Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00442-3
RESEARCH Open Access
Farmers’ perceptions of navy bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production
constraints, preferred traits and farming
systems and their implications on bean
breeding: a case study from South East
Lowveld region of Zimbabwe
Bruce Mutari1,2* , Julia Sibiya1 , Eileen Bogweh Nchanji3 , Kennedy Simango4 and Edmore Gasura5
Abstract
Background: Navy bean is an important legume crop in Zimbabwe. Although its production in Zimbabwe is
limited by multiple constraints including biotic, abiotic and socio-economic, there is no documented evidence.
Thus, this study aimed at identifying farmers’ production constraints, preferred traits and cultivars of navy bean, and
strategies used to mitigate some of these constraints.
Methods: A Participatory Rural Appraisal approach involving transect walks, focus group discussions (FGDs), and
formal surveys with semi-structured questionnaires was conducted in four villages of the Lowveld region of
Zimbabwe. In each of the four villages, two FGDs (one for men and one for women) were conducted. A total of
176 (75 males and 101 females) navy bean-growing households were interviewed. Data from household interviews
and FGDs was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists computer package.
Results: The most important constraints to navy bean production were drought stress (Females—86%, Males—
73%), heat stress (Females—58%, Males—55%), power outages (Females—46%, Males—54%), poor soil fertility
(Females—32%; Males—33%) and susceptibility to pod shattering (Females—32%, Males—43%). Mitigation
strategies included mulching (18%), ridges (12%), reduced acreage (11%), and cultivating to retain more soil
moisture (11%) for drought stress, while irrigating at night (32%), and adjusting planting dates (29%) were used to
manage heat stress. Farmer-preferred traits included tolerance to drought and heat, early maturing varieties and
disease resistance. Marketing constraints included non-payment for produce in hard currency, lack of diversity in
terms of off-takers, high inflation, low grain producer price, delayed payment and breach of contract by contractors.
(Continued on next page)
* Correspondence: B.Mutari@cgiar.org
1School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg 3209, South Africa
2Department of Research and Specialist Services, Crop Breeding Institute,
Harare, Zimbabwe
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s). 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons
licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons
licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the
data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 2 of 19
(Continued from previous page)
Conclusion: There will be increased adoption of improved navy bean cultivars if breeding programs address the
aforementioned constraints and consider farmer-preferred traits when developing new cultivars. Breeders should
work closely with extension officers to ensure that cultivars released are cultivated with appropriate agronomic
packages for increased productivity and high adoption.
Keywords: Navy bean, Participatory rural appraisal, Production constraints, Preferred traits, Marketing constraints
Background in eating habits (associated with urbanization), rising costs
Globally, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an im- of cooking fuels and electricity.
portant food and nutritional security pulse crop that pro- Although navy bean is a major cash crop, its production,
vides a cheap source of vegetable proteins, micronutrients productivity and market supply in Zimbabwe has declined
(iron and zinc, and vitamins) and dietary fibre [1]. In in recent years due to several constraints [Mukweza, per-
addition, it serves as an income-generating crop thereby sonal communication, 20 May, 20181]. The challenges in-
supporting many livelihoods, especially in sub-Saharan Af- clude low grain yield, high susceptibility to diseases,
rica (SSA). Common bean is widely cultivated, and the lar- unavailability of locally bred improved cultivars, drought
gest volumes of the crop have come from SSA and Latin and heat stress, damages by field pests including bean
America, which account for more than 60% of the world stem maggot (Ophiomia phaseoli sp.), aphids (Aphis
production [2, 3]. In southern and eastern Africa, the fabae) and storage pests (Acanthoscelides obtectus) [5].
major producers are mainly smallholder farmers who pri- The unavailability of improved cultivars results in farmers
marily depend on beans for their livelihoods, household planting old cultivars which are low yielding and suscep-
food, nutrition and income security [2, 4]. Different mar- tible to new races of diseases. On the other hand, insect
ket classes (sugar, red mottled and navy bean) of common pests (cause grain damage), diseases (cause grain discol-
bean including landraces are grown by farmers in the ouration), drought and heat stress (reduce grain size)
Lowveld region of Zimbabwe [5]. affect the canning quality of the grain resulting in the re-
Navy beans (dry oval pea-sized white haricot bean), lo- jection of the commodity by food processors. If a com-
cally called Michigan pea bean, is a distinct cultigen of modity is rejected by a food processor due to the above-
common bean which is grown for both income and food mentioned constraints, the farmer would have lost in-
security. Due to its high market value compared with the come. This makes it difficult for a farmer to plant the next
other bean market classes, smallholder farmers in the subsequent crop due to lack of running capital or income.
South East (SE) Lowveld region grow it mostly for income Consequently, navy bean farmers have accumulated indi-
generation, almost exclusively for the bean canning indus- genous knowledge and experience over time on produc-
try under contractual agreements with canning compan- tion systems and how to cope with a wide range of biotic,
ies, including Cairns Foods Limited, Olivine Industries abiotic and socio-economic constraints. It is, therefore,
Limited, Africa Preserves, and National Foods. Income important to utilize this knowledge from the farmers dur-
from contract farming (contractor provides inputs such as ing cultivar development to improve the adoption rate of
seed, fertilizers and chemicals) is used to cater for house- newly developed navy bean cultivars.
hold needs, purchase livestock (goats and cattle), pay chil- Due to the low productivity and inadequate grain sup-
dren’s school fees and for re-investment on the farm and plies of navy beans, local supplies meet about 40% of the
other commercial enterprises [5]. Although this is not national requirement [6]. Therefore, bean processors in
documented, information gathered during various field Zimbabwe are obliged to import navy bean grain (about
days with navy bean farmers indicates that farmers retain 60%) from countries such as Ethiopia, South Africa,
around 10% of the produce for household consumption, China, Zambia and Malawi [6]. On monthly basis, can-
and 90% is delivered to the processor for income gener- ning companies in Zimbabwe import more than 100 MT
ation [Personal observation, April 2019]. Even though of navy bean grain worth around USD124,000 [6]. It is,
navy bean is an important food security crop, the high therefore, important that the local navy bean production
market value associated with the crop forces farmers to be increased to meet the required quantities. Significant
deliver a greater percentage of the produce to the proces- navy bean production in Zimbabwe started in 1995
sor in search of income. The rapidly expanding urban when canning companies imported the cultivar, Ex-Rico,
population in Zimbabwe is driving a greater demand for which was locally called Michigan pea bean [7]. Before
more processed food products. Moreover, preference for 1995, farmers in the Lowveld were producing navy beans
fast cooking foods and off-shelf products such as canned
beans is expected to increase in Zimbabwe due to changes 1Head Research & Development at Cairns Foods Limited (One of the
biggest navy bean canning companies)
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 3 of 19
mostly for subsistence since the production quantities Furthermore, gender-sensitive breeding has been re-
were insignificant to supply to the industry due to lack ported to improve adoption of released cultivars in Af-
of improved cultivars. By the year 2000, the production rica [16, 23–25]. It is, therefore, of paramount
of Michigan pea bean had been widespread in the Low- importance to consider the different roles and responsi-
veld region of Zimbabwe as a result of contract farming bilities of men and women when conducting PRA for
by canning companies [7]. However, cultivar release and the identification of farmers’ preferred traits, production
commercialization of navy bean in Zimbabwe started in and marketing constraints and biotic stress management
2018 (Protea—released in July 2018, Caledona and Cam- practices. Danial et al. [20] reported that the adoption of
ellia—both released in December 2019) [7, 8]. Addition- new agricultural technologies such as improved cultivars
ally, all the aforementioned navy bean cultivars were not is also affected by gender. Thus, the information from
bred for drought and heat tolerance despite their high the baseline study will be used to develop an effective
grain yield potential under non-stressed environments. gender-responsive, demand-led, participatory plant
Moreover, some of the bean processors claim that the breeding programme which considers the users’ views
navy bean cultivar Protea sometimes clumps (grains (needs and preferences). The results from the PRA will
stick together) after canning; as a result, the bean pro- guide bean breeders in Zimbabwe in defining important
cessing industry still imports, a process which increases traits and constraints, and in developing comprehensive
production costs and affects the profitability of a can- breeding strategies to develop improved high yielding
ning operation. In addition, farmers also claim that Pro- cultivars that are tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses
tea takes long to mature (110 days) despite being high and preferred by value chain actors (consumers, traders,
yielding (yield potential of 4 t/ha) and tolerant to dis- processors, and farmers). Therefore, the objectives of
eases of economic importance. Late-maturing genotypes this study were to (i) identify major navy bean marketing
require more irrigation cycles. This justifies the import- and production constraints, (ii) identify navy bean culti-
ance of participatory plant breeding approaches during vars and traits that are preferred by farmers, (iii) assess
cultivar development in order to develop cultivars that the production system of navy bean and (iv) identify the
meet the needs and preferences of various actors along strategies used by farmers to manage drought and heat
the bean value chain. stress and their combined implications for breeding navy
Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) relies on participa- bean cultivars for Zimbabwe.
