Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Study Paper Number 4 Costa Rica and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Rigoberto Stewart Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGIAR Study Paper Number 4 Costa Rica and the CGIAR Centers A Study of Their Collaboration in Agricultural Research Rigoberto Stewart The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright 01985 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. First printing September 1985 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America At its annual meeting in November 1983 the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)commissioned a wide-ranging impact study of the results of the activities of the international agricultural research oganizations under its sponsorship. An Advisory Committee was appointed to oversee the study and to present the principal findings at the annual meeetings of the CGIAR in October 1985. The impact study director was given responsibility for preparing the main report and commissioning a series of papers on particular research issues and on the work of the centers in selected countries. This paper is one of that series. The judgments expressed herein are those of the author(s). They d o not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank,of affiliated organizations, including the CGIAR Secretariat, of the international agricultural research centers supported by the CGIAR, of the donors to the CGIAR, o ro f any individual acting on their behalf. Staff of many national and international organizations provided valued information, but neither they nor their institutions are responsible for the views expressed in this paper. Neither are the views necessarily consistent with those expressed in the main and summary reports, and they should not be attributed to the Advisory Committee o r the study director. This paper has been prepared and published informally in order to share the information with the least possible delay. Rigoberto Stewart is an economist with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stewart, Rigoberto. Costa Rica and the CGIAR centers. (CGIAR study paper, ISSN 0257-3148 ; no. 4) Bibliography : p 1 . Agriculture--Research--Costa Rica. 2. National Agricultural Research System (Costa Rica) 3. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. 4. Agriculture--Research--International cooperation. I. Title. 11. Series. S542.C7S74 1985 630' .7207286 85-20201 ISBN 0-8213-0615-4 . iii In Costa Rica, the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) is formed principally by the Direccidn de Investigaciones Agrxcolas of the Ministry of Agriculture (MAG), the University of Costa Rica through its Faubio Baudrit Experimental Station, and the Technical Department of the Consejo Nacional de Produccidn (CNP) These institutions are linked mainly through cooperative agreements and through the Minister of Agriculture, who is on the board of directors of the CNP (by law) and on the faculty at the University. Other institutions of the sector such as the rural credit departments of the National Banking System and the Institute for Agricultural Development are not formally linked. . People in the higher levels of the government are not conscious of the importance of agricultural research, except for rice, which explains the small research budget. In 1982, only 0 . 2 6 percent of the national budget went to agricultural research and 0 . 3 4 to agricultural extension. The most prevalent links with the international agricultural research centers (IARCs) are periodic visits by scientists and the international testing nurseries. CIAT's beans program has a regional representative, located in Costa Rica, who is in constant interaction with the local beans group. The division of research efforts between the Costa Rican NARS and the IARCs varies from program to program, but in general the IARCs do the basic research and the NARS does field testing, evaluations and further selection of genetic materials. Some programs are now doing crosses in Costa Rica. The NARS scientists' general perceptions of the contributions made by IARCs is very good. The flow of information was classified as good by all programs, except the iv pasture program, which would like more information, more frequently. The genetic material provided by the IARCs has been the basis for the national commodity programs; this contribution was rated as excellent. The contributions of the IARCs in terms of enhancing human capital has been essential to the existence of the commodity programs. There is general feeling that training in seed production at the field level is highly necessary and urgent. Most of the research methods used by the NARS were learned during training at the IARCs or from IARC's scientists during their technical assistance visits. Those methodologies have had an important role in the functioning of the programs and are acknowledged by the NARS scientists. Contributions made by the IARCs in the form of equipment, materials, etc. have been very important to the programs and have sometimes rescued the product of years of research. Very little documentation exists on the spread and impact of innovations. Most of the information on this issue consists of subjective estimates by the scientists. They estimated that 35-40, 10-15 and 100 percent of the crop area is planted to improved varieties of beans, corn and rice, respectively. All of the improved varieties came out of NARS-IARCs collaboration. The CNP said that sales of improved beans seed was up 400 percent in 1984 with respect to 1983. The rice program will soon release the varieties CR-1821 and CR-1549 which are resistant to pyricularia and have the potential of yielding at the farm level I1 and 9 tons/Ha, respectively. The beans program will release the ICTA/CIAT material D-145, under the name of Huasteco, which is expected to have a large production impact. Factors that reduce the impact of the collaboration between the NARS and the IARCs are: the total separation of research and extension, the need for better organization and coordination of the national commodity programs, the NARS need for better V equipment and more personnel, the lack of validation of new technologies, the limited dissemination of research results and the need for better coordination between the MAG and the CNP, in terms of what varieties to promote, multiply and sell. Basic grains pricing policies of the CNP have played an important role in the development and demand for new technology. Those policies have, for example, favored rice producers during the period 1950-1971 and heavily taxed producers of beans. Inadequate agricultural credit (or its misallocation) has been important in this respect, with more credit going to export crops. Other aspects of the institutional and/or economic environment which seem to have influenced the demand for technology during the later years are the reduced storage capacity for some crops, the P.L. 4 8 0 program (providing cheap rice) and the high direct and indirect taxes imposed on the production of grains, especially rice. Non-CGIAR institutions have contributed to the strengthening of the system through financial support, graduate training, equipment and technical assistance. The current Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) "Programa de Incremento de la Productividad AgrTcola" (PIPA) is solving a great deal of the system's financial and equipment problems, making it more able to take advantage of the IARCs collaboration. The University of Mississippi has been instrumental in the development of seed technology in Costa Rica, and USAID has financed certain agencies and programs and provided graduate training. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank the director of research, Ing. Alexis Vasquez, the sub-director of research, Ing. Rodrigo Alfaro, the head of the agronomy department, Ing. Israel Murillo, and all the other scientists at the Ministry of Agriculture who kindly collaborated with me on this project. Special thanks goes to Agr. Victor Witte for help setting up the interviews at the CNP, and to the other scientists at the CNP for their time and patience. All of the scientists at the UCR's Fabio Baudrit Experimental Station were very helpful. Special thanks goes to Dr. Galvez and his staff for their invaluable support and assistance. I wish to thank Dr. Richard Perrin for reading the drafts of this report and making valuable suggestions. Special thanks go to Dorothy Marschak for editing several drafts of this study. The author, however, is the only one to be blamed for any remaining errors. CONTENTS Chapter 1 . Background I n f o r m a t i o n 1.1 The c o u n t r y 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 N a t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l s e t t i n g Population The economy 1.2 The a g r i c u l t u r a l sector 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 Structure I n f r a s t r u c t u r e and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p p o r t Pricing P a s t and p r e s e n t performance Policy issues 5 5 7 11 11 15 C h a p t e r 2. The N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h System 2.1 2.2 Overview Institutional structure 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 The M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e (MAG) The N a t i o n a l P r o d u c t i o n C o u n c i l (CNP) The U n i v e r s i t y of Costa Rica The d m a r a N a c i o n a l d e G r a n o s Bdsicos 17 17 18 19 19 22 22 2.3 2.4 Allocation of r e s o u r c e s Staff 23 25 viii 2.5 External influences 2.5.1 29 29 36 36 Non-CGIAR s u p p o r t 2.5.2 2.6 CGIAR’s i n f l u e n c e E f f e c t i v e n e s s and problems Chapter 3. Impact of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h C e n t e r s on t h e C o s t a Rican N a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h System 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 39 39 40 41 42 42 44 General i s s u e s B i o l o g i c a l materials Research methodologies Research o r g a n i z a t i o n I n f o r m a t i o n and t r a i n i n g R e l a t i o n s h i p between IARCs and NARS C h a p t e r 4. R e s e a r c h I m p a c t s on A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c t i o n 4.1 4.2 47 Important innovations Adoption of i n n o v a t i o n s 4.2.1 47 49 49 49 51 56 T r a n s m i s s i o n mechanism E x t e n t of a d o p t i o n 4.2.2 4.3 4.4 Production e f f e c t s Innovations w i t h p o t e n t i a l impact C h a p t e r 5. References Appendix. Conclusions 57 61 Prices of Basic G r a i n s i n C o s t a Rica 63 ix Measurements and Currency Currency: The Colon Exchange Rate: (July 1984) 1 dollar = 48.75 colones Measurements 1 Hectare (Ha) = 