) iii. yams/mak/plantain (scattered in farmland) iv. sweetpotato/soybean v. soybean/wwyamlplantain (scattered in farmland) vi. plantain (sole) vii. beans 5. Nige~DeIta weilands Crops grown: rice, yams, cowyams, plantains, cassava, maize, and beans Possible combinations: i. rice (sole) ii. yamlmaize/plantain (scattered in farmland) iii. cassavalmaizeIplantain (scattered in farmland) iv. plantain (sole) v. beans 6. Fadama Maize, rice, tomatoes, yam, okro, amamnthus. cochom, celosia, pepper, and beans. Possible wmbinations: i. rice (sole) (wet season) .. 11. maizelyam iii. Amarnnthus/Cocho&Celosiafle~ce iv. okro/pepper/tomatoes v. beans (sole) It should be noted that more and varied wmbiitions abound, hence these lists are not exhaustive. Measures of profitability in wetland agriculture Profitability is a major incentive to investment in any enterprise thus, the objective of any rational en-preneur is to operate profitability. The entrepreneur is usually free to vary the levels of both wst and output, and his ultimate aim is the maximization of pmfit mther than the solution of conslmined-maximum andminimum problems (Henderson and Quandt 1980). Paradoxically, the average peasant/subsistence farmer in most developing wuntries considers as top priority, the survival of his household in terms of food security. This explains why he does not cost most of his inputs, particularly household labor. Few or no records of his enterprise are kept. A major limitation in the assessment of profitability in wetland agriculture is the fact that most scientific investigations into profitability, resource allocation, and enterprise combination behavior have been based generally on dryland farming. Such efforts include Osuji 1978; Olayemi 1980; Adesi i 1980; Aromolaran 1992. Another limitation is that farming on wetlands is not often continuous. Irregular intervals exist in the fanniig cycle, giving rise to disjointed yield data and price regimes. For these reasons, such measures as Net Present value (NP* or determination of Intend Rate of Returns @iR) are not easily . ~ accomplished. ~ o b t attempts have also beenon single enterprise approach which Djogbenou (1981) views as an uurealistic iiwneworlc for farm business analysis. Again, according to Umoh (1995) the enterprise costs and returns for a single crop do not give a good indication of the income position of the whole farm with various cmps. It does not highlight the trade-off situations or enterprise combiiation problems faced by the farmer. Additionally, the wetland farmer should be interested in how to allocate his resources to different enterprises rather than single enterprise, more so as Izac et al. (1990) opine that c4tivation of inland valleys is integrated in upland farming activities. This paper views diversified food production on wetlands as the multiple use of the resource base, i.e., conscious and deliberate cultivation ofmore than one crop onone piece of land According to Popoola (1984), whether the combination is staggered or simultane- ous in time or space, the goal is to optimize the use per unit of land, while at the same time paying special attention to, and applying the principle of sustained yield Costs and returns analysis Returns here are viewed as the product of output(s) and average price per unit of output. In other words, the attainable total revenue eom the production process. Costs of pmduc- tion are classified into variable costs which is a function of the output level, and the 6xed costs, usually the cost of capital inputs which is incurred whether production takes place or not. Profit, therefore, is the positive difference between the estimated total revenue and the total cost of production. This is mathematidy represented as: TR = TC = p ~ Q T v c + TFC TVC = PIX, + P,X, + ... POXO TFC = K u - TR-TC n - PQQ - PIXI + P A C K n>O Rate of rehum on investment (RORI) is given as n - x TC 1 Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) = Di TC where TR = PQ - p, - XI - Q - TC = T v c = TFC = a - . - Total revenue Unit price of output Unit price of variable input 1=1 ,2 Total output of the crop(s) Total cost Total variable cost Total 6xed cost Pmfit which must be > 0 The foIIowing assumptions underline the ensuing analysis: 1. Average farmgate prices for the products are used. 2. Averaee outout levels for the crms are used. - . 3. An average of one hectare of lani is used for each enterprise. 4. Arent of NlOOO (USSIO) is assumed per hectare of Eumland 5. All kmactions are at the farmgate. 6. A production cycle is assumed for each crop, i.e., eom planting to harvesting. 7. The exchange rate (N to USS) = N100.00 to USSI. 8. The exchange rate (N to CFA) = eq =N= 1.00 to approx CFA 6.00. 9. Straight line method is assumed for depreciation of fixed cost items, thus, fixed cost is assumed to be approximately equal to depreciation charges on the implement plus land rent The identified operations in wetland agriculhlre % conhiution to wst of opemtion (i) Land clearing (varies by agroecology) 28.3% (ii) Packing and burning 5.7 (iii) Tillage 28.3 (iv) Sowinglplanting 3.8 (v) Weeding (1st and 2nd) 15.1 (vi) Fertilizer application (if applicable) 11.3 (vii) Harvesting 7.6 (viii) others varied Arising from these, the major inputs identified are: (i) Land (i) Labor (iii) Agrochemicals (fertilizers) (iv) Propagules (various) (v) Implements On the basis of the above, the inputs are classified as follows: Fired c o s t items Variable c o s t items Implements Labor (i) CUass/matchet PropaEd- (ii) Hoes Fertilizers ( i ) Sickle (iv) Bucketlwatering can (v) Basket (vi) Rent onland The analysis are based on three major agmecological zones: (i) Forest zone - 75% tubers; 25 grains in Combination (ii) Derivedsava~a zone - 50% tubers; 50% grains in wmbination (iii) Semiarid zone - 25% tubers; 75% grains Costs and returns are thus promted a c w ~ y . The yield data used in the computations were obtained f h m various sources. They include Cross River State Fourth National Development Plan Report 1975-1980; Diehl 1979; Popoola 1990; Izac et al. 1990, Swemen 1990; and Akinbola and KuIu (iapress). They are summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3. Estimated yields (ha) for different food crops on wetlands. Food crops Yields (tonnes) Yam 14.7 Maize 2 Plantain 15 Cassava 19 Cocoyam 3 Rice . 19 Sorghum 2 Sweetpotato 19 Cowpea 0.5 Onions 20 Melon 0.5 Sugarcane 20 Source:Various, as lined above. Table 4. Estimated yields (ha) of vegetables in an inland valley in lbadan, Nigeria. Crop Yield tha X Yield *a* Amaranthus 10.1-26.8 18.45 Celosia 6.2-23.7 14.95 Corchorus 5.0-12.0 8.5 Okra 2.5-8.5 5.5 Source Ak~nbola and Kuku Ian press). D~fferences on yteld are due to roll rypes. ' Mean yield calculated by author. Costs and returns Costs and rehuns are presented for the different crop combinations for three different zones (Tables 5,6, and 7). Those for vegetables are presented separately in Table 8. In the forest zone, the crop combiiation with the highest RON is cassavdplantain (RON = 110%; BCU = 2.1). The crop combination with the least RON is sole rice @ON = 40% BCR = 1.4). Returns to investment are. however. oositive for all the ROD combiiations. , . These are indicators of profitability. in the derived savanna zone, the best combiiations are cassavdmaize and cassavdsorghum (both have RON = 70% and BCR 1.7). Again, sole rice records the least ROUi of 30% and BCR of 1.3. As in the forest zone, all com- biiations have positive returns to investment. in the semiarid zone, the best enterprise is sugarcane with RON = 90% and BCR = 1.9. Again, rice has the least RON = 30% and BCU= 1.3. Okra is the most profitable vegetable enterprise in wetlands in Nigeria with ROUi of 163% and BCRof 2.63 whilecorchom brings the least returns to investmerit (RON = 19% and BCU = 1.19). None of the vegetable enterprises, however, yielded negative returns. Table 5. Estimated costs and returns in diversified food production on wetlands. (Forest zone) Crop mix TR TC n BCR RORl Yadplantain 190,200 1 19,502 70698 1.6 60% Cassadplantain 11 1,000 52,542 58,458 2.1 110% Yadmaize 159,000 104,398.25 54,601.75 1.5 50% Cassadmaize 93,000 48,598.25 44,400.75 1.9 90% Maizdcocoyam 106,469.48 69,073.25 37,396.23 1.54 54% Rice (sole) 72,000 50,922 21,078 1.4 40% Source: Field survey (Popoola 1998). Table 6. Estimated costs and returns in diversified food production on wetlands. - (Derived savanna zone) Crop mix TR TC n BCR RORl Cassava/maize 76,000 44,279.5 31,720.5 1.7 70 Cassadsorghum 76,000 44,279.5 31,720.5 1.7 70 Oniondsorghum 59,821 39,821 20,000 1.5 50 Oniondmillet 59,821 39,821 20,000 1.5 50 Onionsfmaize 59,821 39,821 20.000 1.5 50 Maizdcowpea 52,000 35,642 16,358 1.5 50 Sorghum/cowpea 52,000 35,642 16,358 1.5 50 Rice (sole) 64,000 48,000 16,000 1.3 30 Sweet/potato/maize 59,821 39,821 15,000 1.5 50 Source: Field survey (Popoola 1998). Table 7. Estimated costs and returns in diversified food production on wetlands (semiarid zone). Crop mix TR TC n BCR Sugarcane 200,000 69,500 130,500 1.9 Maizdmelon 56,500 34,642 22,858 1.5 Sorghum/melon 52,000 34,642 17,358 1.5 Maizdcowpca 52,000 34,642 17,358 1.5 Sorghudcowpea 52,000 34,642 17,358 1.5 Rice (sole) 60,700 46,200 14,500 1.3 Source: Field survey (Popoola 1998). RORl (Oh) 90 50 50 50 50 30 Table 8. Estimated casts and return in various vegetable enterprises in an inland valley in Ibadan. p~~~~ Vegetables TR TC z BCR RORl(%) Amaranthus spp. 230,625 70,695 139,930 2.54 154% Celosia spp. 224,250 90,695 133,555 2.47 147% Corchorus spp. 85,000 71,250 13,750 1.19 19% Okra 247,500 93,995 153,505 2.63 163% Source: Field survey (Popwla 1998). Problems and prospects of diversified food production on wetlands Diversified foodproduction (whichis synonymous with polyculture) is not a new practice in the traditional fanning systems in sub-Saharan Africa The biological, environmental, and socioeconomic merits of this system are many, but are generally taken for granted. Recent thinking, however, indicates that serious attention must be paid to this ecologicdly sound form of agriculture. For now, it is the most sustainable means of producing food for the teeming populations of the subregioa From all indications, monocropping, which bormws heavily h m temperateagriculture, is not sustainable, given theresome-poverty level of our peasant farmers. Again, with the d i i h i n g land : man ratio, the need to extend food pmduction into hitherto suboptimally utilized areas such as the wetlands of the subregion becomes an ecological and economic imperative. However, there are still some issues, which need to be addressed: The issue of excess water in soil remains a problem in wetland agriculture. Since dii- f c m t mops require different levels of soil water, the issue of compatibility of crops to be combined becomes important. hainage systems, which will reduce soil water to optimum levels for various mops, need be exploited and perfected As of now, not much success has been recorded in research workto establish the rela- tionship between percolation rates and growth of different cmps. Research should be intensified to determine performances of different cmps in relation to the magnitude of percolation in different crop fields. . The problem of water-borne diseases prevalent in wetlands has persisted. In view of the social andeconomic losses arisingfmmdisease-inducedloss ofvaluablemandays, preventive and curative measures of control need to be intensified. This calls for link- age between agricultural workers on the one hand and health and social workers on the other. In spite ofthe interest shown so far by government in the area of fadamadevelopment, there is still need for substantial national interest as against private uncoordinated involvement. Research should be intensified in the ergonomics of wetland agriculture. At present, there are serious information gaps on laborlenergy requirements for farm operations in wetlands. The Unilied Agrieultural Extension System (VAES) stiU has a major mle to play as a liaison agency between research and &e end users of research results. The prospects of diversified food production on wetlands are high. The enterprise is viable and proiitable. However, to optimize benefits on a national and ecoregional scale more efforts are required. These include intensification ofresearch on various agroforestry models on wetlands with a view to increasing wood output, particularly for domestic energy in the semiarid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. APCU (1996) reports that a farmer in Doro Baga, a village in the Lake Chad Basin area of Bomo State, has been earning several thousands of Nairaannuallv from a woodlot of less than0.4 ha. S i a r l v . farmers . .. in river valley areas of Dalijam, Kebbi State of Nigeria, have been earning good money from woodlots ofEucalyptus spp. andAzadirachta indim combined with foodcrops inan agroforeshy system (0&fowoza et al. 1975; Ochai 1995). Hocking (1998) reports also that about 300 000 ruml households have planted over eight million trees of 135 species around their wetland homesteads in Bangladesh. Even though the farmers h o w that trees cause losses of ~ ~ ~ d e m o p s , they nevde1ess encourage and maintain valuable trees in their iields for the compensating tree products:. He reports fiuther that trees in wetland rice fields initially grow faster than in forest plantations on medium to good sites. The fastest growing trees are Gmelina arboreo, EuwZ'hLs ~maldulensis, Faidherbiaalbido, Albizia saman, Melia azedarach, Cassia siamea, and Acacia m a n g . ~ . These are worth hying on wetlands of SSA. Research should also be intensified in development, management, and economics of fodder hanks of important pasture grasses and legumes such as: Rhodes grass - Chloris gayana Coastal Bermuda - Cynodon dacfylon Guinea grass - Panicum mmimum Elephant grass - Pennisetum purpureum Bullrush millet - i? whoides Gambia grass - Afidmpogon gayanus Carpet gmss - Aronopus rrmpmsus Gliricidia sepium Cnropogonium mumoides Leucaena ZeucocephaIa Puermin phmeoloides sfylosanthes gayanemis This is important, as fodder shortages have become acute in the semiarid zone where Le-Houeren (1982) reported that in Bomo, Kano, Katsina, and Sokoto States alone there are estimated totals of 16 499 344 standard stock units. He reported that livestock populations have exceeded the carrying capacity of the fragile ecosystem. This has led to ruminants lopping and destroying trees and shrubs in shelterbelts. This has implications on biodiversity conservation. Conclusion In spite of the harsh production environment of the wetlands which makes working on them arduous, diversified food production on wetlands is viable. Given the need to extend farming beyond dry areas and dry periods of the year, wncerted efforts should be encouraged to enhance the productivity and sustainability of our wetlands. There is also the need to look at gender issues in welland agriculture. This will enable a pmper assessment of gender contributions to various operations involved in the food production process on wetlands. Acknowledgements The author is profoundly gratehl to the following people for their immense assistance: Prof. S.O. Bada, Dr Emmanuel Atayi, Dr M.A.Y. Rahji, Dr F.R. Kutu, Messers O.B. Agbeja, 0. Ajewole, and Honore (FSA-UNB, Benin Republic). References Adesimi, A.A. 1980. Farm management analysis: with perspectives through the development pro- cess. Agboola, A.A. 1989. Good soil management and appropriate farming practices, the key to soil productivity and food sufficiency in Nigeria. An inaugural lecture at the University of Ibadan. Akinbola, G.E. and F.R. Kuku (in press). Productivity and suitability assessment of an inland valley soils on basement complex of southwestern Nigeria for dry season vegetable production. Andriesse, W. 1986. Wetlands: area and distribution. Pages 15-30 in The wetlands and rice in sub- Saharan Africa, edited by A.S.R. Juo and J.A. Lowe. APCU. 1996. Federal Republic of Nigeria. Afforestation Program Coordinating Uni t, Dorayi, Kano, Impact Assessment of Afforestation Component of Forestry 11. World Bank Assisted Project. (Final Report). 92pp. Aromolaran, A.B. 1 992. 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Yam-based farming systems in the southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. TITA Agric. Econs. Discussion paper Pl79. 53pp. Djogbenou, S.F. 1981, Economics of swamp rice production: a case study of farmers in Borgou Province, Republic ofBCnin. PhD thesis, Dept. ofAgricultura1 Economics, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Ekpo, A.1-l. 1984a. Self-reliance in food production a framework for examining food crop sector rogam 3i3 ?I igeria. Conference Proceeding of Nigerian Economic Society Vol. 11, Ibadan. Ekpo, A.H. 1984b. Production changes in selected food crops in Nigeria: a reconsideration of the evidence in agricu1rl;rai productivity. ARMTI, Ilorin, Nigeria. Ekpo, -4.H. 1986. Food dependency and the Nigerian economy: an ex-post analysis. Nigerian Journal of Ecctlornic and Social Studies 28(2). FA0 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1978. Report on the agroeco- logical zones project. Lbl. i: methodology and results for Africa. World Soii Resources Report 48. FA@: Rome, Italy. FAD. i 992. Agricultural Production Yearbook, 1985 and 1 992, Rome, Italy. Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette. 1997. Government Notice No. 77 of 15 April 1997. trcl. 54 Fedcral Republic of Nigeria, 1991 Population Census final figures. FORMECU (Forest Management, Evaluation and Coordinating Unit). 1996. Assessment of land and vegetation changes in Nigeria between 1976178 and 1993195. Abuja, Nigeria. Henderson, J.M. and R.E. Quandt. 1980. Microeconomic theory (a mathematical approach), Inter- national Student Edition. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd. Auckland, New Zealand. Hocking, D. 1998. Trees in wetland rice fields; an exciting project in Bangladesh. Agroforestry Today. Vol. 10, No. 3. July-September, 1998. Ikpi, A.E. 1 994. Policy relevancc of research for sustainable development in Nigeria's agriculture. Pages 5-19 in Sustainable agriculture and economic development in Nigeria edited by Anthony E. Ikpi and Joseph K . Olayemi. African Rural Social Sciences Research Networks for Winrock International. Izac, A.M.N., M.J. Swift, and W. Andriesse. 1990. A Strategy for Inland Valley Agroecosystems Research in West and Central Africa, RCMP Research Monograph No. 5, Resourie and Crop Management Program. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Juo, A.S.R. and J.A. Lowc (editors). 1986. The Wetlands and rice in sub-Saharan Africa. Kio, P.K.O. and B.A. Ola-Adams. 1986. Utilization and Development of Wetlands in Nigerian wetlands. (Man and the Biosphere (MAB), edited by T.V.I. Akpata and D.U.U Okali. Le-Houren, H.W. 1982. Overview Document. Experimenting in Tropical Forests. LibrevilIe 25 Feb. to 1 March, 1986 UNEPNG.3 3/34 70pp Moormann, F.R. and A.S.R. Juo. 1986. Present land use and cropping systems in Africa. In The wetlands and rice in sub-Saharan Africa, edited by A.S.R. Juo and J.A. Lowe. NEST, Nigeria Environmental Study and Action Team. 199 1 . Nigeria's Threatened Environment, A National Profile. Ochai, S. 1995. Analysis of the micro-economics behavior of farm households in Kogi State, Nige- ria. PhD thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Ogunfowora, D., S.M. Essang, and S.O. Olayide. 1975. Resource productivity in traditional agri- culture: a case study of four agricultural divisions in Kwara State of Nigeria. Journal of Rural Economies and Development 9(2): 1 17.- 1 32. Okigbo, B.N. 1989. Development of sustainab!e agricultural production systems in Africa, roles of international agricultural research systems. I!TA, Ibadan, Nigeria. Olayemi, J.K. 1980. Food crop production by small farmers in Nigeria in Nigerian small farmers, edited by S.O. Olayide, J.A. Eweka, and V.E. Bello-Osagie, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, University of Ibadan. Olayide, S.O. 1982. Economics of alternative to shifting cultivation systems in The future of shift- ing cultivation in Africa, FAO, Rome, Italy. Onofeghara, F.A. 1986. Wetlands: their distribution and potential in Nigerian wetlands, edited by T.V.I. Akpata and D.U.U. Okali. Osuji, L.O. 1978. Resources productivity in traditional agriculture: a study of some selected villages in Imo State of Nigeria, PhD thesis, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Popoola, L. 1984. A study of agriculture and forest land use problems in Egba division Ogun State of Nigeria. BSc thesis, Dept. of Forest Resources Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. f opoola, L. 1990. Economics of alley cropping of marginal land in Ogun State of Nigeria. PhD thesis University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Raunet, M. 1985. Bas-fonds et rjziculture en Afrique. Approche structurale comparative. L'agronomie tropicale 40(3): 1 8 1-20 1. Swenncn, R. 1990. Plantain cultivation under West African conditions. A reference manual; IITA Ibadan, Nigeria. Uinoh, G.S. 1 995. Economics of wetlands fanning in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. PhD seminar paper in the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria World Bank. 1 985, 1 988, 1 990. Annual Reports 1984, 1987, and 1989. The World Bank, Washing- ton DC, USA. World Bank. 1 994. Trends in developing economics. 1994 Extracts. Voluine 3 sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank, Washington DC, USA. Improved land-use systems through plantation renewal as opportunities for " small-scale faEmers Claude Jannot IITA, Nkolbisson Yaounde, Cameroon Introduction The humid forest ecoregion ofWest%ca(Fig. 1) represents from 99 millions approximately 300 million ha and stretches over 15 countries, from Guinea to the former Zaire, the total area of which is twice as much. The population of these countries has been increasiog in 1965 to 232 million in.. ..., meankg an average annual increase of 2.9%. Nigeria is the most populated country in this region with 115 million, followed by the former Z&e (Fig. 2). But the main important feature of the last 30 years is the rapid growth of the urban population. The cities have absorbed two-th&ds of the population increase. Most cropping systems in the ecoregion are associated with annual and perennial crops. Among these, the oil palm has always been cultivated; the others have been introduced progressively since the 17th century, the first one being probably the coconut, brought from India by Portuguese sailors. With the exception of the natural palm grove, the perennial crops only cover 7 million ha, representing less than 2.5% of the humid forest zone of the ecoregion. The first crop is cocoa, with almost 4 million ha, followed by coffee with 2 million ha. [7 No or wryrhorr d y semen (<2 month) 0 I i r r ingdy msm(2-l m m h ) a Tmpieal highla& Longdy r- ( 4 5 rnonb), bur good ninfall(z 2 Sbondly rcrrm (s) ( ~ 4 rnonlhl), bur lowninfall(c Figure 1. Humid Forest Zone of West Africa. 70 Liberia Gabon \... 17 / 0% GuinBe Equat Guinee 3% Sao Tome 0% Camemun - 6% C6te d'lvoire 6% 7% Nigeria 49% Source: Field survey (2000) by author Figure 2. Share of export income originating fmm perennial crops produce. Table 1. Perennial crops hectarage. Hectarage Coma Coffee Oil palm Rubber Cornnut Total %HR Guinea 5000 55000 2 349 5500 5000 72 849 1.0 Sierra Leone 3000 14000 1 500 18 500 0.3 Liberia 5400 15000 25000 2400 47800 0.5 aIe d'lvoire 2 000 000 1 405 000 144 745 50 000 33 000 3 632 745 19.0 Ghana 850000 10000 31 597 22000 40000 953 597 14.0 TOgO 25 000 18000 5594 4000 52 594 3.9 Bhin 1000 31 084 12 000 44084 2.0 Nigeria 430 000 8000 142686 225000 39000 844686 4.6 Cameroon 360000 300000 60311 53 000 1400 774711 5.5 Central Africa 1 000 25000 2 516 1 200 29 716 03 Republic Equatorial 60000 18500 2500 81 000 2.9 Guinea SZoTomC 24 000 200 11 500 35 700 37.2 Gabon 15 W O 750 7459 9 700 32 909 0.1 Congo 6000 3 800 6786 2 500 19086 0.1 Former Zaire 22 000 240000 65 000 40000 367000 0.2 Total 3 806400 2 114250 500127 433 900 152 300 7006977 2.2 54% 30% 7% 6% 2% 10% Though covering arelatively smaU portion of arable land, these crops have been of much impomce providing cash income to rural populations. They also remain one of the most important sources of foreign currencies for countries deprived of oil or minerals (Fig. 2). Cocoa provides 69% and coffee 17% of these incomes, before rubber (1 I%), and palm produce (only 3%), even though it occupies 7% of the total land devoted to perennial cmps. This fact is important from a macroeconomic point of view, when considering that planters presently tend to developmore palm products than cocoaor coffee. Now knowing that cocoa is the most important cash crop in the ecoregion, we can look at the situation of the cocoa sector in the various countries: Cate d'lvoire is the main producer. The total area planted in cocoa is estimated to exceed 2 million ha compared to only 745 000 in 1973, for a total number of planters esthated at around 700 000, meaning an average of 3 ha per planter. The population of trees is relatively young: two-Cuds being less than 20 years. But Cis has been obtained through deforestation: the main producing area has moved westwards, from the former boucle du cacao (Abengourou-AgboviUe), where the average yield per ha has dropped to 216 kg, to the Bet6 c~unhy (Daloa-Gagnoa), and now the southwest where the average yieldfha is around 650 kg. Ghana is the second largest cocoa producer, with approximately 850 000 ha, plus 900 000 ha abandoned olots. Of the nlots still being exoloited 40% have been ~lanted - . before 1960. Thc youngest plantations are found in the western rcgion where 150 000 ba ofhybrids have been developed in the 1970s thanks to international financing. All in all, one-third of the ruml families (meaning approximately 600 000) are cocoa producers, with an average of 2 ha per planter; production is, however, declining. Nigeria, though being the oldest cocoa producer, now ranks third in the ecoregion. But again, most of the stands are old. Qnly 100 000 ha have been planted since 1972, and ~roduction declines. Rubber exports have now oveaaken cocoa exports. Cameroon is the fourth cocoa producer, but, as for Cate d'lvoire, the main producing area has movedhm' the cenaal and southern provinces, where 40% of the trees have been planted before 1950 to the southwest province (depment of M h i ) , and within the center province from the LikikiB to the Mham department. Plantation renewal and land-use systems What are the main issues related to plantation renewal? There are not so many problems concerning rubber or oil palm. The development of Fusarium disease in old palm stands do not hinder their replanting as this problem has already been addressed by scien&c research and solved through thebreeding of tolerantprogenies. But as previously assessed, the rubber and modem palm sectors are far behind cocoa and coffee. In the 1970s cocoa and coffee contributed about 300 billion FCFA to the public earnings. The Sodepalm gmup, controu'ig 90% of the modern palm sector, has only been contniuting 2 billion FCFAon a yearly average basis from 1974 to 1995. The real problem is with the renewal of old coffee and cocoa stands which suffer from fertility depletion, and increased pest load Ivorian cocoa trees do not suffer much from Phytophtora. The main problem there comes from the capsids, Nigeria and Cameroon suffer a lot both h m capsids and from Phytophtora (palmivara and megahya), while Ghana is also facing a huge swollen-shoot problem. Up to now, countries such as Gate d'ivoire andCameroon have been able to maintain or increase their cocoa production through opening new territories to these crops (pioneer settlements). But this has come to an end in Ghana and Nigeria, and will soon be the case in C6te d'lvoire. Moreover, it does not seem desirable to maintain the same develop- ment strategy in countries which still have enough forest. There is a need to find ways of replenishing soil fertility and controlling pest and diseases in the replanting of cocoa and coffee. Coffee and cocoa plantations are very seldom in pure stands. Most of the time, the land- use system associates plantainlbananas in the beginning, together with various indigenous fruit trees or oil palms which were kept fiom the former vegetation. It also happened in Cameroon, for example, that the cocoa crisis undergone in the early 1980s led planters to "enrich" their cocoa farms with Citrus and other cultivated h i t trees. Farmers are usually reluctant to fell their old trees, but prefer to replace them progressively. Another important aspect is that new market opportunities have been created by urban development. The local market for food crops, h i t s , and palm produce has been increas- ing a lot these last 30 years. There is a need to survey planters who want to renew their old trees and help them to replant or to diversify their farms with improved planting material (pbytophtora-resistant varieties of cocoa, trees domestication) and train them in techniques such as vegetative propagation or PM. It would also be useful to study the various annual and peremial crop associations which are supported by farmers, find ways of replenishing soil fertility, and determine the best options to maximize the overall output of the farm. Such an enterprise may also lead to recommendations about the farm-gate purchase price of produce. Up to now, governments through their marketing boards, and then international tmders have retained the bigger part of the margin in cocoa and coffee business. But the small-scale farmers should be allowed a share of this market so that they really have an incentive to face the replanting problems, othenvise, they will turn to more profitable crops which can meet local demand and production will go on declining. Commercial importance of peri-urban enterprises and home gardens in West and Central Africa D.O. Ladipo Center for Environment, Renewable Narural Resources Management, Research and Development (CENRAD) PMB 5052, lericho, lbadan, Nigeria Abstract Countries in the humid and subhumid areas of sub-Saharan Africa are still faced with major food and development problems with the continued increase in popula- tion. Pen-urban enterprises arc varied and mainly agncultural based. Their growth is vital in the development of urban centers, which depend on them for most of their food, or iaw material needs. Of all enterprises in the peri-urban areas, food production and processing are cluciaily important. Tbe case of cassava and some wild fruit posthamest processing is identified as of high importance. Impmnt peri-urban enterprises include farming and small livestock rearing, trad- ing, f o ~ d processing, forea exploitation, handicrafts, and arL Of all these, the one that has major relevance to EPHTA activities is market gardeningand fruit tree 6uiture in homegardensorsmall plantatioos. Others include trading, food proLessing, and wild fwd or extraction of non-wood resources from the forests. Extraction ofnon-timber forest resources, which had been the mainstay of nnal economy for centuries also continues to be impornut despite the depleted state of most of these forests. Peri-urban enterprises provide added income to small-scale farmers who supply food or raw materials and create job opportunities for many more people. Home gardens or traditional fanning systems evolved with most ~eoule of West and Central Africa. The, are environmentallv sound. eco- nomical$ efficiet& and sustainable land-use systems. The need to sustain the home garden system in this ecorcgion is vital. Unfor- tunately, insome areas of southeast Nigeria, a process of fragmentation is creeping in: researchers will need tomcntlv look at thevaluesororoblems in smaller home - . gardens. EPHTA will play a major role in this. As rural ~ouulatioos are rrnwided with em~lovment. the ~ o ~ u l a t i o n shift is prevented a& k t h this stabiiity attained, popdatiin kwth ib ihese peri-urban villages takes dace with this situation meventing mimation to the available and few iarge cities, such as has been pre&cted fo rkecand Central Africa by the African Development Bank (ADB). introduction The humid and subhumid tropics of sub-SaharanAi%ca is still faced with major pmblems o f development, particularly on food availability in urban centers and socioeconomic growih in rural areas. This situation still persists in the face o f increase in ma-urban no~ulations and the effects on various croos in Ai%ca m w e k e 1992). . . Africa, within the tropics, largely remains a rum1 society dependent on agriculture and pastoralism and even where other natural resources are available such as petroleum in the &e ofNigeria, agricdhue andagriculhual enterprises continue to be the major producers of national income (Sinkam 1994). Population determines the level o f product demand and the size of markets and this Zmssa3ard pooj . (pet= pm apsaloq~-13npord rme~) Sqeq ZupapreZlaqseui . suogqueld do13 aaq . 3- qaolsaq 1@ms pue uog3npwd dm3 . :apn[q sagpgm snoq~ aqL .armpa@% punare aAIoAar e3w uerqes-qns q se q3ns 'salqunm ~3rd~ Zmdola~ap m sasudrqua ueqm-uad '(DI~/ -IU!&U~ ou8~) eadm00 pm 'StIJounl sn]OaSDqd '~SUaug3U!q303 Dumnfq '(oa80d4 sgpo.iv) :,nupunoB '(~u~~aqolSo.?&o) a3p '(S&UI oaZ) aqem-samSa~ pue suyo . mqPm WVd (ozualn3sa zoqgofq) EAES~~~ pue '01qo4aams 'cdds oaco3soja) smek-aqn~ (ozm~twsa D!SD~O~O~ pue D~DJDUI ouroso~z~) smeKm-mm . '(~661 'p la ~anoiq) slaqseui se =qua3 mqm q pqaM k1asol3 are sdo13 pue pat~~gps are saspd pue 'qearaa 'e~~sse3 'rwK se q3ns sdon lo[m paldope se 'ogmds Knm@olom lopas sq 'sase3 asom q .mw wna3 pue~sa~ m a~drquaroCeue sarqgsum eare ueqm-uadp am nlql!~ uogmpwd do13 awt~~rn!~E!v '(OZOZ) ammJ am m Pue svnpord ueqm-pad ro @mr 3upaqrem ioj sagmoddo aspdratua kuem se )sn[ appozd 4 angum ipm asau '(I 000 001 30 ssaaxa m suogmdod qp ,,=qua3 a%,, OOE nem arom aq nw =am em pue atdoad 000s =om jo seare ueqm 0009 awn aq II!M ozoz m E3w lsaM m aidoad UO!II~ OE~JO pol pa)~adxa m 30 uorlp OLZ zq satqsa 'qoea mamdola~aa rnqy am 'tapes np qnl3 am Kq Kpws a~rzmdsrad v 'sasea13m o seare ueqm m 2mn.g uog~pdod pol a¶ jo uopodo~d am se aseamm r ipm sap- ddo asau 'uogmpo~d @mr3o noyodo~d ejo uopdmsum roj sag -y~oddo ap!~old rqms pooj ueqm @mro~o! am30 puw a¶ m norsuedxa am pue seare ueqm m suogepdod Zmpuedxa ktplder au .sppatm MEI q ssaareau 30 saZque~pe samo pue :,so:, nogmpord MO~JO asnemq slaqsem ueqm ?A-?-?A saspdra~ua ueqm-uad q $u=aqo! saZque~pe am pa)!oldxa pue pawnap! 'maX ayraAo 'a~eq sraIjaMp @~ZI ~srquaa ueqm m Jaqm ams E aAq oqe saspdra~ua ueqm-uad puss jo sowado 'qaqm am q Kqm?xord naql q knqmdsa 'S~QU~A~E palqnopun aAeq srossa301d pue saltamp mqm searaqm 'S~O~EN paPn am30 (oval uog=~ao @mlp3@v pue POOJ am 4 Ktsnoq~ passarppe uaaq seq sraluIBJ ap3s-$@ms @mrjo am am m uo!leq!s sg.~ .:,uaamoqma ueqm punore ..?[a4 saqags,, am am seare ueqm-uad m K~repspied sasydra~ua @mr 30 luamdola~ap am 10 seare @mr am no ssal pue 'nogqlqsnpm pm srqua3 ueqm no arom saamosar m3oj q pangum arreq 'kla~emqiojon 'smamaAo9 lndano pogeu $0 qw-mo~ aanpwd == @mr m Zrm\n sm3w 30 %08 IV moq naM s! $1 .saseamur uogmdod ueqm se aseanm q anquo3 WM laqmm papuedxa 103 sagmoddo am 'sasudra1ua ueqm-uad rod .eqymxqz~-qns m 1-a leqj asom se sagpmmo3 @rm~3!i3ejo p3rd.Q amlq a3npwduuq alqeqsuadk&g am Zmmpard asow ktrep3ped 'salqsnpm @mr Kuem 30 pguqod q~o18 am sapuqap osp rqq Figure I . Increase in population in West Africa. Nole: Rapid expansion of citier will create new market opponuniiies for more and more West African rural areasAD8, Club de Sahel, and CILSS). fruits, food, aqd livestock products forest exploitation, including extraction of fruits, and specific wood for cosmetic production Farming and small livestock rearing Food crop productioo or farming in west and Ceonal Africa has been described by many researchers in this subregion. Shepherd and Okafor (1992) described famiig activities in Cameroon and particularly in the southem forest zone and Okigbo (1987) has described - the situation in Nigeria. Crops produced follow agroewlogical zones and these include tubers, caeals, and vegetables, which are produced inmarket gardens near cities because of their high@- ability (Ladipo 1997). Produce is marketed through nual wholesale markets &om where the produce goes to the urban retail markers. This whole process has its strength and weakness. These have also been described by various researchers in Cameroon (Shepherd and Okafor 1992) and particularly in the Korup Project area in Cameroon where highly diversified crop mixtures are produced for sale in large marketing centers. The crops produced in Konp include green vegetables, potato, other vegetables, and f i t and tree crops, which will be addressed under a sepamte section in this report. Small livestock rearing enterprises - Apart &om the relatively large-scale Fulanipastoralist system, which is basically nual but actively ~IUadic, small ruminants are also keptin the humid and subhumidareas ofWest and Central A6ica Pigs, goats, sheep, and poulhy are mainly kept by women who use them as sources of small credit, or for sociocultuml reasons (Fernandez and Nair 1986). These, in most cases, are used as cultural methods of saving funds (banking) as the animals are sold to generate immediate cash as the needs come. In Cameroon, goats are transported kom pen-urban areas to urban centers to he sold (Degrande personal com- munication). Commercial i m p o r h c e of crop production in peri-urban areas . . Over 80% of urban dwellers within pen-urban areas are farmers who produce food crops for urban consumption. Their basic socioeconomy thus rotates around the marketing of these farmproducts, and the success ofprofitable markets determines their socioeconokc growth. Both older and younger farmers engage in the production enterprise and women too play a vital role in this process. Pen-urban crop production, being within the immediate neighborhood of urban con- urbations, does not have market problems so long as transportation is good and produc- tion does not exceed demand. This is so because as urban centers grow, so also market oppor&uuities for these farm products will continue to grow under the same conditions. The vital factor here is the need for production at the level of demand and with the farm- ers having the dynamic capability to respond to local increases in demand in future. This situationhas been well demonstratedby the Oyo State (Nigeria)Agricultuml Development P r o w (ALIP) which reports that excess crop production over demand has negatively aflected the economy of some farmers. In this case, it explains that the cost of yam tubers that used to be W1500 per 100 average-sized tubers fell to N350 for the same size and quantity of tubers during the September-October period in 1994 when markets were flooded (ADP 1994). Food processors (yam flour producers) were the better for this, however, as they bought more fiesh yam for processing and storage in the dry form for subsequent sale during the period of "scarcity". Where processing is not possible or not well understood, farm- ers experience these major losses if they over-respond to demand The case of okra and tomatoes is like recurring decimals in this case. (Olanrewaju personal communication). Wee crop plantation Commercial tree crop plantation culture started in West and Central Afiieaover 70 years ago, and most of the plantations establishedat this period are still existing in their old age, resulting in very poor yields. Most of these plantations were induced by colonial govem- ments who required products for overseas indusbies and these also determined then and now the prices to he paid for the produce. Tree crops established in plantations at this time include: citrus (various-types) cocoa (Theobmna cacao) kola (Cola acuminata and C. nitida) coffee (Cofie arabica and C. mbusta) rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) first generation improved oil palm trees Cashew and only recently wild f i t trees are gradually coming into the level of plan- tation culture, (hdipo et al. 1997). Fern& and Nair (1986) have both looked at the culture of these tree crops within the villages orcommunities. The commercial importance of these tree crops cannot be over-emphasized if we con- sider that they were the primary sources of village economy or that they were the national economic mainstay in countries such as Nigeria and Cameroon for over 30 years when most of the mops were e x p q d and farmers were paid promptly. The impact of these tree crops (Shepherd and Okafor 1992) had significantly mised the socioeconomic status of the m l areas of many countries (Cameroon) before the fall in international prices staited. Okigbo (1975) clearly stated the soeiodtuml impacts of this development earlier, emphasizing the utmost importance of trees in m l economies, and the need for more effolts in understanding the value of tbese for environment and the livelihood of mal dwellers. Aloeal suivey in Nigeria revealed some interesting factors. One of these was the list- ing of the problems of tree crops (Table 1). This list is capable of helping the direction of EPHTA. .nePnS Pm -9 %Fra%!N 103 Vm!Pnl sem %OS pne S naawaq sso~jo IaAaI e aIaqm (2 a1qe.J.) saqmcn ne3~ amos ti! saIqela8a~ Pm WJ3 no sass01 F'-sod30 IaAai am PlmPnl(8661 odlpel) mPNs JanJFi 'zpa8!~ JO sa~qelaza~ pog~pes aqr no nogp-~naano3 1qn3gnd qrw sq n! spaan q-sar aql ecqseqdma pne wguqod aql Vwaumna aH wwv nerm@gqns @ sdma asaqrjo tnamdo1a~ap a 4~mm lsaqsod a¶ pm 8ga9rem parap!moa (~661) odm '(~661 B~~FI~S) =aln= mqm m =ogepdod &!=OJ pne ~0130 spaen aqr 103 iqea a (5 a1qea sad4 agoxa pm 'pogpz~ 'a~gm apnlam pa3npard salqqa8a~ .sa3ud ram gwe aanpoid se (~661 am^ oKo (OW) Xmonoaa @nu paseamm Xnma -@!s ow SB~ sq pne uogS~ pogipeq @nq apas wm e no nogmpord alqela -8a~ noseas KIP m pazne!mIs mon aAeq sagpa01 amos '(2 ajqq) aanpoid alqeqspadjo sass01 snopnamm pasnm aAeq qagm (.qa Brqo 'sa- '.a.!) nogmpoi&a~o amos m painsa~ SB~ sym mq (~661 odlpel) nogmpardpa8mo3na~aqng a~eq smqsXs nop8g p 1namdo1a~ap 'saw inam q x~qnaa mp lean smalsXs Xalp.4 pm 10 spqam m prre moms KT aqr 8-p mogpno3 paw iaprm pa3gmd Klpsn ? 3~~ laqrem .sa~qelaZa~ aq 10 &a1 aanpoid q panpmds q ~xq asp&qna ne malsXs .a[doad Km Kqpa3gawd? q3gm 'asp&qna ueqm-pad mpe s! %rr[aapleZ aaqleyy 2u!uapm2 aaqnqq puel104 ea~ tp!m a~dtuw 8u!q3w apq tualqwd e s! h!l!qe~!ene pq Aluo svw atp u! Bugueld pqruq ='l 0) (smu uo) punoqe swalqwd tsxl IO!~W (lh!~!qgedwmu! ~las 40qnsar) anwnpoi&uou pue alms rn rwq play Aw (uuo~!un-uou) =Ink! llgs h!lenb inN garp- hq pwlyapun Aped h!lenb 3gauaB -1 (sapads tpq) (a) (Bugueld emw plo tp!m paddoruqu! sjueld sow) @euew hpood osle pue play atp u! plo AlleauaB s! dw3 (al9el!ae wyew POI P$!~!I ha&) sueaq pnpoid Lpood ~ua~id 104 (leuogmlqu!) aayew ON sle!lqew paas poo8 ON (4 puel~ol pue pueldn) sa!80lox luaa~~!p JOJ ~IJI~S s! dq a9P3 (P) (Alleln3r+ed auoz oqsowoq80) saw 40 aseasla O~UW (3) ae andu! loqel JO i(l!l!qel!me BUPF y!lp uonelndd'uecllr; augt~ld MaU ale mone~ueld augs!xa 40 %E- I AIUO (aeaA 09 pue 52 uaamlaq a8e) plo mou suopqueld Bups!q m=+?3 (e) SUJalqwd -!>ads ~t!raS!~ u sdwa aw uogqelueld ~o!eru 40 suralqord 'L alqel Table 2. Level of postharvest losses in fruits and vegetables in three African countries. Country % loss Produce Ghana 30-35 Fruits and vegetables Nigeria 10-50 Fruits Sudan 50 Fruits and vegetables Source: Ladipo (1 998). Table 3. Some native and exotic vegetables produced in peri-urban areas in Nigeria. Species Origin Common or native (Yomba) name Leafy vegetables Celosia argentea Amaranthus spp Native Green Corchorus olitorius Native Ewedu Abelmoscus callei Native Okro (lea0 Fmit vegetables Abelmoscus esculentus Native Okro Solanum gilo Native Garden egg Pulses Phaseolus lunatus Native Awuje Sphenostylis stenocarpa Native Otili Spices Capsicum spp. Native Pepper Lactuca spp. Exotic Lettuce Cucumber Exotic Cucumber Cabbage Exotic Cabbage Cauliflower Exotic Cauliflower Green beans Exotic Beans Sweet pepper Exotic Pepper Chinese cabbage Exotic Cabbage Water melon Exotic Water melon Irish potato Exotic Potato Carrot Exotic Carrot Types of vegetables As earliermentioned, vegetables produced in market ga~dens are botb exotic and native to the various countries where they are produced, but in Kenya, more exotic vegetables are produced. Both native and exotic species are produced in Nigeria, as listed in Table 3. Commercial importance o f market gardening in peri-urban areas: the example from Southeast Asia To discuss the socioeconomic or commercial impoiiance o f market gardening in West and Central Africa, i t is vital to look at the classic case o f southeast Asia vis-a-vis the African situation, as described by Grubben and Almekinders (1997). About 60% o f Indonesia's population o f 200 million i s used to buying vegetables at street markets and the per capita vegetable intake (I 10 glday) is increasing. The top ten lowland vegetables commercially gown here (600 000 ha) are hot pepper, yard-long bean (Vigna unguiculaia sp. sesquipedalis), shallot, red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)), cucumber, egg plant, amamnth, kang kung (Ipomeoaquaticn), caisim (Brarsica rapa), and pumpWgourds. These vegetables and others gown on the highlands make up 80% of the total sales, whereas all the 100 species of vegetables known and which are also consumed make up only 20% of the vegetables consumed in Indonesia. The situation is similar to that in West Africa. Market gardens in pen-urban or rural areas arevery small units <0.25 ha and farme rsoften irrigate anduse someagrachemicals. At present, as a consequenceofurbanizationand fast economicdevelopment, commercial vegetable EKming is a growing industry. The consumption of vegetables shows a strong positive income elasticity. As a result ofthis, there is now a remarkable expansion ofplant breeding activities in the private sector. This situation can also happen in sub-Sahamn &ca if EPHTA provides the "seed" situation. In southeast Asia, local seed companies are developing and are making much progress in breeding all kinds of commercial veg- etables. With all these developments, fanners are changingfrom usingseeds hmlandrace sources with low rates of productivity to those produced by seed companies. Also, as a result of this development, a Large number of vast vegetableproducrion areas with skilled professional vegetable farmers have developed in pen-urban areas. In comparison to the above, vegetable production in pen-urban areas in West and Central Africa may not be as developed, but the potentials are there to be fully exploited in Ulis subregion. Despite the little advantages that have been recorded in Ghana, Camer- oon, and even in Nigeria (Schipper 1997), the need to follow the Asian example cannot be over-emphasized. The Jos Plateau is a good example in vegetable production in Nigeria. Because of the low temperature, a lot of temperate vegetables are gown. ksh potatoes, cabbages, car- rots, and cauliiower are gown in pen-urban areas of Jos and Bauchi, and i k m the urban centers these farm produce are t ranspod to almost all other urban centers in Nigeria. The perishable nature of these vegetables not withstanding, wholsalers have devised methods of keeping the produce green and crisp for Irarisportation to over 700 lan from the point of production. This enterprise which is practiced by over 3400 small-scale nual farmers is now the socioeconomic mainstay of the Jos and Bauchi area of Nigeria. The same is correct for Otte village which supplies Ogbomosho and llorin with veg- etables and also from where far-out urban areas (Lagos) are serviced (L.adipo 1997). In the present disposition, EPHTA needs to consider the following steps: ' 1. Increase ways to raise awareness (nutritional values, etc.) and status of vegetables in diets. 2. Support the evaluation and selection of better perionning varieties ofvegetables now grown. 3. Improve cultivation practices (can agoforestry or tree-based systems help?) 4. Improve processing, preservation, and marketing, as already emphasized by Ladipo (1997). 5. Extend market gardening to other areas with women as targets. I will want to consider a 1964 initiative in West&ca on vegetable production, which EPHTA can build on. Trading Trading in the developing world is a major enterpiise. It is the basis of commerce and it determines the success of enterprises. Tmdiog witbin the peri-urban areas is mainly at two locations, farm fringes and local village markets (Fig. 3). Tropical home gardens According to Okigbo (1987), a farming system is an agricullural enterprise and a bio- economic activity in which the farmer manages resources andorchestrates inputs in num- bers, amounts, timing, and sequences with increasing efficiency in the growing of crops and rearing of animals to satisfy human needs for food, fiber, feed, and miscellaneous products. Farming systems vary fiom one location to another in relation to the prevailing physical (climate, soil), biological (crop, weed, pests, and diseases), socioeconomic (land tenure, credit, education), technologifal (inputs), and management experience, factors which interact to achieve the farmers' objectives in a given environmental situation. The tropical home garden is a well-known Wtional farmjng system. Home gardens are agroforestry land-use systems withmultipurpose trees and s h b s in intimate associations with seasonal and perennial agriculhd crops and livestock, witbin the compolmds of individual houses, andunder themanagement of family labor (Femanda andNair 1986). The diagram (Fig. 2) describ,es this system clearly (Femandez and Nair 1986). However, because there couldbe some home gardens that donot contain trees, Torque- biau (1992) suggests that the tropical multistmta home gardens should be refered to as tree home gardens. Michon (1983), however, had earlier described forest gardens (or vii- lage forest garden) which are much larger, less densely planted, and not so well tended as proper home gardens. Femanda and Nair (1986) and Landaver and Brazil (1990) have also descnied home gardens as a sound, efficient, and a sustainable land-use system which fulfils the basic needs of the local population, and which will avoid environmental deterioration, etc. Figure 2. Schematic representation of the structural composition of a compound farm in southeast Nigeria (Fernandez and Nair 1986). 