tion of the community (local people) and considers the
value of stakeholders’ knowledge, skill, experience, their Materials and methods
needs, preferences, abilities, and innovation [9]. Partici- Study area, sampling procedure and participants
patory rural appraisal has been extensively used to The study was conducted in Chimanimani and Chipinge
identify production constraints of many crops [10–17]. districts in the South East Lowveld region of Manicaland
Ceccarelli et al. [18] and Morris and Bellon [19] re- Province, Zimbabwe in November 2019. The area is a
ported that the participation of farmers’ in the initial marginal semiarid region characterised by high tempera-
breeding process provides insight into cultivar trait tures and low, unpredictable and poorly distributed rain-
preferences, production and marketing constraints so fall [13]. The two districts were selected based on prior
that they can be addressed during the breeding process information on their experience of growing navy beans
and hence enhance the adoption rate of newly devel- [11] and on being the major navy bean-growing areas in
oped cultivars. Information from PRA helps the breeder Zimbabwe. In these areas, navy bean production occurs
to design focussed breeding pipelines that result in gen- during the winter season (April to July) mainly under
etic gains in farmers’ fields and more income to the flood irrigation as a source of both food and income
farmers [20]. Mukankusi [21] and Ojwang et al. [22] (Mubako, personal communication, 13 May, 20182). Using
successfully used information from PRA in the breeding a purposive sampling procedure [13, 26] to ensure good
process to develop common beans with resistance to representativeness of navy bean-grower households in the
fusarium root rot and bean stem maggot. According to study, a list of six major navy bean-growing villages
our knowledge, there is no documented participatory namely Musikavanhu, Nenhowe, Nyanyadzi, Gudyanga,
research on navy bean production status, biotic stress Maunganidze and Tonhorai located in the two districts
management strategies, farmers’ perceived production were selected. These six villages were selected on the basis
and marketing constraints, and cultivar trait prefer- of their current high levels of navy bean production. Due
ences among the major navy bean-growing regions in to limited resources, the study could not be conducted in
Zimbabwe. Although Katungi et al. [5] conducted a all the six villages. Therefore, out of these six villages
similar study in 2016 in Zimbabwe, the focus was not
on the navy bean market class, but on common bean in 2Agricultural Extension Supervisor for Nenhowe, Gudyanga,
general. Nyanyadzi, Chakohwa and Tonhorai villages
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 4 of 19
which were used as the sampling frame, four [Nen- [13]. The questionnaire had five components namely,
howe, Gudyanga, and Tonhorai (Chimanimani dis- demographic information, navy bean cropping systems
trict) and Maunganidze (Chipinge district)] were (sole cropping, mono cropping, inter cropping and
chosen randomly for interviewing farmers, surveys mixed cropping), farmers’ trait preferences of navy bean
and focus group discussions [26]. The Global Posi- cultivars, navy bean production constraints and strat-
tioning System (GPS) location of the study areas, egies used to mitigate some of these constraints. Mixed
minimum and maximum temperatures, soil texture cropping is the production of two or more crops simul-
and mean rainfall totals are indicated in Table 1. taneously on the same piece of land without row ar-
For farmer surveys and focus group discussions, a sys- rangements, whereas sole cropping is the growing of one
tematic random sampling method was followed to iden- crop cultivar in pure stands alone. On the other hand,
tify navy bean farmers in the selected villages from lists inter cropping is the growing of two or more crops sim-
provided by the local extension staff [13]. During the ultaneous on the same piece of land in alternate rows,
mobilization of farmers, which was done with the assist- whereas mono-cropping is the growing of a single crop
ance of local agricultural extension workers, gender bal- on the same piece of land year after year. To eliminate
ance was considered accordingly to ensure that at least gender dominance in discussions and gain an in-depth
50% of the participating farmers were females. A total of understanding of men and women farmer experiences in
176 (75 males and 101 females) navy bean-growing navy bean production and marketing, focus group
households were interviewed (Table 2). discussions (FGDs) were conducted separately for men
This was a representative sample of farmers who grow and women [13] with a group of community members
navy beans in the above-mentioned villages. (key informants, elders, women group representatives,
community-based organization representatives, farmers,
Data collection and analysis and village leaders) in each village. These farmers were
Data were collected using various PRA techniques which selected based on their interest in the navy bean crop;
included transect walk, problem listing, ranking and ana- they had grown navy beans in the last two consecutive
lysis with key informants and corroborated by formal years, knowledge of navy bean production, knowledge of
household interviews using a semi-structured question- the village history, and farmers’ influence in the village.
naire [13, 27]. Both formal and informal research ap- In each of the four villages, two FGDs (one for men and
proaches were used in the study in order to obtain high one for women) were conducted. The number of partici-
evidential value, to improve the precision, for validation, pants in the FGDs in each village by gender is outlined
and to create a solid foundation for drawing conclusions in Table 2.
Table 1 Geographical description of the study locations
District Village Geographical location Altitude Mean annual rainfall Rainfall season Soil types Temperature
(m.a.s.l)a (mm)b (°C)c
Latitude Longitude Maxd Mine
Chimanimani NWf − 32.43407 541 415 December– Sandy 40 15
19.73976 March loamy
Chimanimani GDg − 32.3819 491 450 Clay loamy 39 18
19.89719
Chimanimani THh − 32.37236 492 430 Clay 40 16
19.93702
Chipinge MDI − 32.35402 499 120 Sandy loam 38 15
19.95341
am.a.s.l meters above the sea level
bmm millimetres
c°C degrees Celsius
dMax maximum
eMin minimum
fNW Nenhowe
gGD Gudyanga
hTH Tonhorai
IMD Maunganidze
Source: Pambuka, personal communication, 11 November, 20191; Matsenure, personal communication, 12 November, 20192; Mukwakwami, personal
communication, 13 November, 20193; Masimura, personal communication, November 14, 20194
1 Local agricultural extension worker for Gudyanga
2 Local agricultural extension worker for Nenhowe
3 Local agricultural extension worker for Maunganidze
4 Local agricultural extension worker for Tonhorai
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 5 of 19
Table 2 Number of farmers who participated in the individual household interviews and focus group discussions
Village Household interviews Focus group discussions
Males Females Total Males Females No. of FGDa conducted
Tonhorai 19 (37.3%) 32 (62.7%) 51 10 12 2
Maunganidze 22 (44.9%) 27 (55.1%) 49 10 10 2
Gudyanga 17 (34.7%) 32 (65.3%) 49 10 12 2
Nenhowe 17 (63%) 10 (37%) 27 10 11 2
Total 75 (42.6%) 101 (57.4%) 176 40 45 8
The values in parentheses indicate the percentage of male or female farmers who participated in the individual household interviews.
aFGDs focus group discussions
Issues discussed under the focus groups were navy bean minimum and maximum levels were computed for the
farming systems, crop production practices, cropping cal- data collected in each village. The farmers’ production
endar, preferred navy bean cultivars and reasons for pref- and marketing constraints and trait preferences were
erence within the community, ranking of production ranked according to the frequency of citation by respon-
constraints, major diseases in order of importance, and dents (percentage of respondents who selected the re-
heat and drought stress management strategies. Interviews spective constraint and trait) at village level and across
were conducted in Shona, Ndau dialect, the local language the villages [15]. Charts were constructed in Microsoft
with the help of enumerators that had been selected from Office Excel 2013.
these villages [11, 13]. Transect walks were conducted in
three selected fields after the focus group sessions to pro- Results
mote discussion amongst farmers about the navy bean Demographics and household characteristics of
production systems and the associated constraints. The respondents
collected information was translated to English. The data As an economic activity, navy bean production is carried
that was obtained through FGDs, problem listing and out by people of different ages in the villages sampled
transect walk was used for triangulation, to validate and (Table 3). The age group 41–50 years had the highest
support the data gathered from the individual semi- number of respondents and accounted for 28% of the
structured household questionnaire. The study was surveyed population (Table 3). There were also respon-
carried out in collaboration with the Ministry of Lands, dents above 70 years that were involved in navy bean
Agriculture, Water, and Rural Resettlement. production in all the areas surveyed.
Both qualitative and quantitative data from household
interviews and FGDs were coded and subjected to ana- Navy bean production, farming systems and important
lyses using cross-tabulation procedure, and contingency crops grown
chi-square values were calculated for significant tests Rainfall is unimodal, and seasons are classified accord-
using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) ingly. Summer season is characterized by rains from No-
(Release 21) computer package [28]. The data were clas- vember to March/April and high temperatures, followed
sified as ordinal or nominal for the SPSS spreadsheet. by winter season, which is dry and associated with low
For exploring frequencies and relationships, descriptive temperatures (April to July). The formal survey revealed
statistics such as percentage means, standard errors, that Maize (Zea mays L.), navy beans, onions (Allium
Table 3 Distribution of respondents’ age in the study areas
District
Age interval (years) Chimanimani villages Chipinge village
Nenhowe Gudyanga Tonhorai Maunganidze Overall P value
< 30 1% (2) 3% (5) 3% (5) 1% (2) 8% (14) 0.294
31–40 2% (4) 10% (17) 5% (8) 3% (6) 20% (35) 0.001*
41–50 5% (8) 7% (13) 7% (12) 9% (16) 28% (49) 0.104
51–60 3% (6) 5% (9) 11% (19) 6% (10) 25% (44) 0.001*
61–70 2% (3) 2% (3) 3% (5) 6% (10) 12% (21) 0.098
> 70 2% (4) 1% (2) 1% (2) 3% (5) 7% (13) 0.429
The values in parentheses indicate the actual numbers per age group
*Denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤ 0.05
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 6 of 19
cepa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), tomatoes (Sola- Crops based on cultivation area
num lycopersicum L.), velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens Maize (81%), navy bean (44.4%), tomatoes (23.1%), on-
L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), Lablab (Lablab pur- ions (16.3%) and sorghum (14.1%) were the major crops
pureus L.) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) were grown by both male and female farmers in the study
the major food crops grown in the study areas (Table 4). areas in terms of cultivation area (Table 4). In each of
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), groundnut (Arachis the villages, maize was ranked first by more than 50% of
hypogaea L.) and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterra- both male and female respondents. In Nenhowe and
nea L.) were ranked as minor crops across all the vil- Tonhorai villages, navy bean ranked second with 44.4%
lages. Most of the navy bean was grown during the dry (males) and 29.6% (females), 39.2% (males) and 70.4%
winter season under irrigation using the scarce irrigation (females) of respondents, respectively, while at Maunga-
water resources alongside horticultural crops (onions nidze village, it was ranked equally with maize in im-
and tomatoes) and wheat. Navy bean summer produc- portance (65.2%) among women farmers.