10,000 sq. meters = 2.47 acres 1 Manzana (Mz) = 7,449 sq. meters = 1.84 acres 1 Ton = 1,000 kilograms = 2,204.6 lbs. 1 Quintal (qq) = 100 kilograms = 220.46 lbs. Abbreviations and Acronyms BCCR = CATIE = CGIAR = CIAT = CIGRAS= CIMMYT= CIP = CNGB = CNP = Banco Central de Costa Rica (Central Bank of Costa Rica) Centro Agrondmico Tropical de Investigaciones y Ensefianza (Tropical Agronomic Center for Research and Teaching) Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Centro Internacional de Agricultural Tropical (International Tropical Agriculture Center) Centro de Investigacidn en Granos y Semillas (Center for Research in Grain and Seeds) Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Malz y Trigo (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) Centro Internacional de la Papa (International Potato Center) Cdmara Nacional de Granos Bdsicos (National Basic Grains Chamber) Consejo Nacional de ProducciBn (National Production Council) X CONICIT= Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientzficas y Tecnol6gicas (National Council for Scientific and Technological Research) Direcci6n General de EstadXsticas y DGEC = Censos (Division of Statistics and Censuses) Direcci6n de Investigaciones Agrzcolas DIA = (Division of Agricultural Research) Food and Agricultural Organization (of FA0 = the United Nations) FERTICA = Fertilizantes de Centro AmBrica (Central American Fertilizers) International Agricultural Research IARC = Center International Board for Plant Genetic IBPGR = Resources ICTA = Instituto de Ciencias y Tecnologla Agrlcola (Guatemalan Agricultural Research Institute) Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario IDA = (Institute for Agricultural Development) IDB = Inter-American Development Bank INTSOY = International Soybean Project Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderla MAG = (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) Ministerio de Economza, Industrias y MEIC = Comercio (Ministry of Economics, Industry and Commerce) MIDEPLAN= Ministerio de Planificaci6n (Ministry of Planning) National Agricultural Research System NARS = Oficina Nacional de Semillas ONS = (National Seeds Office) Progsama de Incremento de la PIPA = Productividad Agrlcola (Program for Increasing Agricultural Productivity) xi PRECODEPA=Programa Regional Cooperativo de Papa SBN UCR = = (Cooperative Regional Potato Program) Sistema Bancario Nacional (National Banking System) Universidad de Costa Rica (University of Costa Rica) CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.1 The Country 1.1.1 Natural and Political Setting 1,ocated in a narrow strip between Nicaragua and Panamd, Costa Rica is the second smallest Central American country. Its physical size is 51,022 sq. km. (19,700 sq. mi.), slightly smaller than West Virginia. The terrain is mostly rugged mountains and hills cut by many streams and rivers. Three volcanic mountain ranges run the length of the country, with elevations in the southern Talamanca Range reaching 4,000 meters (13,000 ft.) above sea level. In 1984, 60 percent of the area was forest, 30 percent agricultural (22 percent meadow and pasture, 8 percent cultivated), and 10 percent waste, urban and other. Politically, the country is divided into seven provinces (San J o s ~ , Alajuela, Cartago, Heredia, Puntarenas, Guanacaste and Lim6n) and these into a total of 8 0 cantons and districts. The tropical location (8'-11' north of the equator), warm off-shore waters, and especially the elevation differentiate regional climates. The five agro-ecological zones in which the country has been subdivided along with some of their characteristics are listed in Table 1 and are shown in the accompanying map (Fig. I). Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong system of checks and balances. The elections of 1899 began a trend maintained with only a few lapses, the last one being the 1948 revolution which led to the 1949 constitution. The President is elected for a single four-year term along with two vice presidents, the legislature consists of a 57-delegate - 2 Table 1. A g r o - e c o l o g i c a l zones of Costa R i c a ~~ ~~~ Region Dry P a c i f i c Characteristics H o t , dry, low f l a t land. Provinces G u a n a c a s t e and Northern Puntarenas Principal Crops R i c e , corn, sorghum, beef, and sugar cane R i c e , beans, corn, tobacco, bananas Rain: MarchNovember approx. 2 , 0 0 0 mm. S o u t h P a c i f i c H o t , humid, h i g h and l o w l a n d s . Rain: approx. 2 , 6 0 0 mm. Central Southern Puntarenas S o u t h w e s t San Jos6 Cartago Plateau High l a n d . Av. 1 , 0 0 0 m t s . Rain: May-Nov approx. 1 , 0 0 0 mm m o s t of San Jos6 most of Heredia Southern A l a j u e l a Coffee beans, vegetables, milk North Low l a n d . Northern A l a j u e l a Humid Northern Heredia Rain: May-Jan a p p r o x . 3 , 0 0 0 mm. Bananas, beef, sugar cane, cassava, cocoa Atlantic Low, humid tropical Rain: Mar-Jan a p p r o x . 4 , 0 0 0 mm Limen Bananas, plantains, cocoa, cassava, corn S o u r c e : CNP ( 1 9 7 6 ) and a u t h o r ' s own knowledge. w Figure 1. Agro-ecological zones of Costa Rica 4 unicameral Legislative Assembly elected at four-year intervals, and the judiciary is headed by a Supreme Court of Justice, elected by the Legislative Assembly at eight-year intervals. The military was abolished by the 1949 constitution. Spanish is the official language, but a Jamaican dialect of English is spoken around Puerto Limbn. The literacy rate is 93 percent (1984). 1.1.2 Population The mid-July 1984 population of Costa Rica was estimated to be 2.693 million, with an average growth rate of 2.6 percent and a population density of 57 per sq. km. According to the last census (1973), 60 percent of the population lived in rural areas, and 40 percent lived in the central plateau. Ethnically the population is made up of 96 percent white (including mestizo), 3 percent black and 1 percent Indian. 1.1.3 The Economy Costa Rica is a middle-income country, with a GDP of $3.3 billion (1983 est. in current prices), and a per capita income of $1,390 (CIA, 1984). In 1981 the real income per capita was estimated to be falling at a rate of 3.6 percent per year (U.S. Department of State, 1984). In the same year agriculture contributed 18 percent of GDP and industry 30 percent. The rest was contributed by the service and other sectors, including the government. There was a 0 percent real growth rate in 1983. The 1982 labor force was estimated at 891,000 (CIA, 1984), with 40.4 percent in industry and commerce, 32.5 percent in agriculture, 25 percent in government and services, and 2 percent in other activities. Unemployemnt was 12 percent in 1983. 5 Despite an average inflation rate of 50 percent for the period 1980-1983, the colon was stabilized at $43.25 per dollar, falling from the 1970 rate of $6.63 per dollar. Since 1981, the government has been on a course of disciplined management, in consultation with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, to bring expenditures into line with available resources and to reduce internal and external debt. Trade. Costa Rica exports mainly coffee, bananas, beef, sugar and cacao, and imports manufactured products, machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodsstuffs and fertilizer. In 1983 its exports were valued at $870 million (C.I.F.). The five agricultural products listed above accounted for 60 percent of the total value of exports. Table 2 shows the value and price index of the principal export crops for the period 1979-1983. Public Budget. In 1981 the budget of the central government was estimated to be $1.024 billion, which was roughly 20.5 percent of GDP ( U . S . Department of State). 1.2 The Agricutural Sector 1.2.1 Structure The National Production Council (CNP, 1976) pointed out that the agricultural sector can be divided into two subsectors: (1) the modern subsector which exports coffee, bananas, sugar, beef and cocoa and (2) the traditional subsector which produces basic grains (rice, beans, corn), fruits, vegetables, milk products, poultry, eggs, etc. Medium size and large farms produced 70 percent of the value of agricultural output. Eighty-eight percent of the value of the production of large farms and 62 percent of the value of the production of medium size farms was exported, while roughly 70 percent of the value 6 Table 2. Costa Rica: Price indices of export crops and total value of imports and exports (in millions of colones) Total Export 8,008 8,585 Year 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Coffee 2,703 2,112 5 ,239 8 ,151 Bananas 1,487 1,724 5 ,373 7,849 9,607 Sugar 146 347 938 571 981 Beef 700 606 1,609 1,826 1,179 Imports 11,971 13,201 26,301 30,732 35,892 21,940 29,948 35,892 9,454 Wholesale Price Index 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 112.5 100.0 195.1 334.6 407.1 Wholesale Price Index 81.9 100.0 302.6 437.4 536.9 Export Price Index 43.9 100.0 262.5 214.3 373.4 Export Price Index 94.8 100.0 207.5 322.0 401.6 Source: IMF, 1984. 7 of the value of the production of small farms was used for domestic consumption. In basic grains, rice has evolved from the traditional to the modern sector, with farms of 100 Ha or more producing 67 percent of the rice (rice yields were found increasing with farm size), whereas farms this large produced only 20 percent of the corn and 12 percent of the beans. Small farms of 5 Ha or less (60,000 of them) produced 68 percent of the corn, 85 percent of the beans and 18 percent of the rice. the 1973 agricultural census (next is the 1984, not yet available) reported the following size distribution of farms. 1.2.2 Infrastructure and Institutional Support (a) Roads Except for the northern region, which has always had road communication problems, the road system of Costa Rica is adequate to permit a good flow of agricultural products to markets. The system was improved very much in 1972 with the opening of a new highway to Limbn, and again later with the inauguration of the road linking the north to the rest of the country. The completion of the highway between Gudpiles (Atlantic) and San Josg (the capital) is expected to have a great impact on the agriculture of the northern and Atlantic regions. (b) Government Agencies The agricultural sector is supported by the following government agencies: 1. The Ministry of Agriculture (MAG) is responsible for agriculturual research and extension, including genetic seed production. 