82 Fernadez and Nair (1986) have described ten selected home gardens. Their analysis included those gardens located in Southeast Asia, Pacific, South Asia,Africa, and Ameri- can tropics. The analysis of available data shows that home gardens are found in most ecological regions of the tropics and subtropics but a majority of them are in the lowland tropics. Home gardens also exist in the drier tropics (Burkina Fasosemiarid). Population is usually high where they occur. The average size of a home garden is usually less than 1 ha, indicating the basic subsistence value of the system. Commerce is also part of the reasons for the establishment of some home gardens or at least for their high number of plant components, but this is subsidiary. All home gardens contain some sort of food crop and many trees also producing h i t s or other forms of food, indicating the basic food production role of the system. The production of fuelwood cannot be underestimated in some home gardens and this is true of some other auxiliary values such as poles and medicine, with this indicating the multipurpose value of most species in the home garden. Plant species in home garden agroforestry system In spite of their small size, home gardens are c h a r a c t e d by a high species diversity and usually 3-4 vertical canopy strata. This is clearly shown by the diversity of plant species in the Chaga home garden on Mount Ki l i i j a ro , northern Tanzania (O'Ktingati et al. 1984), where over 100 crop and plant species were reported. They included 53 tree spe- cies, 29 food crop species, 21 economically useful non-woody plant species, and 8 weed species. This author stated that except for the weedplants, the other species werecarefully interplanted on the same unit of land to form a very dense multistorey ecosystem which can today be easily refered to as the multistrata agoforestry system. Most of the plants are maintained on the farm for two or more uses. For the trees, the main uses were fuelwood (90% of trees) and medicine for human and livestock (30% of tree species). Present state of home gardens in Nigeria Home gardens as described by F e m d e z and Nair (1986) are viable and ecologically stable but the state of home gardens in Nigeria (southeast Nigeria) in present-day wndi- tions are threatened. A recent visit shows a ~rocess of hmentation as limited land is divided among all the children. This calls fo; additional research input to this system to examine the impact of smaller fmgmented wmpound farms in southeast Nigeria Similar sociocultuml p ~ e s s m ay causesimilar developments in other tropical areas where the wmpound farm system has been successfully established in future. An input of high value trees and shade tolerant crop species into the system to make it a more wmmercially viable enterprise is required in the humid lowlands of West and Centml f i c a . Forest gardens This report will be incomplete if this system is not mentioned. As defined by Michon (1983), they are less efficient than tropic& home gardens and are also less well cared for. In Nigeria and Kenya, Aiyelaagbe (personal communication) reported in a compam- tive study of function and structure that a close similarity exists between the systems in both counties in their profiles although different tree crops have been used However, in Venezuela, forest gardens exist as multispecies plant associations in integrated coffee production systems. In Venezuela, forest gardens are practiced mainly in the premontane moist forests of the Andes region but these forest types are also found in other areas of the country. Various Bees species are used for shade and as fences in big coffee planta- tions whereas in small units with traditional production patterns, coffee is planted along with many other species often constituting a 2-4 tier (layer) canopy. Yield data and some socioeconomic information showed that this system can be productive, sustainable, and socioeconomically viable. In addition to the Nigerian, Kenyan, and Venezuelan examples there is that of West Sumatra (lndonesia) described by Michon et al. (1986). Here, the system is characterized by an intensive integration of forest species and commercial mops, forming a forest-like system as described for the Kandyan gardens of Sri Lanka wbere spices, fmits, medicinal plants, and timber species are produced (Jacob and Alles 1987). The intimate association ofdifferent species provides both subsistence andcommercial products, which supplement rice production. Here indeed is the commercial importance of this system for rural development. This forest is managed by the combination between cultural practices and respect for nahual processes of vegetation production and reproduc- tion. Micbon et al. (1986) concluded that it represents a profitable production system and constihltes an efficient buffer between villages and protected forests. Apart from the commercial values of this system, Michon et al. (1986) suggested that these agroforests can be good models for an association between integration of forest resources and the cultivation of cash crops in a flexible and sustainable system. Finally, if this system will support rice cultivation efficiently and the production of cash crops, (coffee, cashew, oil palm, etc.) then it is a commercially viable rural enterprise which will support rural dwellers to generate resources from selling tothe markets inurban centers in a sustainable manner and at the same time ~rotect in~ the environment. Miehon - et al. (1986) provide information on the values of products obtained from agroforests in two villages in southeast Asia and they described the role of this agroforestry system and rice fields in satisfying the needs of the farmers. In West and Centml Africa, the com- mercial values of forest gardens as described by Aiyelaagbe (personal communication) are clear. Home gardens are also basically for subsistence, and commercial purposes are only subsidiary. This also agrees with the vast comparison done by Femanda and Nau (1986) where home gardens in Southeast Asia, Pacse, South Asia, and the American tropics were compared for their commercial values. This system also basically serves subsistence and commercial values in these other locations. Experience of the FAO/CPRO-DL0 home gardens project in West Africa (1964- 1975) Gmbben and Almekinders (1997) reported on the experiences of a Dutch horticultur- ist (Terra) who pioneered research on the Indonesian backyard home garden ecosystem project. He started a home garden project in Nigeria (Llesba) and in Bhin (Portc-Novo) in 1964 with the strong involvement of CPRO-DLO. The objective was to promote the Indonesian concept of home gardening in Africa in order to improve human nutrition by using local vegetables to supply essential micronutrients and proteins to the people's diet. We must remember that local vegetables include a signi6cant amount of leguminous lsom 'a31oj roqei ne3~gtr mrrm@gqns aqljo %og moqe roj amo3m pne sqolaew Kaql asnew ?nado[dma @rru io -0s rolm e are sassamsnq @ariom ~@ms 'ped 3som aq . .. . . .. roj 'aiqamm &.rci~&na isaql jo isok .(g661 ~tuqmnsp~) saysnpm 1@ Kq paw anpn aqljo %vp amos ioj nunm Zqssaord pooj ~mg sea (t301onq3q amrd~m alomord img mowgsn! madoms pm SOON JO qmnyan e) WS~~.LI UOOd 30 s=!dsm aql Jqm '&ma9 *%INS m 9661 F~V n!Plaq ~~VTOM e30 soo!snian~n aql jo ang .saponom pogm mr= ro (9661 aiods) Kmonwa @rm q Kp& a3nqWno3 saFqsnpq a8qp asau .?a 'neaqKos ropzaqm pne Tm '(qmd) neaq isnaol mgv se qms spem ma pysnpq raqojo 8mssaaord pana8 pne 'am -ssaaard~mpoxi qmsan![ %mssa3oidlmg pne pooj "a'! 'seare vm aqjo ~?sooa Kau .moq are saspdsqna mssa3ard pooj apas-ipts raqlo '(g D@K?N~ mog pedv 8u!ssaaord wnpard raw0 ppue poq .?a 'Kmonomo~aos a8ewn m asearaq . namaippp Kq $as are spmpnqs i(l! -@nb ro noggadmw se sa~hna nog~npard or3jo anpn aql m asewm pana9 neqm aql qaear q Ked 4 peq anq ppom samj q3gm nsoo god- aqljo nogmpaa . namappp 103 inadoldma jo nogmanag . sramteJ Kq a3npord mre~ jo sapsjo asq . :apniam sa8~npv .%qqseqdma qlrom s! asudrqna qjo anpn ~ei31amm aql inq asaql30 map paquasap (~661) ram pm prasdaq~ pm ?Iaow~n nmas '(learn qsnq) am plw 'enmreq pne mneid 'qm pne slmg 'salqqa8an 'sdo13 pooj sapnim! papeq SF 3eyl ampord mred .nomame3 m ?pmoe~-oKem@qy\~ punore maisKs 8np=i- ~301 ampaq~sap (z661)~ornpne plaqdaqs 'asudralna am~o&!119ew am m ssamdroCm e samoaaq 'K1pogpzq padolanap i[am naaq seq 3nama8mm sg naqM .S!seq 1yar no Iias 03 s1aua3 oeqm aql q vodsneq 01 anpoid apsaioqm deaqa Knq oqm sdnd namompne namaippp aql Kqpaqnoqed Kpxqoq are smqsKs 1aqm asau 'pjasn q sno~1mpz210 q3reasarmog voddns 'ranamoH 'a8palmoq @nona amana8 soapre8 amoq q saiqqa8an poljo no!~anpard aql aomord ro ms 4 qiom pnawadxa pm q3reasar >nasard lv 'salqwa8anjo nog3npord azepmgs rewpm 8npneldjo Kiddns aql pne sa8eipn aql m snapre8 amoq pnamuadxapo~~~soomap jo raamqsqqasa au .(sranaa qlpq le soapre8 nogeqsoomap) saqrom qlpaq pne 'sraqrom no!snqxa @rm '(soap& iooqas 103) sraqwaa jo nogempa jmogynn Kq momoid s! nogdmnsom aiqqa8a~ -papaan ?on SF (sqoxa) sapads man jo nog3npo~q fsa[qmaZan @oogpw no paseq ? 8upapreZ amoq jo ssams aqL 'auayadxa naql jo asn mncqzm aqem 01 papaan ? dn-?as i3alardaql y 'namomKpmdsa 'aidoad p301jo noged!3pred anrsnqq .asem 3y21ojo 8qaXm1 Kq no!lzzfiWaj 'qaolsang pms ipp% nogwqqmoa m nay0 (.?a 'nneid Kapam 'enessea 'w) sapads pjasnraqlopm 'nmg 'sajqqa%anjo nopngp3 pa- :(sap!agsadjsaz!1yaj pacqnpsloq ~e!aadspaas paseq3ma) nndm pmaixa on "a'! %S-J se e3y$ m ames aql are 8upapre8 amoq jo sald!3pd aql leql aram nmford ow aql mog sno~sni3no3 wlqqa8an maw @oogpw I03 UOgUaUE @nOgtXKalm pU?4 @nOgm pn€?ptUilS Kp2aB S&OId OW aSau 'DU~[WP~~D muou.I?A se q3ns sqnn~ pm ??paw.iq~~ill sn&w?orald se Vans sapads 8yaq-pal aaq Operations Markets Natural and artificial forests Collection of fruits and processing Forest fringe posts' ! Village markets Further processing (drying) 7 - 1 Immediate Urban markets (Peri- urban X urban) Outlying urban markets Markets - - 7 (Distant locations) International markets Source: Ladipo (1998). Figure 3. Production and marketing of bush mango (1wing;a gabonensis and I. wombulu) kernel in West and Cenfral Africa (Nigeria and Cameroon). of whom are women, who thereby earn the money needed to suppoa their M e s . This strong emphasis on women is acbaracteristic of the sector but may act as a brake on small business development in so far as women unfo~tunately also tend to have less access to improved technology, extension infoxmation or services, md credit Other foms of pro- cessing undemken by women include: food pmcessing (e.g. African locust bean) h i t processing (juice or h i t diyinpgbono, mango, guava, cikus, etc.) Very little will be said about the other food pmcessing industries mentioned but the case of h i t drying will be specially addressed. This is because it is the least cash inten- sive and the least practiced &stem in Aiiica where solar energy is available throughout most of the seasons. In Guinea, dried banana, pineapple, and mango are produced. Annual production of 20-25 tomes is reported This represents about 300 tomes of fresh pmduce brought fiom about 100 small producers fmm near rural locations who are organized in three cooperatives. This very appropriate rural enterprise employs mostly women and has the potential of commencing in other African countries if strict E X conditions on cleadiness are fol- lowed, as in Guinea. Food processing enterprises (refers to Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, CXte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, and Uganda). Other food processing operations carried out in peri-urban sites are: Vegetable (leafy) drying (okro, Gnehrm, etc.)* Cereals grinding (maize)*** Oil extraction, palm oil processing** Palm kernel oil extraction** Egusi oil extmction Ricinodendron heudelom'(Jangsang) oil extraction* AioneNa torispenna (Moabi) oil extraction* Livestock product Milk processing Cheese making Butter Others: African locust bean (Pmka biglobosa) processed as soup ingredient in one or two countries (Nigerialcameroon) **Undertaken in West Africa. ***Undertaken in West, Central, and East/SouthAfrica, etc. Unmarked: very general in small or average quantities only. Advanfages of peri-urban food processing enterprises These enterprises contribute greatly to the development of the ruraI economy. In addition, it is generally accepted for easy accessibility to markets. Processing of highly perishable products helps to reduce loss through early treatment, which is also a major advantage for successful storage. Milk and h i t are good examples of these; cereals store better as grain than as flour. Food processing can also provide added income to the small-scale farmers who supply raw materials and create job opportunities for many other people. Examples of perishable products and their processing locations are shown in Table 4. Table 4. Perishable products and their peri-urban pmcessing locations. Country Product Location Large and nearest t h a n renter Kenya Cheese Nakuru Nairobi F ~ i t processing ThiWKitale Nairobi Uganda F ~ i t processing Mbarara Kampala Rwanda Milk processing Nyanza Kigali Nigeria Gari Many sites Many urban sites Tomato Dakin Kowa Bauchi h i t Dakin Kowa Bauchi Commercial importance of food processing enterprises Spore (1996) in a review provided a succinct account of the commercial value of food processing and rural industries. Some ofthese have beenmentioned earlier but they include the fact that peri-urban food processing industries: provide added income to the small-scale farmer . provide income for labor force involved in production or processing . encourage farmers to establish more crop plants to produce more h i t s for market and indushy, thus increasing the industrial base cre& more jobs oppommities stimulate development of industries and enforce standards for quality improvement High quality attainmeot can generate international recognition and market openings while all these together can contribute to viable nnal commerce and enhanced national econohw in ~eneml. - - in West and Central Africa many examples of specific food processing are known. The problems in successful food processing in sub-Saharan Africainclude the non-availability of credit and access to technical and commercial know-how in addition to unavailability of inhtructure, watq, and electricity. These problems need to be overcome in order to make peri-urban enterprises more attractive. Handicrafts and art This area of peri-urban industries will be aeated now before foresi exploitation because it is a distinctive operation although the wood used i's extracted &om the forests. Many West and Central African countries have cultures that are closely woven into art and crafts. Danta, mahqgany, and ebony extracted from the forests are commonly used for carving and for m m g 0 t h items. Shenherd and Okafor (1992) working in Cameroon described the commercial imor- . , - tance of cane and its products in the nual or national economy of Cameroon. Their report shows that the value of cane products is usually understimated The same situation is true for Nigeria where over-exploitation of cane resources has resulted in substantial genetic loss, and the industry now relatively depends on smuggling cane materials from Cameroon to keep the industry al-ke in Nigeria The carving or cane furniture sector accounts for over US 520 000 000 of the gross economy of sub-Saharan Africa. Forest exploitation Forest exploitation is an old enterprise in Africa. This enterprise is very active in all ecolc- gies but it ismore accenfuated in the lowland humid forests, where most people live almost solely on the forests and their products fsom wood and non-wood materials. Food gathered and hunted in the wild is important and will continue to have an impor- tant place in the diet o h a n y farming families. Taking examples from outside the subject region, the Bokusu of Kenya, for example, consume at least 100 different species of fiuits and vegetables and theTswana of Botswana and South Africa use 126 species of plants and 100 kinds of meat as a source of food (Tym personal communication). As urban drift takes place, forest people move to larger cities and form the core of specialized forest product consumers. Peri-urban forest extractors thus become important operators who nm important and viable commercial activities in these countries particularly in Kenya, Uganda, andTanzania, .sme1d qiom ueqm naq a 0% q sap2 ssanar\aq aiaqm qmd sqom m pue slaqmm ueqm m plos are sqsIlsmaq3 passasoid ?uamXo[dma q-4~ papl~0id Xqaiaq am ~eql qnoX Xq rCpm palmno3 am qsg~ 'asyiialua ssamsnq imodp pue a%[ than, e ammq seq slsaroj mog aps pue Bmssa3cxldsoj poomqagsmaqajo nogaaljoa aq 'euaB!~ pue euq9 tq auas!~ pue 'mreq~~ %r(uay a pasn r(+ogm am q3qm aiom r(m am '3.I3Ef.L '(9 a1qeJ.) DiDU!UIR3D D!.lD/lZSSDyli pL7?? 'DUD!UD~@D~IJ~//~ '!!UUUI D!l4!3ADD aPIl13m Aaq eagy lsaM nl 'e3m m Bupeap qlw 103 pasn are sapads qnqs so am Xqq my3 u! ape4 q~p May, arg JO a~qodw! p!%aruwoJ a% .sahp pue 'quwolo~ 'aaualaams meld leu!xpaw 'hauoq '(sadh leuo!ypeq) salginaBa~ 'que3p92w pue nuelnu!lS 'aplp~!~ ratpo pue 'sl!eus 'swoolqsnw uowawg) .salqqaZan pue 'queld leu!xpaw qum!zmw 'quelnw!gs 'sa>!ds Sdp 'SlUWOl03 'q!IU4 skauawans 'suroolqsnw hauo~ 'a!!lp~!~ ratpo pue sl!eu~ eueq9 .sahp pue 'querolo, 'slueid leu!,!paw que3!lsew pue 'quelnups ,sa3!ds sapads pgs Maq3 'Xauoq 'q!ny (urnlau3) 'salqelaaa~ 'mwrqsnw .a!!lp~!~ raw pue sl!eus e!ra2!~ qsaro) woy paj,r?lvca wnpord awo~ hlunol) '(5661 m31) rCqs=ojoBv m q3masaa 103 laua3 irmogma1q aq Xq 000 000 OS$ se paleqsa uaaq seq apw poj pw @no~~mqm ssoB aql se sqer\!lpa so solmnm @nu aq 03 pgwsqns uaaq seq 13npoid sq~o aswodp p!3iamuroa au '(P66I Pneloa pue od!~el) vsn aq PW adoma 03 pwodxa s! 4gmb pgwsqns e 'r(j~na3arpuemlgvleqna3pue~sa~ ug!mpuamm sq apw leuogmalq .ar\gmI Xra~ s! iaqm jwai aq uo pjos am Kay araqm slquaa ueqm pue (srama3 uogmnos) @nu u? apes p3q .@A!~s IOJ asudIalua sg no pnadap saqyj Am pue (%ob) sum3 Bojllno pue napma prmodmm aq mag pue (%og) l~10j aq mag palmnos am qaaraq D.@U!M~ '(~661 'p ia odp?) sa!mds aqjo luama~adp aq 103 p~uaod aIqeFr\ e ? sym pue alqepm Xjp3padswm ? 'qsuauoqoZ ~!Zu!nci .eslgv lsafi m uo!luaue qmssas pue @!31amo3 jegwsqns pa~!a3ar r(ppms ar\q qaqm (qaruaq) 13npoid @pram03 aq 'ouoqZ0 30 aamos aq s! 'oBm qsnq aql 'qsuauoqoS D,@U.MII .jaaraq D!Z+U~ s! slaqrw ueqm m palaqrw pue palqxa Lpoamro:, a3mosas lsaioj e jo aldmexa iq? '5 aiqeL m Bqonoj aq apnlam seam ueqm-uad m slsaroj mag palqxa saamosar uomo3 .(uoge3~mm @nossad oqmaqs) 01-0 000 OZ~$ MOU s! (noosaq pue euazthl) e3~ asad m saml DUD~.!.@D urnlaus n! apw pmre aqL '(paB!hl) mmm~ uod pue '!.=am0 'Snq 'mqep3 'uepeql 'soBe~ '(uooiame3) 'epoa 'apunoeh se qms sagp so~m 02 pwodroeq pue P[os 'palmno3 are slanposd se 'asu&aua so[m e ? nogq!oidxa poom-non lsaroj araqm e3gV lequq pue lsaM m pue spqpoom oqmo?pj aq m '.la The commercial value ofchewsticks has been enhancedrecently as stated byAmponsah (1978) who reported on the shuchue and economics o f the chewsticks industry in Ghana The main species sold are Garcinia ajZeii and Garcinia kola. These and the harvesiing processes, etc. are shown in Figure 4. This peri-urban enterprise is very profitable with a 50% gain estimated by Amponsah (1978) for his study site in Ghana. Table 6. Species used for chew stick "manufacture" in some countrief in West Africa. Country Species used Commercial status (S, A, L) Ghana Carcinia afzelii Engl. L C. kola Heckel L Randia acuminata A Nigeria C. manni L C. kola - G afzelli L Masularia acuminata L Millenia griffon iana S Baphia nitida S 5 = small A = average. L = large-sale (national use). Figure 4. Harvestingipmcessing of chewstick. 90 Full-time workers garvesters (young men) activity Urban activities Billets Whole salen Young women and Pen-urban activities Children (both school and non school) + women sellers Retailerr Commercial importance of forest products Adequate attention has not been paid to the actual cash values of non-timber forest products in West and Centmi f i c a . This has caused substantial problem in the development of policy and the articulation of necessary protective laws for the forests in most countries. However, the FA0 is already mobilizing resources to generate this vital information. (Vantomme personal communication). However, from the above account on the varied resources that are found in forests, and the specific accounts given onlivingin kernels and the traditional chewstick species, it is clear that forest resources are indeed variable and that their collection h m the forests is a specialiied activity, which can clearly be refered to as a traditional and profitable enterprise. To use an East African example, the value of honey produced from bees in the forests of Tanzania is several times greater than the value of the wood the forests contain. In Ghana and Nigeria, many women e m their living by selling Marantaceae leaves collected from the wild or cultivated in wla~wwa-based systems as a diversification and intensscation input into these plantation systems. In the Centml African Republic, traders sell over 700 tomes of meat of forest animals and buds annually (Spore 1995). Unfortunately, there are no accumte statistics or estimates of yield on income obtained from forest exploitation but new developments are now commencing varied efforts at the generation of data. Recent efforts of ICRAF and the Center for International Forestry (CIPOR) are gradually generating such data, as is presently being done for lrvingia and the chewstick industry in Ghana Fat extracted from the shea butter tree fruits now forms a vital export market, which is now well recognized in Europe and America. Gum arabic collected from peri-urban Sahel forests in Kano State now forms part of a major export product commodity for Nigeria. It is the same situation with Sudan and Niger Republic, with the urban centers being centers for grading (processing) and exportation ofthese forest products overseas. The sale ofthese and other non-wood forest products may indeed be a means of improving the welfare of the nual forest dwellers who engage in these enterprises. However, EPHTA will need to support efforts at generating high value stocks of these products to achieve this feat Conclusions If development is to succeed in Africa, and if Asian or African economic decline is to be properly addressed, more effort by the various governments is required Pen-urban industries are a service and a developmental issue, and compound farms are a basic, inherent (cultural), andsustainable agricultural system which must beencouraged to grow and to be sustainable. Governments must reexamine priorities; FA0 must pmvide the mechanism for a participatory review approach on these activities and systems that have great potential to positively drive national economies upwards and to ensure the sustain- ability of the farming unit in all of its ramifications. The goals of the ecoregional program (EPHTA) must be emphasiied in research and development efforts to ensure the further development ofpen-urban enterprises,pmvide better processing systems, andenhance the process of market development based on higher standards of products such as has been done for cassava and gari in Nigeria and some other West African countries where this food processing enterprise has become very high quality based on good technology. The compound farm in its own case requires support too, as mentioned above, in the enhancement of its plant components so as to improve its present secondary enterprise value to a primary status capable of enhancing the livelihood of the rural farmers or m l producers in the peri-urban environment of sub-Saharan ~ . f i e a References ADP. 1994. Supply and demand of food mops produced in some villages in Oyo North area of Nigeria. Oyo State Agricultutal Development Pmgramme (ADP), Mini- of Agriculture and National Resources, Ibadaq Nigeria. (Unpublished Report-ADP). Pp. 14. ADP-Oyo State. 1997. Vegetable productionin Oyo State,AgriculmreDevelopment Pmject (World Bank Project) Repon No. 43. Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria 4 . 38. Aiyelaagbe, LO.0.. Labode Popoola, A.O. Adeola, K Obisesan, and D.O. Ladipo. 1996. Garcinia kola: Its prevalence, farmer valuation, and strategies for its conservation in the rainforest of southeastern Nigeria Pages 249-257 in Proceedings of international Workshops on Biodiversity and Conservation for forests in West Africa, edited by S. Obot. Amponsah, S. 1978. Survey into the chewstick industry at Kajetia Lorry Station. A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Agriculnue, University of Science and Technology, in partial fulfil- ment of the requirwents for a diploma in Forestry. November 1978.4.26. Femandez, E.C.M. and P.K.R. Nair. 1986. An evaluation for the stiucture and functions of tropical home gardens. Agricultural System. 21: 279-310. Grubben, G. and C. Almebnders. 1997. Developing the potential for local vegetable gardening usingexperience from Afiicaand Southeast Asia Pages 12-18 inAfiim indigenous vegetables, Workshop Proceedings 13-18 January 1997, Limbe, Cameroon, edited by R. Schippers. Hoekslra, D. and F.M. Kugm (editors). 1983. Agoforestry system for small-scale h e r s : ho- ceedings of a Workshop. ICRAEIBAT, Nairobi. 4. 283. I W . 1995. Annual repoit of the international Center for Research in Agroforesay. Nairobi, Kenya 4 .180. Jacob, V.J. and W.S. Alles. 1987. Kandyan gardens of Sri Lanka. Agoforestry System 5: 123- 137. Ladipo, D.O. and D.J. Boland 1994. Trade in irvingia spp. kemels. Unpublished paper on the development of research ~~otocols forundervtilied wild fruit trees in West Afiica. International Center for Research in Aaoforestrv 0. Ibadan. Nieeria. Po. 6. - .. ,. , - Ladipo, D.O. 1998. Development of quality control standards for Ogbono (INingia spp.) kemels: Effoits towards encouraging organized trade in NWFP of West and Centml Africa. International Expert Workshops on Non-wood Forest hoducts for Central Afiiea, May 10-15 1998, Limbe Botanic Garden, Camemon. 4 . 9 . Ladipo, D.O., J.M. Fondou, and N. Ganga. 1997. Domestication of the bushmango (irvingia spp): Some exploitable innaspecific variations in West and Ceniral Africa Pages 193-203 in Proceed- ings of the International Conference on Domestication and Commercialization of Non-wood Forest Products inAgrofores6y Systems. 19-23 Febiuaiy 1996. ICRAE Nairobi. Ladiio, D.O. 1997. Marketing and postharvest constraints of traditional vegetables in sub-Saharan Africa. Pages 58-62 in African indigenous vegetables. Roceedings of a Workshop on Traditional Vegetables, 13-1 8 January 1997, L i b e , Cameroon, edited by R Schippen. Laodaver, K. and M. Brazil. 1990. Tropical home gardens. United Nations University, Tokyo. 4. 257. Micbon, G. 1983. Village forest gardens in West Java. Pages 13-24 in Plant Research and Agmfor- estry edited by P. Hoxley. I W , Nairobi. Micbon G., F. Mary, and J. Bompaid 1986. Pp. 315-338 inMultistoriedagrofores~garden system in West Sma- indonesia Agoforestry Systems 4. Mollet, M., T. Tki Manga, 1. Kengue, and P. Zekeng. 1995. Farmer management practices anduses for non-timber species in the bumid lowlands of Camemon in Proceedings of Regional sympo- 'LOZ-68 I : IP m=QQo?'-.Kl poe msLs9 'arm~3Hv ia1-m nnprW amoq Xqslojd~ wdw =v '2661 '3 he!qanko~. 01-1 .dd zs 'ON (vu) =ads mod IW am :soazg!3 u%o%oj s.eagv SWosatl'~66i 'N -S '5-1 .dd .s9 .ON -4mrndo1a~ap @M n! Supssmd pooj aps-pus '9661 .a~ods 91 'dd '09 'ON PBO 4 am @mr seq teq~ 661 =ds 'pi 'dd '6s 'ON 'ls=oj aqljo =qau am ~puSo3ad '5661 '~08s P-I 'dd '$661 ~UV 'ZS 'ON mods u! ased aql mog %?upma? :&pdswd FZJW pue auamdo1a~ap @ma '~61 .arodg .os .dd ad '=OPT 'qred slnaaa21 'aaaiio3 baa) wgq F~~QI~A~Q =am ,2661 Xrenuef-1661 iaqmma .Lam amoonwa -o!aos !am[~~dmpaua~~piieaoama~wem~s~oj IIOQIQ ,2661 .iopqo 3~pm '9 'plaqdaqs nmame3 'aqmi? '~661 hue[ 81-$1 'uoorame3 Law7 'doqq~o~ ejo sZqaa301. salqeaaaa~ mmalpn! ne3W U! L* =%Ed '=IwS~~A SIOQSalpni UWm UO q3lEaSCU lo> S!ZUOFy .L661 a 'laddw~ 's6s1-6~~1 :(oI) PZ 'PA ~rn-doia~aa PIJOM 'ampa p~dma poe sans? P!SoioPornaru :&~~w~d@nqliw@~msa~=ama@maj+@yy '9661 -av'~m~b '981-LLI :Z msLS .4saioj&v WSLS .4saaojde om[mm aql q sa!a do13 po03 pqmqmm jo ageld aql :eua%~ m mas& 8- pue Sqaaq '~861 'N 'oqSp10 %?!la%N 'nepeqi 'd0~~ QO~WlO~ Mold B010!5Lqd $0 sa01p'~olavn u! 901-66 saaed .Srr!ddmarn!Jo w318010~l~qd 'SL~I NN'B o4ap10 TP?N 'ne~eq1 'VLU '61 'dd :PI 'ON Jaded %FOM -=wvm e~sse3~oXpms aAwowio3 'V~SO~ 73wm qsesv~n.=w '2661 3 'a4aMN nocuamq) 'puoe~ '.@ la dna Lq wlpa WW @sua pm asaMjo vspr~o~ PY~ aql rr! q-wi .4s=oja63-? no mn!s Renforcement de la capacit6 des SNRVA A mener des activit6s de recherche ecor6gionales MorTe Houssou Insticut national des recherches agricoles du B6ninl (INRAB), B6nin Republic Abstract In theearly 1990% UTA, incollabmtion with CORAFand otherresearchpamers within thc ccmcgion developed a cooperative h e w o r k callcd the ~cokgional Program for Humid and subbumid Tropics of sub-Saharan Afica". This promm includes three major ecoregions: (a) &mid lowlands, @) moist savaan< and (c) forest zones. Tbe success of these collaborative efforts will depend on the quality of participants, so efforts are on capacity building based on indepth undmt&ding of the sbength and wealoless of the instihltions in the West and CcntralA£rica The present also looks at thc prohlm inherent in the Sahel areas. All these are fully discussed in this paper, towards a successful coopnative cffort in A 6 - k Introduction D m lecadre de lamise en oeuvre de I'approche ecoregionale dCfiuieparleCGIAR(1992) audeht des am6es 90, l'IITA, encollaborationavec laCORAF et d'autrespartenaires de recherche dans lasousregionde I'Afiique de l'Ouest et duCenteraClabor6 unprogramme de coopbtion r6gimale appeli: "Programme Eco~6gional pour les Tropiques Humides et SubHumides de I'AEque au Sud du Sahara" (EPHTA). Ce progmmme qui comporte trois pales (consortia): Consortium bas-fond Consortium savane humide Consortium forst humide est bas6 sur les principes de prise en compte globale de la production et de son envi- mmement physique et socio-economique. U met en oeuvre pour sa galisation un m6canisme original de partenariat sm toute la chaine de production, de tmnsfert et de consommation de technologies. U en resulte done que son succPs dipend essentiellement de la qualit6 de partenariat mis en oewre. Les principaux acteurs de ce pattenaria: au niveau national se retrouvent au sein des SNRVA. C'est donc il juste titre que parmi les 11 produits attendus de la mise en oeuvre du programme EPHTA, figure le renforcement de la capaciti: des SNRVA conduire les recherches bcor6gionales. L'objectif de la @ a t e etude est d'analyser les conditions de ri:alisation de ce ren- forcement en s'appuyant sur 2 ou plusieurs pays de la sous region. Pour cela, il nous parait opporhm de voir le panomma des expkiences de pmenariat v h e s dans la sous region de I'Afiique de 1'Guest et du Center, de foealiser l'analyse au niveau national en tirant leqondes forces et faiblessesdes systbnesnatimauxet ded6gager les 616ments de renforcement et si possible, les moyens il mertle en oeuvre. Les exemples pris pour argumenter l'analyse ne se limitent pas seulement il la zone de pri:diiection de am 3aAe iuap!3mo3 q,s am?Iy .sa@nopyq sainey ap anrq q ms qg gq *no anbw ua aqcuaqm ZI ap uogomord q mod mds a1 red sg?p uogm,p saw sxj WVdS amq2sAs sled np npa qq3el lalord np se:, a1 1sa.3 wnanqllil mmossar sap uogsa% 81 ? sp.elat sp.a?dom ~aford sap addola~p 8 m03 q 'qy el reg 'sm neas?r a1 mire sanampxt samossar sap nogsas ap mop ma.1 ap anbym?1qoid q ms psne qem (apyw 'q ':,o!u~ 'S~A) sqneuod~ snld sal sa@yy sarqgg sat ms quauo %? luo uogqm es ap lmmom m qmuamp g~qs el ? sl~utn sapnosy ua 'p,q03 q ap xmsy sq M03 'ar?sn,t 9-03 TnOJ ap mawq sai lqdm03 sues anbFgtr ua sqseq xnenogearqm %qua3 sap sanm smo! sou aa .mo3 =I ap IarmoJ masy ne nag ramop mod appolm apo~d qap gap ne avmsmod isa,s nog -qdoo3 el ianba1 mod uqm a1 ms aldmaxa auqm a[ soone snou 'aw~es ap aum ua 'Hdav'i red anbw atdmo3 m spdar luamanbgad 99 e n 'smof sou ap aroma alva neasy a3 .a!s?uopq,i 'a!- q 'w a1 1aq3nq mod saspzkxj sapoim sap arqqds 81 am?m ipsse* mb apq ? iaqd a1 ms lamroF mas? un ? naq ?mop e pa3 '(a~~mma o%uo3 'rmora -m3) saqpumas suogqs saplswe.pla (+oar.p am sapd!lmrd moyw sap uogy snos q ap sXed swe sat m~e 13 ap uoga?dom am )wpm amgsXs la? un .(auoqdopw) tsan0,i ap anbw.i am4 mod arqgsaro~ a@o1oq,p sawin:, sapd!:,upd sa1 ms sagojouq3az sap iaddola~?p papnap mb la -9 a[ la eu?%!~ a1 ammo3 sauoqdopw sAed sal snep s9r3 qwgq sap se? a1 isa.9 I nogene,? mat ap sXed np saqguog sal roessed?p anbgo1~ anm aun ms 3amoXa ap ?q3g~~g:,aCqo~ sag?q ??,la iuo aqwaqxzr ap suognagq saw- ap!uolo> apo!r?d u3 .sanb@olq sanbgem?~ sap la uogmpord ap samgsXs sap mane !ssn~ q03 sanb~anb qem saragg sap mqne iuama@r?u?2 qp~ ]no slawoJn! no slamroJ swam -adn&ar sap 'appo~m sod apouad ua no appolm apouad ua l!os a3 anb ‘lags na .sasraAp sanbgmn?~qord ap mqm a@oo@p uogqdom ap sarrgegyq'p dnmneaq aroma qwa p,nb la assed a[ red 91qa e p.nb amom lama3 np %a isano.1 ap anbwua aq3raqm ap 1epu)red np +qsg'-j uo!% snos el suep )e!muagmd ap ap~quo3 'VLHdEl sum el aP anb samqqoid sawam sq iuoy~ms salluop IaqeS np sled xne,nbsnlen qem 'VLH~H certaine r6partition gbpotitique, en ce qui conceme I'A£iique de I'Ouest et du Center, on retrouve bien les dour flmndes zones ecologiques qui sont le Sahel et la zone humide - - - et sub humide . Centres internationaux Les centers intemationaux bash enA£tique out aussi pris beaucoup d'initiatives avec les baiUeurs de fonds. C'est le cas oar exemole de : L'ADRAO qui a mis en place des groupes d'action cowrant divers aspects de la cul- ture du riz. EUe est fortement impliquh dans le consortium bas-fonds a66 bien avant le programme EPHTAet qui consti&e iujourd'hui lyun des trois consatia B travers lesquels sont menbes les activitb de ce mowmme. . - L'IiTAqui a initie, g& ouparticipe Bplusiem r&eaux et projets collaborat& tels que les reseaux WECAMAN sur le ma&, RENACO sur le nibbe, et AFNETA sur l'integmtion agroforesterie elevage, les projets ESCaPPsurle manioc, RRPMC sur le mais et lemanioc, PEDUNE sur le nit'b6, EUiRAMR pour le transfert des technologies. La liste n'est pas exhaustive. Toutes ces initiatives, quels que soient l e m auteurs et leur motivation, visent outre le renforcement du ~ a m a r i a t . des obiectifs so6cSaues. - L'approcbe kcoregionale proposh, par le sys tbe CGIARaud&ut desannies 90 vient completer les initiatives pricitees et se veut plus globalisantas. table mnde entre les Responsables des SNRA de l ' a q u e Subsaharieme (ASS) et les Directeurs des CIRA, sur le renforcement des paitenariats de recherche en ASS tenue A Nairobi en a pose les premiers jalons. La R M o n des Responsables des SNRA de I'ASS tenue B Cotonou en Septembre 1993 a dome le consensus sur la daction posi- tive de ces derniers qui out mkme propod un s c b h a d'organization de la coopkation kodgionale. Le programme EPHTA, &labod B l'initiative de I'IITA pour les dgioos humides et sub-humides de I'A£iique mend B ce principe hotistique plus au moins d6jB admis. Consensus sur quelques concepts cl6 Pour la suite de l'analyse et pour s'assurer que nous avons la m h e comprehension du diveloppement qui est fait dans cette elude, il parait important de revenir sur certains concepts clB et d'en preciser le contenu. L'objectifn'est certes pas d'imposer une certaine compr6hension mais plutat de prbenter le cadre logique de discussion. A cet effet, deux concepts me paraissent particuliprement importants. n s'agit de : Systhes nationaux de recherche et de vulgarisation agricole Recherches ecodgionales Recherches ecor6gionales En prenant las deux composantes de I'athibut tZcodgiooa1, il parait &dent qu'il s'agit de recherches pour dsoudre les p m b l h w (Agricoles) d'une r6gion d m 6 e et que la rrSgion est confondue avec un espace ecologique (plus au moios homoghe). L'objectifsemble done &tre d'orienter les investigations sur I'ensemble des pdoccupa- tions des paysans de 1' Ccodgion en prenant en compte dans la mesure du possible : Les pmblhes ti& A la production agricole en terme de produits, de s y s h e s de production et des technologies post-dcoltes, Les contrakites environnementales et socio&nomiques qui limitent ou entmvent la production et la pmductiviti agricole, Les risques de dCgradation des ressources naturelles lids aux pratiques agricoles. La premilre cons6quence d' une telle compdhension est que le principal acteur dans 1' idenacation des problimes est le petit paysan, qui occupe la plus grande partie de cet espace ®ional. La deuxilme conshuence est qu'il faut B tout prix dussiri dialoguer avec ce principal acteur c'est it dire utiliser les compCtences (regroupCes dans le SNRVA et autres) et les outils appropri&. La troisiime est que la grande diversit6 Cvidente des probllmes de cet espace impose une multidiiciolinariti des scientitiaues et autres acteurs aui oourraient inte~enir. . . En conclusion la recherche ®ionale non seulement doit porter une attention par- ticulilre sur I'environnement et les ressources naturelles mais elle doit se faire sur la base d'un intense dialogue en& toutes les parties prenantes. Le SNRVA La communaut6 des chercheurs est plus habit& B lanotionde SNRA. Le V de la vulgari- sation est certainement introduit B cause de la nCcessitd de dialoguer avec les productem, par I'intem6diaire des vulgarisatem. La notion de SNRA elle m6me a commenci a voir le jour il n'y a pas si longtemps (moins de 10 ans) et s'utilie avec un contenu vari6. Mais si I'on s'en tient a la logique de I'ISNAR qui dans le contexte du CGIAR, a beaucoup tmvaillt sur ce concept, il faut distinguer le SNRA et les partenaires du SNRA. De cette logique, L'ISNAR diiinit la composition du SNRA comme un ensemble d'institutions ou organismes s'occupant de la recherche au niveau national. ll s'agirait des institutions publiques ou p r i v h de recherche et de recherche-diveloppement, des universitks et des ONG ayantpour mission la production et ou I'adaptation de technologies. Les partenaires 6tant les institutions de vulgarisation incluant les ONG de ce secteur, les SociCt6s de diveloppement publiques ou p r i v h et les organizations paysannes. Mais I'existence des composantes d'un sys&me sufht- il pourparler de I'existence du svstlme lui-mike? Certes non. Aforce de parler de SNRACtendu maintenant au SNRVA, on a I'impression qu'il s'agit d'une &lit6 Cvidente B tous les pays en diveloppement et B L'Afiique en particulier. Un systlme est supposi avoirdk composan& mais qui ne sont pas isokes. En& elles s'itablissent des liens dont la nature deend de la nature du systkne lui-&me. Dans le cas du SNRVA, on ne smait parler de systlme sans m h n i m e s d'intemction entre les composantes. On peut affumer dls loss que nulle part en Afrique, il n'existe encore un SNRVA en tant que tel. Dans le meilleurdes cas, certains pays considkrds parmi les plus avancks dans ce domaine tentent de bstir l e m sysemes nationaux de Recherche Agricole. Parmi ces pays, nous pouvons citer le Kenya qui fait un gros effort dans ce sens. Renforcement de la capacite des SNRVA B mener des activitb de recherche koregionales En supposant que les SNRVAexistent kllement et soient fonctionnels, il n'est pas acquis qu'ils soient aptes B dagir B I'approche hdgionale avec la m2me efficacit6, non pas seulement parce qu'il s'agit d'une nouvelle approche mais suitout parce que du fait de son caractPre holistiaue. du fait de la multiolicitk des oartenaires. de lamultidiscivlmaritt . , du partenariat et de gmnde difftrence entre les partenaires, il est extr2memedt imponant d'accorder une attention particulihre aux mkthodes utilisks et aux outils de mise en oeuvre. Un apequ g h W sur les forces et faiblesses des SNRVApounait f o e des t lhen t s utiles B ce renforcement Les forces et faiblesses des SNRVA En tenant compte du t h h e de 1' etude, les forces et faiblesses des SNRVA peuvent se situer A trois niveaux : Au niveau des institutions de recherches prises isolhent . Au niveau du SNRA c'est A due de la capacib? des composantes B utiliser de Faqon optimale les potentialitks de 1'ensemble du systhe. Au niveau du dialogue avec les partenaires notamment les vulgarisateurs et les orga- nizations paysannes. Au niveau des Institutions de recherche D'aprcis une etude de la FA0 sur les SNRA de 1'AfTique Occidentale et Centmle en 1993, les institutions de recherche disposent de deux atouts majeurs qui sont ladisponibiitt en potentiels scientifiques et l'attention accordte A la recherche &cole af~icake par la communaub? internationale (ISNAR 1997). En effet cette partie de SAfrique disposerait au moment de l'ktude de plus de 4200 d'equivalents chercheurs A plein temps dont envkon 85% semient des nationaux. Aiors qu'au dkbut des m k e s 60 la recherche en Afrique ktait essentiellement le Fait des scien- tifiaues du nord (voir Tableau 11. Ces chi& cachent cependantune trPs grande diversite d'un pays A I'autre. Ainsiparmi les pays catiers de I'AfTique de I'ouest par exemple ; c o m e que le montre la Figure 1, le ~ ige r i a dispose dupotenGel le plus &lev& avec 1200 &quivalen& chercheurs Aplein temps, et de la proportion de cbercheurs nationaux la plus klevte (98%) si I'on fait exception de la Sierra Leone 05 il n'v avait oas un sed exoatrie au moment de I'ttude. Si I'on comoare la Cate d'lvoire et le Ghana qui out un potentiel identique, la proportion d'expatrik a t plus &levee en C6te d'lvoire. Cette compamison refl2te assez hien la diffkence entre les pays anglophones et les pays francophoues de cette sous rkgion. Ce potentiel a dC augmenter au corn de ces cinq demibes anaGes, l'effoit pour la formation ttant partout soutenu avec un accent de plus en plus fort surles sciences sociales Tableau 1. Potentiel ressources humaines en Afrique occidentale et centrale exprim.2 en 6quivalent chercheur a plein temps (E.C.) par 1. Casas et at. 1993. Nombre d'6quivalenb chercheun Pmposition de R.2gions Nationaux Ebangen Total nationaux (YO) Sahel 780 235 1015 77 Afrique OCC. Humide 2092 216 2308 91 Afrique Centrale 761 177 938 81 Total 3633 628 4261 85 Benin Gte Ghana Guinee Guhee Liberia Nigeria Sierra Togo d'ivolre Bissau (1984) @one Figure 1. Les SNRA dfAfrique Occidentale Hurnide (1989J91); +uivalents diercheurs (J Casas et aL 1993). et &onomiques qui permettent d'avoir une meiueure connaissance de I'envimnnement du pmducteur et d'&tre mieux outiller pour le dialogue avec lui. Aces atouts on peut ajouter I'effort de restructumtion entrepris a partir de la fin des atinks 80 et renfod depuis I'6aboration et la diffusion des cadres d'action du SPAAR dont I'uae des m&dations porte sur la planification straegique. - . Ces plans directeurs permettent de dtfinir ies priorit&s. Us proposent un cadre insti- tutiomel plus favorable aux activies de recherche et de Recherche-D6veloppement et donnent kgalement une base formeUe pour les actions de redorcement dei-capmi& institutionneUes. Par contre la plus grosse faiilesse des institutions de recherche de I'Afrique de I'Ouest et du Centre est de toute Gvidente la faiblesse des investissements et leur diminution pro- gressive. Ce qui explique la triste conclusion de l'6tude de la FA0 sur la sous utilisation des 6quipes de recherche avec des taux d'occupation allant de 43% pour la zone humide a 55% pour le Sahel qui bCn6ficie de montants d'aide extkrieure plus 6levk. L'effort d'investissement dans la recherche agricole selon la FA0 (Tableau 2) s'bievait au &but des ann&s 90 221 d o n s de dollars US pourtoute la sous Ggion et +sen- tait 0.58% du PIBA. Ramen6 au PIE, on se trouvemit entre 0,20 et 025%. Ce qui reste relativement faible. Tableau 2. Effort d'inuestissement dans la recherche agricole en Afrique oceidentale et centrale U Eass et al. 1993). - D6penses pour la R.A. (million de US$) Budget Subv. Total % Sur RGgions national Pr& extdrieures Total pond66 PlBA Sahel 16,9 11.6 41,6 70,l 44,O 0,90 Afri. Occ. humide 52,7 10,l 29,s 92,3 71,4 0,45 Afrique Centrale 30,O 10,O 19,l 59,l 44,3 0,62 Total 99.6 31,7 90,2 221,s 159,7 0,58 I1 est evident que la sihlation We d'une zone A I'autre et d'un pays A I'autre c o m e l'indique la Figure 2. Cette Faiblesse du financement est conkn&e par une Chlde plus rdcente de I'iFPRI qui montre que les ressources par t2te de chercheur sont en baisse constante en Afrique. Une autre faiblesse (et pas des moindres) se trouve au niveau de la d6perdition des ressources humaines, malgrb I'eEort indeniable fait au c o m des 20 demibes m & e s : Le d6ficit de cherchem en sciences humaines et de I'enviromement reste encore trPs grand. . En raison du pmblhe de faible investissement et surtout de manque de motiva- tion pour les chercheurs, les plus qua%& d'entre eux sont absorb& par le systkme international (c'est le cas typique du Nigeria, du Zaire et de la S i b Leone). Benin a t e Ghana Guinee Guinee hBeria Nigeria Siena Togo #Mire Bissau (1984) Lhne Figure 2. Les SNRA d'hfrique Occidentale Humide (1989/91). Les d6penses totales brutes de RA et leur rbpartition par pays U Casas et al. 1993). Au niveau des relations B I'int4rieur des SNRA S'agissant de la capacitk des composantes du SNRA B utiliier de fawn optimale les potentialit& de I'ensemble du syst&ne, une etude de I'ISNAR sur le mle des univemitis dans les SNRA en ASS faite dans six pays (Benin, Burkina Faso, a t e d'lvoire, Nigeria, Ouganda, et Zimbabwe) a Avkle clairement que dans la plupart des pays, les principales composantes du SNRA resteot les institutions publiques de recherche et les universit.5~ ; et que nulle part il n'existe une forte synergie entre eUes. La situation est 6videmment t r k variks d'w pays a I'autre. Si dans les pays anglophones on peut parler d'une certaine intiption (exemple de I'Universit8Ahmadu BeUo qui abrite non seulement une facult6 d'agronomie, mais 3 des 18 instituts de recherche agricole du Nigeria-IAR, NAPRI, et NAERLS), dans les pays fmncophones les liens sont plutdt khes . Mais d m certains cas c o m e au Benin et au Burkina-Faso il existe des mkanismes formels d'interactioq mais peu fonctio~els. Au niveau des relations avec les partenaires (vulgarisateurs et producteurs) S'agissant dudialogueavec les partenaires, 11 faut r e c o d t r e que beauwup d'eiforts sont faits. Avec les societ6s ded6veloppement, la recherche aeudes relations privil&@&s pour les d6veloppement des filikres derente en Afrique. Les plus comues en penode coloniale, (Unilever dans les pays anglophones sur les cultures p&emes comme le palmier i huile et I'hevb, en zone forestikre, la CFDT dans les pays fmncophones sur le coton en zone de savane), ont permis de d6velopper des recherches d'accompagnement tr&s stiles une hctueuse interaction recherchdveloppement. Cette tradition s'est maintenue et renfo& avec les nouvelles soci6ds c&s depuis les annks 66. Les actions de la CMDT au Mali, la CIDTen Ccite d' Ivoire, et la SONAPRAau Benin out un impact wnsidhble sur la culture du coton qui a comu une croissance soutenue ces 10 d e r n i k ann&. 11 en est de m€me de la SODEPALM et de la CDC respectivement en C6te d'Ivoire et au Cameroun sur le palmier i huile. Par con& dans le domaine des cultures vivrikres il a fallu attendre les theories de <( recherches systknes )>(fanning system), <( recherches appliqu6es en milieu reel ,.pour intensifier le dialogue avec les vulgarisateurs et les petits paysans (Alston et al. 1998 ; SNRA 1997). L'~vo1utiondansces domaines, n'apas encore permis d'atteindre I'eficacit6attenduede tousles SNRVAde lasous region. Mais il y ades indications visiblespour y parvenirgriw a I' appui et I'incitation de la communauti interntionale trks prhccupee par la question de la nauvrete. de I'inskuriti aliientaire et de la d6madation des ressources nahueU'Bs. - ~ i n s ; il est a& de constater que des pays wmme le Mali et le Benin out d6velopp&& wuabomtionavec le KITauPays-Basdes approches de transfert de technologies quicom- mencent a faire f ole.