tion was constrained by high temperatures and drought,
even though some of the farmers grew navy beans in
small plots for household consumption. The rest of the Crops based on cash income
crops were mainly grown in summer. The food crops Based on cash income, and in order of ranking by the
were ranked by both male and female farmers based on male and female farmers, navy bean, maize, tomatoes,
cultivation area, cash income and food security as out- onions and wheat were the major crops grown in the
lined in the sections below. study areas (Table 4). In all the four villages, navy bean
Table 4 Important crops in terms of cultivation area, cash income and food security (percentage of respondents)
Villages
Gudyanga (%) Maunganidze (%) Nenhowe (%) Tonhorai (%) Overall Mean
Sex
Criterion Crop Ma Fb Mean M F Mean M F Mean M F Mean M F Mean P value
Cultivation area Maize 48.81 1001 74.41 89.61 65.21 77.41 1001 741 871 70.41 1001 85.21 77.21 84.81 811 0.039*
Beans 16.43 57.22 36.82 32.82 65.21 492 44.42 29.62 372 39.22 70.42 54.82 33.22 55.62 44.42 0.044*
Wheat 16.43 16.44 16.44 0 0 0 29.63 0 14.84 84 0 46 13.56 4.17 8.86 0.052
Onions 24.42 8.45 16.44 85 40.83 24.44 14.85 0 7.45 84 23.64 15.84 13.85 18.24 164 0.050*
Tomatoes 16.43 48.83 32.63 32.82 24.444 28.63 14.85 0 7.46 84 39.23 23.63 183 28.13 23.13 0.047*
Sorghum 0 5.67 2.87 16.44 85 12.25 29.63 29.62 29.63 15.63 85 11.85 15.44 12.85 14.15 0.052
Lablab 0 0 0 0 85 46 0 14.84 7.46 0 0 0 0 5.76 2.98 0.052
Velvet beans 16.43 86 12.26 0 85 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.17 48 4.17 0.052
Cash Income Maize 0 40.84 20.44 24.43 65.21 44.82 44.42 59.21 51.82 31.22 70.41 50.82 252 58.92 42.02 0.043*
Beans 40.81 89.61 65.21 40.81 57.22 491 1001 29.62 64.81 54.81 62.82 58.81 59.11 59.81 59.51 0.044*
Wheat 16.44 86 12.26 24.43 32.83 28.63 14.85 14.83 14.84 85 15.66 11.85 15.96 17.85 16.95 0.051
Onions 16.44 48.83 32.63 24.43 0 12.27 29.63 14.83 22.23 85 87 87 19.64 17.96 18.84 0.049*
Tomatoes 32.82 57.22 452 32.82 24.44 28.63 0 14.83 7.46 31.22 39.23 35.23 24.23 33.93 29.13 0.047*
Lablab 32.82 0 16.45 87 87 88 29.63 0 14.85 0 23.65 11.85 17.65 7.97 12.86 0.050
Velvet beans 0 0 0 16.46 16.45 16.45 14.85 0 7.46 15.64 0 7.88 11.77 4.18 7.98 0.052
Okra 0 16.45 8.27 87 16.45 12.26 0 14.83 7.46 0 31.24 15.64 28 19.74 10.97 0.050*
Food security Maize 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 NS
Beans 8.02 242 162 8.03 16.42 12.24 14.82 29.62 22.22 8.03 23.63 15.83 11.63 23.42 17.52 0.052
Sorghum 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.42 16.42 16.42 14.82 14.83 14.83 15.62 31.22 23.42 11.72 15.63 13.73 0.051
Wheat 0.0 8.03 8.03 16.42 16.42 16.42 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.62 84 11.84 83 8.14 8.14 0.052
The values in parentheses indicate the percentage of respondents who selected the respective particular crop, and the superscript indicates the relative rank of
the crop
*Denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤ 0.05
aM male
bF female
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 7 of 19
was ranked first by 49–65.2% of the respondents, while (Gudyanga) and the largest being 0.77 ha (Tonhorai).
in Maunganidze, Nenhowe and Tonhorai villages, it The average grain yield of navy bean varied significantly
ranked second after maize among female farmers only. (p < 0.05) from village to village with Gudyanga having
In contrary to women, male farmers in all the villages the highest yields (Table 5). Focus group discussions re-
ranked navy bean as the most important cash crop ported average grain yields of 2.45, 2.76, 2.19 and 2.42 t
ahead of maize, tomatoes, onions and wheat. The rank- ha−1 in Tonhorai, Gudyanga, Nenhowe and Maunga-
ing for the other crops is shown in Table 4. nidze villages, respectively.
Crops based on food security Navy bean production constraints
Regarding food security, maize (100% of respondents), Navy bean production was hampered by many con-
navy beans (17.5%), sorghum (13.7%) and wheat (8.1%) straints. Challenges ranged from biotic, abiotic and
were the major crops as indicated by both men and socio-economic constraints (Table 6). The perception of
women (Table 4). In Gudyanga and Nenhowe villages, the constraints affecting navy bean production in the
navy bean was ranked second by 8.0 and 14.8% of the study locations was not different within and across vil-
male respondents, respectively, while in Maunganidze lages as well as between men and women within the vil-
village among men, it occupied the third (8.0%) place lages. The ranking of the constraints among both male
after sorghum and wheat, which were ranked equally and female farmers across all the locations did not differ
(16.4%). Sorghum (31.2%) occupied the second place at much. Drought stress, heat stress, power outages/electri-
Tonhorai village among women, while navy bean occu- city cuts, susceptibility to pod shattering, poor soil fertil-
pied the same place at Nenhowe (29.6%) and Gudyanga ity, insect pests, seed availability and diseases were the
villages among women. main constraints of navy bean production across all the
villages according to both male and female farmers.
Land size and navy bean production yield The most challenging insect pests across all the loca-
Sole cropping was the predominant (100%) cropping sys- tions were the black bean aphid, bean stem maggot and
tem in all the surveyed villages (Table 5). Farmers culti- harvester termites [Hodotermes mossambicus (Hagen)
vated navy bean farming on small land holdings (mean = (Isoptera: Hodotermitidae)]. Diseases mainly comprised
0.27 ha). The average land size allocated to navy bean of bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus), angular leaf
production was not significantly different among the vil- spot (Pseudocercospora griseola), and common bacterial
lages ranging from 0.23 (Gudyanga) to 0.32 ha (Nen- blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli). Drought
howe) (Table 5). On average, the total land size per stress was the second most challenging constraint in
household was 0.75 ha, with the smallest being 0.69 ha Nenhowe (68%) and Tonhorai (64%) villages among
Table 5 Land size and navy bean cropping system in across four villages
Average land size Farming system (%) Estimated yield
(t ha-1)
Average land size (ha) per Average land size (ha) allocated to navy bean SCa ICb MCc MOCd
household (ha) per household
Village
Tonhorai 0.77 0.27 100 0 0 0 2.45bc
Gudyanga 0.69 0.23 100 0 0 0 2.76d
Nenhowe 0.79 0.32 100 0 0 0 2.19a
0.76 0.26 100 0 0 0 2.42b
Maunganidze
Mean 0.75 0.27 100 2.45
LSDe 0.11 0.05 NS - - - 0.26
F prf 0.076NS 0.092NS NS - - - 0.035*
The % indicates the percentage of respondents who are using the respective farming system
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different
NS non-significant
*P < 0.05
aSC sole cropping
bIC inter cropping
cMC mixed cropping
dMOC mono cropping
eLSD least significant differences of means (5% level)
fF pr probability value (5% level)
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 8 of 19
Table 6 Navy bean production constraints experienced by farmers
Villages
Sex Constraint Gudyanga (%) Maunganidze (%) Nenhowe (%) Tonhorai (%) Mean (%) Overall rank P value
rank rank rank rank
Females Heat stress 60 2 64 2 48 2 60 2 58 2 0.046*
Drought stress 84 1 80 1 100 1 80 1 86 1 0.025*
Susceptibility to pod shattering 32 5 32 4 28 5 36 4 32 4 0.208
Poor soil fertility 36 4 24 6 40 3 28 7 32 4 0.042*
Diseases 24 7 24 6 28 5 28 7 26 8 0.417
Insect pests 28 6 32 4 28 5 32 5 30 6 0.417
Seed availability 24 7 24 6 28 5 32 5 27 7 0.152
Low-yielding cultivars 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 9 20 10 0.591
Power outages 48 3 52 3 44 4 40 3 46 3 0.083
Shortage of labour 20 10 20 10 20 10 16 11 19 11 0.556
Lack of access to transport 24 7 24 6 24 9 20 9 23 9 0.556
Males Heat stress 48 3 44 2 60 1 68 1 55 2 0.018*
Drought stress 76 1 84 1 68 2 64 2 73 1 0.028*
Susceptibility to pod shattering 44 4 44 2 36 4 44 4 42 4 0.139
Poor soil fertility 28 5 40 5 36 4 28 7 33 6 0.062
Diseases 24 7 24 7 28 6 32 6 27 9 0.152
Insect pests 28 5 28 6 28 6 36 5 30 8 0.139
Seed availability 24 7 24 7 24 8 20 8 23 10 0.556
Low-yielding cultivars 20 10 20 10 20 9 16 10 19 11 0.556
Power outages 60 2 44 2 14 3 14 3 54 3 0.046*
Shortage of labour 80 10 20 10 16 11 16 10 33 6 0.417
Lack of access to transport 96 7 24 7 20 9 20 8 40 5 0.417
The % indicates the percentage of respondent; * denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤0
Table 7 Management strategies for moisture and heat stress across four villages
Village Average
Stress Strategy Gudyanga (%) Maunganidze (%) Nenhowe (%) Tonhorai (%) (%) P value
Moisture Soil mulching 29 (2) 16 (2) 6 (7) 14 (2) 18 (1) 0.040*
Reducing acreage 11 (3) 5 (6) 17 (3) 14 (2) 11 (3) 0.051
Use of ridges 9 (5) 14 (3) 22 (2) 9 (5) 12 (2) 0.049*
Cultivating to retain more moisture in soil 6 (5) 14 (3) 11 (4) 14 (2) 11 (3) 0.053
Adjusting planting dates 0 (7) 8 (5) 0 (7) 3 (6) 3 (6) 0.053
No control strategy 40 (1) 38 (1) 33 (1) 43 (1) 39 (NC)a 0.052
Watering of plants at night 6 (6) 5 (6) 11 (4) 3 (6) 6 (5) 0.053
Heat Adjusting planting dates 18 (4) 22 (2) 56 (1) 38 (1) 29 (2) 0.006*
Irrigating at night 24 (2) 49 (1) 25 (2) 21 (3) 32 (1) 0.027*
No control strategy 24 (2) 16 (3) 6 (4) 25 (2) 19 (NC) 0.042*
Mulching 33 (1) 14 (4) 13 (3) 17 (4) 20 (3) 0.041*
The % indicates the percentage of respondents using that respective strategy
*Denotes that the village differed significantly at P ≤ 0.05
aNC not a control/management strategy (represents percentage of farmers who reported that they do not use any control or management strategy)
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 9 of 19
male farmers, while heat stress ranked the same at of farmers interviewed at Maunganidze, Nenhowe,
Gudyanga (60%), Maunganidze (64%), Nenhowe (48%) Gudyanga and Tonhorai villages, respectively.
and Tonhorai (60%) villages among female farmers.