8 Table 3. Costa R i c a : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f farms by s i z e i n 1973 ~ ~~ ~~ - Number of Farms T o t a l Farm Land Under 1 H a 1 to 5 Ha 5 t o 10 H a 10 t o 50 H a 50 t o 100 H a 100 t o 500 H a 500 t o 2500 H a Over 2500 H a Hectares 3,122,456.1 6,185.8 52,820.4 64,846.3 510,314.4 396,733 1 968,931 - 3 659,504.0 463,754.2 76,998 14,413 20,830 9,095 21,213 5,801 4,851 715 80 The 1973 c e n s u s a l s o r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g l a n d t e n u r e regime. Tenure P r o d u c e r owned Leased: Percent 85.41 1.81 0.44 2.14 0.30 Irent [sharecropping [no charge [other [onwed and l e a s e d [owned and s h a r e c r o p p i n g [ o t h e r mixed forms Mixed: 4.31 1.01 4.37 0.21 _ I O t h e r s i m p l e forms 100 .o 9 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The National Production Council (CNP) is responsible for the marketing of agricultural products, including price setting, and the production and sale of certified seed. The Ministry of Finance (MEIC) is charged with setting wholesale and retail prices of basic grains together with the CNP, and is also responsible for setting the prices of seed together with the National Seed Bureau (ONS) The rural boards of the National Banking System (SBN) are charged with providing agricultural credit to farmers and seed producers. The Grains and Seed Research Center (CIGRAS) of the (UCR) is the official seed laboratory. The National Seed Bureau (ONS), although assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture, is judicially and operationally independent. This is the only office that can certify seed in Costa Rica. It controls the quality of all domestically produced and imported seed. The ONS is a member of the "varietal committee," the only body that can (CIAT's regional approve and name varieties. representative is a member of the beans varietal committee.) The National Council on Scientific and Technological Research (CONICT) was created in 1972 to promote the development of science and technology through systematic research or creative acts and to aid the government of Costa Rica in the definition of scientific and technological policies. In 1982, through a project with the Canadian IDRC, it created the "Comisibn Nacional de Investigaci6n Agropecuaria (CONIAGRO)", formed by MAG, UCR, CNP, CONICIT and MIDEPLAN (Ministry of Planning), to coordinate the actions of all the institutions in the agricultural sector. CONIAGRO was disolved in 1982. . 10 8. 9. 10. The Agrarian Development Institute's principal responsibility is to make land available to landless farmers, which it does mainly through settlements. It also provides technical assistance and other services to the farmers on these settlements. The University of Costa Rica does agricultural research and some extension at its "Fabio Baudrit" experimental station. Fertica, a fertilizer company, was recently acquired by the government. This company has adequately supplied the farmers with fertilizers for decades. (c) Private Organizations 1. Seed Producers. Private seed producers did not play an important role until the late 1970s. Today they provide a very important service to the sector. There are essentially four seed producers (multipliers) in Costa Rica who actively participate in the production and sale of rice seed. These are: A. The Consejo Nacional de Produccion (CNP; official) B. Arrocera La Hilda Ltd. C. Central AgrZcola de Cartago S.A. D. Semillas del Tempisque, S.A. . 2. In the case of maize, Central Agrlcola de Cartago produces Pioneer hybrid seed in addition to local NARS varieties. Farmers Organization (National Chamber of Basic Grains): This organization of grain producers, formed in 1979, was in 1984 conducting agricultural research and providing technical assistance and other services to both members and non-members. 11 3. Rice Miller's Organization: Rice millers play a very important role in the marketing of rice and the processing of rice for seed. 1.2.3 Pricing In Costa Rica most agricultural prices are set and controlled in one form or another. The farm price for basic grains is set by the National Production Council (CNP) in advance of the cropping season, while the wholesale and retail prices are set by the CNP in conjunction with the Mini.stry of Finance. Tobacco farm prices are set by a board called La Junta del Tabaco, of which the CNP is a member. Coffee prices are administered by the "Oficina del Cafe." Most other retail prices are set by the Ministry of Finance, which enforces these prices through police control. The CNP enforces the prices of basic grains by acting as a farm gate purchaser, a wholesaler and a retailer, and by holding a monopoly on the foreign trade of grains. 1.2.4 Past and Present Performance Up until 1950, the agricultural sector was the most important sector in terms of contributions to GNP. But, according to Corrales (1981), policies followed during and after the 1950s caused a secular decline in agricultural productivity. In 1950, the agricultural sector contributed 40.9 percent of GNP, which declined to about 17.8 percent in 1980 (OFIPLAN, 1982). In 1981 its contribution was still 18 percent. Between 1953 and 1962 roughly 95 percent of the value of exports was agricultural, represented mainly by coffee, bananas and cocoa; by 1968 beef and sugar were also important export crops. The industrial sector produced 13.4 percent of the gross 12 national product in 1950 and 20.4 percent in 1975 (OFIPLAN, 1982). Between 1957 and 1980 the industrial sector grew at an annual rate of 7.8 percent (in terms of contribution to GNP) , compared to a growth rate of 4.3 percent in the agricultural sector. (a) Basic Grains The performance of the basic grains subsector is highlighted by the data in Tables 4-7. Table 4 shows that rice yields more than tripled between 1966 and 1981. Table 5 shows the stagnation of beans yields. Table 6 shows some improvement in corn yields and a steady decline in the area planted to corn, and Table 7 shows that sorghum yields were relatively stable, with acreage steadily increasing. Export Crops The performance of the export crop subsector between 1960 and 1984 was superior to that of the basic grains subsector. Coffee and banana were the two most important export crops. Coffee production went from 6 4 thousand tons on 1960 to 122 thousand tons in 1981; and coffee exports represented 9 percent of GDP in both years. The value of banana exports went from 4 percent of GDP in 1960 to 9 percent in 1981. The value of the four major agricultural exports--coffee, banana, beef and sugar-went from 16 percent of GDP in 1960 to 38 percent in 1981, whereas the total value of basic grains (rice, corn, beans, sorghum) declined from 3.4 percent of GDP in 1960 to 2.5 percent in 1980. In 1979 coffee accounted for 34 percent of the total value of exports and bananas 18 percent; by 1983 coffee'share dropped to 26 percent while banana increased to 27 percent. Together the four exports crops accounted for 63 percent of the value of total exports in 1979 and 59 percent in 1983. 13 Table 4. Costa Rica: Area, production and yields of rice, Production (000 m tons) 30.1 30.8 39.4 67.1 63.6 71.2 92.7 97.4 116.8 126.7 195.6 149.7 168.6 196.3 236.8 243.3 180.0 1965/66-1980/81 Crop Yeara Area (000 has) 41.2 44.7 57.2 64.3 63.5 62.7 64.2 86.1 71.5 79.5 87.1 80.1 71.0 73.7 81.2 84.2 70.0 Yields (T/Ha) 0.73 0.69 0.69 1.04 1.00 1.14 1.44 1.13 1.63 1.59 2.25 1.87 2.37 2.66 2.92 2.89 2.57 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 197 1-7 2 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979 -8 Ob 198O-8lc 1981-82 NOTES : a b August-July Estimates C FA0 estimates n.d. Not available Source: Consejo Nacional de Producci6n. 14 Table 5. Growing Season 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 Costa Rica: Production, planted area, yields and imports of beans 1973/4-1983/4 Production (000 M Tons) 4.7 13.9 16.2 14.0 14.0 11.3 11.5 12.2 16.3 14.3 19.6 Area (Omhas) 0 .664 .391 .456 .510 .579 ,516 ,462 0519 .459 ,370 ,520 Yields Import$ (000 M T) 33.10 4.70 012 .18 .30 5.20 10.30 10.40 15.00 4.00 1.10 7.2 35.5 35.5 27.5 24.1 21.9 24.8 23.6 35.5 39.1 38.6 until 1979, data from DGEC (official statistics bureau). 1979-83, data Depto. Proveeduria CNP. Source: Consejo Nacional de Producci6n. Table 6. Growing1 Season 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 Costa Rica: Production, planted area, and yields of maize 1965/6-1981/2 Production (000 M Tons) 62.2 67.6 71.4 62.5 61.3 61.5 64.6 64.5 87.0 42.0 91.7 88.9 77.5 75.2 65.1 83.7 Area (000as) 54.6 57.8 61.0 52.3 50.6 43.4 44.0 42.3 60.5 41.0 64.7 52.9 43.7 44.0 38.8 45.4 Yield (T/Ha) 1.14 1.17 1.17 1.19 1.21 1.41 1.47 1.52 1.44 1.02 1.42 1.68 1.77 1.71 1.68 1.84 August-July Source: Consejo Nacional de ProducciQn. 15 Table 7. Growinga Season 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 198O-8lb 1981-82b 1982-83 Costa Rica: Production, planted area, and yields of sorghum 1965/6-1982/3 Production (000 M Tons) Area (000as n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.7 4.5 7.0 Yield (T/Ha) 13.0 9.8 9.0 8.0 8.3 7.2 11.8 13.. 8 16-4 14.1 19.7 30.8 40.9 52.5 2.63 2.63 1.97 1.94 1.84 1.63 1.64 2.20 1.85 1.91 2.04 2.00 n-d. 7.2 10.7 18.8 14.9 23.8 18.1 20.7 22.0 20.0 33.6 39.7 45.0 40.0 , a August-July FAO reports Source: Consejo Nacional de Produccibn. 1.2.5 Policy Issues (a) Basic Grains Pricing Policies The pricing policies of the CNP were studied extensively by Stewart ( 1 9 8 4 ) , who found that the difference between the prices set and the world prices (border prices) varied from crop to crop and from year to year. In the rice market, for instance, there were two distinct periods. In the first 1950-1971, prices were distorted to favor producers and tax consumers. In the second, 1972-1980, the reverse occurred. In the beans market throughout the 31-year period 1950-80, the prices were set well below world prices, discouraging production 16 and encouraging consumtpion and imports. In the corn market the prices set generally favored producers, stimulated production and taxed consumers. The domestic and world prices for basic grains and the nominal rate of protection are found Tables 1-4 of Appendix A. (b) Agricultural Credit Larson and Vogel (1980) found that the credit policies of the government worked against agriculture. The policies consisted of subsidizing the interest rate to agriculture in general but rationing the credit to the traditional sector, except for rice. Most of the agricultural credit went to coffee, sugar, beef, bananas, and dairy products. 