^ titre d 'e~em~leau~knin, I'dquipe de ~echerche-~&elo~~ement de I'INRAB, dans le cadre de sonprogramme de gestion deterroir, adevelopp6 surla base de la methode MARP, w e appmche dite <(Approche participative au niveau viuageois (APNV) >) dont I'application par la structure de vulgarisation dans la region nord du pays c o d t aujourd'hui un engouement inesperk de la part des coUectivit& dlageoises. LaBanaue Mondiale sertd6iide facilitateurnoursadiffusion danstoute I'Afriaue. Des formationsbnt eu lieu en ~ug&dasous I'encadkment conjoint deKITet de I'&. uu atelier rkgional vient d' €tre organist au Benin par la Banque Mondiale sur ce thkme. Sur le plan institutiomel on peut constater egalement que les. reformes engagdes dans certaines institutions de recherche agricole de la sous rkgion traduisent bien la volonti d'instaurer ou de renforcer le dialogue avec les partenaires et les pmducteurs en particu- tier. L a ~1uaai-t de ces institutions de recherche tentent de se soustmire oromessivement de . . . - I'emprise administrative en adopter des statuts qui leur doment une certaine autonomie de gestion. De tels statuts, permettent la souplesse nkcessaire pour riagir rapidement aux sollicitations des utilisateurs. La conliguration du leur conseil d'administration ouvre la porte aux vulgarisatem et aux organizations de producteurs . Les cas les plus hppants sont ceux du Togo et de la Cdte d' Ivoire ob la recherche agricole vient de prendre un statut de socittk d'iconomie mixte. >En ce qui conceme la Cdte dYIvoire, 1'Etat a m e participation minoritaire ct les pro- ducteurs peuven: jouer leur rale de client de la recherche en auenqant les dkcisions du conseil d'administration. Un tel statut dans la mesure ob on peut veiiler il fake une place aux petits producteurs (i revenu faiile), poun'ait s'avker exhBmement e5cace pour le dialogue avec les partenaires. Les actions de renforcement des SNRVA a mener les activit6s de recherche 6coregionales U apparait clair, au vu des forces et faiblesses recenskes ci-dessus, que nous ne sommes pas sur un terrain vierge et que les actions i envisager doivent contiibuer i renforcer les acquis, combler les Lacunes et explorer de nouveaux outils liks il la nature des recherches Ccor6gionales. Au plan institutionnel Bien aue gpionales. les recherches faites dans le cadre du oroeramme EPHTA se mhent . - . - au niveaudes zones d e r i f h c e et des sites pilotes identifiis dans lespays pour le compte de I'kcorigion. U est donc important de mettre un accent particulier sur les institutions nationales concemies et regroupkes dans le W A . Rbformes en cours dans les pays de la sous r6gion Cities c o m e force des institutions, ces refomes doivent sepourmivre en tenant compte du dcessaire dialogue avec les institutions de vulgarisation (y compris les ONG) et les organizations paysames. Ladkterminationdes prioritks nationales en tenant compte de la gestion des t enoh est une condition favorable il l'identification des activitis de recherche icoregionale. Le cadre institutiomel approprik au dialogue inter-institutiomel est rZgalement une condition favorable. I1 n'est certainemen: pas question d'imposer un modhle adopter, mais l'important est que le cadre institutiomel permette d'avoir une marge de manoeuvre suffisante pour ne pas &tre bloquk ou retard6 par I'administmtion centrale des min i s tk . Dans un tel cadre, les chercheurs doivent bknificier de mew& propices i inter la fuite des ceweaux. Les r e f o m devront igalemen: mettre un accent sur les mCcanismes de financement durable. Ce type de recherche qui a pour principal client les collcctivitis viuageoises . . constituCes enande partie de petits pays&, &tre m e gmnde partie dans le dimaine public. L'effortdes Ctats et de lacommunautk internationale est absolument indispensable. 102 Acette effet,pourquoi I'IITAnepomait-il pas accorderi EPHTAuneplus grandeprioriE2 et le memu: dans son budget principal au lieu d'attendre un thancement additiomel qui retarde son exkution ? Une attention d e w etre egalement accordee ?A la restructumtion des institutions pub- liques de vulgarisation ( c o m e c'est le cas des WRA) aiin de les rendre plus aptes ir par- ticiper aux nouvelles initiatives. I1 en est de meme de la promotion des ONG i participer au transfert de technolo~ies. " Par ailleurs, les paysans organists pourraient avoirune capacite d'interaction beaucoup plus blevk que pris isoltment Donc une incitation i la promotion des ozganktions paysarmes f$t p&e des actions de renforcement des S N ~ A . Fonctionnalit6 des SNRVA Le dtfi aujourd'hui pour I'eEcience de la recherche, est de pouvoir passer des INRA aux SNRAen vue d'optimaliser le potentiel existant. En y ajoutant d'autres wmposantes (la vulgarisation) pour arriver aux SNRVA, le d6fi est encore plus grand Cependant des cas de succes meme embryonnaires doivent s e d de point de d6pai-t pour ~nsolider les SNRVA. L'orgauization des ateliers nationaux entre les difftrentes composantes sur la probl& matique hregionale parait etre une des premi&res actions i mener. Le groupe de travail sur le renforcement des capmi& d e m se saisir des recommau- dations issues de l'6tude ISNAR sur le Renforcement du R6le des universitks dans les SNRA, s'en inspirer pour proposer des mkanismes d'interaction non seulement au sein des SNRA mais aussi avec les clients de ia recherche que sont les vulgarisatem et les pmducteurs. Par ailleurs, l'khange d'expiriences acquises sur le terrain ttant un important 616- ment de renforcement de ses propres capacit6s, il convient de promouvoir des khanges i l'int6neur de l 'brtgion soit dans un mkanisme formel soit de facon ad'hoc I'un n'excluant uas l'autre. 11 faut kgalement promouvoir la mobit6 des chercheurs au sein d'un m8me consortium en creant des conditions favombles d'm& aux zones de rkference et aux sites pilotes. Au plan rn6thodologique Lacapmiti technique des SNRVAirmener les activitks de recherchesh&@odesgdte d'une part de leur mattrise de I'approche participative permettaut une b o w identifica- tion des contxaintes, une participation effective des paysans i la recherche par la prise en compte et le dkveloppement des connaissances endoghes et d'autre part de leur maitrise des outils spdciiiques ir une meiueure conriaissauce du milieu et aux thkmes de recherche i develooner. -. Avant toutechose il convient de memu: l'accent sur lapoursuite de i'effortde formation au niveau des SNRVA pour combler le deficit dans les disciplines de sciences humaines et de l'enviromement. En ce qui wnceme l'approche participative, les actions i mener peuvent &re La capi- talisation des expkriences reussies en cours non seulement e n f i q u e mais aussi dans les autres &giom du monde en developpement. L'adaptation de ces approches aux kalitts de notre kodgion. Ceci ne signifie pas fodment une uniformisation des approches. L'adaptation pourrait &tre propre i chaque consortium ou meme it chaque pays hate des wnes de refknce et dea sites pilotes. Cadoption et la mise en oeuvre de ces approches ne pounaient se faire que si les chereheurs et autres acteurs de SNRVA maitrisent la comaissance sur les mithodes de caractkisation du milieu, de diagnostic des conhaintes, de communication en fonction des cible. Ii importe done d'ttabli et d'exicuter unpmgramme de formation sur les con- naissances de base. En ce qui conceme les outiis sptci6ques aux t h b e s de recherche, Ii s'agit igalement d'exicuter un programme de formation itabli pkiodiquement en fonction des t hb~es R6le et responsabilit6 des &Herents acteurs dans les actions de renforcement des SNRVA Les actions proposies sont de divers ordres et ne peuvent &tre rCalistes dam le cadre exclu- sif du programme EPHTA. Aussi est-il important que tous les acteurs concern& puissent intervenir en fonction de leur domaine de compttence. I1 s'agit notamment des dtcideurs potitiques despays de la sous-region, des stwciures responsables de lacoordinationinterne des SNRVA, de la C O W et bien entendu du programme EPHTA. Les d6cideurs politiques Ii leur revient c o n f o m ~ e n t i leurs priorit& nationales d'initier et de poursuivre les reformes ntcessaires, pour une plus gmnde efficaciti des institutions publiques sous leur tutelle, et d'impulser celles des organizations paysannes et des ONG. La C O W et le programme EPHTApeuvent it ce niveau jouer un rale catalytique de sensibiliation. Les gouvernements ont Cgalement un rale it jouer dans la priorit6 i accorder i la for- mation en sciences sociales, iconomiques, et enviromementales. Mais il appartient aux SNRVA d'en faire la plani6cation et la proposition aux dicideurs. 11s peuvent tgalementcrter les conditions favombles i une plus gtaude synergie au sien des SNRVA en assouplissant les conhaintes administratives et en acceptant de confker aux institutions un statut plus favorable au dialogue entre les difftrentes composantes de SNRVA. La CORAF En tant qu'organization de coordination de la recherche au niveau de la sous rtgion, ceriaines des actions identiliies, rentrent parfaitement dans le cadre de ses attributions. Il s'agit en particulier de (WMBASNAR 1994) : Les ichanges d'expkiences entre SNRVA dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre de la nouvelle approche dans sa globalit6 La capitalisation, I'adaptation, et la rediffusion des expkiences rriussies d'approche participative de par le monde et particuli&ement en Afrique La mobilitt des chercheurs i I'intkieur des consortia ou de I'bmCgion. Acet effet IaCORAFpeut &tre d'une grandeutilite en itablissant et enmettant i l a disposition du programme EPHTAet des SNRVq des bases de domtes relatives i l'expettise existante Lasynergieentre les composantes des SNRVk Cette actinti faitpartie desprioritk actuelles de la C O W car d'aprb les noweaux statuts adopt& en mars 1996, la qualiti de membre de la C O R ~ n'est plus conftrie aux seules institutions nation- ales de recherche mais plutat aux SNRA. Malheureusement, cette volonti a5ich6e na noperado03 ap sa@no@y s?luoud sal anb apmsqe ?pas n 'mo3 q md am np la tsan0.1 ap anbgv.1 ap no@y q ap nmnm ne anb@?lws mqd m,p nopproqqp,i mod snoyxap sap anb@gms pamom m rays as ~~ered am JaRq inas?rd q .s?mnm snol )nos mb sa@no@?x snos mogameao sap ued el ap lams sap mdq ap m 1~x93 np uedq ap inan@mm naynos m.p u\ms 919 s~de,n 06 sa?m saptnq?p ne a@no@$vo3? aq3ordde,l apmqne an 1namano2na(1 .rap~d na v~ndz anmm301d ne ?a a@no@yos? aq2ordde,l? a+!prome aanarodaq ap %namavoj mnapna+p mopge sa3 ap sa3ms al la aanao na asp e? -sanpmq samossar sap tnamaddo -[an* ap mop sap la sanby3od smap~qp sal3ene tmmm aaom m lnanadde mb satlamrogivgsq samsam sap mow lnos a3 'saqro =amp ap mop= sap at!ss%n sap -0g~103a aq3raq3ar ap sy!r\gaa sap ranam ? VAWS sap ?1!3ede3 el ap lnama31opar q suo~~~pueu~u~o~a~ *a uo!snpuoD anb!ll(letw spa = - a~pm la!wa~d ap i!pe ale8 = x x alnnao ua as!w uogmy!ueld . ("'91s 'uo!gm!unurwo> r!vou2e!p) x x sanbg!qds slgno xne uogewloj x x zuawauuor!Aug 'anb!wouoq 'ale!aos a3uapS ua uogewloj x x x an!gedp*ed alpold* s+q uoges!lq!dq anb!2olopoqpu ueld . (wnaqxaq3 ?z!l!qow s!ldwo3 A) x x x smua!l+xa,p aZueq33 x x x VA~NS a!&auAs - x sauueskq '210 sauuojaa x x uo!$esue2ln,-,sauuojaa x x WNI =wojaa sallauuogm!isul salnsayy . VAYNS VlHd3 4~103 J~JP!-~ 7~4~s ap yawaxojuar ap mope sal suep pieuamalu! s&uar?#!p sap alga sFans ap se~ sap noqesl@)!dea q la 'sa3nau?dxa sa2uqq sal 'smaqzuaqa ap gEqom q 'a+anXs q ammum mb a3 n~ .noymaroj ap mod sq md ledinehaamrm na 'sa?Z -eswna moye sap amao na asp q mod no!p,p mqd m qqq? lnomap YAWS sal la 'sanbgmyq sadnoi8 same sal 'v~~dx mqmoprom a1 3ene noperoqqo3 na sa@no@po3? sgwy3e sal Janam q VAWS sap 9pde3 el ap mama31opar al ms PAW zapnw X l!op mo3 el ~q a1 ms lay tnamaZuq3 na atmpe9 aoana sed 3sa.s an 'poym neanm ne noger?dom q ~o~nomord ap rechen:he issues de ee plan d g i q u e ne comporteat pas les prkoccupations actuelles exprimees dans le progmmme EPHTA. Ledorcement des capacitk des SNRA&nt l'une des laisam d'Ctre de IaCORAF, une action inte& de I'UTA et de la CORM est plus qu'indispensable en cetie p6rioded. - Au delir de la question du do rcemen t de SNRVA, se pose celle de la coopbtion au sein de l'ecorigi& qui en pincipe, devrait contribuer &galemeat ir ce renforcement. Le mode d'opirationnalisation duprogmmme EPHTA(ir tmvers les zones de r e f h c e s et les sites piliks), et qui ne p r e n d p i en eompte tous les SNRVA au m h e niveau, permet-il d'assurer une cwpb t ion &ace et un redorcement w t a b l e ? Si ce mode devrait &re maintenu il conviendrait peut-Stre de rgtudier la forme de partage des technologies acquises dans les umes de r&f&ence. Alstnn, J.M., M.C. Marra, P.G. Pardey, and TJ. Wyan 1998. Reseatch returns redux : a in&- analysis of the reauns to agricultural research and development Bmder, L. 1998. IITAs benchmark approach to natural resources management in Wesl and Central Africa IITA, Badan, Nigeria - Casas, I., C. Beye, etS.N. Kassajou (FAO). 1993. Les syszhes nationaux derecherche agmnomique dans les pays de 1'Afrique Occideniale et Centrale. Comite des Directenrs des Centers CGRAi. 1992. Le renforeement des partenarhts de recherche enfique Suhsaharienne : mpport de la table ronde tenue A Nairobi du 15 ou 16 juin 1992. IETA Ecaegional prom for the humid and suhhwnid tmpics of sub-Saharan Africa 1996. Mechanism for sustainabiily and partnership in agriculinre. INtGIBIISNAR. 1994. Plan directem de la recherche agriwle du Benin : Vol I Politique de la recherche agricole du Benin. ISNAR. 1998. Methodological research at the e~~egional level : Review Workshops. ISNAR. 1997. Renforcement du r6le des nniversites au seindes SNRAde l ' f ique subsaharienne : Point forts d'un atelier de travail tenu B Cotonou du 17-21 novembre 1997. Sdtariat Technique Natinnal pour la mtruchnation de la Recherche Agmnomique. 1997. Pmjet de mtructuration de la recherche agconomique en a t e d'Iv0ire : d m e n t d'h-iluatinn. Annexe 1 Sigles ADPH AFNETA ASS CDC CEDT CGIAR ClDT CMDT CORM SNRA SNRVA SODEPALM SONAPRA USAID WE- Association africaine pour le d6veloppement du palmier B huile R&eau africain de cultures en couloir Afrique au sud du Saham Compagnie de &veloppement du Camerow Compagnie h q a i s e de d6veloppement des textiles Groupe wnsultatif pour la recherche agricole nternationale Compagnie Ivoirieme de &veloppement des textiles Compagnie malieme de d6veloppement des textiles Conftrence des responsables de recherche agmmmique de 1'Afrique de I'Ouest et du Centre Programme bffigional pour les tmpiques humide et subhumide de I'Afrique subsaharieme Projet de protection blogiquement durable du manioc Pmjet union eump&me de recherche appliquk en milieu &el Institut de recherche agriwle Institut International d'agriculhm tropicale Institution nationale de recherche agriwle Institut national des mherches agriwles du Btnin Service international pour la recherche agriwle nationale Mtcanisme acffiltg de recherche participative Service national pour la liaison recherche et vulga&ation. Institut national pour la production animale Pmtection blogiquement dwable du nitbt Rtseau de recherche sur le nitbt pour 1'Afrique Centmle et Owidentale SystLme national de recherche agriwle SystLme national de recherche et de vulgarisation agsicole Socitti de d6veloppement du palmier B huile Socitti nationale de promotion agriwle United States Agency for International Development R&au mi3 de 1'Afrique de VOuest et du Centre Role de la transformation des produits et des systGmes post-r6colte ameliordis dans le ddiveloppement des systGmes de production Victorin HoundGkon Facult6 des Sciences juridiques, Econorniques, et Politiques (FASJFP) de l'Universit6 Nationale du BGnin, 06 BP 7 707 PK3, Cotonou AbstFact The im~ortauce of local farmers involved in food amduction has alwavs been mco&dinAfrica Early ~Bortstricdto improvep&duction wpahilitics~cnnve fwd self-sufficiency and national food senniw altbouzh not many countries that hied to enhance f&d pdnction succeeded h e n those who diri faced a major amblem of siloilaze. which was ur, to 50% m some countries. Several immoved . - - iechnologies were inttndnced ot &cowaged by the FA0 to ensure that wasrage was reduced. Pmduct traasformation and immoved ~ostharvest mtems were inmduccd This paper desmies the various ekom ovk the years &d the results obtained. it 6nallv looks atthc~olentialsofEPHTAto faRhrrhclo~ositivcadvance- . . ments in the ecokgions. Introduction Depuis les annies 80 les pays africaius se sont fur.& pour objectif I'au&&sance ali- mentaire et par la suite la sCcmit6 alientaire en w e de r6duire la pauvreti:. Les effort ont dt6 alors faits pour que 1'Afrique accomplisse aussi sa ~ o l u t i o n verte. Mais les rkulrats n'ont pas i:t6 en g & W A la hauteur des objectifi. Certes des technologies nouvelles ont 6t6 mises au point et vulgarisr5es. Certaines cultures ont COMU une augmentation de lew production. Mais les producteursdoivent faire face auxconttaintes des pertes ap& r h l - tes allant parfois jusqu'ii 50 % de la production. Et fioalemenf les gain de productivitb au niveau des sysemes de production se trouvent en partie absorb& par une mauvaise gestion du sys tbe post-rricolte. Au lieu de concenten tous les eEom A augmenter laproductiviti: des systPmes de cul- tures, la FA0 va envisager aussi, I'approche de I'accroissement de la production par une b m e gestion du sys the post-r6colte. L'id6e est que le pmblPme de la crise alientaire en A£iique ne vient pas seulement de la faible performance des systbes de production, maisi:galement despertes aprPsricolte. S'il est exact que lesnouveUes technologiesn'ont pas adopties comme on pouvait s'y attendre, il n'est pas moins vrai que les producteurs subissent des pertes depuis ies r6coltes jusqu'i la commercialisation. Dans la perspective qu'une b0Me gestion du post-riwlte permem de rimtire les pertes, la FA0 incite les institutions nationales de recherche A s'investir Cgalement dans I'mClioration du sy&me pos-rkolte. Un meilleur sys the post-r6colte ne va certes pas provoquer une augmentation de la production brute mais il permetim de rendre plus disponible la plus grande partie ou la quasi-totaliti: de la production. Depuis lors, les programs de recherche post-rkolte ont Cte crC& dans diffents pays, des rbeaux, des coUoques se tiennent pour faciliter la diffusion des resultats. En terme de valeur ajoutke au produit, 70 ti 85 % vont aux activies post-dwltes et les productem penpivent seule- ment 15 i 30 % (Golti and Wolff 1998). Plusieurs technologies am6liokes ont 6t6 d6velopptes. Elles ne sont certes pas toutes vulgaris&s ? Quel est I'impact de celles qui ont ete vulgarisCes sur les systlmes de pro- duction agriwles ? Quels sont les fa&& qui limitentleur impact sur les systlmes de production ? Quelles actions EPHTApeut entreprendre dans le wwt, le moyen et le long teme pour lever ces wnbahtes et k l b r e r le dkveloppement durable dans les zones ago-hlogiques. Le reste du document est divis6 en quatre sections. La premilre dome une description thbrique du systlme post-rkolte. La deuxilme session prksente une bkve analyse du pmcessus de &veloppement dusystlmedepmductiou. Latroisilme session fait une revue des rMtats de diiftrents travaux sur le sale des technologies am6lior&s des activie post-&oltes dans le &veloppement des systlmes de production. La quahilme session pdsente des conclusions et recommandations en teme de recherche. Analyse descriptive du systl.me post-rhcolte Le systlme post-rkolte peut Ctre &hi comme I'ensemble des op6ations portant sur les pmduits rkolt6s depuis le champ jusqu'a son transfert au wnsommateur. Les diff6rents 6lCments pr6sent6s d'un systlme post-dcolte sont pdsent6s i la Figure 1. Les op6m- tions post-dwltes peuvent &tre regroup6es en trois groupes : les op6rations li6es aux productem, les op6mtions li&s au march6 (assemblage, transformation, et distribution) et les op6mtions li&s au wnsommateur. Operations lice5 aux paysans Elles wmprennent les activit6s de sdchage pour les c616ales et les 16gumineuses, les activites de battage et vannage, de &pathage, de ddwrticage et de stockage paysan au champ ou au village. Ces activites, si eUes sont effectuh aux moyens de technologienon adapt&, deviement des sources d'importantes pertes de la production r6coltk. Le sechage en milieu paysan L'obiectif du s6chaze est de rauire I'humidie des mains de manilre i favoriser leur con- . - - servation et leur transformation. Avant de pouvoir conserver les pmduits, les productem doivent les sffiher. Les produits qui demandent un tel traitement sont g6n6ralement les c&ales et les 16guminekes. Les tubercules et les racines sont 6gaIemek soumis ti cette op6ration lorsqu'ils doivent faire objet de transformation en farine ou en wssettes. Un sffihage bien fait permet d'6viter les pourritures, la contamination par les mywtoxines lors du stockage du mars arachide et haricot, les brisures lors du dtwrticagepour le rL. paddy etc. Le battage, le vannage et le dkpaihage en milieu paysan Le battagelvannage des & a l e s telles le riz, le mais, le mil, et le sorgho est une activite e x e d e par les productem avant la mise sur le march6 des produits. Ces op6rations con- stituentegalement une occasiondeperte importante de lapmductionlorsque les techniques utilish ne sont pas efficaces. Le stockage en milieu paysan Son objectif est de d i f f k I'olEe du produit dans le temps afin de ripondre i une demande ult&ieure. L'activiti de stockageest exercie par lamajoriti des producteurs qui ditiennent souvent la plus grande partie des produits ( Luk 1994). Ce faisanb ilspeuvent bhificier de prix meilleurs mais aussi assurer la consommation Bun moment oh on a dijB tout dcolti du champ. A ce niveau, lorsque le systkme de stockage est difaillant, il va en risulter une perte de produits qui se tmduira par une rtduction de revenu pour les producteurs. Or une baisse de revenu d'une culture par rapport aux autres oultures constitue un facteur ddsincitateur ou dicourageant sa production. Ainsi un mauvais stockage peut bien con- stituer un fiein au diveloppement d'un systbne de production. De la m@me maniere, une sys the eacace de stockage constitue un facteur incitateurpour la production, s'il permet de riduire ou d'iliminer les pertes au cours du stockage. Les op6mtions li6es au march6 : commercialisation et exportation La commercialisation assume une fonction essentielle celle de I'ichange. Ce faisant, elle constitue une importante source &incitation de la demande des produits. Plusieurs auteurs ont montr.4 que I'exportation des produits peut accilirer la croissance Cconomique du pays exportateur. En effet, les sectem exportatem, face la cornpitition internationale, sont incitis B investir davantage et B amiliorer la qualiti de leur produit a6n de pouvoir conquirir des parts de plus en plus importantes du marchi mondial. 11 va en risulter des gains de productivitC r&ultant des tconomies d'tchelle et des Cconomies externes pour les secteurs non exportateurs du pays. L'emballage L'emballage reprisente pour les produits agricoles en gtnkal et pour les produits tmnsfor- mis en partidier un facteur pr&iable i la rMisation efficiente des activitb de transport et de stockage. I1 consiste B choisir les produits adaptis B la clientkle et B la tmnsformation des lots de production en lots de vente. Le transport et la manutention Une fois que les produirs sont conditiomis ou emballis, il faut les transporter depuis les zones de production jusque dans les zones de consommation. Le transport permet de faire l'arbiGge spkial entre rigions dificitaires et rtgions excidentaires. Deux i lhen t s peuvent constituer des fieins au transport des produits : le modeiles moyens de transports et les voies de communications. Si la zone de production ne dispose pas de voies de com- munication, il est ivident que les producteurs ne pourront pas icouler leur produit sur les march&. I1 en est de meme pour les moyens de transport. D'oh la nicessiti pour les dicideurs d'accorder une importance au diveloppement des voies de communications. Le stockage Outre les paysans producteurs, le stockage est aussi assuri par les commergants gros- sistes ou semi-grossistes dont l'objectif est de faire I'arbitrage dans le temps. I1 s'agit d' un entreposage dans des magasins ou assimilb en vue d'ajuster les quantikis demandtes et les quantitis offertes B toutes les ttapes du circuit de commercialisation. Cette activiti n'est rentable que lorsque les pertes son; minirnisdes. Ce qui nicessite des techniques de stockage adapttes et B faible coiit. La transformation oermet la diversification de I'utilisation du oroduit et cke une valeur - ajou& au produit brut. En c&mt de la valeur ajouee, la transformation wntribue B la crktion de la richesse nationale. C'est une &tape indispensable pour les produits qui ne peuvent parvenir auconsommateur sans une &fo&on pr6alable @&exemple,le riz paddy). Ellepermet 6galement 1'6largiisement de la gamme de pmduits tmnsformbpar le b i du d6veloppement de nouveaux produits. Citons en exemple les cas du manioc qui est tmnsform6enplus decinqproduits (le gari, le tapioca, I'emploi d'amidon, 1e foufoy et autres) et du mais est transform6 par exemple en plus de 18 produits au B6nin. La ckation de nouveaux produits permet d'augmenter le nombre total de consommateurs et donc la demande du produit. L'augmentation de la demande va enminer I'augmentation du prix du oroduit debase et inciter oar conshuent la oroduction aui B son tour va stimuler le d6veloppement du systtme de production. Toutefois I'op6ration de transformation peut constiiuer une importante source de perte de produits. Pour 6nter de telle peite, il i%ut des technologies appmpriks. Les op6rations d'emballage, de stockage, de transport/manutention et de transformation conkiibuent B mettre B la disposition du consommateur un bon produit. Mais le pmduit ne p o r n wnqu&ir des marchCs que s'il y a, en plus de ces op6dons, un prix ad6quat et une communication eEcace en d'autres termes, un svstime adwuat de marketing mix. - - Beaucoup de ~ouveaux produits transform6s d6velopp6s & la zone d'intervention de EPTHA I'ont g6n6zalement 6 e sans tenir compte d'un systtme de marketing mix. Le marketing-mix 11 s'agit de la composition commerciale ax& sur quatre variables contrblables par I'entreprise en vue de mettre au point toute strakkgie de marketing : le produit, le prix, la distribution, et la communication. On parle de composition wmmerciale parce que le s u c h dans la mise en march6 d6pend d'un dosage judicieux voire optimal de ces quatre 616ments. Par exemple, un mauvais produit, meme i bon prix avec un bon kseau de dis- tribution et une borne promotion ne cornaitra pas le succks commercial esp6k. Caracteristiques d'un pmduit On peut d6nir les carackkristiques d'un produits ir mis niveaux : laqualifiperque ou attendues par le consommateur : poids,performances, composi- tion, esthbtique, facilie d'emploi par exemple lecontenusymbolique: prestige, libed, simplicit6, robustesse, B lamode, puissance, par exemple le service m d u p a r lepmduit : gain de temps, distraction Lorsque les carackkristiques d'un pmduit correspondent aux attentes des consommateurs du segment de march6 choisi, on dit qu'il est bon parce qu'il se vend avec profit pour le vendeur et l'acheteur. L e s op6mtions li6es au consommateur Dans le s y s h e marketing, le consommateur est 1'616ment-cM du march&. Pour cette raison, c'est par rapport B son wmportement d'abord et par rapport au produit ensuite que Ventreprise &finit sa politique de marketing. Le consommateur est le demandeur du produit sous forme brute ou tmnsform6e. I1 fait g6n6mlement la tmnsformation secondaire mais parfois la transformation primaire. Le produit doit ripondre a ses gofits et pr6firences. Par ailleurs, le succes de nouveaux produits dipend de l'implication du consommateur dans le processus de diveloppement d& le dibut. La description du systtme post-ricolte nous a permis de faire ressoriir de m a n i k sommaire les liens qui existent entre les activith post-ricoltes et I'incitation de la pro- duction agricole par le prix. Mais comment le sys the post-ricolte peut-il dicoumger ou stimuier le diveloppement des sys@mes de production agricoles ? Pour &pondre a cette question nous allons analyser le lien entre le sys the post-ricolte et le diveloppement des s y s h e s de production agricole. Cette analyse nous permetka de comprendre com- ment les activith de recherche au niveau des diffkents t lhen t s du sys the post-ricolte coneibue i l'augmentation de la production agricole. Processus de d6veloppement des systhes de production et systemes post- r6colte Quel rcile la transformation et les opirations apds ricolte peuvent jouer dans le dtveloppe- ment des systdmes de production ? Pour r6pondre a cette question, nous d o n s d'abord analyser les liens qui pourraient exister entre la transformation des produits et le divel- oppement des s y s t k de production avant de deliair le concept de dtveloppement des systdmes de production. Processus de d6veloppement des systhnes de production agricoles D'aprks Norman et al. (1995), le diveloppement des sys@mes de production r6suite d'une strie d'actions entre diffirents acteurs (chercheur, paysans, vulgarisateur, etc.) qui camc- tkisent I'approche "Farming System"de diveloppement agricole. Cette approche compte quatre phases par lesquelles passe un sys the de production pour subii une modification ou un diveloppemeni La premidre est celle de I'hergence des problhes ou contraintes qui bloquent le systkme de production actuel. L'objectif de la "Recherche et Diveloppement" est de faire un diagnostic qui va conduire i I'identification des problPmes. Durant cette phase, des domees secondaires et primaires bar enquetes exploratoires) sont collecties et utili- sees pour dkrire les caract&stiques du systkne, Claborer le plan de diveloppement de I'exploitation, analyser I'impact microtconomique des politiques macrotconomiques du gouvemement. Par ailleurs les initiatives d'actions visant le changement du systkne de production peuvent provenir soit des groupes cibles soit des systhes et politiques de soutien'. Ainsi, par exemple, une amilioration de la technologie de transformation des racines de maniac va emmener les producteurs i adopter les variith A haut rendement. La deuxidme est celle d'identification ou d'ilaboration de technologie nouvelle pouvant permettre de risoudre les probltmes ou contraintes identifiies lors de la phase "diagnostic". Les technology peuvent provenir de trois sources: paysans, les recherches en station et si nicessaire des parcelles de dhonstmtion des chercheurs. La troisidme est celle du test oG les paysans vont v i d e r les meilleures technologies silectiomies A la deuxikme phase. Le test pemetka de choisir les technologies les plus appropriies chaque enviro~ement et les systhes et ou politique de soutien i la tech- ap apnnad ap no qaos ap amdw ap alms red as~.'aarlna ma1 sanuaj red gooq srawap sa3 sro@ no!lemroJsneq ap samsn sa[ lnamas?@y ratmo!spardde ?onnod sed an E "m ap anlor\? noganpord ap am?lsKs a[ !s raga na .smqmojsmg sap apnemap el ? lnamang!sod arpnod?s ? anoa!nred rapap aa anb ippnej I! 'nogmpard ap am?lsKs a[ inamaIqemp quainos assyd nogemrojsneq ap amgsKs a1 anb mod map led .annpord ang!sod no~le)!am am rawgsnoa wad 'saq!ag?p sanoz sal sran lmpard np i~a&apoq,~ la uodsneq a1 ine)!l!m~ na 'aqgnor armanqsagm,l ap nogz~og?me am amsm aa .a3eagJa snld amgsKs m nqoqa ? anop la aSqnenT a~pard ? smqmpard sal raqq en mb ~d np noIle)na&ne am erapsy na p inan@snm led ~apnemap q saanamane anop 'smawnnosnoa sap aseq el -a,p lamad nogwuojsneq q 'lmpwd neannon ap noge?ra el red issnv yposd np apnemap el ranam3ne.p lags mod COAE lnad (amaueim nogenrmosnmq modno nogwodxa,l mod) p~pordm,p nogemroj- ap anbqw el snep nogenom am '3aBa na .maanpord a1 ms inammapsnoq no inam -marasom lnal?gar a1 mb s~ne51ammm sa[ 'ma~emqsneq sal anb qal qnaSe saqne'p ? ~mmalna+e.l 1nama)3arlp seden an aqo~ -pod am?isKs np mnanp,l 'ma3 ma DJJ!~~! zap,! ap ~3 .81jy3 ne -,p sanbq!lod sa[ la : sxagnos san~anqsega! sal p aSeqaqs ap sanbpq3al sat 'amaj el ms sup3 sap aSmq a1 'aSap?s al mod sa?olouqw sat 1nmua3noa snopenotq sal . : annogar no 'auoS?~ea wa3 sma .?ma3no3 ~al3arlpm lsa aananp,l qo sea a[ la noganpord ae,amalsKs a[ ms inamai3arlp anp aloqs-sod amgsKs a1 no sea a1 : san!snpxa sa&g +sea xnapranZqsp~naduo $3 'a[m+e noganpord ap am?~sKs np inamaddolan?p ne nagnos ap anbpgod ap no/ la am?lsKs np inam?[? m ~nel? ammo3 q?p!snoa aqs qop I! 'aqo3y-sod amgsKs np alnap -wd nOglnq?p el ? snor?~y snon snon 'noganpord ap sam?~sKs al ms sanp pannad salq-%sod snogz~?do same sat la nogwuojsmg el manm lanb ? sawnap! ?q,q3Iaq3 sn0n.e snon 'noganpardapam?isKs rm,p jnamaddolan?pap a-aam a[ pg?pnone qdv aqoq pod aw?sr(s %a uo!pnpord ap aw?plsr(s aqua uag .soesKed sap no smaqzaqa sap aqasaqaar ap s$q!ngm sap qos 'nagnos ap amgsKs np l!os lnmranord qnamaSmqa sap e . smmos . mol nos ? eras ?so![?me amgsKs q aseqd q agsoutfep a[ ipj e no mop amgsKs ne vodder red qog?me isa salnapgsd snogm sap qnyr yb nog3npard ap amgsKs q .a$o~omiw allannon el asparam 8 * nogmposd ap auqsKs ne s90dde wmaSneqa sal lnos slanb la i a$010miw e[ ap 33edql 'nogdope,p neanm a1 isa 1anb nones inan manm aq=aq=s TI .?idope a!30[ouqmt q ap nogm!m?ssp el ap ana3 pa aseqd az?pap q .aamanoo?nna,l rapd?p no ?aAE,[ amamardmm ms alires~gns ?qwi~b w noganpord el ? la nogdope,~ 'a~o[on Aussi la recherche de produit de meilleure qualite (riches en nutriments ou contenant moins ou pas d'elements anti-nutritionnels) par les consommateUlS et par les transfor- mate= peut -elle amener les producte= a adopter de nouvelles varietes de produits agricoles. La transformation et Ie stockage ne sont pas les seuls elements du sysleme de soutien, il y a egalement les politiques du changement et les autres elements du circuit de com- mercialisation a savoir: (Ie transport, I'emballage). Enfin, une amelioration technologique post-recolte peut conduire a une augmentation de la rentabilite du systeme de production, mais en meme temps modifier l'aIIocation des ressources en defaveur des femmes ou des hommes selon sa specificite. Pour eviter que la promotion de nouvelle technologie ne contribue a agrandir Ie fosse entre l'homme et la femme, les dc!veloppeurs doivent tenir compte des consequences sociales liees a chaque technologie. L'impact des systemes post-reeoltes ameliores sur la production et Ie systeme de production Dans celie section nous allons analyser les actions de recherches empiriques ou de developpement qui sont orientees vers des activites post-recoltes. Le premier paragraphe definit les differents axes de recherche, Ie deuxieme analyse les activites eropiriques liees ala qualite des produits, Ie troisieme decrit les rc!sultats sur les technologies de recolle et de stockage dans quelques pays d' Afrique. Activites de recherche du systeme post-recolte Les activites de recherche sur differents elements du systeme post-recolte peuvent etre analysees suivant quatre axes a savoir: la recolle el Ie stockage, la qualite du produit, I'utilisation et la commercialisation du produit, les politiques, et institutions. • L'activit6 de recherche sur la qualite du produit s'occupe de la qualite nutritionnelle et les caractenstiques de la transformation artisanale et industrielle des produits, I'identification de leur gene et son amelioration. • L'activile de recherche sur la recolte et Ie stockage s' occupe des pertes postes n!col- tes dues a la mecauisation de la recolle, des possibilitc!s d'ameliorer les moyens de stockage, Ie control des ravage= et maladies et I'amelioration gem!tique en vue d'accroitre la resistance aux attaques. • L'activite de recherche sur la transformation et I'utilisation des produits concerne les possibilites de diversification et de developpement de nouveaux produits par la transfurmation des produits bruts ou transformes. Elle prend egalement en compte les caractenstiques des consommate= en matiere de nutrition et de consommation. • L'activite de recherche sur les politiques et institutions analyse et determine Ie cadre politique et institutionnel adequatpour I'augmentation de la production agricole (Ies prix,les inftastructures, les petites et moyennes entreprises) par Ie biais des analyses micro et macroeconomiques des politiques macroeconomiques et commerciales. Amelioration de la qualite des produits et developpement des systemes de production Dans ce domaines, les activites de recherche se sont concentro!es sur l'amelioration de la valeur nutritionnelle, des caractenstiques eulinaires des produits et du comportement des produits face ii la transformation. Plusie= Institutions Internationales ont reuvre dans 114 mawd np la 'atqes np 'maen np samaj sai anb si@ qarmw slmpwd sal ]na~ovZi .. . . ..~ - . . . qem '%a& ma1 snep sanbpq slppwd sap inam smam&d sal a& aIairy as I! 'maw red .sana%,p sanbeae sap mi nolas ~namn~iro~d swd q qnpy 3uatuaIq!mas annw as gguenbmal @ui qny8 sapp sal snq apmZ *?a ne qamoggq sam)ms sat snep ?XWS WQ a1 anb uolsnl3nm q ? aAw (~661) =ova .anamogpmn gwb ma1 ~ssne ~naprad sjxpqs slmpwd sai 'sairgqguenb lnamapas sed pos au smad sq 'a3nenannm es notas n0geqsa.p apoqapm q amn m@ne anbeq3 anb ?mop IW? 'g!p EL ? papnodsauo3 sedan lna~nad XIW spiarp~~p SQ ~661 !!PUOIU~OH la nzlnw LL s?e~ u!u?a 886 1 u!uuar(lued 01 SW OSO~ P66 1 EwnzlV OE %!N M~!N wapl E'S oqaos LL~I yn!>eh Z'Z !da ua I!W F%US 8~6~ LP!*II~ Iaa~ea 9% oqaos I!W ~?S!N 1x61 waquaBn9 t-z !da ua I!W !IW sma~nv % apad ap me1 YuaP el aP lr?3 ~Aed 'sl~np~rd slIWJ?BP SmW slnFHIp ad S9p3P3 SWQd ap xw sal asnom z nqqeL q 'aSeq3ols ap mo3 na mad sal IWW~ layp vq anos qamogrpes sam?~sKs ai anb no!sn13nm q ? S?AF 'sm sap wdnid q suep 'mos q 'qamogp nopNasnoa ap la aSeqaots ap samgsr(s sal ?sX@m? F, ag~lnap! I~O mawid alww maun el =a SU!~& sap m-J .sap- la samm sap pla3 la sup12 sap se3 a1 @qsp mo~a sno~ .(sapxaqrq la 'samm 'sasnaymSa[ 'sawp) ~wwd ap adh a1 nolas apn nogeNasnm ap am?tsKs .aZqm~ep eprd? mwmpard sat inaSem~na la md sal ralq ap lanuad amga a%-s ap aiqsKs tin uovnpwd ap saw?sr(s sap lualuaddopn?p la po!l?um uogwasump'dwpop ap aqpds .~uauiaddola~?p a mqq $uewxhq rm awgsum smqemmmm sap sar,uqjyd xne p qgoS xne pnody ana 'gaga anq aan .a'dqmp m la uo~ojsrms, q? sapiqgde samroq ap auatuqmm mb - liiamanaAnon *g~ ap a~dmaxa m guaed iuo (5661) '@ p noqp~ 'qm a1 mod -aria q saep snpm np ao~vard qap ~o~~~m,~ ? anqulum dnmeaq e nope allm isang,i aP anbw,p a103ev aqxaqmtl ap sa@aoy~ saogwgsa~ sq mod anbypXqneb ap!m ua maw ai9q ? 30- ap s+og?,me q?p~ sap @do~a~?p e ~CI .m.i ap la 'LhMNi3 tlp 'Md3I.I ap bm.~ ap'613 RP 1~3 tlp inabm(l~7on 3ge.s p I mas a3 Nago et Agbo (1981) ont 6galement 6tudiC le stockage du mais en milieu rural duB&n. L'ttude demandee par le Center africain pour le Stockage Rural ARSC bas6 & Ibadan. Cette 6tude visait entre autre & quantifier les proportions de la production stocktes dans les systbmes de stockage et de consemtion am&lior6s. Selon cesauteurs trois iypes de systPmes de stockage amClior6s ont 6t6 introduits rims le milieu @ce 9 des projets de dtveloppement. Lecrib mttaUique, audtbut, a subiplusieursmodifications ayant abouti 3 lartductionde son cofit.Ainsi les 616ments metalliques ont 6t6 pmgressivement transform& en 6lhents locaux (vegttaux). Ce crib n'est pratiquement pas utilis6par les paysans individuels, seules les structures cooperatives et les soci6t& de production agricole l'avaient adopt&. Le silo en mdtal : U comprend un toit conique oh se fait le remplissage et un corps cylidrique. Ce silo a Ctt adopt6 la soci6t6 agro-indushielle qui en a construit plusieurs exemplaires. Le silo en magonnerie est un gros cylindre avec un o a c e de remplissage sur le toit et un orifice de dtchargement vers le b a s 9 est fait deparpains spkiaux, agenc& l'un A cat4 de I'autre et retenus extkieurement par une courroie m6tallique. Tout ce systkne est pose sur un monticule Cgalement en magonnerie. Ce silo a 6tt utilist pendant plusieurs ann6es par les paysans de la rigion d'AUada dans le cadre des struehues coopbtives. AuTogo, un greniertraditiomel d6nommO Eli-vaa6t6 am6liortpourune conservation efficace du mais. Selon Henault (1994) ee grenier a tte identifit en collaboration avec les paysans et permettrait de rbduire les pertes de 30 %. Cas des racines et tubercuies Deux principales cultures de cette cat6gorie se pratiquent dans les pays qui font l'objet de cette 6hlde B savoir le manioc et I'igname. Le manioc Le manioc est un produit rapidement pkissable. Sa d6tkioration commence 2 & trois jours aprAs la r6colte. Selon FA0 1998, les pertes varient de 40 % en 42 jours B 80 % en 63 jours. Des technologies nouvelles visant la reduction de ces peites ont 6t6 test6es dans diffents pays sans succbs. En faisant le bilan des technologies amtliories en a q u e actuellement en matibre de stockage et consewation du manioc. FA0 (1998) relhe deux innovaticns qui p o d e n t &ire vulgaris6es. I1 s'agit de l'emballage des tubercules dans les films plastiques au Ghana (Gallat et al. 1995) et la conservation des tubercules dans la sciure humide (Agboola 1994). Les caractkistiques des deux technologies sont prbent6es au tableau 2. Ces innovations ont 6te mises en ceuvre, mais on ignore Ieur impact sur les sys thes de productions correspondantes. L'igname En ce qui conceme I'igname deux structures am6lior6es ont it6 identifites une au Nigkia et l'autre au Bhin. Au B6nin deux structures de stockage detrois tomes out 6tt construites avec des mat& riaux locaux et expCriment6s dans le cadre du projet systAme de stockage d6centralis6s. I1 est compost d'une paillote montte sur pilotis muni de protection anti-rats, d'une fosse-paillote (cave de 4 m sur 1,80 de profondeur), les murs en banco sont A 60 cm des Tableau 2. Innovation technologique de stockage du manioc fais. Technologies Carac6ristiques pays Dunk de Diffusion stockape Emballages film plastique et Ghana 2 8 3 semaines Diffusion lente dans des films produits chimiques plastiques mobile Conservation Sciure de bois Nigeria Negligeable dans de la humide sciure humide Caisse en compartiments 17Ox65x80cm bords de la fosse pour &limiter un espace circulaire. Des ignames stcckks dans ces struc- tures sont tmi&s avec du kouffa (fongicide) i! 2,s kg /tome de tubercule. Cette structure permet de d e r une valeur ajout& de222 % centre-44 %en stockage traditionriel. Mais wrrespond-eUe au besoin des utilisateurs ? Au Nigeria, il s'agit d'une cave ventilk de pour le stockage des ignames concue par l'Universit6de Nsukka. CettenouveUestructure est concue pour la wnservationd'environ 200toMes de tuberculeset a ttk teskpendant six ans et cornpa& alastructure tmdition- nelle. EUe permet de d u k les perks par khanges q i m t o i r e s des tubercules. Ce qui ressort de l'analyse des structures de stockage et de wnservation, c'est que ce sont des innovations intraduites dans le milieu sans la participation des groupes cibles. Les structures qui ont connuun&but d'adoptionau~ogi et au~kninont &nnuiaParticipation des paysans. Par ailleurs aucunes etudes ne permet de dire quel est le niveau #adoption I'impact des difftrents systkmes sur les systlmes de pmduction Transformation des pmduits et d6veloppement des systsmes de production La transformation des produits peut Btre consid6rk comme une methode de sauveg- arde et de conservation des dcoltes. En cffiant de nouveaux pmduits, la transformation favorise I ' d du pmduit debase a d'autres wnsommateurs et de manikre indirecte, la transformation augmente la demande du produit par la prise de part de march6 national et ou international. Par ailleurs la transformation des pmduits c& de la valeur ajoutee et wnstitue par cons&uent un facteur de croissance Bconomique. Sewanou (1990) esiimant la valeur ajoutk au pmduit agricole par la transformation artisanale 'ouve que la bansformation tmditionnelle du mais en Akassa c r k une valeur ajoutke de 121 %, celle de I'igname en wssette 48 % et cette du manioc, en gari 133 % ; en cassettes d'igname 122 % et celle des amchide en beignet et huile 23 %. Et une am6liomtion des technologies ameliorerait le niveau des valeurs a jouth actuelles. Pour analyser I'impact des technologies de transformation nous allons distingvi tmis categories de produits : les cedales, les mcines et tubercules et les Mgumineuses. Racines et tubercules lgname Dans la littmture. on ne trouve omtiauement oas de travaux abordant la transformation . . de I'igname. Ricemment et dans le cadre du projet de valorisation des cossettes d'igname pour les villes une etude comparative a it& effectuie entre le B6nin, le Nig&ia et le Togo (~ricas et a1 1997). L'itude a entre autre procedi il un diagnostic des systhes techniques de transformation des ignames en cossettes et autres d&ives (couscous :'Wassa-wassa" et farine d'igname) et au test de certaines solutions d'ameliomtion. Les resultats montrent qu'on peut introduire un iminceur dans le procidi technologique de fabrication de la farine d'igname en w e d'avoir des chips faciles i moudre. Cette innovation dvitera aux transformatrices le concassage prhlables des cossettes avant mouhue. Par ailleurs I'essai de mecanisation du roulage du couscous d'igname, a mane que le rouleur Aftem est indiquee pour ra iser un produit pratiquement identique i c e qui est Fabrique tradition- nellement (Hounhouigan et Akissoi 1997). Ces redtats ne sont pas encore bien &&s pour Stre wlgarisk. Manioc Des efforts pour ameliorer les technologies rraditiomelles de transformation du manioc en gari ont comus beaucoup d'kbecs. Pour arriver i bout de ces problhes I'ilTA a diveloppb de petites machines simples i faible dose de travail de bas coiits, et adapter aux petits transformateurs et avec des mat&iels locaux. Ces outils d6veloo~es en collaboration avec les transformateurs ont comu un essor sur . . place. Mais il n'existe pas de travaux permettant de mesurer l'envergure de l'adoption et leur contribution i la forte progression du manioc au Nig&ia. Au Binin, les rechercbes se sont surtout consacries il I'amilioration du produit. Des technologies de transformation dumanioc ont 6th diveloppi par IlTApourripondre aux spicificitk des variitk amiliories du manioc. Plusieun technologies ont et.5 testies en 1990. La transformation du manioc en farine qui apparemment facile poserait beaucoup de pmblPme au transformateur qui prifke tmnsformer le manioc en gari. L a d i 5 d t d exprimie par les hansformateurs du Nig&ia proviendrait de la faible mecanisation dans la fabrication de la farine dans la zone ktudiee. Une wlgarisation des outils dk~eloppts par I'IITA pourmit permettre de lever cette contrainte. Au B h i i la faculte des Sciences agronomiques a diveloppi m e technologie pour fabriquer du gari amilior.5 au soja. Au Nigeria, la farine du manioc enserait dans la fabrication commerciale de certaines industries (biscuterie, distillerie d'alcool) etc. Les c6rhles : le mais Au Benin, le mais est transformi enplusieurs produits commercialisis. Le transformation primaire regroupe les farines non fermentees, les farines fermenties et les p8tes. Selon Nago et al. (1989) la transformation secondaire i partir de ces trois produits conduit il m e vingtaine de produits vendu sur le marchi B6nhois. Hounhouigan et Akissoe (1997) ont dans les mvaux faits le diagnostic de la transformation du mais en p8te fennentde et test& le roulage et la stabiiation des pstes. Pour r6pondre B une demande urbaine missante, certains produits out &ti modemis& et leur cuisson est rapide. C'est le cas du couswus du W s , de la farine du mriis fermentde et soul6e pour la prkparation de bouillie "aklui" (Houuhouigan communication personnelle). Ces produits nouvellement divelopp& se vendent dans les supermarcb6s B Cotonou et ne sont pas toujours connus du gmnd public. Pour la mouture du mriis, sorgho, mil et les wssenes les transformateurs utilisent des m o d i 6 c&Mes qui out adoptk depuis des &nnies. Les 16gumineuses : evemple du soja Le soja a 6tk. introduit dans plusieurs pays aj3cains et depuis lors des rechercbes sont menks pour assurer sa transformation en aliment consommable. Pour app&ier les efforts d6ployer pour promouvoir le soja, le CRDI a initi6 en 1987 un prograinme Projet d'utilisation du soja qui s'est effectu6 en trois phase. La premiere phase i Ibadan, la deuxilme a Lagos, Zaria, et Nsukka; et la troisilme ~hase au Ghana et en a t e d'lvoire. Ce oroiet vise B diterminer le statut de la ~roduction . . et l'utilisation, dans la pays du projet, divelopper des technologies et des kquipements de tmnsformation, former du personnel dans la transformation et l'6laboration des technola- gies, transf6rerparvulgarisation et diss6miner les r6sultats aux utiliiateurs. Les risultats de cette 6tudes iridique seulement que les produits du soja ne sont pas encore acceptis et des efforts sont en tmin d'&e faits pour y paw&, mais il y a eu d'impact dam la r6gion. Au Bbnin, DANA (1994) dgarise une dizaine de transformations et pr6pamtions B base de soja Au Nigeria, plus de 90 000 personnes out 6t6 form6es B la technique de transformation et d'utilisation des produits du soja a travers tout le pays. Et plus d'une trentained'industries de transformation se sont diveloppks favorisant ainsi le dkveloppe- ment d'un march6 de pmduits issus du soja et par ricochet I'expansion de la production de soja dans la zone du pmjet. Depuis 1987 le prix du soja n'a cess6 d'augmenter et le nombre de poi& de vente est pass6 de 2 B 32 (Osho et al. 1995). Pour stabiier les instnunents utilis6s dans la transformation du soja, les ingtnieurs et diffdrents tmnsformateurs out divelopper une w m b i i o n de techniques utilisant des insti-uments moins chers adaptable facile d'utilisation pour les diff6rents phases de la transformation du soja. Mais il subsiste une mauvaise information sur le produit. Des obse~ations sont faites B l'encontre des grands transformateurs qui sont inhabiles a faire fonctionner les machines leur pleine capaciti et B I'enconm des wnsommateurs pour des biais ou prkjugk envers le produit. L'approche participative du projet aurait pu pennettre de trouver des solutions durables aux activitk de transformation. Le probllme ici, est ti6 B un manque de publiciti pour faire connaitre le produit au public. Pour ces misons, un grand effort doit Stre fait en vue #intensifier la vulgarisation, la formation et I'information sur la technologic. Conclusion partielle La transformation des produits agriwles constitue une importante source d'incitation B I'augmentation de la production et des exportations. La hausformation du manioc a favoris6 une expansion de la production et il est possible aux pays africains de conqu6rir une grande part du march6 mondial. Et comme l'avantage wmparatif est un ph6nomkne dynamique, lespays Africains ont inM&t Bpsofiteraumaximum des exportations des cos- settes de manioc au moment oil les pays asiatiques sont en kain de perdre leur avantage comparatif. Des technologies am6lior6es ont 6t6 mises au point et de nouveaux produits ont 6t6 dBveloppk. Mais pour que ces produits puissent conqu&k ires parts de march& national et international, il faut un sys the de marketing actifet efficace ; ce qui n'existepratique- ment pas dans les pays 6tudids. Politiques economiques et institutions Les activi#s de productionspost-dcolte ne seront rentables que s'il existe des instibtions d'appui et despolitiques adiquates. Plusieurs 6tudes (Lutz 1994) ont m o n ~ que les offices de commercialisation ont conhibu6 pour beaucoup dam la stagnation des productions agricoles. Et lorsque le commerce d'un produit est l i h M d , alors ce produit c o ~ a i t une expansion de sa production et une modifi~ti0II de son sys the de production. Les producteurs peuvent n%Iiserunegrmde production en quantit6et en qualit6, route- fois le manque de moyens de communication peut ocwionn6e la perte d'une importante proportion de cette production. La taille des exploitations agricoles Btant souvent faible pour permem au pmducteurde supporteravec bLP6fice la commercialisation, les w o p h - tives de services ou de commercialisation enke producteurs devmient eke encourag6es. Une telle approche permet de cker un point d'accumulation central pour les produits r6colt&, les moyens de stockage plus faciles et agissent c o m e une unit6 commune de vente. - Dans plusieurs pays en Afrique au sud du saham, les infrastructures routiPres sont faibles, or I'6lasticiti: de I'oBe ppar w o r t A ce facteur est forte. Par cons6quent 1'8tat doit veiller A la construction des infrastructures r o u t i b . Conclusions et recommandations De nos investigations il ressori que des technologies apds 16colte ont 6 6 d6veloppkes ct wlgaris6es au Bhin c o m e au Togo mais ghhlement en dehors des s y s t k de Toutes les technologies ~Bl io r6&d6ve lopp~ n'ont pas kt6 identS6es et celles aui sont identiflees ne sont oas encore 6valu6es. La premih recommandation A I'EPHTA est de proc6der dans chaque pays et 'court terme A une analyse de la rentahiliti sociale et fmancihe des diffhntes technologies d6jA identGes, i t A moyen terme, fake un inventaire des technologies nouvelles dis- oonibles. L'analyse de I'utilisation des technologies de kansformationet des structures de stock- age et de conservation amrZliodes, a dv6lB que ce sont des innovations introduites dans 1;milieu sans la participation des gmupes cibles. Les struchtres qui out connu un d6but d'adoption au Togo et au Btnin ont connu la participation des paysans. Ladeuxihe recommandation A I'EPHTAest d'encouragerleschercheurspost-ricoltes A utiliser une approche participative lors de la mise en oeuvre de nouvelle technologies. Les nouveaux produits souffrent d'un manque d'un sys the de marketing efficace ce qui l i t e u t leur demande nationale et leur exportation. La kois ihe recommandation est d'encourager les institutions nationales de recherche A faire des 6tudes de marchds pour les nouveaux produits dkveloppts et A tenir compte des goats des consommateurs lors de la mise en ceuvre de ces pmduits. La quahihe recommandation est d'inciter les gouvemements des pays mernbres de I'EPHTA B accorder beaucoup d'importance aux iuhstructures muti6res et B prendre des dispositions favorisant I'exporlation de produits transfomts notamment les cossettes d'imame. - La cinqui6me recommandation B moyen terme est la c h t i o n d'un center regional de collecte, d'infonnation et de diffusion sur les nouvelles technologies post-r6coltes . . disponibles que les chercheurs et d6veloppeurs peuvent consulter. La sixi6me rewmmandation est de tenir compte du genre dans I'evduation de nouveUes technologies en vue d'eviter une plus gmnde paup6risation des femmes. Et entin il faudm encourager la recherche sur les technologies amelior.4es. Brim et al. 1997. DCveloppernent de la filiire dr la filiere cossctk d'ignams sn Afrique de I'Ouesr Proiet de nubtication oour le a44 des cahier de la WD. R6vision du 19/12/1997.12 oazes. . - ~ a n s o i K ~ossou a n d l ~ . ~ . ~ . Nestor. 