Farmers reported that drought stress mainly occurred Navy bean marketing constraints
during the reproductive stage of growth, and heat stress Navy bean production was hampered by many con-
was common in the late planted crop for a short period straints among which are lack of diversity in terms of
of time. The other major constraints reported by both buyers/off-takers, non-payment for produce in hard cur-
male and female farmers were lack of access to trans- rency, delayed payment by contractor, low grain produ-
port, low yielding cultivars and shortage of labour. cer price and inflation eroding the value of the produce
(Table 8). Non-payment for produce in hard currency
Management strategies for moisture and heat stress was the top most challenging constraint among both
The strategies used by farmers to alleviate the effects of male and female farmers at Gudyanga, Nenhowe and
moisture stress are summarized in Table 7. A total of Tonhorai, while lack of diversity in terms of buyers/off-
40, 38, 33 and 43% of farmers in Gudyanga, Maunga- takers (92% of male respondents) and low grain produ-
nidze, Nenhowe and Tonhorai villages, respectively, did cer price (100% of female respondents) were ranked the
not use any strategy to manage/control moisture stress. same at Maunganidze. The other major challenging con-
However, soil mulching, reduced acreage, use of ridges, straints among both male and female farmers were lack
cultivating to retain more soil moisture, adjusting plant- of transport to ferry produce, non-transparent grading,
ing dates, and watering of plants at night are the strat- expensive packaging material and breach of contract by
egies that were used by the other farmers to alleviate the contractor.
effects of moisture stress. Soil mulching was the most
widely used method of managing moisture stress at Farmer preferred traits for improvement during navy
Gudyanga (29% of respondents), Maunganidze (16%) bean breeding
and Tonhorai (14%). During FGDs, farmers in all the Across all the locations, farmers concurred that there
four villages highlighted the importance of soil mulching was need for improvement of certain traits in the
in suppressing and reducing weed infestation and fungal current cultivars during breeding based on their needs
disease pressure. At Nenhowe village, the most common and preferences. The farmer-preferred traits for im-
method was the use of ridges (22%) followed by cultivat- provement are summarized in Table 9. Tolerance to heat
ing to retain more soil moisture. Overall (18%), soil (72% of the respondents), and drought (72%), resistance
mulching was the most common method of managing to diseases (72%) and insect pests (71%), maturity period
moisture stress as reported by 29, 16, 14 and 6% of (71%), grain yield (71%), pod size (69%), grain size (68%)
farmers interviewed at Gudyanga, Maunganidze, Ton- and resistance to pod shattering (68%) were identified as
horai and Nenhowe villages, respectively. Ridges (12%) the most important traits that needed enhancement by
were the second most widely used strategy, followed by both male and female farmers across all the locations.
reducing acreage (11%) and cultivating to retain more Canning quality (26%) and nutritional value (iron and
soil moisture (11%). Less common strategies of man- zinc) (28%) were the least important traits for improve-
aging moisture stress included adjusting planting dates ment among both male and female farmers across all
(3%) and watering of plants at night (6%). the villages. Generally, no gender differences were ob-
The strategies used by farmers to alleviate the effects served for farmers’ trait preferences across the villages.
of heat stress are summarized in Table. 7. Irrigating at
night (reported by 32% of respondents), adjusting plant- Sources of seed supply and cultivar preferences by
ing dates (29%), and mulching (20%) are the methods farmers
that were used by farmers to alleviate the effects of heat The major source of navy bean seed was the canning
stress. However, overall, 19% of the farmers across all company (94%) as a business venture (Fig. 1). For house-
the villages did not use any heat stress management/ hold consumption, especially during summer season, the
control strategy. A total of 56, 38, 22 and 18% of farmers neighbouring farmers, research institutions and seed
at Nenhowe, Tonhorai, Maunganidze and Gudyanga vil- companies were a critical seed source. Most of the re-
lages, respectively, confirmed using the strategy of spondents were not well informed of the existence of
adjusting planting dates to alleviate the effects of heat improved navy bean cultivars such as Protea and Tea-
stress. At Gudyanga and Maunganidze, the most com- bus. Zimbabwe White Bean formerly called Michigan
monly used methods were mulching (33%) and irrigating pea bean was the most widely grown navy bean cultivar
at night (49%), respectively. Overall (32%), irrigating at among both men and women farmers at Nenhowe (70%
night was the most common method of alleviating the of respondents), Gudyanga (85%), Tonhorai (82%) and
effects of heat stress as reported by 49, 25, 24 and 21% Maunganidze (90%) (Table 10). The second most widely
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 10 of 19
Table 8 Navy bean marketing constraints experienced by farmers
Village
Sex Constraint Gudyanga Maunganidze Nenhowe Tonhorai Mean Rank P
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) value
Male Delayed payment by contractor 72 60 24 68 56 3 0.033*
Breach of contract by contractor 0 0 0 64 16 7 0.022*
Low grain producer price 36 28 96 44 51 4 0.019*
Lack of diversity in terms of buyers/off- 48 92 84 64 72 2 0.081
takers
None 0 0 0 20 5 NCa 0.107
Expensive packaging material 48 20 0 0 17 7 0.021*
Non-payment for produce in hard currency 100 52 100 96 87 1 0.062
Inflation eroding the value of the produce 48 56 48 44 49 5 0.421
Lack of transport to ferry produce 24 72 12 0 27 6 0.033*
Non-transparent grain grading 24 20 24 0 17 7 0.081
Female Delayed payment by contractor 72 64 20 56 53 3 0.054
Breach of contract by contractor 24 28 0 44 24 6 0.065
Low grain producer price 64 100 60 36 65 2 0.050*
Lack of diversity in terms of buyers/off- 64 28 40 76 52 4 0.056
takers
None 0 0 30 24 13.5 NC 0.003*
Expensive packaging material 28 0 40 0 17 7 0.028*
Non-payment for produce in hard currency 100 40 100 100 85 1 0.148
Inflation eroding the value of the produce 0 44 80 24 37 5 0.009*
Lack of transport to ferry produce 24 28 0 0 13 9 0.157
Non-transparent grain grading 0 48 0 12 15 8 0.025*
The % indicates the percentage of respondents experiencing the respective constraint
*Denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤ 0.05
aNC not a constraint (represents percentage of farmers who reported that they do not experience any marketing constraint)
cultivated navy bean cultivar was Teabus (Nenhowe— yield potential (15%) and susceptibility to drought stress
25%, Gudyanga—11%, Tonhorai—18% and Maunga- (10%) were some of the undesirable traits of Zimbabwe
nidze—10%). White Bean cultivar. The cultivar Caledon had only one
undesirable characteristic across all the locations, which
Farmers’ desirable and undesirable characteristics of the was susceptibility to insect pests (2%), mainly the black
navy bean cultivars bean aphid. With regards to Teabus, some of the un-
About 45 and 13% of the farmers across all the locations desirable characteristics across the four villages were
desired high grain yield and disease tolerance of the susceptibility to pod shattering (5%), susceptibility to in-
Zimbabwe White Bean cultivar, respectively (Fig. 2). sect pests (33%), susceptibility to diseases (24%), suscep-
However, more than 15% of the farmers indicated they tibility to heat stress (7%), small seed size (8%), low grain
did not like any attribute of the Zimbabwe White Bean yield potential (19%), short plant height (5%), small pod
and Teabus cultivars, but they were the only available size (3%) and susceptibility to drought stress (8%).