17 CHAPTER 2. THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM 2.1 Overview In Costa Rica the National Agricultural Research System is characterized by a number of public and semi-public institutions doing the same kinds of research, with little coordination between them. By definition, the Ministry of Agriculture should be the leading research institution, but other institutions or agencies have exercised leadership in some crops or production aspects. The structure of the Ministry of Agriculture has been adequate for relevant agricultural research. It currently has three experimental stations and one substation distributed over three important regions of the country: Atlantic, Central Plateau and North Pacific. Besides these stations, there is a Regional Agricultural Center (CAR) in each of the seven provinces, and many cantonal agricultural centers (CAC) in each province. The main function of the CARS and CACs is to coordinate and provide technical assistance to farmers in the different areas, but it could be used to coordinate research and extension efforts on a regional basis. The current (1985) union of the directorate of research and extension was conceived partly to foster this coordination. Because of the emphasis placed by the government on the production of basic foodstuffs, the Ministry of Agriculture's mandate has been to develop and transfer technology to producers of those crops. The development of technology for export crops has been done mainly by private organizations. However, the Ministry has entered into cooperative agreements with the sugar producers' organization, Liga de la Cafia, and the coffee producers' organization, Oficina del Caf6, whereby these organizations provide part of the resources needed to undertake specific research. Banana research has been done by the 18 multinationals or by the National Banana Producers Association (ASBANA). ASBANA has also done research on non-traditional crops such as black pepper, sweet potato, ginger and dasheen. The four year old organization of basic grains producers, Cbnara Nacional de Granos Bbsicos, is currently developing and trasnferring technology for rice, beans, corn and sorghum. Because the producers themselves are members, the transfer to farmers of any technology developed can be done easier and quicker than traditionally, and could have great impact. The commodity programs of the Ministry of Agriculture and the other institutions, as they are known today, did not come about until the CGIAR centers started operation. The CGIAR centers, through the provision of genetic materials and training, have played an important role in the development of such programs. For example, in Costa Rica, beans research was originally done only by the University of Costa Rica. Later the Ministry and other institutions also started programs, but with no coordination between them. CIAT'k program, through its regional representative, has now managed to bring all these together to share responsibilities and form a coordinated and comprehensive national beans research program. The University of Mississippi has played an important role in the development of seed technology in Costa Rica. 2.2 Institutional Structure In terms of the crops with which the three international centers in Latin America are concerned, the national agricultural research system is formed by sections of four different institutions: 1. The Ministry of Agriculture Directorate of Agricultural Research and Extension (Direccibn de Investigaci6n y ExtensiQn Agrzcola.) 19 2. The University of Costa Rica's Experimental Station. Fabio Baudrit 3. The Consejo Nacional de Producci6n's Agrotechnical Department (Departamento Agrotgcnico) and; The Cdmara Nacional de Granos BSsicos Technical Department (Departamento Tecnico). 4. The largest and leading research unit in Costa Rica is the Directorate of Agricultural Research and Extension (DIA) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MAG). It has no jurisdiction or hierarchy over the other institutions, but works with them mainly under coopeative agreements. The overall structure is depicted in Figure 2, 2.2.1 The Ministrv of Aariculture (MAGI The MAG, a s shown in Figure 3 , until May, 1985 was divided into several directorates or divisions called direcciones, two of which were the Division of Agricultural Research and the Division of Agricultural Extension. The Division of Agricultural Research was divided into departments, and these were divided into programs. The crop programs are still within the Department of Agronomy and receive support from other departments such as entomology, plant pathology and soils. Within the agricultural productivity project (IBD, 1982) in May, 1985 the directorates of research and extension were joined under a single directorate called "Direcci6n de Investigacian y Extensidn Agrlcola." 2.2.2 The National Production Council (CNP) The CNP's mandate is not only to regulate prices but also Figure 2. The National Agriculture Research System . ~. Presidency 1 Consejo Nacional de Produccion (CNP) 1 Ministry of Agricu Itu re DIA 1, Cooperative Agreements University of Costa Rica 0 N Some Agreements I Camara de Granos BBsicos +The Minister of Agriculture is on the board of directors of the CNP. 21 - Minister - Vice-Minister 4 + - Directorate of Agricultural Research Directorate of Agr icuItu raI Extension * r Coffee Department Cropping Systems Department Agronomy Department Entomology Department Plant Pathology Department Soils Department Program Program Program Program Program Program Figure 3. The Ministry of Agriculture 22 to promote the production of basic foodstuff, using whatever means posible. This is why the CNP has a promotion division called called “Divisibn de Foment0 de la Producci6n.” The agrotechnical deparment is within this division. This department has rice, corn, beans, sorghum and soybeans programs. These programs are part of the NARS, since they deal with different aspects of the production of these crops, including the production, processing and distribution of improved seed. They also carry out joint research projects with the Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Costa Rica. 2.2.3 The University of Costa Rica The university is a totally independent institution. It has an agricultural experiment station called Fabio Baudrit, which is located in the Central Plateau. At this station the university has research programs in beans, corn, wheat, fruits and other crops. It works very closely with CIMMYT and CIAT and enters into cooperative agreements with the Ministry of Agriculture and the CNP. 2.2.4 The Cdmara Nacional de Granos Bdsicos The cdmara started out around 1980 as an organization of rice producers, who organized themselves so that they could protect their interests, for example to lobby for better prices. Today the cdmara includes producers of all the other grains, large and small. Not feeling well served by the existing NARS, the cafiara began its own research and extension programs. It tests genetic materials and chemicals, does fertilizer trials, etc., all on farms of members. In doing this, it has received some collaboration from the Ministry of Agriculture and the CNP, but receives no outside support and may have to discontinue its research program in 1 9 8 5 for lack of funds. 23 2.3 Allocation of Resources The author requested historical budget and staff information many times but, despite assurances, this information was not provided. The information included in this section and the following one came from other written reports. The PIPA project reported the figures contained in Table 8. Table 8. Costa Rica: The national, MAG, and research and extension budgets for the years 1979-1982 (in thousands of 1982 dollars) YEAR 1970 Central Government MAG Research and Extension 1980 234,859.8 7,990.3 1,379.9 1981 251,711.9 9,157.6 1,834.7 1982 305,516.6 10,367.7 1,923.2 182,690.3 9,103.3 1,381.3 The research and extension budget in 1984 was roughly 2 million dollars. Table 9 shows the percentages of the national and MAG's budget devoted to research and extension. Table 9. Costa Rica: Percentages of national and MAG's budget devoted to research and extension (1979-1982) YEAR Detail MAG'S percentage of 1979 1980 1981 1982 MtiOMl budget 5.O 3 . 4 3 . 6 3 . 4 24 Table 9 ( c o n t i n u e d ) Research and &tension percentage of MAG'S budget Research and extension 15.2 17.3 20.2 18.5 percentage of national budget Resarch percentage of national budget Extension percentage of national budget ~ ~~~~~ ~~ 0.8 0.32 0.48 0 . 6 0.28 0.32 0.7 0.29 0.41 0 . 6 0.26 0.34 Source: PIPA and Ley de Presupuestos. Table 10 shows t h e breakdown o f t h e MAG and r e s e a r c h and E x t e n s i o n b u d g e t a c c o r d i n g t o s o u r c e of f u n d s . Table 1 0 . Costa R i c a : P e r c e n t a g e s of MAG and research and extension resources according t o sources, 1979-1982 YEAR 1979 MAG R e s o u r c e s 1980 88.7 11.3 1981 83.2 16.8 1982 57.5 42.5 81.3 18.7 National sources Funds f r o m F o r e i g n sources Research & E x t e n s i o n Resources National sources Funds from F o r e i g n sources ~~ 78.7 21.3 100.0 100.0 91.9 8.1 - - Source: P I P A 25 According to Nestel and Trigo (1984), Costa Rica devoted 0.24 percent of its agricultural gross domestic product to agricultural research in 1979. Tables 1 1 and 12 show the breakdown of Costa Rica's research budget by divisions and by crops for the years 1979-1981. This was obtained from the 1981 ISNAK study. The UCR's agricultural research budget was reported to be roughtly 12 million colones per year. The Agricultural Extension budget and its breakdown f o r the years 1979-1981 is shown in Table 13. Table 11. Costa Rica: MAG'S research budget by divisions for years 1979-1981 (in thousands of colones) YEAR 1979 ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ Divisions ~~ ~ 1980 ~~ ~ 1981 24 ,365 3 ,700 Agricultural Research Animal Research Animal Health Forestry Fishing and Wildlife Other Services Source: ISNAR, 1981. 15 ,350 1,708 1 ,153 1,006 558 19 ,841 3 ,134 1,448 724 446 675 674 936 719 285 - 2.4 Staff Table 14 contains a list of the professional staff of the Direccidn de Investigacidn Agrlcola (MAG) and its level of academic training for the year 1981. According to the report prepared by MAG for the Proyecto de Incremento de la Productividad Agrlcola (PIPA), in 1982 there were 69 professionals in the DirecciQn de InvestigaciQn Agrlcola (DIA), of whom 26 percent worked in the coffee program 26 Table 12. Costa Rica: MAG'S 1981 agricultural research budget, by activity Colones 620,736 145 ,382 261,aoi 1,637 ,350 1,657,000 665,248 1,009,667 790,358 771.055 522,607 279,200 292,769 51,340 74,900 516,987 239,296 19,643 400,800 473,728 395,291 634,765 453,800 3,087 ,230 2,551,997 248,400 219,600 218,400 261,600 123,600 124,800 322,440 170,400 86,000 256,316 2,268,657 450,000 22,304,163 Crop Rice Banana and Plantain Cocoa and Coconut Coffee Sugar Cane Fruticulture Horticulture Grain Legumes Corn Tubers and Roots Improved Seed Cotton Castor Oil Plant Jojoba Production Systems Sorghum Pastures Food Technology Division Administration Department of Biometry Department of Cartography and Soil Conservation Soils Laboratory Experiment Station 'I Los Diamantes " Experiment Station E.J.N. Head Agronomy Department Head Coffee Department Head Entomology Department Head Plant Pathology Department Head Cropping Systems Department Head Soils Department Experimental Station F.B. Training Debt Payments Subexecution Compensation to Minimum Wage Professional Careers Total Budget (colones) Source: ISNAR, 1981. 