1993. Stockage et wnservations des grains alimentaires tmpicaux principes et pratiques. Cotonou id. Du Flamboyant 125 p. FAO. 1994. Promotion des sysemes agricoles durables dam les pays d'Afrique Soudano-SahCli- e m . FAO, Rome - 304 p RS.B Fenis. (editor). 1995. Postharvest technology and commodity marketing: proceedings of a postharvest conference 2 November-l December 1995. Developpement of a hiyieldimg maize variety with good dry milling and storage properties in Bdnin Republic S. Gallac D. Crentsil, and R Bancmfr 1995. Developpement of a low-cost cassava mot stmr- age technology for the Ghanaian market Golti, F. and Wolff, C. 1998. Markets and structural studies division International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. Henckes, H.A., Fuseini, and K Nicol. 1995. Market oriented yam storage: a key to increasing the profit of yam production. Hounhouigan etAkisso6.1997. Les sysemestechniquesdetransiormationdes ignamesen cossettes et tests de solutions in Pmiet de valorisation de I'iename Dour les manh6surbains. Raooon iid - . =. CIRADIFSA-UNB I N ~ N R C R I . 1dowu.A and S.M. Osho. 1995.Areview ofexperiences with soybean food technology generalion and transfer. ETA. 1996. Improving postharvest systems project Archival report, llTA. Luh. C. 1994. The fonctioming of the maize market in B h h . Spacial and temporal arbitrage on market of staple foodcrops. Department of regional ewnomics. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Osho, S.M. and K DashieU. 1995. Expanding soybean production, processing, and utilization in Africa SLwanou, P. 1990. Analyse ewnomique des activies de transformationdes pmduits agricoles chez les femmes du plateau adja. Thhe d'ingCnieur agmnome FSA-UNB. ?aylor. 1974. Stmiuaire dgional sur les p e e post-hlte. Accra. Ghana Yaciuk, G. 1988. Mithodologie de I'enquete sur la technologic post-riwtte en milieu paysan Bambey, Senegal g a l S R A . 96 p. Yalhou, C.G. et aL 1995. Developpement of a high yielding maize variety with good dry milling and storage properties in Benin Republic. Policy and institutional incentives for smallholder farmer adoption of technologies for sustainable production Fondo Sikod University oiYaound6 I I PO Box 8302, Yaound6, Cameroon Tel: (237) 3 1 68 13 Abstraa This naner discusses the nolicies and institutional incentives that have affected smalihcider f m c r adoptibn oftechnologies in rhe EPHTAsubregion. Agriculture accounls for more than 20% ofGDPand70% ofemolovment in sub-SahYYIAfiica The agricdtural sector is divided into cash and ;odd crop sectors. Policies and institutions have targeted mostly the cash crop sector. Small-scale producers are mostly in the food crop sector. Productivity has wntinued to remain low because ofthe low levels of technologies being used bv these farmers. Although there is a lot oion-Shelftec&olo&, small-sde h e r s have not been adoptkg char technologies bemuse polici& and institutional frameworks wndnue not to be conducive to farmer situations. These policies include production, research, macro-ecommics, financing, etc. ~mallho& farmers have attempted to circumvent these wnstiaints thmu~h expanding areas under cultivation, leading toenvironmental degradation ~ith-~&geo&nmental awareness, smallholde~ farmers may be locked into a low level of production if policy aod institutional 6amewok do not provide incentives for &e adoption ofnew khnologies. Introduciion The agricultuml sector is the most important sector in the economies of sub-Saharan African countries, contributing 2530% to registered gross domestic product (GDP) and about 70% to employment (L.ipton 1976). The economic growth and development of these countries depend largely on the growth of the agricultuml sector. This dependence on agriculture is because of the current nature of land, capital, and labor endowments, and the level of development. This makes agricultural output the single most important determinant of overall economic mowth. It has been the maior source of canital for the . - rest of the economy in that sales of agricultural commodities are the prime source of foreign earnings used for the purchase of capital goods needed in other sectors of the economy. The agricultural sector is so large relativi to other sectors of the economy that incentives to agriculture affect the behavior of other sectors and, in turn, incentives to these other sectors affect the economic performance of agriculture. Yet, in sub-Saharan Africa, food output growth per capita has been declining. Although the cultivated land per capita varies across the continent, the average is only 0.3 ha. This small fanning area seems at odds with the usual perception of a vast, unlimited expanse of African land. It reflects the uneven distribution of the population, as well as the low level of technology and the unsuitability of wide areas for farming. The dependence on shifting cultivation makes the area needed for cropland many times larger than the average given above. When scarcity of good land is coupled with soil degradation and low levels of inputs and technology, the result is an increasing deficit in food production. The World Bank (1996) identified a number of factors that are largely responsible for the low productivity of African agriculture to include: . agricultural and economic policies and institutional frameworks that are non-conducive to increasing output neglect of agriculture by government misdocation of investments rapid population growth, which bas pushed cultivation into marginal and less produc- tive land inadequate technology to raise productivity deficient research output a shill in consumption that led to the importation of fond items that are too costly to grow locally the absence of phosphorus in the soils To increase the productivity of African agriculture will require considering the issues raised above. This should lead to farmer adoption of improved integrated soil, water, and nutrient management technologies. These technologies are essential to increasing productivity to meet food demands while adequately sustaining continuous cropping as fallow periods are shortened or eliminateddue to the increasing population pressure. Farm- ers also have to adopt a package (in varying degrees) of agricultural innovations-high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and mechanical land preparation innovations. To adopt these innovations, farmers need the incentive to produce at higher levels than the subsistence level. Farmer incentives depend on sociopolitical institutions. These sociopolitical institutions condition the potential opportunities facing the farmers. For example, policies that affect the financial markets, interest rates, lending restrictions, etc., will affect the agricultural commodity markets, and vice versa. Cheap food price policies of governments serve as a disincentive to the production of more food and to the adoption of new technologies. This paper discusses the policy and institutional incentives that affect smallholder adoption of technologies that will allow for sustainable production in the area covered by EPHTA. Policies for agriculture consist of government decisions that influence the level and stability of output and input prices, public investments affecting agricultural revenues and costs, and the allocation of research funds to improve farming and process- ing technologies. While some of these policies such as f&zer subsidies and tariffs on food imports are specifrc to agriculture, others such as fiscal and exchange rate policies affect all sectors of the economy. Other policies, which S e c t agricultural development, have to do with gaps in knowl- edge. At independence, many governments saw industribtion as the key to economic development, and resources and policies were consequently focused on the promotion of industry, and the agricultural sector or thought of primarily as a pool of resources for the development of the nonagriculhual sector, through capital and labor supply (Sikod 1985). Some 30 years later, these nations have realized the inappropriateness of such policies, as the agriculhual sector is no longer able to support the food needs of the nations and the supply of other resources. Chamctererislics of smallholder farming . Size of farms-small. As mentioned above, the average size of the farm of a small- holder is about 0.3 ha This small size has very serious implications for technology adoption. Land prepamtion. This is done mostly through burning, and use of the hand held hoe for tillage, because the level of technology use is low. Soil resilience. This is done mostly through fallow, even if, because of the population pressure, fallows are becoming shorter. Mulch is also used in some areas to restore soil fertility. Roductivity is low, because of the farmingpractices. Cropping system is mixed. In Cameroon for example, food crops are interspersed between cocoa and coifee trees. Even where there are no tree crops, beans, ground- nuts, and maize are often mixed in a single cropping season. Relay cmpping is often practiced also. The majority of smallholder farmers are without formal education, and continue to rely heavily on traditions and skills handed down to them by their parents (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994). The average age of the smallholder farmer is increasing, as the younger and more educated people migmte to the urban areas to seek other types of employment The system of production is relatively simple and depends on the interplay of the climate and the topography, together with the soil type and the availability of land, labor, tools and agrochemicals. The basic production unit is the family, and depending on their means, some families hire some labor. The productivity of a smallholder farmer may be considered in terms of its resource- deployment capacity and the level of output derived fiom the use of those resources. This pmductivity level is illustmted by comparing the rate at which input requirements are converted into outputs by the farmer. Thus, productivity is a measure of efficiency. The low productivity of smallholder farmers points to an inefficiency in the use of resources. This inefficiency has been atiibuted to the lack of appropriate or poor or no policies that give incentives to these farmers. This issue is discussed more fully below. Most subSaharan -can countries have a traditional food sector and an export or cash crop sector. The cash crop sector is concerned mostly with cash or export crops, while the traditional sector produces mostly food for local consumption. The traditional sector dominates, and is the sector with the smallholders. In Cameroon, for example, the traditional sector is responsible for over 90% of all agricuIW production. Productiv- ity under the traditional sector is very low because of the low use of modem technology (Ministry ofAgriculture 1995). Traditional farming methods rely on the clearing of vegetation using mainly machetes and iire. During the first season after clearing, even on poor soils, crop yields are high because of the nutrient-rich ash left by burning. Taller, deeper-rooting andlor less nuhi- ent-demanding crops are planted in subsequent years to cope with declining soil f d t y and increasing weed competition Some trees may be planted before the plot is left to fallow. Traditionally, land has been left to fallow for 10-25 years before being cleared again, depending on soil type and availability. This cycle has usually been long enough to permit the soil to recover sufficient fertility to pmduce acceptable farm yields in the next phase of the cycle. Currently, the fallow periods are being significantly decreased, with consequent soil degradation and decrease in productivity. The dominant farming system in the forest zone is based on permanent cultivation of cash crops-cocoa, coffee, oil palms, tea, etc., combined with shifting cultivation of food crops. The major cash crops, coffee and cocoa, are perennial and can be cultivated indefinitely with no signilkant soil degradation. Most food crops, on the other hand, are annuals. Because they are typically cultivated using little or no fertilizer or other inputs, they rapidly deplete natural soil ferlility hence the continual need for fertile virgin land Rotation will not damage the land in the long NU, provided that exhausted plots are aban- doned long enough to recover their fertility under a natural hush fallow. in Nigeria, C6te d'ivoire, and paris ofCameroon, the system of long rotations has been compromised in recent years by increasing demands for Ian4 leading to reduced fallow periods. Recent expansion of agriculture in the forest zone of central and eastern C6te d'ivoire r d a t s massive migration and land clearing for production of coffee and cocoa The technology has changed little. Although there are a few large, modem plantations, most farms remain small and continue to rely on tmditional, extensive, low-input, low- output production. Soil degradation has accelerated owing to the depletion of soil feriility under food crops and disease afRicting the major cash crops. The natural forest has been viaually eliminated outside the reserved areas, and is evidenced by the fallow land that exceeds the total cultivated surface by about 30%. Traditionally, extensive agriculture may have been sustainable at one time, hut it is clearly not suited to the current high density of farming. Moreover, in addition to degrad- ing soil fertility, agricultural expansion may have jeopardized productivity in other ways. There is some evidence that as agriculture expands and the natural forest area declines, l o d hydrological and climatic conditions may change, to the detriment of crop yields. The ability of farmers to adapt to suchchanges by plantingd~ought-resistant varieties may he severely limited. For example, the major cash crops coffee and coma require many years' tending before they bear fruit. in addition, these crops are heavily promoted in the forest zone by tied credit schemes, extension services, and crop marketing programs (Gbetnokom and Sunday 1998). Agriculture continues to he the sector that employs the largest number of people. %th the economies of the counties in this subregion suffering economic hardships, more and more people will continue to seek employment in the sector. Policies aimed at improv- ing productivity in the smallholder sector, and diversifying agriculture will improve the quality of life for most people. Policy and policy incentives The rational for policy intervention usually depends on the objectives that policymakers want to achieve. Thesemay include income distribution, price stahiliition, food security, and self reliance on locally produced food, revenue for the govemment, etc. Economists consider most of these objectives to he non-efficiency objectives. They are more of social policy objectives. E5ciency interventionswill lead toeither improvements in the optimum, or to higher levels of production. A government intenention to correct market failures is an e5ciency measure. if market imperfections are present, the prices of goods and ser- vices will not reflect their true scarcity values because the private sector may he unable to develop the institutions necessary for e5cient market functioning. This will have an impact on smallholder producers: there may be no incentive to encourage proper pmduc- tion. If higher income as well as greater self-sufficiency is desued, policymakers may make tradeoffs between objectives; they have to make some compromise. For example, governments could tax nonfood cmps and subsidize food cmps. Identification of appropriate tradeoffs between effciency and non-effciency objectives is wmplicated because governments hold many non-effciency objectives and impose many policies simultaneously. Commodity policies (taxes, subsidies, and quantitative controls on commodities), macmpricepolieies(wagerate, interest rate, land rental rate, and exchange rate), and macroeconomic policies (fiscal and m o n e w management) will exert simultaneous impacts on the commodity system, and send mixed signals to the farmers. The net impact of government policy can be assessed only through aggregation of these incentive effects. The expansion of a staple food production may be a stated objective for the agricultural sector, for example, but ifpmducers are taxed heavily on production, farmers may be some skeptical about the priority of policymakers for this objective. Production Policymakers usually express the wish for increased production, self-sufficiency, etc. These wishes are hardly ever accompanied by the appropriate policies. Camemon, for example, has enjoyed self-sufticiency, not as the result of an adequate food policy, but rather as the consequence of the dynamism of its Nml population, the diversity of its climate, and farmers' desire to beat the economic crisis. Although the land quality based on the agroclimatic conditions is favorable for the production of a great variety of crops, the agriculture is mostly rainfed, and so crop production is subject to the vagaries of cli- matic conditions. This has led to the expansion ofthe areacultivated Smallholder farmers dominate the production of both the traditional cash crops-coffee, cocoa, cotton, and the production of food crops. The indicator of the absence of appropriate policy is that farmers use outdated farming methods along with obsolete production technology. This contributes to the low level of harvests, when compared withinternational standards, forthe majorityof food cmps.~ver- age yield per hectare of cassava, one of the most widely cultivated tubers in the region, is less than half the achievable rate. This low average yield is an indication that much still needs to be done in terms of disseminating improved varieties for adoption The gener- ally low productivity is because there is currently not enough investment to bring out the commercialization potential of the crop. Because yields are generally low (or very low) the output of individual farms is consequently not much above subsistence needs. Even crops such as grains and pulses, which could be traded over long distances, are primar- ily grown for own-consumption. Considering these low levels of yields, the production potential is still very high, but exploiting it requires the intensification of farming. Y~elds have to increase to keep pace with the rapidly growing population. .. . . - .. . Production is either of cash (export) crops or food crops. Given the cash and subsistence sectors, different policies have targeted the different agricultural sectors. Policymakers have placed moremphasii on the cash crop sector, to &e detriment of the sub&fence or local consumption sector. This is understandable. Governments derive a lot of revenue from taxing export agriculture. Non-export crops have benefited from production policies indirectly in that some farmers who grow export crops also grow non-export crops. Even where these farmers do not grow the two types of crops, their spouses grow them. These farmers transfer policies targetedat the productionof export cmps to the foodaops. Some farmers transfer the incentives &om export crops to food crops because with the sale of food crops, there is instant cash income. Forth; cash cmp, they have to wait for sales to be made at the world market (Monke and Scott 1989). Macroeconomic policies Macroeconomic policies comprise fiscal and monetary policy, and policies that govern the economv-wide or macro mices. the exchange rate. the inter& iate. and the warre rate. .. - Macroeconomic policies have a major impact on the profitability of agricultural systems and the welfare of fanners. Until the Structural Adjusimegt@rogmm (SAP), governments typically extmcted a greater amount of tax revenue &om agriculture than they spent on agricultural subsidies or investments. This bias against agriculture in budgetary alloca- tions was then complemented with a pervasive tax on the farmers, levied, sometimes unintentionally, through the exchange iate by poor macmeconomic management As a result, attempts to provide positive incentives to agriculture with commodity policies can be overwhelmed by negating macroeconomic policies that transfer r e s o w away from agriculture and the rural economy (Livingstone et al. 1987). Macroeconomic policy has its most direct influence onagriculturalprofitahilitythmugh decisions to collect and spend government budgetary resources. Budgetary policy deals with the allocation of total revenue. Budgetary decisions constram the levels of govern- ment resources available for agricultural development production, marketing, research, extension, etc. Other categories of expenditure military and defense, education, health, and social welfare, etc. account for much larger shares of the budget These budgetary allocations are indicators of polieymakers' priorities among the competing sectors. Some of the spec& policy m w e s are: i) T m African farmers have faced the world's heaviest ratesofagricultural taxation (World Bank 1994). This has been partly becauseagriculture has beensuch amcial source of revenue for African governments. Farmers have been taxed explicitly through producer-price fixig, export taxes, and taxes on agricultural inputs. Most countries have depended on high export taxes tocover public investments that quite often are selected on nonconomic bases. A study of some 18 countries worldwide showed that Ccite d'lvoire, Ghana, and Zambia taxed their farmers 70% more than the average for developing countries (SchiB and Valdes 1992). The high rates of taxation have contributed to the decline in the average rate of agricultural growth and the decrease in farmer incomes. By depressing farm incomes, the historical pattern of heavy taxation on agriculture has had negative enviromental impacts. It discouraged investments and laekedproducers in Wtional low-input low-output, extensive farming. It also forced rural populations to exploit any available open resources (e.g., forests) to supplement farm income. Heavy taxation may also have persuaded some of the rural population to leave for the city. This migrating popu- lation is usually the young and educated. Better prices to producers would have encouraged adequate care ofplantations and new plantings, and tree stock would not be in the degraded condition in which it is today. Reducing the taxation of farmers has been a top priority in agricultural reform, which bas been high on the adjustment agenda because of its importance in the GDP, exports, and employment. ii) Subsidies. This is payment from the government treasury. The purpose of a subsidy is to separate domestic prices that differ from world prices. While subsidies on fertilizers, agricultural extension services, and other incentives encouraged export agriculture, food crop agriculture had no such luck. Concurrent with the subsidies was the heavy taxation of the sector through low producer prices fuced by amonop sony public marketing board in many countries in the regioe While the governments derived revenue from this taxation, the marketing boards were supposed to use the revenue to provide a stabilizationmechanism tothe farmers. Price stability under the state marketing system may have had some positive incentive effects by mitigating producer price volatility risk, even though domestic prices were consistently below world market prices. The use of farm inputs such as fertilizer is extremely low in sub-Saharan Africa-9 kg of plant nutrients per ha in 1990 (World Bank 1994). This is substantially lower than the 69 kg used in South Asia and 262 kg in China This is not necessaiily due to the paucity of irrigated land in sub-Saharan Africa; India uses three times more fertilizer on minfed land In Cameroon, fertilizer use per ha on permanently cultivated land is even lower. It was at the level of 4.1 kg/ha before the removal of subsidies. With the removal of subsidies foUowing SAP, this use has reduced considerably. The important deterrents to fertilizer use have been identified to be supply shortages and inefiicient distribution systems, outcomes of excessive government intervention. The lack of education, the size of farms, etc., make it difficult for smallholder farmers to invest in farm inputs such as fei i ihrs. The quantity of fertilizer needed by most of the smallholder farmers is so small that many of them Find it difficult to iind the input in retail quantities of maybe a couple of kg. Before the removal of subsidies and the privatization of the fertilizer subsector, the cooperatives inCameroon, under the auspices of the marketing board, distributed fertilizer to farmers in a tied credit system. Under the privatized system, private suppliers have had to import fertilizer, since it is not produced locally. Con- ditions of sale have also changed, and sales are now on cash basis only. Given the level of sales and the u n c e h t y of the smallholder farmers, the use of fertilizers has dropped drastically. This drop means that smallholder farmers without enough land for fallow may lose soil fertility because of the intensity of cultivating the same parcel of land iii) Exehange ratepolicies. Many of the EPHTA countries (all the hcophone coun- tries) belong to the CFA h c zone, where the currency is pegged to the French h c . Exchange rate issues arise because it is linked to domestic production costs and the competitiveness of the economy. Because of the high costs of domestic production, especially in the non-tradable sector (public sector, construction, etc.) many economies becameovervalued, leading countries toaccumulate large deficits. In the late 1980s, the two largest CFA economies, Cameroon, and C6te telvoire, accumulated huge deficits in the opemlional accounts with the French treasury. It is estimated that Fmnce spent 20 billion French Fmncs to support the CFA Fmnc parity (Amin 1996). This action was taken because of theovervaluation ofthe CFA, and also because the countries in the CFA zone tended to have passive exchange rate policies. Overvaluation contributes to the distortion of domestic incentive structures. In 1993, Cameroon carried out two salary cuts in the public sector in an attempt to reduce its heal imbalance. In January 1994, the parity of the CFA fmnc to the French h c was changed i?om 50 FCFA : IFF, to 100 FCFA: IFF. How did this affect the smallholder farmer? Some export farmers were able to increase their exports: their competitive positions improved Prices of imported inputs such as fertilizers inereased. This had a dampening effect on the profit position of these farmers. Another depressing piece of news for the farmers was the severe drop in the world prices of cocoa and coffee, the main export crops of many countries. In Cameroon, the impact of the salary cuts anddevaluation on public servants was that many huneb. to farming, mostly food crops, to supplement their incomes. Although this group is educated, and should be able to apply modem farming technologies, the limited funds available to them means more extensive farming. This does not augur well with sustainable production. Many such farmers in Cameroon were able to buy or rent chainsaws, an enemy to the forest, for cleating. Thke are other policy instruments such as quotas and tariffs that could be used to intluence agri- culture, but these have hardly been used, except in controlling imports. Countries importing cocoa, coffee, cotton, etc. fiom EPHTA countries have, fiom 'time to time, imposed quotas. All the EPHTA countries belong to the ACP countries, and enjoy certain rights as far as their exports to European Community (EC) countries are concerned. These rights l i t the quantity of exports to the EC countries. This is a situation where even if the quotas are through negotiations, ACP countries are takeis. Their influence of the policy is limited. Theoretically, the smallholder is constrained by the export quota imposed by the importing countries. Policies have targeted mostly the export crops. Marketing One ofthe ways to help farmers minimize price risks due to supplytdemand fluctuations is to develm a market information svstem which informs farmers of the demand and mica of various commodities. In Cameroon, the local radio stations often announce the prices of various commodities as obtained in the local markets. Although this is not systematic and regular, and does not represent o5cial policy, it serves a very useful purpose in informing farmers of those areas of need, and the prices their produce can fetch in the local markets. What is not known is whether the farmers listen to the programs. In Cameroon, the food crop marketing sector has always been left to the private sector. Food reaches the urban consumer through a complex operating network ofmostly private small traders. The people in urban areas are fed through the efforts of thousands ofmostly individual women farmers who have succeeded in growing, processing, and marketing more and more food without the assistance of public services. Because of the bottlenecks in this process, postharvest loss is quite high. This usu- ally has an impact on the smallholder producer. Production is usually reduced mostly to subsistence level, in cases where evacuation facilities are not available. Marketing is more developed and well organized in the export crop sector. After independence, many countries created marketing boards to handle the marketing of cash or export crops. Later, some boards also handled food crops. These boards had to ensure the stability of farmer or producer prices, supply inputs at a subsidized rate to the cash crop farmers, and also provide some extension services. The boards later became a major source of revenue for the government. Most studies show that the marketing boards paid the farmers sometimes less than half the world market prices for the commodities they produced (Fig. 1). From 1986, theproducerpricesrosesteadily andapproached 100% because thepolicy had been .(qa 'qacq 'sne)s laqm 'smoor plo3 'a8wols) nog~my 8uyaqm aqjo uogwado lempdol~adq sag!pmg p~q Xra~ aAq qaqraajo sad& snop~ aql qaqm +-nado u? ?no pay &som 9 sagvomrm pooj jo 8-ax .sapptmqm 8uome pqq q sapmairjo dmsamo .$sapom Xla~gqa s! wqjo q3eajo awjo amnIoA aq pm nommm lea s! sapptmqm jo sassep snopn. aq Znome tmpordjo aaaxl Xq nogmmds pooj p~aqmjo %s6 neql aom sapueq -m mapom aq pm 'nogepdod pol qe~ud aqjo Xpnmq.~d dn apem mas& 8uyaqm pogpw aq i8agaqrem do13 pooj m sma~sXs ow pawnap! nooIaUiB3.m ~wsegtq 8qaqmu aqjo Xpws inaxuvtramrma inapga ire m nognqgsp poojjo qsel iwodtq aq ~I~FJ 4 pqm%o naaq IOU q mash nogwodsoeq pm Zqaqm pooj au 'sayrmcn amos iq 1oqnrm 1naamra~08air!suqxaa parqns aram~q sdoupooj aldws 30 Bqapmi agpapnpq q nogqaqg qq~ 'nog-o~n!jo no!?~md aq q Xpsom pa!% alor aq pm pqe~ud naaq q pnoq 8qaqiem am 30 hwg3e ?¶ 'as W~M .saw am mag mnpoldjo nog3ano3 a¶ 2tqueZio roj alq!suo&r s! ~q preoq 2qaqm aq s! I! %ago q~b 'qmrord raqo roj pmy sg dn pasn peq inaamra~o8 asmmq spreoq Bqaqiem aq mog pJ3adxa Kaqja!jar aq la8 IOU pprm saw 'so861 mi aq m na3 mud naqm 'Xlamnpopn .smud Iaqrmn pliom aq m suogmang30 saq no wga aq asea 03 pmy nogqqqs e m ldaq aq 01 pasoddns sem annai\a aqjo 3s-x aqL .mud plrorn aAoq mud rmnpord r(ed lon pprm preoq 8uyaqm aq asneaaq m.4 8q -monoj aq paddarp s-d asam .sasud laqm p~rom aq paq~emdde mm 103 smud m~-~pord aq '0661 q 'smud p110m agjo a~g3adsaq 'X~rme sa~ud asaq aseaum 01 Exchange of food products between regions is fairly limited because of lack of access roads. There is also a limited flow of urban to ma1 food products. Competition is limited due to poor dissemination of information and lack of coordination between suppliers, marketing agents, and consumers. Gross margin is fairly high. In most cases, tmnsporta- tion accounts for more than 50% of the moss marein. Transuottation of commodities - - and the role of intermediaries are shown to be the major handicaps of food marketing. The net margins suggest that the marketing of food commodities could be profitable if participants could be organized according to their responsibilities at the various stages of processing and marketing. The role of women In both production and marketing, women play a major role, but there are bardly any policies that target women. Until recently, Cameroon bad managed to increase its food production tomeet only pait of the demand of a growing population and rapidly expanding urban centers. Most of this extra food bas been produced on small farms by women farm- ers, using the simplest type of technology, and &rely benefiting from external agricultural advice, or &om improved seeds, fertilizer, or credit. Women are also responsible for the marketing of over 60% of the food crops produced (Sikod 1990). Most of these women usually combine agricultural activities with child care and household work. Because of this division of labor in farm-families, men usually have more leisure time and access to obtain information on technological innovations or credit availability. They also bave easier access to loan collateral because thev own land. or tree moo olantations. and have higher incomes. In contrast, women are overworked, bave limited or no information about the formal sector wbere they may bave some credit facilities, and do not bave significant possessions or comectio& to offer as collateral. Their level of education is low, their level of organization low, and their incomes quite smaU for the formal sector to handle. It is also true that these characteristics are cbaneinz as more women zet educated - - - and are returning to farming, but this group of women is still too small to make an impact. As aresult of these intra-household economic relationships, women farmers are restricted to low productiviiy technologies and means of hancing. These constmints make women wary of rrying new technologies that may seem profitable, but bave not been proven. A summary of the constraints that limit women's access to improved farm facilities include: Access to resources and work opportunities i) Land. Due to institutional obstacles and cultural stereotypical perceptions, women rarelv own land The familv land women cultivate is usuallv in the name of the husband. This discriminatory practice is evidenced by the practice whereby female children do not inherit land ii) Finance. The banking system bas rigid procedures that are inappropriate for women who must come up with the necessary collateral that is not available to them. Credit is ftagmented through diverse projects with limited impacts. Women are usually relegated to the informal financial market, wbere because of the limited savings, the amounts available for loans are quite small. This iduences the size and technology women can use. Capaciw (inabiiiw) of rural women to use resources i) Extension does not consider the needs of women. ii) There is insufiicient education and information among women. iii) The austerity of SAP did not consider women. iv) Governments have made relatively little effort to contain the demands of women. Given that women constitute more than 60% of the small-scale food producers and marketers, policies directed at alleviating women's labor and credit constmints are likely to be very cost-effective approaches to meet national food needs. In Cameroon, there is a Ministry of Women'sMairs, with the responsibiity to improve the conditionofwomen. A major obstacle this ministry has found is how to convince men to recognize the important role women play in the economy and in food production and marketing in particular. Institutions and institutional incentives The institutional hnework in many countries of the EPHTA region is the product of a political structure which is mostly centralist, hierarchical, and geared to the collection and distribution of rents. It is essentially multifarious, fmgmented, inefficient, and quite often, uncoordinated and functionally and relatively distorted (Penn and Sikod 1994). In countries such as Cameroon, there are parallel structures in the Presidency and the Prime Minister's Office, and the technical ministry. This leads to duplication, waste of time and manpower, which is costly for countries with very limited resources. There are also many ministries whose mandates impinge to a greater or lesser extent on the agricultural sector, such as Labor, Transport, Health, Commerce, Environment and Forestry, Security, etc. Alackof intds ter ia l coordinationaffects the agricultural sector. Sometimes. there is no coordination between the different administrative branches within the sameministry. This poor institutional setting contributes to the poorperformance ofthe agricultural sector, which is reflected in the continued low productivity of thesmallholders. In k t , this institutional setting is reflected in the poor functioning of the economy. Government intervention in the agricultural sector has been quiteextensive (incamer- oon, between 20 and 32% ofprojected investments between 1961 and 1981 were devoted to agriculture). This is because this sector was perceived as the sector to serve as the springboard for economic development Unfortunately, policy planning efforts have had little impact on the performance ofthe sector. This is because the emphasii has been largely on the export of cash crops, to the detriment of food crops. In Cameroon, for example, agriculture has always playedacentral role in development objectives, but the strategy for developing it has variedconsiderably over the years. Three phases have been identified; in the fustphasecovering the immediate post independence years, 1960-1968, the traditional sector received considerable attention, but through an extension service which followed the diffmion/modemization model. The imoact on farm ~roductivitv was notablv disau- . . pointing. Thenext phase saw massive state intervention in the form of an expansion in the plantation sector, rural resettlement, specialized crop development through bodies as the Rice Development Authority (SEMRY), the cocoa &owin&d ~eveloiment ~uthority (SODECAO), etc., and integrated rural development projects. These were all created and managed by the state. The emphasis was thus on the modem rather than the traditional sector as the major force for development. This approach, too, was clearly unsuccessll due to inefficiency and high costs among the pamstatals thus created The third phase began in 1977, when oil productiondiminished the importance of agri- culture as a source ofrevenue, and taxation ofexport crops, which hadbecome increasingly severe, was eased. However, the oil revenue also easedthepressure to reform the pamstatals and vigorously pursue efficiency in agricultural production, pricing, and marketing. Now the agiieulhmd sector is operating under a liberalizing system, following the implementation of SAP. Institutional participation in food marketing The efficiency of the marketing system is critical to the producers and everybody along the marketing chain. The signal producers receive from consumers to produce a particular commodity comes down through the marketing chain. Before the structural adjustment that led to the liberalization of the marketing especially of exportlcash crops, marketing boards were the main institutions responsible for marketing these commodities. in some countries, the marketing board was also responsible for the marketing of crops produced mostly for local consumption. in C6te d'ivoire and Cameroon, for example, cocoa and coffee were marketed through the government marketing boards Caisse de Stabiiition des Prix des Produits Agricoles, (CAISTAB), and the National Produce Marketing Board WMB). At the beginning of the coffee and cocoa seasons, a Presidential or Ministerial order announced the producer prices. The marketing boards paid farmers these prices, which were usually about 40 to 60% of the prices at the world market. The difference between world and producer prices, net of marketing costs, was the marketing board surplus or the revenue from cocoa and coffee exports. This surplus was supposed to be kept in a stabilization fund to shield h e r s from price swings in the world market. Unfortunately, this surplus became an important source of government revenue. By the late 1980s, world prices had dropped below producer prices and the marketing board surplus had become a deficit. This situation arose because of government policy not to let producer prices fluctuate with world prices. As part of the SAP measures, the marketing board activities were liberalized, and producer prices aligned to world market prices. in Cameroon, the marketing board was not eliminated; rather its activities were reduced to providing market information to farmers, and participating in the sale of cocoa Some competition was introduced: interested persons were allowed to buy and sell these crops, but under license from the government. Some countries such as Nigeriacompletely closed down their marketing boards. Although initially this alignment causedunceitainty among farmers because of fluctuating prices, they have adjusted to the new system and cocoa and coffee production has actually increased in C6te d'ivoire. in the food crop sector, few public institutions are directly engaged in marketing. in 1973 the government in Cameroon created the FoodDevelopment Authority (MIDEVIV) to conduct studies relevant to the food sector, increase production, improve extension services, market food crops, and create food crop belts around urban centers. This was an attempt to respond to food shoitages in the urban centers. MIDEW was not able to attain its major objective. Besides the problemof transportation, MIDEVNwas couhnted with tough competition with the private sector, poor quality of products purchased, and poor management. Unlike export products, the marketing of foodsMs is now left entirely to the private sector. At the national level, the institutional structure is very complex among the Minis- tries ofAgriculture, Livestock and Animal Industries, Commerce and industries, Planning, Territorial Management, and Health. These ministries should normally have some influ- ence on the marketing and hausportationof foodpmducts, pricing, handling, weights and measures, grades and standards, and food flows. At the same time, agricultural research institutions, cooperatives and development cooperations, some of which are involved in food crop production and marketing, are basically autonomous entities. Consequently, the lack of adeauate coordination among these institutions and o~anizations has made it - - difficult to implement decisions and render marketing services in a coherent manner. This confusion is far tiom being an incentive to the smallholder producer. What the confusion does is increase hamaction costs as private wholesalers i d transporters have to make incentive payments along the way before the produce gets to the consumer. Tenure systems Tenure systems are very important to the way smallholders treat the land on which they work The story of tenure policies is similar in most countries. It is based on the imposi- tion of the colonial system on the traditional system. Unfortunately, due to weak central governments and sometimes the lack of the will to implement, countries are making do with makeshift tenure systems. The examples of Cameroon and C6te d9Ivoire described below, support this point of view. Cameroon has enacted three laws that bave nationalized all landand allnatural resources on it. The 1974 and 1976 Land Tenure Laws effectively abolished traditional land tenlire systems. The formal procedures for obtaining official title to national land set out in these laws are so tortuous, lengthy, and expensive that few can afford it. In the 24 years that have elapsed since enactment of the laws only 2.3% of rural lands have been registered to private title, and mostly by civil sewants. Furthermore, in order to obtain title, land must be "mise en valeur," meaning that there can be no title to an intact piece of land; the land must be tramformed into some agricultural or other use before title is granted. The result is that traditional systems of land tenure still flourish, but are not legally enforceable. Similarly, the 1994 Forest Law nationalized all natural resources, including all plants and trees. Vilagers have usuiiuct rights (collection of speciiied non-timber forest products, trapping, and some limited use of timber) but the ownership of the principal resources, the timber and wildlife belongs to the state and can only be harvested with permission through the issue of concessions, licenses, or special permits. This alienation of land and resources is a source of considerable insecurity and is not conducive to sustained man- agement of resources. Although well-dehed property rights may be a necessary but not sufficient condition to guarantee sustainable management, insecure tenure often leads to the mustainable use of land. In C6te d'Ivoire, excessive logging and land clearing for agriculture is attributed in part to the failure of rural land tenure. The problem derives from a gradual breakdown and growing inadequacy of indigenous common property management systems that bave been aggravated by the failure of government to develop effective land tenure institutions either to complement or to replace traditional systems. Indigenous land tenure systems in C6te d'lvoire vary according to culture and cir- cumstances in different regions. Nevertheless. most traditions share certain fundamental ~ ~~ ~ - , features. At the risk of oversimplification, indigenous systems of land management in West Africa are based on the collective territorial claims of a family or clan. These claims are justified in terms of initial occupation and land clearing or outright conquest. Under traditional management, the chief and elders of the d i n g family or clan hold all land in trust. Members of the family as well as any others must apply to the chief or elders for 137 usufruct rights (i.e., the right to clear unoccupied land for cultivation, according to their needs and the availability of reserves). In principle, user rights are valid only so long as land is under cultivation, but allowance may be made for occasional fallow. User rights are also transferable, but only within the family or clan. Indigenous systems ofcommon property management were adequate when population densities were relatively low and most exploitation was carried out to meet subsistence needs. Traditional land tenure systems have not adapted well to the pressures ofrapid population gowth, heavy immigration, and high population mobility, and the resulting increaseddemandfor arable land. They have also failed to deal effectively with the advent of commercial land use. The o5cial ~ovemment stance vis-i-vis indizenous land tenure svstem has alternated .