cultivars that were offered by the contractor/canning
company. Even though Caledon was not widely grown, Discussion
2% of the farmers who cultivated the cultivar liked the Gender and age distribution of respondents
high grain yield potential of the cultivar. The majority of navy bean farmers were females except
The undesirable characteristics of the navy bean culti- at Nenhowe where women cultivate green mealies as a
vars grown by farmers across the four villages are pre- cash crop since it fetches a high market price [29]. Trad-
sented in Fig. 3. Results indicated that susceptibility to itionally, bean is considered a women’s crop in
pod shattering (3% of respondents), susceptibility to in- Zimbabwe. However, due to the profitability of navy
sect pests (45%), susceptibility to diseases (27%), suscep- bean production, men are slowly involved in the cultiva-
tibility to heat stress (8%), small seed size (2%), low grain tion of the crop. A very small percentage of the farmers
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 11 of 19
Table 9 Farmers’ trait preference of a navy bean cultivar by sex for improvement during breeding
Village
Gudyanga (%) Maunganidze (%) Nenhowe (%) Tonhorai (%)
Cultivar characteristic Ma Fb Mnc M F Mn M F Mn M F Mn Mean Overall P
(%) rank value
Heat stress tolerance 76 (1) 68 (6) 72 (2) 68 (8) 67 (9) 68 (9) 71 (1) 70 (1) 71 (1) 75 (1) 75 (2) 75 (2) 72 1 0.125
Drought stress tolerance 70 (3) 73 (1) 72 (2) 71 (1) 75 (1) 73 (1) 71 (1) 70 (1) 71 (1) 74 (3) 69 (8) 72 (3) 72 1 0.083
Disease tolerance 70 (3) 72 (3) 71 (4) 71 (1) 75 (1) 73 (1) 71 (1) 70 (1) 71 (1) 72 (4) 72 (4) 72 (3) 72 1 0.059
Insect pest tolerance 68 (5) 68 (6) 68 (6) 69 (6) 66 68 (9) 71 (1) 70 (1) 71 (1) 75 (1) 76 (1) 76 (1) 71 4 0.985
(10)
Canning quality 30 27 29 31 30 31 33 20 27 21 11 16 26 17 0.011*
(16) (17) (16) (16) (16) (16) (16) (17) (17) (16) (17) (17)
Short cooking time 68 (5) 67 (8) 68 (6) 68 (8) 63 66 69 (7) 66 (7) 68 (7) 62 73 (3) 68 68 8 0.116
(11) (11) (11) (10)
Grain yield 68 (5) 72 (3) 70 (5) 71 (1) 75 (1) 73 (1) 71 (1) 66 (7) 69 (6) 72 (4) 68 (9) 70 (5) 71 4 0.469
Maturity period 72 (2) 73 (1) 73 (1) 71 (1) 75 (1) 73 (1) 64 70 (1) 67 (9) 68 (7) 71 (6) 70 (5) 71 4 0.221
(11)
Nutritional value iron, 22 34 28 29 19 24 21 59 40 21 19 20 28 16 0.012*
zinc (17) (16) (17) (17) (17) (17) (17) (11) (16) (16) (16) (16)
Growth habit 44 40 42 39 35 37 44 43 44 35 46 41 41 15 0.019*
(15) (15) (15) (15) (15) (15) (15) (13) (15) (15) (15) (15)
Plant height 54 49 52 53 50 52 50 43 47 58 52 55 52 12 0.560
(12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (13) (12) (12) (12) (12)
Resistance to pod 68 (5) 65 67 (8) 68 (8) 71 (7) 70 (6) 67 63 65 66 (9) 72 (4) 69 (8) 68 8 0.200
shattering (10) (10) (10) (10)
Pod size 68 (5) 64 66 (9) 69 (6) 69 (8) 69 (8) 69 (7) 70 (1) 70 (5) 68 (7) 71 (6) 70 (5) 69 7 0.854
(11)
Grain size 62 69 (5) 66 (9) 71 (1) 75 (1) 73 (1) 69 (7) 66 (7) 68 (7) 66 (9) 65 66 68 8 0.714
(10) (11) (11)
Grain taste 46 46 46 44 42 43 46 47 47 48 47 48 46 14 0.025*
(13) (14) (14) (13) (13) (13) (13) (13) (12) (14) (13) (14)
Storability 62 67 (8) 65 65 75 (1) 70 (6) 71 (1) 59 65 70 (6) 68 (9) 69 (8) 67 11 0.504
(10) (11) (11) (11) (10)
Ease of shelling 46 47 47 44 41 43 46 47 47 50 47 49 47 13 0.521
(13) (13) (13) (13) (14) (13) (13) (13) (12) (13) (13) (13)
The numbers in parentheses () indicate the rank of the respective trait
*Denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤0.05
aM male
bF female
cMn average
were aged below 30 years since most of the youths were guaranteeing food, nutrition and income security at farm
engaged in diamond mining which is associated with level. Maize, navy bean and sorghum featured promin-
quick cash returns. The socio-economic constraints as- ently among the most important food crops for house-
sociated with navy bean production also hindered the hold consumption and income generation. Both maize,
participation of youths in navy bean production. Njenga sorghum and navy beans are complementary to each
et al. [30] reported that agricultural activities were un- other within the farming households; navy bean is a
attractive to youths due to the input and time cheap source of protein, and farmers often consume it
investment. with “sadza/isitshwala” (thick porridge made from
maize/sorghum flour). Furthermore, navy bean is a
Important crops grown short-season crop which allows relay-cropping with
Farming enterprises were business oriented evidenced by green mealies, and its market is guaranteed since it is
the type of crops grown which ranged from horticultural grown under contract farming. Income generated from
crops, cereals, and others. The diversification of crops navy bean sales is used to purchase farming inputs and
protected farmers from natural hazards such as drought, livestock (goats and cattle) and household food, and to
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 12 of 19
Fig. 1 Sources of navy bean seed in South East Lowveld region of Zimbabwe in 2019
pay school fees. Sorghum, a drought-tolerant crop was observation made by Katungi et al. [5] that the majority of
grown by farmers during the summer season under rain- dry bean farmers in Natural Region V allocated an average
fed conditions as a coping strategy for adapting to of 0.271 ha to dry bean production. Generally, navy bean
drought stress and guaranteeing both human food and was cultivated in small fields because most contracting
animal feed. These findings agree with Chidoko and companies availed seed which was enough to cover an
Zhou [31] and Nassary et al. [32] who reported maize area of 0.25 ha per farmer. This was used as a risk man-
and dry bean as important food and cash crops in many agement strategy against biotic, abiotic and socio-
parts of the world, including Sub-Saharan Africa. Add- economic constraints coupled with the unavailability of
itionally, Katungi et al. [5] reported that maize and sor- seed. Sole cropping was the most common cropping sys-
ghum are the main food crops grown in natural region tem because other crops (wheat, tomatoes and onions)
four (NR V) in Zimbabwe. The majority of men ranked which the farmers cultivate during the dry winter season
navy bean (average of USD800 per tonne) as the most are not compatible for intercropping with navy bean. Fur-
important crop for cash income ahead of maize (average thermore, the weather conditions during the winter sea-
of USD235 per tonne) which was ranked first by women. son are not favourable for the cultivation of other main
This was because men were in charge of navy bean sales food crops which are compatible to intercrop with navy
with the contractor and women were in charge of green beans such as maize. This is corroborated by Katungi
mealies (boiled, roasted) sales. et al. [5] and Njoki [33] who found that dry bean was
grown as a sole crop in Zimbabwe and Kiambu County of
Kenya, respectively. However, some authors, Deressa et al.
Land size and navy bean production yield [14], Fageria et al. [34] and Mongi et al. [35] reported that
The average land size of 0.27 ha per household allocated dry bean was grown by smallholder farmers in intercrop-
to navy bean production was comparable to the ping and mixed cropping systems in other African
Table 10 Navy bean cultivars grown in the study areas
Village
Gender Cultivar Gudyanga Maunganidze Nenhowe Tonhorai Total OveraIl rank P value
Females Zimbabwe White Bean 54% (1) 58% (1) 15% (1) 54% (1) 49% 1 0.032*
Teabus 8% (2) 3% (2) 10% (2) 15% (2) 9% 2 0.003*
Caledon 3% (3) 0% (3) 0% (3) 0% (3) 1% 3 0.638
Males Zimbabwe White Bean 31% (1) 32% (1) 55% (1) 28% (1) 34% 1 0.015*
Teabus 3% (2) 6% (2) 15% (2) 3% (2) 5% 2 0.021*
Caledon 3% (3) 0% (3) 5% (3) 0% (3) 1% 3 0.042*
The numbers in parenthesis () indicate the cultivar rank in terms of the number of respondents cultivating the cultivar
The % indicates the percentage of respondents who are growing the respective cultivar
*Denotes that the villages differed significantly at P ≤ 0.05
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 13 of 19
Fig. 2 Desirable characteristics about the cultivars grown by farmers across the four villages
countries. Gudyanga had the highest average navy bean Navy bean production constraints
grain yields (2.76 t ha-1) per hectare because farmers prac- The results revealed that drought stress, heat stress, pod
ticed good agricultural practices (GAPs) (optimum shattering, poor soil fertility, insect pests, diseases and
fertilizer application, pesticide application and herbicide seed availability were the major production constraints.
application) despite the socio-economic constraints. In This is corroborated by Katungi et al. [5] who found that
contrary, Nenhowe had the least average navy bean grain insect pests, diseases and drought stress are the most
yields per hectare due to frequent breakdown of irrigation challenging dry bean production constraints in
pumps which resulted in farmers applying an average of Zimbabwe. A similar study carried out by Chemining’wa
two irrigation cycles instead of five cycles per navy bean et al. [36] in Kenya also reported that insect pests, dis-
growing season. The significant yield gap between farmers’ eases, drought and transport are challenging constraints
yield and yield potential could be attributed to drought of navy bean production. Many scientists [37–39] have
stress, heat stress, susceptibility to fungal diseases, and reported that about 60 % of cultivated beans worldwide
socio-economic constraints such as unavailability of seed are grown under the risk of either terminal or intermit-
of improved cultivars. tent drought. Drought stress and heat stress were the
Fig. 3 Undesirable characteristics about cultivars being grown by farmers across four villages
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 14 of 19
most important constraints because farmers are not able seed. This compels canning companies to rely on
to grow navy beans during the main cropping season Zimbabwe White Bean and importation of Teabus seed
due to erratic rainfall totals (less than 450 mm) coupled from South Africa) increasing production costs). Conse-
with high temperatures (more than 32 °C) [40]. Load quently, the majority (94%) of farmers sourced their seed
shedding (power cuts) in winter was also an important from canning companies due to the unavailability of
constraint because it affected the frequency of irrigation seed in agro-dealer shops. This is corroborated by
cycles resulting in the crop experiencing prolonged pe- Chemming’wa et al. [36] who found that contracting
riods of moisture stress. Farmers were forced to irrigate companies in Kenya (Nakuru County) gave navy bean
at night when electricity was available, a strategy which seed to farmers to grow the crop for them due to un-
was often a challenge to women farmers due to house- availability of seed. The challenge of the unavailability
hold responsibilities/duties. Tackling the effects of load of navy bean seed and informal seed system can be
shedding on irrigation cycles needs much more effort partly addressed through the establishment of
and a holistic approach; the government of Zimbabwe community-based seed production organizations
and private sector must invest in solar energy to (CBSPO). This will ensure that high quality seed of
minimize the effects of moisture stress when electricity improved cultivars is available within the communities
is not available emanating from increased demand. at affordable prices [41].