27 Table 13. Costa Rica: MAG'S agricultural extension budget for 1979-1981 (in thousand colones) YEAR 1979 28 ,756.6 21,884.9 1,035.5 5,865.2 % ~ Budget Extension Personne1 services Investment Operating expenses Source: 1980 29,233.9 22,667.0 % 1981 42,889.0 31,545.1 822.6 10,521.3 % 100 76.0 3.6 20.4 100 77.5 100 73.6 1.9 24.5 6,564.9 22.5 Ley de Presupuesto, years 1979, 1980, 1981. Table 14. Costa Rica: Human resources in agricultural and other research at the MAG i n 1981 Secretaries and Program Ingenieros Agr6ncs-m~ Office Directors Agr6ncxms Biologists Assistant Personnel Agricultural Research Direction EXperiRlfSlkll 2 2 1 2 1 1 Statistics Asroncmy Head Department Rice &search 2 1 5 3 3 3 3 11 2 2 36 2 Maize, Sorghum, Vegetable Oils Fertilization Research 1 Horticultural Research Banana, Plantain, Others Certified Seed agar cane Research Fruticultwal Research Total Agricultural 1 1 Research 3 19 6 28 Table 14 (continued) Coffee Research cmpping SystelnS and Cotton Plant Pathology E r l t c l I K ) l o g y Dept soils Unit Soils Dept soils co'nservation Dept Diagnosis of Soils, Plants & Water Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition Training Dept Ekp S t a t i o n E . J . N . Ekp Station "Los Departrrrent 10 2 1 2 1 8 3 10 11 1 3 3 4 2 2 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 Diamantes" Animal H e a l t h Agricultural Engineering Animal Science Program Forestry Program Fisheries and Wildlife 3 2 1 5 1 10 2 19 5 8 17 4 1 8 3 3 3 54 51 mtal Other Research ~ ~ 1 64 8 Source: Ley de Presupuestos, 1981. (Cooperative Agreement MAG/OFICAFE), 35 percent at headquarters and 39 percent in the fields. One percent had Ph.Ds, 9 percent had M.S. degrees, and the remaining 90 percent were mainly Ingenieros Agrbnomos. Table 15 shows the geographical distribution of the Agricultural Research Directorate personnel in 1982. In 1984, the experimental station Fabio Baudrit of the University of Costa Rica had 15 researchers at the station, of which 7 had an M.S. degree and 8 were Ingenieros Agrbnomos. 29 Table 15. Costa Rica: Distribution of agricultural research directorate (DIA) personnel i n 1982 bation Headquarters and Labs E . S . Jimnez N6ez E . S . L o s Diamantes E . S . Carlos J3cd.n Medium W e 1 subProfessionals Technicians Mistratives Total 24 6 7 3 1 10 18 69 9 2 3 1 7 13 2 3 Substation Ti1arb.l Regionals A g r m t MAG/OFICAFE 22 1 19 46 10 10 6 2 17 19 110 Total 2.5 External influences 2.5.1 Non-CGIAR Sumort Many agencies have supported the NARS in different ways. Some of the most important contributions have come from the U S A I D , the World Bank and the Interamerican Development Bank. Table 16 contains a small list of some of the most important projects that are currently in execution o r approved. The following is a list of all the agencies that have supported the NARS, along with their contributions (including those in Table 16). PRECODEPA (Regional Cooperative Potato Proqram) PRECODEPA which became operative in 1978, is a regional 30 Table 16. Costa Rica: Some projects supporting NARS currently in execution or approved Project Amount $ Mill 18.0 Agency Date Approved 12/77 10/78 7/80 7/80 5/81 1984 World Bank USAID USAID Ag. Research Projects Production Systems T-027 Science and Technology W-030 Science and Technology V-031 Science and Technology W-034 Project to Improve Agricultural productivity 5.5 1.2 1.0 USAID USAID 9.5 38.0 IBD Source: IDB, 1982. potato program financed by the Swiss Development Corporation. The founding member countries are Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, Mgxico and Panamb. The International Potato Center (CIP) is also a founding member. This program was conceived to take advantage of each member country's speciality. The network requires each country to specialize in certain research areas and rely on other national programs for research in other areas. Research results and other technological developments are shared through regional seminars, workshops and production courses. Costa Rica is the current leader in tuber moth and bacterial wilt research. INIA (National Aaricultural Research Institute - Mexico) Cooperates with Costa Rica's potato program through PRECODEPA. It provides mainly genetic material and technical assistance. 31 ICTA (Guatemalan Aqricultural Research Institute) Cooperates in the same way as INIA. Government of Holland Provided training for a corn scientist. University of Mississippi Has supported the system in the area of seed handling,through plant design and regular technical assistance. National scientists believe that the University of Mississippi played an important r o l e in the development of seed technology in Costa Rica. University of Florida Has supported MAG'S pasture program by providing genetic material and regular technical assistance through visits. CARE (Cooperative for American Remittances Everywhere) Starter the soybean program in Costa Rica and still cooperates in the area of seed production. Chinese Mission Has supported the production of soybeans and soybean seed by scientists. GTZ (German DeveloDment CorDoration) Has financed seed seminars. 32 AVRDC (Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center) Has provided soybeans genetic material f o r testing. ISTA (International Seed Testing Association) Has organized seminars on seed quality. ATO-CHEMIE (French) Has provided technical assistance and genetic seed of "Higuerilla" (castor-oil plant). Brazilian Government Has done the same as ATO-CHEMIE. W.K. Kellog Foundation Has financed training of NARS scientists at CATIE. World Bank Financed a project during 1978-83 with 18 million dollars to, among other things, provide seed of basic grains, build rural roads and conduct non-crops research on experimental stations. Through the project BIRF-1410, the bank has provided scholarships to NARS scientists for further studies in U.S., and has also financed the construction of plants and buildings. ARTES (Regional Association of Seed Technologists of Central America and the Caribbean) Has imparted regional courses in seed technology, with assistance from CIAT, CIMMYT and the GTZ. 33 SDC (Swiss Development Corporation) Currently finances PRECODEPA and CIAT's regional beans program in Central America and the Caribbean. USAID USAID has supported the NARS in many ways and with many projects . 1. 2. 3. CIGRAS (grains and research center) was created through an AID loan to the government of Costa Rica. AID has provided scholarships for graduate training in the US (University of Kansas, Mississippi State) and has arranged for professors to visit Costa Rica, mainly for training CIGRAS personnel. Through AID PL 4 8 0 , there is now a project to study the system of post-harvest handling of grains. AID 4. has arranged for visits of scientists from INTSOY to give technical advice on soybeans and has facilitated the entrance of soybean seed to the country. FAO/UNDP (United Nations) This organization supports CIGRAS with seminars and by financing the trips of scientists to courses. It is currently carrying out a project called "Grain Handling within the Farm." It supports the MAG through donations and technical assistance in Forestry. In grains and soils, it has helped with laboratory analyses and monetary support. IDB (Inter-American Development Bank) The most important supportive activity of the IDB at 34 this time is the PIPA project. This consist of a 38 million dollar loan to the agricultural research and extension system for: a. b. c. agricultural research and transfer activities agricultural input seed production. According to the bank, 38,000 medium and small farmers and 2,000 large farmers will benefit from the project. The overall objective of the project is to increase agricultural productivity in the country through the generation, validation and transfer of technology plus adequate supply of agricultural inputs. The money is being used to strengthen the entities involved in agricultural research, technology transfer and the production and distribution of seed. The bank is also financing a 20 million dollar irrigation project (Proyecto de Riego d e Tempisque) , which should provide irrigation for 10,000 Ha of land, and money for development loans through the national banking system. IICA (Inter-American Institute for Agricultural Cooperation) In order to explain the support of IICA, I include its general objective as stated in its Medium Term Plan 1983-87. It reads, "The general objective is to support the countries in their design of technological policies; in the selection of priorities and the realization of research that is coherent with the true development problems; in the instrumentation of an institutional system that will assure continuity from the generation of appropriate technology to the promotion of adoption by producers; in the assignment of functional responsibilities to the different institutions that form the technological system and in making sure that 35 they are organized adequately to perform such functions." IICA has collaborated in two ways. 1. 2. Providing scientists to help with courses designed for NARS researchers. Data processing. In terms of its relations with CGIAR centers, IICA has a cooperative agreement with CIAT, whereby CIAT's regional representative is an associate member of IICA, and is currently provided a secretary and an agricultural economist paid by IICA. IICA thinks it has great potential to support the NARS mainly through in-country training. CATIE (Tropical Agronomic Center for Research and Teaching) CATIE is a regional research and teaching institute, financed by member countries in Central America and the Caribbean and by organizations outside the area. It works with cattle, forestry, cocoa, coffee, pejibaye and many other crops. It claims to support NARS in four ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. Training scientists at the M.S. level for NARS. Work with NARS developing methodologies for research and extension and determining priorities. Work in teams at specific locations doing on-farm research, in which limiting factors are identified. One such project is currently under way in the Atlantic region of Costa Rica which includes corn-corn and corn-cassava combinations. Offer courses in coffee and other areas. 36 IDRC fInternationa1 DeveloDment Research Center. Canada) Financed the creation of the Comision Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (CONIAGRO). It also works closely with CATIE on many projects. 