+ - between direct contradiction and benign neglect. With independence and the promulgation of the constitution, government r e a h e d the system of land tenure law inherited £rom the colonial power. This law basically declared all unoccupied land to be state land, to the detriment of the indigenous land system. Subsequent attempts to codify a comprehensive rural land law for CBte d'ivoire have been largely ineffective. The government is unable to reconcile indigenous land tenure custom with the legal framework and pattern of land ownership left over from the colonial period. In particular, there remains a hdamentaI conflict between indigenous customs, which hold that land ownership (as opposed to usufruct) is inalienable, and the emphasis on private freehold maintained by European legal traditions. Theunfortunate result of such prolonged ambiguity andinconsistency in Nal land law is that secure tenure over land remains elusive. Many farmers resort to wholesale clearing of forest land simply to stake a claim and gain recognition from civil authorities. At the other extreme, migrant farmers cultivating small plots are particularly disad- vantaged under the current system. With little social or political influence and even less economic clout, they have few means of acquiring secure formal title to land Access to land under indigenous systems may also be &cult to obtain, given the reluctance of traditional chiefs to allow land to pass permanently outside the clan. Migrant farmers are thus often reduced to itinerant tenant farming or wage labor on plantations. In both cases, they risk arbitrary eviction at a moment's notice. Under such circumstances, they can hardly be expected to concern themselves with land husbandry and conservation. The lack of secure tenure systems is based on the weakness of the central political system. The smallholders are invariably among those with no political clout, and so tend to face eviction quite often. This makes it difficult for some of them to have long-term development plans about any land they may be occupying. Even under the indigenous system, theie is usually so much iiagmentation of the land that the parcels of land some- times become too small for proper husbandry. Until colonial times, customary law regulated the use of land and natural resources. Colonisers, especially the French and the British, introduced tenure policies to favor their interests. Most of the elements of these tenure policies, especially with regard to land ownership have survived virtually intact iqto the present government statutes. Financing One of the major reasons why productivity among smallholder farmers remains low is because of the lack of financing. The lackoffinancing does significantly limit the ability of these farmers to adopt improvedtechnologieseven when fixed casts arenot large. Even in cases where these technologies are seemingly profitable, some smallholder farmessare still not able to adopt them because of the inability to finance the adoption (Lopez 1998). Institutional financing to the agricultural sector has varied among countries, not only because ofdifferences in resource availability, but also because of the different objectives D U I S U ~ ~ bv countries. Countries such as Cameroon and CBte d'lvoire hadambitious nlans of rapidly transforming the agricultural sector from a subsistence system into a modem one. In the early 1970s, these countries created special banks to offer credit to farming and rural development In Cameroon it was the National Fund for Rural ~ e v e l o ~ m e ~ (FONADER), while in CBte d'lvoire it was the Banque National de D6veloppement Agricole (BNDA). Countries in this region produce basically the same suite of crops. In the mid 1980s, due to overproduction and a weak demand, world market prices for cocoa and coffee fell and these countries that relied heavily onrevenue from these crops suffered from liquidity pmblems. This, coupled with other structural problems in the economies, led to a severe economic crisis. This was followed by structural adjustments, which led to the liquidation of most state banks. includinz the develooment banks set UD to cater to the interest of the farmers and the r&l populagons. In ~ A e r o o n , the liqui&tion of FONADER led to the creation ofanotherfarmess'bank, C f i t Agriwle. This bank was short-lived. Today there is no bank catering to the interest of the farmers (Munkner 1987). Even if the banking sector did not collapse, the smallholder farmer cultivating food crops could not benefit because of the size of his operations, and the lack of collateral. Women and ~ ~ a l uneducated farmers dominate this sector. The conditions for obtaining loans were usually too difficult for smallholder farmers to fulfil. This sector has relied more on informal financing. What then are the sources of financinz available to the smallholder farmers? The rural - haute system can be very complex, involving a multiplicity of institutions, informal p u p s , and private individuals. Some ofthese institutions areonly incidentally involvedin s f i n a n f f i but, nevertheless, play an important role. One way to categori&the different entities involved would be to distinguish between the formal and informal sectors. Beside the banks, financing was also done through pamstatals created specifically for rural development. Some pamstatals with funding components in Cameroon include: SODECOTON (Soci6t6 de D6veloppement du Coton du Cameroun), established in 1974 to replace the French Textile Development Cooperation (CFDT). The objectives of SODECOTON are: . the promotion of cotton production through technical assistance and the supply of inputs and credit in the cotton growing areas of North Cameroon the purchase and processing of raw cotton from smallholders, and the domesticand export marketing of cotton fiber and other products including oil extraction the promotion of traditional food crops, mainly sorghum, millet, maize, rice and groundnuts through extension, input supply, and credit\ SEMRY (Soci6t6 d'wansion et de Modemisation de la Riziculture de Yagoua). The government, the Marketing Board, and the Cameroon Development Bank own SEMRY. SEMRY promotes thecultivationofrice in irrigated areas ofthe Sudauo-Sahelian zone of Cameroon. SEMRYpromotes the cultivation of rice through credit arrangements to smail-scale farmers to take care of inputs, cultivation, irrigation, and transportation services. Farmers get the credit at especially low interest rates. Chameling agricultural credit through these development organizations has usually functioned fairly well, although credit extension is usually limited to their zone of i d u - ence. These too have built up an effective extension service. Together with their tight control over the marketing of crops, which allows them to deduct credit repayments from the farmers' sales revenues, extension and credit operations function fairly well within these areas. Cooperatives: Cooperatives play an important role in channeling formal funds to farmers. Unfortunately, cooperatives are confined mostly to cocoa- and coffee-growing areas. As locally-based institutions, cooperatives are, in principle, suitable institutions to reach the small-scale farmer. Cooperatives used to receive funds from either FONADER or other formal sources (the government, foreign donors, etc.). These funds are given as loans to farmers for: - fertilizers: the cooperatives sell fertilizers to fanners both on cash and on credit basis. Usually they add 1612% as interest to the value of the fertilizer sold on credit, regardless of the period of the loan, which is generally less than one year. - sprayers: these are used mainly for the treatment of the tree crops against pests. Farmers buy sprayers at a subsidized rate. - advances: these are shos term loans disbursed to farmers by the cooperatives. The loans are interest-free. These loans are very important to fanners because of the need for cash to meet children's educational and other family needs. Development organizations as credit channels Agricultural and m a l development organizations and projects also serve to iduence production by smallholder farmers. International donors and the country's government usually jointly fund these nual development organizations. Some of those in Cameroon include: - ZAPI de 1'Est (SociGt.5 regionale des Zones #Actions Prioritaires Int6grkes de YEst), was created as an integrated nual development authority in the 1960s. It had to carry out extension activities, idtastmchre development, health services, food crop mar- keting, and the marketing of expos crops, specifically, cocoa - MIDENO (Northwest Develo~ment Authoritv) was founded in 1981 to coordinate ., existing public services within the h e w o r k of an integrated rural development progmm. MIDENO collaborates with the Northwest Cooperative Association, the Ministry of Agriculture, and FONADER. These development organizations provide low interest loans to small-scale farmers, depending on the need While all of these development organizations were created in good faith, the functioning of the organizations has not been smooth. The fundamental problem has been that of manpower management. At independence, many countries did not have enough qualied manpower, and so civil servants were appointed to manage these private sector setups. Politicians also used appoiniments to manage these organizations for political ends. The end lesult has been poor management that has led to the liquidation of some of the organizations. q~eo~dde pa naamer~) aq nar.3 'samlnaA asaql isom naaq aAzq noged~3yed pue smmosas ronoa 'laAa1 aBenp aq q mop sagipej ips3 8pq pue 'qnamaqnbas aqumn2 mar 'sampa3ord ips3 Xjndqs q sy saq3eardde asaqjo a~g3acqo ax 'qa 'sa~g?zadom pue suogeposse ip3p8upes 'samaq3s s8upes dn& pogw Bm~arde 'adoqe panoyam asoqljo amos se mm901d @pads @nq naaq ar.q asau .ssa33ns pqpg q!miamanzq Kaq~ naAa "sramrq raploqpus Kqip13 01 ssam apadmriq srol q aq mnp 10 q eqvnerm@s-qns m apemnaaq qlroga aIqerap!=o3 'aIqFaB qmb are iuadzdarjo ma8 aq pue 'Ida2 aq ion Kern sprvm uwo aqnb pue 'Kpqrar. paw1pno3 am suogmmq papmap ? paienm ON .sue01 Sqa8 jo suogpnm aql jo amemq 8mnl3nrmgjo amos sg no Klas sramsej apss-~s .qaqmup.mmu~ puuoju! ay.l .sqneq a¶ sem VDsOX ap!qno m0l 03 SSm pgS gnapnodsas JO %61 Kpo se suoseas naql qddns E .sqneq m mapgnm on pq Lam pa 'sqneq mog=sw ino b ol aq qmm oq qoq 1~ 'Kanom qEinona aAeq ion p~ Kaq 'alsseq qmm ooi sem araq img aram gunom pq Bugaado ion soj suosear ram0 'nog3my sqneq moqjo aBpa[moq on pq Kaq pgs slnapuodsar aqjo %og Klrean 'gunom pq aierado ion op Kaq Kqm pap naqM '8wouoq pue Byes 103 nooram3 iLIqnoS m Qmmmm Bnlmre~ @mr e jo samarajard aql smoqs arr%ld 'VDSOX Kue qm dqsraqmam roj equs mnamepmy e ?-.3ia %pnaq 'no!ssajord ams 'pqg '3yqta-,Q?anaBomo~ 'raqloue 4 .bun03 ano mog sapn, mqsKs sm jo ioamdo1a~ap jo dap aqL 'spaan sago osp inq 'spaan @rmp$@k Kpo ion laam q s8upes dnoS aq mog morroq Kau 'asyrmaqo lo noqqor m rqnqgnm q3ea q md m ro aloqm ria@ sy qagm pmy e q suognqqnm aqem q &E Kaq'? ieq 'vpn se sraqmam raqop =*as aq ie &m~es naql md 4 sraqmam saow q3gm iaqm @!3nrmg pasop @mrojo! ue aAzq 4 pue sraqmam Boom hppgos alomord q sy FOB asoqm dnoS mouaBomoq e jo noyeposse pnuo~n! ue g sw wamq aq Kq ~pam pue sBm~es Bugqo~jo majsKs B?%m3nrmg dlaq-jfas e s! 'sraurny raploqlmns aq jo waraim aq 03 som sraje:, ieq nognigsm ~epueng aql s! sg~ of Bangladesh has been explored. Although the process seems slow and tedious, it does appear that targeting NGOs and women groups would yield faster results. Research and extension As with output, grow& in yield and labor productivity has been very slow compared with population growth. Agricultural (labor) productivity has not changed much because the area cultivated per labor hour is small. Since a substantial prop-n of the labor resources is in food production, it is necessary to raise the productivity of this resource. Labor productivity is a function of the underlying technology. Given the present situation ofthe countries, to change the production function so that the output will increase requires the adoption of improved technologies (machinery, irrigation, fertilizer, and high yielding (HYV) seeds), as weU as improving the quality of labor. - . . Researchers have so far encouraged mostly methods that have aimed at increasing the productivity of the land (fertilizer and seed packages). This has been a necessary, but not a sufscient condition for improving the productivity of smallholder farmers. To develop adoptable technologies for small-scale farmers, it is necessary to understand farmer conditions and oriorities. Often. government oolicies occur at hieher svstems' levels but , - - . analysis is done mostly at the farm level. These analyses tend to show that farmers have problems adopting technologies becauseofthe lack of complementarities and also because the technolo&s may not be profitable (Besong and ~akia 1997). Policymakers usually rely on the various national and international research institutes for research into particular crops. This reliance allows not only for the transfer of technol- ogy, but makes available to farmers various on-shelftechnologies. On-shelftechnologies for improving soil, water, and nutrient management are however, hardly integrated. More importantly, they may not as yet have experiencedwidespread adoption. Farmers may also have problems adopting these technologies which may be seemingly profitable, not only because of the lack of complementarities, but also because of their limited knowledge of the existence of such technologies. At the level of the smalkolder producer, research is more likely to be profitable if developed by the public sector than by the farmers. Smallholder scale of operations is so small that it may not be profitable to develop the technologies themselves. Successful technolokes have. however. been those done in collaboration with the farmers. in Cam- - eroon, the rate of technology adoption has remained relatively low because of the pom or quite often nonexistent relationship between research and the diffusion mechanism of the research. Farmers are risk-averse, &d are reluctant to adopt technologies whose outcome they do not know. And yet, these technologies are essential to increasing productivity to meet food demands while adequately sustaining continuous cropping as fallow periods are shortened or eliminated due to an increase in the population ptessure. Labor productivity can be improved by mechanization. The rate of mechanization is unfortunately generally low, even among cash crop farmers. Consequently, farming relies heavily on hand labor. The 1984 agricultural census in Cameroon showed that 85% of the farms use only hand labor, 12% use cattle to cultivate the land, 2% use tractors, and 1% use donkeys/animals. The total dependence on hand iabm decreases as farm size increases but even on the larger Eums (> 1 hectare of cultivated area) over 60% of the farmers depend on hand power only. This is worse than in Cdte d'lvoire, where tractoruse is over fivetimes that of Cameroon, indicatingabettetmechanizationpolicy (FA0 1996). Even here, tractor use is only about one-third of the world average. The use of non-hand labor decreases as one considers other countries in the region. However, countries in the Sahelian zone use more animal power than countries in the forest zone. The majority of small-scale farmers do not have the financial means to buy expensive machinery and equipment In addition, large agricultural machines are ill adapted for use onsmall farms. Considering the prepondemnce of small farm holdings, only 1050 tractors were in use on farms in Cameroon in 1992. Compared with the 1970 level, this represents a seven-fold increase in tractor use. The degree to which these countries use non-human power can be said to indicate the degree to which government policy encourages their use. Tractor use and implements such as winches are used more in the cultivation of cash cmps than foodcrops. This stems from policy bias, which favors cash crop production, as this pmvides governments with foreign eamin~s. - - Other problems of mechanization have been the diverse ecology and topogmphy of the land, which make use of certain technologies difficult. This vmvides a challenge to policymakers to encourage research in mech&cal technologies that are adaptable the different environments and ecosystems. Extension The extension service usually provides the link between research outputs and the end users, the farmers. It also provides an oppormnity to monitor and assess the impacts of technologies adopted by farmers. For smallholder farmers to be informed of the technolo- gies to improve productivity, the extension services have to be functioning well. In most counnies, the Mit ry ofAgriculture, through its regional services, carries out extension activities. This is direct intervention by the state. Apart from this direct involvement by the Ministry of Agriculture, others are locarion- and objective-specific. Many countries have specific projects targeting the growth of particular crops, such as the soybean project in C6te d'lvoire. This is a donor-supported project aimed at solving food needs in the short sun, and transferring technology to smallholder farmers on how to grow soybean in a specsc environment for the long term. SODECOTON and SEMRY perform the same type of function for cotton and rice in Cameroon. In Cameroon, extension coverage is quite low, 1 : 326. In 1989, in recognition of this problem, Cameroonput in place an extensionandtminingpmgram to support government efforts to increase productivity, ensure increased farmer incomes, and help to modernize smallholder agriculture. Agricultuml extension in Cameroon has been in diverse forms: - SODECAO. This is a parapublic slructure set up specifically to intervene directly in extension and training of cocoa farmers. The parastatal was also responsible for the maintenance of the farm to market roads, to facilitate the evacuation of cocoa - MIDENO. This is a mixed set up, with funding fiom the state, the Marketing Boar& and a commercial bank. Its mission was to supervise mid development projects within the Northwest Province, to improve on the extension worker/fmer ratio, and to help smallholders increase productivity. There are a few NGOs that are beginning to participate in extension activities. Environmental issues and sustainable food production by smallholder producers Smce the 1992 Rio Summit, environmental issues have become very important. Human activity is being blamed for the climate changes that are occurring. In the developing countries the main human activity leading to climate change is land use, specScally, the conversion of natural envimnments (forests) to agricultural or other land uses. This is partly because the population is growing much fasterthan the economies are transforming, and so farmland is not being used intensively. The dilemma of sub-Saharan agriculture, therefore, is to meet the challenge of food production for the increasing population without depleting the natural resource base. Farmers have so far sought to increase production through extensive farming by colonizing more virgin land This has worked in the past, as this type of colonization allowed for the fallow system to work. Soil fertility was restored Today the fallow s y s t p is either greatly reduced, or is no longer practicable. Many countries are responding to this potential environmental catastrophe by developing environmental management plans to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources. This is bound to have profound effects on the smallholder farmers. They will have to modify their farming practices to accommodate the management plans. Governments tend to intervene in agricultural markets by controllingprices, especially producer prices. This tums the terms of trade against agriculture and hence depresses the price of land Farmers can be motivated to invest in soil conservation, tree planting, etc., if returns to such investments show up in capitalized form in land prices. By depressing prices, government policy lowers the rate of rerum to conservation measures. The need to ensure food security, and to shield farmers from the volatility of cash crop prices in the world markets is leading governments to promote the development of subsistence crops. This development has to be done in an integrated way to ensure soil conservation. Pearce and Warford(l993), have shown that subsistence farming has a higher erosion factor than cash crops, with groundnut andcassava being the leading culprits. Soil erosion is probably the most severe environmental hazard that smallholder farmers in sub-SaharanAfrica face. Aconsequence of soil erosion is siltation of waterways. The soil which is washed off from the agricultural fields is carried down by streams and rivers (LEEC 1992). As our knowledge of the environment increases, and as we realize the need to conserve the environment, farming systems will have to integrate conservation into theirpractices. This will require modernizing farming practices that are already fairly elusive to many African farmers. Scientists in sub-Saharan Africa, however, caution against the wholesale adoption of new technologies because some may accelerate the use of non-renewable resources, and contribute to various forms of pollution. The topdown approach to conservation (conservation method,&gies developed by experts) is what has been sold to small-scale farmers so far. This approach typically does not do justice to the mot causes of soil degradation. It is important for researchers and development planners to integrate farmers into the development of farming methods that conserve the soil. Conclusion To meet food needs, raise incomes, and provide foreign exchange, the rate of growth in agricultural production over the next few decades wouldneed to be twice the past decades. Much of the increase will have to come from raising production in ways that conserve 144 natural resources and thus ensure sustainable erowth. Policies and incentives so far. have not favored the smallholder farmer, especiallythe majority that operates in the foodcrops sector. Policies have been heavily skewed toward the cash or export crop sector, because this sector has provided foreignearnings f~r~ovemments. he &nsequ&ce has been that smallholder productivity has ofIen, though not invariably, been low at least in food crop production. Smallholder production is in many areas on a very extensive and apparently inefficient basis, with considerable use of shifting cultivation and very littIe use of fe& izers or modem inputs. In geneml, where fertilizer or modem inputs are applied, they are resmcted to the export or cash crops. Technology applied in agriculture is simple, if not ~diIneIItary, and represents a very low level of capital intensity. There is limited use of tmctors or even animal power for cultivation. While there is a low degree of capitahtion in smallholder production, there is also a general lack of access by these farmers to credit. The peasant modeofproductiondominates, with subsistence output as a major feature. The land tenure system is not clearly defined to allow the farmers to use the land in a sustainable way. These points show that the policy designed to support smallholder agriculture has not been effective. To ensure food security, it is necessary to develop the smallholder and peasant sector. This will require modifying policies that disc&te against this sector. Countries in the region are richly endowed with a variety of agricultural lands and a largely favorable range of climates. There is considerable potential to expand cultivation in regions with good soils and adequate minfall, or to improve on the inigation systems. Research results have to move from the shelves to the farmers. A lot of research has been done, but quite often adoption does not seem to go beyond the sample used for testing the results. This is due both to the lack of proper extension policies, and complementary inputs needed by farmers to ensure the outcome are as required. These changes require reforms in policy. Reform processes are inherently political and confrontational. because some oarties mav not like to reform. There are alwavs losers < and gainers in any reform process. This means that the sustainability of reform is always precarious. The reformed policy regime has to be generating enough benefits to its stake- holders and beneficiaries & wi&&d the pressui& of thosd who would like to derail the reform. This means that for smallholders to accept policies that would lead to changes in their status, they have to be certain of an outcome that will be beneficial to them. This is because small-scale farmers tend to be risk-averse, and would be wary of hying new technologies that have not been properly tes,ted Recommendations Anumber ofpolicy and institutional issues that have an impact on the incentives of small- holder farmers have been discussed in this paper. In this section, some of the points are highlighted as recommendations as a way of underlining their importance. 1. Policy factors Production. This has been identiiied as a problem. It is important that the appropri- ate policies be put in place to ensure that the production of the smallholder farmer increases. Currently, there are no policies to address productivity issues. Subsidies and the supply of inputs. It does appear that the structuml adjustment program was too brutal in the way subsidies were removed. Smallholder farmers need some form of subsidy for inputs. The removal of subsidies has to be phased out gradually, or there should be some alternative to ease the plight of these farmers. Government taxation of exports and attempts to d u e n c e prices of both exports and local foodstuffs sbould be discontinued. This policy has tended to be urban-biased because the policy tries to ensure that the urban sector has fwd at lowerprices, without considering the farmers. If the private sector is allowed to handle exports and market- ing of foodstuffs, farmers will get the right signals and will allocate their resources accordingly. There is quite often a lot of administrative discontinuity in policy implementation in the agriculhual sector. This causesinvestment unceriainties. When the government bans and after a while unbans the import of an agricultural commodity, it causes uncertainties. Policies and programs should integrate women. Gender-neutral policies have not been very e5cient so far. They have tended to be male-biased. It is important to use women-targeted tools to integrate women's interests. Women make up over 60% of the small-scale farmers, but have hardly bendted from any policies or programs (Sikod 1990). Policies should also focus on enhancing sustainable soil fertility by improving organic matter management through mixed fanning, eomposting, and recycling and b) increas- ing fertilizer use. It will be necessary to reestablish the stock of phosphorus, the lack of which is a key limiting factor in agricultural productivity in most countries. Fertilizers with phosphorus contents will have to be subsidized, as these are quite expensive. The sales will have to be in retail quantities that farmers can buy warn 1989). 2. Institutional factors The current extension system is quite weak. It is necessary to strengthen it. . It is necessary to link research activities to the needs of the smallholder farmers; that is, research sbould be based on an interaction with the smallholders to determine their needs, and what they can adopt. Land tenure continues to be a problem. Governments have to develop tenure systems that will allow farmers to invest in the land they farm. This is important for soil con- servation and sustainable farming. There are many ministries whose activities have an impact on the agricultural sector, and yet there is no coordination among them. A major handicap of smallholder farmers is lack of knowledge. It will be important to identify and suppoa instihltions that build capacity. An issue that appears difficult, but must be done is to make credit available to the farmers. This will require careful study of how to overcome the constraints that have made it dii3cult for farmers to have access to credit There should be an institutional setting to handle postharvesl losses. P o s h e s t facili- ties that may be helpful to the smallholder farmer will include: - storage facilities - development of small capacity processing units for individual farmers - development of small to medium capacity processing units for groups of farmers - contraciual (or cooperative) arrangements for small processing mits The above recommendations are not exhaustive; rather, they are indicative o f some of the areas that need to be looked into, if there have to be effective incentives to smallholder farmers for sustainable production. 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Reforms, results, and the road ahead. OUP. New York, USA. Enabling policy and institutional changes for improving the impact of structural adjustmeit programs on small farm production in sub-Saharan Africa C.E. Onyenweaku Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria Abstract An examination of the economic performance of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), sug- gests that growth was slowing down even before the oil price shocks of the early 1970s. During the 1970s, many SSAeconomies experienced decline growth rates in their Gross Domestic Products (GDPs). This combined with high and accelerat- ing growths in oooulation to lower the growth rates of oer capita GDP to about - - 0 2 ? 0 per annum fir the penod 1970 1981 (Smlth 1989) She divelopmcni pol~ccs of mo~t counrncs m SSA durlna thc 1970s had iocuaed on :~ldusm~l~zatlon t - replace imports, a high degree of protectionism vis-a-vis imports, and the neglect of the aericultural sector. Policv issues and necessarv institutional changes are - - suggested in the present pages for the subsequent reduction of the negative impacts of the Structural Adjustment (SAP). on small-scale agricultural enterprises. Introduction Neglect of agricultural enterprises for non-agricultural industries with the introduction of SAP has caused negative effects. Industries produced at high costs and received pro- ducer prices, which were excessively high, compared with world market parity prices. Agriculture was the main source of taxes and domestic savings. High taxes on agricultural exports, excessively priced industrial goods, increasing over-valuation of the domestic currency shifled the inter-sectoral terms of trade to the disadvantage of rural produc- tion and consumption. Besides, a price policy supported by imports and subsidized food products operated to the detriment of agriculture. Inefficient governmental and parastatal service companies also subjected the agricultural sector to organizational and cost-related o b s t ~ ~ t i ~ n ~ to its supply and marketing channels. The resultant effects were rural exodus, degradation of the capital stocks in the agricultural sector, stagnation of agricultural pro- duction for the domestic and export markets, higher food imports, lower macroeconomic savings ratio, increasing foreign debts, etc. (Brandt 1997). These chronic economic and agricultural problems of the 1970s (Ghai and Smith 1987) were compounded in the 1980s by a further rapid decline in Africa's international terms of trade due to rising oil prices, the global recession with its adverse effects on tropical commodity prices, and the impact of high international interest rates which created seri- ous problems of debt service provisioning for the funds borrowed in the 1970s to finance the trade gap and development expenditures. A marked decline in net capital flows into SSA as a reaction to the international debt crisis compounded the problem resulting in a serious balance of payments problem. In their efforts at seeking lasting solutions to problems of structural imbalances, many SSA countries have adopted SAP anchored largely on deregulation of economic activi- ties. Targetslobjectives and instruments of structural adjustment programs SAP refers to a set of comprehensive economic reform measures to correct imbalances in the economy arising from unfavorable external factors as well as inappropriate domestic policies. Countries embark on SAP when their economies manifest imbalances or are in fundamental disequilibrium. An economy in such disequilibrium suffers from persistent current account deficits, rising external indebtedness, over-valued currency, and distor- tions in relative prices leading to loss of international competitiveness. It is also affected by the impact of recession and slow growth in the industrial countries, compounded by protectionist attitudes in those countries, leading to a deterioration in terms of trade. Too often, rising inflation, declining or reduced economic growth and inefficient allocation of resources feature prominently in such an economy in fundamental disequilibrium (Omoruyi 1990). Policy targets/objectives of SAP The broad objectives of SAP are to effecti;ely alter and restructure the consumption and production pattern in the economy as well as eliminate price distortions and heavy dependence on the exports of a single product as the main foreign exchange earner and on imports of consumer and producer goods. More specifically, SAP is designed to: restructure and diversify the productive base of the economy in order to reduce depen- dence on a single major foreign exchange earner and imports achieve fiscal and balance of payments viability over the period lay the basis for a sustainable non-inflationary or minimal inflationary economic growth lessen the dominance of unproductive investments in the public sector, improve the sector's efficiency, and encourage the growth potentials of the private sector Policy instruments of SAP A set of basic policy tools or strategies has been put in place for all fund-assisted pro- grams, although different emphasis is placed on the principal policy instruments in view of the divers~ry in the levels of economic development, social, political, and institutional characteristics of countries undertaking the programs. The instruments used in pursuit of the above policy objectives include: (i) adoption of a realistic exchange rate policy (ii) trade and payments liberalization (iii) restructuring of tariffs to give effective protection to local industries (iv) stimulating of domestic production in order to broaden the supply base of the economy (v) strengthening of demand management policies i.e., fiscal and monetary policies (vi) reduction of any complex administrative controls and greater reliance on market forces to direct economic activities (vii) removal of elements of subsidy on goods and services provided by public coopera- tions and agencies Thus, the major instruments of SAP are the expenditure reducing measures in the form of restrictive fiscal and monetary policies (demand management policies) including privatization, and expenditure-switching measures in the form of adjustments in relative prices through exchange rate adjustments (Omoruyi 1990). Expenditure-reducing policies are often targeted at the public sector, which is seen as the major source of excess demand. The reduction in budget deficits can reduce a major inflationary pressure hut this frequently results in setbacks in productive services and welfare activities with adverse effects on output and income distributions. Expenditure switching policies are designed to make imports more expensive than domestic goods and so switch domestic expendime from foreign to domestic goods. Such policies are also designed to make exports more competi- tive and profitable. The usual instruments are exchange rate devaluation and liberalization of price controls and trade restrictions that favor foreign over domestic goods. It is important to point out that countries withor without the support ofthe international monetary fund (IMF) and the World Bank may undertake SAP. Countries usually resort to IMFIWorld Bank supported adjustment programs for greater access to foreign funds than would be possible othenvise. Since 1980, an increasing number of countries in SSA have adopted IMFIWorld Bank supported SAP. The purpose of this paper is to highlight enabling policy and institutional changes for improving the impacts of SAP on small farm production in SSA. The paper is divided into four sections. The introductory sectiondiscusses the rational, policy targetsiobjectives and instruments of SAP. Section 2 makes a comparative analysis of the empirical results of the impacts of SAP in some countries of SSA. Section 3 discusses the enabling policy and institutional changes for improving the impacts of SAP on small farmers in SSA, while section 4 contains the summary and conclusion. A comparative analysis of the impact of SAP in some sub-Saharan African countries African Adjustment Study (AAS) The World Bank (1994) carried out an African Adjustment Study (AAS) to compare the policies and performances of 29 SSA countries engaged in structural adjustment of their economies. The study covered two periods: 1981 to 1986 when these countries were in economic crisis and 1987 to 1991 when these countries adopted SAP. The study docu- mented the extent to which six sets of policy reforms-macroeconomic, trade, agriculture, public enterprises, financial sector, and public sector management were implemented in the 29 SSA countries and the results of the policy reforms. The results of the study are summarized as follows (Husain 1995). 1 . Extent of policy reforms (i) Progress was found satisfactory in the areas of macroeconomicreforms, trade policy, and agricultural pricing and marketing. (ii) Macroeconomic reforms spurred external competitiveness while keeping inflation low. (iii) Trade reforms increased access to the imports needed for growth. (iv) Reduced taxation of agriculture inmany countries helped the poor while encouraging domestic production and exports. (v) There were few policy changes with regard to public enterprises, the financial sector, and public sector management. (vi) African governments have been able to sell off or to liquidate only a small share of their assets. (vii) Financial flows to public enterprises were still high without any sustainable improve- ments in their efficiency. (viii) The financial sector was still found to be heavily burdened by public sector demands for credit, crowding out the private sector. jix) There have not been any perceptible improvements in civil service efficiency and productivity. (x) Finally, poor economic policies were found to be responsible for the poor perfor- mance of the economies of most of the 29 SSA countries. However, the task of adjustment was made more difficult by larger declines in terms of trade between 1986 and 1991. Results of policy reforms (i) Those countries which pursued SAP in a consistent and sustainable manner showed positive results in terms of resurgence of growth. (ii) The group of countries which instituted the most extensive macroeconomic reform policies between 1981 and 1986 and 1987and 1991 enjoyed a medium growth rate of per capital GDP of about 2%. Conversely, countries, which did not improve their policies, had a 2.6% decline in their per capita GDP. A similar pattern was demonstrated by export and industrial growth. (iii) As for agriculture, countries that taxed their major export crops less experienced a 2% rise in the growth of total agricultural value added while those countries which taxed their farmers more had 1.6% fall in their agricultural growth rate. (iv) Countries, which significantly reduced the black market premium (by devaluation) and adopted realistic macroeconomic policies, enjoyed the biggest benefits e.g., Ghana, Nigeria, and Tanzania. (v) Countries that brought about a real depreciation of 40% or more with flexible exchange rates had a 2.3% median increase in per capita GDP (e.g., Gambia, Mau- ritania, and Sierra Leone). (vi) Countries, which had appreciations with fixed exchange rates, suffered a median decline of 1.7% in their per capita GDP (e.g., Cameroon, Cbte d'Ivoire, and Gabon). (vii) Countries which were assessed as having adequate or fair macroeconomic policies had a 0.4% annual growth rate in median GDP per capita while countries ranked as having poor or very poor macroeconomic policies have a 2.1% decline in their median GDP per capita per year. (viii) Countries with limited government interventions in markets had a 2% growth in median GDP per capita per year in contrast to a decline of 1% for countries that intervened more extensively. African adjustment case studies Husain and Famquee (1994) carried out a case study of seven SSA countries-Burundi, CBte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania which embarked on SAP during the mid 1980s, ending in 1991. The countries were selected to capture a variety of characteristics and initial conditions. Adjustment programs in the seven countries focused on such distortions as overvalued exchange rates, high current account, and fiscal deficits, low factor mobility, restrictions on domestic and foreign trade, distorted pricing for trade- able commodities, and inefficient public services. The results of the study are as follows (Husain 1995): Higher economic growth (i) All seven countries studied, except CBte d'lvoire, experienced positive per capita GDP growth during the adjustment period, 198&1991. The average growth rate of the six countries over the adjustment period was 4.5% a year. This is considered a strong improvement when compared with an average growth rate of 1% in the period preceding adjustment. (ii) Burundi and Kenya, who had fairly good initial conditions, maintained their previ- ous growth rates. (iii) The biggest tumabout during 1986-1991 in annual growth rates was registered in Nigeria (l6%), Ghana (6%), and Tanzania (4%). (iv) Even Senegal registered a small tum around in growth despite the problem of an over valued exchange rate. (v) CBte d'Ivoire, which once had an impressive growth rate, could not revert to its precrisis rate primarily because of its exchange rate problems. Agricultural sector (i) All the seven countries showed significant increases in agricultural output. (ii) The index of per capita food production rose in all the countries except Tanzania. (iii) In Burundi, per capita food production seemed to have stagnated but was able to keep pace with population growth rate during the 1980s. (iv) Food prices in real terms declined in Nigeria. (v) Average food imports declined by between 30 and 60% in Burundi, Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania and remained constant in CBte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Senegal. (vi) The volume of cash crop exports grew rapidly in Burundi, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania but declined in CBte d'Ivoire. (vii) New non-traditional agricultural exports have emerged in almost every countq in this group, though in modest amounts. Export sector (i) The growth of exports has been remarkably high despite decline in terms of trade. Exports have not only recovered from the crisis period but have surpassed their precrisis levels. (ii) In terms of export diversification, oil was found to still dominate Nigerian exports hut unlike the early 1980s, Nigerian goods are now competing with other imports in West African markets. (iii) In spite of a sharp fall in cocoa prices in the world market, Ghana has more than doubled her exports in the past seven years with gold exports replacing cocoa as the number one export. (iv) Today, at least 20% of Ghana's export eamings come from products other than cocoa, gold, and timber compared with 8% a decade ago. (v) Tanzania had the highest rise innon-traditional exports; its wecordedexports were estimated at about $400-500 million a year. (vi) CBte d'Ivoire, Kenya, and Senegal have export bases, which are among the most diversified in Africa, but changes during adjustment have been minor and show no persistant trend. (vii) Burundi is the only country among the seven to show continuing heavy reliance on coffee, her diversification efforts having being negligible. Investment (i) In spite of increased i dows of foreign savings, public investment has fallen in rela- tion to GDP in the seven countries, recovering to precrisis levels only in Tanzania. (ii) The conditions needed to encourage private investors have generally been lacking. The slow down in public investment in an attempt to reduce budget deficits and to cut uneconomic projects without a compensating rise in private investment would result in depressing overall investment ratio. (iii) Domestic investors have been discouraged in the short run by the effects of restric- tive monetary policies, high interest rates, and devaluations all of which increase the costs of imported inputs as well as trade liberalization. (iv) Foreign investors appeared yet to be convinced that African economies offer good investment prospects. (v) The case study confirmed the importance of stability, continuity, and credibility of policies for providing the necessary signals to both domestic and foreign investors. (iii) Out of the seven countries studied, Ghana and Kenya came closest to meeting these conditions. External financial flows External economic environments affect African countries in three main ways (a) the terms of trade, (b) the debt servicing burden, and (c) external resource transfers. The study showed that: (i) Six of the seven countries had a decline in terms of trade during the adjustment period both in absolute and relative terms vis-a-vis the pre-adjustment period. (ii) With regard to how far this decline in external income was affected by net external transfers-aids flow, debt-servicing relief and accumulation of arrears, Tanzania was by far the largest beneficiary of positive net external transfers which wiped out the terms of trade losses and resulted in a significant increase in net external flows. (iii) Burundi, Ghana, and Kenya were able to neutralize the terms of trade losses and had some modest overall gains. (iv) Nigeria suffered the most through terms of trade losses which were compounded by net negative transfers. (v) CBte d'Ivoire and Senegal also incurred net declines in external flows. External factors versus policy reforms as determinants of growth In terms of determining how much of the renewed growth of the adjusting countries could be ascribed to external factors-aid and terms of trade changes, and how much to policy reforms the results were as follows: (i) Nigeria performed better despite terms of trade losses and net negative flows of external resources. Nigeria's net resource transfers to her external creditors stood at 5% of her GDP each year. This implies that her growth could have been higher without heavy external debt burden. (ii) CBte d'Ivoire has been hurt by terms of trade losses and a relative decline in external flows as well as by poor policies. Cbte d'Ivoire is also heavily indebted but has avoided a cash flow crunch by not paying all her creditors and by accumulating arrears. It is anticipated that the 1994 devaluation of the CFA Franc and its accom- panying measures will change the situation. (iii) Burundi, Ghana, Kenya, and Senegal are among the group of countries that are fully servicing their debts and all of them have been hurt by terms of trade losses. (iv) Kenya's growth record reflects some positive impact of adjustment while the turn- around in Ghana's growth was due more to better policies than to other changes. (iv) Tanzania's growth was attributed to factors other than aid. The country is generally perceived to be highly dependent on external donors, and has received huge sums of aid historically, however, when debt-servicing and terms of trade losses are accounted for, the real external resource flows to Tanzania during her adjustment and pre-adjustment periods were not different in absolute terms. SAP and the poor (i) The study showed that adjustment has generally improved the welfare of the rural poor while most likely hurting the urban poor. (ii) The growth attained so far due to adjustment policies was still not enough to reduce the incidence of poverty. (a) Rural poor (i) In all the seven countries, the majority of the poor who live in the rural areas are smallholders and self-employed who derive their income from the production and marketing of both food and export crops. (ii) Since six of the countries (except CBte d' Ivoire) had an improvement in the rural terms of trade as a result of devaluation, liberalization marketing, higher producer prices and lower taxes, the rural poor appeared to have benefitted from real income gains over an extended period. (iii) Export crops and particularly non-traditional export crop producers gained more than other agricultural producers. (iv) Real food producer prices to farmers declined in many countries, but the marketed output increased, replacing food imports in many cases. (v) The real income gains to food producers varied. Those in Ghana, Nigeria, and Tanzania seemed to have benefitted most. (v) Burundi and Kenya had been self-sufficient in food therefore, the food crop farmers did not gain much, while the situation in CBte d' Ivoire and Senegal was unclear. 