Susceptibility to pod shattering was an important con- Poor soil fertility frequently appeared as an important
straint because despite experiencing significant grain constraint probably due to soil nutrient imbalances since
yield losses, farmers spent a lot of time and labour in most of the farmers applied basal and top-dressing fertil-
picking the small seeded grains from the ground. izers without conducting soil nutrient analysis. Similar
Farmers reported susceptibility to diseases as an import- findings were reported by Njoki [33] and Mongi et al.
ant production constraint because some of the diseases [35] who found that poor soil fertility was an important
infect the grain, and diseased grains are discarded by the dry bean production constraint in the southern high-
contractor during grading since they do not meet the lands of Tanzania and Kiambu County in Kenya respect-
canning quality standards. This results in significant in- ively. This finding is also consistent with Vanlauwe et al.
come losses on the part of the farmer since payment is [42] who observed that unbalanced soil fertilization re-
based on the quantity of “clean” grain. Similar findings sulted in poor fertilizer response in maize. It is therefore
were reported by Njoki [33] and Mongi et al. [35] who of paramount importance for bean breeders to develop
found that diseases such as angular leaf spot were im- cultivars that are adapted to poor soils, particularly culti-
portant dry bean production constraints in the southern vars that are capable of producing acceptable grain yields
highlands of Tanzania and Kiambu County in Kenya, re- under low nitrogen conditions.
spectively. The high susceptibility to diseases was exacer-
bated by the unavailability of seed of improved navy Farmer’s trait preferences
bean cultivars in the market. This was due to the ab- There was a fair level of consistency in trait preference
sence of newly released cultivars and the lack of formal (priority traits for improvement during breeding) rank-
seed system (production of breeders, foundation and ings by both men and women probably because all the
certified seed) for Zimbabwe White Bean to inject dis- farmers experienced the same production and marketing
ease free seed into the system since this two-decade old constraints. This result is not in agreement with the
cultivar was never formally released [6]. This results in findings of Asfaw et al. [24] who reported differences in
continued recycling of infected seed, a scenario which trait preferences among both men and women dry bean
increases the prevalence of seed borne diseases such as farmers in Ethiopia. Tolerance to storage weevils, grain
angular leaf spot. Similarly, Chemining’wa et al. [36] re- taste and cooking traits were not considered as import-
ported that navy bean seed systems in Kenya were infor- ant traits for improvement because farmers mostly grow
mal. On the other hand, the South African cultivar navy beans for income generation, and also deliver most
“Teabus” was replaced in South Africa due to high sus- (90 %) of the produce to the contractor, and reserve 10
ceptibility to fungal diseases such as bean rust [Fourie, % for consumption. This prompts them not to value or
personal communication, January 20203]. The unavail- put more weight on them. The high market value (USD
ability of improved navy bean seed in Zimbabwe is due 800 per tonne) of navy beans compared to other subsist-
to the fact that the first improved navy bean cultivar ence crops such as maize prompts farmers to reserve
(Protea) in Zimbabwe was released in 2018 [6] such that less for household consumption in search of income.
seed companies are still bulking foundation and certified These findings contradict with Katungi et al. [5], Sheikh
et al. [17], Asfaw et al. [24], Njoki [33], and Balcha and
Tigabu [43] who reported a significant number of
3Dry Bean Breeder at Agricultural Research Council, South Africa farmers who preferred common bean cultivars with a
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 15 of 19
good taste and short cooking duration in their studies. Cultivars grown by farmers
Farmers did not value the importance of invisible traits There was a narrow variability in terms of navy bean
such as nutritional value (Fe and Zn) and canning qual- cultivars being grown by farmers partially due to the un-
ity probably due to the unfamiliarity with the nutritional availability of seed of improved navy bean cultivars in
and health benefits of consuming bio fortified cultivars the market. The majority of farmers predominantly grow
in these two districts. Therefore, capacity building and Zimbabwe White Bean since the year 2000 because this
bio fortified bean awareness creation campaigns should is what was being offered by canning companies, but
be intensified in these two districts to strengthen reckoned that it was not the ideal cultivar due to a num-
farmers’ knowledge on nutrition. ber of undesirable characteristics. Teabus was grown by
Generally, farmers showed strong preference for a small fraction of farmers due to the limited quantities
drought and heat stress tolerance ahead of high grain of seed available emanating from the high costs associ-
yield potential, suggesting that they are prepared to trade ated with the importation of seed from South Africa. On
off a high yielding cultivar for a drought tolerant culti- the other hand, the cultivar Caledona was only grown by
var. This emphasizes that farmers perceived drought and very few individuals at Gudyanga and Nenhowe because
heat stress as an urgent matter which the plant breeding the cultivar had not been officially released into the mar-
program needs to address as a priority. Similar findings ket. The private seed company Seed Co released Cale-
were reported by Derera et al. [13], who found that dona in December 2019, therefore farmers who grew
maize farmers in Mutare West of Zimbabwe selected the Caledona might have obtained the seed through on-farm
drought tolerance trait ahead of grain yield. These find- variety pre-release demonstration plots.
ings also concur with Asfaw et al. [24], Assefa et al. [25],
Njoki [33], Assefa et al. [44], and Umar [45] who re- Management strategies for moisture and heat stress
ported that farmers preferred drought tolerant dry bean Soil mulching with maize stover was widely used as a
genotypes for drought escape during their studies. moisture and heat stress management strategy to con-
Farmers preferred early maturing cultivars for early serve soil moisture and regulate soil temperature re-
household food security, drought escape and the reduc- spectively due to its multi beneficial effects. As reported
tion of the number of irrigation cycles due to insufficient by Iqbal et al. [46], Kader et al. [47], and Telkar et al.
water resources for irrigation. Early maturing cultivars [48], soil mulching improves the water infiltration and
can also be grown during the main short rainfall season retention capacity of the soil, and also reduces surface
in summer, and in winter, they escape heat stress and evaporation resulting in higher water use efficiency.
bean rust disease by maturing before temperatures begin Many scientists (Iqbal et al. [46], Kader et al. [47], Telkar
to rise in July. Asfaw et al. [24], Balcha and Tigabu [43], et al. [48], Bodner et al. [49], Lamont [50], and Long
and Assefa et al. [44] reported that dry bean farmers et al. [51]) report that mulches protect the soils from ex-
considered earliness as an important selection criterion treme temperatures by lowering soil surface tempera-
in drought prone areas. Farmers preferred cultivars that tures thereby keeping the plant root zone cooler and
are tolerant to pod shattering to reduce the amount of preventing soil temperature fluctuations, which is benefi-
time and labour spent in picking the small seeded grains cial for overall crop growth. Farmers revealed that soil
from the ground. This is corroborated by Asfaw et al. mulching had many other beneficial effects which in-
[24] who reported that farmers in Ethiopia preferred dry cluded a reduction in the incidence of fungal diseases
bean genotypes that were tolerant to pod shattering. and weed infestation.
Tolerance to diseases was one of the most preferred Despite the wide use of soil mulching, it attracted har-
traits due to high costs of fungicides and the need to re- vester termites which reduced plant stand in navy bean
duce the amount of labour and time spent on processing by feeding on the plant. This agrees with Long et al. [51]
diseased grain, which was often done by women. and Nyagumbo et al. [52], who reported that the applica-
High grain yield was an important trait that was pre- tion of crop residues or organic mulches increases the
ferred by farmers because navy beans are mainly grown activity of termites as a result of the moist conditions in
under contract farming, and high productivity usually the underlying soil. This suggests that breeding for toler-
translates to high income. These findings agree with ance to moisture stress must be a priority in navy bean
Asfaw et al. [24], Balcha and Tigabu [43], and Assefa breeding programs. Irrigating at night was an important
et al. [44], who reported that high grain yield was an im- moisture and heat stress management practice because
portant selection trait of dry bean farmers in Ethiopia. it resulted in more water penetrating the soil due to the
Farmers preferred cultivars with an indeterminate reduction in water losses from evaporation. However, fe-
growth habit because they had more than one flash of male farmers found it difficult to irrigate at night due to
flowering periods which increased chances of moisture the cultural household roles and responsibilities such as
stress escape. cooking. The strategy of irrigating at night agrees with
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 16 of 19
Mahmoud and El-Bably [53] who reported that night under contract farming and the buying price to his/her
time irrigation improved water productivity by reducing own advantage.
losses of evaporation. Dong et al. [54] reported that the Farmers mentioned that the breach of contract and
application of irrigation water at night reduced the root- low grain producer price forced some of the farmers to
zone soil temperature by 0.6 °C in maize resulting in im- withdraw from contractual agreements with canning
proved plant growth. companies in preference of bean seed production, also
Farmers frequently cultivated their fields with hoes as a under contract with various seed companies. Similarly,
drought stress management strategy to retain more soil Chemining’wa et al. [36] reported that the navy bean
moisture since more water penetrates into the soil instead farmer–processor contractual agreements collapsed in
of running away over the soil surface during irrigation. Kenya in 1994 due to low grain producer prices that
However, they highlighted that this method was very la- could not cover production costs. The constraint of low
borious. This is in agreement with Leslie [55] who re- grain producer price was exacerbated by the delayed
ported that cultivation can be employed to retain more payment for the grain by the contractor coupled with in-
soil moisture bank levels for use by the crop. Farmers re- flation. Farmers highlighted that by the time the contrac-
duced the acreage under navy beans as a moisture man- tor processed their payments, the money would have
agement strategy because this shortened the irrigation lost value due to inflation thus negatively affecting their
cycle turn-over despite its negative implications on the purchasing power. Delayed payment for the produce
overall production (output). The farmers often adjusted meant that most of the farmers did not have enough
the planting dates (early planting in March) to avoid high running capital to purchase inputs for the summer crop-
temperature stress during the reproductive stages of de- ping season. Due to the acute shortage of hard currency
velopment in July and August based on weather forecast (local Zimbabwean dollar) [60] in Zimbabwe, most of
information obtained from agricultural extension officers. the contractors have not been able to pay for the pro-
This is corroborated by Akter and Islam [56], Asseng et al. duce in hard currency. Payments to navy bean farmers
[57], Chapman et al. [58], and Sandhu et al. [59] who re- are made through bank transfers in form of Real Time
ported that the effects of heat stress can be managed Gross Transfer (RTGS). However, most of the farmers
through the adjustment of relevant agronomic practices in the study villages do not own bank accounts such that
such as the adjustment of planting dates. they receive their payments through mobile money plat-
forms such as EcoCash, Telecash and One Money. Some
Navy bean marketing constraints of the EcoCash agents are charging excessive premiums
Farmers revealed that most of the navy bean contractors [61] above the authorized commission levels, up to 55%
were paying an average of USD800 per tonne, a price [62] of the mobile money being cashed out, eroding the
which they feel was low compared to what middlemen farmers’ earnings.