2.5.2 CGIAR's Influence Given that the IARCs support and contribute to the NARS in so many different ways, it is difficult to compare their contributions in dollar amounts to those of the non-CGIAR agencies. There is no doubt, however, that the centers' support has been the most important of all. The specific contributions of the centers and their importance will be discussed in the following chapter, but it is pertinent to mention at this point that the collaboration of the centers has fostered a rapid development of the Costa Rican NARS. In terms of their mandates, the two most important centers have been CIAT and CIMMYT; CIMMYT through its maize program and CIAT through its rice, beans and seed programs. The contributions of these two centers in the form of equipment, materials and financial resources have been acknowledged as invaluable by the NARS scientists. The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) has also assisted Costa Rica through CATIE to collect nationally important plant species in northern Talamanca mountains and in some training. 2.6 Effectiveness and Problems One important problem with the NARS that was emphasized is the lack of dissemination of research results. Scientists from other institutions complained that the MAG'S 37 research results are usually published in an annual report that few people receive. The results of regional trials are an exception: almost all the scientists from the different institutions share these results. This is another accomplishment of the IARCs in the area. The University of Costa Rica (Fabio Baudrit) also does a good job in putting together bulletins and pamphlets for farmers and other scientists. Another important problem limiting the NARS effectiveness is the lack of inter-institutional coordination, which prevents the attainment of a well-planned and organized national program. Even within the Ministry some programs (for example, the pastures program) are not well organized. The total divorce between research and extension, the lack of validation of new technologies, and the lack of promotion of the technologies developed were mentioned by interviewees as other important limitations of the NARS. The NARS also suffers from insufficient and obsolete equipment and insufficient manpower. For example, beans scientists asserted that the beans team was too small to attack the numerous problems in Costa Rica. 39 CHAPTER 3 . IMPACT OF THE INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTERS ON THE COSTA RICAN NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM 3.1 General Issues The insufficiency of both financial resources and trained professional staff in the NARS has been an important factor limiting the impact of the IARCs on the NARS. The fragmentation of the system, as pointed out earlier, has been another factor limiting this impact. An example of this is the fact that CIMMYT regional scientists must work with the scientists at the University and at the Ministry in what seem to be two different programs. The two institutions might have (and have had) different interests. Apparently the political environment is dampening impact in wheat. It appears that vested interests at high levels of government are favoring the continuation of wheat imports and discouraging wheat research. Some people, particularly those interviewed at CATIE and IICA, believe that the IARCs used to and still do approach the NARS with a certain amount of arrogance, imposing their own programs on the system without much regard for the national needs. They also believe that the technology so generated is of no use to the country. Most of the scientists within the NARS did not share these feelings, however. Even if it were true, I believe that as the NARS scientists become better trained, there will be less opportunity for this kind of uneven relationship. Scientists at IICA argue strongly that their mandates is to transfer technology to the NARS, and that in this respect they would like to and should collaborate more closely with the IARCs. They expressed interest in a new 40 working relationship based on the support they give to the NARS. They are interested in joint efforts in which their actions would be complementary to those of the IARCs, given that they only transfer, rather than generate, technologies. Scientists at CATIE complain that the IARCs have ignored small regional centers like themselves, especially in the role of technology development and transfer. For example, they think that the two regional sorghum specialists from ICRISAT should have been placed at CATIE and not CIMMYT because of logistics and because CATIE also has a sorghum program. They would also like to see ISNAR intensifying its work in these countries. The centers' involvement has played an important role in the motivation of the national scientists. Without the centers such motivation would undoubtedly be much lower.. Without the centers, resources that were already scarce would likely have been diverted to more basic research. This would have meant a great setback to the NARS programs and the development of fewer improved technologies. 3.2 Biological Materials In general, the provision of genetic materials by the IARCs was considered to be very good and to consitute the base of most of the NARS commodity programs. Scientists were asked to rate the activities of the centers in terms of their overall quality. The answers to this question and to others were used by the author to develop a summary of measures of the NARS ratings of the different programs. Table 17 provides a summary of how the different programs of each center were rated by the NARS scientists for their contribution of genetic materials. Some comments follow. 41 Table 17. Costa Rica: NARS scientists' ratings of the centers' contributions of biological materials Rating Fair Good X X X Center CIMMYT CIMMYT/ ICRISAT CIAT Program Corn Wheat Sorghum Rice Beans Pasture Potato ~ Bad Excellent CIP Note: Programs not included were not rated. One NARS scientist expressed the desire to see more year-to-year continuity in the lines CIMMYT includes in the testing program. Another scientist believes that CIAT's contribution could improve if it would pay more attention to upland rice, which is what Costa Rica grows. 3.3 Research Methodologies NARS scientists in general agreed that the research methodologies learned at the centers and those acquired through visits of centers' scientists have been very important to their work. They explained that during formal university training they did not learn such methdos, especially as they relate to specific crops. Three observations were made: First, a scientist in the pastures program expressed that this program needed guidance in terms of research methods. Second, some scientists would like for CIMMYT to be directly involved in technology transfer. Third, it was emphasized that CIAT, through its regional representative, is really responsible for the development 42 and coordination of a beans research program in Costa Rica. Scientists in the NARS feel very strongly that the IARCs should place greater emphasis on aspects other than pure plant breeding. They would like to see greater research and exchange in the areas of plant pathology, entomology, soils, etc. They also feel the need for training in field seed production and not just seed management ( post-harvest) . 3.4 Research Orqanization The posting of regional representatives by CIAT's beans program has greatly enhanced the communication and effectiveness of CIAT in the region. In Costa Rica, CIAT is being held responsible for the exsitence of a serious beans program. The regional and national nurseries are highly regarded by national scientists. The head of the rice program thinks that a rice representative is highly needed to coordinate a regional rice program. PRECODEPA, as described earlier, has been the most successful regional program. CIMMYT operates on the basis of periodic visits of its scientists to the NARS. This modus operandi, although considered to be working relatively well, has not been as successful as the programs with regional representatives posted in the countries. 3.5 Information and Traininq Table 18 provides a summary of the overall rating of the IARCs training programs and the flow of information. Table 18. Costa Rica: Ratings of the IARCs training programs and flow of information Center CIMMYT CIMMYT/ ICRISAT CIAT Program Corn Wheat Sorghum Rice Beans Seed Pasture Potato Bad Flow of Information Fair Good Excellent X X X Bad Fair Training Good Excellent X X . b W X X X X X X ~~ X X CIP/ PRECODEPA Note : Programs not included were not rated. 44 following important observations were made: Regional programs like PRECODEPA and the international and regional nurseries and testing programs enhance the flow of information between the centers and the NARS. The NARS would like to see some emphasis placed on the training of scientists in the art of seed production at the field level. More follow-up after training and refresher courses are desired by the scientists. They strongly believe that graduate training is currently necessary. The head of the NARS rice program believes that, in training, more emphasis should be placed on theory and less on frivolous field exercises. In-country training, they think, should be done more often. 3.6 Relationship Between IARCs and NARS The division of efforts consists of the IARCs making the appropriate breeding crosses and sending these to the NARS for evaluation and further selection. The NARS is responsible for all other research activities. The scientists recognized that the national program does not have the capacity or the resources to make crosses or to do other basic research; they consider the IARC's work to be indispensable. The division of efforts is dynamic, changing as the NARS develops. For example, in 1978 almost all the material CIAT sent to the NARS was F7 or at the final stage of selection. Today, it sends F2 and similar material at early stages of selection. 