6) Urban poor (i) The impact of SAP on the urban poor was mixed. (ii) In Ghana and Tanzania, the urban poor were better off after adjustment. This is because consumer goods became available, real food prices declined, and informal sector activities expanded. (iii) In C6te d'Ivoire and Senegal the urban poor were worse off. (iv) In Nigeria, the unemployed, fixed-income earners, and minimum wage earners were worse off. (v) However, for both Burundi and Kenya, it was unclear whether the real incomes of the urban poor in these countries worsened or improved because of lack of data. Enabling policy and institutional changes for improving the impact of structural adjustment on small farms in SSA Why target small farmers? In most economies of SSA, the overwhelming majority of agricultural producers and indeed the vast majority of the total population, can he classified as smallholders who reside in the rural areas. Agricultural performance in the region has been poor. The low or declining levels of agricultural productivity in the region is attributable to the economic and physical constraints imposed on smallholder agriculture. The environment is character- ized by very limited access to the resources necessary to raise productivity coupled with inadequate transportation and marketing infrastructure. Smallholders often operate close to the margin for survival and under uncertain climatic and market conditions. Therefore, any change in the economic and social welfare of the rural sector will have a profound impact on the long-term performance of their national economies. The need to focus attention on smallholders derives from the evidence that they constitute the bulk of the poor in SSA and because of the potential significance of their contribution to successful adjustment through a supply response. Policies directed at improving the conditions of small-scale farmers are likely to play a vital role in helping the poor and vulnerable groups during adjustments and in promot- ing growth. Generally, improving farmers' incomes help to alleviate poverty and increase growth. Thus, raising the income of small-scale farmers has direct effects in poverty reduction among the rural poor. Moreover, improved rural conditions reduce rural-urban migration and the extent of urban poverty. The success of small farmers also has important linkage effects on the rest of the rural economy in terms of expenditure by f m i n g families on local goods and services and agricultural imputs as well as from the local processing of farm produce (Longhurst 1987). Inaddition, a great deal ofevidence indicates that small-scale farmers are moreproduc- tive per unit of land than large-scale farmers, (Rudra and Sen 1980; Lipton 1985; Corina 1985). The agricultural sector as a whole often has a comparative advantage, which has been neglected by government policy in the region. Focusing on the small farmers will, therefore, promote growth, efficiency, and equity. Improvements of the balance of payments and market efficiency are important objec- tives of SAP. A major way of improving the balance of payments is by reducing food imports through increased domestic production. This can be possible through an increased flow of resources to small-scale farmers. The impact of SAPvaries according to the situation of small farmers. Inmacroeconomic adjustment, prices of tradeable goods and services rise relative to non-tradeable. Thus, the small-scale farmers who produce for subsistence are worse off than those who produce for export. Besides, in cases of foreign exchange constraints, the agricultural sector and the small-scale farmer suffer from acute shortages of production imputs-fertilizer, hoes, seeds, agrochemicals, and from a deficient transport system. Increased supplies of inputs in these areas are important for increasing production. Straegies for improving the impact of sap on small farm production in SSA Effective input supply and distribution Evidence reveals astronomical increases in the costs of most agricultural inputs due to SAP with particular reference to hoes, cutlasses, agrochemicals, fertilizers, and tractors. In the livestock sector, the affected inputs are drugs, vaccines, and livestock feeds, while in the fishery sector prices of outboard engines, canoes, boats, nets, and floats have also increased astrononically leading to scarcities. These increases in input prices are due to exchange rate depreciations, high interest rates, and the withdrawal of subsidies accom- panying SAP. All these have acted to reduce farm size and productivity especially of small-scale farmers. There is, therefore, the need for increased supply and distribution of agricultural inputs including credit to small-scale farmers. Food and inputs subsidies may have to be removed gradually rather than abruptly but need to be much more targeted towards non-tradeable food producers. Development of rural infrastructure Inadequate transportation and communication facilities, lack of social ameninities such as electricity, potable water, rural industries, education, and health facilities characterize most rural sectors of SSA. There is also inadequate marketing infrastructure in terms of transportation, processing and storage facilities, coupled with inadequate repair and main- tenance of existing facilities. Improving the access of small-scale farmers to infrastructure can he as beneficial in many cases as increasing their productive assets. Infrastructural investments in many SSA countries bypass weas containing high concentrations of small- scale farmers. This raises their production costs and acts as a harrier to gains from greater specialization. For example, whileadjustmentprograms in GhanaandKenyasent out clear signals for the expansion of tradeable activities, many of the poorest farmers have faced difficulties in achieving this because of their location (Hellers et al. 1988). In making new inf?astructural investments, there is the need to give priority to actions, which assist the small farmers, and open access to them. In many areas, transport infrastructure has broken down so that some local markets are poorly integrated with national markets, leading to large regional price differences (Ahmed and Rustagi 1987). This is further compounded by administrative restrictions on the flow of products. In designing a program of infra- structure, greater priority should be given to areas that are poorly sewed by the transport infrastructure but have high concentrations of small-scale farmers. Where the failure of poor groups to benefit from adjustment arises from weak price signals due to weak marketing structures, the terms of trade facing poor farmers may be raised through improving the efficiency of official marketing organizations (World Bank 1990). Ahmed and Rustagi (1987), found out that in Asia, 75-90% of the consumer prices of food grains is paid to farmers while in Aftica, the proportion is 35-60%. Nearly 30% of the difference in margin is due to lower efficiency ofAfrican marketing organizations. In Tanzania and Zambia, that growth of marketing costs has been as important as currency over-valuation in causing low producer prices. By integrating the smallholders into the main stream, marketing reforms may now begin to benefit poor farmers. Restructuring of the marketing system in Mali shifted output and input prices in favor of farmers. Export crop production There has been excessive concentration of large farmers in the production of export crops in SSA although export crops can also play an important role in improving the incomes of small-scale fanners. Raising cash cropping by farmers offers an important way in which benefits from adjustment and growth can be increased. A number of studies have confirmed that export cropping can lead to significant gains by offsetting any unfavor- able impacts in smallholder income and nutrition (Von Braun 1989, Von Braun and Webb 1989). Agricultural commercialization in Kenya has had a favorable impact on landless agricultural workers and has led to improved family nutrition and reduced hours of work for women owing to reductions in the food hectarage and increases in family income. In some cases, investments in infrastructure and improvements in marketing may he adequate enough for small-scale farmers to raise their income sufficiently. In such circumstances, policy interventions should he directed at the micro level. Other cases may require a more comprehensive package of measures in terms of infrastructural and marketing services. Export crops are important in smallholder development as a means of diversifying sources of income and to provide cash for buying food during seasonal shortages. How- ever, food production should not he neglected especially to provide for subsistence and minimize import requirements. What is needed is an increase in productivity in both sectors and improvements in marketing systems so as achieve an orderly transition from semi-subsistence to a more commercialized farming. Research, technology development, and transfer The level of technology employed by smallholder farmers in SSA is generally low. Most farmers still depend on the traditional techniques of production and processing; the rates of technology adoption are low; most smallholder farmers lack the technical know-how for efficient production and therefore rely heavily on traditional methods. There are also Door research-farmers-extension linkaees. ineffective extension services and inadeauate - , research facilities in terms of funding, research personnel, and equipment. These problems are exacerberated by SAPandneed to be changedby providing the enabling environments. Moreover, agricul&ral research for smallholder farmers needs to be increased especially on food crops such as coarse grains, roots, and tubers. A research strategy needs to be developed for subsistence and secondary crops. Longhurst and Lipton (1 985) revealed that income setbacks and the spread of poor people onto marginal lands have acted to make these secondary neglected crops more important. Many secondary crops are processed to provide food and oils while Fleuret (1979) found out that gathered food also generated cash income in Tanzania. Other desirable policies will include small-scale irrigation to extend the growing season, improved dryland farming methods, technology to reduce labor peaks, intercropping, crop varieties with short maturation periods, and crop breed- ing for drought resistance. Land access and security of tenure In many parts of SSA, access to land and security of tenure are major problems confront- ing smallholder framers. Securing the claims to ownership which poor people bave over their assets is an important first step to ensuring that poorer rural groups benefit from an adjustment program. Land rights are oAen tenuous in customary areas of SSA, thus hin- dering agricultural development. Policy reforms accompanied by measures to ensure poor households' rights to land will benefit the smallholder farmer. Extending property rights to smallholders and ensuring their subsistence have the effect of raising their incentives to maintain and improve those assets. In SSA, few women have secure and independent access to land. It is, therefore, important that land tenure interventions protect the 'aditional rights of women to cultivate land for food. CBte d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Kenya, andZimbabwe have now given women the right to inherit and own property (World Bank 1986). Increased support for women In spite of the predominance of women in agriculture in many parts of the world, women continue to be neglected in policies and strategies. It is estimated that about 85% of rural women in Africa are engaged in agriculture where theyproduce and process as much as 80% of family food consumption (Longhurst 1987). Reductions in male wage employment and increasing landlessness bave led to increased dependence on women's earnings in poor rural households. Women must, therefore, he part and parcel of strategies designed to improve the balance of payments with regard to agricultural exports under SAP. There are also linkages between structural adjustment objectives to increase food supply, the economic and technical roles of rural women and the welfare of children. Women, r e p resenting the poorest households, head many households in both Asia and Africa. Also in Africa, there is an increasing number of households where the male is absent through out-migration. Policies to strengthen women's land rights complemented by policies to improve their access to credit, agricultural extension, new technologies, more education, and quality health care can enhance their productivity and income and thus contribute to poverty alleviation. Effective organization of smallholder farmers There is the need for organizing the small-scale farmers in the region to enable them improve their productivity and efficiency under SAP. Most farmers operate on a small scale and are scattered and dispersed in settlements and hamlets within the region. These small-scale farmers engage largely in subsistence farming and thus have little turnover and income. The most common organization is the family unit made up of the man, his wife or wives, and children. Occasionally, the farmer draws from the extended family made up of two or more of the single family units. Increased agricultural production both for export and domestic consumption, which is amajor objective of SAP, requires a change in the above arrangement. It requires bringing smallholder farmers together which is not an easy task in view of the degree of geographi- cal dispersion, social cohesion at the family level, the lack of integration beyond it with inherent suspicion of strangers. Most government projects demand an organization for beyond what the family can offer. Irrigation agriculture, large-scale farming, and group farms are best carried out under consolidated agricultural holdings. Only the cooperatives can satisfy the above requirements. However, there is a lack of effective organization of farmers into viable cooperative associations in many parts of the region. Since smallholder farmers are unable to provide individual security for loans, their organization into viable farmers' cooperative associations becomes vital to their success. This is to enable smallholder farmers to obtain government financial assistance and to purchase the needed inputs in bulk, thereby taking advantage of economies of scale. Promotion of non-farm income In addition to rural households involved in agricultural production, there are those who derive a large proportion of their income from non-agricultural wage labor activities. The great majority ofthese are involved in informal sector activities, such as artisan or trading skills. They produce consumption goods with little investment from locally produced or acquired raw materials to meet domestic demands. Examples include blacksmiths who produce and repair the modest capital equipment essential to the smallholder farmer's operations. Growth within this sector (induced by agricultural production growth) is of crucial importance if adjustment measures are to succeed in reducing rural urban migra- tion and if they are to activate intersectoral growth linkages. Health and nutrition interventions One objective of SAP is reduction of government expenditure through restrictive fiscal policy. In this process, social services, including health services, have experienced reduc- tions in expenditure. These combined with other SAP policies have adverse effects on health and nutrition of the rural poor, and these exacerbate a further decline in produc- tivity and income in the rural sector. Government can use selective measures to protect and even to improve the health and nutrition of the poor during SAP through (a) income- generating programs, (b) income transfer programs, (c) food price subsidies, (d) food supplementation schemes. (e) nutrition education programs, and ( f ) primary health care (Pinstrup Anderson 1987). Income generation, income transfer, and price subsidy pro- grams are used to compensate for losses in household income. Food price subsidies are used to make food or certain food commodities cheaper relative to other goods. Food supplementation schemes may be viewed as income transfer programs since they add resources to the household. Nutrition education programs can assist in reducing the nega- tive nutrition effects of income losses by influencing household acquisition and allocation behavior. Finally, primary health care programs may play a major role by increasing the physiological utilization of ingested fond and by reducing the occurrence and frequency of anorexia (Pinstrup Anderson 1987). Educating the small-scale farmers As pointed out in the last section, SAP involves reductions in government spending. The resource-poor smallholder farmers are particularly affected by changes in government expenditure on basic health and education services and on food subsidies. Moreover, most smallholder farmers in SSA can neither read nor write. However, many studies show a positive relationship between education and productivity (Pudasaini 1%3; Jamisnn and Mock 1984; Azhar 1991; Pinckney 1997) or education and adoption of new technologies (Lin 1991, Onyenweaku 1991). These results call for higher investments in formal and non-formal education (agricultural extension and adult education) in rural areas to raise agricultural productivity and income of smallholder farmers. Summary and conclusion This study was designed to determine the enabling policy and institutional changes for improving the impact of SAP on small farm production in SSA. The poor economic performance of most countries in SSA was attributed to the development policies of the economies in this region during the 1970s. This policy had focused on industrialization to the neglect of the agricultural sector. In a bid to find lasting solutions to the economic problems, many SSA countries embarked upon SAP in the 1980s. Analysis of the impact of SAPon the economies of some countries of SSAshow mixedresults. The overall results of adjustment have been modest relative to the original expectations-despite some suc- cesses in agriculture and food production. Adjustment has not yet succeeded in raising the rate of growth to levels required for effective poverty alleviation. Region-wide economic recovery is still fragile, though with variations in outcome. Currency depreciation and inflation are yet to be subdued in many countries due to the persistence of expansionary fiscal and monetary policies. Many countries still rely heavily on external grants and concessional financing to close their fiscal gaps. Per capita consumption is still stagnant while private investment is yet to be revived. Unemployment rates especially in urban areas are still high while poverty is on the increase. Agricultural development in most ofthese countries is biased towards large farmers who have been the main beneficiaries of technology, research, extension, credit, and market- ing services. However, this bias has not resulted in increases in agricultural productivity needed in most of these countries where the bulk of agricultural production, including food, comes from smallholder farmers. Thus, focusing on these small-scale farmers is expected to promote growth, efficiency, and equity since there is abundant evidence that small-scale farmers are more productive per unit of land than Large-scale farmers. Therefore, policies for improving small farm production under SAP will include: (i) raising small farm income, (ii) promoting non-farm income opportunities in the rural sector, (iii) effective input supply and distribution, (iv) provision of rural infrastructure, (v) export crop production, (vi) research, technology development, and transfer, (vii) land access and security of tenure, (viii) increased support for women, (ix) effective organization of small farmers into viable cooperative associations, (x) health and nutrition policy interventions, and (xi) providing education (formal and non-formal) to small-scale farmers. References Ahmed, R. andN. Rustagi. 1987. Marketing and price incentives in African and Asian countries: a comparision in agricultural marketing strategy and pricing policy, edited by D. Elz. The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Azhar, R.A. 1991. Education and technical efficiency during the Green Revolution in Pakistan. Economic Development and Cultural Change 39 (3): 651465 Brandt, A. 1997. Development policy in sub-Saharan Africa after 15 years of structural adjustment. Agriculture and Rural Development 4 (3): 22-24. Corina, G.A. 1985. F a m size, land yield and agricultural production functions: an analysis of 15 developing countries, World Development 13 (4): 513-534. Fleuret, A. 1979. The role ofwild foliage plants in adiet: acase study ofLosoto,Tanzania. Economy of Food and Nutrition (8): 87-93. Ghai, D. and L.D. Smith. 1987. Agricultural prices, policy and equity in sub-Saharan Africa. Lynne Rienner, Boulder, Colarado, USA. Hellers, P.S. et al. 1988. The implications of fund-supported adjustment programs for poverty: experience in selected countries. Occasional Paper, No. 58, IMF. Washington, DC, USA. Husian, I. 1995. The macroeconomics of adjustment in sub-Saharan African countries, results and lessons. Agricultural competitiveness: market forces and policy. Pages 227-242. In Proceedings of 22nd International Conference ofAgricultural Economists, Harare, Zimbabwe, edited by Peter G.H and D.D. Hedley. Husain, 1. 1994. Results of adjustments in Africa. Selected Case Finance and Development, 31 (2), The World Bank, Washington DC, USA. Husain, I. and R. Faluquee. 1994. Lessons from sectoral cases studies. The WorldBank, Washing- ton DC, USA. Jamison D.T. and P.R. Mock. 1984. Farmer education and farm efficiency in Nepal. The role of schooling, extension services and cognitive skills. World Development. 1 : 67-86. Lin Joy. 1991. Education and innovation adoption in agriculture. Evidence from hybrid rice in China. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73 (3): 713-723. Lipton, M. 1985. Land assets and rural poverty. World Bank Staffworking Paper 744. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Longhurst, R. and M. Lipton. 1985. Secondary food crops and the reduction of seasonal food inse- curity: The role of sgricultural research. IFPRliEAOIAID Workshop on Household Food Secu- rity. Longhurst, R. 1987. Policy approach towards small farmers in adjustment with a human face, edited by G.A. Corina et al. Vol. I Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Onyenweaku C.E. 1991. Factors associated with the adoption of the seed yam minisett technique in Imo State. Nigerian Joumal of Agriculture, Science and Technology, 1 (2): 155-157. Omoluyi, S.E. 1990. Exchange rate policy and structural adjustmentprogramme in African countries: case studies ofZimbabwe, Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria. Economic and Financial Review, Central Bank of Nigeria, 28 (4): 48-54. Pinstmp-Anderson, Per. 1987. Nutrition interventions. Pages 241-256 in Adjustment with a human face, edited by Jolly and Stewart. Vol. 1 Corina, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Pinckney, T.C. 1997. Does education increase agricultural productivity in Africa? Issues in agricul- tural competitiveness: markets and policies, edited by R. Rose et al. 1.A.A.E Occasional Paper N0.7. Pp. 345-353. Pudasaini, S. P. (1983) The Effect of Education in Agriculture: Evidence from Nepal, American Journal of Agriculture Economics. 65 (3): 509-515. Rudra, A. and A.K. Sen (1980) Farm Size and Labor use: Analysis and Policy. Economic and Political Weekly 15 (5 - 7): 391-394. Smith, L.D. 1989. Structural adjustment, price reform and agricultural performance in sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Economics 40 (I): 21-31. Von Bmun, J. 1389 Tiled of ncw expun crops in smallholder agricullurc on divisions of labor and child in Women's work 2nd ;hdd \rclfare in the th~rd wsld, cd~tcd by 1. Lesl~e and M Paolisro. Westview Press, Boulder, Colarado, USA. Von Braun, J. and P.J.R Webb. 1989. The impact of new technology on agricultural division of labor in West African setting. Economic Development and Cutural Change 37 (3): WoddBank. 1986. Financingadjustment withgrowthin sub-Saharan Africa, 198&1990. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. USA. World Bank. 1990. World Development Report 1990. Poverty: Oxford University Press, New York, USA. 'vsn 'WA M~N 'sxd &!sra~!unprojxg 'peal@ poi ayl pm sllnsai suuoja~ :e3gvu! ~uauqsnlpv '~661 .yaa PIIOM Application of farm-level data and CIS for ecoregional policy and planning in the tropics S.O. Badq'D.0. Ladipq2 H.G. Adewu~i,~A.A. debisi,' and O.S. Adedoyi& Department of Forest Resources Management, University of lbadan, lbadan, Nigeria - Center for Environmeni, Renewable Natural Resources Management, Research and Development (CENRAD), PMB. 5052, lericho, lbadan, Nigeria 'Forest ~ a n a ~ e i e n t , Evaluation and Coordinating Unit (FORMECU), Federal Department of Forestry, Ministry of Environment, Abuja, Nigeria Abstract . .---~ ~ - - The value of data innolicvformulation andolamine amone reeions ofthe trooics. . . and across West Ainca was revicrvcd. Thc LajoriGof ihc; were based on fm- Icvcl data obtaiocd through field and farm swevs (formal and informal). This technique of data aquiskon was found to be c&bennme, tedious, and time- c o m i n e . makine its revalidation exuensive for most develouine countries. -. - . - The use of satellite-based data and information is promising and the potentials are great for developing coun~es. ~ataobtained thro&h this system arereadily avail- able and can be verified on the m d , while the updates are less expensive and - easily executed Theacquisition anduseofsuchdataby developingtropicalcountries wouldenhance their formulation of reliable and sustainable agricultural plans and policies. Introduction The decision to follow acourse of action, individually or collectively, rests largely on inter- est and available avenues at achieving these ideals or aims (&pi 1995). Documented plan of action, statement of aims and ideals by corporate bodies, government and individuals thus constitute the policy adopted by such pa*. Interests are known to rarely change, however, the course of attaining such aims and ideals may change with time and situation. The need for planning to arrive at achieving ideals stated policy is crucial to their success. This is governed by several factors and inputs into such decisions; based on available data (primary andfor secondary) and the projection of the data to forecast the future trend of events and sustainability of the policy. Decisionmaking for ecoregionalpolicy andplanningrequires theuse ofauthentic facts and figures. These quantitative and gualitative requirements are essential for arriving at reliable and predictive results of such actions. This step involves every sector of human endeavour; including agriculture, economy, international relations, mineral prospecting and exploration, etc. Arriving at and proclaiming a policy statement involve several steps and the use of facts; particularly in the agricultural sector, the use of data is an important guide at making policy statement by all the stakeholders. The govemment, on a large scale, uses data generated by its field staff and other secondary information in formulating its policy on each sector and subsector. This paper updates the uses of ground-tmth data and those generated through the Gwgmphic Information System (GIs), particularly in the formulation of ecoregional policy and planning in agriculture. It also reviews the potentials and limitations of the applicability of each source of data. Policy issues in agriculture The pride ofevery nation primarily lies in its ability to feed its people with little importation of food from outside. Therefore, the need for the provision ofa conducive environment for food production, storage, marketing and improvement is crucial. These aforementioned stages of agriculture involve several inputs that are determined by others, particularly non-farming professionals. Thus, in order to harmonize these inputs into the production chain of agriculture with Ule aim of increasing and improving agricultural yields, the atmosphere for their use must be conducive. Nations the world over have realized the important role being played by governments in checking the excesses and promoting the use of all factors (aggressive and weak) of production, particularly as they relate to agricultural crops. The various issues in agriculture (Olayemi 1995) that need the interventionof the state in order to ensure their synchronized performance and encourage their utilization by practicing farmers include: Land tenurelpattem of ownership Foodsecurity Research and development Production, that is commodity driven Credit facilities Subsidy systems/facilities Biodiversity wnservation, and Land sustainability In order for the state to make a proclamation on its stand on these sectors and profer guidelines to stakeholders in their operations, it requires accurate data and information. Many questions will be asked and answers to them should be based on available facts before projections wuld he made. Some of the production factors are briefly highlighted as f0Uows: Land tenure/ownership Ownership of land and its transfer protocol largely determine the size of land available to individuals as well as what could be planted on the farmland, including the duration of tenancv. even when the land is rentedneased. For exam~le. in Nigeria and several other .. . , . parts of A&ica where land is communally owned, how much land an individual can get is limited by communal norms. Similarly, where land is heritable among offspring and - - probably relatives, the size bewmes smaller with successive The Nigerian Land Use Decree of 1978, that vested the ownership of land in the state, has not been effective especially with respect to interpersonal tmnsactions in spite of the good intent of its letter. Government too acquires lands and pays compensation to their owners before the transfer could be completed. Tradition, custom, culture, and other factors need to be seriously considered in formulating an acceptable and functional land-use policy in most developing tropical countries. Food sear@ Production of food crops (unlike animal production) is seasonal and follows a particular trend, with each plant type having its own season. It is common to have the peak produc- tion among these crops, each with few off-season varieties. D u h g the off season, some of these crops command high prices, while during the peak production period, a glut is often experienced as a result of the supply exceeding the demand. The year-round supply of these food commodities cannot be guaranteed. While grain mops (cereals and pulses) can be partially preserved over time, several others such as tubers (yam, cassava, cocoyam) and f i t s (citrus, plantainlbanana, etc.) cannot be treated equally. I$ is obvious that government cannot provide the wherewithal for postharvest processing and storage of all classes of food. However, government should provide the enabling environment that would encourage individuals or corporate entities that have the capacity and provide the requisite technology for adequate postharvest storage so as to enhance sustainable food sennity. Cornrnoditydriven production There are several large developing tropical countries (e.g., Burha-Faso, Mali, and Nigeria) with diverse soil and vegetation formations. Thus, certain food crops are more suited to particular areas of the country than others. in order to tap the yield potentials of these crops, it is instructive that their intensive production should be encouraged in the appropriate ecozones. Owing to the overall implications, the govemment should provide the appropriate and enabliilg environment to encourage small- and large-scale farmers to utilize this for increased production. Credit facilities Agricultural production is capital intensive, yet the majority of our fanners are resource poor, and unable to afford most of the essential inputs. The need for assistance to acquire some oftheseinputs to increase their m p yield is patent. The government shoulddetermine the modalities for acauisition and reDavment of such assistance es~eciallv in the fom of . . . credit facilities. Such assistance must, however, be based on several production factors including: the total farmingpopulationrequiringassistance, the types ofcrops a n d n o d gestation periods, the relev%inputs andaverage production COG, etc. Subsidy Experience has shown that in some developing tropical countries, cash loans granted to fanners by the government for food production were sometimes diverted to other non agriculhual uses. in this circumstance, it is advisable that the majority of the production inputs to be given to farmers should be subsidized, whereby the farmers pay only part of the cost Such inputs therefore look cheap and affordable to the fanners. However, the level of subsidy will be determined by several factors including the strength of the national economy as well as the disposition of the farmers to agricultural production and government offers. Land sustainabilitv Abuse and misuse of land resources have resulted in a decline in land fertility and subs* quent productivity. Land is arenewable resource that should be properly managed toensure sustainable productivity from one generation to another. Therefore, the general attitude of the people to land and its common use should be appraised and monitored. Furthermore, only sustainable farming practices, which enhance crop yield and reduce site degradation should be promoted by government agricultural extension agents. Research and develonmenf Innovation and development are dynamic in all human endeavors including agriculture. Innovations often result &om improvements on the old methods or ideas of activities, through a series of experimentations. What need to be improved are many, while the resources to cany out the improvements are limited and sometime scarce. Government should therefore set research priorities and production targets with a clear mandate for particular national agricultural research centers in respect of specific crops (Okoro 1995). The introduction of improved and high yielding crop varieties into the production system should be officially guided. A total of 244 crop varieties have been registered and released for farmers use (Anon 1999). Among these, some were retroactively registered because thev had been released into the svstem before the official reeistration. While breedine - - should be encouraged to continue for envisaged future use, the development and release ofbred lines/varieties should follow the national needs. Hence through the National Com- mittee on Registration and Release of Crop Varieties, with the secretariat at the National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB), national requirements in terms ofeach crop should be obtained and the information/data will he auseful guide to the formulation of national policy and guidelines for planning release of bred varieties. This will have a long lasting consequence on the amount of active genetic resources available in the system. Similarly, the expected or desired goals in the ovemll development of the systemshould be clear& spelt out in the official document by the state. - In addition, some exkialities that affect agricultural production should be given due considemtion, and be clearly spelt out in official policy statements of the government. For instance, details of impoaatioi of food items, the categories as weU as the conditions for their acceptance, should be reviewed in the geneml interest of the people. Farm-level data generation and utilizafion On the spot assessment and evaluation generate data for factual decision making in every sector. However, the generation of these data could be cumbersome, tedious, and ofien time consuming. The techniques of obtaining these vary with the type of studies and its application such as social, biological, or physical disciplines. For socioeconomic policy and planning in developing countries, data generally come from two sources (Babu et al. 1996): prinmy data wuected directly through sample and field (formal and informal) surveys secondary data published in numerous government documents that either partly or fully depend on the sample or field surveys Field enumerators under the leadership of a field officer often collect data. Generation ofdata useful for decision making on food and nutrition policy and planning at both the national and regional levels in Malawi was organized through the initiation of Food Security and Nutrition Monitoring (FSNM) system. The operations of the system were based on farm-level surveys involving the collection of periodic information with four different modules: (i) household food security, (ii) household income and expenditure, (iii) market and price, and (iv) nutrition monitoring (Babu et al. 1996). The application of farm survey data (farm and non farm growth linkages) from the Eastern province of Zambia shows that the promotion of policies and investments in the supply response and local marketing of non-tradable foods could greatly enhance the income and employment impacts of agricultuml growth (Hazel1 and Hojjati 1995). Farm-level data have been obtained for use in the western Brazilian Amazon, on why agroforestry systems were not being adopted (Vosti et al. 1998). The application of these findings to policy formulation in the region has equally being suggested (Vosti et al. 1998). Similarly, the use of farm-level @lot-level agronomic) data from Burkina Faso, for the provision of better policy guidance for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa has been demonstrated by Udry et al. (1995). Facts and figures have been used for a long time in planning a schedule of activities, particularly those that involve sustainability and long-term activities. In the forestry subsec- tor, management plans have been used for the sustainable management ofboth natural and plantation forests. Hitherto, these management plans were based on reconnaissance and inventory data obtained from exercises carried out across the forest estate and projections made on the growth rate and sustainability of the estate. In this forestry subsector, the use of inventory (field measurements and surveys) data to obtain complete information on the quantity and quality of resources in an ecosystem as well as the value in a plantation, have been used to anive at policy decisions in many A6ican countries. For instance, the indica- tive inventory of the reserved high forests of southern Nigeria camed out by the Federal Department of Forestry during 1973 to 1977 and repeated by FORMECU from 1996 to 1998 served as a useful guide for policy decisions at national, regional, and state levels on timber production, conversion of natural forests to forest plantations, and in selecting areas of priority for intensive management surveys. This was also used to draw up and formulate forest management plans for all the states affected by the exercise (FORMECU 1996). Similarly, the results of the household surveys carried out by Ladipo (1998) and Kzimu (1998) on Omo Forest Reserve, Ogun State, Nigeria, had far reaching implications on the forest reserve management policy of the government. Data generation and utilization through CIS The cumbersome, tedious, and time-consuming nature of farm-level data generation neces- sitated the need for advancement in the methods of obtaining data for decision making. The use of remote sensing to obtain information on an object from a distance without physical contact was a breakthrough in this direction. Various advances have been made in this technology over time, improving its applications and versatility. Over the years, this technology has proven a veritable source of information about the earth's surface and this advantage has been exploited for ecoregional policy and planning in the advanced world However, the developing countries still lag behind in the multiple usage of remote sensing (Adeniyi 1985). in Nigeria, the Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) imageries of the country acquired by the Federal Department of Forestry (FDF) between 1976 and 1977 were subsequently interpreted to produce the vegetation and land-use maps of the country. These have pro- vided the all important information for scholars, industries, and governments for planning and policy purposes. The tremendous success of the earlier use of SLAR encouraged the repetition of the exercise between 1993 and 1995, using a combination of satellite imageries. - Developing countries from other regions of the world have also benefited ffom this scientific achievement. During 1994, the results obtained from a small number of Landsat and Spot imageries on Togo showed that intensified clearing ofvegetation fromthe begin- ning of the 1990s, after 25 years of a strictly enforced protection policy, would lead to accelerating land degradation over the next ten years (Anon 1997). In an ambitious project to monitor crop production and predict harvests throughout the Sahel, pictures obtained from NOAA weather satellite and processed in Niamey, Niger, and complemented with ground observations were used to forecast likely harvest times. This has been very useful for planning humanitarian aid as well as supplies from regions of surplus to areas that ue likely to be in deficit (Anon 1997). Cape Verde has also developed a GIs database with the intention to optimize the devel- opment of the island of Santiago and improve agricultural productivity from its resources. This has been used to collate inventories of the island's natural resources: climate and rainfall; topography; morphology; and plant biodiversity. It is also envisaged that new layers of information (demography and urbanization) will be superimposed on the the- matic map which will be highly useful for planning distribution networks for electricity and water throughout the island (Anon 1997). The Forest Management, Evaluation, and Coordinating Unit (FORMECU) of the Federal Department of Forestry, Nigeria, was able to assess the changes in land use and vegetation in Nigeria between 1978 and 1995, using GIs techniques (FORMECU 1996). This result has provided a reliable platform for planning and policy formulation for the various facets of the Nigerian economy. Similarly, the Center for Arid Zone Studies, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, reported a remarkable success in the use of GIs for computing the changes that have taken place in the ecology of the northeastern parts of Nigeria. This has enabled the center to design appropriate and sustainable farming tech- niques for the area. Land-use characterization of the inland valley systems ofWest Africahas being carried out using GIs, remote sensing, geographic positioning system and ground-truth data, for policy formulation among the different wunhies covered by the system (Thenkabail and Nolte 1995a, b, and c). Comparative analysis of farm-level data and CIS economy Farm-level data are obtained through tedious, cumbersome, and time-consuming exercises, that often or sometimes combine camping on site, with a series of measurements, tabula- tion, and calculations. While the moue- implications in terms of allowances given to the field officers and the expenses on the vehicles and other consumables can be easily computed and valued, the risks and other hazards that are associated with such exercises cannot be q u a n ~ e d , as long as the team returned safely to base. The use of remote sensing andother GIs techniques have attempted to overcome these shortcomings ofthe farm-level system. The Landsat and Spot hagenes used for the Togo GIs exercise were obtained for 150 OOOFF and wnlirmed by ground surveys which required a travelling of over 35 000 lan in the different regions of the country. Systematic ground level verification of satellite image interpretation is an essential part of any program and the cost of this groundwork could be more than the cost ofpurchasing the wrresponding satellite imageries. However, GIs makes it easy to correlate the biophysical cbatacteristics of a region with its socio- economic variables. Similarly, quantitative data could be obtained using GIs. Farm-level data require &quentrepetition to update and monitot the progress. And this also requires appreciable funding to put the team on the ma& The permanent position of the satellites in the orbit makes the acquisition of its data readily available and constantly updated, almost on a daily basis. Data collected through the GIs cover wider areas than farm-level data and could be extrapolated for wider objects and subjects. Conclusion The diversity of farming systems, cropping systems and resource consWts , even within a country as well as the inability of the few policies designed at the national level to have similar effects on the rural households have be recognized. The use of data collected thmugh the application of GIs for sustainable policy and planning should be made available to all nations. Each country should be able to acquire this information relatively cheaply and supplement this with ground-truth verification of selected sites. These are then used to make general proclamation on such resources. Monitoring of changes in such exercise is already made easy with constant update of information Bom the satellite imageries. References Adeniyi, P.O. 1985. Digital analysis of multitempoml Landsat data for land-usenand cover classi- fication in semiarid areas of Nigeria Photogiammebic Engineering and Remote Sensing 51(2): 1761-1774. Anon. 1997. Images fmm space that aid development Spore 68: 4. Anon. 1999. National committee registers over 240 crop varieties. NACGRAB Newsletter Vol. 1: 1. Babu, S.C., D.H. Ng'Ong'OIa, and G.B. Mthindi. 1996. Developing decentralized capacity for development policy analysis; lessons for agricultural development fmm food senniry and nutri- tion monitoring in Malawi. African Development Review 8(1): 127-145. FORMECU (Forest Management, Evaluation, and Coordinating Unit). 1996. The assessment of land-use and vegetation changes in Nigeria between 1978 aod 1993/1995. Consultancy report snbmitted by Geomatics International Inc. Ontario, Canada Hazell, P. and B. Hojjati. 1995. Farmlnon-fanu growth linkages in Zambia Journal of African Economies 4(3): 40C435. &pi,A.E. 1995. Planrimgin practice: an assessment ofplan implementation efforts inNigeria Pages 78-90 in Sustainable agriculture and economic development in Nigeria. African Rural Social Sciences Research Networks, edited by Ikpi and Olayemi. W m c k International, Moriltan, W~consin, USA. Karimu, S A 1998. The roles of surrounding communities on the management of the Omo For& Reserve. Consultant's Report for the Ogun State Forestry Department, Abeokula, Ogun Slate, Nigeria 53pp. Ladipo, D.O. 1998. Agroforestiy alternatives for Omo Forest Reserve in Ogon State, Nigeria Consultant Repon for the Ogun State Forestiy DepmenL Abeohta, Ogun State, Nigeria 46pp. Okoro, E.G. 1995. Development of research capacity and technology for sustainable agricultmal and economic development in Nigeria Pages 20-40 in Sustainable agriculture and economic development in Nigeria African Rmal Social Sciences Resemh Neiworks, edited by Ikpi and Olayemi. Wuuock intem.?tional, Moriltan, Msconsin, USA. Olayemi, 3.K 1995.Agricultural policies for sustainabledevelopmot Nigeria'sexpcriencc. Pages 4 1 4 0 in Sustainable agriculhm and economic development in Nigeria African Rural Social Sciences Research Networks, edited by Ikpi and Olayemi. W m c k International, Moriltan, Wxseonsin. USA. Thenkabail, P.S. andC. Nolte. 