were paying (average of USD1200) for the sugar bean
grain market class. This could be due to lack of diversity Farmers’ desirable and undesirable characteristics of the
in terms of buyers/off-takers in the navy bean market. It navy bean cultivars
was mainly the canning companies who were contract- Farmers highlighted that Zimbabwe White Bean was
ing farmers to produce navy bean grain and subse- only tolerant to diseases when planted early, meaning
quently purchasing the grain from them such that there that the cultivar was not tolerant but “escaped” disease
was no competition from other players/off-takers/ infection. The early maturity trait of Zimbabwe White
middlemen. Most of the canning companies only pur- Bean ensured early returns and cropping fit since the
chase the navy bean grain if the source of seed is from farmers produced green mealies after harvesting navy
them since the grain is meant for canning purposes such beans. On the other hand, some of the farmers did not
that canning quality is very important. These findings like any attribute on Zimbabwe White Bean and Teabus
agree with Chemining et al. [36] who found that com- but they are cultivating the cultivars due to lack of op-
mon bean farm gate prices were higher than the prices tions to select suitable cultivars for production. Caledona
of navy bean in Kenya. Additionally, some of the con- was preferred because of its tolerance to pod shattering,
tractors would frequently breach the signed contract by a trait which reduced labour in picking the grains from
deviating from the agreed buying price per tonne in the ground and grain losses due to shattering.
preference of a low buying price during grain collection Farmers highlighted that both Teabus and Zimbabwe
time. Moreover, some of the farmers produced navy White Bean were highly susceptible to drought and heat
bean grain under contract farming without signing any stress because both cultivars were not bred for produc-
contract, making it difficult to tackle disputes. This gave tion under heat-stressed and moisture-stressed environ-
room to the contractor to manipulate the price of the in- ments. Therefore, there is need to disseminate improved
puts (seed) that would have been advanced to the farmer navy bean cultivars in the Lowveld region that are
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 17 of 19
tolerant to multiple biotic and abiotic constraints despite the fact that participatory variety selection was
(drought, heat, and fungal diseases). In addition, farmers conducted in the Lowveld region. There is also a need
did not like the small seed size (< 25 g per 100 seeds) of for breeders to develop cultivars that are adapted to low
Zimbabwe White Bean and Teabus because it presented soil fertility, particularly cultivars that are capable of pro-
challenges during grading (removal of chuff). Further- ducing acceptable grain yield under low nitrogen condi-
more, the small-seeded navy been cultivars require more tions. Breeding programs should also consider traders
grain to fill a 50-kg bag compared with the large-seeded and processors trait preferences during cultivar develop-
cultivars (> 40 g per 100 seeds) which required less. Un- ment. Where navy bean breeding cannot incorporate all
fortunately, most of the navy bean cultivars with good the preferred traits, the key attributes should be included
canning qualities are small seeded, and seed size (< 25 g in particular cultivars, making sure that maturity dur-
per 100 seeds) is an important quality parameter for ation is short and there is no grain yield penalty since
consideration during canning quality analysis due to both are essential traits for farmers. Early maturing culti-
consumer preferences [63]. vars (i.e. less than 75 days) with tolerance to drought
and heat stress are recommended for deployment in the
Conclusions very dry and hot areas such as the Lowveld region. Since
Culinary characteristics were not considered important navy bean is mainly utilized in the canning industry, the
traits for improvement during breeding since navy bean product profile should have cooking characteristics that
production is strictly a business venture. The main mar- meet industry demand. Agronomic practices such as irri-
keting constraints were non-payment for produce in hard gating at night, mulching, ridges, reduced acreage, and
currency, lack of diversity in terms of off-takers, delayed cultivating the soil to increase the water infiltration rate
payment by the contractor, and low grain producer price. must be adopted by farmers to mitigate the effects of bi-
Farmers identified drought stress, heat stress, diseases, in- otic and abiotic stresses. There is need to train navy
sect pests, unavailability of seed of improved cultivars, sus- bean farmers on contract farming, and CBSPO should
ceptibility to pod shattering and poor soil fertility as the be established to increase the availability of seed. Lastly,
major navy bean production constraints. Drought toler- community seed banks should be established to improve
ance, heat tolerance, disease tolerance, insect pest toler- access to seed reserves when varieties fail, protect know-
ance, grain yield, resistance to pod shattering and early ledge related to diverse local varieties adapted to local
maturity were the major farmer-preferred traits. Improv- conditions and reduce dependence on seed sources from
ing seed size, pod shattering tolerance, fungal disease tol- outside the region. Irrigation schemes must be solarized
erance, drought tolerance and heat tolerance of the to reduce the effects of power cuts on irrigation
cultivar “Zimbabwe White Bean” predominantly grown in scheduling.
the Lowveld region without compromising on its short
maturity duration, short cooking time, and sweet taste Abbreviations
would potentially have a large impact on farmers’ liveli- FGDs: Focus group discussions; SSA: Sub-Saharan Africa; SE: South east;
hoods in the study areas. Navy bean was frequently grown PRA: Participatory rural appraisal; GAPs: Good agricultural practices;
CBSPO: Community-based seed production organization
under contract farming across the studied locations redu-
cing the burden of sourcing inputs on the part of the
farmer. Acknowledgements
The authors thank all the farmers and the extension agents who participated
in this research, as well as the Crop Breeding Institute who provided
Recommendations logistical assistance.
These findings imply that plant breeders should employ
participatory plant-breeding strategies and conventional Authors’ contributions
approaches to improve existing cultivars and also de- All authors contributed to this study. BM conducted the survey, analyzed
velop improved climate smart cultivars. Therefore, navy and interpreted the results. He drafted the manuscript. JS was a major
contributor in writing the manuscript. JS, EG, KS and EN helped in the study
bean improvement programs should consider and inte- design and critical revision of the manuscript. All the authors read and
grate the farmer-preferred traits, marketing, and produc- approved the final manuscript.
tion constraints during the development of improved
cultivars. There is urgent need to hasten seed multiplica- Funding
tion, dissemination of improved navy bean cultivars and This study was co-funded by the International Center of Tropical Agriculture
extension services in awareness creation among farmers (CIAT)—Pan Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) and the Government ofZimbabwe (GOZ).
about improved navy bean cultivars in the Lowveld re-
gion. This is important considering that most of the re-
Availability of data and materials
spondents were not well informed of the existence of The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available
improved navy bean cultivars such as Protea and Teabus from the corresponding author on request.
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 18 of 19
Declarations International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and Kenya
Agricultural Research Institute (KARI); 2002. p. 423–7.
Ethics approval and consent to participate 15. Nduwumuremyi A, Melis A, Shanahan P, Asiimwe T. Participatory appraisal
The authors declare that they obtained an informed consent to participate of preferred traits, production constraints, and postharvest challenges for
from people who were involved in this study. cassava farmers in Rwanda. Food Secur. 2016;8(2):375–88.
16. Ngailo S, Shimelis HA, Sibiya J, Mtunda K. Assessment of sweet potato
farming systems, production constraints and breeding priorities in eastern
Consent for publication
Tanzania. S Afr J Plant Soil. 2016;33(2):105–12.
The authors declare that they obtained an informed consent for publication
from the people involved in this study. 17. Sheikh FA, Sofi PA, Khan MA, Sofi NR, Wani SH, Bhat MA. Participatory rural
appraisal and farmers’ perception about common bean varieties in
temperate Kashmir. J Appl Nat Sci. 2017;9(2):1256–63.
Competing interests 18. Ceccarelli S, Grando S, Singh M, Michael M, Shikho A, Al Issa M, et al. A
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. methodological study on participatory barley breeding II. Response to
selection. Euphytica. 2003;133(2):185–200.
Author details 19. Morris ML, Bellon MR. Participatory plant breeding research: opportunities
1School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of and challenges for the international crop improvement system. Euphytica.
KwaZulu-Natal, P. Bag X01, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg 3209, South Africa. 2004;136(1):21–35.
2Department of Research and Specialist Services, Crop Breeding Institute, 20. Danial D, Parlevliet J, Almekinders C, Thiele G. Farmers’ participation and
Harare, Zimbabwe. 3Alliance Bioversity - International Center for Tropical breeding for durable disease resistance in the Andean region. Euphytica.
Agriculture (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya. 4Marondera University of Agricultural 2007;153(3):385–96.
Sciences and Technology, Marondera, Zimbabwe. 5University of Zimbabwe, 21. Mukankusi CM. Improving resistance to fusarium root rot [Fusarium solani
Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe. (Mart.) Sacc. f. sp. phaseoli (Burkholder) W.C. Snyder & H.N. Hans.] in
common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). PhD Thesis, University of KwaZulu-
Received: 18 November 2020 Accepted: 25 February 2021 Natal; 2008.
22. Ojwang PPO, Melis R, Songa JM, Githiri M, Bett C. Participatory plant
breeding approach for host plant resistance to bean fly in common bean
References under semi-arid Kenya conditions. Euphytica. 2009;170(3):383–93.
1. Akibode CS, Maredia MK. Global and regional trends in production, trade 23. Aguilar A, Carranza E, Goldstein M, Kilic T, Oseni G. Decomposition of
and consumption of food legume crops. (2011) https://ageconsearch.umn. gender differentials in agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. Agric Econ. 2015;
edu/record/136293?In=en. Accessed 7 Jun 2020. 46(3):311–34.
2. Beebe SE, Rao IM, Blair MW, Acosta-Gallegos JA. Phenotyping common 24. Asfaw A, Almekinders CJM, Blair MW, Struik PC. Participatory approach in
beans for adaptation to drought. Front Physiol. 2013;4(35):1–20. common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) breeding for drought tolerance for
3. Bellucci E, Bitocchi E, Rau D, Rodriguez M, Biagetti E, Giardini A, Attene G, southern Ethiopia. Plant Breed. 2012;131(1):125–34.
Nanni L, Papa R. Genomics of origin, domestication and evolution of 25. Assefa T, Sperling L, Dagne B, Argaw W, Tessema D, Beebe S. Participatory
Phaseolus vulgaris. In: Tuberosa R, Graner A, Frison E, editors. Genomics of plant breeding with traders and farmers for white pea bean in Ethiopia. J
Plant Genetic Resources. Switzerland: Springer; 2014. p. 483–507. Agric Educ Ext. 2014;20(5):497–512.