45 As for commodities outside the IARCs' mandate, the NARS does not seem to do any basic research. It works, with other centers or organizations involved with those crops. It is generally believed that the country's priorities are being reflected in the activities of the centers. The main criticism is that CIAT devotes so many resources and so much attention to irrigated rice when the region grows upland rice. Rice scientists would like to see CIAT paying more attention to the type of rice grown under the conditions of the region. The training program, they claimed, also emphasizes irrigated rice. 47 CHAPTER 4 . RESEARCH IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 4.1 ImDortant Innovations There is very little documentation on the spread and impact of innovations stemming from the collaboration between the IARCs and the NARS. Although there has been some agronomic work and on-farm research, the bulk of the innovations seems to be high yielding varieties with resistance or tolerance to many unfavorable conditions. A 1981 study by a team from Iowa State University listed some of the new corn varieties developed in Costa Rica from CIMMYT's materials. The list is given in Table 19. Table 19. Corn production and development of new varieties for Costa Rica New Material Developed with Material from CIMMYT Corn: Total Area in Production (Ha) 40,000 No. of Trials of CIMMYT Material from 1977-80 1977 1978 1979 1980 11 14 12 17 TICO V-1 TICO V-2 TICO V-5 1974 1973 1977 The varieties "TICO V-1 Mejorado" and "Diamantes 8043" are two of the more recent MAG outputs, which were also developed from genetic materials provided by CIMMYT. The NARS (UCR) obtained from CIMMYT International Nurseries the Cultivars Diamantes 8043 (white) and Tocumen F-428 (yellow), which have shown good adaptation and yield potential. 48 Rice: The distribution of rice seed by the CNP, given in Table 20, illustrates the evolution of rice materials used by farmers in Costa Rica. Table 20. Distribution of rice seed by CNP in Costa Rica, selected years (in tons) Origin 1965 212 197 114 86 21 1 1975 87 1983 - Variety DIMA SML Tapuripa SML Magali Blue Bonnet 50 Precoz Blanco Centenario C.R. 1113 CICA 4 CICA 6 Holland 5023 C.R. 201 C.R. 5272 Total U.S. CIAT/MAG CIAT CIAT CIAT/MAG CIAT/MAG - 3,793 355 157 42 - 631 4,434 1,362 Note: These are only the sales of the CNP, which has lost most of its market share since 1975 when private producers came into prominence. Source: CNP, Dept. AgrotZknico, Programa Arroz. Beans: In Costa Rica, the following varieties have resulted from the collaboration NARS/CIAT. Variety Huetar Chorotega Brunca Talamanca Color Red Red Black Black Cassava: The Iowa State University study reports a number of cassava varieties containing genetic material from CIAT that were released in Costa Rica. These are shown in Table 21. 49 Table 2 1 . Cassava production and development of new varieties in Costa Rica Test Material Froan CIAT? Yes, seven varieties have been tested at 6 testing sites Varieties Released Containing Genetic Material f r c a n CIAT M Col 1684 59 M W 84 40 76 168 22 M Col 17 MMex 70 M Pan M Col 677 AM col 655 A CMC CMC CPIY: Veri Prochxction Ha 2,000 Planned Release of New Varieties 1981 planned releases include: HMC-1 HMC-2 Source: ISU, 1981 The current use of materials from the different centers is summed up in Table 2 2 by the MAG'S 1 9 8 4 plans for foundation seed production. 4.2 AdODtion of Innovations 4 . 2 . 1 Transmission Mechanism In Costa Rica, the Agricultural Extension Division (Direcci6n de Extensidn Agrlcola) of the Ministry of Agriculture with its regional and cantonal centers was the official mechanism for the transmission of agricultural technologies to farmers. The link, however, between this division and the research division was very weak, undermining the effectiveness of the system. In May, 1 9 8 5 both divisions were integrated into a single division to foster coordination and the transmission mechanism. Many other institutions are involved in the transmission 50 Table 22. MAG'S 1984 plans for producing foundation seed Crop Variety CR-1113 CR-201 CR5272 CR-1707 CR-(to be numbered) Porrillo Sinti5tico Ta1amanca Brunca Husateco Huetar Chorotega Mexico-8 0 Tic0 V-1 M Tic0 V-7 Los Diamantes Las Caiias Tic0 V-6 Centa 105-N SIASTA 194-a Jupiter Production (kg) 28,000 401 20,000 4,000 8 000 Rice Beans 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,000 2,000 1 000 800 Corn 3,600 3,600 Frijol de Costa Soybeans 3,600 1,500 5,100 2,000 1,400 1,400 process. These includes the rural credit divisions of the national banking system, the CNP, the Agrarian Development Institute, the University of Costa Rica, the grain producers association and private seed (and other inputs) companies. 4.2.2 Extent of Adoption (a) Corn. NARS scientists estimated that 10 to 15 percent of the corn acreage was planted in 1984 to the varieties TIC0 V-1 Mejorado and Diamantes 8043. (b) Rice. NARS scientists estimated that virtually 100 percent of the rice area is now sown to the varieties developed through the MAG/CIAT collaboration. This was substantiated by a study done by Muchnick (1984). Figure 4 , showing the rate of adoption of high yielding rice varieties in Costa Rica, was reported by that study. 51 (c) Cassava. The tropical root crops scientists at the MAG estimated about 80 percent adoption of a technological package developed for cassava. (d) Beans. NARS scientists estimated that 35 to 40 percent of the beans acreage is planted to the varieties they have developed in collaboration with CIAT. Sales of improved seed in 1984 were up 400 percent over the previous year. Figure 5 depicts the mix of seed sold during the period 1981-83. 4.3 Production Effects (a) Rice Area and Yields By 1979 roughly 100 percent of the rice area was planted to varieties produced by the NARS/CIAT collaboration. This is illustrated in Table 23. Table 23. Quantities of seed of different varieties planted during the years 1979-1983 (metric tons) YEAR Variety CR1113 CR5272 CR201 CICA 7 1979 4,927 2,009 1980 7,002 921 228 1981 7,192 156 1982 8,585 324 129 1983 7,930 527 390 905 - - - - - Source: MAG This planted approximately: Year 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Hectares 75,761 78,756 70,998 87,327 85,491 52 80- 60.0 c - Costa Rica -0 a 5 4020- - I I 1968 7 0 i2 I I 76 Year 78 I 80 02 Figure 4. Adoption of high yielding rice varieties in Costa Rica 53 4 \\ ICA Piiao 1 Figure 5. Costa Rica: mix of beans seed sold during the period 1981-83 54 Table 4 showed that rice yields rose from approximately 0.7 tons/ha in 1965-66 to 2.9 tons/Ha in 1980-81. In 1984-85 yields were 3.2 tons/ha. (b) Beans Production, Area and Yields Table 5 showed that beans production rose from roughly 5,000 tons in 1973-74 to roughly 20,000 tons in 1983-84. This increase was due mainly to increases in the area planted which rose from 7213 hectares in 1973-74 to 38,671 in 1983-84. Yields showed no trend, and averaged about 0.5 ton per hectare. (c) Corn Production, Area and Yields Table 6 showed that corn production did not increase much between 1965-66 and 1981-82. On the average, acreage fell over the same period. Yields, however, rose from 1.14 tons/Ha to 1.8 tons/Ha over the same period. (d) Sorghum Production, Area and Yields Sorghum yields actually fell between 1970 and 1983 according to Table 7, which attributes the production increases to area increases. Area planted went from 13,000 Ha to 45,000 Ha between 1965 and 1982. It is difficult to tell how much of the yield increases in corn and rice are due to adopted technologies developed by the collaboration NARS/IARCs. (e) Yields Despite subjective estimates of spread and possible impact of new technologies and the significant increases in rice and corn yields reported by the CNP in Tables 4 and 6, 55 t h e s t u d y by ISNAR (1981) u s i n g d a t a f r o m A I D , B I D , and IBRD shows z e r o i n c r e a s e i n b a s i c g r a i n y i e l d s over t h e p e r i o d 1962-1976. (See T a b l e s 24 and 25). T a b l e 24. Costa Rica: Factors d e t e r m i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s i n e x p o r t c r o p s and basic g r a i n s (percentages) 4 Export Crops Basic G r a i n s P r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s due P r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s due to to Yield Increase i n Yield Increase i n P e r i o d i n c r e a s e s c u l t i v a t e d area i n c r e a s e s c u l t i v a t e d area - 1962-66 1962-72 1972-76 70.7 75.1 0.0 29.3 24.9 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Table 25. AID, B I F , I B R D , Informe T r i p a r t i t o 1978 and O f i c i n a de P l a n i f i c a c i o n S e c t o r i a l Agropecuaria ( O P S A ) . Costa Rica: Factors d e t e r m i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s of some c r o p s between 1962 and 1976 (percentage) Crop Coffee Production i n c r e a s e s due t o i n c r e a s e s i n yields 0.0 100.0 0.0 -61.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 Production i n c r e a s e s due t o i n c r e a s e s i n acreage 100.0 0.0 100.0 -38.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 Banana Sugar Cane Cocoa Rice Corn Beans Sorghum Cotton Tobacco Potato - - Cassava Plantains Onions Source: AID, BIF, 0.0 36.7 50.7 100.0 100.0 0.0 IBRD, 100.0 63.3 49.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 Informe T r i p a r t i t a 1978 and O f i c i n a de P l a n i f i c a c i 6 n S e c t o r i a l Agropecuaria ( O P S A ) . 56 4.4 Innovations with Potential Impact There are very few innovations currently being tested that have potential for great impact on Costa Rica's agriculture. The MAG'S rice program is about to release the variety CR-1821 developed in collaboration with CIAT, which they claim is resistant to Pyricularia and has the potential to yield 1 1 . 3 ton/Ha, at the farm level. It is also testing the variety CR-1549 developed from lines provided by CIAT and I R R I , whose yield potential is 9 . 3 tons/Ha at the farm level. Foundation seed of CR-1821 was being produced in 1985. In 1 9 8 4 , the national beans program tested line D-145 from the ICTA-CIAT collaboration and included it in its certifying program under the name of Huasteco. Genetic seed was being produced in 1 9 8 5 . It adapts well to places infested with "telaraiia" (cobweb) and is resistant to other diseases. National scientists think it has great potential for increasing beans yields in Costa Rica. The national corn program will release in 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 the following varieties. Variety Yield potential in tons/ha 5.5 Diamantes 8 3 4 3 Las Caiias 5.0 E J N V-7 5.5 Tic0 V-6 5.0 The sorghum program plans to release in 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 the following materials: Yield potential tons/ha Variety ISIAP dorado 9.5 10.8 Litoral 5 10.0 v-816 9.9 G 5 2 2 DR ~-185 9.9 57 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS Based on numerous interviews, field visits and review of the literature, the author has the following observations in summary of this investigation. A. , The NARS, its Research Methodology and its Limitations A great deal of research, especially evaluation of lines and varieties, is still being done under conditions far removed from those of the farmers, despite the statement of the new Director of Research, who said that 4 0 percent of the reserch is done at the experimental station and 60 percent on farmers' farms. Beans materials, for instance, were being evaluated on flat land planted as a monoculture when next door the farmer is growing all his beans on steep slopes in combination with other crops. It appears that the research is not directed at solving specific and relevant problems; many lines are evaluated every year, but very few, if any, reach the farmer. The lack of inter-institutional coordination of the NARS as a system, and the financial problems of the MAG, are factors that tend to reduce the potential impact of collaboration between the IARCs and the NARS. There was at least one instance in which not enough seed of a corn variety resulting from such collaboration was available to farmers, who had accepted and were demanding the variety. This was due to the fact that the NARS simply did not produce the seed after it was accepted. Later, this same variety was allowed by the NARS to lose its purity and its good characteristics. With the return of a maize specialits (now head of the program) who was being trained at the graduate level by CIMMYT, it is expected that these problems will not recur. 