1995a. Mapping and characterizing inland valley agroecosystems of West and Central Africa: a methodology integmting Remote Sensing, Geographic Positioning System, and Ground-Truthdata in aGeographic Information System Framework. RCMD Mono- graph No. 16. IlTq lbadan, Nigeria. 62pp. Thenkabail, P.S. and C. Nolte. 1995b Regional characterkakion of inland valley agmecosystems in Save, Bante. Bassila, and Parakou Regions in south central Republic of BCnin, through inte- gration ofremote sensing, Geographic Infonuation System and Geographic Positioning Systems. Inland Valley Characterization Report 1. RTArmC. 46pp. Thenkabail P.S. and C. Nolte. 1995c. Regional characterization of inland valley agmecosystems in Gangnoa. Cote d'lvoire, through integration of m o t e sensing, Geographic Positioning Sys- tems, and Ground-Tmth data in a Geographic Information System (GIs) framework. Inland Valley Characterization Report 2. I I T M C . 38pp. ~ ~ Udry, C.. I. Hoddinott, H. Alderman, and L. Haddad. 1995. Gender differentids in Farm pmductiv- ity: implications for household eificiency and agriculaual policy. Food Policy 20(5): 407423. Vosti. S.A., J. Witcover. S. Oliveira. and M. Faminow. 1998. Policv issues in amforestrv: technol- - ogy adoption and regional intergration in the western Brazilian Amazon. Agoforestry Systems 38: 195-222. Agribusiness and marketing information systems development to support smallholder and medium-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa Anthony lkpi African Rural Social Sciences Research Network (ARSSRN) Resource and Crop Management Division (RCMD) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, Nigeria Abstract Sub-Saharan AWca is characterized by widely dispersed small- to medium-scale agriculture-related processing eneterprises. There are activities of mainly micro- enterprises or very small-scale generators and they are very widely distributed all over the region. These as a whole contribute on ihe average, about 55% of the 40-70% contribution made bv all micmentemrises: the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (iTNID0) has eailier said that about 95% of all agri- business firms are owned and ooerated bv individuallv distinct and unrelated local proprietorships. Only the remaining 5%&e operateiby conglomerets. ~eEently, moves by some export-~~enteda~iodustrialists have, however, helped fome anew direction for the development of certain microentemise werations in thc-agribusiness scctor It ir this n& dcvelopmcnt that has mide it possible for some form of modular mmkctinn information system M S ) to emcrne. This papcr discusses this fully in the lightof the needs aid the &&able dekelopm;niof small enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa Introduction Mth the exception of a few agriculture-related processing enterprises, agribusiness estab- lishments in the EPHTA study area of West and Central Africa are generally observed to be limited to and controlled by millions of smaU-scale operators/microentreprene~rs who are widely dispersed within rural and urban centers of sub-Saharan Africa. Where they are large, these businesses are more often located in suburban districts where the type and volume of final output produced usually requires an expanse of land that can accommodate the necessary idiwtruchue. Individually, agribusiness microenterprises have output capacities that are small and ofien limited. Ln spite of this, however, agribusi- ness enterprises contribute, on the average, over 55% of the 40-70% contribution made by all microenterprises to the gross domestic product of countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Ikpi 1998a). Furthermore, a recent UNIDO (1997) study reveals that, in sub-Saharan Africa, about 95% of all agribusiness h s are owned and operated by individually distinct and unre- lated local proprietorships, while the remaining 5% are operated by large conglomerates that may be domestically or internationally owned Consequently, a large number of the agribusiness microenterprises belong to the informal sector of the countries in which they are established. This particular characteristic imbues a unique attribute of general difficulty in organizing these enterprises into deiinable and systemic cooperative units that could combine their resources for synergistic gains. This marketing information system is discussed later in this paper. In order for us to appreciate the intricate relationships that exist between these agribusiness 6rms as a system, it is necessary that we classiiy them into deiinable categories. Classification of agribusiness enterprises in the EPHTA region Agribusiness enterprises in the EPHTA study area may be classified at three levels. Structumlly, they may be grouped into three operational areas (agriculture, forestry, and fisherieslwildlife) under each of which are then identified fourfirnctional categories (pro- duction, processing, marketing, and service provision). Different specific types of these 6rms are then placed w i t h each category such that a general typology of agribusiness operations may be presented as follows: production agribusiness concerns fertilizer and other agrochemicals providers livestock producers . crop producers processing agribusiness firms meat processors and packers fruit, vegetable and other crop processors and packers marketing agribusiness companies meat distributors fmit, vegetables, and other crop diskibutors service-providing agribusiness operations food wholesale and retail outlets food-production and processing-equipment repair centers restaurants!cooked food outlets production agribusiness firms forestry-seedling providers . lumber and other forest product providers non-timber forest product providers processing agribusiness companies wood processors furnituremakers marketing agribusiness concerns wood and furniture distributors serviceproviding agribusiness operations wood and furnime wholesale and retail outlets -0 Fisheries- and wildlife-based production agribusiness concerns fish net makers and suppliers fingerlingsuppliers fish and wildlife farms processing agribusiness firms . fish processors and packers marketing agribusiness companies . fish distributors service-providing agribusiness operations . fish wholesale and retail outlets restaurants Thenumber ofagni iness types in each category depends on fictors such as intensity ofthe agricul~Vforestiyffisheiypiactice in agiven countiy, the location of the enterprises (dperi-urbdurban), the size of population served, the income levels of the target consumers, the consumers' tastes and preferences, etc. Generally, however, the domestic demand placedon these enterprises is small. It is the new expoa markets being developed today that provide the needed leverage to increase their size of operation Background of the agribusiness sector in the EPHTA study area . Ageneral background of the agribusiness sector in the EPHTAstudy area is best provided through a discussion of the sector's productivity, government attitude and existing public policy environment, and W g e s cui~ently established between its various components andlor subsectom. It is this background picture which defines the system's development that supports the micraenterprise (small- and medium-scale) farm operations in the region. Agribusiness enterprise productivity The productivity of agiven enterpriseorbusinass sector is usually defined by its resource deployment capacity and the general level of output derived from the use of those resources. In other words, the productivity level of an enterprise or sector is illustmted by compar- ing the rate at which input requirements are converted into outputs within that enterprise or sector. Under the enterprise or sector definition, productivity may also be given by a concentration inder (measured by the total quantity of some selected final product in the sector that is contributed by a specified number of the h s producing that output), and the scale of organizm'on of the firms concerned E'IL O'OOS'E L S6L'L 5861 P'6 O'OOQ'I L SSZ'L PQ61 E'6 O'ELS SS E86 L 1'6 0'265 S9 Z86 L 0'6 O'OZ9 69 186 L 0'6 O'ZP6 SO L 0861 e!laa!~ Q'LL P'LL9'9 SSS 566 L 6'0 L O'SZO'9 055 P66 I 6'0 L 9'ZL6'S SPS E66 L 6'0 L 0'299'5 8 LS Z66 L 8'0 L S' LOL'S SZS 1661 P'Q O'L LL'Z EZE 066 1 0'8 O'OZE'E SIP 686 L E'6 O'OOE'E PSE 886 L O'L B'SZL'Z 06E L86 L 6'L 2'9LQ'Z S9E 986 L E'8 O'SLO'E OLE 586 L 2'8 O'S90'P S6P P86 L 9'9 Z'SLE'L OLZ E86 L L'L S'SQ6'L 081 Z86 L 6'L 9'0ZL'Z SPE 186 L 9'~ ~'968'~ O~E 086 L eueqg (sauuoz .!sa~u) (sauuo~ .!saw 000,) (salei3aq 000,) ~WPI~K uop~npold lqol ea~e pa~ueld leah hunm 'S66L-086 1 'sa!@uno3 Apms vlHd3 papalas rnoj u! kynpnpo~d pue eare paweld .L alqel 's661-0861ro~ (anez pm 'E-L 'eua8!~ 'mq~) sayunoa Lp~s VLHdg pa33alas moj m awmq sad pla!K pue 'uoganpord lqo3 's8u!lueld enessea sazpmnms 1 a[qeL.eare Kpr~sv~+~da aq yq!m h!nganpord ssan!snq@e lanai -mol sq Jo uouemrgooa jeqssela e ap-d 01 araq pasn s! enessea 'aldumxa ue sv '(98661 !a) smrg 8ws!xa Kq saamosarjo nopqlgn h!aedea mol e ro aseq an!lanpord mo1 e raq!a Bqeapm '@g oo? s! xapu! uogwuaauoa e qanS .saWunoa padolanap iq (%s 1 01 s Klrensn) siauuej maj e 03 paredmoa se $n&no pooj par!nba aq jo %Os ueq ssal apyord ox papaau 8maq sraq jo sno!ll!m 03 lna@h!nba st a8quaarad sm .ro?aas aq 30 spaau lndlno aqjo %OS moqe apyord 03 rqmsqns aq m smrg aq jo %56 Wq'J =Om '23uelSU! 103 'saw 3! leq 3aeJ aq 4 alqqnqge X~@yed qs!~ 'slanal a!mou -ma pue alqwsap molaq s! 92- asn naq 'eagv uereyes-qns m ~u'epunqe am saamosar jwpage anganpord qboqle 'sp~om raqlo 171 .8m3aedw Kana!3lgns-jlas poo~ pue &u -naas-pooj alqqsap Ioj papaan s! 3q pal aqjo %SS ueq ssa1 8upa~cn 'rood s! ro13as ssamsnqge aq m h!aedm ~uadoldap-aamosa~ aq ~q moqs eam Kpws v~~da aq roj sa3eqsa '9661 u! aaueuuopad a~!1&a~ua110~3as samsnq*~ aqua aq q padsar q!m 'aldmexa 103 'mol am sa3mysa h!nganpord 'ranamoy ‘lanai a-&alua pol aq 3-q .uo!% aq u! pasn Klan!~aa#a pue Xpna!agns 8maq 3aK 3on am no!~anpordjo srolaej iq pue ie~ldo laK IOU s! h!n!)anpord p@mm-~o~aej 3eql Zm~ea!pu! 'surmar q8q moqs suo!3erado ssamsnqme prlsanm p!dea pue roqel roj sareqsa &y!3mpord 's!seq lauuoj aq no parapyioa aaqm 'am mow n!Kanagga~o rqeapm poo8 e ? &!n!3anpold 'asea raqfa UI mdlno ~euy aqlro uoganpordjo (s)romj aqraqla q uoqeIar m pamseam aqsaqamos Kem &!n!?anpord Table 1. Cassava planted area and productivity in four selected EPHTA study countries, 1980-1995 (Continued). Country Year Planted area Total production ('000 hectares) ('000 metric tonnes) Yieldha (metric tonnes) Tanzania 1980 302 1,207.0 5.6 1981 310 1,456.0 7.4 1982 33 1 1,658.0 7.4 1983 372 1,967.0 7.4 1984 401 1,894.0 7.4 1985 300 2,087.0 7.4 1986 362 2,031 .O 8.3 1987 345 1,709.0 8.3 1988 361 1,272.0 8.3 1989 392 1,731.0 8.3 1990 371 1,566.0 8.3 1991 198 1,778.0 9.0 1992 200 1,802.0 9.0 1993 200 1,802.0 9.0 Zaire 1980 1981 Sources: Cornoiled bv lkoi from various oublications: 11) For the Ghana fieures: Ghana Minirtrv of - - ~ - - ~ -~ ,~ ~ ~, , , ~~~~ "- -- - ~ ~ , . . ~ Agriculture. 1997. Agrrcubure 10 Chana-Farls and Ftgures. Accra (2) For the N~ger~a figurcs: Central Bank of N ~ g e r ~ a . 1995. Annual Report. Lap,or. (3) For the Tanzania~figures: (a) Ferguson, T.U. 1991. An FA0 Repon on Cassava Consulting Mission to Tanzania am' Lkandd; and (b) K i r i ~ v w l u , I.A.8. 1994. IndusBy RevAu dSorphr/m, M*, am? -- Cassava in ~anzanh - (4) For the Zaire figures: (a) Shapiro andTokens. 1992. Cassava Production in Zaire; and (b) Department of Agriculture, Zaire. 1994. Regional Cassava Production Estimates. From Table 1, one can deduce that the average yield per hectare of cassava harvested during the period covered ranged from 5.6 tonnes inTanzania to 11.8 inGhanaand Nigeria. Compared to the achievable yield of between 24.5 and 30.95 t o m e s h (depending on the soil type), this low average yield recorded for each of these countries is an indication that much still needs to be done in terms of disseminating improved cassava varieties for adoption. In fact, field visits to Tanzania and some parts of Ghana and Nigeria c o b that scientists in the National Agricultural Research Systems collaborating with IITA in these countries still have some serious sensitization work to do in order to effectively disseminate the improved cassava technology presently wasting on the shelves. The generally low overall productivity ofthis crop in each of these producing countries (in spite of the fact that it is less land and labor demanding than other crops) conlirms that there is currently not enough investment to bring out its commercialization potential. The total land area devoted to this crop in each of these major cassava-producing countries has not reached the point of economic optimum that will yield attractive profits to growers. Government attitude and existing public policy environment Government influence on entrepreneurs is of paramount importance in the development and expansion of indigenous agriiusiness enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa This influence is discernible in three ways. First, government's general attitude toward private enterprise determines whether or not the business climate is favorable. Secondly, government policies usually indicate the economic sectors in which private enterprise is encouraged to operate, set rules and regulations with which businesses must conform, and affect the market incen- tives and pressures that guide its day-to-day operations. Thirdly, government programs usually provide the means for financial help, technical assistance, and other types of aid which private entrepeneurs need for establishing, expanding, and improving their activities. In the EPHTAstudy area, these various components of government influence have tended to be negative towards agriculture and agribusiness microenterprise development. In fact, the general government attitude and public policy on agribusiness growth and expansion in the region have been downright inimical. They have actually tended to discourage agribusiness practice, especially as it relates to small- and medium-scale operators. Interestingly, despite this non-supportive role of government attitude and public policy on indigenous private enterprise, virtually all countries in the EPHTA region have been seeking to encourage private foreign investment as a major source of the capital and of the technical and managerial skills required for their development. Thus, even in the socialisti- cally inclined African countries, whatever objection there is to private economic activity on ideological grounds is outweighed by realistic recognition of the need to take advantage of all possible sources of capital and initiative. As a better understanding of the nature and potential benefits of indigenous private enterprise spreads among AiXcan leaders and the disadvantages of excessive dependence on public enterprise become increasingly recog- nized, the willingness of many Afiican governments to modify doctrinaire convictions about indigenous private enterprise will increase and be encouraged. This broader under- standing and consequent willingness to rely upan various types of economic activity are also likely to be fostered as experience is gained in the process of development planning which, in one form or another, is being practiced by most African countries. Linkages between agribusiness sector components and/or subsectors As indicated above, the agribusiness sector in sub-Saharan Africa is made up of different components andor subsectors that operate mostly independently. Howevq because of economic dynamism and the existence of the law of natural relations and dependence of related p m , a system of linkages has developed within the agribusiness sector. These linkages are normally encouraged by the formation of trade associations and chambers of commerce in industry and agriculture that national business regulations usually impose on even small proprietorships as are dominant in agribusiness. Furthermore, the need to add value to agricultural raw materials before they are sold to final consumers or manufacturers has necessitated the formation of local groups or associations that promote the interests of members. Hence, business lidages have developed among and between agribusiness enterprises in both rural and urban areas of the EPHTA region. These linkages are main- tained and fostered by a driveldesire for survival by these enterprises; and it is from their existence that a marketing information system has developed to support the small- and medium-scale agribusiness operators. Marketing information systems development in African agribusiness Generally, the level of marketing information collection, processing and dissemination in relation to and for the use of agribusiness operations is a serious handicap that effectively slows down the rate of development of this sector. Consequently, existing domestic mar- kets are simple, scattered, and uncoordinated; export markets for most of agricultuml and agribusiness products are just begimiig to develop for most of the EPHTA study area. Recent U N D O studies of the ago-industrial sector of sub-Saharan Afiica in 1996 show that external demands imposed on the sector have led to the creation and existence of rudimentary and informal but partially effective marketing information systems for and among agribusiness micro-enterprise operators in the region. These information systems operate at three levels, the commodity producer level at the farmgate centers, the processor level at collection points, and the exporter level at the few specified ports. The success of the system at each level is inversely related to the number ofoperators at that level such that the operators at the farmgate level have a weaker system than those involved at the exporting level. At each of these levels, the marketing system generates and collects data on the: number and concentration of producers/pmcessors/distributors in each geographical location total quantity of each commodity producedprocesseddistributed within the defined domain proportion of this quantity that is available for domestic consumption and sale price per measure of the commodity or processed form number and form of associations that exist for the various operators in that level of the market periodicitylfrequency of meetings of the market A collection of centers at each level constitutes a business cell whose members are bound by invisible rules and regulations that govern its survival. Information generated and collected at this level is usually digested and disseminated with dispatch among operators. Women's issues in aeribusiness develo~ment in the EPHTA reeion - ., Generally, women play a cmcial role in agibusiness enterprise development. Available smtistics born the ILO (1995) indicate that about 60% of all agribusiness 6i-m~ are es& lished and operated by women. Unfortunately, however, in the&efforts to promote gainful self-employment and operate agribusiness micro-enterprises, these women face certain consmints. According to Ikpi (1998a) and the ILO African Employment Report 1995, most of these constraints are gender-specific. They include: . behavioral barriers which make women operators have little self-confidence and a negative self-image educational barriers which make women attain relatively lower education levels, receive a biased education, and usually have limited access to vocational training opportunities infiastnrcfure bamiers which deny them access to credit, technology, support ser- vices, land, and information legal barriers which make independent legal action S i t e d for women occupational barriers whichcause women to have fewer opportunities in the formal sector for skill development role-related bam'ers which arise because of contlicting role demands and time constraints on women social and cultural barriers which nromote negative anitudes towards women in - business, demand that women must fulfill other roles, restrict them as to the choice of sector, and increase their lack of M y support and mobiity - ~ Most of these constraints have sociocultural origins, and so require deep-moted attitu- dinal changes in the socioculttmal environment. Despite these observed conshints, many women still become self-employed by setting up agribusiness microenterprises. Thns, for a pmper development of the agribusiness sector, women-headed enterprises should not be viewed in isolation bom the economic and sociocultural context in which they evolve. The establishment, survival and growth of women-headed enterprises are all crucially affected by societal values such as undervaluation of women's economic role, sex-mle stereotyping, women's limited access to certain types of vocational tmining, industrial policies, and legislation. Conclusion and recommendations The way forward for agribusiness enterprise development in sub-Saharan AErica demands that, in recognition of the potential contribution to economic gmwth, economic resilience, savings accknulationlca~ital formation, employment creation, etc., governments in the EPHTA region should start implementing pmgmms that generally encourage entrepre- neurial capacity building for all investors, but especially for female agribusiness investors. Such progmms should incorporate the following elements: provision of credit technical training for improving productivity and quality of output managerial training action to facilitate more women's involvement in economic activities through the organization and funding of various supporting social activities such as child care and group discussions to develop better social awareness ofwomen's economic mles in society marketing assistance actions to facilitate the establishment of women's groups including an early stari to improve girls' access to education and to training in modem technical skills as weU as in leadership . assisting in setting up new agribusiness enterprises or upgrading existing ones In order to effectively implement the ahove suggested elements, it is necessary to train officials in many public departments, banks, and other lending institutions that have anythiig to do withagribusiness development to recognize the economic potential of their enireprenews, especially women. Furthermore, there is a need to build up networks and ensure appropriate coordiiation between all relevant govemment and nongovemment departments and institutions in the field of business promotion and development (credi technical and managerial training, choice of technology, input procurement, legal counsel- ing, marketing, and managcmcnt). Thm is aneed to establish, within the EPHTAstudy area, agribusiness industrial parks whose principal focus should be to promote agricultud-input industries and commercial crops, ensure food security, enhance agriculhml productivity, increase competitiveness, and attract needed resource Bows into agricultural industries. Such parks should be able to unveil viable avenues for enhancing value-added products while increasing the degree of local processing. They should also demonstrate how the region's industrial comple- mentation could be achieved. Finally, experience shows that past development efforts at assisting African nations have centeredon large projects. These efforts have summarily failed to meet desired goals or objectives. For instance, social funds budgeted for and spent in countries of the region have Failed to work because of nontiamparency of handlers and improper application of such funds. In the last 25 years alone, development banks have spent over a trillion US dollars in sub-Saharan Africa funding large projects that have proved irrelevant to the intended beneficiaries. There is a need, therefore, for such banks to refocus by reas- sessing their plamed contribution to development in fume. They should develop new workable strategies that invest in people (human capital) insteadof in macro projects such as buildings, roads, etc. They should support only those strategies that intermediate with nongovernmental organizations working with microenterprise owners and operators in the agribusiness sector. References Cenhal Bank ofNigeria. 1995. Annual R e p a Lagos, Nigeria. Ferguson, T.U. 1991. An FA0 Report on cassava consulting mission to Tanzania and Uganda FAO, Rome, 1%. Ghana Minimy 0fAgriculture. 1997. Agriculture in Gbansfam and figures. Accq Ghana ikpi, k 199% Microenterprise development in West Africa In Microfinance and Micrcenmprise Development in Francophone Wm Africa Pmceediigs ofARSSRN's Fad Policy Workshop, 4-7 November 1998, Abidjan, a t e d'Ivoire. edited by A. &pi (foribcmabg). ikpi, A. 1998b. Replicating Thailand's cassava production and export success story in Africa: cases for Ghana and Tanzania AUNlDO Publication, Vienna, Austria lLO (International Labor Organization). 1995. African employment repon, Geneva, Switzerland Kiriwaggulu, J.A.B. 1994. Industry review of sorghum, millet and cassava in Tanzania Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Shapiro and Tokens. 1992. Cassava production in Zaire. Kinshasa, Zaire. 'w 'mqq wmqsa oog~npold enesm @no@% '~661 '"~ln@vjo ~oaaqredaa wsnv Tenoa1A 'ma1 shhms lams pwpq alg rCq laded oo!ssmq w v 8qvm saw anamdolanap pqmpm weiar&e~o Xam v '~661 'OW egsnv 'euua~y, 'om '000~ pooLq saqmm Sqdolanap io~ wogea -gdy :Xqsnpmjo oo!mqpqoP aql '~iadeq3 u~.e~gvo! i(qsnpm Bqnauq '9661 'om Gender roles in the development of sustainable food systems in sub-Saharan Africa 3Adeiine Ofori-Bah 4EIien Bortei-Doku Aryeefey . . --- - - . Efficient and susiainable strategies forthe production of food to smc thc needs of the rapidly rising population of sub-Saharan Africa arc presently a factor wonb - - . considerkg. Women are directly mvolved m food produkion and the anaimnent of its sustainability and the continued role of women in food processing and dis- hibution is also a~wortbwhilc factor in the dnrclopment of &b-~aha& Africa Unfommaicly, dcspiie thcir laudable conhihution, tiadition engendmd norms in the distribution of entitlements is skcwcd in favor of mcn, but at lcast then: is ao cxeption as in the carc of the Chewa in Southern Malawi. w h e n eonrinuc to be active in the provision of food for thc family even as they iake up aliemative or additional jobs, thus making women sustaincr of the home in suh%aharanAfrica poverty &d food insenni&ntinues to grow as inNigeria and Ghana where mops such as cassava, yarn, maize, and others continue to fall foroue reason or another. Male-dommatedoahiarchal norms ofresource allocation. distniution, and decision making in tradiional farming economy, the persistent; for urban bias m iufrastructural allocation includine an urban-driven lowerine of prices, ete., mmibute to the present crisis in food-production in SSA. The need formoreaitentioninaddmsin~theseissuesisvitalmord~tosustainfoodmoduc- tion and to redi~ce gender bias: introduction A major challenge facing sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is hding efficient and sustainable strategies to produce enough food, reduce postharvest losses, and distribute the produce to the continent's rapidly rising population. Several studies on food production in SSA have conhued that in small-scale agriculture, women are directly involved in this struggle for foodsecurity at all levels. Unlikemen, the contribution ofwomen goes beyondproduction to include processing as well as distribution in many countries. The evidence, however, is that in the region, as has been found elsewhere, gendered n o m in the distribution of entitlements in the householdand family seriously influence the allocation and ownership of productive assets. Except under extreme forms of matriliny as has been found among the Chewa in southern Malawi, resource distribution practices have typically favored men at the expense of women's activities in agriculture (Hem 1984, Boserup 1970). Women's involvement in promoting food security in SSAis important for other reasons besides their heavy presence in the farming sector. A rigid gender segregated division of labor in agriculture, compounded by the drift ofmen dming colonialism into commercial production compelled worn& producers to expand their farming activities to feed the famiiy. Today, most women farmers continue to concentrate on food production, while men have more varied choices between fwd production and export or other cash crop production such as commercial staples. Indeed this landscape underlies Boserup's descrip tion of SSA as the region offemale farming pas excellence (Boserup 1970). In the last two decades, living standards in SSA have been facing a general decline manifested in increased levels of poverty and food insecurity. Per capita food pmduc- tion has been inadequate in the region and declining steadily (Abalu 1997). Production growth raies for selected food crops in Ghana and of general food production in Nigeria, as presented in Table 1 and Table 2 are indications of this fact The situation of women producers can be understood fiom two directions. First, male- dominated patriarchal norms of resource distribution and decisionmaking in the traditional Evming economy have had constmining effects on the growth of women's production activities. Secondly, the persistence of urban bias in infmshuchue development and urban-driven low pricing mechanisms, together with a neglect of general incentives for rural producers have had disproportionate effects on women producers. Policies support- ing lower prices of food that are common in Afiica are criticized for being urban biased (Timer et al. 1993) and are identified as being the fundamental causes of the food pro- duction crises because they do not provide adequate incentives to the producers, most of whom are women. These policies tend to overlook the links between urban food prices, produces' incomes, and their capacity to ensure national food security. In the past, policymakers had been comforted by a general expectation that policies which improve the access of smallholders to laud, impmved technology, fertilizers, credit and market information, can both mise aggregate food supply and minimize scar- city pressure on food prices wnsbip-Anderson 1989). But development analysts using gender-sensitive field techniques are beginuing to acknowledge the fact that this general principle is subject to local discriminatory pressures in resource-distribution practices. Koopman (1992) has argued, for example, that to achieve a sustainable food system in Table 1. Produciion growth rates for selected food crops in Ghana (%I. Crop Growth Rate (%) 1988-1991 1991-1995 Cassava Yam Plantain Maize Rice Millet Sorghum 15.3 12.9 Table 2. Growth rate of food production in Nigeria. Period Growth rate (%) 1976-1 980 4.41 1981-1 985 9.31 1986-1990 14.55 1991-1993 5.71 Source: Akanji (19973. Africa, policymakers need to understand intra-household separation and inter-relation of men's and women's enterprises and incomes, in addition to directing resources to a great majority of resource-poor farmers. Additional reasons why development practitioners are turning their attention to the gender dimensions of food production can be traced to the problem of natural resource management. By virtue of their sheer numbers in food production, women directly influ- ence the management of soil fertility and erosion, water infiltration and retention, waste and by-products (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994). Gender analysis of food production further draws attention to the key issues of time and labor availability. At stake is the extent to which men and women, as separate produc- ers, are able to devote the time and effort it takes to intensify food production. Studies on time use at the smallholder level already point to the fkct that women experience severe time deficit problems, because they are burdened with multiple roles of child bearing, housekeeping, and economic production. Further, there is evidence that even in produc- tion systems that are male designated, such as export crops, women provide vital labor. it has been found in Zambia, for example, that women put in about 8.5 hours daily on men's farms compared to 7.4 hours by men during the peak farming periods. Altogether these commitments put disproportionate pressure on women's energies with negative consequences on their productivity. To be able to address the issues of gender imbalance in men and women's production strategies, oneneeds to acknowledge that their operations differ in many respects. Cleaver and Schreiber (1994) have summed up the major differences that require the attention of policymakers as follows: . Men and women often have different objectives in farming. They have different and uneven resource endowments. . They are faced with different incentive systems. . The constraints they encounter are different. They perceive different risks and adopt different risk management strategies. They experience differing access to factor and product markets. . Their access to information, technology and other support services differ, and . The p a w of resource flow between men and women's farming activities is uneven and often in favor of men (e.g., labor). The general aim of this paper is to highlight wanen's contribution to agriculture, and common gender-related issues in food production in SSA. Special reference is made to the peculiar male-biased intra-household resource flow p a m s and how they impact on women's agricultural activities. The paper also looks beyond the households and families to external institutions of development, to see how gender-neutral development h e - works have had differential impact on men and women producers. Ln the h a l analysis an attempt is made to identify ways in which SSA countries can proceed to remove the constraints on men and women's contribution to food security. The rest of the paper is divided into the following sections: Gender and resource allocation in agriculture Existing gender roles in food production, postharvest handling and marketing Technology development and transfer Gender considerations in agricultural resource management Conclusion and recommendations In preparing this overview we have relied heavily on past reports and publications on women and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Special attention has been given to Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya to illustrate the issues beinidiscussed. - Gender and resource allocation in agriculture While a majority of women in food production can be described as disadvantaged rela- tive to men in access to resources, women are nevenheless not a homogeneous group. There are important inter-generation and cultuml differences between different groups of women. Some women are fortunate to have more opportunities for mobilizing resources to promote theirenterpises. Throughout this paper, it is the situation of the more deprived women that receives altention. The background of African farmers Except in one or two respects, there is a geneml impression that the backgound of both male and female farmers in Africa has changed little in the last 40 years, a period during which most African countries had obtained their independence. Data toverify this impres- sion are however, often sparse due to irregular censuses and other data gaps. Prior to the introduction of surveys on living standards with the Structural Adjustment Progmmme (SAP) in many African countries, there were no regular nationwide socioeconomic stud- ies on households. Recent evidence, however, confirms that the majority of fin farmers remain without formal education. They continue to depend on age-old traditions and skills in farming handed down to them by their forefathers and mothers. They rely largely on local knowledge for natural resource management, although these methods may no longer satisfy the needs of a rapidly degrading environment. Marketing practices continue to be dominated by poor information flow between buyers and sellers concerning prices. The lack of formal education and access to other information channels means that farmers still suffer from limited access to innovative information and technologies (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994). A study by Garba (1997) revealed that about 43% of Nigeria's gari processors are uneducated while another 43% possess primary education; 77% of the uneducated did not keep records. The situation is common among women producers and processors in sub-Saharan AiXca. Apart from making effective planning quite impossible, lack of proper record keeping makes the estimation of returns very difficult In many countries, there is also a growing concern that the age profile of farmers is rising, due to high migration of youths from rural to urban areas. In the past this was a phenomenon associated with young men, but adolescent girls are increasingly joining this exodus. Oldmen and women and female household heads are left to manage with the help of children, with negative consequences on children's education. Young girls who are the preferred helpers in most cultures suffer most from these arrangements. Gender and land allocation in agriculture In spite of the impressive contribution women make to the food system, their productivity is generally lower than the already too low levels that characterize smallholder agricul- ture. This is because most have relatively lower access to various factors of production, education, and market information. Even women's own labor input in the food system is reduced as a result of their multiple roles (Due 1991). In Ghana, for instance, land is predominantly regulated by customary rather than statu- tory laws. On the surface, customary laws appear to bave clearly stated codes for control- ling land use, but it has been noted that pressures on land allocation bave opened land laws to wide interpretation and have affected decisions related to access and ownership of land. Channels of access to land in Ghana and other West African countries include the family, spouses, share cropping, lease, purchase, or gift transfers. Though women have extensive land-use rights, their access to the resource depends largely on their relationship with men, its availability, and the goodwill of those who control it. Similarly in Nigeria, while the 1978 land-use decree vested all land rights in the states, traditional laws still prevail in practice. Women have to channel their access to land through the rights of their husbands and male relatives. Furthermore, the plots women own are subject to more hgmentation (Akanii 1997). - Studies bave revealed that women form a large proportion of farmers who do not own land in Ghana (GGDP 1991). The situation limits women's sense of security and motiva- tion in agriculhual In cases of divorce, death, or changes in land-use deci- sions by men, women often risk losing the land they depend on for their livelihood. With the rehabilitation of expori crops such as cocoa and coffee under SAP, in many African countries, the expansion of tree crop farming, for example, has taken more fertile lands out of women's food production activities. The evidence that different forms of kinship structures have differential impact on women's access and control of land is mixed. In places such as Ghana, matriliy has sur- prisingly no major ameliorating effects on women's land problems, because it is men in the matrilineal family who still practically control land (Bortei-Doku 1990). On the other hand, as noted earlier that in the matrilineal-matrilocal district of Zomba in Malawi, it is said that women enjoy high tenurial security because they continue to stay in their com- munities, farming land controlled by their mothers and grandmothers. Land scarcity here, however, creates practical problems even for women (Hirschrnann and Vaughan 1983). Land refoms in sub-Saharan Africa do not seem to improve the position of women in land rights and tenurial patterns. In East, Central, and Southern Africa where this occurred, no serious attempts have been made to co&ont the gender asymmetiy in the ownership of land by traditional leaders who control land, or policymakers. Consequently, reforms have not touched on the necessary legal codes thatwiil guarantee both women and men equal legal rights to full use, control, and ownership of land (Horenstein 1989). With increasing awareness of the importance of gender analysis for sustainable devel- opment, the trend in research is to examine inter-household resource mobilization and distribution flows, as well as the dynamics of social interaction within the household. The latter governs the access to, and control of resources among men and women and how they influence productivity, output, and incomes. Access to credit It has been established that African women's productivity is low for various reasons and hence, their returns from the productive activities are low. With low incomes, amounts reinvested are invariably low. A majority of the women cannot afford modem technology that will increase theirproductivity. The recurrence of this phenomenon must be broken to enable women play a meaningful role in developing a sustainable food system. Access to credit is perceived to play a signiiicant supportingrole in the development process andpm- vide a means for individuals and groups to acquire and mobilize productive resources. Historically, fanners' access to formal agricultural credit has lagged behind credit for commerce and other formalized sectors where quick returns can be anticipated and provide more security. Undoubtedly, women's lack of access to credit is part of the larger problem of inadequate credit to small-scale farmers. Formal credit to the agricultural sector in Ghana, for instance, has declined consistently over the years, mainly due to chronic and high default rates among farmers. Formal financial institutions have argued that the administrative costs of small loan borrowers have been high (Table 2). The situation is no diierent in other sub-Saharan African counhies. But scan women are faced with a complex range of legal, social, and practical constraints. For example, collateral required by most banks in Africa are traditionally not owned by women in the region. Where businesses have been accepted as collateral, women, often engaged in small- scale enterprises with no documentation of f o d y registered business, have not been considered In some communities, attitudes and beliefs lead tounderestimationofwomen's potential agriculhual productivity and their abiliry to repay loans. Generally, high levels of illiteracy, lack of guarantors, lack of access (especially of married women) to bank accounts, long distances to credit institutions, and complex banking procedures, have continued to limit nual women's access to credit. Loans extended in the Kwahu Praso Rural Bank, Ghana, to Nml women as presented in Table 4 depict the situation clearly. Information on sources of credit for male and female farmers and produce tmders in Nigeria, as presented in Table 5 reinforces this iact. Table 3. Percentage of loans and advances to the agricultural sector by commercial and secondary banks. End of period Commercial banks Secondaty banks 1988 16.6 13.2 1989 15.5 13.4 1990 15.8 16.1 1991 13.6 13.0 1992 11.1 8.7 1993 9.6 7.5 1994 6.6 9.3 1995 4.8 9.0 Table 4. Percentage of loans granted to women by the Kwahu Praso Rural Bank, Ghana. Year %of total loans to women 1984 23 1985 37 1987 10 1988 12 Source: UNEU. (1996). Table 5. Sources of credit to male and female farmers and produce traders in Nigeria (percentage from given sources). Farmers Traders Male Female Male Female Moneylenders 15.8 12.5 1.2 23.6 Licensed buying agents 23.7 12.5 - 1.6 BanWgovi. credit institutions 10.5 3.1 17.9 - Cooperative union 42.0 40.9 3.6 17.6 Spouse/friends/relations - - 57.3 46.0 Personal savings - - 12.8 - Source: Akanji (1997). Several studies have, however, shown that lack of credit does significantly limit adop tion of improved technologies even when lked costs are not large (Feder et al. 1985; Lipton 1976; Bhalla 1979). Alargeproportion ofrural producers including women farmers tends to rely on the informal financial market for their credit (Akanji 1997). These include middlemen, fiiends, relations, moneylenders, and in some cases, spouses (Table 5). From these sources neither collateral nor interest is usually demanded Loan transactions are conducted verbally and records are often undocumented In addition, repayment terms can be quite flexible. It is not unusual for borrowers in some communities to repay cash loans with labor assistance as occurs in the northern part of Ghana. Some farmers obtain credit fromprospective buyers to pre-finance their farming activi- ties. Other rural women form groups to engage in rotating credit schemes popularly known assusu. Cash mobilized ffom these sources is generally not very large, though it plays a critical mle in financing business (Bortei-Doku and Aryeetey 1995). Borrowers seeking larger sums on the financial market turn to local moneylenders. Despite the bad publicity they receive for their exorbitant rates of interest, their facilities are patmnized because they are accessible to ordinary people. In recent years, considerable effort has been made in sub-Saharan Africa to eliminate some of the factors that impede female access to credit Special programs have been cre- ated to increase women's access to credit, using innovative approaches, such as improv- ing traditional group savings schemes, savingslcredit associations and cooperatives, or special rural credit lines. These approaches have been noted for attempting to simplify credit procedures, relaxing guarantee requirements, and bringing credit facilities down to the village level (UNECA 1996). Various agricultural projects in Ghana stepped in to link up poor farmers with formal credit institutions by lodging funds with banks to pmvide revolving credit funds to both men and women producers. Although attempts by development agencies to link farmers up with banking institutions have increased, the coverage remains quite low. The literature shows that when state and donor resources are targeted at households rather than at particular categories of farmers, they become subjected to male control and rarely enable women to gain access to the inputs they require to improve their produc- tivity and that of their plots (Koopman 1992). It is, therefore, important to target credit specifically at rural women for their on-farm and off-fam income generating activities to enable them to break through the poverty cycle that they face and ensure their household food security. E n c o ~ g i n g traditional savings systems modeled on the Grameen Bank has been proved to be an effective way of channeling credit to women. This group approach helps to target credit specifically at groups of women, relying on group guarantees as well as peer group pressure for repayments. It makes provision for women who might only want smaller amounts than the Bank's minimum lending requirements. It also reduces the adminisfntive cost of lending. The approach has gained wide acceptance in Africa (UNECA 1996) because it is a sustainable means of using credit to raise household incomes. It is, therefore, necessary to intensify efforts toward the formation of women's groups and building up the capacity of existing ones to enable more ruml women to have access to credit facilities. Reports from one of the projects in Ghana, UER LACOSREP, which adopted the group approach for its credit scheme, indicates its success in the African environment. In the UER LACOSREP project, about 64.35% of the loans were extended to women. Reports from the project further suggest that women's production levels have gone up and their savings deposits are growing faster than in the men's groups. Women also had better repayment rates. In Nigeria, while the repayment mte for loans extended to women for cocoa production was 85% that of men was 53% (Akanji 1997). Another way to enhance nual women's access to credit is by formulating andenforcing nolicies that reserve acce~tablenrooortions ofaericuliural credit to women. Ruml women could also be reached wik cr&t linking vikge-based savings and loan groups with larger government credit p r o m andlor with the banking sector (UNECA 1996). Non- go&ental organizations (NGOS) could also be commis6ioned to act as intermediaries between the governments and commercial banks to provide credit for nual women. Women's nubition sfatus and its implication for agricultuml productivity - Women decide how much food can be available for the family and the kind of food the family eats. They prepare the food to conserve its nutrients and apportion it among family ~- - members. In most ruml communities, men and women eat separately; the womenserving the food feel obliged to give the more nutritious sources (MI and meat) to the men while they have the bulky low calorie staples. The typical pattern of eating (adult male fusf followed by boys, girls, and last, women) suggests that when food is scarce, women are likely to go hungry. In addition, with increased monitization, women farmers have been observed to sell more and consume less of their produce to raise funds for farm inputs that go with improvedproduction methods (Akanji 1997). These factors contribute to the poor nutritional status ofwomen. About 40% ofwomen in sub-Saharan Africa are affected by anemia (Yambi 1996). Another factor that has neeative imulications for rural women's nutrition status is the lopsidedgender distribution of labor fo; agricultural production. ~ v e n when recent trends indevelopment have led to changes in gender roles, the changes have been unidirectional, with women always assuming men's role andnot vice versa (Lado 1992). Women in food production continue to have a heavy workload This, together with gathering fkhood , child care, and food preparation leave women overburdened and has important implica- tions for their nutrition and health status. The geneml inferior position of women in traditional African societies affects their health and has serious implicatio~~~ for their agriculiural productivity. In addition, maternal malnutrition limits neonatal immunity and predisposes infants to conhzting communicable diseases and thereby increasing health care bills, which is often borne by the mothers. It places additional burden on the already low finds available for purchasing inputs for women's productive activities. About 39% of all Ghanaian 2-year olds are moderately or severely stunted (GSS 1994). Stunted children grow lo be stunted adults. About 25% of Nigerian women of child-bearing age are stunted from malnutrition (Yambi 1996). One most signScant consequence of adult stunting is reduced physical capability and pro- ductivity. Research in the Philippines shows that productivity of physical labor declines by 1.4% for eveiy 1% reduction in adult height. Effech of malnutrition, such as mental impairment due to iodine deficiency, stunting due to protein energy malnutrition and iron deficiency anemia have a profound impact on work productivity. Women's role in the food system is not to production, processing, and market- ing but extends to food utilization, nutrition, and health (Fig. 1). Women's role in food production is centml to nutrition for three reasons. First, they produce most of the food in sub-Saharanfica (about 70%) and thus, theirproductivity, to a large extent, determines how much food is available for consumption. Secondly, women have the responsibility for their families' health issues and rely on their incomes to respond to their M y ' s health needs. Finally, childcare that includes ensuring an adequate food intake, is solely the responsibility of women in most AEcan societies. The three factorsfood, health, and care provided by women-together determine the nutritional status of an individual (Yambi 1996). Besides producing food for the household, women spend their income £+om on-farm and off-farm activities on daily family needs. In fact, their income is more signScant Figure 1. Women's role in the food system. Food production and availability in society Economic level I , 1 Food availabiliiy within the household I Utilization of food by the family Social level I I Nubitionhealth status of the individual Source: Adopted from UNECA (1974). 