4. Beebe SE, Rao IM, Devi MJ, Polania J. Common beans, biodiversity, and 26. Changaya AG. Development of high yielding pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
multiple stresses: challenges of drought resistance in tropical soils. Crop germplasm with resistance to Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum) in Malawi.
Pasture Sci. 2014;65:667–75. PhD Thesis, University of KwaZulu Natal; 2007.
5. Katungi E, Mutua M, Mutari B, Makotore W, Kalemera S, Maereka E, Zulu R, 27. Lelo F, Ayieko J, Makenzi P, Muhia N, Njeremani D, Muiruri H, Omollo J,
Birachi E, Chirwa R. Improving bean production and consumption in Ochola W. A PRA field handbook for participatory rural appraisal
Zimbabwe: Baseline report. 2017. https://core.ac.uk/reader/132691630. practitioners. Kenya: Ergerton University; 1995.
Accessed 29 May 2020. 28. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. (SPSS). Chicago, United States of
6. Tsiko S. New bean variety could save Zim US$120K a month. 2018. http:// America. (SPSS). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows.
www.herald.co.zw/new-bean-variety-could-save-zim-us120k-a-month/amp/. Release 21.0; 2012.
Accessed 24 May 2020. 29. Banziger M, de Meyer J. Collaborative maize variety development for stress-
7. Crop Breeding Institute. (CBI). Harare, Zimbabwe. Release proposal for a prone environments in southern Africa. In: Cleveland DA, Soleri D, editors.
canning bean line: Protea; 2018. Farmers, Scientists, and Plant Breeding: Integrating Knowledge and Practice.
8. Crop Breeding Institute. (CBI). Harare, Zimbabwe. Release proposal for a New York: CAB Publishing; 2002. p. 269.
canning bean line: Camellia; 2019. 30. Njenga P, Frida M, Opio R. Youth and women empowerment through
9. Chandra G. Participatory rural appraisal: issues and tools for social science agriculture in Kenya. Voluntary Service-Overseas. 2012. https://www.
research in inland fisheries. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute: empowerwomen.org/en/resources/documents/2014/7/youth-and-
Barrackpore; 2010. women%2D%2Dempowerment%2D%2Dthrough-agriculture%2D%2Din-
10. Abady S, Shimelis H, Janila P. Farmers’ perceived constraints to groundnut kenya. Accessed 7 Jun 2020.
production, their variety choice and preferred traits in eastern Ethiopia: 31. Chidoko C, Zhou S. Impact of agricultural development of youth
implications for drought-tolerance breeding. J Crop Improv. 2019;33(4):505–21. employment in Zimbabwe: the case of Masvingo Province. Russ J Agric.
11. Abakemal D, Shimelis H, Derera J, Laing M. Farmers’ perceptions of maize 2012;11(11):24–7.
production systems and breeding priorities, and their implications for the 32. Nassary EK, Baijukya F, Ndakidemi PA. Productivity of intercropping with
adoption of new varieties in selected areas of the highland agro-ecology of maize and common bean over five cropping seasons on smallholder farms
Ethiopia. J Agric Sci. 2013;5(11):159–72. of Tanzania. European J Agron. 2020;113:1–10.
12. Daudi H, Shimelis H, Laing M, Okori P, Mponda O. Groundnut production 33. Njoki NWB. Breeding for durable resistance to angular leaf spot
constraints, farming systems, and farmer-preferred traits in Tanzania. J Crop (Pseudocercospora griseola) in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in
Improv. 2018;32:812–28. Kenya. PhD Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal; 2013.
13. Derera J, Tongoona P, Langyintuo A, Laing MD, Vivek B. Farmers’ 34. Fageria NK, Baligar VC, Jones CA. Common bean and cowpea. In: Pessarakli
perceptions on maize cultivars in the marginal eastern belt of Zimbabwe M, editor. Growth and mineral nutrition of field crop. 3rd ed. Boca Raton:
and their implications for breeding. Afr Crop. 2006;14(1):1–15. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; 2010. p. 391–414.
14. Deressa A, Admasu H, Seboka B, Nigussie M. Participatory decentralized 35. Mongi R, Tongoona P, Shimelis H, Sibiya J. Appraisal of common bean
secondary improved maize (Zea mays L.) seed multiplication in the central farming systems under angular leaf spot disease prone environments
Rift Valley of Ethiopia. In: Friesen DK, AFE P, editors. Integrated Approaches of the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Indian J Agric Sci. 2016;50(5):
to Higher Maize Productivity in the New Millennium: Proceedings of the 428–33.
Seventh Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference. Nairobi:
Mutari et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine           (2021) 17:13 Page 19 of 19
36. Chemining’wa GN, Kitonyo OM, Nderitu JH. Status, challenges and 60. Chikonyora P. Increased production key to ending cash crisis. 2020. http://
marketing opportunities for canning navy bean in Kenya. African J Food www.herald.co.zw/increased-production-key-to-ending-cash-crisis/amp/.
Agric Nutr Dev. 2014;14(5):2072–87. Accessed 22 May 2020.
37. Beebe SE, Rao IM, Blair M, Acosta-Gallegos JA. Phenotyping common beans 61. Herald Reporters. Just in: outrage over EcoCash charges. 2019. http://www.
for adaptation to drought. In: Ribaut JM, Monneveux P, editors. Drought herald.co.zw/just-in-outrage-over-ecocash-charges/amp/. Accessed 22 May
Phenotyping in Crops: From Theory to Practice. Mexico: Frontiers; 2010. p. 2020.
311–34. 62. Chingwere I. EcoCash suspends 4 000 agents. 2019. http://www.herald.co.
38. Singh SP. Broadening the genetic base of common bean cultivars: a review. zw/ecocash-suspends-4-000-agents/amp/. Accessed 22 May 2020.
Crop Sci. 2001;41(6):1659–75. 63. Loggerenberg MV. Development and application of a small-scale canning
39. Thung M, Rao IM. Integrated management of abiotic stresses. In: Singh SP, procedure for the evaluation of small white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). PhD
editor. Common bean improvement in the twenty-first century. Dordrecht: Thesis, University of the Free State; 2004.
Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1999. p. 331–70.
40. Government of Zimbabwe. (GOZ). Harare, Zimbabwe. Agricultural Sector Publisher’s Note
Gender Assessment Report; 2013.
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
41. Setimela PS, Monyo E, Banziger M. Successful community-based seed
published maps and institutional affiliations.
production strategies. Mexico: International Maize and Wheat Improvement
Center; 2004.
42. Vanlauwe B, Coe R, Giller KE. Beyond averages: new approaches to
understand heterogeneity and risk of technology success or failure in
smallholder farming. Exp Agric. 2016;55:84–106.
43. Balcha A, Tigabu R. Participatory varietal selection of common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.) in Wolaita, Ethiopia. Asian J Crop Sci. 2015;7(4):295–300.
44. Assefa T, Abebe G, Fininsa C, Tesso B, Al-Tawaha AM. Participatory bean
breeding with women and small holder farmers in Eastern Ethiopia. World J
Agric Res. 2005;1(1):28–35.
45. Umar G. Participatory Varietal selection in Common bean in Kulgam and
Shopian districts of Kashmir using modified mother trial approach. Msc
Dissertation, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology of Kashmir; 2015.
46. Iqbal R, Raza MAS, Valipour M, Saleem MF, Zaheer MS, Ahmad S, Toleikiene
M, Haider I, Aslam MU, Nazar MA. Potential agricultural and environmental
benefits of mulches-a review. Bull Natl Res Cent. 2020;44(75):1–16.
47. Kader MA, Singha A, Begum MA, Jewel A, Khan FH, Khan NI. Mulching as
water-saving technique in dry land agriculture. Bull Natl Res Cent. 2019;
43(147):1–6.
48. Telkar SG, Kant K, Pratap S, Solanki S. Effect of mulching on soil moisture
conservation. Biomolecule Reports. 2017;ISSN:2456-8759.
49. Bodner G, Nakhforoosh A, Kaul HP. Management of crop water under
drought: a review. Agron Sustain Dev. 2015;35(2):401–42.
50. Lamont WJ. Plastics: modifying the microclimate for the production of
vegetable crops. Horttechnology. 2005;15(3):477–81.
51. Long CE, Thorne BL, Breisch NL, Douglass LW. Effect of organic and
inorganic landscape mulches on subterranean termite (Isoptera:
Rhinotermitidae) foraging activity. Environ Entomol. 2001;30(5):832–6.
52. Nyagumbo I, Munamati M, Mutsamba EF, Thierfelder C, Cumbane A, Dias D.
The effects of tillage, mulching and termite control strategies on termite
activity and maize yield under conservation agriculture in Mozambique.
Crop Prot. 2015;78:54–62.
53. Mahmoud MA, El-Bably AZ. Crop water requirements and irrigation
efficiencies in Egypt. In: Negm AM, editor. Conventional Water Resources
and Agriculture in Egypt. Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland; 2019. p.
471–88.
54. Dong X, Xu W, Zhang Y, Leskovar DI. Effect of irrigation timing on root zone
soil temperature, root growth and grain yield and chemical composition in
corn. Agron. 2016;6(2):34.
55. Leslie S. Cultivation systems for single horses and teams. In: Goodman M,
editor. The new hoarse powered farm: Tools and systems for the small-scale
sustainable market grower. United States of America: Chealse Green
Publishing; 2013. p. 218.
56. Akter N, Islam MK. Heat stress effects and management in wheat: a review.
Agron Sustain Dev. 2017;37:1–17.
57. Asseng S, Foster I, Turner NC. The impact of temperature variability on
wheat yields. Glob Change Biol. 2011;17(2):997–1012.
58. Chapman SC, Chakraborty S, Dreccer MF, Howden SC. Plant adaptation to
climate change-opportunities and priorities in breeding. Crop Pasture Sci.
2012;63(3):251–68.
59. Sandhu SS, Singh J, Kaur P, Gill KK. Heat stress in field crops: impact and
management approaches. In: Bal S, Mukherjee J, Choudhury B, Dhawan A,
editors. Advances in Crop Environment Interaction. India: Springer Nature
Singapore; 2018. p. 181–204.