58 The gulf that has always existed between research and extension in Costa Rica has been a great impediment to the impact of collaboration with IARCs at the farm level. Technology developed is seldom, if ever, validated at the farm level. In May, 1985 the Ministry of Agriculture was reorganized, bringing the divisions of research and extension together under a single division called Direccidn de Investigaci6n y Extensidn Agrlcola, with one director for both research and extension. This was done to bridge the traditional gap. My own impression, however, is that at the regional level things will continue to operate as always, unless some substantial changes in the modus operandi of the Centros Agrzcolas Regionales are made; i.e., if the extension agents participate in the planning and execution of research. The way the system has worked so far is well described by the following observation of the ISU team: "In Costa Rica, there is an annual meeting at which extension specialists from the regional centers and the national research staff meet to discuss their priorities for the coming year. Extension personnel at the national level feel that these meetings are designed to provide an opportunity for national research staff to 'tell' the others what the priorities will be for the year, rather than having a dialogue about it." Although the centers have done an excellent job in training NARS personnel, there is need for more training. Some NARS scientists would like to see more theory incorporated in the training programs at the centers; they a l s o believe that more in-country training is needed and could be more efficient, and stress the need for more training at the graduate level. It seems that the NARS has reached a point where scientists trained at the graduate level could greatly improve the communication with their counterparts at the IARCs and increase the potential for impact. One cannot ignore, however, the fact that the 59 necessary incentives (salary) to keep these people within the system are lacking at the present time, It has also been pointed out that the organization of the MAG and the salary structure are not conducive to attracting good professionals. Because of the ever-present limitations of the official institutions, the author strongly believes that collaboration with the private sector offers great potential for impact. The Csmara Nacional de Granos BZkicos, an organization of grain producers, offers a great opportunity for such collaboration. They are doing their own research and extension, and are eager to work with the IARCs. B. Private Seed Producers Given some of the problems of the NARS pointed out above, the greater the participation of private seed producers in the process the greater will be the potential for continued impact of the IARCs. Private seed producers would like to have greater participation in the IARCs activities, such a s courses and conferences. Some of this is already taking place, especially with CIAT, where private seed producers help give seminars, write handbooks, etc. Private producers of varieties and hybrids would like to work with genetic material directly from the IARCs. Despite the political implications, this is an option that might be considered. At least the process of going through the NARS could be made easier. Seed pricing in Costa Rica at all levels could become a deterrent to private producer's participation, thus setting back the system and reducing opportunities for impact. 60 Beans seed, for example, is subsidized by the CNP, preventing any participation of private producers. C. Overall View of IARC's Contribution Scientists in the NARS, in general, consider the collaboration of the IARCs to be essential and invaluable. Most of the activities of the IARCs were rated highly. Training and the provision of genetic material are considered essential for a viable national program. National scientists expect the important work of the centers not only to continue but to be expanded. REFERENCES CIA, The World Fact Book. Washington, D.C., CIA, 1984. CNP , Proyecto Nacional de Almacenamiento de Granos Bbsicos. San Jose, Costa Rica: CNP, 1976. Corrales, J. De la Pobreza a la Abundancia en Costa Rica. San JosQ, Costa Rica: Universidad Aut6noma de Centro Amgrica, 1981. FAO, Production Yearbook. Rome, FA0 Vol., 36, 1982. Gomez, M.B. and, Carlos Quintana, Estimaciones del Consumo de Granos Bdsicos en Costa Rica 1976. San J o s ~ : Universidad de Costa Rica, IIE, December 1977. IDB, Programa de Incremento de la Productividad Agrlcola (PIPA), Informe Proyecto Costa Rica ( C R - 0 0 8 7 ) , IDB Internal Document, Washington, D.C. December 1982. IICA, "Plan de Mediano Plazo 1983-1987," Serie Documentos Oficiales No. 28, San Jos6, Costa Rica, 1982. IMF, International Financial Statistics. IMF Vol. 3 7 , 1984. Washington, D.C. ISNAR, El Sistema de Investigacien Agropecuaria y Transferencia de Tecnoloq4a en Costa Rica. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR, 1981. ISU, Analysis of Cooperation and Coordination Between the International Research Centers (CIMMYT, CIAT, CIP) and the National Centers of Latin America. Report of a project conducted for the IDB. Ames, Iowa, n.d. Larson, D.W. and Robert C. Vogel, Interaction of Price and Credit Policies in Costa Rican Agriculture. Paper prepared for the Caribbean Agricultural Credit Training Committee Senior Management Workshop, Georgetown, Guyana, November 17-20, 1980. Nestel, B. and Eduardo J. Trigo, eds., Selected Issues in Agricultural Research in Latin America. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR, 1984. OFIPLAN, EvoluciQn SocioeconQmica de Costa Rica 1950-1980. San Jos6, Costa Rica: Editorial Universidad Estatal a la Distancia, 1982. Stewart, R. "Basic Grains Pricing Policies and Their Effects in Costa Rica." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 1984. 62 U.S. Department of State. Backqround notes on the Countries of the World. Washington, D.C., Bureau of Public A f f a i r s , 19 84. APPENDIX Prices of Basic Grains i n Costa Rica 64 Table A.l. Rice: Domestic and world farm and retail prices (colones per quintal) Prices1 pfw 38.3 38.5 41.7 46.6 42.1 37.7 36.5 36.6 37.9 49.1 54.2 61.8 64.4 60.9 57.8 56.5 57.8 59.9 58.9 59.9 61.6 63.4 93.9 190.2 165.4 155.3 126.3 186.7 145.1 191.1 188.0 Year ' f d ' r d ' r w 50.5 50.8 54.9 61.4 55.5 49.7 48.1 48.2 50.0 64.7 71.4 81.4 84.9 80.3 76.2 74.4 76.2 78.9 77.6 78.9 81.2 83.5 123.7 250.7 217.9 204.6 166.4 246.0 191.2 251.8 247.7 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 45 50 56 56 56 56 62 62 62 63 68 68 6% 68 68 68 68 63 68 68 60 68 68 68 73 110 142 125 132 139 149 69.7 70.0 68.0 69.1 74.0 82.2 82.6 84.8 88.8 87.9 88.3 86.9 88.1' 89.0 88.8 88.9 89.1 90.5 90.5 102.3 101.2 111.2 142.5 174.8 167.9 161.0 184.0 197.8 1 Pfd = domestic farm price ' f w = world farm price ' r d = domestic retail price prw = world retail price Source: Stewart, 1984. 65 Table A.2. Beans: Domestic and world farm retail prices (colones per quintal) Prices1 Year ' f d pfw 80.9 79.4 72.2 61.1 77.1 81.2 52.5 53.2 52.0 94.5 55.4 59.9 64.8 88.3 76.6 87.1 67.7 98.1 166.3 80.4 140.4 101.3 201.5 299.1 239.8 219.9 197.2 350.2 211.5 288.4 318.3 ' r d prw t 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 1 , I I 41 44 46 45 45 45 45 45 46 50 50 55 55 55 55 55 45 60 65 56 75 75 75 85 225 225 225 225 225 285 54.6 55.1 55.3 65.8 62.8 66.1 67.5 71.1 87.1 77.3 69.9 78.9 74.1 71.8 81.5 87.2 79.7 109.0 102.0 101.2 100.0 219.0 263.0 264.5 264.5 264.5 300.1 335.8 94.7 92.9 84.5 71.5 90.3 95.1 61.4 62.2 60.9 110.6 64.9 70.2 75.9 103.4 89.7 101.9 79.3 114.8 194.6 94.1 164.3 118.5 235.8 350 0 280.6 257.4 230.7 409.9 247.5 337.5 372.5 . I Pfd = domestic farm price pfw = world farm price Prd = domestic retail price prw = world retail price Source: Stewart, 1984. 66 Table A.3. Corn: Domestic and world farm and retail prices (colones per quintal) Prices1 Year 'fd Pfw ' r d 25.5 25.6 22.3 21.4 20.7 17.4 18.3 16.9 16.9 16.4 17.2 18.2 21.5 22.9 23.4 23.1 24.9 20.9 20.5 22.6 24.5 24.5 23.5 41.2 66.4 64.8 60.9 51.6 54.6 62.6 67.9 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 1 20.0 21.0 26.0 22.5 22.5 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 26.0 23.5 30.0 30.0 32.0 38.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 82.0 . 20.9 21.0 18.3 17.5 17.0 14.2 15.0 13.9 13.9 13.4 14.1 14.9 17.6 18.8 19.2 18.9 20.4 17.1 16.8 18.5 20.1 20.1 19.2 33.8 54.5 53.1 49.9 42.3 44.7 51.3 55.7 27.8 28.3 29.4 29.7 29.9 29.4 29.4 29.2 29.8 29.3 30.8 30.2 30.0 30.1 30.6 31.1 31.0 34.4 44.1 42.3 43.4 58.1 83.9 89.9 92.0 96.6 101.2 115.0 ' f d = domestic 'farm price Pfw = world farm price ' r d = domestic retail price prw = world retail price Source: Stewart, 1984. 67 Table A.4. Nominal r a t e of p r o t e c t i o n a t t h e farm l e v e l Year Rice Beans Corn 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 0.17325 0.29676 0.34195 0.20059 0.32793 0.48202 0.69619 0.69211 0.63224 0.28165 0.25407 0.10025 0.05521 0.11491 0.17487 0.20346 0 17487 0.05081 0.15418 0.13420 -0.02743 0.07248 -0.27593 -0.64262 -0.55873 -0.29175 0.12406 -0.33063 -0.09045 -0.27276 -0 -20752 . -0.48400 -0.39075 -0.24725 -0.41684 -0 44639 -0.14339 -0.15437 -0,13537 -0.51330 -0.09867 -0.16655 -0.15212 -0.37778 -0.28254 -0.36856 -0.18872 -0.54137 -0.63936 -0 19200 -0.60116 -0.25986 -0.62788 -0.74928 -0.64554 0.02287 0.14088 -0 -35769 0.06355 -0.21987 -0 .lo477 . . -0.04946 0.14727 0.47755 0.32115 0.57665 0.59227 0.72451 0.72451 0.78189 0.62539 0 53398 0.30001 0.22140 0.19669 0.21424 0.22299 0.45650 0.48046 0.40138 0.16866 0.49191 0.55640 -0.05344 -0 -30282 0.41069 0.50083 0.77024 0.67520 0.59621 . NPRi ' f d - 'fw. pf" S o u r c e : Stewart, 1984. __ Stewart I ,', i '1, .---