70% of fmd pmduct 50% of animal husbandry 60% of fcod marketing Production for home use and imponance of women's income Domestic storage 50% Postharvest processing 100% Cwking 100% Water looo/. Fuel supply 80% For breast-fed infants and just weaned children. Mothers time is important Biological level to ensure adequate intake. High energy expenditure as a potential stress for women. Low birth weights lmpmved lactation than men's for household nunition requirements, not only because they are &aditionally responsible for their own children's food but also because, though small, women's income is more regular than that of men &.ado 1992). Quite often, rural men's earnings are fiom the sale of cash crops andlor wages earned fiom working on other farms. In so far as women's income is important for the nutrition of their families, women have to balance the costs and benefit of devoting their time to children with those of earning extra income. Certainly adequate access to labor saving production technologies can help women to devote reasonable time to their families without compromising their produc- tive roles andlor lowering incomes. Perhaps the real issue is whether there is a trade off between "child care time" and "productive work time". More often, the actual reduction is in women's leisure time, with possible implications for their health (Lado 1992). Nutrition progmms in Africa have often been oriented towards increased food produc- tion without the realization that availabidty of food in itself does not guarantee access to food by all. In Nigeria, for instance, even when available food meets 95% of the national calorie requirement, as much as 36% of the population are malnourished @'ambi 1996). while the available calorie level in Ghana is 93% of the required, about 27% of the population remains malnourished (Yambi 1996). Lado (1992) rightly points out that: "Opportunities for incorporating women's interest in ruraldevelopment schemes have beenmisseddue to the contributionofideological bias, lack of information and the desiue for expediency among planners and policy makers". Efforts to improve African women's nutritional status require an inclusion of nutrition objectives in rural and agricultuml development programs. For this purpose, it is neces- sary to monitor changes in the nutritional status of women and children in particular (because of the reasons discussed earlier), work patterns, resource allocation, and house- hold responsibdties. Because of the multisectorial nature of the nutrition problem, there is also a need for a collaborative effort by all relevant sectors ministries in planning for reduction in malnutrition. Interestingly, subdahamn African women themselves are not aware of their poor nutri- tional status and how it affects heir health and productivity. It eaUs for an intensification of nutrition education that take into consideration the types of locally available food, the income levels of the target families, and the socioculhual environment. This is necessary because social beliefs and traditions, many of which are still relatively strong (e.g., food taboos, most often related to protein foods) do infiuence the level of acceptance. Exten- sion services and training progmms could make effective contribution by: emphasisiing the role ofwomen in food production, extension and farm management in the curriculum of agricultural tmining institutions; developing effective teaching aids that will be used at field demonstrations; training home economics extension agents in the cultivation of new and existing crops that may be of secondary economic value but contribute to family income and nutrition; and strengthening links between research and extension to make both more acutely focused on women food producers' needs. It is important to note, however, that the educational campaigns may not yield the expected impact unless they are pursued simultaneously with efforts to improve the effi- ciency and workload of women. Existing gender roles in food production and postharvest handling and management Gender and division of labor in foodproducfion The International Labor Organization ( L O ) bas estimated that about three-quarters of African women are actively engaged in agriculture, compared to two-thirds ofAfricau men. EquaUy important is the fact that these women in most countries are responsible for more than half of the total food produced. For a long time these facts eluded planners because of the tendency to overlook unpaid and non-economic production, especially women's production, in the preparation of national statistics, and in research in general. - - Inmany countries in the region a fairly rigid division of labor in the rum1 economy leads to separate spheres ofhouseholdandmarket productionactivities for men and women. The general partem that has emerged from this is one of gender-spec& farming systems with men and women farming separate plots and often growing dBeteut crops. It is, however, eommon tohdthat inspite ofgender segregation, thereplacement ofmale laborby female labor is quite common, unlike the reverse. Consequently, as men havehistorically switched h m food to export crop production, or migrated to seek non-farm employment, women have been forced to take up the tasks that they previously did not perform (Cleaver and Schreiber 1994). Where they cannot iill the labor vacuum themselves, as in land clearing and other heaw-dutv iobs. women have to find additional resources to hire male labor. . .- , Failure to do so usuaUy means a scaling down in the size of farm operations or changing crop mixes. It is not surprising, therefore, that though women's role in farm management has increased, in most places they continue to farm smaller holdings than men. - Accompanying the movement of men from food production and farming in general, is the growing incidence of female-beaded households in many parts of SSA. It is estimated thaci ~ a s < ~ e n t m l , and Southern AfTica where men have ling been associatedwith high out-mimation to the mines. 50% of nual households are headed bv women (Cleaver and - Schreiber 1994). The absence of adult male labor in this type ofhouseholdhas direct impli- cations for the sue of farming operations that the female head can carry. Until recently, however, the direct production needs of this group were not recognized - - - Another aspect of the division of labor in smallholder agriculture is the expectation that women's produce will be used largely to support daily subsistence, rather than for sale. In the northem parts of Ghana, women's crops, mainly vegetables, are referred to as "soup ingredients". For this reason they do not receive priority attention in the allocation of household resources. Yet it is widely known in many parts of SSA that a sigoi6eant proportion of the "soup ingredients" enter the market to raise h d s for other household items such as salt, meat, fish, oil, and detergents. Such eamings also hance non-food eonsumptionexpenses such as medicines, clothing, school expenses, lravel, etc, which are tmditionaliy regarded as men's expenses in the household. Ironically, when men produce food as indeed the majority of men farmers do, they tend to pmduce staples with high market values, particularly cereals and selected vegetables, the bulk ofwhich is sold for income (Hem 1984). It is impoaant to remember however, that the nature of division of labor in agriculture across the continent varies widely between cultures. Cleaver and Schreiber (1994) point out, for example, that household characteristics, farming systems, nahnal resource base, community structures, and national economic policies intluence it. Similarly gender roles are subject to seasonal pressures and life-cycle changes of men and women, and general development trends. In Ghana, the agricultural sector employs roughly 62% of the female labor force. It is estimated that 70% of the women in agriculture are in food production. It is also estimated that at least 40% of smallholdings in Kenya are managed by women. Though gender dif- ferentiation in SSA agriculture is often task- rather than farming systems-specific, there are several instances in which production activities of men and women differ by the types of crops they grow, size of their holdings, or the livestock they keep, as well as by their access to production resources. Workproiiles ofmen and women in farming communities reveal a high incidence of multiple farm-related occupations or work cycles, in which both sexes are engaged in production, processing, and marketing at the same time or at different times of the year. Posthawesf handling and management One issue that is of great importance in ensuring food security and yet has received very little attention is postharvest management and, in particular storage and packaging. This factor among others has resulted in high levels ofpostharrest losses. The Ghanaian Min- istry of Food and Agriculture has estimated that over 30% of all foods produced locally are lost for one reason or another, after harvesting. It reduces household food security in addition to d women's incomes and, above all, it is a disimcentive to production. Agmpmcessing in sub-Saharan Africa The biggest contribution women make to the food system in sub-Saharan Africa is in the area of agroprocessing. About 90% of labor for food processing in the region is con&& uted by women and their children (Akanji 1997). The activities span vegetable oil extrac- tion; drying, frying, and smoking of fish and meat products, preserving some staples and vegetables, preparation of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, and the preparation of hehs and traditional medicines. Women'sproductionactivities often supply the raw materials they use for theirprocess- ing activities, as is the case of cassava producers involved in processing gmi. However, some of their production activities are quite unrelated to their processing activities as is true of food producers who are also vegetable oil processors. It is also common to k d that women in fishing communities where there are agricultd lands divide their time between fish processing and farming. For many years the technology needs for women were taken for granted Interventions in processing and preservation techniques had led to the application of fairly improved technoloeies for some activities/commodities such as cassava orocessine. veeetable oil - -, - extraction, sheabutter extraction, grain preservation, weaning food processing, and fsh smoking, among others. The introduction of improved processing and preservation tech- nologi& since the late 1980s has starled positive results manifested in reduced drudgery and time spent on processing. Ghanaian women, who adopted mechanized technologies under EOMetherlands Supporl Technologies for Ruml Women Project, reported considerable improvement in productivity, particularly in coconut and palm oil exiraction. While more women experiment with improved processing arid preservation technolo- gies, their mtes of adoption appear to fall below expectation. Several factors acc0~11t for this, including awareness and costs of adoption, but perhaps also low involvement of the small-scale farmer in the identification and development of research and extension agenda Insituations when researchers have consultedprocessors in their bid for improved technology they hardly gave any feedback to the processors (Garba 1997). Hence, there is no link between research and processing operations. Seasonality and the associated resource availability force men and women to stagger theirproductionlprocessing cycles in order to be economically active throughout the year. In the productionlpmcessing nexus, non-tree forest products (ntfps) form an important source of supplementing foods and incomes in both dry and wet seasons. Women under- take a wide range of collection and processing activities based on ntfps, such as gathering sheanuts from the wild to be processed into sheabutter. Some men take up basket making and w o o d d s to supplement their farming incomes, while a few still hunt for the home or the market The dependenee on traditional methods that have been passed down through the generations has its strengths and obvious weaknesses in a rapidly changing world This contributes not only to low output but also to reduced labor productivity and high rates of posthamest losses. There are also problems of lack of uniformity in quality and in some eases low shelf life as well as poor packaging. These problems are partly a result of lack of education, monitoring and standardisation in processing, equipment and techniques, and too limited research and innovation in existing technologies. Thus, returns to labor and other inputs have not improved over the years (Gatha 1997). Food marketing in sub-Saharan Africa The extent of women's involvement in the marketing of foodsW varies considerably h m low involvement in parts of East and Southern Africa to active involvement in most parts of West Africa it is estimated that women make up about 80% of people involved in commerce and trading in Ghana and they are concentrated in the highly perishable and low profit goods of mostly agricultural products. UNECA (1996) estimated the propor- tion of crop marketing done by women in Africa to be 60%. Through a long chain of intermediaries and retailers, women distribute between 80 and 90% of locally produced food (Akanji 1997). Although a majority are involved in what is known as"'petty trading" (involving low volumes of merchandise), there are also the wholesalers popularly known as "middlemen". Food marketing generally takes place under quite hazardous and arduous conditions in some places as a result of poor storage and poor pricing information. Significant pro- portions of women (especially the wholesalers) market their produce in open spaces and are subjected to the vagaries of the weather. Very often, market structures provided for retailing of food in Ghana, for example, lack basic facilities for potable water, places of convenience, storage, waste disposal, and health posts. Various communities are, however, making efforts to improve the situation. For example, in Ghana, the Agriculhxal Sector Investment Project (ASIP) in collaboration with various district assemblies is making modest imorovements to market facilities. Though men are hardly mentioned in food marketing, they are very prominent in the wholesale ofgrains, legumes, andonions in West Africa. Women, however, market awider variety of foods and over a wider geographical area. Even in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana, where men are very active in marketing, an association of market womenlmen with a membership of over 500 has only six male members. 194 .sa3gmd p sag:pq lsamqsod panosd~q ssam ma¶ an@ pm lq smosar lood q h!aede3 naq pImq pa nogermoj dnoa a8emoana q s! anp3aBa-lsoa pama8mm pw aZerols isamqsod aqem ot Kem an0 .ma@ prop lorn3 Kaqg ro sa@o1ouqxq aq 01 pasodxa lon are Kaq asne3aq raqla 'aldoad @mrjo huorem e Kq paqdde naaq 4 ~on aneq me sq m padolanap naaq aneq imp sa@olompl ma$ v ~ognaae wbar aq par\!a3as lon seq sass01 isamqsod 8qmpa1 le painn, mamdoia~ap Bolouq3a~. 'E w!FI ? =o- Pw auq naqjo 101 e aonap namom qqm 4 saqm pw qoor se qms sdosa no qareasax =1up39e m sag!n!tz s,namom laage K1an!leBau sagaardpw mou @mlp3o!ao~ 'Z '(5661 'Ie la -TIV %661 hn) spla1.4 samoI naq tq npsar uoganpordjo qndv 8mseasam-plaj a!seq aq q ss- 30 q3el sinamom pw sappdsp ~apnaZ saqer mq 'sraq namom pw nam naawaq sa3naagp hpganposd ugdxa lon op sa3uasagp 1apna8 ?m[r sw3pm a3nappa am Tam se a~g3npOId se lsnf aq ppoa namom $andm nog3nposd q ssa338 nan$D .I :snosear 2vonoj aq so3 Xpimsodv asom inq 'VSS pooj aq jo lsom anpard Aaq asneaaq Kpo lon ma% aq lsnm siampard namoM 'powom s'namom ampar dlaq q A1aqn arom are nam q angwe arom sagpg3e paled!sap-apaj aqem aq snoye~ouq poplso~ s,namom a3npaI imp s-a@010uqmljo luamdolanap aq m lpsar 03 Xlav~ arom are sapg -1% qmsa qms 3ajSneq Bo1ouqaajo sanss! ssnasp q pw sa@olouqm man mapar 01 sdoqq~om m panfonm naaq anq UarmeJ 'uopmp sq q .sramreJ namom p nam %up%ionm s@Fs WJ-no pw nogas-no @no* sagawn adat pw up2 2mdolanap no sasn303 K~%UIJY ~q qmasar pamsap 'apemp lsed aq ran0 'seq 19m ap~gsq q3ieasa.d sdm3 aql namom q!m 1x34~ qqm= 4 m~giqgsrrl qai=sar amos Aq palep~ naaq 'saAafioq 'aneq woga amos wampord namom q!m nogeaym -mm Zqs!lq~saso~ naqel are soo!lae aarano3 on nay0 '3uolaqspanpar seq e3mm lnamdo1anap @rm~3@e so3 8-d m rapnaZjo a3wodv aq jo nogfloaar agl 'um@os pw 'laiip 'maq 'aqm se q3ns sdm an!snodsar-sxz[gq no raqyaj on 30 apg am Kau 'ltq plnoqs sa@olouqm man J! sawsp wp8e saqasuraq 13aa01d q K1qrrpnelsrapm 'qn3p~ed m saw namom Znom nolsane qsu jo smom -a3 E aq 01 seadde araq 'nogppe q 7- sop dm 'qsea ho~~maro~ m ssame pal- naq q anp asrom oaaq seq nopm!s am 'srauuej uamom sod .s-a!atta% inamdo1anap pw saqmasar Kq nogeraprs -no3 *bar lq snogmrqo are asam '(5861 paw) nogqyaj p3paq3 no papnadap pm 'sl3asm p l@narp 01 ?irq?saI ssal sem 'aredard q pnq sem 'a~m ~uma1drm w pq dou aq iq snosear aq so3 paas a- panorduq ?dame q pwpnIai aram namom @mr aaqm saamsq naaq pq aram .alq@~Zan sqmar Zmsscoord pw nogmpard pooj m asn naq 'e3g-f wlepes-qns v sa@o[ouqm @rm~a@ anOId~ q q3yeasar @nogeara?m pw @nogm no wads naaq aAq gm[r Aanom 30 mom a*aq aqdsaa )uawdo/ahap &o~ouyjal ra~~ueq pue~uawdolanap &?olouqml Research and development for roots and tubers Rwts and tubers make good storage in carbohydmtes. They contribute about 10% of human food (Okigbo 1987) and are a major source of energy for a significant population in Africa (Coursey 1983). However, investments in root crop research and production is low (9.4% or US$15 aillion globally) compared with cereals (68.7% or US$100 million). One root crop that has received most amtion fmm researchers is cassava. There are indications that not enough care is being taken about the efficiency of inno- vative technology. A study by Nigeria's Root Crops Research Institute indicated that the cassava peeler developed locally was not efficient and the sieving machine used far more water than manual methods (Oti et al. 1992). The problem with such an innovation is that while reducing labor input for sieving, it required more labor input for fetching water. Thus, it ceases to be a labor-saving device. The common view is that technologies stand a better chance of succeeding when they take into account indigenous technologies developed by farmers themselves, particularly in areas such as postharvest root and tuber management and intercropping. Technology transfer and extension services for women in agriculture All over m c a , women farmers have very little contact with extension agent.. This is principally because most extension programs have been male-biased in outreach and message. Consequently, it is export crops and local commercial crops that have received the most attention. Women's crops were often neglected Extension agents have also reported difficulties in relating to women farmers, due to sociocultural constmints on women interacting with strangers. This is compounded by the difficulty of recruiting and retaining female extension officers. Once women who have been trained qualify, they are often tom between professional duties outside home and family obligations. Extension coverage in Ghana is very low; most small-scale farmers do not see an extension officer in an entire year. Out of the 2184 agricultural households interviewed in the Ghana Living Standard S w e v of 198811989. onlv 135 households or 6% re~orted - , . extension contacts in the 12 months prior to the interview. Female-headed households reported just about 8% of these contacts. The bias towards men in extension services delivery goes back to age-old conceptions of the household as a unified decision-making entity, in which the male head conilolled all resources and presumably shared informa- tion with other members of the household Very often, both the sex composition of the extension structure and the scope of extension services have haditionally been geared towards serving the needs of male household heads. Thus, women are sidelined in exten- sion services delivery. Right from the beginning of agricultural staff training, men grossly outnumber women as agricultural science students at secondary and tertiary schools. The result is the male dominance in staffing at the Departments of Agricultural Extension Services. In Ghana, for example, the ratio of women extension agent to women farmers was 1 : 11 000 in 1987. During the same period, the rate of extensioncoverage ofwomen farmers was below 10% in most of the regions (Panuccio 1989). Attempts at redressing the bias towards men in extension services delivery led to major reforms in the conception of extension for women and the creation of a Women in Agricultural Development (WIAD) component of the National Extension Program. The current trend is broadening extension programs to ensure that those on WIAD do not just cover home management and nutrition, but also production and processing information and technologies, as well as broad issues of food security. W~th the gradually improving enrollment of women in extension training programs, WJAD in Ghana reports that women's access to agricultural extension senrice is impmv- ing. Various agricultural support programs have collaborated with WJAD to improve extension services delivery to women. An important strategy that was adopted by one of the National Agricultural ProjectsSmallholder Rehabilitation and Development Pro- gmm (SRDP), was the recruitment and training of women extension volunteers to oper- ate at the community level. The project completion report indicates that women farmers who participated in the SRDP were able to contribute substantially to their household incomes and thereby gained some level of respect in their households and communities. The possibility of replicating this strategy as a means for improving women's access to extension services should be investigated Perhaps AFtican agricultural research should explore avenues for effective technology transfer to women with emphasis on women's participation in technology transfer programs. Similarly, Women in Development (WID) programs initiated in Nigeria in 1986 were to develop programs that would promote and enhance the well being of women and children in rural areas. A feature of the WID program in Nigeria is that it is limited only to some National Agricultural Development Projects (Akpoko et al. 1997). Even though there are no separate extension agents for WID, there is an understanding that at least 30% of all extension agents should be females who should ensure that at least 60% of their contact farmers are women. Nigeria has since reported some modest achievements in extension delivery to women (Akpoko et al. 1997). Extension staff argue that apart from their own biases which tend to favor men and selected crops, it is also &&cult to deal with the attitudinal problems of women farm- ers. In some cases, women farmers have apparently shown a lack of interest in extension programs. While this may be due to their ignorance of the benefits of extension, it could also be linked to the lack of relevance of extension messages and the extra workload involved in new practices. Extension agents have observed that women respond quickly to training programs when they are demonskated to have a high and immediate potential for inoreasing their income-generating potential. Facmb that block women's access to and utilization of extension services include constmints faced by all extension o&cers, namely, lack of transport, poor ratios of staff to women, poor demonstration aids, lack of incentives, and lack of institutional or infm- structural linkages for follow-up work after the dissemination of innovation. These are in addition to sociocultural institutions that act to inhibit women farmers from accepting productivity-impmving ideas (e.g., lack of security over land). Local norms may also inhibit them from deciding on their own to accept new ideas, or from interacting with male extension agents. Though considerable efforls have been invested into extension reforms since the 1980s, agricultural production levels in recent years, as noted earlier, indicate that the reforms in extension have not yielded the expected impact. Some of the contributory factors have been documented as follows: thinly spread extension services . low infusion of productive research information into technical staff tmining and operations high cost of improved technologies non-concentration of technologies which are suited andlor adopted to local condi- tions poor input distribution to small-scale farmers marketing bottlenecks lack of support services and facilities to back extension services Gender considerations in agricultural resource management The dilemma of sub-Saharan African agriculture is to meet the challenge of food pro- duction for the increasing population without depleting the natural resource base. In the face of physical and economic obstacles to the use of most high-input responsive technologies (e.g., fertilizer and insecticides), farmers in the region seek to increase crop production mainly through expansion in farmlands where possible. The traditional bush fallow system has also been practiced to rejuvenate the soil through nutrient cycling and litter. This system has worked so far as population pressures have been low and there has been abundant land. With rapidly rising population and mdre land going under permanent rather thanperen- nial cropping, fallow periods bave reduced. Not only are millions ofhectares of new land brought under cultivation each year, but the land already under cultivation has been used intensively without replacing soil nutrients. In addition, the traditional practices of sepa- rate crop and animal husbandry coupled with poor management has led to overgrazing. Further, nual people and especially women have depended on non-tree forest products (ntfps) as sources for inputs used in their processing activities and for supplementing household food incomes. Very often these activities take place without efforts to replace the resources. Ail of these practices bave contributed to the degradation of the natural resource base, which supports productive and sustainable food production. According to Kumwenda et al. (1995), the decline in soil fertility plays a dominant role both in limiting yield improvement and the sustainability of cereal-based cropping systems ofAfrica. The destruction of land is not deliberate; nual people are merely striving to feed them- selves and their families using the only available means. Undoubtedly, sustainable food systems depend on reversing the degradation and making existing resources (i.e., land, water, plants, and animals) more productive. It demands wise use of the resources with moderate exploitation by the community they support. An effective resource conservation and management must necessarily involve strong local participation. Because women play a major role in the food system, an analysis of land resources must include sn appreciation of their central role. Many of the effects of degradation are experienced by women because of the gender-speci6c division of labor in rum1 societ- ies. Yet, women's apparent low adoption of soil-improving technologies attributed to cash constraints and lack of information has not received adequate attention. Studies at the Crop Research Institute, Ghana Grain Development Project, showed that chemical feriilizer use among maize fanners fell kom 50% in 1989 to 26% in 1990. The drop was attributed to the depreciation of the cedi, the removal of subsidy on fertilizer, and late rains. Most farmers who did not use fertilizer confinned this by attributing their non-use to high cost (GGDP 1991). Scientists on the continent, nevertheless, caution against the wholesale adoption of new technologies. Some analysts are of the view that the Green Revolution technologies have led to an accelerated use ofnon-renewable resources andcontributed to airpollution, contamination of ground water, and loss of biological diversity. Indeed, the appropriate- ness of the Green Revolution technologies in SSA is being debated. It is f i e r argued that poor soil fertility, enatic rainfall, high cost of external inputs, among others in SSA do not provide the ecological and economic conditions required for the Green Revolution agriculture to make sigdcant impact in food production. Certainly, the peculiar condition of resource-poor farmers suggest that priority should be given to expanding their use of organic sources of soil nutrients such as legumes that fix atmospheric nitrogen. Under the circumstances, intensification of food production should be achieved by diversification rather than by using increased amounts of fertilizer and other external inputs. While women have relatively limited access to chemical fertilizer, they are often quite familiar with organic fertilizer, especially in areas where livestock rearing is popular. In northem Ghana, for example, animal manure is a traditional source of soil replenishment for compound farms. For a majority ofAfrican women farmers, this may be the best strat- egy for increasing soil fertility. Moreover, the efficiency of fertilizer use has often been low and declining as a result of declining levels of soil organic matter. Though organic fertilizer is seen by many to be preferred and a cheaper source of soil nutrients, serious problems exists with the supply and application of organic materials. There is usually not enough manure to meet the amounts required. Fordecades, the approach to soil conservation has tended to be top down with engineers making plans for farmers to follow. It is difficult for the approach to deal with the causes of misuse. Researchers and development planners must adopt a bottom-up approach that understands farmers' methods and reasons for developing farming practices that safe- guard the soil and in which h e r s themselves become the conservationists. It certainly requires an extensive study and understanding of the interactions and interdependence of households and their resources. Recent technology development has resulted in the formulation of several forms of integrated agriculture (e.g., integmted pest management and integmted plant nutrient systems). These integrated systems combine knowledge of tmditional and modem agri- culture and enhance biological and economic complementarity in the production of crops, animals, and trees. It, however, does not exclude the use of relevant external inputs but rather minimizes their level of use. Options identified as appropriate for sustainable agricultural production in SSA are broadly categorized as those for enhancing soil organic matter content through cereal/ legume rotation, use o f m p residues, animal manure and rock sulphate compost; soiywater conservation and management; and croplivestock integration. Women's access to these improved systems of farming can be enhanced through information diffusion via exten- sion workshops and field days for women, gender training of trainers aimed at extension agents, and small loans for organic inputs. Conclusion While it is widely acknowledged that women make up about half the work force in agricul- ture and produce about 70% of food in SSA, development agencies including government machineries have been slow to find effective strategies for supporting women producers. Such omissions in agricultural policies and programs and inefficiencies in production are noted to be responsible for significant welfare losses. By all indications, rural women pro- ducers in SSAcontribute significantly to household food security, income, and welfare. It is clear that theirpotential to maintain a sustainable food system in the region remains largely untapped due to constraints in their access to productive resources. Some of these constraints (e.g., access to land, labor, and to some extent, credit) have received consider- able attention. Butjudging &om their outcome, it is clear that such apiecemeal approach is not likely to be successful. What is required is a more holistic approach that incorporates women's interests in developmen: programs not just as beneficiaries, but as participants in the development process. This does not suggest that men should be neglected in the transfer of productive resources. It, however, points to the need to identify women for direct support Recognizing that resources meant for women are likely to be appropriated by men, assistance programs should make provision for both men and women, wherever possible. Recommendations The key issues that are addressed in the process of identifying strategies for improving women's productivity to develop sustainable food systems are as follows: 1. Conduct studies into intrahousehold resource allocation for food pmduction. 2. Develop and cany through policies and programs to incorporate women's issues in the food system. 3. Identify and support institutions to build capacity among women to improve perfor- mance in food security. 4. Increase and support women's access to improved technology and extension ser- vices. 5. Strengthen farmer associations to mobilize resources to promote women's involve- ment in the food system. Conduct studies into intra-household resource allocation for food production It is often assumed that traditional institutions operate according to their customaty prin- cioles. Polimakers and develoument oractitionets should seek to build a consensus on prevailing gender systems as a basis for understanding the situation of women farmers. A better understanding of the peculiarities of matrilineal and patrilineal kinship systems is necessary, especially in terms of pressures that are leading changes in th& &&mary provisions for women. Rather than focusing on aggregate household statistics, it will be beneficial to examine intrahousehold resource mobilization and distribution flow. as well as the dynamics of social interactions within the household which govern the a&ss to, andcontrol ofresources among menand women. Findings £tom suchstudies shouldguide the process of allocating production resources to members of nual households. Dwelop and carry through policies and programs to incorporate women's issues in the food system The evidence indicates that programs meant to benefit women tend to be more effective when the women are involved with the design and implementation. Gender-sensitive or women-targeted tools should be used to incorporate women's interest in development programs since gender-neutral policies have been ine5cient. Proper targeting will depend on collecting and reporting gender disaggregated statistics and conducting gender-sensi- tive socioeconomic analysis. In this regard, farming systems research that focuses on individuals within the household is required Instihitions that collect periodic data on production, distriiution of services, and consumption of goods and services, among others, should review their data collection instrnment regularly to ensure that issues pertaining to women's activities are incorporated as they arise. Identify and support institutions to build capacity among women to improve performance in food security Countries in SSA recognize that their governments cannot provide all the needs of nual producers with their limited resources. They have, therefore, welcomed the involvement of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in this process. NGOs have generally made impmsive contributions to the process of reaching women farmers with new technolo- gies and other resources. They, however, possess uneven technical competence and have different conceptions of how to proceed to help resoum-poor farmers. There is the need to coordinate the activities of NGOs to meet the needs of different producers. This should be done in collaboration with the NGOs and beneficiary groups, in order to avoid wnilict with, and &hate the valuable efforts of the agencies. Government machine~y at community levels can play an important role in creating more gender sensitivity in support institutions and communities. They can collaborate with development agencies and interested paaies in their communities to build the capac- ity of farmer organizations including women's groups to enable them to take advantage of innovations. Poor coordination among all the sectors that conlrol agricultural production input, services, and infrastructure reduces the potential for the adoption of innovative technolo- gies. This should be overcome through direct attempts to create a functional, enabling environment, in which farmers are seen as partners, and in which they can respond more promptly to new ideas. There is also the need for an enabling environment and incentives for private sector involvement in the provision of support services (e.g., locating commercial food process- ing plants in rural communities that will purchase their home-processed produce for more refined processing). Increase and suppori women's access to improved technology and extension services There is the need to improve and sustain women's access to productive resources especially labor, credit, seeds, soil improving technologies and agrochemicals, as well as improving storage and marketing facilities. Some of the stmtegies that enhance women's access to improved technologies are: Making fertilizer inputs available in small packages in order to make them affordable and easier for women to carry to their farms. Improving women's access to farm implements. Efforts to improve technology tmnsfer to both men and women should address the following issues: National extension s e ~ c e s units should collabomte with NGOs and donor agencies on extension methods to gain the benefit of cross-fertilization of ideas and to maximize the use of available resources. Extension messages need to be complemented with support services required by farmers to yield optimum returns on adoption of innovations Appropriate and affordable technology shouldbe demonshated effectively according to the needs of farmers in different ecological zones Collaboration between researchers, extension agents and women farmers is essential for developing sustainable food production Extension agents require regular trainiig for sharing research &dings, extension methods, and to discuss feedback The idea of adopting extension volunteers, where necessary, is worth considering to improve the ratio of staff to women producers Provision of incentives for extension staff Improved technologies that are labor- and time-saving should aggressively be intro- duced to women to expand their income-eaming activities For women farmers' special emphasis should be placed on soil f d t y management. Another equally important strategy that requires consideration in efforts to improve women's productivity includes intenssed nutrition education. The provision of improved market facilities and information should also be given serious attention. Strengthen farmer associations to mobilize resources to promote women's involvement in the food system Smce governments in SSAare unable to manage and&ance all rural development activi- ties, due to their l i t e d resources, much of the task of managing and&aneing agricultural services will have to be done by farmer groups. Development projects and members of farmers associations should, however, avoid treating the assoeiations as vehicles for the provision of services rather than as dynamic orgauizations that can mobilize resources on their own and provide the necessary services to members. In this regard, the following strategies could be adopted for building the capacity of the associations: . Conduct functional literacy and business skius training for executives and members of farmer associations, to enable them to manage and operate the assoeiations in business-like manner and operate more commercially viable enterprises. . Provide credit facilities tbmugh revolving loan funds formembers of groups to h c e improved methods of production, processing and postharvest management. Provide strategies to link women's groups up to enterprising individuals andagencies whose work can serve as good demonstration for others around them. . Encourage horizontal and vertical linkages between farmer and related associations to maximize cooperative benetits in information flow, resource mobilization, and markeiing. Reorient farmers'organizations to make them more demand-driven, as well asrecep- tive to program internention. Nurture the idea of bulking produce for sale to middlemen to overcome the tendency of the latter dictating lower prices to individual producers. 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Making the l i between women, homehold food security and nutrition: acon- ceptoa1 approachto improwprogramplanning, implementationand eva1uatiouApaperprepared for International workshop on Women, Cap Coast, Ghana List of participants and addresses ADOMOU Moustapha Coordinateur. Zone de Reference Savane ~ u m i d e DBriv+Ci,ti6re INRAB BP 884 Cotonou (Benin) AN0 Anthony National Root Crops Resear* Institute (NRCRI) Umudike PMB 7006 Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria BAKER Doyle Chief. Farm Manaeement and Pmduaion u Economics Sewice FA0 Room 8-666 Rome 01 00, Italy DAVID Taiwo Interpreter PO Box 14 Ikeja, Lagos Nigeria EMECHEBE Alhponse Mgbanu National Coordinator, PEDUNE-NIGERIA, De~artment of C ~ D Protection l~dnaculty of ~~r iku l tu re Ahmadu Bello UniversiN PMB 1044, Zaria, ~ i ~ e i a HALEEGOAH Joyce Rural Sociologist Cmps Research Institute (CRI) Kumasi, Ghana HOUNDEKON Victorin Agric Economist Pmfesseur-Assistant Universit6 Nationale du Benin 06 BP 1101, Pk3 Cotonou (B&in) HOUSSOU Moise INRAB BP 884 Cotonou (Benin) IKEORCU E.G. John EPHTA Benchmark Area Coordinator NRCRI Umudike PMB 7006, Umuahia Abia State, Nigeria KUNZE Dagmar PO Box 1628 Accra, Ghana Tel: (229) 30 07 36 E-mail: inrab@goetwm Tel: (234-88) 22 0496 E-mail: ephta@aol.com Tet (3906) 57055095 Fax: 13906) 570 56799 Tel: (234-1) 4961 547 Fax: (234-1)2693383 E-mail: td@infoweb.abs.net Tel: (234-69) 50470 Fax: (234-69) 50563150681 E-mail: emechebe@abu.edu.ng Tel: (233-51) 60389 Fax: (233-51) 60241 E-mail: ggdp@ghanamm Tel: (229) 90 14 23 E-mail: houndeko@syied.bj. refer.org Tel: (229) 300723 Fax: (229) 303770 E-mail: inrab@cgnet.com Tel: (234-88) 220496 E-mail: ephta@aol.com Tel: (233-21) 244051~761524 Fax: (233-21) 244076 E-mail: dagmar.ktm@fao.org LADIPO David. 0 Forest Biologist/Agroforester CENRAD 5 Akinola Maja Avenue Jericho, GRA, lbadan PMB 5052 Ibadan, Nigeria NCNE Jacob Mbua Forest Margins Benchmark Area Coordinator Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD) BP 21 23 Yaounde, Cameroon OFORI-BAH Adeline PO Box C1960, Accra, Ghana ONYEWEAKU C.E. Socioeconomist DepL of Agricultural Economics and Extension Federal University of Tech. Owem Imo State, Nigeria POPOOLA Labode Senior Lecturerfirest Economist Dept of Forest Resource Mgt University of lbadan Oyo State, Nigeria FOND0 Sikod Professor University of Yaounde I1 PO Box 8320 Yaounde, Cameroon IITA STAFF AGYEMANC Kwaku Animal Scientist (ILRI) ILRI, IlTA Campus PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria AJALA S.O. IITA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria ATAYl Emmanuel EPHTA Coordinator IITA Ibadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria Tel: (234-2) 2412694,2410696 Fax: (234-2) 2413839 E-mail: centad@ail.skaimeteom Tel: (237) 23754333335383334427 Fax: (237) 237427f2375433333538 E-mail: jmgeve@sdncmr.undp.org hgev@camn&m Jmngeve@iccn&cm Tel: (233-21) 505191 E-mail: Aryeetey@cs.eom.gh Tel: (234-83)230974/233456 Ext.260- 262 E-mail: onyenwak@futo.edu.ng Tel: (234-2) 810374141 Ext 2830 or 1433 Fax: (234-2) 81031 1818103043 Tlx: CAMPUS 31 128 NC. E-mail: Library@kdl.ui.edu.ng Tel: (237) 31 68 13 Fax (237) 236127 E-mail: fsikod@wwhetorg Tel: (234-2) 241 2626 Fax (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: k.agyemang@cgiar.org Tel: Tel: (234-2) 2412626 k (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: S.ajala@cgiar.org Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: eatayi@cgiar.org BASSEY Michael Director, ICD IlTA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria CARSKY Robert Agronomist IlTA Cotonou BP 08-0932 Cotonou, Benin CHIKOYE David IlTA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria COCKOWSKI Jim IlTA Humid Forest Ecoregional Centre BP 2008 Yaound6, Cameroon HALOS-KIM Leonides IlTA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria HAUSER Stephan IITNHFEC BP 2008 (Messa) Yaound6, Camerollp iKPl Anthony RCMD,IITA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria JANNOT Claude Agronome Systsme Cu l fu r~ P6rennes IITNHFEC BP 2008 (Messa) Yaound6, Cameroun MANYONG Victor Agricultural Economist llTA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria OSINAME Olumuyiwa WARDA Liaison Scientist at IlTA P.M.B 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria TARAWALI Shirley Agronomist IlTAnLRl PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: m.bassey@cgiar.org Tel: (299) 35 01 88 E-mail: r.carsky@cgiar.org Tel: (234-2) 241 2626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: dchikoye@cgiar.org Tel: (237) 2385601237434 E-mail: Gockowski@iccnetcm Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: 1234-2) 2412221 Tel: (237) 237522 Fax: (237) 237437 E-mail: s.hause@iccnetcm Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: aikpi@cgiar.org Tel: (237) 237434 Fax: (237) 237437 %ail: c.jannot@iccnet.cm Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 Email: vmanyong@cgiar.org Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: o.osiname@cgiar.org Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221 E-mail: s.Iaiawali@giar.org URlYO Andrew Project Coordinator llTA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria WISE Stephan Leader, Humid Forest Ecoregional Centre IITA CameroorI BP 2008 ( M e ) YaountK?, Camemn ZACHMANN Raiae~ Head, MMUITMU IITA lbadan PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria Tel: (234-2) 2412626 fix: 1234-21 2412221 . E-mail: arniyo@cgiar.~rg Tel: (237) 237434 Fax: (237) 237437 E-mail: s.weise@cgiar.org Tel: (234-2) 2412626 Fax: (234-2) 2412221